EPA/600/S-13/196
July 2013
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and
Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in Urban Settings
April 24-25,2013
Cincinnati, Ohio
Meeting Summary Report
Developed by:
The Scientific Consulting Group, Inc.
Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878-1409
Under Contract No. EP-C-08-010
Work Assignment No. 4-44
Dennis Lye, EPA Technical Lead
National Exposure Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Abby Waits, EPA Contracting Officer Representative
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
National Exposure Research Laboratory and
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report was funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under EPA Contract
Number EP-C-08-010 (Work Assignment Number 4-44) to The Scientific Consulting Group, Inc. EPA
does not endorse the purchase or sale of any products or services from companies mentioned in this
document. This report has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative reviews and has been
approved for publication as an EPA document. The views expressed by individual speakers/participants
are their own, and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. EPA.
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
Urban Settings - April 24-25, 2013
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development (ORD) wish to extend their appreciation to the
following speakers and panelists for sharing their expertise and perspectives: Nick Ashbolt, EPA ORD;
Ed Beaulieu, Aquascape, Inc.; Michael Berning, Heapy Engineering; Samantha Brown, Northern
Kentucky Sanitation District No. 1; David Crawford, Rainwater Management Solutions/American
Rainwater Catchment Systems Association; Kathy DeBusk, North Carolina State University; Jay Garland,
EPA ORD; Jens Gartner, Water Renewal Systems-USA; Sally Gutierrez, EPA ORD; Steve Hafele, City
of Cincinnati; Matt Haikalis, Veolia Water Solutions and Technologies; Jim Henning, Duke Energy Ohio
and Kentucky; Paula Kehoe, San Francisco Public Utilities Commission; Bob Knight, Green Partnership
for Greater Cincinnati/emersion DESIGN LLC; Maryanne McGowan, Duke Energy; Michael Miller,
University of Cincinnati; Jatin Mistry, EPA Region 6; Paul Mitchell, Tremco Roofing and Building
Maintenance; Doug Pushard, HarvestH2O; Laure Quinlivan, City of Cincinnati; Andrew Reynolds,
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater Cincinnati; Brewster Rhoads, Cincinnati Green Umbrella; Neal
Shapiro, City of Santa Monica; Tre Sheldon, The Sustainability Partnership of Greater Cincinnati/
Cincinnati Green Umbrella/Green Streets, LLC; Pam Simmons, Cincinnati Chapter of the U.S. Green
Buildings Council/Turpin Farms; Jeff Swertfeger, Greater Cincinnati Water Works; Mary Ann Uhlmann,
Tremco Roofing and Building Maintenance; Mike Warren, Watertronics, Inc.; Ralph Wells, Cincinnati
State Technical and Community College; and Jeff Zistler, Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati.
EPA would also like to thank the following organizations for co-sponsoring the workshop: Duke Energy,
Cincinnati Chapter of the U.S. Green Building Council, Cincinnati Green Umbrella and Confluence.
Workshop Organizing Committee:
Jennifer Eismeier, Mill Creek Watershed Council of Communities
David Hart, Tremco Roofing and Building Maintenance
Evelyn Hartzell, EPA ORD
Bob Knight, Green Partnership for Greater Cincinnati/emersion DESIGN LLC
Dennis Lye, EPA ORD (Chair)
James Marten, Veolia Water Solutions and Technologies/Confluence
Maryanne McGowan, Duke Energy (Chair)
Michael Miller, University of Cincinnati
Kevin Oshima, EPA ORD (Chair)
Patrick Quinn, Cincinnati Chapter of the U.S. Green Building Council/McGill Smith Punshon
Andrew Reynolds, Greater Cincinnati Municipal Sewer District
Brewster Rhoads, Cincinnati Green Umbrella
Tre Sheldon, The Sustainability Partnership of Greater Cincinnati/ Cincinnati Green
Umbrella/Green Streets, LLC (Chair)
Pamela Simmons, Cincinnati Chapter of the U.S. Green Building Council/Turpin Farms (Chair)
Abby Waits, EPA ORD
Logistical planning, onsite support, and facilitation for the workshop were provided by The Scientific
Consulting Group, Inc., under contract to EPA.
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
Urban Settings - April 24-25, 2013 Hi
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ABSTRACT
The workshop on Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and
Stormwater in Urban Settings was held on April 24-25, 2013, in Cincinnati, Ohio. The purpose of this
workshop was to identify: (1) innovative strategies currently being employed for the use of urban rain and
stormwater; (2) water quality characteristics and standards that are protective of public health; (3) barriers
and challenges to use of rain and stormwater; (4) technology gaps, needs and opportunities for innovative
solutions, including those requiring further research and development; and (5) potential opportunities for
collaboration among workshop participants and regional companies interested in local and national rain
and stormwater use markets. Approximately 100 individuals attended. This document contains summaries
of presentations, questions and answers, and discussion sessions held at the workshop. A list of common
terms and definitions related to water reuse, as well as a list of workshop participants and their affiliations
are included as appendices to this document.
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
Urban Settings - April 24-25, 2013 iv
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CONTENTS
Disclaimer ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract iv
Contents v
Abbreviations and Acronyms vi
Introduction and Overview 1
Day 1—April 24, 2013 1
Session 1: Overview of Rain and Stormwater Use 2
Session 2: Current Best Practices and Case Studies 9
Day 2—April 25, 2013 16
Session 2: Current Best Practices and Cases Studies (Continued) 16
Session 3: Technology Gaps and Needs 18
Panel Discussion: Stakeholder Perspectives on Technology Gaps and Needs 21
Regional Success Story—City of Cincinnati Rainwater Harvesting Ordinance 23
Session 4: Bridging the Technology Gaps 26
Summaries of Sessions 1, 2 and 3 26
Panel Discussion: Rain and Stormwater Technology Needs and Solutions—Themes Emerging
from the Workshop 27
Summary Discussion: Bridging the Technology Gaps, Outcomes and Next Steps 27
Appendix A: Definitions and Terms 29
Appendix B: Workshop Participants 32
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ARCSA
AWS
CSO
EPA
GCWW
HVAC
IgCC
L2L
LEED™
MSDGC
NERL
ORD
PCR
QMRA
qPCR
RPZ
SD1
SFPUC
ZLB
American Rainwater Catchment Systems Association
auxiliary water system
combined sewer overflow
Environmental Protection Agency
Greater Cincinnati Water Works
heating, ventilation and air conditioning
International Green Construction Code
Laundry-to-Landscape (Greywater Program)
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater Cincinnati
National Exposure Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
polymerase chain reaction
quantitative microbial risk assessment
quantitative polymerase chain reaction
reduced pressure zone
Northern Kentucky Sanitation District No. 1
San Francisco Public Utilities Commission
zero liquid blowdown
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
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INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
The workshop on Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and
Stormwater in Urban Settings was held on April 24-25, 2013, in Cincinnati, Ohio. The purpose of this
workshop was to identify: (1) innovative strategies currently being employed for the use of urban rain and
stormwater; (2) water quality characteristics and standards that are protective of public health; (3) barriers
and challenges to use of rain and stormwater; (4) technology gaps, needs and opportunities for innovative
solutions, including those requiring further research and development; and (5) potential opportunities for
collaboration among workshop participants and regional companies interested in local and national rain
and stormwater use markets. Approximately 100 individuals attended. This document contains summaries
of presentations, questions and answers, and discussion sessions held at the workshop.
APRIL 24, 2013
Opening Remarks
Brewster Rhoads, Executive Director, Green Umbrella and Board Member, Confluence; and
Jim Henning, President, Duke Energy Ohio and Kentucky
Mr. Brewster Rhoads welcomed the participants to the workshop and thanked the planners and sponsors.
Rainwater is an incredible asset in the Ohio River Valley, and this workshop provides the opportunity to
share best practices that allow the use of this resource to decrease costs and meet needs. Researchers in
the Cincinnati area perform cutting-edge work that makes a difference in the world. The region also is
celebrating a century of federal government-sponsored water research.
Mr. Rhoads introduced Mr. Jim Henning, who welcomed the participants to Cincinnati and the Duke
Energy Building. Duke Energy is the largest electric utility in the United States, serving 7 million
electricity customers in six states. The company focuses on safety and sustainability, and its generation
portfolio is diverse, consisting of several different kinds of electricity generation (e.g., nuclear, gas, coal).
The company operates 48 different generating units that use water as part of the energy-generation
process for its customers. In honor of Earth Day, Duke Energy recently released its 2012 sustainability
report, which outlines the company's five core sustainability principles, namely, to: (1) provide
affordable, reliable and increasingly clean energy; (2) reduce its environmental footprint; (3) attract,
develop and retain a diverse, high-quality workforce; (4) help build strong and resilient communities; and
(5) deliver industry-leading shareholder value, governance and transparency. Finally, Mr. Henning
thanked the planners of the workshop.
EPA Remarks and Overview of Regional Water Technology Cluster Efforts
Sally Gutierrez, Director, Environmental Technology Innovation Cluster Development and
Support Program, Office of Research and Development (ORD), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
Mr. Rhoads introduced Ms. Sally Gutierrez, who explained that building a sustainable community is the
ultimate goal. Everyone has a stake in safe and clean water, which requires energy. The indoor environ-
ment is important to human health and well-being, and recreational opportunities are important to the
community as well. Partnerships need to be created to move forward and ensure that all communities
have a clean, safe water supply.
She thanked Dr. Dennis Lye, Ms. Abby Waits, Ms. Evelyn Hartzell, Ms. Teresa Harten and other EPA
staff for their efforts in moving the workshop forward. This workshop addresses an important topic
because harvesting and use of rainwater improves water management, particularly in urban areas. Zero
discharge for buildings is an attainable goal. There are examples of buildings around the world that can be
viewed as markets that can adopt these technologies, which also can be used in residential houses. It is
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
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necessary to examine alternate water sources for irrigation and integrate these into urban system practices,
ensuring that they are safe and do not introduce risk. She thanked the participants for their leadership and
efforts in this area.
Welcome to Cincinnati
Laure Quinlivan, Council Member, City of Cincinnati and Chair, Mayor's Green Steering
Committee
Mr. Rhoads introduced Ms. Laure Quinlivan, who welcomed the participants to the city and explained
that Cincinnati is working toward being the greenest city that it can be. The Greater Cincinnati Water
Works (GCWW) is a leader among utilities, using cutting-edge technology to ensure safe and clean
drinking water. Under a consent decree to remove overflows, the Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati (MSDGC) is working diligently to obtain EPA approval to address the consent decree in the
most environmentally conscious manner possible. Cincinnati's green efforts include tax breaks for
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED™) certification and instituting the largest block
of renewable energy credits. The Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden is the greenest zoo in the country,
and Cincinnati has the highest rate of U.S. urban recycling. Recently, the city passed legislation to allow
the reuse of rainwater for toilet flushing. These and many other efforts are earning Cincinnati, known as
the "Queen City," the new name of the "Green Queen."
SESSION 1: OVERVIEW OF RAIN AND STORMWATER USE
Session Introduction and Overview—Definitions and Terms
Session Moderators: Maryanne McGowan, Manager, Strategy and Implementation, Duke Energy;
and Kevin Oshima, Chief, Microbial Exposure Research Branch, Microbial and Chemical
Exposure Assessment Research Division, National Exposure Research Laboratory (NERL),
ORD, EPA
Dr. Lye introduced the moderators for the first session, Ms. Maryanne McGowan and Dr. Kevin Oshima,
who explained that the agenda was developed with considerable thought. After providing an overview of
the workshop agenda, Dr. Oshima explained that the list of definitions that the participants had received
with their meeting materials had been provided to ensure that everyone was approaching the issue of
water usage in the same manner.
Water Reuse: The 21st Century Opportunity
Doug Pushard, Founder, HarvestH2O
Mr. Doug Pushard stated that the goal of zero runoff for business and residential areas is achievable. He
performed a comprehensive market study, and his resulting vision is net metering for water, in which
water is captured and sold to municipalities and other entities. Water is a critical issue, and water rights
continue to make headlines across the United States. Current law suits between states and between states
and tribes will take decades to be resolved.
