State and Local
Climate and Energy Program
LOCAL GOVERNMENT CLIMATE AND ENERGY STRATEGY SERIES
On-Site Renewable
Energy Generation
A Guide to Developing and Implementing
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Programs
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
2014
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EPA's Local Government Climate and Energy
Strategy Series
The Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series provides a comprehensive, straightforward overview of green-
house gas (GHG) emissions reduction strategies for local governments. Topics include energy efficiency transportation,
community planning and design, solid waste and materials management, and renewable energy. City, county, territorial,
tribal, and regional government staff, and elected officials can use these guides to plan, implement, and evaluate their
climate change mitigation and energy projects.
Each guide provides an overview of project benefits, policy mechanisms, investments, key stakeholders, and other imple-
mentation considerations. Examples and case studies highlighting achievable results from programs implemented in
communities across the United States are incorporated throughout the guides.
While each guide stands on its own, the entire series contains many interrelated strategies that can be combined to create
comprehensive, cost-effective programs that generate multiple benefits. For example, efforts to improve energy efficiency
can be combined with transportation and community planning programs to reduce GHG emissions, decrease energy and
transportation costs, improve air quality and public health, and enhance quality of life.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT CLIMATE AND ENERGY STRATEGY SERIES
All documents are available at: www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/resources/strategy-guides.html.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy Efficiency in Local Government Operations
Energy Efficiency in K-12 Schools
Energy Efficiency in Affordable Housing
Energy-Efficient Product Procurement
Combined Heat and Power
Energy Efficiency in Water and Wastewater Facilities
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation Control Measures
URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN
Smart Growth
SOLID WASTE AND MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Resource Conservation and Recovery
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Green Power Procurement
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation
Landfill Gas Energy
Please note: All Web addresses in this document were working as of the time of publication, but links may break over time
as sites are reorganized and content is moved.
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CONTENTS
Executive Summary
1. Overview
2. Benefits of On-Site Renewable Energy Generation
3. On-Site Renewable Energy Technologies and Applications
4. Key Participants
5. Foundations for Project Development
6. Strategies for Effective Project Implementation
7. Costs and Funding Opportunities
Costs
Funding Opportunities
8. Federal, State, and Other Program Resources
Federal Programs
State Programs
Other Programs
9. Case Studies
Boston, Massachusetts
Program Initiation
Program Features
Program Results
Waverly, Iowa
Program Initiation
Program Features
Program Benefits
10. Additional Examples and Information Resources
11. References
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On-Site Renewable
Energy Generation
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Developing and Implementing
Renewable Energy Programs
A growing number of local governments are turning
to renewable energy as a strategy to reduce GHGs,
improve air quality and energy security, boost the local
economy, and pave the way to a sustainable energy
future. Renewable energy resources—such as solar,
wind, biomass, hydropower, and landfill gas—reduce
GHG emissions by replacing fossil fuels. Renewables
also reduce emissions of conventional air pollutants,
such as sulfur dioxide, that result from fossil fuel
combustion. In addition, renewable energy can create
jobs and open new markets for the local economy, and
can be used as a hedge against price fluctuations of
fossil fuels. Finally, local governments using renew-
able energy can demonstrate leadership, helping to
spur additional renewable energy investments in their
region.
Local governments can promote renewable energy
by using it to help meet their own energy needs in
municipal operations, and by encouraging its use by
local residents and businesses. The renewable energy
guides in this series present three strategies that local
governments can use to gain the benefits of renewables:
generating energy from renewable sources on-site,
purchasing green power, and generating renewable
energy from landfill gas.
On-Site Renewable Energy
Generation
This guide describes a variety of approaches that local
governments can use to advance climate and energy
goals by meeting some or all of their electricity needs
through on-site renewable energy generation. The
sections in this guide discuss how local governments
can work with utilities, local businesses, nonprofit
groups, residents, state agencies, and green power
marketers and brokers to plan and implement
on-site renewable energy generation projects at local
RELATED GUIDES IN THIS SERIES
1 Renewable Energy: Green Power Procurement
Green power is a subset of renewable energy that is
produced with no GHG emissions, typically from solar,
wind, geothermal, biogas, biomass, or low-impact small
hydroelectric sources. Local governments can purchase
green power for any remaining energy needs not covered
by on-site renewable energy generation to help reduce
their overall GHG emissions.
1 Renewable Energy: Landfill Gas Energy
Landfill gas energy technologies capture methane from
landfills to prevent it from being emitted to the atmo-
sphere, reducing landfill methane emissions by 60-90%.
Local governments can complement their landfill gas
energy programs with other types of on-site renewable
energy installations procurement to maximize the amount
of their energy needs that are met by renewable sources.
1 Energy Efficiency: Energy Efficiency in Local
Government Operations
Local governments can implement energy-saving
measures in existing local government facilities, new
and green buildings, and day-to-day operations. Local
governments can lead by example and take a holistic
approach to reducing their GHG emissions by pursuing
both energy efficiency and on-site renewable energy
generation at their facilities.
1 Energy Efficiency: K-12 Schools
Many local governments work closely with K-12 school
district officials, who are often appointed by the local
government executive or representative body. Because of
this unique relationship, local governments are often well
positioned to work through school districts to promote
on-site renewable energy generation at schools in their
communities.
government facilities and throughout the community.
It is designed to be used by municipal energy coor-
dinators, local energy and environment agency staff,
environmental and energy advisors to elected officials,
utility staff, and community groups.
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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Readers of the guide should come away with an under-
standing of the different types of on-site renewable
energy technologies and applications, strategies for
designing successful installations, and the associated
financial considerations. The guide highlights examples
of successful on-site renewable installations from
across the United States to demonstrate how these
technologies can help meet the diverse energy needs of
communities of different sizes, governance structures,
and locations.
The guide describes the benefits of on-site renew-
able energy generation (section 2); technologies and
applications (section 3); key participants and their
roles (section 4); the policy mechanisms that local
governments have used to support on-site renewable
energy generation projects (section 5); implementa-
tion strategies for effective installations (section 6);
costs and funding opportunities (section 7); federal,
state, and other programs that may be able to help
local governments with information or financial and
technical assistance (section 8); and two case studies
of local governments that have comprehensive on-site
renewable energy projects in place (section 9). Other
examples of successful implementation are provided
throughout the guide.
Relationships to Other Guides
in the Series
Local governments can use other guides in this
series to develop comprehensive climate and energy
programs that incorporate complementary strategies.
For example, local governments could combine on-site
renewable energy generation with initiatives in green
power procurement, landfill gas to energy, and ener-
gy efficiency in K-12 schools to help achieve addi-
tional environmental, economic, and social benefits.
See the box on page v for more information about
these complementary strategies. Additional connec-
tions to related strategies are highlighted in the guide.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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1. OVERVIEW
Many local governments are generating renewable
energy at their own facilities and working with local
businesses and residents to help them do the same at
their offices and homes. By installing equipment that
captures energy from sunlight, wind, water, and other
renewable energy sources, local governments and
communities can achieve substantial energy, environ-
mental, and economic benefits. Installing on-site
renewable energy generation systems at municipal
facilities—and providing incentives to local businesses
and residents to generate on-site renewable power—
can also be an effective way to demonstrate a local
government's commitment to meeting community
GHG emission reduction goals.
RENEWABLE ENERGY AND GREEN POWER
Green power is a subset of renewable energy, and
represents those renewable energy resources and
technologies that provide the highest environmental
benefit. Green power is produced from solar, wind,
geothermal, biogas, eligible biomass, and low-impact
hydro.
U.S. Energy Supply
I Solar - Wind - Biogas - I
Biomass - Low-impact
Hydro - Geothermal
L,
I Coal - Oil - Natural Gas | Nuclear - Hydro - Waste to Energy |
Lower Environmental Benefit
Higher Environmental Benefit
Green power sources produce electricity with an
environmental profile superior to that of conventional
power technologies, and produce no anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions. EPA requires that green
power sources must also have been built within the last
15 years in order to support "new" renewable energy
development (U.S. EPA, 2007).*
* January 1,1997 is considered a definitive point in time when
green power facilities could be adequately identified as having
been developed to serve the green power marketplace. Green
power facilities placed into service after January 1,1997 are said to
produce "new" renewable energy. The "new" criterion addresses
the additionality requirement for the voluntary market (U.S. EPA,
2007a).
This guide highlights local government and commu-
nity benefits associated with on-site renewable energy
generation.1 It also provides information on how local
governments have planned and implemented on-site
renewable energy generation activities at their facilities
and throughout the community, and offers sources
of funding and case studies. Links to more examples
and resources are provided in Section 10, Additional
Examples and Information Resources (see page 21).
2. BENEFITS OF ON-SITE
RENEWABLE ENERGY
GENERATION
On-site renewable energy generation can produce
significant energy, environmental, and economic bene-
fits by helping local governments and communities:
Reduce emissions of GHGs and other pollutants.
Substituting renewable energy for conventional energy
can substantially reduce emissions of GHGs and other
pollutants that result from local government activi-
ties. Fossil fuel combustion for electricity generation
accounts for 67 percent of the nations sulfur oxides
(SOx) emissions, 23 percent of the nation's nitrogen
oxides (NOx) emissions, and 40 percent of the nation's
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, pollutants that can
lead to smog and acid rain, and increase the risk of
climate change (U.S. EPA, 2008). Many local govern-
ments have developed plans with goals for reducing
GHG emissions resulting from government and
community activities. By generating renewable energy
on site, local governments are demonstrating to their
constituents that they are striving to meet these goals
(U.S. EPA, 2004).
Hedge against financial risks. On-site renewable
energy generation systems can reduce local govern-
ment energy costs by decreasing exposure to fossil
fuel price volatility, which can lead to higher prices for
grid-based electricity. This allows local governments to
better anticipate and plan for future energy expendi-
tures (U.S. EPA, 2004; AWEA, 2007).
1 Generating renewable energy can provide a source of green power. Comple-
mentary information on how local governments can develop green power
programs is available in EPA's Green Power Procurement guide in the Local
Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series.
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
1. OVERVIEW
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GENERATION CAPACITY AND PRODUCTION
Electricity production and consumption (measured in
kWh) are functions of generation capacity (measured in
kW) and time (measured in hours). System generation
capacity depends on a site-specific capacity factor, which
describes the system's actual energy output divided by
the output that would be achieved if the system operated
at full capacity. Electricity production can be calculated
as follows:
Electricity production (kWh) =
Capacity (kW) x Capacity factor x Time (hours)
Solar photovoltaic panels typically have capacity factors
between 0.21 and 0.26. For most utility-scale onshore wind
turbines, the capacity factor is between 0.35 and 0.44.
As an example, the annual electricity production of a 10
kW wind system with a capacity factor of 0.15 would be
calculated as follows:
10 kWxO.15 x 8,760 hours = 13,140 kWh per year
136 kWh per day}
Source: U.S. DOE, 2010
In 2003, the city of Auburn, New York,
installed a geothermal system to heat and
cool its historic city hall at an installed cost
of approximately $1 million, comparable to the
cost of a conventional heating and cooling system.
The geothermal system, which was installed in a
way that blended with the historic building's inter-
nal and external architecture, was expected to save
approximately $19,000 annually in operating and
maintenance costs (including energy costs) over its
lifetime due to expected increases in conventional
energy prices (McQuay International, 2003). After
the city hall project proved successful, Auburn
converted other municipal buildings to geother-
mal, including the city's police and fire department
building and the Cayuga-Onondaga Board of
Cooperative Educational Services campus (City of
Auburn and Cayuga County, 2009).
