United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
National Risk Management
Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Research and Development
EPA/600/SR-96/072
June 1996
EPA Project Summary
Proceedings: The 1995
Symposium on Greenhouse Gas
Emissions and Mitigation
Research
Sue Philpott, Compiler
The report documents the 1995 Sym-
posium on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Mitigation Research, sponsored by
the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's Air Pollution Prevention and
Control Division (EPA/APPCD), in
Washington, DC, on June 27-29, 1995.
The symposium provided a forum of
exchange of up-to-date information on
emission sources contributing to glo-
bal climate change and state-of-the-art
mitigation technologies and practices.
Presentations related to: activities in
EPA, U.S. Department of Energy (DOE),
and Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) on greenhouse gas emissions
and mitigation research, and APPCD's
global emissions and technology data-
bases; carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions,
disposal, and control; methane (CH4)
emissions and mitigation technologies
including such topics as coal mines,
the natural gas industry, key agricul-
tural sources, and landfills; renewable
energy options including alternative
biomass fuels; and advanced energy
systems. The proceedings include 44
papers, visuals, and abstracts.
This Project Summary was developed
by the National Risk Management Re-
search Laboratory's Air Pollution Pre-
vention and Control Division, Research
Triangle Park, NC, to announce key
findings of the research project that is
fully documented in a separate report
of the same title (see Project Report
ordering information at back).
Introduction
The 1995 Symposium on Greenhouse
Gas Emissions and Mitigation Research,
sponsored by EPA/APPCD and Acurex
Environmental Corporation was held June
27 through 29, 1995, in Washington, DC.
Forty-four presentations were made on
recent research on global change emis-
sions and potential mitigation technolo-
gies. The symposium Chairperson was
Michael A. Maxwell of EPA/APPCD. This
project summary includes abstracts of the
symposium presentations. The five ses-
sions were:
I. Overview of National and Interna-
tional Efforts
II. Emissions from Anthropogenic
Sources
III. Mitigation of Methane and Other
Greenhouse Gases
IV. Biomass Utilization
V. Renewables and Advanced Energy
Efficient, End-Use Technologies
Session I
Overview of National and
International Efforts
(Frank T. Princiotta, EPA,
Session Chairperson)
"Greenhouse Warming: The
Uncertainties and the Mitigation
Challenges,"
Frank T. Princiotta Director,
APPCD, EPA
Analysis will be presented dealing with
some of the most significant issues asso-
ciated with potential greenhouse gas
warming. Using a projection model, the
uncertainties regarding projected warming
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will be quantified. Given these uncertain-
ties, ranges of likely warming will be pre-
sented and potential impacts discussed.
An analysis will also be included identify-
ing countries most responsible for green-
house gas emissions and their contribu-
tion to carbon dioxide and methane emis-
sions. Also, an analysis will be presented
indicating the relevance of the key green-
house gases to global warming. Various
mitigation strategies will be discussed and
their impacts on global warming identified.
Biomass will be highlighted as a key alter-
native to fossil fuels.
"Climate Change Activities in
EPA's Office of Policy,
Planning, & Evaluation
(OPPE),"
Kurt Johnson, EPA
OPPE coordinates EPA climate policy
and supports the development of U.S. po-
sitions on climate change. OPPE's ana-
lytical activities include: assessing the po-
tential costs and benefits of policy options
to reduce the risks of global warming, and
recommending ways to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions in the most cost-effective
way possible; reviewing the effectiveness
of the U.S. Climate Change Action Plan
and other countries' climate change plans;
proposing actions that could ensure that
the U.S. will meet the Administration's
commitment to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000;
preparing studies on the potential impacts
of climate change; and working as part of
an interagency process to develop U.S.
policy under the Framework Convention
on Climate Change.
"Pollution Prevention at a
Profit,"
Amy C. Olson, EPA
The EPA's Atmospheric Pollution Pre-
vention Division (APPD) aims to profitably
prevent pollution through new and innova-
tive voluntary public/private partnership
programs that overcome market barriers
to advance energy efficiency. Promoting
energy-efficient technologies and tech-
niques to prevent pollution, EPA's Green
Lights, Energy STAR Buildings and Equip-
ment, and methane reduction and recov-
ery programs have achieved measurable
economic and environmental successes.
Working within the framework of Presi-
dent Clinton's Climate Change Action Plan
which strives to respond to the threat of
global climate change while strengthening
the economy, APPD provides solutions
that create jobs, encourage economic in-
vestment, and establish new product mar-
kets.
"Energy Partnerships for a
Strong Economy: A Better
Climate for Jobs,"
Arlene F. Anderson, DOE
The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE)
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renew-
able Energy has responsibility for imple-
menting many of the actions contained in
the President's Climate Change Action
Plan. These programs (Energy Partner-
ships For A Strong Economy) are in part
programs that are also being implemented
by DOE in response to the Energy Policy
Act of 1992. With Fiscal Year 1995 fund-
ing in hand, DOE and its many partners
are saving money and environmental emis-
sions that would not have been saved
had it not been for the increased empha-
sis placed on these programs. A sample
of DOE's program accomplishments fol-
lows.
"Climate Change and the Value
of Technological Innovation
Under Uncertainty,"
Stephen C. Peck and Thomas J.
Teisberg, EPRI
In this paper, we use a small-scale "in-
tegrated assessment" model to explore
the role of technological innovation in the
context of uncertainty about the costs of
climate change and the state of future
carbon-free energy technologies. We find
that if future technology is better, optimal
emissions in the future are significantly
lower, while optimal emissions in the near
term may be slightly higher. We also find
that a 10% increase in the probability of
even modestly improved technology may
be worth $130 billion in present value.
These results indicate that the state of
future technology matters in developing a
strategy for addressing climate change,
and that there are potentially large pay-
offs to actions we might take to promote
improvements in future technology. De-
veloping carbon-free energy technologies
is a key step toward a sustainable devel-
opment future.
"The Global Future:
Environment vs. Development,"
John Kadyszewski, Winrock
International
Some members of the international com-
munity have been surprised at the strongly
negative reaction from many countries in
the developing world to proposals for glo-
bal cooperation to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. These representatives of de-
veloping countries see any agreements to
reduce future greenhouse gas emissions
as placing unnecessary constraints on their
opportunities for development. They view
energy as critical to economic develop-
ment. Per capita energy consumption in
the U.S. and Europe dwarfs per capita
energy consumption in the developing
world. Global environmental objectives are
construed as in conflict with national de-
velopment objectives.