The U.S. rainwater market was expected to exceed $1 billion in 2013 or 2014 prior to the recent recession
but now is expected to reach this amount in 2018 or 2019. Rainwater should be a substantial market, but
$1 billion is not relatively significant. Labor is a small part of the market, but the residential sector
provides an opportunity for growth despite existing barriers. Rainwater technology installation is similar
between residential and commercial entities, but revenues are significantly different. To be viable despite
the small rainwater reuse market, above-ground technology products must have uses in multiple markets.
A significant portion of systems do not use filtration, and only one-third of installed filters are made in the
United States, which is of concern.
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In terms of market distribution, Texas is the leader, with nearly 20 percent of all installed rainwater
systems existing within the state. Both drought and excess water drive interest in rainwater technologies.
As a result of recent droughts, use of potable rainwater is allowed in Atlanta, Georgia, which is one of the
few U.S. cities that allow such use. Hawaii does not have significant water issues, but it is completely
dependent on rainwater for all of its needs, including drinking water. There are supply- and demand-side
drivers for rainwater industry growth, but there are several growth inhibitors as well, such as the
economy, lack of government support and industry standards, and the fact that rainwater is not included in
discussions. Importantly, rainwater regulations often are more stringent than well water regulations de-
spite the fact that rainwater is cleaner than surface and groundwater.
There are many different conflicting guides being developed across the United States by various levels of
government. Templates or a master guide from a large entity that can affect multiple jurisdictions are
needed. Regulations and incentives work to increase water conservation, and the federal government can
lead by example and implement zero-runoff strategies at federal buildings. Other potential solutions
include: funding and developing a relevant database similar to the U.S. Department of Energy's Database
of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency, creating sample rainwater usage guides that can be
used by local and state governments, rationalizing water quality standards, and funding grants to research
and develop U.S. products and technologies. Rainwater needs to be part of the solution rather than a
problem. Although the rainwater market is growing, it is extremely fragmented, and regulations and
incentives vary greatly from state to state and within states. There are many actions that can be taken, but
the discussions must be initiated immediately.
San Francisco's Nonpotable Water Programs
Paula Kehoe, Director, Water Resources, San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
Ms. Paula Kehoe explained that SFPUC works on three enterprises within the city and county of San
Francisco, California: water, wastewater and energy. The majority of the Hetch Hetchy Water System
was built in the early 20th century, with some built in the late 19th century. In response to the aging and
vulnerable water infrastructure in the area, a $4.6 billion Water System Improvement Program, which
includes water supply diversification, was implemented. The effort, which is 70 percent complete, has
included the repair, replacement and seismic upgrade of the system's deteriorating pipelines, tunnels,
reservoirs, pump stations, storage tanks and dams. SFPUC also is embarking on major sewer system
improvements, including green infrastructure, during the next 20 years via its Sewer System Improvement
Program. These capital improvements will improve regulatory permit compliance, system reliability and
functionality, and sustainable operations of the sewer system and wastewater treatment plants.
The SFPUC approach to water reuse is occurring on multiple scales (e.g., building and district scales),
and area implementation of water reuse is driven by requirements and incentives. The city's recycled
water ordinance affects large new developments and irrigated landscapes and requires recycled water
systems for toilet flushing, irrigation and cooling. San Francisco's stormwater design guidelines establish
performance measures, provide guidance on compliance and development of a stormwater control plan,
and encourage the use of green infrastructure to meet the established performance measures. Within these
guidelines, opportunities to collect and use alternate water sources are being examined.
At the building scale, residential programs include those focused on rainwater harvesting (via cisterns and
rain barrels) and greywater. San Francisco residents can purchase SFPUC-subsidized cisterns and rain
barrels to harvest rainwater for use. Public outreach on the topic is accomplished through a website and
technical workshops; a manual is in development. The Laundry-to-Landscape (L2L) Greywater Program
allows San Francisco residents who meet certain criteria to receive subsidies toward L2L kits and free
training and technical support. SFPUC is using the program to collect data and assess the market and
feasibility of such systems in San Francisco. Following 1 year of use, one-third of the sites decreased their
water use, and the other two-thirds of the studied sites increased their water use; analysis is ongoing.
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Beyond the residential scale, the Watershed Stewardship Grant Program funds sidewalk landscaping,
rainwater harvesting and green infrastructure projects at the community level and also provides
opportunities for education and outreach to further engage the community. For example, 20 area public
schools have used grants to install rainwater harvesting systems. To set an example for onsite water reuse,
the new SFPUC headquarters building harvests rainwater and collects, treats and reuses its black and
greywater, reducing water use in the building by 60 percent. Several other buildings in the San Francisco
area also have proposed onsite nonpotable water projects.
Integrating onsite nonpotable water systems can be challenging. There are several regulatory challenges,
such as permitting issues and water quality standards. For example, current California codes only address
two types of alternate water sources: municipally supplied recycled water and onsite greywater for
residential subsurface irrigation applications. A 2013 update to the California Plumbing Code will expand
onsite greywater reuse standards and include onsite rainwater standards. Although the California
Plumbing Code provides construction requirements, the question still remains regarding which entity will
provide ongoing operation and maintenance of alternate water source systems to ensure the protection of
public health and the public water system. This question led the city to develop a new ordinance that
mandates that SFPUC is responsible for program administration, the San Francisco Department of Public
Health is responsible for public health, and the San Francisco Department of Building Inspection is
responsible for construction. Within each of the three basic project phases—design, construction and
operation—the program includes steps to help projects move through the regulatory process. SFPUC also
provides technical assistance and financial incentives. A water use calculator was developed that helps to
calculate the grey and blackwater potential and water demands of a project. Costs for onsite treatment
systems can vary but generally make up approximately 3 to 5 percent of the building cost; the most
significant costs are the dual plumbing and collection systems for greywater applications. To encourage
the use of such systems, SFPUC has developed a grant program for large alternate water source projects
that meet certain criteria.
After months of discussion, a nonpotable water identification system using colored pipes and labeling/
signage was implemented. Makeup and backup systems are required with the same backflow protection
requirements as potable water. Recycled water quality criteria are consistent with state codes. The San
Francisco Department of Public Health will permit onsite systems and require monitoring and reporting at
a frequency determined by the type of water. Foundation drainage requires monitoring and reporting
because of leaking sewers and the presence of volatile organic compounds.
District-scale projects are defined as those that share water between two or more buildings. SFPUC is
identifying the regulatory hurdles associated with these systems and evaluating public and private
ownership models. District-scale projects from all over the world were examined, resulting in the identi-
fication of 30 case studies. Regardless of size, district-scale water reuse is being undertaken across the
United States and in countries around the globe. Potable offset goals and drivers vary; some drivers
include need, government mandates, marketability and motivated developers. SFPUC also examined the
role of public utilities in the projects, determining that public utilities owned the majority of the systems
in place. This information can be used in conjunction with San Francisco's current development "boom"
of more than 80 planned or in-progress large projects, many of which are located within the recycled
water zone. These projects could take advantage of the updated California Plumbing Code, which allows
sharing of greywater if there is an agreement between adjacent property owners; water rights are not an
issue as there are no downstream water users. There is a need, however, to work with the appropriate state
agency regarding irrigation.
Ms. Kehoe outlined the next steps, which are to amend the nonpotable ordinance to address district-scale
water-sharing opportunities, including the necessary legal agreements, and establish a grant program to
encourage district-scale applications. Future planning will consider which scale works best for water
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reuse. There has been discussion about forming a coalition of counties to consider appropriate policies
and implementation for use of alternate water resources.
Reuse, Energy Needs and Incentives
Maryanne McGowan, Manager, Strategy and Implementation, Duke Energy
Ms. McGowan stated that Duke Energy has been serving its customers for more than 150 years and has
been named one of North America's leading companies for 4 consecutive years in a measurement of
financial, environmental and social performance. The company also retains its position on the Dow Jones
Sustainability Index for North America. Duke Energy's aspirations are to decarbonize its power gener-
ation and help to make the communities it serves the most energy efficient in the world. To achieve these
goals, the company has built more efficient generation units, retired its older coal-fired units and replaced
less-efficient analog technology with advanced digital technology. Duke Energy has made energy
efficiency the "fifth fuel."
Population growth, increasingly stringent environmental requirements and increasing customer concern
about water quality are expected to raise electricity demand and consumption in wastewater treatment
plants during the next decade. Therefore, the ability to provide services in an energy-efficient manner is
increasingly desirable. Sustainability initiatives are becoming commonplace among business trends, and
federal and state energy reduction goals are in place. Green roofs, permeable pavements and rainwater use
provide opportunities for water and energy savings. There are, however, many challenges in the water
sector, including aging infrastructure, reduced budgets, and legislative and regulatory issues.
Energy management is important because it is the largest subset of a facility's environmental footprint.
Energy efficiency provides financial returns that can be used to implement additional green features and
strategies. Additionally, energy represents the largest controllable cost of providing water and wastewater
services to the public. To increase energy conservation and efficiency, companies should have a highly
visible strategy for going green, including educating employees to reduce energy at work and home by
engaging in energy-saving behaviors. A sustainable energy management plan, including water reuse,
provides a strategy for continuous improvement in energy performance over time and demonstrates
environmental stewardship and financial responsibility. In the traditional energy utility model, utilities
earn a return on capital invested in power plants; in the new utility model, utilities earn a return on capital
invested in energy efficiency. The new model is more cost-effective for customers and better for the
environment. In line with the new mode, Duke Energy has implemented a number of energy-efficiency
programs, including energy assessments, nonresidential incentives and a demand response program.
Regional Water Reuse Utilities Perspective: Rainwater Harvesting in Northern Kentucky
Samantha Brown, Environmental Engineer, Water Resources Department, Northern Kentucky
Sanitation District No. 1 (SD1)
Ms. Samantha Brown explained that SD1 serves three counties in Northern Kentucky, protecting public
health and the environment through wastewater and stormwater management for 30 cities and a portion of
three unincorporated counties. SD1 is a special government entity established by the state in the 1940s to
treat wastewater; it is not associated with any city or county government in a regulatory manner. SD1
took over the sanitation infrastructure in the 1990s and the stormwater infrastructure in the 2000s. SDl's
watershed-based consent decree—signed by EPA, SD1 and the Kentucky Division of Water in 2007—
requires the development and implementation of watershed plans to eliminate sanitary sewer overflows
and reduce combined sewer overflows (CSOs). The plans, which are the first watershed-based plans in
the United States, will be updated every 5 years. Water quality will be addressed in terms of stormwater
runoff and dry weather sources. The first plan was submitted to EPA in June 2009; a revised draft based
on EPA feedback was submitted in March 2011. SD1 still is awaiting approval of these plans. Currently,
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
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the deadline to meet the requirements of the consent decree is December 2025. SD1 also manages
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System regulations on behalf of 30 cities and three counties.
Much of managing stormwater runoff in Northern Kentucky focuses on postconstruction stormwater
management. Rainwater harvesting is a potential solution with many benefits (e.g., reduced flooding,
erosion and CSO volume), but it also has many challenges, such as decreased revenues and uncertain
regulatory authority. SDl's Green Infrastructure Partnership Program is a financial incentive program for
nonresidential property owners located in the combined sewer area to implement postconstruction
stormwater controls with the goal of reducing combined sewer overflow volume. Projects are evaluated
for participation in the program based on cost-effectiveness of the control and business-case evaluations.
The Disconnection-Redirection-Infiltration Program is a voluntary residential program that provides
public education and outreach about downspout disconnection, rain barrels and gardens, and infiltration
drains. One example of rainwater harvesting in Northern Kentucky is the Prisoner's Lake Project. In an
effort to reduce CSOs, SD1 partnered with the City of Covington to capture and store stormwater runoff
in Prisoner's Lake that then is utilized to irrigate a nearby golf course owned and operated by the City of
Covington. Advantages of this project include reduced CSOs, rate-payer benefits and decrease irrigation
costs for the city. Two schools in the Kenton County School District collect and store roof runoff to use
for toilet flushing and football field irrigation. Although SD1 did not participate directly in the school
projects, it maintains a technical partnership with the school district to promote postconstruction storm
water management.