Support economic growth through job creation and
market development. Investing in on-site renewable
energy generation can help stimulate local, state, and
regional economies. On-site renewable energy genera-
tion systems require a considerable amount of raw
materials, and purchasing these materials from local
businesses can increase local manufacturing employ-
ment. Demand for construction, installation, and
REDUCING GRID-BASED ELECTRICITY PURCHASES
Obtaining electricity from on-site sources can
produce significant cost savings. A wind turbine
with a generation capacity of 10 kW located at a site
with average wind speeds of 12 miles per hour can
produce approximately 10,000 kWh annually, enough
to power a small building. Assuming an average price
for commercial electricity of 10.7C per kWh (as of June
2013), the wind turbine would reduce annual grid-based
electricity costs by approximately $1,070. With installed
costs for on-shore turbines ranging between $1,200 and
$2,100 per kW capacity and including a federal tax credit
of 30%, these savings could mean a simple payback
period of less than six years.
Sources: EIA, 2013; AWEA, 2007; NREL 2012b
maintenance of on-site renewable energy generation
systems can create jobs and help develop the market
for these technologies (NREL, 2012). Figure 1 on page
3 illustrates the direct and indirect jobs, earnings, and
economic output derived from PV and large-scale
wind projects funded by the U.S. Department of the
Treasury's 1603 Grant Program.2
Demonstrate leadership. Generating renewable ener-
gy at local government facilities can be an effective and
visible way of demonstrating environmental leadership
to the public.
In 2003, Lenox, Iowa, purchased and
installed a 750 kW wind turbine to produce
electricity for its own facilities at about the
same time that the town's municipal electric utility
began offering customers the option to purchase
renewable energy. When nearly 13 percent of the
city's households enrolled to purchase renewable-
generated electricity, significantly higher than the
national average of 1 to 3 percent, the city attrib-
uted the success of the program to the increased
public awareness generated by the new turbine
(Energy Services Bulletin, 2004).
Installing renewable energy generation systems at facil-
ities that are visited frequently by the public can lead
to greater community awareness of local government
leadership and the benefits of clean energy activities.
2 For more information on the 1603 Treasury program: http://www.treasury.
gov/initiatives/recovery/Pages/1603.aspx
2. BENEFITS
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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MILWAUKEE: GAINING STEAM THROUGH SOLAR
INSTALLATIONS
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, has demonstrated leadership in
implementing solar power at the local level. The U.S.
Department of Energy's listed Milwaukee as one of 25
Solar America Cities in 2008, and the city has continued
to expand its solar programs since then.
In 2011, the city launched the Milwaukee Shines program
to help finance its use of solar energy. As part of this
program, the city incentivized Milwaukee-based solar
manufacturing facilities to sell affordable solar products
to local certified installers, reducing costs for customers.
The city also provided low-interest loans for residents
and businesses to finance solar installations.
Under the Milwaukee Shines program, the city has
already completed 50 solar projects and has set an
ambitious goal to install 1 MW of solar energy. As of late
2013 it had already installed 350 kW of that planned
capacity.
Source: City of Milwaukee, 2013; U.S. DOE, 2013
Highland Beach, Maryland, for example, is
Ifflf demonstrating leadership by generating 100
I—I percent of the energy used by its town hall
from renewable resources. The town hall uses
geothermal energy to reduce heating and cooling
loads, and solar photovoltaic panels produce
enough power to meet the balance of the building's
energy needs (Highland Beach, 2006).
Improve power quality and supply reliability. Elec-
tricity has high "power quality" when the required
amount of energy is delivered consistently without
variation. Sags or spikes in voltage may be evidence of
poor power quality. The complex network of intercon-
nections involved in generating, transmitting, and
delivering grid-based electricity causes temporal varia-
tions in the characteristics of delivered power. Because
on-site renewable energy generation systems have fewer
interconnections (e.g., transmission substations), elec-
tricity from these sources is likely to have higher power
quality than electricity delivered through the grid from
fossil fuel sources (U.S. EPA, 2004; MTC, 2002).
In addition to power quality, local governments want
to ensure the reliability of their energy supply. Disrup-
tions in energy supply can be a serious risk for local
governments, many of which own hospitals, schools,
and other facilities that house residents who may
rely on a consistent electricity supply. By installing
renewable energy generation systems on site, local
governments can improve energy supply reliability
and protect against grid-based electricity shortages or
blackouts (U.S. EPA, 2004).
FIGURE 1. JOBS, EARNINGS, AND ECONOMIC OUTPUT FROM PHOTOVOLTAIC AND LARGE
WIND PROJECTS
Summary Estimates of the Direct and Indirect Jobs, Earnings, and Output Supported
Average Jobs per year
(FTE/year)
Total Earnings
(Billions $)
During Construction Period (2009-2011)
Large Wind
44,000-66,000
$7.7-$12.0
$23.0-$39.0
Photovoltaic
8,300-9,700
$1.5-$1.8
$3.5-$4.7
Total Direct + Indirect
52,000-75,000
$9.2-$14.0
$26.0-$44.0
During Operational Period (annual for system lifetime)
Large Wind
4,500-4,900
$0.26-$0.29
$1.60-$1.70
Photovoltaic
610-630
$0.04
$0.09
Total Direct + Indirect
5,100-5,500
$0.3-$0.3
Source: NREL, 2012a.
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
2. BENEFITS
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3. ON-SITE RENEWABLE
ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
AND APPLICATIONS
Local governments can select from a range of technolo-
gies for on-site renewable energy generation. Renew-
able energy sources that can be captured using on-site
systems include:
1 Wind. Wind energy which is captured on site using
wind turbines, can be very cost-effective in areas with
adequate wind resources. A 3 kW turbine with a 60- to
80-foot tower could reduce a facility's monthly electric-
ity bill by 30 to 60 percent, assuming monthly electric-
ity costs range between $73 and $115 (approximately
700 kWh to 1,100 kWh).3 Using the national weighted
average installed cost for sample wind projects in 2012
(approximately $1,940 per kW capacity), these cost
savings could result in a simple payback period as short
as six years (U.S. DOE, 2013a).
HULL, MASSACHUSETTS - WIND POWER
In December 2001, Hull, Massachusetts, a coastal town
on a peninsula south of Boston, purchased a 660 kW
wind turbine to replace a pre-existing structure that had
once served the town's high school. Within its first two
years, the turbine produced nearly 3,000 MWh of energy,
demonstrating a capacity factor of 27 percent. A second
turbine, commissioned in May 2006, has a capacity of
1.8 MW. Combined, the two turbines generate enough
electricity to supply 11 percent of Hull's load.
The electricity from the turbines is generated at a cost
of 3.4C per kWh, which is less than half of the 8.0C it
would cost from the grid.
The town of Hull is now looking into offshore wind
projects.
Source: Hull, 2008; Hull Municipal Light Plant, 2013.
As opposed to large utility-scale wind farm turbines,
which can reach capacities as high as 3 MW, "small
wind" turbines (turbines that have capacities of 100 kW
or less) are often better suited for local facilities (AWEA,
2007a).4 Wind turbines are most often installed in non-
urban areas because installations typically require at least
one acre of land and wind speeds averaging 15 mph at
3 KWh approximations determined using most recent average retail price for
conventional electricity (10.47t per kWh) (EIA, 2013a).
4 Most small wind turbines have capacities of less than 25 kW (AWEA, 2007a).
50 meters above the ground (U.S. EPA, 2004). However,
small turbines can be appropriately sited in urban areas.
In 2012, the oceanfront city of North Myrtle
Beach, South Carolina, finished installing its
second small-scale wind turbine. Together,
the two turbines generate about 4 kilowatts of elec-
tricity to power a concession stand and a water
slide on the beach. Rather than generating signifi-
cant amounts of electricity, the project is meant to
provide data to inform future off-shore wind
development opportunities (Carolina Live, 2012).
Solar. Sunlight provides an abundant source of renew-
able energy. Solar technologies take advantage of the
sun's energy using two different capture methods: active
and passive. Active solar technologies use complex
mechanized collectors, such as photovoltaic panels, to
collect and store solar energy. Passive solar technolo-
gies are less complicated and rely on the design and
orientation of the collector rather than mechanical
devices to absorb and store the sun's energy (EPA
2012). Technologies that use these methods include:
Photovoltaics (PV). PV systems directly convert
sunlight into electricity using solar cells. These
systems, which can produce electricity even in the
absence of strong sunlight, can generate significant
quantities of electricity depending on several
factors, including quality of the sunlight and the
system's mounted pitch. For instance, the San Diego
Regional Energy Office estimates that PV systems in
the San Diego area can produce between 1,400 kWh
and 1,700 kWh per kW capacity annually (SDREO,
2007). The New York State Energy Research and
Development Authority (NYSERDA) estimates that
PV systems can produce between 1,000 kWh and
1,300 kWh per kW capacity annually in New York
(NYSERDA, 2007). A 10-kW system that produces
1,500 kWh per kW capacity per year could thus
produce 15,000 kWh annually.
PV systems are often installed on rooftops, making
them ideal for local government buildings in areas
where open space is limited. Local governments have
installed PV systems at fire stations, libraries, and a
wide range of other buildings. PV systems can also
be installed as stand-alone systems (i.e., systems that
are not connected to the electricity grid) on parking
meters, bus stop canopies, and on parking lot lights
(Portland, 2007; Phoenix, 2007; Anaheim, 2001).
3. TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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TALLAHASSEE, FLORIDA - SOLAR INITIATIVES
The city of Tallahassee, Florida has installed PV and
solar water heating equipment at multiple city facilities.
A 10 kW PV system has been installed at a public
gymnasium and aquatic center to provide up to 14,000
kWh annually. In addition, the city has installed an 18 kW
PV system at the Capital Center Office Complex and a
solar hot water system at City Hall. The solar hot water
system captures heat from sunlight, concentrating it to
heat water that is distributed throughout the facility.
In addition to installing renewable energy generation
equipment at local government facilities, the city offers
rebates of up to $450 for solar water heating system
installations at residential or commercial facilities. The
city also offers low-interest loans to further ameliorate
the costs of installing the equipment.
Source: Tallahassee, 2007, DSIRE, 2012.
Solar hot water. Solar hot water technology uses
sunlight to heat water in a collector and then
distribute the heated water throughout a building,
reducing a building's reliance on a conventional
hot water heater that uses non-renewable sources
of energy. Solar hot water devices can use either
passive or active systems, although most are active
(NREL, 2007a).
Solar process heating and cooling. Solar process
heating uses sunlight to provide space heating
in buildings. This technology captures heat from
sunlight using contained air or fluid as the medium.
The captured heat is then fanned or pumped to
distribute it throughout the building. The heat from
a solar collector can also be used to cool a building
in the same way that electricity is used to power air
conditioning units (NREL, 2007).
Geothermal. Geothermal systems capture the earths
heat for use in generating electricity and providing
heating and hot water. In direct use applications, steam
from beneath the earth's surface can be used to power
turbines to produce electricity. This type of geothermal
application is dependent on the availability of adequate
geothermal reservoirs (reservoirs of water with
temperatures between 680 F and 302o F), which are
more common in the western United States.
A second type of geothermal technology uses heat
pumps to capture the earth's natural heat to warm
liquid that is pumped into buildings from underground
piping to provide central heating or to heat water. In
warmer seasons, geothermal heat pumps can exchange
warm surface air for cooler below-ground air (U.S.