This paper reviews projected green-
house gas emissions associated with
power generation in China, India, and Cen-
tral America. Current projections show
emissions from China and India overtak-
ing emissions from the U.S., Europe, and
Japan early in the next century. Unilateral
reductions by the U.S., Europe, or Japan
cannot prevent dramatic increases in fu-
ture emissions. Data from Central America
are used to demonstrate viable commer-
cial alternatives to the expanded use of
fossil fuels and their associated emissions.
How can the world meet environmental
and development objectives? The paper
argues that thoughtful management of pub-
lic global capital pools can create a sys-
tem under which objectives can be met.
Changes in how multilateral investment
institutions use their capital can have dra-
matic impact on future investment deci-
sions made by private companies. In this
modified investment climate, private com-
panies would have incentives to build
cleaner systems today and to develop a
new generation of technology for tomor-
row. Without change, demands for devel-
opment will place additional pressure on
the environment and increase the likeli-
hood of global tension.
Session II
Emissions From Anthropogenic
Sources
(M.A.K. Khalil, Oregon Graduate
Institute, Session Chairperson)
"Global Emissions
Inventories,"
Jane Dignon, Lawrence
Livermore Laboratory
Many trace chemical species in the at-
mosphere are radiatively important and
may affect climate and air quality. De-
tailed and accurate emissions inventories
are essential for understanding the chang-
ing chemical composition of our atmo-
sphere, and to establish compliance with
international treaties. Currently climate and
chemistry model predictions are limited by
the paucity of quality emissions data in-
put. This paper presents the most up-to-
date compilation of emissions inventories
for radiatively important trace species. It
reports the spatial and temporal charac-
-------
teristics of the emissions along with some
interpretive comments. Except for most of
North America and Western Europe, de-
tailed regional inventories are scarce for
almost all radiatively important trace spe-
cies.
"CO2 Emission Calculations
and Trends,"
Tom Boden and Gregg Marland,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Bob Andres, Institute of
Northern Engineering,
University of Alaska-Fairbanks
Evidence that atmospheric CO2 levels
have risen during the past several de-
cades is irrefutable. Most of the observed
increase in atmospheric CO2 is believed
to result from CO2 releases from fossil
fuel burning. The United Nations (UN)
Framework Convention on Climate Change
(FCCC) held in Rio de Janeiro in June
1992 reflects global concern over increas-
ing CO2 mixing ratios and their potential
impact on climate. One of the convention's
stated objectives is the "stabilization of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the at-
mosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with
the climate system." Specifically, the FCCC
asks all 154 signing countries to inventory
their current greenhouse gas emissions,
and it sets non-binding targets for some
countries to control emissions by stabiliz-
ing them at 1990 levels by the year 2000.
This paper describes the compilation,
processing, and availability of the most
comprehensive CO2 emissions database
presently available. The paper also dis-
cusses caveats in the database, efforts to
improve it, and CO2 emission trends. The
database offers global, regional, and na-
tional annual estimates of CO2 emissions
resulting from fossil fuel burning, cement
manufacturing, and gas flaring in oil fields
for 1950-1992. Estimates are derived from
energy data published by the UN and the
U.S. Department of Energy, and cement
production data published by the U.S. Bu-
reau of Mines. This CO2 emission data-
base is essential to carbon cycle research,
provides estimates of the rate at which
fossil fuel combustion and cement pro-
duction have released CO2 to the atmo-
sphere, and offers baseline estimates for
those countries compiling FCCC 1990 CO2
emission inventories.
According to these estimates, global CO2
emissions from fossil fuel consumption,
cement production, and gas flaring have
grown almost 4-fold since 1950. The 1992
estimate of 6097 million metric tons of
carbon ended a string of eight consecu-
tive years of growth in global CO2 emis-
sions and represents a 1.2% decline from
1991. The 1991 estimate of 6172 million
metric tons of carbon is the highest CO2
emission estimate since the data record
began in 1950, but includes 130 million
metric tons of CO2 being emitted to the
atmosphere from the Kuwaiti oil field fires.
Regionally, a marked decline in CO2
emissions continues for Eastern Europe,
and Western Europe experienced its first
decline in emissions since 1987-88. How-
ever, regions where populations continue
to grow—such as Africa, Centrally Planned
Asia, Central and South America, the Far
East, and Oceania—show corresponding
increases in CO2 emissions. In 1950, North
America, Eastern Europe, and Western
Europe (including Germany) accounted for
89.1% of global CO2 emissions from fossil
fuel burning, cement production, and gas
flaring, whereas the remaining six regions
accounted for only 10.9% Now these six
regions contribute 41.1% of the CO2 emit-
ted globally
Nationally, the U.S. continues to be the
largest single source of fossil-fuel-related
CO2 emissions with 1332 metric tons of
carbon emitted in 1992. The top three
emitting countries—the U.S., China, and
Russia—were responsible for 43.2% of
the world's emissions from fossil fuel burn-
ing in 1992. The top 20 emitting countries
accounted for -80% of all the world's emis-
sions.
"Rice Agriculture: An Important
Source of Atmospheric
Methane,"
M.A.K. Khalil, M.J. Shearer and
R.A. Rasmussen, Oregon
Graduate Institute
In all the global budgets of atmospheric
methane, emissions from rice agriculture
have been among the largest single
sources. Early estimates were as high as
300 Tg/yr, but upon careful examination
of the data, the estimates were reduced
to about 100 Tg/yr. In time, as direct flux
measurements became available, it was
found that there was considerable vari-
ability in the whole season of emissions of
methane from different types of rice fields.
The global estimates now are even lower,
about 60 Tg/yr. Even so, rice fields consti-
tute a major source of methane. The emis-
sions of methane from rice fields may
have been higher at some earlier time in
recent decades than they are now. Be-
cause of limitation of land readily adapt-
able to rice agriculture, the use of inor-
ganic fertilizers, and the short growing
cycles of recent hybrid varieties, future
emissions may not increase greatly.
"Developing Improved Methane
Emission Estimates for Coal
Mining Operations,"
Stephen D. Piccot, Sushma S.
Masemore, Eric S. Ringler,
Southern Research Institute
David A. Kirchgessner, EPA
The EPA's APPCD has sponsored re-
search to improve emissions data and es-
tablish more representative emissions in-
ventories for coal mining operations. The
focus of this effort has been on the uncer-
tain sources of emissions including sur-
face mines, post-mining coal handling,
abandoned underground mines, and inac-
tive surface and underground mines. Mea-
surement data collected at 5 surface
mines, 20 abandoned underground mines,
and 1 coal handling facility are presented.
The significance of these individual
sources, and their emissions processes,
is also examined. Measurement priorities
are also discussed.