Regional Water Reuse Utilities Perspective: Rainwater Harvesting in Cincinnati: A Sewer
District's Perspective
Andrew Reynolds, Environmental Planner, MSDGC
Mr. Andrew Reynolds explained that the MSDGC is a publicly owned and operated wastewater utility
that serves a population of 855,000 in 49 different jurisdictions in southwestern Ohio. The largest
environmental challenge to the more-than-100-year-old system is CSOs. The 212 CSO locations handle
11.5 billion gallons of sewage annually; the area receives annual rainfall amounts similar to Seattle. The
MSDGC is under a consent decree to decrease CSOs and is focusing on hybrid grey/green solutions.
Information is available at http://www.projectgroundwork.com. The sewer district is investigating
rainwater harvesting to reduce CSOs to comply with the federal consent decree. Rainwater harvesting
reduces peak stormwater flows within the CSO system and lessens the strain on MSDGC's collection
system, both of which reduce the likelihood of CSOs. There also is the potential to enter into public-
private partnerships and raise community awareness about stormwater and rainwater harvesting. If a
harvesting system (e.g., cistern) is in place, it can remove the need to draw in additional city water for
nonpotable uses during wet weather, and it can detain a portion of the rainwater that would have
otherwise contributed to peak flows. There are, however, concerns about and challenges to harvesting
rainwater, such as revenue stability and the need to ensure accurate billing for provided sewer treatment
services.
MSDGC is implementing a three-prong approach to sustainable infrastructure solutions: (1) direct-impact
projects, (2) enabled-impact projects, and (3) an "inform and influence" effort. More than 30 public and
private enabled-impact projects have been implemented throughout the Lower Mill Creek watershed,
capturing more than 40 million gallons of stormwater annually. This is an example of how sustainability
projects can result in public and private benefits. Complementing rainwater harvesting is a program that
offers low-interest loans for green roof construction; rain barrels are available for purchase from MSDGC
as well. The district currently is developing planning tools (e.g., sustainability LENS) to facilitate private
investments and a simple model to calculate cistern size based on roof size and water demand. The model
can help to minimize the per gallon cost invested by building owners. MSDGC also was part of a task
force that led to the adoption of new rainwater harvesting legislation in Cincinnati. To encourage broader
use of rainwater harvesting systems, the MSDGC is considering establishing a flat billing structure for
Technologies and Innovative Solutions for Harvesting and Nonpotable Use of Rain and Stormwater in
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single-family homes. Mr. Reynolds summarized that MSDGC, in collaboration with other stakeholders,
will continue to educate residents and business owners about the joint benefits that can be realized
through rainwater harvesting and provide assistance to those interested in taking advantage of rainwater
harvesting opportunities.
Q&A and Discussion
Dr. Oshima opened the floor to those who had questions for the session speakers.
Is pushback about the combined billing of sewer and water an issue in Cincinnati? Mr. Reynolds
responded that in examining billing in relation to rainwater harvesting, the sewer bill increases more than
the water bill. MSDGC, GCWW and the City of Cincinnati's Stormwater Management Utility will be
forming a new joint utility, so billing approaches may be discussed further as the joint utility
implementation process advances. A participant added that rates are affected by decreased consumption,
and this must be considered; rates have increased by 77 percent in his area.
One benefit of managing stormwater is decreased stress on the sewer system. Is the cistern the end
product? Mr. Reynolds responded that effectively the cistern is the end product and can change
nonpotable usage.
Who is the contact within the Kenton County School District about going green? Ms. Brown replied that
the schools generally contact SDL The Kenton County School District performed a great deal of internal
work and brought in its own partners. The school district has two to three staff members dedicated to
sustainability. Ms. McGowan added that schools in the area are very green and develop their plans in
partnership with organizations that can help them achieve their sustainability goals.
What is the potential reduction in cost related to CSOs? Mr. Reynolds replied that this is what the model
under development is attempting to show. Once the cost benefits for MSDGC can be determined,
incentives can be targeted to maximize benefits.
What were the criteria used to create San Francisco's recycled water zone? Ms. Kehoe explained that the
area was chosen because it was a "blank slate" prime for redevelopment after military and industrial
occupants left the area.
Are independent sewage disposal plants being examined in terms of treatment and use of rainwater on
site? Dr. Oshima responded that EPA is interested in additional research and technology development in
the area of smaller, less centralized systems.
Dr. Oshima stated that the workshop organizers had developed several questions relevant to the session
for the participants to consider. The questions and participants' answers are summarized below.
What are the most likely onsite uses for rain and stormwater in the region?
• Common uses include irrigation, toilet flushing and large wash systems for trains, buses and other
large vehicles.
• Standards for groundwater replenishment established by York, Ontario, Canada, can be used as a
model.
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What are the drivers/incentives for nonpotable usage in the region?
• There are not enough incentives for rain barrels and larger systems; these incentives are needed as
the benefits outweigh the loss of revenue. All other major sectors (e.g., energy, gas) have massive
federal government support.
• Regions are very important in discussions about water reuse, and different regions have different
needs. Regional guidelines should be in place to address these differences as it will be difficult
for EPA to establish a single guideline that applies to all regions.
• Education (public, institution) is an incentive.
• Financial incentives are the number one driver.
What are the barriers/obstacles for nonpotable usage in the region?
• There is a paradox in that sustainability, resource recovery and water conservation are affecting
current business models. Water conservation affects revenues; therefore, business models may
need to change. Will municipalities change their business models to maintain economic viability
while conserving water?
• Increasing rates is unpopular ("political suicide") but a fundamental issue that needs to be
considered.
• An important barrier is the current regulatory framework.
What can be done to improve the acceptance/implementation ofonsite usage?
• It is important to communicate any rate increases and what they will be used for. A "balancing
act" is necessary. San Francisco, which has experienced a $67 million loss in revenue based on
water conservation alone, is examining different rate structures to address current and future
rates.
• A common question will be in regard to return on investment. Water rates do not pay for all
necessary water infrastructure.
• Examining the big picture and how to achieve the ultimate goals is necessary.
• Combining drinking water, wastewater and stormwater operations/entities would be helpful
because all three share infrastructure and common problems and collectively could accept the
cost of water recycling. How siting and use could be completed on a watershed scale could be
examined and, if feasible, funded as an initiative.
• Informing regulators that public health will be protected helps to improve acceptance.
What additional information/research is necessary?
• The definition of "sustainable" must be established. Once this is accomplished, the true cost of
water must be identified and considered. Revenue loss is perceived because the true cost of water
has not been analyzed. Research and cost analysis of the true cost of water will help cities
understand how to build sustainability.
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• Measuring and capturing natural services (i.e., how nature captures and recycles water) is
important, as is research regarding how to satisfy necessary societal functions with minimal
energy costs.
• Researchers must study the best way to use nonpotable water; there will not be one single best
answer.
• The biggest concern appears to be loss of revenue. Can information be provided that changes the
manner in which individuals consider wastewater? Wastewater treatment plant energy can be
harnessed to increase revenue. Wastewater flow has a different value compared to drinking water.
Population increases will ensure a steady flow of wastewater (i.e., nutrients); therefore, research
on the separation of nutrients at the wastewater source rather than at the wastewater treatment
plant will be beneficial. Stanford University is performing similar research under its Renew It
Program.
• Research regarding how to use rainwater for potable uses also is needed.
SESSION 2: CURRENT BEST PRACTICES AND CASE STUDIES
Session Introduction and Overview
Session Moderators: Tre Sheldon, Vice President, The Sustainability Partnership of Cincinnati and
Co-Chair, Cincinnati Green Umbrella Watershed Action Team, Green Streets, LLC; and Dennis
Lye, Senior Research Microbiologist, NERL, ORD, EPA
Dr. Lye encouraged the participants to provide comments and ideas about the definitions that they had
received in their meeting materials. Mr. Tre Sheldon explained that the session would feature examples,
best practices and case studies of rain and stormwater harvesting and reuse systems for nonpotable
purposes. In addition to providing descriptions of innovative strategies, technologies, applications,
products and services, the presentations also would highlight educational and research components,
cost/benefit impacts of application, key challenges for implementation, and the scientific studies and
technology needs necessary to expand opportunities for future rainwater harvesting projects.
Case Studies: Rain and Stormwater Management at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden
Mike Warren, Product Manager-SkyHarvester*, Watertronics, Inc.
Mr. Mike Warren explained that the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden approached his company about
using stormwater for various uses including irrigation, toilet flushing and as makeup water for animal
habitats and moats. The resulting installed SkyHarvester® system treats stormwater to the desired quality
and delivers this water at a rate of 60 gallons per minute. Rainwater is collected, channeled into a
belowground storage system and pumped to an ultrafiltration system before being stored in a filtered
water tank; a booster pump allows water to be repressurized and delivered to the zoo. Approximately 60
percent of the water is sourced from the parking lot, with the remainder channeled from catch basins, roof
drains, pervious walking paths and exhibit space.
The best method to filter water is at the source. The system prefilters sand and debris prior to ultra-
filtration. A mechanical component of the system is the pump, which is activated based on the water level
in the storage tank. The system works via a variety of computerized controls (e.g., color touch screen,
pressure regulation) and uses ultrafiltration, a type of membrane filtration that forces liquid under
pressure against a semipermeable membrane material with microscopic pores. This method ultimately
removes microscopic suspended solids and various pathogens from the water source. It is important to
note that some recovered water may be tinted despite being of acceptable quality; palatability is a water
quality driver. Ultrafiltration was chosen as the filtering method for the zoo because of uncertainty about
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what level of water quality was required for animals; the membrane pore size chosen in the zoo system
removes more than 80 percent of total suspended solids.
Other applications of SkyHarvester® include toilet flushing and vehicle washing. The Otsego Local
School District in Ohio has installed the system with two belowground tanks to harvest water from the
school roof for toilet flushing. City water is used as a backup system. Oakville Transit in Ontario, Canada,
has installed SkyHarvester® to supply water to its vehicle wash system.
Cincinnati State Technical and Community College Green Infrastructure Stormwater
Management System
Ralph Wells, Professor, Civil Engineering Technology Department, Cincinnati State Technical and
Community College (Cincinnati State)
Dr. Ralph Wells stated that the Green Infrastructure Stormwater Management System was installed
between 2009 and 2011 on Cincinnati State's 40-acre main campus under the leadership of the school
president. The two-phase project, the largest completed within the program, was funded by MSDGC to
lower rainwater runoff into the sewer system in an effort to meet the requirements of a federal consent
decree. Because the campus sits on top of a hill, its neighbors' properties at the bottom of the hill were
flooded from campus rainwater runoff following wet weather events. Working with MSDGC on this issue
allowed the school to help resolve the problems with its neighbors.
The project includes a data logging control system that will be available to the public online once it is
completed; EPA and MSDGC currently have database access. The results of the work are being used in a
laboratory setting for educational purposes, providing teaching opportunities for students earning degrees
in either sustainable horticulture or environmental engineering (stormwater) technology. The college also
is interested in allowing other educational institutions (e.g., University of Cincinnati) to use this for
academic work (e.g., graduate research).
The project was completed in two phases, with more than 75 species of native or native-adapted plants
planted as a part of the effort. The $1.3 million cost of the first phase was shared by MSDGC and the
college, whereas MSDGC fully funded the $1.6 million second phase. A large surface parking lot was
rebuilt with permeable pavement during the first phase. Water flows to a series of rain gardens and
eventually to a bioretention basin. During the second phase, permeable pavers, rain gardens, two
underground cisterns and one roof rainwater collection cistern were installed. The collected water is used
for irrigation. As the college is a designated emergency food and energy source for the community, the
goal was to serve as an emergency water source as well, but there were issues regarding the potable use of
the recycled water.