DOE, 2006). Geothermal heat pump systems are typi-
cally installed at shallow depths (e.g., 4 to 6 feet below
the surface). Because shallow ground temperatures are
fairly constant throughout the United States, geother-
mal heat pumps can be effective in most locations (U.S.
DOE, 2007a).
Biomass. Electricity-producing steam turbines can be
fueled by burning solid biomass feedstocks, such as
plant material, construction wood, agricultural wastes,
sewage, and manure. Biomass can be used to generate
electricity by heating feedstocks in an oxygen-free
environment to convert them into combustible oil or
gas biofuels. This gasification process can be up to two
times more efficient than burning solid biomass, and
results in reduced GHG emissions. By siting biomass
operations in areas that have abundant biomass
resources, such as agricultural or forestry waste, local
governments can take advantage of material that would
otherwise be wasted (U.S. EPA, 2000; 2004).
tThe city of Battle Creek, Michigan entered
into a contract to install an $18 million
biomass gasification system for the U.S.
Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center
(VAMC). The system, scheduled to go into opera-
tion in late 2013, will burn woody biomass prod-
ucts (such as wood chips, pallets, and other locally
available residual wood wastes) to generate 2MW
of renewable electricity and 14,000 pounds per
hour of steam to heat the medical center. This
project will also help the Department of Veterans
Affairs reach its 2020 GHG reduction goals as well
as comply with President Obama's Executive Order
13514, which requires that the federal government
reduce its GHG emissions by 28 percent by 2020.
This project will allow the VAMC to reduce its
annual GHG emissions by 14,000 metric tons,
reducing its carbon footprint by roughly 80
percent (PR Newswire, 2011).
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
3. TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS
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Landfill gas and other biogas. Equipping landfills and
other facilities (e.g., wastewater and manure treatment
facilities) to capture biogas provides a source of renew-
able energy from a byproduct that would otherwise be
wasted. Biogas contains methane, a natural byproduct
of anaerobic digestion of landfill refuse, sewage, and
other products, which can be converted into electricity
through conventional combustion processes. For
example, a single landfill gas recovery project can reach
capacities as high as 4 MW (U.S. EPA, 2004).
CITY CAPTURES METHANE AT MUNICIPAL WATER
RECLAMATION FACILITY
The Truckee Meadows Water Reclamation Facility is
jointly owned by the cities of Reno and Sparks, Nevada,
and is operated by the city of Sparks. In addition to
treating wastewater for reuse, the facility captures
methane produced in the treatment process. The
methane is used to fuel a 700 kW generator, which
produces electricity that is sold to the local utility. In
February 2007, Sparks received $287,000 from the utility
in compensation for three years worth of electricity
contributions to the grid.
Source: Green Jobs, 2007.
In 2013, the Cayuga County Soil and Water
Conservation District opened a community
digester facility that uses untreated manure
from local farms to fuel an anaerobic digester. The
digester produces biogas, which is combusted to
achieve up to 633 kW of electricity generation
capacity for county buildings. The byproduct from
the digesters is returned to the local farmers in the
form of a liquid fertilizer that contains less phos-
phorus and has a smaller pollution potential than
raw, untreated manure (Cayuga County Soil and
Water Conservation District, 2013).
Methane is a potent GHG that has a global warm-
ing potential 21 times that of CO2, and landfills are
responsible for 17 percent of the nation's methane
emissions (U.S. EPA, 2011). Landfill gas and other
biogas recovery projects can contribute significantly
to reducing the risks of climate change. For example,
manure capture and utilization for biogas can reduce
methane emissions from manure biodegradation by
2.75 metric tons of CO2 equivalent per cow per year
(U.S. EPA, 2004a). Using manure biogas to produce
electricity can offset 0.9 metric ton of CO2 emissions
per cow per year, by replacing grid-based electricity
generated from conventional fuel sources (U.S. EPA,
2004a). These projects can produce other environmen-
tal benefits, including reduced waste odors and patho-
gens, as well as economic benefits (U.S. EPA, 2006b).
A 3 MW landfill gas project, for example, can support
more than 70 full-time jobs over the course of a year
(U.S. EPA, Undated). For more information on landfill
gas projects, see EPAs Landfill Gas Energy guide in the
Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series.
Low-impact hydropower. Hydropower projects
capture the kinetic energy of moving water to produce
electricity. While hydropower is renewable and
produces relatively few GHG emissions, hydropower
projects can have other impacts on the environment,
such as obstructing fish passage and altering land
resources by impounding excessive nutrients (U.S.
EPA, 2006a). The Low-Impact Hydropower Institute
(LIHI) provides certification to hydropower projects
that demonstrate minimal impact on the environment.
The EPA Green Power Partnership only recognizes as
green power hydroelectricity that is generated by LIHI-
certified projects (LIHI, 2008), run-of-river facilities
equal or less than five MW of nameplate capacity, or
facilities that consist of a turbine placed in a pipeline or
irrigation canal.
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON - LOW-IMPACT HYDRO
FACILITY
Seattle City Light, the municipal electric utility in Seattle,
Washington, owns and operates the Skagit Project on
the Skagit River. This LIHI-certified hydroelectric facility
has a capacity of 690 MW and generates 2.5 million
MWh annually. When conferred certification in 2003,
Skagit was the largest low-impact hydroelectric project
in the United States.
Source: LIHI, 2008a. Hydropower Reform Coalition, 2009.
Fuel cells. Fuel cells combine oxygen and hydrogen
to produce electricity without combustion, resulting
in lower GHG emissions. However, fuel cells require a
continuous stream of hydrogen-rich fuel and can only
be considered a renewable energy technology if they
operate on a renewably generated hydrogen fuel, such
as digester gas or pure hydrogen generated by solar or
wind energy generating systems (U.S. EPA, 2004).
3. TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS
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RIALTO, CALIFORNIA - WASTEWATER TREATMENT
FACILITY FUEL CELL
Rialto, California installed a 900 kW fuel cell system
at its municipal wastewater treatment facility. The
facility collects used fats, oils, and grease from local
restaurants, and puts them through a digester to
produce methane. The fuel cell uses the methane to
produce electricity. The city expects that the system
will reduce electricity costs by $800,000 annually, and
will avoid nearly 5.5 million tons of CO2 emissions. The
$15 million project cost will be partially lowered by a
$4 million rebate from the state, resulting in a payback
period of approximately 14 years.
Source: Chevron, 2007.
4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
A number of participants are may be helpful to plan-
ning and implementing on-site renewable energy
generation projects at local government facilities and
throughout the community including:
Mayor or county executives. The mayor or county
executive can play a key role in increasing public
awareness of the benefits of on-site renewable energy
generation. Including on-site renewable energy genera-
tion in the mayor or county executive's priorities can
lead to increased funding for renewable energy projects
and broader implementation throughout the local
government and the community.
/V The mayor of Newton, Massachusetts created
Ifflr ^e Mayor's Advisory Committee on Renew-
I—I able Resources to facilitate PV system instal-
lations at the local high school, a community
center, and in several residences (Newton, 2005).
In February 2007, the mayor of San Fran-
cisco announced an initiative to increase the
city's solar power capacity from 2 MW to 35
MW. The mayor's plan encourages private and
public entities to partner with the San Francisco
Public Utilities Commission (PUC) to achieve this
goal. In September 2007, as part of this initiative,
the mayor unveiled a new PV system at the city's
airport, a joint project between the airport and the
PUC. The new system, which will generate 628,000
kWh of electricity annually, has helped move the
city toward the mayor's goal of achieving 35 MW
solar capacity. In addition, the project is expected
to reduce CO2 emissions by 7,200 tons over the
next 30 years (San Francisco, 2007; 2007a).
City and county councils. Renewable energy genera-
tion activities are often initiated by the city and county
council.
In Albuquerque, New Mexico, the city coun-
cil passed a resolution that established a City
Renewable Energy Initiative, which includes
a requirement to retrofit all existing city-owned
facilities with renewable energy generation
systems. In addition, all new facilities over 100,000
square feet are to be equipped with renewable
energy generation systems capable of producing
enough energy to meet at least 25 percent of the
facility's energy requirements (Albuquerque, 2005).
BAYONNE, NEW JERSEY SCHOOL DISTRICT -
PV INSTALLATION
In cooperation with the New Jersey Board of Public
Utilities, the Bayonne Board of Education committed
to installing nearly 10,000 solar panels at the local high
school and eight elementary schools. These panels have a
combined capacity of approximately 2 MW of energy, and
produce enough to power 200 small homes for 30 years.
The state's Clean Energy Program provided $5.4 million
worth of solar equipment and installation credits for the
$13.2 million project. In addition to reducing reliance on
fossil fuels, reducing pollution, and decreasing the local
strain on the electric grid, the project is expected to save
the school district more than $500,000 in avoided annual
electricity costs.
The solar power system at one of Bayonne's schools
played a role in maintaining power at the school, which
also serves as a community evacuation center, during
Superstorm Sandy in 2012. The solar panels provided
power to the school's emergency circuits, reducing the
load on diesel backup generators that otherwise could
have run out of fuel.
Source: New Jersey, 2006; Hunterdon County Democrat, 2012.
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
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Planning departments. Many local governments
have modified local ordinances to facilitate on-site
renewable energy generation system installation. These
modifications often require coordination with local
planning staff.
After the city's planning department rejected
1Q] F multiple proposed wind energy generation
I—I projects for not conforming to an existing
ordinance, the city council of Fitchburg, Massa-
chusetts asked the planning department to develop
legislation that would modify the ordinance to
include specifications for wind projects. In Febru-
ary 2008, the planning department presented the
city council with proposed legislation that was
approved following a public hearing (Butler, 2008).
School districts. Installing renewable energy genera-
tion systems at schools can produce significant energy
cost savings while also serving as an educational tool
for demonstrating the benefits of renewable energy
generation to students and the community at large.
School boards can lead initiatives to install renewable
energy generation systems at district facilities. For
more information on how communities can reduce
energy consumption in K-12 schools, see EPA's Energy
Efficiency in K-12 Schools guide in the Local Govern-
ment Climate and Energy Strategy Series.
EPA gave the school district of Spirit Lake,
Iowa, a Green Power Partnership Award in
2012 for being among the nation's top 20
K-12 schools using renewable energy. The school
district installed two wind turbines to power its
elementary, middle, and high school, as well as the
administrative buildings. Together the two
turbines generate 1 MW of power, enough to
supply 46 percent of the district's needs. The
turbines saved the district more than $178,000 in
energy costs in 2011 alone (U.S. DOE, 2012; Sioux
City Journal, 2012).
1 Utilities. Many utilities offer technical and financial
assistance for on-site renewable energy generation
system installation and operation. A number of local
governments work with utilities to help local business-
es and residents take advantage of these opportunities.
In Sacramento County, for example, six city
councils have waived permitting fees for PV
installations at the behest of the local munic-
ipal utility, which is providing additional incen-
tives of $0.20 per watt AC to residential customers
who install grid-connected PV systems (SMUD,
2007;DSIRE,2013a).
Many local governments have worked with municipal
electric utilities to adopt and implement net metering
and renewable portfolio standard rules. Forty-three
states and the District of Columbia have established
net metering rules (DSIRE, 2013). These rules require
utilities to allow customers to use excess energy gener-
ated on site to offset their consumption of energy from
the grid. Where net metering rules are in place, affected
utilities are required to measure the flow of electricity
both to and from the customer. Customers pay for
interconnection costs, but receive credit toward the
following month's bill for net excess generation, typi-
cally at the utility's retail rate but sometimes at the lower
wholesale rate, depending on state net metering rules.