"Methods for Estimating
Methane Emissions from the
Domestic Natural Gas
Industry,"
David A. Kirchgessner, EPA
R. Michael Cowgill, Matthew R.
Harrison, Lisa M. Campbell,
Radian Corporation
Anthropogenic emissions of methane
are suspected of making a significant con-
tribution to the phenomena associated with
global climate change. Early, gross esti-
mates based on scarce data suggested
that the global natural gas and coal indus-
tries each may contribute 10 to 15% of
the annual anthropogenic methane inven-
tory. This possibility made the importance
of improving the industry-specific emis-
sions estimates apparent. The data would
be useful in determining where emissions
could be most economically reduced if
that approach were deemed prudent; the
data would also be useful in evaluating
the advisability of switching from coal to
natural gas fuel as a near-term measure
for reducing methane emissions to the
atmosphere. The project described has
the goal of estimating methane emissions
from the domestic gas industry to within
+0.5% of production or+100 Billion Cubic
Feet. Emission estimates are nearly com-
plete and appear to be converging on
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1.75% of production with a 1992 base
year.
"GloED and GloTech: Global
Emissions and Technology
Database Software,"
Lee L. Beck, EPA
This paper describes two powerful soft-
ware packages being developed by EPA.
One is an emissions inventory software
called GloED, and the other is a technol-
ogy software called GloTech. GloED com-
piles country and source specific invento-
ries of emissions of greenhouse gases by
combining emission factors and activity
data. GloTech computes cost and envi-
ronmental impacts of technologies and
technology combinations. Both software
packages are very user-friendly, integrate
the data with their references, and rely
heavily on graphics to assist the user.
"Overview of ERA'S Global
Climate Change Research
Program on Waste
Management,"
Susan A. Thorneloe, EPA
Randy Strait and Michiel Doom,
E.H. Pechan & Associates, Inc.
Bart Eklund, Radian Corporation
This paper provides an overview of on-
going research at EPA's APPCD, the
former Air and Energy Engineering Re-
search Laboratory, on greenhouse gas
emissions from waste management.
Sources being evaluated include landfills,
open dumps, waste piles, wastewater
(treated and untreated), septic sewage,
and agricultural waste. Earlier estimates
have suggested that waste management
accounts for -70 teragrams (1012 grams)
per year (Tg/yr) of methane (CH4) globally
or 19% of total global CH4 anthropogenic
emissions of 360 Tg/yr. However, the es-
timate ranges from 54 to 95 Tg/yr and is
considered very uncertain due to limita-
tions in available data for establishing cred-
ible emission factors and limitations in
country-specific activity data. Since land-
fills and possibly other waste sources are
amenable to cost-effective control, these
sources have been given a priority for
developing more reliable estimates and
identifying cost-effective opportunities for
greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions. Pri-
marily due to the ability to utilize the CH4
for its energy potential, this is a relatively
cost-effective source of GHG emissions
to control. Emission sources that are ame-
nable to control—such as landfills—have
been given a high priority for clarification.
The research described in this paper is
funded through EPA's Global Climate
Change Research Program. This research
is part of a larger EPA research program
to develop more reliable GHG emission
estimates for the major sources and to
identify cost-effective opportunities for re-
ducing GHG emissions. This research is
being conducted in support of the goals
established at the United Nations Confer-
ence on Environment and Development in
1992 and the Climate Change Action Plan.
"Greenhouse Gases from
Widely Used Small-Scale
Combustion Devices in
Developing Countries: Phases
I-II: Stoves in India and China;
Phase III: Charcoal Kilns in
Thailand," Kirk R. Smith and
Junfeng Zhang East-West
Center Susan A. Thorneloe,
EPA
Small combustion devices such as
stoves and charcoal kilns in developing
countries are individually small, but so nu-
merous that, depending on their emission
factors, they could possibly influence glo-
bal inventories of greenhouse-related
gases. A pilot study in Manila found that
such devices do seem to have high
enough emission factors to be of interest,
and thus a larger set of studies is being
undertaken in India, China, and Thailand
to determine emission factors for a wide
range of the kinds of stove/fuel combina-
tions and charcoal kilns of common use in
developing countries.
Session III
Mitigation of Methane and
Other Greenhouse Gases
(Rhone Resch, EPA, Session
Chairperson)
"The EPA STAR Program and
the Natural Gas Industry,"
Kathleen Hogan, EPA
This paper describes the Natural Gas
STAR Program, a cooperative, voluntary
program between the Natural Gas Indus-
try and EPA to implement pollution pre-
vention techniques in a cost-effective man-
ner. Specifically, the STAR Program en-
courages natural gas companies to adopt
cost-effective practices and technologies
that reduce emissions of methane—the
primary component of natural gas. Meth-
ane is a potent greenhouse gas—20 times
more effective than CO2 at trapping heat
in the atmosphere.
In addition to reducing the threat of glo-
bal warming, companies that participate
in the Natural Gas STAR Program also
save money by reducing leaks and losses
of the product they sell. In 1993, the first
partial year of the program, transmission
and distribution partners saved 1.3 billion
cubic feet of natural gas worth almost $3
million. The 1994 program results are ex-
pected to generate even greater savings.
"Significant Sources of
Methane Emissions in the
Natural Gas Industry,"
Matthew R. Harrison and R.
Michael Cowgill, Radian
Corporation
David A. Kirchgessner, EPA
Methane, the major constituent of natu-
ral gas, is a potent greenhouse gas be-
lieved to increase the effect of global warm-
ing when released to the atmosphere. Re-
ducing methane emissions would lessen
this effect, as well as save money and
increase energy efficiency by decreasing
the amount of gas product lost. This project
quantified methane emissions from the
natural gas industry. Major sources and
quantities of methane emissions are sum-
marized, emission estimation methods are
described, and potential candidates for re-
ducing methane emissions are discussed.
"Utilization and Control of
Landfill Methane by Fuel Cells,"
J.L. Preston and J.C. Tricciola,
International Fuel Cells
Corporation
R.J. Spiegel, EPA
The EPA has conducted a program to
control methane emissions from landfills
using a fuel cell. The fuel cell would re-
duce air emissions affecting global warm-
ing, acid rain, and other health and envi-
ronmental issues. By producing usable
energy, it would also reduce our depen-
dency on foreign oil. This paper discusses
the Phase II and Phase III results of the
EPA program underway at International
Fuel Cells Corporation. In this program,
two critical issues were addressed: (1) a
landfill gas cleanup method that would
remove contaminants from the gas suffi-
ciently for fuel cell operation, and (2) suc-
cessful operation of a commercial fuel cell
power plant on the lower-heating value
waste methane gas.
"Methane Recovery from
Landfills and an Overview of
EPA/APPCD's Landfill Gas
Research Program,"
John G. Pacey, Emcon
Associates
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Susan A. Thorneloe, EPA
Michiel Doom, E.H. Pechan &
Associates, Inc.