The stormwater controls will be monitored by EPA and MSDGC to gauge their effectiveness, and the
rainwater diverted from the sewer system will be measured and monitored. It is estimated that this project
will result in 8 to 10 million gallons of stormwater diverted from the grid annually. To increase the
educational component of the project, tours are provided and more than 50 instructional plaques have
been installed and mounted around campus for individuals wanting to learn about the project.
Additionally, a weather station funded by the EPA has been installed on campus, and the data acquisition
system for this weather station will be integrated into the Green Infrastructure Stormwater Management
System. Data from the weather station also will be available to the public on the Web.
Sustainable Water Management Solutions
Ed Beaulieu, Chief Sustainability Officer, Aquascape, Inc.
Mr. Ed Beaulieu explained that Aquascape's building outside of Chicago features a native Chicago prairie
on the roof, an ecosystem pond and other green components. He noted that the recent tendency of weather
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and climate to go from one extreme to another (e.g., floods followed by droughts and vice versa) is
challenging. A typical one-quarter acre suburban property will generate 3,800 gallons of runoff during a
1-inch rain event; 90 percent of suburban runoff becomes urban runoff. By implementing rainwater
harvesting, native plants and permeable paver walkways, this runoff can be reduced to 450 gallons.
Mr. Beaulieu described one of his company's rainwater harvesting solutions (RainXchange™), which
includes permeable pavement and underground tanks made of recycled material that are modular in nature
to provide flexible configurations during installation. The system utilizes biological filtration to ensure
water quality. Individuals who install these systems become more connected to their water source and the
watershed in which they live; ultimately, it allows them to understand the bigger picture of the water
cycle. Mr. Beaulieu highlighted residential projects in Illinois and Massachusetts via several photographs
of the installation processes and completed systems. Decorative water features, such as recirculating foun-
tains, add an aesthetic value to the landscape and serve as a filtration system that cleanses and aerates the
water. The filtration and biodiversity are similar to those of a rain garden. Commercial installations inc-
lude an equipment washing station in Illinois and Phipps Conservatory in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Other projects included constructed wetlands, which use wetland filter technology developed in the late
1970s and early 1980s in rural Alabama and Mississippi. The technology exceeds all EPA regulations for
discharge of water into stream systems, creating a highly oxygenated zone that maintains consistent
dissolved oxygen levels. The resulting wetlands provide habitat for a variety of wildlife. The technology,
though simple, provides water clarity with no foul odors. Finally, Aquascape launched the Green
Community Makeover Movement during which more than 30 projects were installed in homes in one
neighborhood to allow the capture 18,250 gallons of water during a 1-inch rain event. Mr. Beaulieu
commented that managing the runoff at individual homes will allow the management of the overall
problem. Currently, the solution is to manage the receiving water bodies, but if water is managed prior to
being received by these bodies, other problems (e.g., algal blooms) will be alleviated.
Blue Roof Technologies—An Old Design With a New Twist
Paul Mitchell, Administrator, Strategic Initiatives and Alliances, Tremco Roofing and Building
Maintenance Division
Mr. Paul Mitchell explained that built-up roofing, designed for level roofs that retain water, contain two
separate applications of bitumen and surfacing. Coal tar pitch, a commonly used long-lasting bitumen, has
been declared a carcinogen. A new roofing definition has emerged, that of "blue roof," which slows or
stores stormwater runoff via various nonvegetated flow controls. The water can be temporarily stored or
harvested, provide direct groundwater recharge or be discharged directly into sewer systems at a reduced
flow rate or after peak storm flow. The goal is to mimic preconstruction runoff rates at the site to reduce
or prevent localized flooding and CSOs. Recreational blue roofs integrate rooftop waterplay areas that
also can be used to irrigate a green roof. Blue roofs are less costly than green roofs and can provide
sustainability benefits through rooftop cooling.
Although the International Building Code, which is in place to protect building residents, did not cover
use of roofs for harvested rainwater or storage, it has been updated to consider roof water drainage and
storage via positive slope ("slope-to-drain"). Roof drainage also invokes three sections of the
International Plumbing Code. It is important to note that building technology has changed in the past 20
to 30 years, and new building methods may not support a blue roof because water storage may add weight
that the building structure cannot sustain. Also, roofing issues (e.g., building collapses, electrocution)
have been top sources of litigation, insurance losses and building maintenance cost, and manufacturers'
warranties are voided by lack of adequate drainage resulting in ponding water. Standing water on roofs is
generally avoided in the construction phase and can have unintended consequences, such as increased
cases of mosquito-transmitted West Nile virus, Legionnaires' disease and mold. Because water is
considered the "universal solvent," it can cause decay of some building materials.
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An alternating blue and green roof system in the Bronx (a borough of New York City) is being initiated
that will manage more than 240,000 gallons of stormwater annually and decrease CSOs to the East River.
Another project in the nearby borough of Queens will compare side-by-side blue and green roofs on the
rooftop of a public school. Special requirements for the New York City projects include a secondary
waterproofing membrane, unrestricted overflows, water storage of not longer than 24 hours and water
depths not to exceed 4 inches. The blue roof design must consider the area's 100-year rain event, but the
recent Hurricane Sandy exceeded this rate by nearly one-half of an inch. Forensic structural engineers are
needed to examine the design and construction of blue and green roofs to ensure that they are safe;
equipment servicing could be a safety issue as well. Finally, some data indicate that green roofs may
detain water more effectively than blue roofs.
Q&A and Discussion
Dr. Lye opened the discussion to allow participants to ask questions about the first four presentations of
Session 2.
What is the expected life of the RainXchange™ modular components? How can maintenance be
performed on them? Is there a problem with freezing in colder climates? Mr. Beaulieu replied that
according to the manufacturer the life expectancy is 50 years; they have been installed for 20 years in
Australia with no problems. There are inspection ports that allow inspection from the bottom, with
cleaning recommended during dry periods. Freezing has not been a problem because airspace in properly
maintained permeable pavers provides thermal insulation. When the system was installed underneath
roads in New Brunswick, Canada, even the road surface did not freeze during the winter.
What is the cost differential between steel and fiberglass in the RainXchange™ system? Mr. Beaulieu
responded that there were many factors that were used to determine this. There is increased flexibility
based on the conditions and needs.
Are filtration units required in the RainXchange™ system? Is the water safe for human contact?
Mr. Beaulieu explained that biological filtration has been used successfully, with bacteria and enzymes
also added to outcompete pathogens. Copper/silver ionization is used for drinking water systems in
developing countries.
Was the issue ofdeicing salts addressed in the system installed in the Cincinnati Zoo? Mr. Warren said
that this was out of the scope of his involvement, but it was possible that the zoo addressed the issue.
How do the various systems deal with extreme changes in pH? Mr. Beaulieu replied that the
RainXchange™ system is inert to pH because of the nature of rainwater; the extremes are just below
neutral (approximately 6.0) to approximately 10.0. Lime rock can be added to acidic water. Mr. Warren
agreed that his system is similar because it collects rainwater.
What is the energy cost per gallon to treat water for ultrafiltration? Mr. Warren responded that it is
similar to screening filtration. The cost of running the system essentially is the cost of running the pump
at a pressure of 60 pounds per square inch. Mr. Beaulieu added that in terms of a carbon footprint,
drinking water systems and stormwater management are responsible for 10 percent of the electricity
consumed in the United States. Onsite rainwater management consumes 1 percent or less compared to
traditional methods, so it is very cost effective.
What is the residence time of a constructed wetland? Mr. Beaulieu explained that the residence time is
short because it is a closed system.
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Tremco Headquarters Renovation Water Reuse Case Study
Mary Ann Uhlmann, Environmental Horticulturist, Tremco Roofing and Building
Maintenance Division
Ms. Mary Ann Uhlmann explained that the recent renovation of her company's headquarters building
included the installation of a vegetated roof and rainwater harvesting system. This allows the company to
actively demonstrate its "Building Solutions Group" products. The vegetated roof, consisting of 46
species of native plants, uses an engineered growing medium that absorbs most of the rainwater during
rain events, which decreases the amount of runoff to the sewer system. The roofs insulating qualities also
help to moderate building temperature. Every part of the roof was optimized for the urban garden, with
any stormwater runoff collected in a ground-level storage tank designed to provide 100 percent of the
annual irrigation demand for the facility.
Because plant palettes vary in their water needs, a list of desired plant palettes was identified, and the
water capture system was designed to meet the irrigation needs of the palettes following calculation of
transpiration ratios and other relevant factors. The system is designed to capture water from the asphalt
pavement while addressing petroleum, salt and particulate contamination. A storage vault was installed
near the parking lot, and captured water moves through particulate and oil-absorbing filters to six storage
cisterns before being pumped to the roof. There is a potable water backup, and multiple zone run times
avoids pump cycling. The system, which is integrated into the automated building management system, is
constantly monitored and generates weekly reports. Irrigation water and growing media are tested
annually to monitor for contaminants and provide information for prescriptive and corrective maintenance
protocols. The daily effort to manage water from a limited resource has made a change in company
employee attitudes about water; no other effort could have affected such a change in habits.
Reuse of Alternative Water Sources for Cooling Tower Systems—Two Case Studies Using
Nontraditional Water Sources
Matt Haikalis, Technical Resource Engineer, Veolia Water Solutions and Technologies
Mr. Matt Haikalis stated that there are many operational priorities and challenges for cooling tower
systems, including water quantity and quality, discharge options, performance, reliability, and energy
supply and efficiency. Water resource recovery priorities include conservation of fresh water, elimination
of fresh water contamination, and increased utilization of grey and wastewater. Cost-feasible technology
is needed to expand the use of recovered and alternate water sources. The energy-water nexus also must
be considered so that water recovery is not negated by unreasonable energy use. For example, nearly one-
half of U.S. water is used to produce energy, and then energy is consumed to manage water.
Cooling towers consume hundreds of billions of gallons of water on a daily basis, 20 to 40 percent of
which typically is wasted. Evaporation of tower water causes silica present in the water to form silicates,
which are outstanding corrosion inhibitors and do not form scale or deposits. An air separation unit with a
single cooling tower system located in the southeastern United States was a challenging site because of
water demands, a limited water supply and a zero-discharge requirement. The treatment option needed to
be "plug-and-play" with minimal capital investment. The chosen zero liquid blowdown (ZLB) technology
allowed water savings of approximately 3,000 gallons per day. A pharmaceutical plant in the northeastern
United States implemented the ZLB system with annual projected water savings of 3.6 million gallons.
This success allows the pharmaceutical company to implement this strategy at several sites across the
country to help meet company fresh water reduction goals. A West Coast university chose an alternative
program for its chiller plant that allows a switch from city water to municipal wastewater and a significant
improvement in waterside conditions, including corrosion control and reduced concrete degradation.
Return on the university's investment can be achieved in 5 to 10 months. A Midwest mission critical data
center, which requires 100 percent uptime, installed the ZLB system in its chiller plants and met or
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exceeded all of the program goals while achieving 4.5 million gallons of water reduction annually. The
company plans to mandate ZLB technology at all of its data centers.
Mr. Haikalis concluded that there are significant opportunities for cooling tower water use or reuse from a
variety of alternative sources using available commercial technologies that are easy to operate, energy
responsible and cost-feasible while maximizing water conservation. These technologies also minimize
asset and safety risks and positively affect water and carbon footprints.
Water Reuse Strategies for Building Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and Plumbing
Systems
Michael Berning, Senior Principal and Director, Sustainable Design, Heapy Engineering
Mr. Michael Berning noted that there are multiple alternate water sources and reuse strategies. Equipment
costs significantly increase for potable use compared to nonpotable use. Policy and code changes will be
required to readily integrate water reuse strategies into standard building design. These changes must
consider water rights, fair billing practices based on water and sewer use, and metering. As minimum
plumbing requirements become standardized, it will be easier for jurisdictions to review and accept water
reuse systems as safe.