Absence or presence of net metering rules can be an
important consideration for local governments when
planning on-site renewable energy generation systems.
If there is a chance that a local government renewable
energy generation system will produce more electricity
than required, connection to the grid and net metering
rules can ensure that the excess electricity is rewarded
(U.S. DOE, 2006b; IREC, 2007).
The municipal electric utility in Tallahassee,
Florida offers net metering for commercial
and residential PV systems up to 10 kW in
capacity (Tallahassee, 2007).
In March 2007, the city of New Orleans
adopted net metering rules for utilities under
its jurisdiction that mirrored the statewide
net metering rules established in 2005 by the state
Public Service Commission (DSIRE, 2007d).
Non-profit organizations. Local governments can
obtain technical and financial assistance from non-
profit organizations to purchase and install on-site
renewable energy generation systems.
4. KEY PARTICIPANTS
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Ashland, Oregon, for example, received a
grant from a non-profit organization to
establish the Ashland Solar Pioneer
Program. The program installed solar PV systems
at four locations, including two city-owned build-
ings. Excess energy generated from the PV systems
is sold by the Ashland municipal utility to local
customers (Ashland, 2007).
Energy service companies (ESCOs). Many local
governments have partnered with ESCOs to install
renewable energy generation equipment on site at no
upfront cost. Using performance contracting agree-
ments, local governments can pay for installed equip-
ment over time using energy cost savings. See Section
7, Costs and Funding Opportunities, for more informa-
tion on ESCOs and performance contracting.
Cathedral City, California, partnered with an
ESCO to install a $2.7 million PV system
canopy at a city-owned parking garage. The
ESCO installed the PV system at no upfront cost
to the local government, and the city will pay for it
from the energy cost savings. The system has
already reduced the city's purchased power needs
by 10 percent (Honeywell, 2006; American City
and County, 2013).
Developers and financiers. A number of local govern-
ments have purchased and installed PV systems through
developers and financiers in an arrangement called the
"solar services model" that partners local governments
with developers who secure financing from a third party
and install PV systems at local government facilities.
For more information on the solar services model, see
Section 7, Costs and Funding Opportunities.
In 2011, the San Jose Unified School District
installed 5.5 MW of solar PV at 14 school
district locations, including four high
schools. This project was made possible by a part-
nership with Bank of America, which financed and
owns the PV installations, and Chevron Energy
Solutions, which installed and now maintains the
PV systems. The district mounted the solar instal-
lations on parking lot shade structures and roof-
tops. The school district has integrated renewable
energy and sustainability studies into its educa-
tional curriculum, and uses all 14 solar power
systems for educational purposes. The systems are
expected to save the school $25 million over their
lifetime and reduce the district's energy costs by 30
percent (NREL, 2011 a).
5. FOUNDATIONS FOR
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
Local governments have used several mechanisms to
initiate on-site renewable energy generation projects
at their facilities and to adopt incentives for local busi-
nesses and residents, including:
Local government resolutions. In some local govern-
ments, city and county councils must approve major
alterations to government buildings and significant
expenditures that require financing.
The city council in Ann Arbor, Michigan,
passed a resolution in 2006 setting a goal for
5,000 solar hot water and PV systems to be
installed across the city by 2015 (Ann Arbor, 2008;
U.S. DOE, 2011). The city has installed a PV
system on a science center and the city's farmer's
market, and is working with more than 15 part-
ners on outreach, education, and financing to
promote additional installations.
Building energy codes. Many local governments have
adopted building energy codes, some of which include
requirements that new buildings be designed to maxi-
mize potential for on-site renewable energy generation.
In Marin County, California, for example,
the local building energy code requires new
subdivisions to be designed to accommodate
passive solar heating and cooling. Under the code,
streets, lots, and building setbacks are to be
arranged so that buildings are oriented with the
long axis running east-west to maximize sunlight
on the rooftop (Marin, 2008).
Net metering rules. In states that do not have state-
wide net metering rules, or in states where net meter-
ing rules apply only to investor-owned utilities, local
governments may be able to establish their own net
metering rules for their own municipal utilities.
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
5. FOUNDATIONS
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MODEL ORDINANCES FOR WIND TURBINES
A number of state governments, such as Massachusetts,
have developed model zoning ordinances to facilitate
local government siting of wind turbines. In other states,
local governments have worked together to develop
model zoning ordinances. In Minnesota, for example,
several counties combined efforts with a non-profit
organization and a regional development corporation
to produce a Model Wind Ordinance and Companion
Document in 2006.
Sources: MDER, 2007; MN Project, 2007.
>\ The city council of Yellow Springs, Ohio
IfflF Pass£d an ordinance requiring the municipal
I—I utility to provide net metering for customers,
since the state's net metering rules apply only to
investor-owned utilities (DSIRE, 2007c).
Renewable portfolio standards. Many states have
established renewable portfolio standards for investor-
owned utilities or load-serving entities. These rules
require utilities to meet a certain percentage of their
energy supply with energy from qualified renewable
sources. Some local governments have adopted similar
requirements for municipal utilities.
In 2007, the city council of Austin, Texas
passed a resolution that requires the munici-
pal utility to use 30 percent renewable ener-
gy. The resolution requires that 100 MW of solar
PV be used to generate the electricity to meet the
30 percent mandate (Austin, 2007).
Zoning ordinances. Some local governments have
found that modifications to zoning ordinances can
facilitate renewable energy generation projects. For
example, some zoning ordinances prohibit erection
of structures that are in excess of 35 feet, a restriction
that precludes installation of most wind turbines and
some solar panels (U.S. DOE, 2005). A market survey
of the "small wind" manufacturing industry identified
restrictive zoning and permitting rules as the second
most significant barrier to market expansion (after cost
premiums) (Stimmel, 2007).
CALIFORNIA LAW REQUIRES LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
TO PERMIT CERTAIN WIND ENERGY PROJECTS
California passed legislation that prohibits local
ordinances that unnecessarily impede the permitting
of small wind projects. The legislation prohibits local
governments from adopting ordinances that are more
restrictive than the standards set forth in the legislation.
The law effectively requires local governments to permit
projects that meet these standards.
Source: California Assembly, 2001.
A number of local governments have adopted ordi-
nances with specifications for wind turbines that have
clarified and streamlined the local permitting process.
/V Rockingham County, Virginia, approved a
1 ffl f zonm§ ordinance in 2004 that established
I—I specifications for permitting the installation
of small wind turbines, including maximum
turbine height, minimum parcel size, minimum
setbacks, and noise limits (DSIRE, 2007b).
Mason City, Iowa, amended its existing
zoning ordinance to allow for wind turbines
to be installed in any zoning district (rather
than in commercial or industrial zones exclusive-
ly) and to establish rules for siting turbines of 100
kW or greater (Mason City, 2006).
Ballot initiatives. In some communities, constituent
approval may be necessary to obtain funds for on-site
renewable energy generation projects.
Columbia, Missouri, required voter approval
to establish a local renewable portfolio stan-
dard for the city's municipal utility, with a
goal to reach 2 percent generation from eligible
renewable energy by 2008, increasing to 15 percent
in 2023. By 2013, the city was generating 7.9
percent of its electricity from renewable energy
sources, surpassing its interim goal by 2.9 percent
(DSIRE, 2013b; U.S. DOE, 2012a; Columbia Water
& Light, 2013).
10
5. FOUNDATIONS
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Incentives for on-site renewable energy generation.
Many local governments have established incentives
for commercial and residential renewable energy
generation projects. These incentives include:
> Rebates. Local governments have established finan-
cial incentives for residents and businesses to install
renewable energy generation equipment.
In 2010, NYSERDA implemented a rebate
program for eligible residential and nonresi-
dential PV systems installations valued at
$0.90-1.30/watt installed (NYSERDA, 2013).
Expedited permitting. A number of local govern-
ments are facilitating commercial and residential
on-site renewable energy projects for residents by
expediting permitting processes.
Pike County, Illinois, has approved an ordi-
nance that establishes specific criteria for
wind energy projects. Providing developers
with an explicit list of criteria for approval will
help reduce the cost of designing on-site renewable
energy generation systems (DSIRE, 2007a).
Permit credits and waivers. A number of local
governments have adopted permit credits or permit
fee waivers to reduce the cost of installing on-site
renewable energy generation systems.
In Tucson, Arizona, a city council resolution
directed the Department of Development
Services to offer building permit credits of
up to $1,000 to applicants who install new PV,
solar hot water and space heating, or solar air
conditioning systems capable of producing a mini-
mum of 1,500 kWh annually (Tucson, 2005).
In 2007, the San Bernardino County, Califor-
nia Board of Supervisors waived permit fees
for installations of solar or wind power
generation systems, solar hot water heaters, and
energy-efficient heating and cooling systems on
rooftops throughout the county. The fees for these
permits had ranged from around $80 for water
heaters to nearly $250 for wind turbines (U.S.
DOE, 2007a; Gang, 2007).
Property tax credits and exemptions. Some local
governments have passed resolutions that modify
local tax codes to provide incentives for local busi-
nesses and residents to install on-site renewable
energy generation systems.
Harford County, Maryland, passed a resolu-
tion modifying the local tax code to offer
property tax credits for facilities that use
solar or geothermal systems. The credit is equal to
the lesser value of one year of property taxes, or
$2,500 per system or $5,000 per property per fiscal
year. (DSIRE, 2013c).
6. STRATEGIES FOR
EFFECTIVE PROJECT
IMPLEMENTATION
Local governments have used a number of approaches
to enhance the effectiveness of on-site renewable
energy generation at their own facilities and through-
out the community.
Bundle on-site renewable energy generation with
energy efficiency improvements. Combining renew-
able energy generation with energy efficiency improve-
ments that reduce energy loads enables local govern-
ments to meet a greater percentage of their electricity
with electricity from renewable sources. In addition,
the energy cost savings produced by energy efficiency
improvements can be used to offset the purchase and
installation costs of renewable energy generation
systems and thus shorten payback periods.
Combine on-site renewable energy generation with
green power purchases. Local governments can
increase their GHG emissions reductions by combin-
ing on-site renewable energy generation with green
power purchases.
Santa Monica, California, for example, has
installed PV systems at multiple city facilities
and is purchasing solar energy from an ener-
gy service provider to meet the balance of its ener-
gy needs (U.S. EPA, 2004; Santa Monica, 2007).
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
6. STRATEGIES
11
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For more information on how local governments can
implement green power purchases for their facilities
and throughout the community, see EPA's Green Power
Procurement guide in the Local Government Climate
and Energy Strategy Series.
Coordinate with neighboring local governments. By
coordinating with other communities, local govern-
ments can achieve greater regional energy, environ-
mental, and economic benefits. Encouraging on-site
renewable energy generation throughout a region can
lead to increased regional employment, reduced risk of
energy supply disruption, and lower upfront costs due
to market and technology maturation.
In Arizona, the Maricopa Association of
Governments, representing a collection of
communities around Phoenix, issued region-
al standard procedures for permitting PV system
installations. Cities outside the association have
since adopted the standards (Maricopa Associa-
tion of Governments, 2002).
The Alaska Village Electric Cooperative, a
member-owned utility cooperative that serves
55 villages in Alaska, has helped its member
villages reduce their dependence on expensive
fossil fuels by installing nearly 3,400 kW of wind
power generating capacity. As of 2012,12 commu-
nities had installed wind turbines (AVEC, 2012).