Clean Air Act (CAA) regulations for new
and existing municipal solid waste (MSW)
landfills which were proposed in MAY 1991
are scheduled to be promulgated in Au-
gust 1995. These regulations are expected
to require up to 400 landfills to install and
maintain a landfill gas (LFG) extraction
and control facility to reduce landfill air
emissions. These emissions include
nonmethane organic compounds (NMOCs)
which contribute to tropospheric ozone,
methane which is a potent greenhouse
gas, and toxic compounds which are of
concern to public health. In addition, land-
fills that are subject to New Source Re-
view may also be considered for controls
to reduce landfill air emissions. Control
options include flaring the gas or combus-
tion with energy recovery which include
(1) direct use of the gas as medium heat-
ing value fuel, (2) generation of electricity
using reciprocating engines, gas or steam
turbines, or fuel cells, and (3) upgrading
the gas to pipeline quality or to produce
vehicular fuel. Many landfill owners will be
evaluating their options for controlling land-
fill air emissions and will be considering if
it is practical and economical to minimize
potential control costs though the devel-
opment of a LFG utilization project.
This paper summarizes ongoing re-
search at EPA's APPCD (the former Air
and Energy Engineering Research Labo-
ratory) on LFG utilization. Research was
conducted to identify the technical issues
and solutions through interviews conducted
with industry experts in the U.S., Europe,
and Australia. The U.S. developers and
operators who were interviewed represent
over 70% of the projects in the U.S. Tech-
nical issues associated with the use of
LFG as compared to natural gas—which
is the primary fuel cell-can result due to
chlorinated and toxic compounds, particu-
late and reduced heating value when com-
pared to natural gas [18.6 vs. 37.2x106 J/
m3(500 vs. 1000 Btu/scf)]. A recent data-
base of LFG-to-energy projects that has
been developed through a collaborative
program between EPA/APPCD and the
Solid Waste Association of North America
(SWANA), indicates that there are cur-
rently 137 LFG-to-energy projects in the
U.S. and 9 in Canada. This paper will
summarize statistics and industry trends
resulting from this database, and discuss
the nontechnical and technical issues and
solutions. Other EPA/APPCD research that
will be discussed in this paper is a recent
overview of emerging technologies for LFG
utilization and research regarding the dem-
onstration of fuel cells for LFG utilization.
The research described is funded
through EPA's Global Climate Change
Research Program. This research is part
of a larger EPA research program to de-
velop more reliable emission estimates
for the major sources of greenhouse emis-
sions and to identify cost-effective oppor-
tunities for reducing greenhouse gas emis-
sions. This research is being conducted in
support of the goals established at the
United Nations Conference on Environ-
ment and Development in 1992 and the
Climate Change Action Plan.
"Case Studies of Sewage
Treatment with Recovery of
Energy from Methane,"
William H. Hahn, Science
Applications International
Corporation
Energy recovery from biogas generated
from wastewater treatment processes is
universally cost- effective and has gained
widespread acceptance. The technology
exists to allow full use of biogas, and the
extra costs of incorporating this energy
source into a system are small. The pay-
back period for installation of biogas en-
ergy recovery at plants having anaerobic
digesters is short, typically less than 6
years. Recovery and use of biogas ac-
complish energy conservation and pollu-
tion prevention goals, and also cost sav-
ings, making this an obvious choice for
application in all treatment plans that em-
ploy anaerobic digestion for stabilizing
wastewater biosolids.
Other energy conservation and munici-
pal pollution prevention activities can be
integrated with use of biogas, as demon-
strated by the Sunnyvale plant, including
collection and use of landfill gas, recovery
of waste heat, water reclamation, and mu-
nicipal water conservation. Often, waste-
water treatment plants are located near
municipal landfills, and could potentially
develop the landfill gas as an additional
energy source. Advantages lie not only in
the cost savings from energy recovery
from the landfill gas, but also in meeting
regulatory and safety concerns posed by
landfill gas emissions.
The examples of the Orange County
and Los Angeles plants show that energy
conservation not only conserves natural
resources, but can also lead to increased
ability to comply with air emissions regu-
lations. The greenhouse gas carbon diox-
ide is released by all wastewater treat-
ment and biosolids management pro-
cesses. Converting biosolids to fuel
achieves substantial benefit from the
wastes before carbon dioxide is ultimately
released. In addition, nonrenewable en-
ergy sources such as natural gas are re-
placed by the renewable energy from
wastewater, without adversely affecting
receiving water quality.
Plants can address environmental man-
dates in an integrated framework based
on energy conservation, through the use
of renewable resources. As the case stud-
ies prove, activities that conserve energy
also reduce pollution costs.
"Assessment of CO2 Capture,
Utilization, and Disposal,"
Howard J. Herzog,
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
The capture and sequestration (via utili-
zation or disposal) of CO2 is the only green-
house gas mitigation option that will allow
use of our large fossil fuel resources with-
out a buildup of atmospheric CO2. This
paper assesses the current status and
research needs of this mitigation option
as applied to fossil-fuel-fired power plants.
"'Front Line' CO2 Abatements
from the Steel Industry,"
Britt R. Gilbert, TORESCO, Ltd.
Worldwide CO2 emissions from conven-
tional steelmaking exceed 1.1 billion tons
per year. But a new generation of
ironmaking technologies will significantly
decrease these emissions by perhaps 75%
in the coming decades.
One of these new ironmaking technolo-
gies, the COREX® process, was the cen-
tral technology in an iron/methanol co-
production facility being developed by the
author near Pittsburgh. The author pre-
sents carbon balances for iron/methanol
co-production that show dramatic reduc-
tions in CO2 emissions, compared to con-
ventional iron and methanol production.
He discusses the factors which ultimately
doomed his project, and assesses the like-
lihood of success in the near term for
similar projects based on new iron and
steelmaking technologies. Such projects
are now beginning to be built, and are
yielding dramatic decreases in CO2 emis-
sions. He details how a CO2 trading pro-
gram would greatly hasten the adoption of
these new ironmaking technologies by the
steel industry.
"Electrochemical Reduction of
CO2 to Fuels,"
Daniel L. DuBois, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory
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A potentially useful approach to liquid
fuel synthesis in the future may involve
the direct electrochemical reduction of CO2.
This paper describes some of the prob-
lems which must be overcome for this
approach to become feasible. Possible
energy and CO2 sources are discussed
briefly. The major focus of the discussion
is on the properties which catalysts for
electrochemical CO2 reduction should pos-
sess. A brief review of various catalytic
systems currently under study in a num-
ber of laboratories is presented to assess
the present state of the art and the prob-
lems which need to be overcome.