Miami University routed the majority of roof drainage from two dormitory buildings to cisterns that have
a domestic water backup system in place. Additional study led the university to modify the project so that,
following approval from the state of Ohio, air handling unit and fan coil condensates are directed to the
cisterns as well. These projects were prompted by a desire for sustainable, green infrastructure and
concerns regarding dry ponds creating a nuisance hazard to students. The projects allowed condensate
water to be used for irrigation and pond renewal, providing an appealing, year-round recreation space for
students and reduced summer pond maintenance. A proposed design for a greywater reuse system that
included holding tanks, filtration, a chlorination system, dye dispersal and pumps was developed for a
Hill Air Force Base project in Utah. This proposed, but not installed, system highlighted the complexity
of and available technology for this type of project. The Milton-Union School District of Ohio installed a
rainwater catchment system that collects rainwater from a partial roof area and interior courtyard drains.
The system supplies water for toilet flushing and some irrigation and includes a cistern and treatment and
repressure systems. The total potable water savings is nearly 85 percent.
Additionally, cooling coil condensation can be collected and sent to the cooling tower for makeup water
purposes; however, low production in arid areas combined with low water rates make paybacks
unreasonable in dry climates. Technological advances, such as filtration and storage technologies and
prepackaged systems, have helped water reuse systems to be used readily. It is important, however, to
understand the source water and intended use to select the proper equipment. The systems designer must
be aware of the critical elements of a successful system design (e.g., available technologies, codes,
projected needs and use, type and amount of alternative water source, financial benefits) to take
advantage of water that would be wasted otherwise. There must be sufficient knowledge of system
application among project partners.
Q&A and Discussion
Dr. Lye opened the floor to questions for Ms. Uhlmann, Mr. Haikalis and Mr. Berning.
Did Tremco perform any plant material testing in addition to soil and water testing? Ms. Uhlmann
explained that the company performs plant material testing for a client but has not done so at its
headquarters, although it would like to in the future. Plant harvesting would be discontinued immediately
following a poor water test.
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Adding salt to cooling tower condensate increases salt pollution, which is not removed at wastewater
treatment plants because the technology is not available. How can this be addressed? Mr. Haikalis said
that the high-efficiency waste stream releases only 2 percent of what would be released with traditional
systems. There are potential opportunities to use evaporation to collect solid salt, which could be used for
roads; this is a good example resource recovery and use. Salt permitting is becoming increasingly
stringent across the United States, however, so this must be taken into account.
Was the approval obtained from the state of Ohio for the Miami University project a one-time variance or
was it precedence setting? Mr. Berning explained that it was a one-time variance, but as it is increasingly
integrated into the system, the process will become easier.
Did the Milton-Union School District project include sinks? Mr. Berning responded that sinks were not
part of the system; rainwater is used for toilet flushing only.
Dr. Lye explained that the workshop organizers had developed several questions relevant to the session
for the participants to consider. The questions and participants' answers are summarized below.
What themes have emerged concerning the case studies (usage, opportunities, challenges, incentives,
gaps, etc.)?
• Aspects of efficiency have emerged as a theme.
• Another theme is water quality, safety and risks associated with alternate water sources.
• There are no linear, simplistic solutions, and the solutions may introduce additional challenges.
• There are not a great deal of obvious financial incentives; water scarcity seems to be a driver.
What specific characteristics have been identified that could lead to broader implementation of onsite
usage?
• Identifying the true cost of water could lead to broader implementation.
• There is no current movement to educate the general public that water is a finite resource. Water
awareness must be a part of everyday life; once it is rationed, it becomes a precious resource.
• There is a disconnect between the water sector and sewage treatment sector. Use of greywater to
treat vegetation would provide connection with the wastewater sector.
• In the Third World, water is a premium resource, so it is valued differently than it is in the United
States. Educating the general public (schools, libraries, municipalities) on the value/importance of
water is important.
• Water scarcity will encourage those in drier areas to consider alternate water sources because
interbasin transfers will increase water cost and energy expenditure tremendously.
• It is difficult to project areas of water scarcity because water is shipped around the world as a
result of manufacturing, food production and so forth.
• Should the role of behavior change be a part of the discussion? It is important to develop methods
to educate the public on what water is, where it comes from and how it can be conserved as well
as the value of water reuse. Exposure and awareness are critical.
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What are the roles of regional and national agencies?
• Regional differences have a major impact on the various roles in implementation.
• Once fundamental elements are agreed on, a national scale may be possible.
• Agencies must themselves be adopters and promoters of alternate water sources and provide
education.
• Once national standards are written, it is important to remember that they must be adapted and
adopted locally.
What are the barriers/obstacles for usage in the region?
• Most socioeconomic groups cannot afford alternate water source technology. Unless regulations
are put in place to require water reuse, implementation will be purely altruistic by those who can
afford it.
• Although the cost of implementation decreases on a neighborhood scale, the bureaucracy
increases. The associated bureaucracy must be addressed to reduce the cost of implementation at
the neighborhood scale.
Dr. Lye recessed the meeting at 5:31 p.m.
APRIL 25, 2013
SESSION 2: CURRENT BEST PRACTICES AND CASE STUDIES (CONTINUED)
Potential of Rainwater Harvesting Systems in North Carolina
Kathy DeBusk, Doctoral Student, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, North
Carolina State University
Ms. Kathy DeBusk explained that the main objective of rainwater harvesting for water conservation is to
have rainwater available to use in lieu of potable water, whereas the main objective of rainwater
harvesting for stormwater management is to have enough tank space available to capture stormwater from
the next rain event; these can be conflicting goals. A drought in North Carolina in 2008 encouraged the
examination of alternate water sources. The first phase of Ms. DeBusk's research involved installation
and monitoring of rainwater harvesting systems at four different sites in North Carolina. Monitoring
indicated that the four systems were not being used optimally, even following a major drought that
increased awareness of the importance of water. Phase 2 of the research identified designated rainwater
uses, incorporated automation and backup water supplies, and increased education and outreach. Results
of this phase indicated that although there was increased usage of harvested rainwater, there was no usage
during the nongrowing season, which provided no stormwater benefit or mitigation. It is necessary to
identify secondary benefits to facilitate implementation and use of rainwater harvesting systems.
Millions of dollars are spent on stormwater management in North Carolina; is it possible to achieve water
conservation and stormwater management? To answer this question, Ms. DeBusk's research investigated
passive- and active-release mechanisms for rainwater harvesting. The passive-release mechanism
provides a detention facility for stormwater runoff with a controlled discharge. The results of the research
indicate that the passive-release mechanism has significant potential for meeting stormwater management
regulations. It is simple to retrofit existing systems with the inexpensive, maintenance-free mechanism,
which coincides well with existing North Carolina stormwater regulations. The disadvantages of the
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mechanism are that it is only semipermanent, prone to freezing and results in "wasted" water. The active-
release mechanism uses National Weather Service forecasts to prepare the system for rain by releasing
water. The researchers concluded that the active-release mechanism preserves water conservation benefits
while adding stormwater management benefits, providing excellent potential for meeting stormwater
management regulations. The mechanism, however, is expensive and resource intensive.
Because there is a need to mitigate stormwater in winter but no use for the rainwater, the researchers
investigated irrigation-based systems. Three zones were established with varying amounts of water used
for irrigation. Preliminary results indicate that there is a large reduction in stormwater runoff volume in
all three zones with no difference in runoff production, turf quality or soil nitrate. More than 140,000
gallons of water were conserved. "Over-irrigation" has substantial potential to meet water conservation
and stormwater management goals using infrastructure already in place and a de facto treatment method.
A disadvantage is the required amount of contributing drainage area and storage; also, the necessary
controls can be expensive and complicated.
Each of the three investigated approaches to rainwater harvesting provides water conservation and
stormwater management benefits with the potential for substantial CSO improvement. They provide
mutually beneficial solutions for property owners and the environment despite being contrary to public
intuition. Cost, size and return on investment will determine which approach is appropriate, but it will
require a balancing act that may need to be honed. Automation is essential to ensure use, but users/owners
must regularly verify that the system is operating as intended.
Urban Watershed Runoff Management: Watershed-Based Use of Urban Runoff in Santa Monica,
California
Neal Shapiro, Watershed Section Supervisor and Watershed (Urban Runoff) Management
Coordinator, Office of Sustainability and the Environment, City of Santa Monica, California
Mr. Neal Shapiro said that there is a wide range of U.S. rainwater catchment programs in varying stages
of development. EPA wet weather discharge reference materials promote rainwater harvesting, green
infrastructure and low-impact development. New EPA draft stormwater standards are expected to be
published in 2013. Mr. Shapiro has created a matrix detailing U.S. rainwater harvesting projects for
indoor and outdoor use.
In California, it took 3 years to pass a state rainwater harvesting law following two vetoes and conflicts
with plumbing and labor unions. Additional barriers included water rights, rainwater use indoors and
across property lines, and concerns about public health, prompting review by the local public health
agency. The governor signed the assembly bill in September 2012, but the final bill was essentially
"gutted." The open-ended and broad bill avoids water rights issues for rooftop harvesting and leaves in
place water rights from existing natural channels. The bill defers input about water standards to local
jurisdictions rather than the state public health agency. There is no mention of indoor/outdoor uses or
harvesting surfaces. It authorizes the California Building Standards Commission to implement rainwater
harvesting guidelines in the uniform plumbing code for indoor/outdoor uses and allows rainwater use and
application across property lines.
The only system in the world that manages dry weather runoff is located in Santa Monica, California. A
southern California policy was developed because it was less difficult than enacting a state law. The
policy includes four tiers to allow rainwater harvesting. The main challenges were definitions/grammar
and debates about catchment surfaces, pollutants of concern, backflow prevention devices, treatment and
disinfection, indoor versus outdoor applications, and passive versus active systems. Current standards also
had to be considered. Santa Monica's sustainable water master plan calls for a 30 percent reduction in the
imported water gap and self-reliance by 2020. The city investigated the role of rainwater in closing the
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gap, and although there are proven technologies and basic legal authority, local familiarity and experience
with rainwater harvesting are lacking.
Q&A and Discussion
Dr. Lye opened the floor to discussion about the last Session 2 presentations.
Was a life cycle analysis performed on all three types of release mechanisms? Ms. DeBusk explained that
she had performed a life cycle analysis only on a theoretical application of rainwater harvesting; the
analysis did not incorporate any of the release mechanisms described in her presentation.
SESSION 3: TECHNOLOGY GAPS AND NEEDS
Session Introduction and Overview
Session Moderators: Pam Simmons, Chairman, Sustainable Sites Committee, Cincinnati Chapter
of the U.S. Green Building Council and Owner, Turpin Farms; and Nick Ashbolt, Senior Scientist,
NERL, ORD, EPA
Ms. Pam Simmons welcomed the participants to Session 3 and introduced the presenters, who provided
information about EPA's research perspective and the perspectives of industry, other organizations, and
national and regional concerns.
National Perspective on the U.S. Rainwater Industry
David Crawford, President, Rainwater Management Solutions and President, American Rainwater
Catchment Systems Association (ARCSA)
Mr. David Crawford explained that ARCSA is attempting to educate people about rainwater harvesting.
He described several examples of successful rainwater harvesting projects: a LEED™-gold certified rain
garden system at an elementary school with a predicted annual water savings of 1.3 million gallons; a
Home Depot with a rainwater holding tank that decreased its water use by 8,000 gallons per day; a fire
station in Charlottesville, Virginia, that installed a potable rainwater harvesting system for use in
emergencies; a corporate example (TD Ameritrade) that installed a rainwater harvesting system because
of the return on investment; and Federal Way (Washington) Public Schools, which included providing
education about rainwater harvesting to ensure visibility. Oscar Smith Middle School in Chesapeake,
Virginia, used a two-tiered approach. It installed two tanks that are used for indoor (toilet flushing) use
and two that are used for irrigation. Other sites that have installed rainwater harvesting systems include
James Madison University, Mammoth Cave National Park, Charlottesville (Virginia) Area Transit,
Burton Elementary and Middle School in Michigan, and a regional jail in western Virginia.