Engage the public. Engaging businesses and residents
in local government decision making can lead to
enhanced support for on-site renewable energy genera-
tion projects. This support can be especially important
given the significant local tax dollar investments
required by many of these projects.
The Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Sustainable
Energy Subcommittee conducted multiple
public workshops to inform local residents
and businesses of the town's efforts to construct
wind turbines at two local schools. These work-
shops provided town staff the opportunity to
address community questions and concerns
(Portsmouth, 2007).
Evaluate energy generation capacity. Because some
renewable energy generation technologies have higher
generation capacities in certain regions (e.g., wind
power and solar PV), many local governments have
conducted thorough evaluations of renewable energy
generation potential for their facilities.
Sell renewable energy certificates (RECs). RECs refer
to the environmental attributes associated with the
generation of renewable energy. These attributes can be
separated from the renewable energy, allowing renew-
able energy generators to sell RECs on the market as
a distinct product. The separated electricity, without
its attributes, is then environmentally equivalent to
conventional (i.e., non-renewable) electricity. RECs can
be bought by organizations that do not have direct grid
access to utility-provided green power, or do not have
access to enough utility-provided green power to meet
organizational goals (U.S. EPA, 2006b).
Local governments do not typically sell the energy
they generate. However, local governments can take
advantage of the market for RECs by selling the envi-
ronmental attributes associated with the renewable
energy they generate.
Local governments that sell their RECs can still benefit
from stable, predicable electricity costs, but environ-
mental claims are no longer valid. Because of the wide
range of prices for RECs on the market, some local
governments have been able to sell RECs from the elec-
tricity they generate while maintaining environmental
claims by using revenues from REG sales to purchase
lower-price RECs. Remaining revenues can be used
to offset purchase and installation costs for renewable
energy generation systems or to invest in other clean
energy activities. Alternatively, local governments
could sell RECs only for a period of time (e.g., until
generation system purchase costs are recovered) and
then retain the RECs to achieve the environmental
and technological attributes (NREL, 2007b). (For more
information on RECs, see EPA's Green Power Procure-
ment guide in the Local Government Climate and
Energy Strategy Series.)
12
6. STRATEGIES
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7 COSTS AND FUNDING
OPPORTUNITIES
This section provides information on the costs associ-
ated with on-site renewable energy generation, as well
as information on how local governments can use
multiple funding opportunities to address these costs.
Costs
Despite annual trends of declining costs, the cost
premium associated with renewable energy generation
systems can be significant (U.S. EPA, 2006b). Table 1,
Comparison ofOn-Site Renewable Energy Technology
Costs, provides rule-of-thumb approximations for
costs associated with five renewable energy genera-
tion technologies and provides comparisons with the
costs of other distributed generation systems that use
conventional energy sources.
The installed cost of on-site renewable energy genera-
tion systems can be influenced by a range of factors,
including the quality of the renewable resource in a
given area, proximity of equipment manufacturers,
and whether the installation was coupled with energy
efficiency upgrades. While costs remain significant,
they are decreasing. For example, according to a study
by DOE, the cost of purchasing and installing wind
turbines has decreased from approximately $3,500 per
kW in 1985 to less than $1,300 per kW in 2005 (U.S.
DOE, 2007). In addition, payback periods for on-site
renewable energy generation systems are likely to
continue to decrease electricity costs continue to rise.
Availability of federal, state, local, and utility tax credits
and rebates can also substantially reduce the payback
period for these systems.
Funding Opportunities
Funding for local on-site renewable energy generation
projects can come from a variety of sources, including:
Solar services model.5 Local governments have found
that they can finance solar PV system purchases and
installations at no upfront cost using the solar services
model. Under this model, the local government signs a
long-term (often 10 years) power purchase agreement
with a developer and agrees to host a PV system at its
5 The solar services model is sometimes referred to as an independent energy
Purchase.
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF ON-SITE ENERGY GENERATION TECHNOLOGY COSTS
Renewable
On-Shore
Wind Turbin
Conventional
Microturbine
Typical
Project Size
Typical Total
Installed
Cost
Annual
Operations
and
Maintenance
Costs (fixed)
Life Span
aNREL, 2012a.
b Lazard, 2012.
c Black & Veatch
5 kW-100 kW
$1,200-
$2,100 per kW
capacity3
$11.70-$60
($/kW-yr)a
30 years
,2012.
10 kW-
100 kW
$2,000-
$6,800
per kW
capacity3
$13-$110
($/kW-yr)a-b
2 tons-
10 tons"
$1,78-
$9,900
per ton
capacity"
$150-$222
($/kW-yr)a
30 years 30 years-
45yearsh
dWBDG, 2007.
6 CEC, 2007.
'CEC, 2007a.
200 kW
$3,000-
$4,000
per kW
capacity d
$0.005-
$0.010
perkW
capacity d
5 years-
10yearsj
5MW-
50 MW
$430-
$4,200
per kW
capacity3
$12-$87
($/kW-yr)a
30 years1
a U.S. DOE, 2003.
h REPP-CREST, Undated.
1 EIA, 2003.
25 kW-
100 kW
$700 to
$1,100 per kW
capacity6
$0.005-
$0.016 per kW
capacity6
45,000 hours
(~ 5 years)9
5 kW-7 MW
$1,075 per kW
capacity'
$0.005-
$0.015 per kW
capacity'
20 years-
25 years
JWBDG, 2007.
k Geothermal unit capacity is
measured in tons. One ton is equal
to 12,000 Btu of energy per hour.
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
7. COSTS AND FUNDING
13
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facility. The developer pays for the design, construc-
tion, and installation of the system, often arranging
for third-party financing through an investor. The
investor, who provides the upfront capital and owns
the project, receives returns from payments from the
host through the developer. The host's payments are
at a pre-determined fixed price and are assessed much
like a monthly utility payment. The local government,
as host, benefits from fixed-price payments, reduced
peak energy costs, and reduced GHG emissions, all at
no upfront cost.
Lease-purchase agreements. A tax-exempt lease-
purchase agreement (also known as a municipal
lease) allows public entities to finance purchases and
installation over long-term periods using operating
budget dollars rather than capital budget dollars.
Lease-purchase agreements typically include "non-
appropriation" language that limits obligations to the
current operating budget period. If a local government
decides not to appropriate funds for any year through-
out the term, the equipment is returned to the lessor
and the agreement is terminated. Because of this non-
appropriation language, lease-purchase agreements
typically do not constitute debt.
Under this type of agreement, a local government
makes monthly payments to a lessor (often a financial
institution) and assumes ownership of the equipment
at the end of the lease term, which commonly extends
no further than the expected life of the equipment.
These payments, which are often less than or equal
to the anticipated savings produced by the energy
efficiency improvements, include added interest. The
interest rates that a local government pays under these
agreements are typically lower than the rates under
a common lease agreement, because a public entity's
payments on interest are exempt from federal income
tax—meaning the lessor can offer reduced rates (U.S.
EPA, 2004a).
In Hayward, California, a city council resolu-
tion authorized the city to install a solar
power generating system at a local govern-
ment facility using a 25-year lease purchase agree-
ment. This agreement enabled the city to install
the system at an annual lease payment of $70,400
(Hayward, 2005).
Unlike bonds, initiating a tax-exempt lease-purchase
agreement does not require voter referendum to
approve debt, a process that can delay renewable
energy generation system installations. Tax-exempt
lease-purchase agreements typically require only
internal approval and an attorney's letter, a process that
often takes only one week (as opposed to months or
years for bonds). Local governments can expedite the
process by adding renewable energy generation proj-
ects to existing master lease-purchase agreements (U.S.
EPA, 2004a).
Performance contracting. An energy performance
contract is an arrangement with an ESCO that bundles
together various elements of an energy-efficiency
investment, such as installation, maintenance, and
monitoring of energy-efficient equipment. These
contracts, which often include a performance guaran-
tee to ensure the investment's success, are typically
financed with money saved through reduced utility
costs but may also be financed using tax-exempt lease-
purchase agreements (U.S. EPA, 2003).
CITY OF BOULDER, COLORADO - PERFORMANCE
CONTRACTING
In 2009, Boulder, Colorado, entered an Energy
Performance Contract (EPC) with the Colorado Energy
Office. Under this EPC, the city was able to improve the
energy efficiency for 66 city buildings whose upgrades
would not cost taxpayers any extra money and would
be paid back from the energy and water cost savings. As
of 2013, the city was able to reduce its CO2 emissions by
18% and energy use by 5,740MWh.
As of 2013, Boulder was already nearing the completion
of the EPC, which involved installing 336 kW of solar
energy, upgrading 28 more city facilities, and making
other energy efficiency upgrades to reduce CO2
emissions by another 2,000 metric tons.
Source: City of Boulder, 2013
Tucson, Arizona, used a performance
contract to install solar pool heaters and
domestic hot water heating systems at five
public swimming pools at no up-front cost. The
city uses its energy cost savings to pay for the
systems (Apollo Alliance, 2006; U.S. Conference of
Mayors, 2007).
14
7. COSTS AND FUNDING
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Tax-exempt lease-pur chase agreements are sometimes
used to underwrite energy performance contracts with
ESCOs. While local governments can often obtain
financing directly from an ESCO, many have found
that the interest rates available through tax-exempt
lease-purchase agreements are typically lower than the
rates offered by an ESCO. Tax-exempt lease-purchase
agreements can be especially effective when used to
underwrite energy performance contracts that include
guaranteed savings agreements, under which an ESCO
agrees to reimburse any shortfalls in expected energy
cost savings.
Under the solar services model, the host is not respon-
sible for performing or paying for maintenance on the
system. Instead, those services are arranged and paid
for by the developer. Ownership of the system can be
transferred to the host when the developer's or finan-
cier s costs are recovered. Local governments that have
used this model to install renewable energy generation
systems at their facilities include Bend, Oregon and
San Diego, California (Sandia, 2007; WRI, 2007; Bend,
2007; San Diego, 2007).
Local bonds. A number of local governments have used
bonds to finance renewable energy generation projects.
In 1981, Oregon passed the Oregon Small-
Scale Energy Loan Program, which uses
bond sales to finance small-scale energy
projects in the state. By 2012, the program
approved 854 loan applications, totaling around
$594 million in renewable energy funds (DSIRE,
2013d).
State government. Some states offer financial incen-
tives to local governments that invest in on-site
renewable energy generation. For example, NYSERDA
provides cash incentives to local governments, colleges,
and farms to offset purchase and installation costs of
small wind turbines. Local governments can be eligible
for up to $144,000, depending on the turbine model
and the tower height (NYSERDA, 2007). Some states
also offer financial assistance for local government
officials to receive training in on-site renewable energy
generation technologies.
The State of Alaska created the Renewable
Energy Grant Fund in 2008 to help utilities,
local governments, tribes, and other organi-
zations study the feasibility, design, permitting,
and construction of renewable energy projects.
The fund will distribute up to $50 million annually
until the program expires in 2023 (DSIRE, 2013e).
The Maryland Energy Administration
provides grants for commercial and residen-
tial solar PV and hot water systems. Grants
for businesses provide up to $60 per kW of PV
capacity installed and up to $20 per square foot of
solar hot water capacity installed. Residential
installations receive flat awards of $1,000 per proj-
ect for PV and $500 per project for solar hot water
(DSIRE, 2012a).
Federal government sources. Local governments can
obtain financial assistance for purchasing and installing
renewable energy generation systems from a variety of
federal government sources. The U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE), for example, provides grants and other
financial incentives to local governments.