"The Carnol Process for CO2
Mitigation from Power Plants
and the Transportation Sector,"
Meyer Steinberg, Brookhaven
National Laboratory
A CO2 mitigation process is developed
which converts waste CO2 primarily re-
covered from coal-fired plant stack gases
with natural gas, to produce methanol as
a liquid fuel and coproduct carbon as a
materials commodity. The Carnol process
chemistry consists of methane decompo-
sition to produce hydrogen that is catalyti-
cally reacted with the recovered waste
CO2 to produce methanol. The carbon is
either stored or sold as a materials com-
modity. A process design is modeled and
mass and energy balances are presented
as a function of reactor pressure and tem-
perature conditions. The Carnol process
is a viable alternative to sequestering CO2
in the ocean for purposes of reducing CO2
emissions from coal burning power plants.
Over 90% of the CO2 from the coal burn-
ing plant is used in the process which
results in a net CO2 emission reduction of
over 90% compared to that obtained from
conventional methanol production by
steam reforming of methane. Methanol as
an alternative liquid fuel for automotive
engines and for fuel cells achieves addi-
tional CO2 emission reduction benefits. The
economics of the process are greatly en-
hanced when carbon can be sold as a
materials commodity. Improvement in pro-
cess design and economics should be
achieved by developing a molten metal
(tin) methane decomposition reactor and
a liquid phase, slurry catalyst, methanol
synthesis reactor directly using the sol-
vent saturated with CO2 scrubbed from
the power plant stack gases. The benefits
of the process warrants its further devel-
opments.
Session IV
Biomass Utilization
(Robert H. Williams, Princeton
University, Session
Chairperson)
"Demonstration ofal MWe
Biomass Power Plant,"
Carol R. Purvis, EPA
Patrick Myers, RTI
Mounir Mazzawi, Mech-Chem
Associates, Inc.
The EPA's NRMRL/APPCD, formerly
EPA's Air and Energy Engineering Re-
search Laboratory (AEERL), is cooperat-
ing with the Research Triangle Institute to
demonstrate that converting wood energy
to electrical power results in waste utiliza-
tion, pollution alleviation, and energy con-
servation.
The project is expected to demonstrate
the technical, economic, and environmen-
tal feasibility of an innovative energy con-
version technology, producing approxi-
mately 1 MWe, at the Marine Corps Base,
Camp Lejeune, NC. Camp Lejeune will
supply wood waste for power plant opera-
tion while minimizing transport and maxi-
mizing local waste resource utilization. The
technology for the process and the site at
Camp Lejeune have been selected, de-
sign specifications are presently under-
way, and installation, start-up, testing, and
demonstration will soon follow. This paper
provides details of the status of this project.
"Development of a New
Generation of Small Scale
Biomass Fueled Electric
Generating Power Plants,"
Joe D. Craig, Cratech, Inc.
Carol R. Purvis, EPA
There exists a need by a large world-
wide market for greatly improved small
scale (1 to 20 MWe per unit) biomass-
fueled power plants. These power plants
will significantly increase the efficiency of
generating electric power from wood and
bagasse as well as converting non-
traditional fuel sources such as rice hulls,
animal manure, cotton gin trash, straws,
and grasses to electricity. Advancing the
technology of biomass-fueled power plants
will greatly expand the use of this environ-
mentally-friendly sustainable 24 h/day
source of electrical power for industry and
communities worldwide. This paper briefly
describes the status of a biomass-fueled
power plant being development by
Cratech, Inc.
"Installation of an ENERGEO
Biomass Power Plant at a
Lumber Company,"
Charles F. Sanders ENERGEO,
Inc.
Carol R. Purvis, EPA
ENERGEO, Inc. is engaged in a dem-
onstration test program of its AGRIPOWER
200 unit fueled with biomass at Sutton
Lumber Company in Tennga, GA. The
objective of the program is to evaluate the
operating and performance characteristics
of the system using lumber wastes for
fuel. The program is scheduled to accu-
mulate 8000 hours of operation over a
period of 1 to 2 years. The program be-
came a reality due to initial funding from
the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)
Strategic Environmental Research and
Development Program (SERDP) and the
EPA Air and Energy Engineering Research
Laboratory (now referred to as APPCD,
Research Triangle Park).
The AGRIPOWER unit operates with
an "open" Brayton cycle using a fluid bed
combustor and several heat exchangers
to heat compressed air which in turn drives
a turbine/generator (T/G) set. The T/G
set, which includes the compressor and a
recuperator, is a Solar "Spartan" unit pack-
aged for this application by Alturdyne, Inc.
The combustor utilizes in-bed and free-
board combustion zones, and the above-
bed zone is well mixed to provide uniform
temperatures.
Design specifications call for consump-
tion of 829 Ib/h (376 kg/h) of fuel with a
lower heating value of 4,270 Btu/lb (9.92
MJ/kg). The net electrical power output
will be approximately 200 kW-hr/hr. This
corresponds to a heat rate of 17,700 Btu/
kW-hr (41.3 MJ/kW-hr). The capital cost
of an AGRIPOWER 200 unit will be ap-
proximately $2,250/kW of capacity.
"An Indirectly Heated
Thermochemical Reactor for
Steam Reforming/Gasification
of Biomass and Other
Carbonaceous Materials,"
Momtaz Mansour,
Manufacturing and Technology
Conversion International, Inc.
Manufacturing and Technology Conver-
sion International, Inc. (MTCI) is a pro-
cess and hardware oriented energy and
environmental technology development
company located in Columbia, MD, with
manufacturing and development facilities
in Santa Fe Springs, CA, and Curtis Bay,
MD. Based on the principles and merits of
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pulse combustion, the Company is devel-
oping clean coal burners and fluid-bed
combustors, low NOx combustors, particu-
late emissions control devices, and (now
entering the market) the indirectly heated
steam reformer/gasifier for waste-to-energy
conversion and the conversion of coals,
renewables, and industrial and municipal
wastes (including toxins) into clean fuel
forms for IGCC and combined-cycle power
systems. For the pulp and paper industry
the MTCI technology steam reformer/gas-
ifier can process all kinds of spent liquor
for energy and process chemical recov-
ery.
"Cost Versus Scale for
Advanced Plantation-Based
Biomass Energy Systems in the
U.S.,"
Christopher I. Marrison' and
Eric D. Larson, Princeton
University
A unique feature of biomass energy sys-
tems is that feedstock must be gathered
from a wide area around the energy pro-
duction facility. For a small-scale facility,
transport costs will be relatively low, but
capital cost per unit of output will be high.