It is important to educate engineers about rainwater harvesting systems and their design, especially
because some are resistant. Payback analysis must take all factors into account; for example, one system
will reduce chemical use by 75 percent during normal laundry use because salts will not need to be added.
This type of savings must be included in any payback analysis. To overcome obstacles, communication is
important, as is a consistent, scalable design based on potential supply and demand. To make effective
ecological decisions, the potential consequences of actions must be understood.
Characterization and Quantification of Microbial Risks Associated With Reuse of Rainwater and
Stormwater
Nick Ashbolt, Senior Scientist, NERL, ORD, EPA
Dr. Nick Ashbolt explained that water monitoring has several inherent problems: test results are not
received before water is used, there are too many parameters for frequent testing, the only microbial
indicator included (Escherichia coli) is a poor indicator for viral and protozoan pathogen removal and for
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the presences of environmental pathogens, and there is no suitable test for many hazards. As a result, a
risk management approach is used. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) essentially identifies
potential microbial risks, assesses the risks and reassesses the system. During the first step of QMRA,
reference pathogens are selected and hazardous events identified. In terms of rainwater harvesting, the
key is to identify the pathogen concentrations in rain and stormwater and treat the water accordingly.
Pathogens are not used to examine efficacy because there typically are not enough to prove that a 99.9
percent reduction has been achieved; therefore, surrogates are used. Epidemiological evidence of
pathogens also is examined. Generally, there is no increased pathogen risk from rainwater, even when
used for drinking water. Because the outcome of most exposures to pathogens that result in illness is
gastrointestinal symptoms, incidences of diarrheal occurrences are measured rather than the causative
agent (i.e., pathogen).
It is estimated that waterborne diseases cost $970 million annually; EPA's drinking and recreational water
quality criteria are based on fecal bacteria. Fecal pathogen exposures are event driven. The rationale for
using fecal indicators for quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) rather than pathogen detection in
stormwater is that qPCR targets pathogen density. Although Bacteroides is an effective indicator because
it always is present in human sewage, it is not an effective avian source indicator. Catellicoccus is a
potential avian indicator. Surrogates, such as baker's yeast and bacteriophages, may be used to measure
pathogen removal. EPA evaluated three stormwater recycling systems to identify surrogates for
stormwater treatment; barrier efficacies were examined for removal efficiencies. Dose-response data to
determine rainwater reference pathogens indicate that Campylobacter is more important than Salmonella,
toxigenic E. coll is very infectious but rare, and Cryptosporidium probably outnumbers Giardia. Bird flu
is a virus of interest. Of the environmental pathogens, dose-response data only are available for
Legionella pneumophila. Enteric pathogen risks depend on identification and control of acute hazardous
events using surrogate target levels. It is critical to be vigilant about hazardous events because these are
most likely to cause illness. Environmental pathogen risk largely is a function of chronic conditions.
Dr. Ashbolt identified the following research gaps: (1) qPCR and precision estimation of infectious
pathogens, (2) correlation of qPCR targets and surrogates to specific pathogens by environmental type,
and (3) identification of primary risks of concern and their control parameters for effective rain and
stormwater management.
Development of Tools by EPA to Determine the Effectiveness of Green Infrastructure-Based
Approaches to Mitigate Stormwater
Jay Garland, Director, Microbial and Chemical Exposure Assessment Research Division, NERL,
ORD, EPA
Dr. Jay Garland stated that there had been a revolution during the past 20 years in regard to the
development of tools using DNA; tools are available to identify and track microorganisms in the
environment. PCR amplification that allows quantitation can be performed in real time. Although new
tools expand sampling possibilities, data still are "noisy." Researchers attempted to correlate fecal
indicators and pathogens in rainwater tanks in Australia and found that there was poor correlation.
Traditional indicators do not predict risk well; therefore, new indicators and a new approach are needed.
A general plan was developed to examine how to improve the treatment efficacy for reused water. First,
wastewaters were characterized and controlled decay and treatment studies were used to examine a
variety of representative pathogens, indicators and surrogates. The DNA sequences found in 12 greywater
samples were investigated, and 97 percent were classified as Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes or Firmicutes.
Next, the most effective indicators and surrogates are chosen for additional field and pilot testing using
candidate real- or near-real-time sensors. Real-time detection is not used in the environment yet, but the
medical field is able to use real-time sensing for body tissues. Chemical signatures also can be used to
examine recycled water, and EPA has developed a CANARY software system to detect events that affect
water quality.
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Regional Water Reuse Activities, Gaps and Research
Jatin Mistry, Life Scientist, Drinking Water Section, Region 6, EPA
Mr. Jatin Mistry explained that EPA Region 6 includes five states and 66 tribal nations with drought
conditions that range from severe to exceptional. The drought situation in Oklahoma is particularly bad.
In Texas, 23 water systems have less than 180 days of source water available before they run out; this
affects small water systems that serve less than 10,000 persons. Texas also has 1,023 water systems on
mandatory, voluntary or no outside watering schedules. Wastewater treatment plants are keeping Texas
rivers moving, with direct toilet-to-tap mechanisms in place. Often, rainfall comes from tropical storms or
unusual rainstorm events that cause flash floods and millions to billions of dollars of damage. There are
several pathogens (e.g., E. coll, Norwalk-like viruses) that cause public health concerns following storm
events. Water from these events is diverted to reservoirs, bayous, rivers or retention/detention ponds.
There is great potential for beneficial use of stormwater. In the past, retention ponds and rain barrels were
used to collect water, but these have several disadvantages. New approaches to alternate water resources
in Region 6 include green construction using low-impact development principles, grassed swales,
constructed wetlands, infiltration basins and porous pavement. The Tarrent Regional Water District,
Dallas Omni Hotel, Perot Museum of Nature and Science and G.W. Bush Presidential Center in Texas;
the city of Edmond, Oklahoma; and Lincoln Parish, Louisiana, all have implemented alternate water
projects that reduce stormwater runoff. The first WaterSense-labeled home in the United States, located in
Texas, was renovated to include a rainwater harvesting system and stormwater runoff control. This home
proves that alternate water systems can be retrofitted and do not require new construction. The home is
open to the public for training demonstrations.
To understand the microbial community present in harvested rainwater following common in-home
treatment processes, EPA and academic researchers sampled six residential rainwater systems in central
Texas and performed physical, chemical and biological analysis. Results indicated that filtration reduced
turbidity. Ultraviolet treatment caused a shift in the amount of certain microbial phyla present in tap water
compared to cistern water.
Q&A and Discussion
Ms. Simmons opened the floor to questions for the Session 3 speakers.
Where are the microbial samples acquired? Dr. Ashbolt explained that samples were taken upstream and
downstream of the filtration system to assess the log reduction in microbes following filtration. Many
samples are taken following dosing to obtain data regarding how well the filtration system works.
What are the control gaps? Dr. Ashbolt replied that knowledge on the range and concentration of the
pathogens of concern are needed. There also is not a great deal of data regarding the performance of
pathogen removal because there are not enough initial pathogens available to be able to accurately
measure a log decrease. More information on surrogate systems is needed.
How does system maintenance affect acute events? Dr. Ashbolt responded that maintenance is critical to
prevent malfunctions. Installation of automatic systems can help to ensure that maintenance is performed
following alerts of malfunctions.
There have been Australian studies, but no U.S. studies, on whether it is better to disinfect the whole tank
or only water as it leaves the tank. What is the most cost-effective approach? Dr. Garland responded that
it is more effective to treat the water as it leaves the source; disinfecting the tank as a whole may not
address the problem, as there also are issues of decaying microorganisms.
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Panel Discussion: Stakeholder Perspectives on Technology Gaps and Needs
Moderator: Michael Miller, Professor Emeritus, Department of Biological Sciences,
University of Cincinnati
Panel Members: Jens Gartner, Representative, Water Renewal Systems-USA; Jatin Mistry; and
Dennis Lye
Dr. Michael Miller moderated the session, asking the panel members their opinions regarding the
following question: What gaps exist in terms of water reuse? Their responses are summarized below.
• Homeowner education on how to operate rainwater harvesting systems is needed because
homeowners are not using the systems properly or to full potential.
• Which entities will act as regulatory authorities need to be determined. For a coherent approach,
EPA will need to be involved because the many potential uses for recycled water will each
require regulations and guidelines. If EPA releases national guidelines, state and local authorities
can institute regulations.
• Rainwater harvesting plays an important role in Germany, with city water as a backup. The
rainwater is used in a closed child-proof system that limits the risk of exposure. It is important to
use collected rainwater before it stagnates. There is no testing for E. coll in Europe. Germany
offers subsidies for companies that engage in stormwater management.
• More statistics are needed regarding rare events and emerging pathogens. Droughts increase
opportunistic pathogens. A great deal can be learned from the public water system that can be
applied to cistern management approaches.
• Commercial and residential systems must be examined differently, especially as residential
systems will not be maintained as well as commercial systems. Maintenance is important,
particularly in residential areas.
• Accurate metering is an issue that needs to be addressed.
• Alternate water resources need to be placed in the context of acceptable risk. How will rainwater
harvesting at a watershed-scale affect stream flow? How will commercial rainwater harvesting
change the hydrology of a watershed? There will be watershed- and ecosystem-wide impacts
from rainwater usage, and episodic events will become more common. A logical next step is to
include rainwater harvesting in watershed plans.
• Different geographical regions will not trust data generated in Cincinnati because each watershed
is unique. They will want to generate their own data to confirm the conditions in local
watersheds. National guidelines still will need to be tested at the local level.
• The levels of any chlorine introduced to the system must be tightly controlled so that they do not
cause soil destruction.
• Water scarcity is driving the use of alternate water sources. Once the true cost of water is known
and charged, options will increase. Bureaucratic "red tape" also must be addressed.
• Green water will be a very important resource in the future with a projected 60 percent decrease
in water levels globally.
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Q&A and Discussion
Dr. Miller invited the participants to ask questions of the panel members; the questions and responses are
summarized below.
Given the amount of non-self-sustaining activities (e.g., hydraulic fracturing) that are occurring, what are
the concerns about pollution of wells and groundwater?
• Citizens are concerned about this issue as well. Recent sequestration restrictions have eliminated
home and site visits to test private wells. State environmental agencies provide limited testing;
there is some concern that these tests do not address other sources of pollutants.
• EPA currently is performing work to evaluate whether rainwater can be used for drinking water
to alleviate some of these problems.
Although only four water companies control 50 percent of the world's water supply, the U.S. market still
is diverse. Will the global drinking water market allow rainwater harvesting to be incentivized in water-
scarce locales?
• Water suppliers are not receptive to incentivizing rainwater harvesting; incentives will be driven
by stormwater management.
• Because individuals in the sector are retiring without replacements, outsourcing is occurring with
increasing frequency.
Testing is a contentious issue because it is expensive; testing requirements must be based on Agency
research rather than "hunches. " It is important to establish a baseline testing protocol. What factors
should be included in tests?
• Most communities have testing schedules in place regarding what is tested for and when.
Education is needed on what is being tested for and how to properly disinfect water without side
effects.
• In Germany, commercial and residential testing are very different. Rainwater may be used only
for toilet flushing and laundry because these are low-risk activities.
• The point is well-taken, and the issue is related to the use and scale of rainwater harvesting.
NERL's Microbiological and Chemical Exposure Assessment Research Division would like to
relieve some of the requirements that have been put in place in the past.
How will the federal government oversee the monitoring of harvested rainwater? For example, many
people do not monitor their well water and suffer no adverse affects.
• Well water often is contaminated at the same levels as rainwater, but testing is not required. EPA
will need to determine that there is no additional risk to using harvested rainwater; currently, the
default is that there is risk.