Portland, Oregon received a $200,000 grant
through DOE's Solar America Cities
program to install solar PV systems at city
facilities and to fund the city's Solar Now! initia-
tive, which installs solar PV systems at local resi-
dences (Ryan, 2007).
Local governments and their residents and businesses
can find information on federal grants from more than
two dozen government agencies at http://www.grants.
govl.
Non-profit organizations. Non-profit organizations,
such as independent foundations, can be a source
of funding for local government renewable energy
initiatives. A number of investor-owned utilities have
created independent foundations to support clean
energy initiatives.
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
7. COSTS AND FUNDING
15
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An investor-owned utility established the
Illinois Clean Energy Community Founda-
tion in 1999 to invest in clean energy devel-
opment and land preservation projects. Since
awarding its first set of grants in 2001, the founda-
tion has issued more than 3,900 grants totaling
nearly $191 million. Many of these grants have
been for local wind and solar projects. For exam-
ple, the foundation awarded a $15,000 grant to a
consortium of six counties in western Illinois to
conduct a wind resource assessment study (ICECF,
2013).
Utilities. Local governments can sometimes obtain
financial assistance from utilities, many of which offer
rebates or other incentives for on-site renewable energy
projects.
In 2006, the California Public Utilities
Commission established the California Solar
Initiative, which requires three major Cali-
fornia utility companies to provide solar installa-
tion incentives for their customers, including local
government entities. This program estimates that
it will provide more than $3 billion in solar incen-
tives, and has set a goal to reach 1,940 MW of solar
capacity by 2017. As of 2013, it was on track to
meet this goal in late 2013 or 2014 (California
Public Utilities Commission 2013; Renewable
Energy World 2013).
Starting in 2010, Lakeland Electric, the
municipal utility in Lakeland, Florida, began
offering free installations of solar water heat-
ing systems in local homes. Residents pay only for
water used, which is provided at a solar energy rate
that is lower than the local electricity rate. The
municipal utility benefits from reduced peak ener-
gy demand and from the sale of the RECs associ-
ated with the production of the renewable energy
(DSIRE, 2007).
Voluntary ratepayer funding. Some local govern-
ments have obtained funding for renewable energy
generation projects from local residents.
Ellensburg, Washington used a unique
financing approach that partnered local elec-
tricity customers with the city to install a 36
kW PV system. The city offered to reduce custom-
ers' future electricity bills in compensation for
financial contributions toward the initial purchase
and installation costs of the PV system. For exam-
ple, if a customer were to contribute a certain
percentage of the total funds contributed by all
customers, that customer would receive that same
percentage of the project's total solar power
production, in the form of a deduction on their
electricity bill (Ellensburg, 2007).
8. FEDERAL, STATE,
AND OTHER PROGRAM
RESOURCES
Local governments can obtain technical assistance and
information from a number of federal, state, and other
programs.
Federal Programs
U.S. EPA Green Power Partnership. EPA's Green
Power Partnership is a voluntary program to support
the market for green power products. Local govern-
ments that meet partnership requirements earn public-
ity and recognition and are ensured of the credibility of
their green power purchases. In addition, partners can
receive EPA expert advice on identifying green power
products and purchasing strategies, along with tools
and resources to calculate the environmental benefits
of green power purchases. The annual percentage
requirements to qualify as a partner are as follows: 2
percent green power for entities using over 100 million
kWh, 3 percent for between 10 million kWh and 100
million kWh, 6 percent for between 1 million kWh
and 10 million kWh, and 10 percent for less than
1 million kWh.
Website: http://www. epa.gov/greenpower/
ENERGY STAR9. EPAs ENERGY STAR program
provides a number of energy efficiency tools and
resources that local governments can use when devel-
oping and implementing programs to reduce energy
consumption. The ENERGY STAR Purchasing and
16
8. OTHER RESOURCES
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Procurement program, for example, provides lists of
energy-efficient products (including geothermal heat
pumps) with performance specifications, product
savings calculators for assessing the cost-effectiveness
of purchasing these products, sample procurement
language, product retailer locators, and case studies.
Websites:
http://www. energystar.gov/
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfmfc = geo_heat.
pr_geo_heat_pumps
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).
NREL is the primary national laboratory for renewable
energy and energy efficiency research and develop-
ment. NREL provides local governments with informa-
tion on existing and emerging technologies, including
how to plan, site, and finance projects using renewable
energy sources. NREL also provides information on
developing rules and regulations for net metering and
renewable portfolio standards for municipal utilities.
Website: http://www. nrel.gov/learning/re_basics. html
U.S. EPA State and Local Climate and Energy
Program. This program helps state, local, and tribal
governments achieve their climate change and clean
energy goals by providing technical assistance, analytical
tools, and outreach support. It includes two programs:
The Local Climate and Energy Program helps local
and tribal governments meet multiple sustainability
goals with cost-effective climate change mitigation
and clean energy strategies. EPA provides local and
tribal governments with peer exchange training
opportunities along with planning, policy, technical,
and analytical information that support reduction
of GHG emissions.
The State Climate and Energy Program helps states
develop policies and programs that can reduce
GHG, lower energy costs, improve air quality and
public health, and help achieve economic develop-
ment goals. EPA provides states with and advises
them on proven, cost-effective best practices, peer
exchange opportunities, and analytical tools.
Website: http://www. epa.gov/statelocalclimate/
U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Effi-
ciency and Renewable Energy. This office administers
several programs that provide information and assis-
tance for on-site renewable energy generation projects,
including:
> Wind and Water Technologies Office. Through
this office, DOE works to improve wind energy
technology development and deployment to help
make wind energy competitive, and to develop new,
cost-effective hydropower, marine, and hydrokinetic
technologies that will have enhanced environmental
performance and energy efficiency. http://wwwl.
eere. energy.gov/windandhydro/
> Solar Energy Technologies Office. Through this
office, DOE partners state and local governments
with national laboratories, universities, industry,
and professional organizations to develop and
deploy cost-effective technologies to expand the use
of solar energy, http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/solar/
Geothermal Technologies Office. DOE administers
this office in partnership with the geothermal indus-
try to establish geothermal energy as an economi-
cally competitive contributor to the U.S. energy
supply, http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/
Bioenergy Technologies Office. Through this office,
DOE provides information on biomass applications
and potential and provides funding to develop the
nations biomass resources into cost-competitive,
high-performing biofuels, bioproducts, and biopow-
er. http://wwwl. eere. energy.gov/bioenergy/
Fuel Cell Technologies Program. Through this
program, DOE works to develop hydrogen, fuel cell,
and infrastructure technologies and to successfully
introduce them in the mainstream market, http://
wwwl. eere. energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/
Website: http://energy.gov/eere/
office-energy-efficiency-renewable-energy
State Programs
Many local governments work with state agen-
cies to obtain technical assistance and information
on purchasing and installing on-site renewable
energy generating systems. Some states assist local
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
8. OTHER RESOURCES
17
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governments in developing siting guidelines for on-site
renewable energy system installations.
Michigan has developed guidelines for local
governments to assist them in creating their
own permitting requirements for wind ener-
gy projects. The guidelines include recommended
zoning language for local governments to incorpo-
rate in ordinance modifications (Michigan DLEG,
2007).
Other Programs
American Council on Renewable Energy (ACORE).
ACORE, a non-profit organization composed of
members from renewable energy industries, trade
associations, financial institutions, governments,
end-users, and other affiliated non-profits, promotes
activities that support renewable energy technologies.
Through its Renewable Energy Finance Network, the
organization provides information on funding sources
for renewable energy and energy efficiency projects.
Website: http://www.acore.org/
American Wind Energy Association (AWEA).
AWEA is the U.S. trade association for wind power.
The association includes more than 1,000 member
organizations in the wind industry. AWEA promotes
wind power as a clean, renewable resource through its
annual industry conference, market reports and other
research, education, and legislative efforts.
Website: http://www.awea.org/
American Solar Energy Society (ASES). ASES is a U.S.
association for the solar energy industry. ASES publish-
es a monthly magazine, hosts the annual National Solar
Tour and Solar Conference, organizes various solar
industry conferences, and produces solar reports.
Website: http://www.ases.org/
Geothermal Energy Association (GEA). GEA is a U.S.
association for the geothermal energy industry. GEA
advocates for geothermal energy through an industry
forum, research reports, annual conferences, and legis-
lative efforts.
Website: http://www.geo-energy.org/
National Hydropower Association (NHA). NHA is
the national association for the U.S. hydropower indus-
try. The NHA is composed of almost 200 members
from the hydropower industry and promotes hydro-
power through advocacy, legislative efforts, and educa-
tional outreach.
Website: http://www.hydro.org/
Database of State Incentives for Renewables &
Efficiency (DSIRE). A project of the U.S. Department
of Energy, the North Carolina Solar Center, and the
Interstate Renewable Energy Council, DSIRE provides
information on federal, state, and local incentives
for renewable energy and energy efficiency projects,
including tax credits, loans, and grants. The database
also provides information on state and local regulations
pertaining to renewable energy purchases and on-site
renewable energy generation, including overviews of
state and local net metering rules, renewable portfolio
standards, and requirements for renewable energy use
at public facilities.
Website: http://www.dsireusa.org/
Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). IREC
promotes deployment of renewable energy generation
technologies at the state and local level by providing
information and assistance to state and local govern-
ments for a number of renewable energy activities,
including public education, procurement coordination,
and adoption of uniform standards.
Website: http://www. irecusa. org/
9. CASE STUDIES
The following case studies describe two comprehensive
programs for generating renewable energy at local
government facilities and reaching out to the commu-
nity to involve local businesses and residents. Each case
study describes how the program was initiated, key
program features, and program benefits.
Boston, Massachusetts
PROGRAM INITIATION
Boston joined the ICLEI Cities for Climate Protection
initiative in 2000 and hired an energy manager in 2001.
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9. CASE STUDIES
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In 2005, the city's mayor signed the U.S. Mayors
Climate Protection Agreement committing the city to
meet Kyoto Protocol GHG emission reduction targets
of 7 percent below 1990 levels by 2012, and 80 percent
below 1990 levels by 2050. An executive order in 2007
reinforced this commitment, and required that all local
government properties be evaluated for renewable
energy generation potential. In 2007, the city also creat-
ed the Boston Energy Alliance, a non-profit corpora-
tion to promote clean energy throughout the local
government and the community. The city expects that
the corporation's activities will involve participation of
25 to 35 percent of the city's electricity customers by
2013. Also in 2007, the U.S. Department of Energy
named Boston as one of its Solar America Cities, lead-
ing to the establishment of the Solar Boston initiative.
PROFILE: BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
Area: 48 square miles
Population: 636,000 (2012)
Structure: Boston residents elect a mayor every four
years, and the mayor can serve for multiple terms.
Members of the Boston City Council are elected every
two years. The city's renewable energy activities,
including the Solar Boston initiative, are directed by the
Department of the Environment.
Program Scope: Boston has installed wind and PV
energy systems at a broad range of facilities, including
government buildings, public schools, and affordable
housing units, and has worked with the private sector to
encourage renewable energy generation at a number of
businesses and residences.
Program Creation: Boston launched the Solar Boston
initiative following the city's selection as a DOE Solar
America City in 2007. Previous activities, including
participation in the ICLEI Cities for Climate Protection
and the U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement,
contributed to the development of this initiative.