For a large-scale facility, transport costs
will be high, but capital costs will be rela-
tively low. At some intermediate scale, the
total cost of energy should reach a mini-
mum. This paper examines the effects of
scale on the prospective costs of produc-
ing electricity and alcohol fuels from plan-
tation-grown switchgrass in North Central
and Southeast regions of the U.S.
Site-specific biomass cost-supply curves
for the years 2000 and 2020 are devel-
oped using projections of the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory for switchgrass yields
and costs as a function of land capability
class. A geographic information system
(CIS) is used to analyze soil quality distri-
butions and road transport distances.
Conversion technologies considered in-
clude one commercial electricity generat-
ing technology—the steam Rankine cycle,
and one nearing commercial readiness,
the gasifier/gas turbine combined cycle.
Two alcohol fuels are considered: metha-
nol via thermochemical gasification and
ethanol via enzymatic hydrolysis. Both of
these processes have the potential to be
commercially ready early in the next cen-
tury or sooner. Estimates of installed capi-
tal costs for all of these conversion sys-
tems are drawn from published and other
sources.
In all cases, the minimum cost of elec-
tricity (COE/min) or alcohol (COA/min) is
reached at plant capacities that are larger
than conventional wisdom might suggest.
Up to these capacities, the rate of de-
crease in unit capital costs is more rapid
than the rate of increase in biomass trans-
portation costs. However, around the ca-
pacity corresponding to COE/min or COA/
min, there is a wide range over which
costs change very little. In general, higher
biomass yields lead to larger capacities at
COE/min or COA/min. Costs are higher in
the NC than SE region, and (in both re-
gions) costs are lower using year-2020
biomass costs compared to year-2000
costs.
"Greenhouse Gas Implications
and Mitigation Opportunities for
Integrated Biomass Systems,"
Jane Hughes Turnbull, Electric
Power Research Institute
UlfBoman, Vattenfall
UtvecklingAB
Integrated biomass energy systems that
include crop resources grown as fuel offer
a means of displacing fossil fuel systems
and thus the emissions of carbon dioxide
produced by the combustion of fossil fu-
els. Energy crops directly utilize carbon
dioxide as a nutrient; therefore, a biomass
power system is a "closed loop" carbon
system only so far as the conversion part
of the system is concerned. Other as-
pects of the total fuel cycle will impact the
"no net carbon dioxide" axiom. Trade-offs
among options associated with produc-
tion, handling, and transportation will im-
pact costs, energy inputs, or other system
values. Fossil fuel inputs associated with
agricultural or forestry equipment need to
be considered. Fossil fuel use in the pro-
duction and distribution of agricultural
chemicals also is a significant concern.
Coproducts should be evaluated insofar
as they may displace alternative produc-
tion systems that would use added quan-
tities of fossil fuels. Intelligent selection of
crops, rotation periods, and agricultural
practices can also affect the extent to
which carbon may be sequestered using
lands that have been in conventional agri-
culture. The potential for soils, on which
high-yielding energy crops are grown, to
be used as carbon sinks is only beginning
to be appreciated. Soil carbon sequestra-
tion may well become as important a
means for mitigating greenhouse gas emis-
sions as the use of biomass energy sys-
tems to displace fossil fuels.
"Cost of Producing Herbaceous
and Woody Biomass Crops in
the U.S.,"
Marie E. Walsh, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory
Switchgrass and hybrid poplar are po-
tential renewable sources of liquid fuels,
power, and chemicals. This paper esti-
mates the full economic cost (i.e., variable
cash, fixed cash, and opportunity cost of
owned resources) of producing these en-
ergy crops in six regions in the U.S. Aver-
age production costs vary by region, rang-
ing from $29 to $59/dry ton ($26-54/Mg)
for switchgrass bales and $61 to $83/dry
ton ($55-75/Mg) for poplar chips. Within a
region, production costs decline substan-
tially as yields increase. Estimated biom-
ass prices needed to ensure comparable
profitability with conventional crops are
lower for switchgrass than for hybrid pop-
lar, and are higher in the Lake States and
Corn Belt than for other regions of the
U.S.
"Methanol and Hydrogen from
Biomass for Transportation,
with Comparisons to Methanol
and Hydrogen from Natural Gas
and Coal,"
Robert H. Williams, Eric D.
Larson, Ryan E. Katofsky, Jeff
Chen, Princeton University
Methanol and hydrogen produced from
biomass via indirectly heated gasifiers and
their use in fuel cell vehicles would make
it possible for biomass to be used for road
transportation, with zero or near-zero lo-
cal air pollution and very low levels of life-
cycle CO2 emissions, if the biomass feed-
stock is grown sustainably. Moreover, be-
cause this approach to using biomass for
transport fuels involves such an efficient
use of land, it offers the potential for mak-
ing major contributions in reducing depen-
dence on insecure sources of oil for trans-
portation.
Biomass-derived methanol and hydro-
gen would be roughly competitive with
these fuels produced at much larger scale
(to exploit scale economies) from coal,
even with relatively high biomass feed-
stock prices. While biomass-derived
methanol and hydrogen would not be able
to compete with the production of these
fuels from natural gas in the near term,
natural gas prices are expected to rise
substantially over the next decade or so.
With natural-gas prices expected by 2010,
biomass would be nearly competitive with
natural gas in the production of these fu-
els. A carbon tax that would increase the
cost of owning and operating fuel cell ve-
hicles on natural gas-derived fuels by less
than 2% would be adequate to tip the
economic balance in favor of biomass.
The production of methanol for export
in developing regions could provide sus-
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tainable new income streams for rural ar-
eas in developing regions while bringing
competition and fuel price stability to world
markets in transport fuels.
"Hydrogen from Biomass via
Fast Pyrolysis,"
E. Chornet, M. Mann, D. Wang,
D. Montane, S. Czernik, and D.
Johnson, National Renewable
Laboratory
The mission of DOE's Hydrogen Pro-
gram is to encourage and support the
development of safe, practical, and eco-
nomically competitive hydrogen technolo-
gies and systems to meet transitional and
large-scale energy needs. By 2025, the
percentage of energy from oil imports to
the U.S. could be reduced from the cur-
rent 50 to 60% to less than 25%, if hydro-
gen energy were to contribute only 10%
to the overall energy use. The Hydrogen
Program will meet these challenges with
fundamental and applied research, sys-
tems demonstrations, and systems stud-
ies.
Pyrolysis of biomass and steam reform-
ing of the resultant oils is being studied as
a strategy for the production of hydrogen.
New technologies for the rapid pyrolysis
of biomass provide compact and efficient
systems to transform biomass into vapors
that are condensed to oils, with yields as
high as 75 to 80% by weight of the anhy-
drous biomass. A process of this nature
has the potential to be cost competitive
with conventional means of hydrogen pro-
duction.