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REGIONAL SUCCESS STORY—CITY OF CINCINNATI RAINWATER HARVESTING ORDINANCE
Introduction and Remarks
Mark Mallory, Mayor of Cincinnati; and Larry Falkin, Director of the Office of Environmental
Quality, City of Cincinnati
Mayor Mark Mallory welcomed the participants to Cincinnati and explained that Duke Energy is a
strategic partner to the city that helps to make Cincinnati green and sustainable. Ms. Gutierrez also is a
good friend to the city, and the Confluence water technology innovation cluster allows job growth and
introduction of new green technologies in the area. Cincinnati is working to be the greenest U.S. city, and
there are many leaders and regional businesses who embrace the concept of sustainability and help to
ensure the city's success in this area. Cincinnati is one of only three U.S. communities to adopt rainwater
harvesting ordinances. Mayor Mallory thanked the participants for their commitment to rainwater
harvesting.
Mr. Larry Falkin explained that the City of Cincinnati's Office of Environmental Quality channeled the
efforts of community collaborators throughout the business, private and nonprofit sectors, focusing on
projects that allowed rainwater harvesting in Cincinnati. The passing of the ordinance was a collaborative
process that included four city departments and civic organizations that identified national best practices
to guide the effort. Paramount in the discussions were the integrity and safety of the drinking water
supply.
Background and Overview
Panel Members: Bob Knight, Task Force Facilitator, Green Partnership for Greater Cincinnati
and Project Manager, emersion DESIGN LLC; Steve Hafele, Assistant Supervisor of Inspections
and Chief Plumbing Inspector, City of Cincinnati; Jeff Zistler, Engineering Technical Supervisor,
MSDGC; and Jeff Swertfeger, Assistant Superintendent, Water Quality Management Division,
GCWW
Mr. Bob Knight stressed the importance of water safety, noting that public trust of water is critical. When
changes are made, they must not add risk. Stewardship, leadership and collaboration were necessary to
change Cincinnati's codes to allow rainwater harvesting. To be successful, collaborators focused on a
pilot project, defined the agencies that would have jurisdiction, assessed and addressed concerns,
researched best practices and applicable standards, applied a national standard code, and crafted language
for the various agency and community needs. Cincinnati's water conservation goals were the driving
force behind the effort. The first step was the passing of a resolution in April 2011 followed by a city
motion to investigate codes. A task force began meeting in 2011 with four objectives to: (1) permit the
Dater Montessori school for rainwater harvesting, (2) develop standards for others to follow in Cincinnati,
(3) amend the city plumbing code, and (4) coordinate the findings for others in the MSDGC/GCWW
service area. The first three objectives were accomplished, and meetings regarding the fourth objective
will begin the following week.
Significant concerns of the task force included water quality jurisdiction, development of a backflow
prevention standard and use of an existing model code. Conflicting jurisdictions were resolved when Ohio
EPA confirmed that GCWW has jurisdiction for nonpotable water use, water quality standards and
protecting the public water supply. The backflow issue was resolved when it was determined that existing
standards are acceptable without significant modification; enforcement, however, is needed. The
International Green Construction Code (IgCC) was approved in March 2012 for Cincinnati to use as a
model code. The task force also examined water quality requirements, inspection issues, a certified
maintenance protocol and metering. The resulting ordinance was passed in April 2013 and allows use of
rain barrels, references the IgCC and defines the agencies that have jurisdiction. The task force must now
focus on community outreach, permitting and metering (sewer) fees, and a certified maintenance protocol.
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Mr. Steve Hafele explained that plumbing codes were written to help protect public health, and the
biggest safety device, the air gap, was developed more than 100 years ago. Rainwater is a resource that
must be used and kept out of CSOs. The previous ordinance written for rain barrels only interrupted the
flow of stormwater; overflow must be sent to an approved location. That ordinance did not allow use of
rain barrel water for toilet flushing because it violated Ohio plumbing codes. Rainwater harvesting
systems are an alternative engineered design but required additional bureaucratic processes to ensure their
safety. Several departments must approve the design to ensure that it meets all standards. Cross
connections require adequate air gap to ensure safety and provide backflow prevention; air gaps are
preferred to reduced pressure zone (RPZ) backflow preventers. All pipes conveying nonpotable water
must be identified as such via color marking and labeling. Potable water must be protected from
nonpotable water so that a safe building environment is provided to occupants; this is where alternate
engineering designs are employed.
Mr. Jeff Zistler explained that the role of MSDGC is in regard to billing, and it is examining fair methods
regarding the true cost of using a rainwater harvesting system so that everyone pays equitably. Metering
will be required for commercial single-tank systems used for irrigation and nonpotable uses, with
residential users allowed flat billing. Metering is not required for harvesting tanks used exclusively for
irrigation. Commercial systems using multiple tanks are eligible for flat billing after being evaluated on a
case-by-case basis; billing will be adjusted annually.
Mr. Jeff Swertfeger highlighted GCWW's role in the process. Water quality standards have been
established. No codes currently define what must be included in the operation and maintenance manual;
the owner will develop the manual for review and certification by Cincinnati's Department of City
Planning and Buildings. Inspections are required to ensure that rainwater harvesting systems have not
been compromised. A defined inspection process, fee and schedule must be created.
Q&A and Discussion
The participants were invited to ask questions of the panel members; the questions and responses are
summarized below.
How do the panel members envision the increase in units in Cincinnati in the short and long terms?
• There is expected to be a great deal of interest on the design side; those in the design community
who can educate clients will facilitate implementation. There is a strong interest in green building
in the area.
Does the code specify the size of the tank relative to use?
• Unless an excavation or fill permit is needed, the Department of City Planning and Buildings is
not involved in tank size. The major concern is where the water goes once it leaves the tank, as
there is the potential to disregard neighbors.
• The number of occupants also has a bearing on tank size.
Is there automatic use of city water if the tank is empty?
• Yes, there is makeup water and an air gap.
• Annual inspections and backflow preventions also are in place.
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Capturing rainwater decreases CSOs, which account for MSDGC 's largest expenditure. Is there a
tradeoff occurring that decreases MSDGC's expenditures?
• MSDGC is not interested in hidden rate increases, but to subsidize installation of rainwater
harvesting systems, those who do not install a system end up being penalized. There has been
discussion about the appropriate level, but MSDGC does not have the authorization to refuse
payment because the regulations state that MSDGC must charge. A fair approach to recouping
costs is needed.
What is the fee structure for inspection and permitting?
• A plumbing permit is based on the number of inside fixtures, with a charge of $60 for the first
fixture and $17 dollars for each additional feature. Fees for outside work are based on the
estimated cost of that work; work up to $10,000 will be charged a $210 permit fee. The re-annual
inspection fee on a rainwater harvesting system is based on the current re-inspection fee of $105
that already is in place.
Will the ordinance take into account that superseding regulations may exist? Will the ordinance allow for
existing rainwater harvesting regulations?
• This possibility of superseding regulations was discussed, and other agencies (e.g., the health
department) could become involved following system installation if conditions exist to trigger
their involvement.
• The structure of the ordinance provides instruction on how rainwater harvesting can be done. It is
written in a way so that it can be modified in the future or be timeless. It provides enough
description to implement rainwater harvesting in a fair manner so that the relevant agency's
interests are represented.
• These issues illustrate the complexity of rainwater harvesting; it was necessary to work with Ohio
EPA, which regulates public water systems.
Why is an RPZ not considered adequate?
• This relates to the interconnectedness of the potable and nonpotable systems. The preliminary
decision was made to err on the side of safety until a final decision is made following additional
discussion.
Who will be responsible for sampling and testing? Is there a protocol for where samples are obtained and
is disinfection required?
• The system owner is responsible for sampling and testing, and will need to send the results to the
appropriate city agency. The required sampling interval will be determined following further
study. A list of laboratories will be provided; simple testing also may be offered.
• Sampling should occur at the point of use, and a disinfection requirement is included in the code.
• The design includes a spigot at the point of sampling to ensure that the water in the pipes rather
than the vessel is tested to avoid cross contamination.
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Will different applications require different nephelometric turbidity unit criteria?
• The developed water quality criteria are for all indoor applications. If water is collected and used
outside, then these criteria do not apply. Once the water is brought inside, they apply.
• The ordinance also specifies "subsurface" irrigation.
Will new and ongoing training be required for code inspectors?
• Presently there is no training; good plumbing practices apply. An operation and maintenance
manual would be used to ensure adequate testing and treatment. It is the owner's responsibility to
maintain the system in good working order.
Would under-sink reverse osmosis units work to purify water intended for indoor use?
• Early discussions focused on how descriptive the language of the code should be. The solution
matches the code language; specific technologies are not mentioned because technology is a
"moving target." All measures are based on the results produced by the technology, which allows
the community to implement newer technologies as long as they meet the measurement
requirements. The code then becomes a "living document."
Mr. Knight closed the session by reiterating that the ordinance effort was a major collaboration, and he
appreciated the hard work and diligence of the individuals in the MSDGC, GCWW, Cincinnati
Department of City Planning and Buildings, and Cincinnati Health Department that were a part of the
effort. He also thanked the task force, EPA, Green Umbrella, Greater Cincinnati Foundation and the
Green Partnership for Greater Cincinnati. This was a community-driven initiative, and he is very proud to
live in Cincinnati.
SESSION 4: BRIDGING THE TECHNOLOGY GAPS
Summaries of Sessions 1, 2 and 3
Kevin Oshima, Tre Sheldon and Nick Ashbolt
After the session moderators provided a brief summary of their sessions, participants were encouraged to
add their thoughts, which are summarized as follows:
• The discussion included rainwater harvesting as a component of CSOs. Secondarily, green roofs
increase the albedo (fraction of solar shortwave radiation energy reflected from Earth into space).
Tree loss in some areas increases stream flow as a result of the decreased evapotranspiration and
increased temperature. Tree planting should be included in these efforts. Man-made efforts need
to be coupled with the natural actions of the environment to synergize the environmental and
financial benefits.
• Providing numeric and monetary value to the natural system matches EPA's research interests
and abilities. An ORD researcher is examining the inherent energy in the natural system as a
measure of the value of the system.
• A formal proceedings summary is being produced, and EPA also would like to communicate the
results of the workshop informally to the general public.
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Panel Discussion: Rain and Stormwater Technology Needs and Solutions—Themes Emerging from
the Workshop
Moderator: Jay Garland
Panel Members: Kathy DeBusk, David Crawford, Paula Kehoe and Samantha Brown
The panel members identified the following needs and solutions for rain and stormwater reuse:
• Rainwater, stormwater, greywater and blackwater must be viewed, valued and used as resources.
• The desired goals and objectives must be understood prior to installation to achieve the most
beneficial use of a system.
• Economics drive installation; this must be taken into account.
• There are many counterintuitive regulations in place that require education to navigate. Although
there are many political barriers, a happy medium must be achieved to serve U.S. citizens.
• Education about rainwater quality is important.
• Rainwater harvesting technology is available, but if it is not operated correctly, it may not provide
the intended benefits. Correct operation and maintenance increases if the owner/operator has a
vested interest.
• Appropriate water quality standards are needed; EPA should develop water quality guidelines to
assist local implementation. Local entities often do not have the resources to research/develop
appropriate water quality standards.
The participants were invited to join the discussion and made the following observations:
• Engineers should be educated to ensure that the appropriate technology is used.
• It is the regulator's role to ensure that technology meets safety standards; it is the role of the
owner/operator to maintain the system.
• Potential hazards must be identified so that they can be managed.
• Social and economic gaps must be addressed before technology gaps.
• The shipping/delivery cost of the tanks could be lowered by increasing the amount of storage
zones across the country.
• There is technology available to link monitoring devices to the network so that owners/operators
are notified if there is a problem. Research may be required to identify all available technologies,
which may not currently be used to their full advantage.
Summary Discussion: Bridging the Technology Gaps, Outcomes and Next Steps
Dennis Lye, Andrew Reynolds and Jatin Mistry
Dr. Lye stated that the previous session was helpful in identifying needs and gaps. He asked the
participants to consider the following questions: What actions can be taken collaboratively to bring
alternate water resources and their associated technologies into the mainstream? Are the participants
willing to collaborate? Are any participants able and willing to help fund the effort? How mainstream
should these technologies be?