Program Results: By the end of 2008, the city expected
to have a combined total of 1 MW solar PV capacity
installed. Recent solar PV mapping efforts reveal that the
city could meet 14 to 19 percent of its electricity supply
using PV systems.
PROGRAM FEATURES
Combining on-site renewable energy generation
with green power purchases. In addition to pursuing
wind, solar, and biomass energy options, 11 percent
of the electricity the city purchases comes from green
power sources. This commitment will increase to 15
percent by 2012, as directed by a 2007 executive order
(Boston, 2007).
Solar America City. DOE has named Boston as one
of its "Solar America Cities." The Solar America Cities
partnership is an initiative to establish model local
governments that help improve national solar infra-
structure and facilitate mainstream adoption of solar
technologies (Boston, 2008a).
Solar mapping. As part of its activities under the
Solar Boston initiative, Boston has used CIS technol-
ogy to evaluate and map the potential for PV systems
throughout the city. The mapping revealed a total
potential capacity of between 670 MW and 900 MW
on rooftops across the city. A similar effort is underway
to evaluate the potential for solar water heating appli-
cations (IREC, 2008).
Affordable housing. The city is working with the
Department of Neighborhood Development and the
Boston Housing Authority to encourage installing solar
PV equipment on affordable housing units. The Boston
Housing Authority is investigating options for using a
performance contract to install between 115 kW and
120 kW of PV capacity (Boston, 2008a). (For informa-
tion on how Boston is improving the energy efficiency
of its affordable housing, see EPA's Energy Efficiency
in Affordable Housing guide in the Local Government
Climate and Energy Strategy Guides series.)
Boston Energy Alliance. This non-profit corporation
was formed to facilitate the city's energy efficiency and
renewable energy activities. The corporation will use
a $300 to $500 million revolving loan fund to finance
energy efficiency improvements and renewable energy
generation systems at city facilities (Boston, 2008a).
Solar workshop. In January 2008, the city hosted a
workshop to present its goals for the future of solar in
the city, and to invite stakeholders to participate in city
activities (Boston, 2008c).
Wind power. The city is working with the Massa-
chusetts Technology Collaborative (MTC) to assess
the feasibility of installing wind turbines on an island
in the city's harbor. This study is being conducted in
conjunction with a study by the state Water Resources
Authority to install another turbine in the harbor.
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9. CASE STUDIES
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The city is also supporting an initiative by the Commu-
nity Wind Collaborative to install small wind turbines
throughout the city using $4 million in funds from the
MTC Renewable Energy Trust. In addition, the city
plans to install a 1.8 kW turbine at the city hall in 2008
and is in the process of developing a Wind Energy
Zoning provision for the local zoning code that would
streamline siting of wind turbines in the city (Boston,
2008; Boston, 2008b; Boston, 2008d).
PROGRAM RESULTS
The city's initiative has resulted in solar PV installa-
tions on a broad range of buildings, including govern-
ment buildings, housing developments, and public
schools (Boston, 2007a). Under the Solar Boston
initiative, the city expected to reach nearly 1 MW of
total installed PV capacity in 2008 (1.8 MW if PV
installations on affordable housing units are included)
(Boston, 2008a). The solar PV mapping activities,
which revealed a total capacity ranging between 670
MW and 900 MW, indicate that solar PV could supply
between 14 and 19 percent of the entire city's electricity
demand (IREC, 2008).
Website: http://www. cityofboston.gov/environmental-
andenergy/conservation/solar.asp
Waverly, Iowa
Waverly Light and Power, a municipal electric util-
ity owned by the city of Waverly, Iowa, was the first
municipal utility in the country to generate its own
wind power. The utility has set a goal of meeting 20
percent of its energy needs by 2020 with its own on-site
renewable energy.
PROGRAM INITIATION
The utility's energy demand grew dramatically in the
1980s, leading city planners to consider alternative
energy supplies. When the utility's purchased power
contract terminated in 1991, it conducted a study to
assess the feasibility of generating energy from renew-
able sources. In 1993, with grants from the American
Public Power Association, Waverly Light and Power
installed its first wind turbine (ICLEI, Undated; U.S.
DOE, 2003).
PROFILE: WAVERLY, IOWA
Area: 33 square miles
Population: 4,900 customers
Structure: Waverly Light and Power is a city-owned
utility governed by the city-nominated Waverly Light
and Power Board and a board-selected general
manager.
Program Scope: Waverly Light and Power's Green
Choice and Energy Tags programs are available to the
municipal utility's electric customers.
Program Creation: Waverly Light and Power installed
its first wind turbine in 1993 in an effort to reduce the
utility's rising energy costs.
Program Benefits: The utility is obtaining 5 percent of
its electricity from renewable sources. This effort has
resulted in CO2 emission reductions as high as 7,000
tons in one year.
Source: ICLEI, Undated; Waverly, 2007.
PROGRAM FEATURES
To complement its first turbine purchased in 1993 (an
80 kW system), Waverly Light and Power purchased
two additional 750 kW turbines in 1999. In 2002, it
replaced the first turbine with a 900 kW turbine, which
produces nearly 1.85 million kWh annually. In 2005,
in order to purchase additional land on which new,
state-of-the-art turbines could be built, the utility sold
its two 750 kW turbines. With the addition of two new
900 kW turbines purchased in 2007, the utility planned
to produce nearly 6 million kWh annually beginning in
2008.
The cost of the turbines was financed in part by grants
(from the American Public Power Association and
from NREL) and in part from the utility's capital
budget. The currently active turbine cost just over $1
million installed. Maintenance costs typically reach
approximately $1,500 per year per turbine. The utility
offers its customers the opportunity to purchase some
of this green power through its Green Choice program.
Many local customers pay a premium of less than $2
per month to receive green power.
In addition to generating and selling renewable
energy, Waverly Light and Power became the first U.S.
utility to offer RECs in 2001. Under its Iowa Energy
Tags Program, Waverly Light and Power sells the
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9. CASE STUDIES
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environmental attributes of the green power it produc-
es to help pay for future investments in wind energy.
Each tag represents 2,500 kWh of green power, which
translates into a savings of more than two tons of CO2
emissions (WLP, 2007; WLP, 2007a; WLP, 2006; WLP,
2005; ICLEI, Undated; U.S. DOE, 2003).
PROGRAM BENEFITS
In 2002, Waverly Light and Power's wind turbines
reduced the city's CO2 emissions by nearly 7,000
tons. In 2005, the CO2 emissions reduction was
approximately 4,300 tons (following the sale of the
two 750 kW turbines to raise money for investments
in newer wind technologies). In addition, the sale of
800 energy tags earns the utility approximately $40,000
annually, money that is earmarked for investment in
new renewable energy sources. Through 2003, Waverly
Light and Power was meeting 5 percent of its energy
demands from wind power (ICLEI, Undated; WLP
2006).
Website: http://wlp.waverlyia.com/renewable_energy.
asp
10. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES AND INFORMATION RESOURCES
Title/Description
Examples of On-Site Renewable Energy Generation
Website
Albuquerque, New Mexico. Albuquerque established a Renewable Energy Initiative that includes
retrofitting existing public buildings with renewable energy generating systems. In addition, all
new facilities over 100,000 square feet are required to meet 25 percent of their energy use with
renewable energy.
http://www.cabq.gov/energy/
documents/Resolution329.doc
Anaheim, California. The city installed a 12,500 square foot solar array on the roof of the Anaheim
Convention Center, the largest convention center on the West Coast. This system generates
140,000 kWh of electricity annually.
http://www.anaheim.net/utilities/
adv_svc_prog/renew_ energy/renew.
html
Ann Arbor, Michigan. The city council in Ann Arbor, a DOE-awarded Solar America City, passed a
resolution that sets a goal of having 5,000 PV systems installed throughout the city by 2015. The
city achieved its goal earlier than expected.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/solar/
pdfs/50192_annarbor.pdf
Ashland, Oregon. Ashland established a Solar Pioneers Program that involved the installation of
solar energy systems at city buildings. Energy produced by these systems is delivered to residents
who fund the program by voluntarily contributing to the municipal utility's solar surcharge. The
program was such a success that Ashland initiated a Solar Pioneers II Program, which funded the
installation of a 63 kW solar system on the City Service Center.
http://www.ashland. or. us/Page.
asp?NavlD=14017
Austin, Texas. Austin, a DOE-awarded Solar America City, established a renewable portfolio
standard that requires the local municipal utility to deliver 35 percent renewable energy by 2020.
The standard is required to be met, in part, by 200 MW of solar PV power.
http://energy.gov/savings/austin-
renewables-portfolio-standard
Berkeley, California. The City of Berkeley installed a 1.8 kW wind turbine at its Shorebird Nature
Center to produce electricity for saltwater aquariums, computers, and lighting. The turbine,
which was specifically designed to generate electricity in low winds, is reducing the city building's
annual GHG emissions by 80 percent.
http://www. ci.berkeley. ca. us/
citycouncil/2006citycouncil/
packet/032106/2006-03-21%20
ltem%2013%20 Wind%20Turbine%20
at%20Shorebird%20Nature%20
Center.pdf
Boise, Idaho. Boise completed a geothermal loop that recycles geothermal water used to heat
more than 65 buildings in the city. Based on the project's success, Boise developed a geothermal
system to generate heat and power for the Boise State University campus.
http://publicworks.cityofboise.org/
services/geothermal/
http://news.boisestate.edu/
update/2012/11/16/geothermal-now-
heating-up-campus/
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10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
21
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Title/Description
Website
Boston, Massachusetts. Boston installed a 1.9 kW wind turbine on the roof of the city hall. As of
2013, the city was studying the feasibility of more urban rooftop wind turbines to comply with
the Massachusetts Green Communities Act, which requires the state to generate 20 percent of its
electricity from renewable energy sources.
http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/
Available/E-project-050410-163916/
unrestricted/mc_rd_an^js_Rooftop_
Wind_IQP_Report.pdf
Cayuga County, New York. Cayuga County constructed an anaerobic digestion facility to turn
waste from local dairy farms and food processors into biofuels to produce electricity and heating
for local county buildings. This system generates 5,157,000 kWh of electricity annually.
http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.
biblio.jsp?osti_id=1070030
Chico, California. Chico installed a combined 1.2 MW of PV power at two municipal facilities,
the Water Pollution Control Plant and the downtown parking system. The PV systems provide 19
percent of the city's municipal load and reduce CO2 emissions by nearly 750 metric tons annually.
http://us.sunpowercorp.com/cs/Sate
llite?blobcol=urldatafrblobheader=a
pplication%2Fpdffrblobheadername3
=Content-Disposition(tblobheaderva
lue3=attachment%3B+filename%3D9
04%2S2F662%2S2Fsp_chicocity_en_
ltr_p_cs.pdffrblobkey=idfrblobtable=
MungoBlobs&blobwhere=130025852
1092&ssbinary=true
Culver City, California. The city council of Culver, California, passed an ordinance requiring that
all new constructions for commercial and residential buildings in the city must install 1 kW of
PV energy generation for every 10,000 square feet. As part of this requirement, the city council
waived the solar permit fees to reduce the cost of installations.
http://www.culvercity.Org/~/media/
Files/BuildingSafety/AlternateEnergy/
MandatorySolarPhotovoltaic
Requirement_Spring2008%20pdf.ashx
Hayward, California. The city installed a 1 MW solar system for its Water Pollution Control Facility.