The use of biomass is an alternative to
producing hydrogen from petroleum and
natural gas, and the environmental ben-
efits are several fold. If the biomass is
grown on a sustainable basis as an en-
ergy crop, there is a zero net carbon diox-
ide contribution to the atmosphere. Biom-
ass crops can be grown as barriers be-
tween crop land and natural water sys-
tems, to prevent fertilizer runoff. Further-
more, crop rotation and harvesting can be
timed to offer habitat to birds and animals.
Waste biomass from sources such as ag-
riculture and urban waste can also be
used to produce hydrogen by this pro-
cess. Using this source of biomass miti-
gates landfill disposal and eliminates the
methane produced during natural decom-
position.
Using hydrogen as a fuel offers addi-
tional environmental benefits. Hydrogen
can be used in a fuel cell to produce
electricity, with water as the only product.
When combusted, for example in an inter-
nal combustion engine, far fewer nitrogen
oxide compounds are released than dur-
ing the combustion of fossil fuels. There
are no carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
or particulates emitted when hydrogen is
converted to energy.
"The Hynol Process,"
Robert H. Borgwardt, EPA
This paper describes a process cur-
rently under evaluation by EPA for pro-
duction of transportation fuel from biom-
ass. If biofuel is to significantly impact
petroleum displacement and greenhouse
emissions in the transportation sector,
maximum yield of fuel energy from the
available biomass supply must be ob-
tained. It will also be necessary to supple-
ment biofuel with other fuels or leverage
its production by use of a cofeedstock.
The fuel should also be compatible with
vehicles powered by fuel cells which prom-
ise considerable overall future environmen-
tal benefits. Methanol appears to be the
best alternative fuel to meet these re-
quirements, and this investigation is fo-
cused on thermochemical technologies that
can increase methanol yield from biom-
ass by utilizing natural gas as cofeedstock.
The process currently under evaluation
produces methanol in three basic steps:
hydrogasification of biomass followed by
steam reforming to synthesis gas and con-
version of the synthesis gas to methanol.
Hydrogen derived from the natural gas is
recycled to the gasifier to provide part of
the thermal energy for gasification; the
remaining energy required for gasification
is obtained by heat exchange with the
reformer effluent. This assessment was
carried out using the process simulator
Aspen Plus. The assumptions necessary
for such simulations are, wherever pos-
sible, consistent with those published else-
where for other process options. Results
indicate that testing in actual equipment is
needed, with stringent conditions to be
met in each process step if the expected
efficiency is to be realized.
Session V
Renewables and Advanced
Energy Efficient, End-Use
Technologies
(Thomas D. Bath, NREL,
Session Chairperson)
"Greenhouse Gas Mitigation:
The Potential for Renewable
Energy,"
Thomas D. Bath and Jack
Stone, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory
This paper reviews the opportunity for
different forms of renewable energy to re-
duce emissions of greenhouse gases, do-
mestically and in the international context.
It builds on the results of earlier work, by
several groups, intended to explore this
potential. This work showed that these
technologies can play a significant role in
the longer term (25 years or more). The
paper also identifies additional possibili-
ties to enhance these opportunities. Key
factors in the outcome are technology
progress, energy market characteristics,
and the influence of energy and environ-
mental policies. In particular, the paper
explores the potential for synergisms be-
tween energy and environmental policies.
Our general conclusion is that major
changes in all of these areas are neces-
sary to reduce domestic and global emis-
sions.
"Pollution Prevention by
Consumer Choice: The Green
Pricing Option,"
Lloyd Wright, EPA
Allowing consumers to choose clean
energy resources for their electricity needs
may be one of the most cost-effective
options to reduce greenhouse gases.
Through a concept known as green pric-
ing, participating consumers voluntarily pay
a small premium to support renewable
energy technologies. Even at fairly low
participation rates of 1-5%, significant pol-
lution reduction benefits are achieved. In
addition to delivering greenhouse gas re-
ductions at less than $50 per metric ton,
green pricing can dramatically transform
the U.S. renewable energy market. This
market-based approach also helps elec-
tric utilities prepare for a competitive en-
ergy marketplace. And all of this is
achieved voluntarily, with no costs to non-
participants, the government, or electric
utilities.
"Risk, Accounting and
Strategic Planning Issues in
Integrated Resource Planning
(IRP) Resource Selection,"
Shimon Awerbuch,
Independent Economic
Consultant
This paper reviews what has been
learned from the valuation of new manu-
facturing technologies, and extends the
results to energy resource options. Tradi-
tional IRP procedures can be misleading:
they rely on one attribute, dollars per kilo-
watt-hour, which does not properly cap-
ture the important benefits renewables pro-
vide through risk reduction, flexibility, over-
head reductions, and supply-demand equi-
librium. When properly evaluated using
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these concepts, photovoltaics and other
renewables appear considerably more cost
effective than previously believed. Proper
valuation of externalities, the present value
costs of which are significantly understated
in most analyses using inappropriate dis-
count rates, swings the balance further in
favor of renewables.
"Pollution Mitigation and
Photovoltaic Demand-Site
Results from the U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency Photovoltaic
Demonstrations,"
Edward C. Kern, Jr. and Daniel
L. Green berg, Ascension
Technology, Inc.
Ronald J. Spiegel, EPA
The EPA, 21 electric power companies
in the U.S., and the Electric Power Re-
search Institute are conducting two na-
tionwide Photovoltaic (PV) Demand-Side
Management (DSM) projects. Ascension
Technology is responsible for system de-
sign, balance-of-systems equipment de-
sign and fabrication, installation supervi-
sion, field instrumentation, and data ac-
quisition, monitoring, and evaluation. The
principal goal of the two projects is to
investigate the environmental and DSM
benefits of distributed, grid-tied PV sys-
tems as pollution-mitigating energy re-
placements for fossil fuels. In 1993-4, 11
electric utilities installed PV on homes,
schools, hospitals, offices, and light com-
mercial buildings. In 1994-5, 12 electric
utilities are installing PV systems on larger
commercial, educational, and industrial
building rooftops.
"Photovoltaic Energy Impacts
on U.S. CO2Emissions,"
S.C. Morris, J.C. Lee, P.D.