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He noted that some entities, such as schools, may not have the ultimate responsibility for maintaining any
rainwater harvesting systems installed at their locations. So that the responsible agencies are comfortable
installing systems at these locations, rainwater harvesting systems could be developed in such a way that
monitoring and maintenance can be completed more easily by these agencies. He is skeptical about the
City of Cincinnati giving responsibility to individual owner/operators without oversight. It is necessary to
identify incentives, policies, collaborations and methods to incentivize the process and facilitate the use of
alternative water sources. A participant noted that volunteers would monitor the system installed at the
Dater Montessori school. Long-term trend data generated by the system could be used for monitoring, but
they may not satisfy regulatory requirements. The regulating agency's protocol can be used to guide
system monitoring and testing.
Ground-breaking stormwater regulations are being developed and implemented in North Carolina. If there
is a model to address issues, such as revenue and liability, basic guidelines could be developed. Existing
information must be leveraged to facilitate the development of guidelines, codes and so forth. EPA could
create a clearinghouse for information and harness the knowledge of the participants and others. Rain and
stormwater are part of the solution and part of the water supply; it is critical to change the perception that
these are "waste" waters so that they are accepted more broadly as part of the solution. A potential
location for such a clearinghouse could be the database of best management practices for green infra-
structure that ORD is developing.
Dr. Lye thanked the participants and adjourned the meeting at 4:07 pm.
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APPENDIX A: DEFINITIONS
Alternate water sources: Any source designated as nontraditional in a regional water supply plan (e.g.,
saltwater, brackish water, rainwater, greywater, condensate, foundation drainage, stormwater and recycled
wastewater).
Auxiliary water system (AWS): A water system on or available to the premises other than a public
water system. An AWS uses water from a source other than the public water system (such as wells,
cisterns or open reservoirs that are equipped with pumps or other prime movers including gravity) and is
often necessary in the absence or failure of existing emergency water systems. City, state or federal
regulations apply to AWSs when used in proximity to public drinking water systems because they may
not meet current national drinking water standards.
Building-scale (or individual) projects: A water system which is confined to one building.
Condensate: A liquid separated from a gaseous state due to changes in temperature or pressure, or both,
and that remains liquid at standard conditions.
De facto reuse: A situation where the reuse of treated wastewater is, in fact, practiced but is not
officially recognized (e.g., a drinking water supply intake located downstream from a wastewater
treatment plate discharge point).
Direct potable reuse: The introduction of reclaimed water (with or without retention in an engineered
storage buffer) directly into a drinking water treatment plant, either co-located or remotely located from
the advanced wastewater treatment system.
District-scale projects: A water system that is shared between two or more buildings.
Foundation drainage water: The water recovered from tile or pipe systems for collecting seepage
within or around a foundation to maintain integrity of the building or facility. Foundation drainage does
not include nonpotable groundwater extracted from a well (a deep hole or shaft sunk into the earth to
obtain water) which is subject to groundwater regulations.
Greywater: Untreated wastewater that has not come into contact with sewage (blackwater). Greywater
includes used water from bathtubs, showers and lavatories, as well as water from clothes washing
machines.
Indirect potable reuse: Augmentation of a drinking water source (surface or groundwater) with
reclaimed water followed by an environmental buffer that precedes drinking water treatment.
Municipal separate storm sewer system: A conveyance or system of conveyances, including roads
with drainage systems, municipal streets, catch basins, curbs, gutters, ditches, man-made channels or
storm drains.
Nonpotable water: Water that does not meet the bacteriological and chemical quality requirements of
the EPA's National Primary Drinking Water Regulations and/or the regulations of the public health
authority having jurisdiction for potable water; water deemed not safe for drinking, personal or culinary
utilization.
Nonpotable reuse: All water reuse applications that do not involve potable usage.
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Onsite water treatment and use system: Equipment and technologies utilized on a property for the
purpose of collecting, diverting, sorting or treatment of alternate water sources for beneficial use on the
same property.
Outfall: A point source as defined by 40 C.F.R 122.2 at the point where a municipal separate storm
sewer discharges to water of the United States. An outfall does not include open conveyances connecting
two municipal separate storm sewers or pipes, tunnels or other conveyances that connect segments of the
same stream, or other waters of the United States and are used to convey waters of the United States.
Point source: Any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including, but not limited to, any pipe,
ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding
operation, landfill leachate collection system, or vessel or other floating craft from which pollutants are or
may be discharged. This term does not include return flows from irrigated agriculture or agricultural
stormwater runoff.
Potable water: Water free from impurities present in amounts sufficient to cause disease or harmful
physiological effects and conforming to the bacteriological and chemical quality requirements of the
EPA's National Primary Drinking Water Regulations and/or the regulations of the public health authority
having jurisdiction.
Potable reuse: Planned augmentation of a drinking water supply with reclaimed water.
Rain: A liquid form of natural precipitation, which is some cases is modified as it falls through the air.
Rainwater: Rain that has impacted upon a surface and whose composition has been modified by surface
flow, diversion and storage processes onsite.
Reclaimed water: Municipal wastewater that has been treated to meet specific water quality criteria with
the intent of being used for a range of purposes. The term reclycled water is becoming generally accepted
as synonymous with reclaimed water.
Recycled water: See reclaimed water.
Stormwater: Precipitation from rain and snowmelt events that flows off site over land (both pervious
and impervious). Stormwater runoff pollution is often called "non-point source" pollution.
Sustainability: Environmental stewardship that leads to environmental improvement over time and
contributed positively, even if indirectly, to the social and economic condition.
Traditional water resources: Groundwater (underground water held in soil and impervious rock) and
surface waters (lakes, rivers, reservoirs).
Urban runoff: Stormwater from city streets and adjacent parcels (includes water from both traditional
and alternate resources) that carries pollutants of various kinds into the sewer systems and receiving
waters.
Urbanized area: A densely settled territory that has a minimum population of 50,000 people.
Wastewater: Used water discharged from homes, businesses, industry and agricultural facilities.
Water use: The use of alternate water resources (with the exception of treated municipal wastewater and
treated greywater) for beneficial applications in lieu of potable water from public distribution systems.
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Water reuse: The use of treatment municipal wastewater (reclaimed or recycled water) and treated
grewater. (Note: The term "reuse" is not appropriate for situations where an alternate water source such
as saltwater, brackish water, rainwater, stormwater, condensate or foundation drainage is used directly
after collection.)
Watershed: The area of land where all of the water that is under it or drains off of it goes into the same
place.
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APPENDIX B: WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
Jeff Agricola
City of Springdale
Amy Alduino
TRC Companies, Inc.
Nicholas Ashbolt
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Ed Beaulieu
Aquascapes, Inc.
Michael Berning
Heapy Engineering
Lew Bonadies
APTech Group, Inc.
E. W. Bob Boulware
Design-Aire Engineering
David Boutelle
City of Cincinnati
Dean Brown
Hamilton County Park District
Samantha Brown
Northern Kentucky Sanitation District No. 1
Jason Burlage
Northern Kentucky Sanitation District No. 1
Cheryl Bush
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati
Marcus Clayton
City of Cincinnati
James Cox
Reading Rock, Inc.
Tom Craven
Craven Landscape Architecture
Charles Crawford
City Of Cincinnati
David Crawford
Rainwater Management Solutions
Brian Crone
Zwitter Consulting
David Crouch
City of Fairfield
Arm ah de la Cruz
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Mark Deacon
Cincinnati State Technical and Community
College
Kathy DeBusk
North Carolina State University
Guy East
UBuildlt
Jennifer Eismeier
Mill Creek Watershed Council of Communities
Pete Caldwell
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati
Greg Cassiere
Hamilton County Public Health District
Jose Castrejon
McGill Smith Punshon, Inc.
Molly Chapleau
UES, Inc.
Alice Emmons
Alice M. Emmons, Architect
Julius Enriquez
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Larry Falkin
City of Cincinnati
Mike Felton
StreamKey, Inc.
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Jay Garland
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Jens Gartner
Water Renewal Systems
Taylor Cleaves
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Susan Grause
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Chris Griffith
Hamilton County Public Health District
Rachel Hemsink
University of Cincinnati
Jim Henning
Duke Energy
Mary Huller
Greater Cincinnati Water Works
Lisa Humble
Hamilton County Public Health District
Ernesto Infante, Jr.
Northern Kentucky University
Eric Gruenstein
University of Cincinnati Medical School
Tim Joice
Kentucky Waterways Alliance
Sally Gutierrez
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Steve Hafele
City of Cincinnati
Michael Kady
Civil and Environmental Consultants, Inc.
Chris Kaeff
Northern Kentucky Sanitation District No. 1
Ben Haggerty
Green Streets LLC
Paula Kehoe
San Francisco Public Utilities Commission
Matt Haikalis
Veolia Water Solutions and Technologies
Richard Hanson
SyncroFlo
David Hart
Tremco, Inc.
Teresa Harten
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Jerry Hartley
Military Department of Indiana
Shay Hartley
Evelyn Hartzell
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Richard Haugland
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Chad Kettlewell
Coldwater Consulting, LLC
George Kipp
Village of Indian Hill
Stephanie Kluding
Norweco, Inc.
Bob Knight
emersion DESIGN LLC
Bennett Kottler
Environmental Science, Engineering and
Management
Melinda Kruyer
Confluence
Shon Lay
Reading Rock, Inc.
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MaryLynn Lodor
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati
Rachael Logsdon
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Dennis Lye
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cissy Ma
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
John Mangan
Cincinnati Green Umbrella
James Marten
Veolia Water Solutions and Technologies
Ron McAdams
StreamKey, Inc.
Maryanne McGowan
Duke Energy
Mary Beth McGrew
University of Cincinnati
Molly Mehling
Chatham University
Tony Miga
Chatham University
Michael Miller
University of Cincinnati
Rivers Unlimited
Mill Creek Council of Communities
Jatin Mistry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Sean Mullarkey
Applied Water Technologies, Inc.
Dean Niemeyer
Hamilton County Planning and Development
Christopher Nietch
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Kevin Oshima
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Stacy Pfaller
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Doug Pushard
HarvestH2O
Laure Quinlivan
City of Cincinnati
Mariann Quinn
Duke Energy
Patrick Quinn
McGill Smith Punshon, Inc.
Jim Ratliff
Champlin Architecture
Andrew Reynolds
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati
Brewster Rhoads
Cincinnati Green Umbrella
Kristen Risch
Coldwater Consulting, LLC
Mike Ruck
Rain Water Solutions
Kara Scheerhorn
Mill Creek Watershed Council of Communities
Rose Seeger
Green City Resources
Neal Shapiro
City of Santa Monica
Tre Sheldon
GreenStreets LLC
Pam Simmons
Turpin Farms
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Russell Smith
The Ohio Department of Health
Andrew Storer
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati
Brian Wamsley
Hamilton County Planning and Development
Mike Warren
Watertronics
Kara Sweeney
U.S. Department of Commerce
Jeff Swertfeger
Greater Cincinnati Water Works
James Wasserbauer
TRC Companies, Inc.
Russ Weber
Greater Cincinnati Water Works
Todd Trabert
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati
Jessica Truman
City of Cincinnati
Jim Turner
Coldwater Consulting, LLC
Philip Tworek
Vivian, Llambi and Associates, Inc.
Mary Ann Uhlmann
Tremco, Inc.
Edward Van Giesen
Watts Water Technologies, Inc.
Abby Waits
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Marilyn Wall
Sierra Club
Ralph Wells
Cincinnati State Technical and Community
College
Heather Wiggins
Cincinnati State Technical and Community
College
Mitch Wilcox
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Toni Winston
Tiburon Energy and Construction
Neil Winter
Reading Rock, Inc.
Gretchen Witti
HarvestH2O
Jeffrey Zistler
Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater
Cincinnati
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