Moskowitz, and G.A. Goldstein,
Brookhaven National
Laboratory
The potential role of photovoltaic (PV)
technology in reducing CO2 emissions was
evaluated in an energy-environmental eco-
nomic systems model. The model exam-
ines the role of PV energy systems in a
competitive market environment. PV tech-
nology is already competitive for certain
niche markets. Further growth in those
markets is expected as well as expansion
into other markets. Decreasing cost pen-
alties should provide greater incentive for
expansion of niche markets. This analysis
indicated that, while PV was not projected
to be competitive as a general source of
electricity supply to the grid by 2030, it did
become an attractive technology for this
purpose after 2010 under carbon emis-
sion constraint, even if the carbon con-
straint was limited to stability of emissions
at the 1990 level.
"Electric Vehicles: A Source for
Energy Security and Clean Air,"
Lawrence G. O'Connell,
Electric Power Research
Institute
Electric vehicles (EVs) can help solve
the problems created by the transporta-
tion sector's heavy dependence on petro-
leum-based fuels. Studies show that us-
ing EVs could significantly decrease emis-
sions that contribute to urban air quality
problems. Further, they emit less carbon
dioxide than gasoline-powered vehicles,
and therefore could be part of a green-
house gas reduction strategy. In addition,
because only a small portion of electricity
used in the U.S. is generated from oil,
replacing conventional vehicles with EVs
could help move the nation toward greater
energy security. In recognition of these
potential benefits, legislation and regula-
tions are encouraging, and even mandat-
ing, zero emission vehicles, or EVs, pro-
duction and use. Automakers have re-
sponded by starting EV development pro-
grams that promise viable vehicles in time
to meet the legislative requirements. The
electric utility industry, in turn, has been
laying the foundation for the infrastructure
to support wider use of this beneficial tech-
nology.
"Why Not Plug Your House and
Workplace Into Your Fuel Cell
Car?,"
Robert Williams and Kelly
Kissock, Princeton University
As an alternative to the internal com-
bustion engine, the fuel cell offers the
potential for providing transportation ser-
vices with zero or near-zero pollutant emis-
sions, with large reductions in greenhouse
gas emissions, and with reduced energy
insecurity through the use of a wide range
of feedstocks for fuel as alternatives to oil
from politically unstable regions. Moreover,
there are good prospects that, when mass-
produced, fuel cell cars would be able to
compete with internal combustion engine
cars on a life-cycle basis, owing to their
greater energy efficiency and prospective
lower maintenance costs, and perhaps
even on a first-cost basis.
If the fuel cell comes to replace the
internal combustion engine in transporta-
tion applications, it could radically trans-
form not just transportation but stationary
power generation as well—if "the building
is plugged into the car when the car is not
being driven." This possibility is motivated
by consideration that fuel cell vehicles
could potentially provide heat and power
for buildings with zero pollution, with very
little noise, and without the need for oper-
ating personnel, and by the fact that while
cars are operated during 10 years of use-
ful life for only 3,500 to 5,000 hours (about
a half hour a day), the fuel cell itself might
last 50,000 to 60,000 hours or more.
This paper assesses technical and eco-
nomic aspects of cogenerating electricity
and heat for residential and commercial
buildings using proton-exchange-mem-
brane (PEM) fuel cells in cars. Because
PEM fuel cells typically operate at tem-
peratures of less than 100°C, particular
attention is paid to the design and control
of the heat recovery and storage system
and its interface with the thermal require-
ments of buildings. System performance
is simulated on an hour-by-hour basis for
residential and commercial buildings.
This preliminary investigation suggests
that the idiosyncratic concept of "fuel cell
car cogeneration" is not whimsical and
should be given careful consideration as
an innovative element in the portfolio of
options that could be deployed by the
distributed utility of the future.
Free-Piston Stirling Engines for
Domestic Cogeneration and
Biomass Energy Conversion,"
W. T. Beale, Sunpower, Inc.
This successful development of long-
life free-piston machines for domestic re-
frigeration has brought into existence
Stirling engine designs which can be con-
figured for electric power generation using
biomass or other sustainable energy
sources. This paper describes the design
and performance of machines suitable for
near-term commercial production for natu-
ral gas and biomass-fired domestic and
light industrial congeneration at the 1 to
10 kW power range.
"Commercialization of Wind
Power and Its Potential Impact
on Greenhouse Gas
Emissions,"
Susan Hock, NREL
John B. Cadogan, DOE
Joseph M. Cohen and Bertrand
L. Johnson, Princeton
Economic Research, Inc.
Commercialization and deployment ac-
tivities associated with wind power have
accelerated recently, in the U.S. and
abroad. The current installed base of util-
-------
ity-connected wind power is summarized
and derivative calculations of electric gen-
eration and associated displacement of
greenhouse gas emissions are made.
Technology and market development
trends are reviewed and DOE-sponsored
wind technology development and deploy-
ment activities are discussed. Finally, an
overview of competitive market consider-
ations is given, including an analysis of
the projected competitiveness of wind
power compared to gas-fired generation
to the year 2005.
"Fuzzy-Logic-Based Adaptive
Control of AC Induction Motors
for Energy Optimization,"
R.J. Spiegel and P.J. Chappell,
EPA
M.W. Turner, RTI
Fuzzy-logic control of alternating-current
(AC) induction motors is being investigated
under sponsorship of EPA for energy effi-
ciency optimization and performance en-
hancement. An energy optimizing control-
ler utilizing fuzzy logic has been devel-
oped to improve the efficiency of motor/
drive combinations running at various load
and speed conditions. The energy
optimizer is complemented by a sensorless
speed controller which maintains motor
shaft revolutions per minute (RPM) to pro-
duce constant output power. Efficiency
gains from approximately 1 to 20% are
obtained from laboratory demonstration
with commercial motors and drives. Motor
shaft RPM is controlled to within 0.9%.
"Fuzzy-Logic-Based Adaptive
Control of a Variable Speed
Wind Turbine,"
R.J. Spiegel, EPA
B.K. Bose, University of
Tennessee
Fuzzy-logic control of a variable-speed
wind turbine is being investigated under
sponsorship of EPA for efficiency optimi-
zation and performance enhancement. The
control system consists of three fuzzy-
logic controllers: a controller to track the
turbine generator speed with wind velocity
to extract the maximum output power; a
controller to optimize the generator airgap
magnetic flux for efficiency improvement;
and a controller to provide for robust speed
control against wind gusts and turbine os-
cillatory torque. The paper describes the
control system which has been developed,
as well as early stages of work to validate
the design and document the performance
obtained.
10
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Sue Philpott is with Acurex Environmental Corp., Research Triangle Park, NC
27709
Keith J. Fritsky is the EPA Project Officer (see below).
The complete report, entitled "Proceedings: The 1995 Symposium on Greenhouse
Gas Emissions and Mitigation Research," (Order No. PB96-96-187752; Cost:
$85.00 - $170.00, subject to change) will be available only from:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Telephone: 703-487-4650
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U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
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