This system will generate an estimated 1.95 MW annually and contribute to 24 percent of the
facility's waste treatment energy needs.
http://www.businesswire.com/news/
home/20110309006551/en/City-
Hayward-REC-Solar-Unveil-1-MW
Kotzebue, Alaska. Kotzebue installed 17 wind turbines to provide electricity to its residents. This
1.14 MW system provides an alternative to electricity generation from diesel generators, which
require fuel that must be shipped over 1,200 miles.
http://www.kea.coop/articles/the-
wind-farm-that-continues-to-grow/
Mackinaw City, Michigan. Mackinaw City installed two wind turbines that combined produce
approximately 2,000,000 kWh annually and are being used to teach students at the local
community college.
h ttp://www. ma ckina wcity. org/wind-
turbine-generators-140/
Minneapolis, Minnesota. Minneapolis installed solar energy generating systems on four city
buildings (including a convention center), and developed a partnership with the city of Saint Paul
that led to a series of joint climate protection agreements and greenhouse gas reduction initiatives.
Murray City, Utah. Murray City adopted rules that require the municipal utility to provide bi-
directional net metering to customers who produce up to 10 kW of power from solar, wind, or
hydroelectric sources.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/solar/
pdfs/51054_minneapolis_stpaul.pdf
http://www.dsireusa.org/library/
includes/incentivesearch.
cfm?lncentive_Code =
UTllRfrSearch = TableTypefrtype =
Net&CurrentPagelD = 7&EE = O&RE = 1
North Bonneville, Washington. North Bonneville installed a geothermal exchange system in its
city hall. The system reduces energy costs by an estimated $1,500 annually.
h ttps://www.geo therma I- library, org/
index.php?mode=pubsfraction=view
(trecord=1015540
Portland, Oregon. The Portland Department of Transportation uses solar energy to power
vehicles and parking meters. The Portland recycling facility runs on a 10 kW wind turbine. In
addition, Portland developed a solar highway, composed of 594 solar panels along the side of
Interstate 5 and Interstate 205 South. This 104 kW system contributes one-third of the energy
needed to power lighting on the highway.
http://www.portlandoregon.gov/
transportation/47418
http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/
OIPP/pages/inn_solarhighway.aspx
San Francisco, California. The San Francisco Public Utilities Commission installed 24,000 solar
panels on the roof of Sunset Reservoir. This 5 MW system provides clean energy to the city's
municipal facilities.
http://www.sfbuildingtradescouncil.
org/content/view/461/65/
22
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Title/Description Website
Yarmouth, Maine. Students at Yarmouth High School initiated a solar power project involving
the construction of a 3,600 kW system that offsets more than 1.8 metric tons of CO2 emissions
annually.
http://www.maine.gov/mpuc/
staying_informed/news/
PRVRRFYarmouthlO-23-2007.doc
Examples of Incentives for Residential or Commercial On-Site Renewable Energy Generation
Honolulu, Hawaii. The County of Honolulu offers qualified homeowners zero-interest loans to
install solar water heating and PV systems at their homes.
Huntington Beach, California. Huntington Beach has adopted an Energy-Efficient Permit Fee
Waiver Program for solar equipment that produces renewable energy on-site, including PV
systems and solar water heating systems.
San Bernardino, California. The San Bernardino Board of Supervisors approved a waiver for
building permit fees for installation of solar energy systems, wind turbines, tankless water heaters,
and energy-efficient HVAC systems.
Santa Clara, California. The city of Santa Clara offers residents and businesses the opportunity to
rent city-owned solar equipment. Residents pay a small installation fee in addition to the costs of
energy from the grid, but are allowed to keep the energy cost savings from the on-site renewable
energy generated.
http://www.dsireusa.org/incentives/
incentive.cfm?lncentive_Code=Hll5F
http://www.ci. huntington-beach.
ca.us/files/users/planning/planning-
newsletter-4q-2012.pdf
http://www.sbcounty.gov/
greencountysb/building_permit_fee_
waivers.aspx
http://www. dsireusa. org/
incentives/incentive.cfm?lncentive_
Code=CA19F
Thief River Falls, Minnesota. Thief River Falls offers local residents loans of up to $8,000 at 5 http://www.citytrf.net/Printable_
percent interest and a rebate of $2,000 for the installation of ground source heat pumps. forms.htm
Examples of Ordinances Supporting Renewable Energy Generation
Ashe County, North Carolina. In 2007, Ashe County passed a local ordinance that adopted
regulations to streamline permitting of wind energy generation systems.
Columbia, Missouri. In 2004, The City of Columbia approved a renewable energy ordinance that
requires the municipal utility to purchase increasing levels of energy from renewable resources,
rising to 15 percent of electric retail sales by 2022.
Maricopa County, Arizona. The Maricopa County Zoning Ordinance contains provisions for siting
renewable energy systems, allowing renewables to be installed in any zoning district within the
county as long as certain siting requirements are met.
http://www. dsireusa. org/
incentives/incentive.cfm?lncentive_
Code=NCllR
http://www.gocolumbiamo.com/
WaterandLight/Documents/
RenewReport.pdf
http://energy.gov/savings/maricopa-
county-renewable-energy-systems-
zoning-ordinance
Information Resources on On-Site Renewable Energy Generation
American Wind Energy Association. The American Wind Energy Association has a number of
helpful resources available to consumers interested in on-site renewable energy, including fact
sheets and cost estimates.
2012 Wind Technologies Market Report. This DOE report provides statistics on national wind
power capacity, turbine size and cost, wind power prices, and policy efforts driving wind power
development.
APS Energy. APS Energy partnered with multiple local governments to install solar energy systems
at municipal facilities. This APS Energy website provides information on a sample of these
projects.
Community Jobs in the Green Economy. This Apollo Alliance and Urban Habitat report describes
the potential for job creation from investing in energy efficiency and renewable energy.
FEMP Renewable Energy. The DOE FEMP program provides information on federal government
initiatives for using renewable energy, including on-site generation.
http://www.awea. org /Resources/
index.aspx?navltemNumber=506
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/wind/
pdfs/2012_ wind_ technologies_
market_report.pdf
http://www.aps.com/en/
communityandenvironment/
environment/solarinitiatives/Pages/
home.aspx
http://www.urbanhabitat.org/files/
Community- Jobs -in- the- Green -
Economy- web.pdf
https://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/
technologies/renewable_energy.html
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
23
-------
Title/Description
Fuel Cell Technology. This website, developed as a component of the Whole Building Design
Guide, provides information on fuel cell technologies and applications.
Geothermal Energy in County Facilities. The National Association of Counties developed this
resource to provide information on the costs and benefits of applying geothermal technologies in
local government facilities.
Geothermal Heat Pumps. This DOE website provides information on the basics of geothermal
exchange. The site includes fact sheets on the logistics of using geothermal heat pumps in
different building types.
Geothermal Resources Maps. DOE collected information on the location of geologic resources
that could make geothermal applications potentially feasible.
Government Facilities Case Studies. The Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium collected fact
sheets on municipal government examples of geothermal applications.
Guide to Purchasing Green Power. This EPA guide provides information on purchasing green
power. Chapter 7 addresses on-site renewable energy projects.
High Performance Technologies: Solar Thermal & Photovoltaic Systems. This DOE report
provides information on building zero-energy homes using solar thermal and PV technologies.
Local governments can find information on site planning and orientation of solar thermal and PV
applications.
Green Power from Landfill Gas. This EPA fact sheet provides information and statistics on how
landfills can be used to produce electricity in a manner that is protective of natural resources.
Jobs from Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency. This fact sheet provides information on
existing and projected energy efficiency- and renewable energy-related jobs in the U.S. by sector.
Money from the Sun: An Investor's Guide to Solar-Electric Profits. This article describes the long-
term benefits of investing in solar energy systems.
Potential for Energy Efficiency, Demand Response, and On-site Renewable Energy to Meet
Texas's Growing Electricity Needs. This ACEEE report provides policy recommendations to meet
growing energy demand in Texas. Recommendations include development of the public buildings
program and providing incentives for onsite renewable energy.
Putting Renewables to Work: How Many Jobs Can the Clean Energy Industry Generate. This
University of California-Berkeley report shows the economic benefits of investing in renewable
energy in terms of jobs created.
Renewable Energy and Distributed Generation Guidebook. This Massachusetts Division of Energy
Resources report provides an overview of implementation issues associated with siting and
generating distributed energy and connecting to the grid.
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency: Economic Drivers for the 21st Century. This report
was developed by the American Solar Energy Society to describe the existing and projected
breakdown of renewable energy and energy efficiency-related employment in the United States.
Renewable Energy Basics. NREL provides basic information on seven forms of renewable energy
applications.
Website
http://www. wbdg. org/resources/
fuelcell.php
http://www.naco.org/programs/
csd/Green%20Government%20
Documents/EE_Factsheet%20-%20
Geothermal%20Energy%20in%20
County%20Facilities.pdf
http://energy.gov/energysaver/
articles/geothermal-heat-pumps
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/
geothermal/maps.html
http://www.geoexchange.org/
federal/case.htm
http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/
pdf/purchasing_guide_ for_ web.pdf
http://appsl.eere.energy.gov/
buildings/publications/pdfs/building_
america/4108S.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/lmop/
documents/pdfs/LMOPGreenPower.
pdf
http://www.eesi.org/fact-sheet-
jobs-renewable-energy-and-energy-
efficiency- 01-jun -2011
http://www. eerl. org/index.
php?P=FullRecord&ID=3822
http://aceee.org/research-report/
e073
http://rael.berkeley.edu/files/2004/
Kammen-Renewable-Jobs-2004.pdf
http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/doer/
pub-info/guidebook.pdf
http://www.greenenergyohio.org/
page, cfm ?pagelD=22S7
http://www.nreigov/learning/re_
basics.html
24
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
-------
Title/Description Website
The Role of Distributed Generation in Power Quality and Reliability. This NYSERDA report
assesses the power quality and supply reliability benefits of distributed generation technologies,
including on-site renewable energy generation.
Single, Paired, and Aggregated Anaerobic Digester Options. This study presents an overview of
the feasibility of installing anaerobic digesters to turn dairy farm waste into usable biofuels.
Solar America Initiative. In 2007, DOE launched the Solar America Initiative to accelerate solar
power applications in 13 model cities across the United States.
Solar Energy Industry Association. This solar trade association provides resources and research
on how to advance solar implementation in the United States.
http://www.localpower.org/
documents/reporto_nyserda_
reliability.pdf
http://www.manuremanagement.
cornell.edu/Pages/General_Docs/
Fact_Sheets/Perry_Feas_Study_
factsheet.pdf
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/solar/
solar_america/index.html
http://www.seia.org/research-
resources
Solar Swimming Pool Heaters. This fact sheet provides information on the technical aspects and http://energy.gov/energysaver/
benefits of installing solar water heaters on swimming pools. articles/solar-swimming-pool-heaters
Using Distributed Energy Resources. This DOE fact sheet provides an overview of the benefits http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/
of using distributed energy resources, such as on-site energy generating technologies, and pdfs/31570.pdf
describes the process for determining the need for distributed energy resources at a facility.
Wind Energy Economics. The Iowa Energy Center developed this resource to provide information
on the cost-effectiveness of wind turbines.
http://www.iowaenergycenter.org/
wind-energy-manual/wind-energy-
economics/
Resources on Financing for On- Site Renewable Energy Generation
The Borrower's Guide to Financing Solar Energy Systems. This brochure provides an overview of
financial assistance opportunities offered by the federal government and private lenders for the
installation of on-site renewable energy systems.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/
fy99osti/26242.pdf
DSIRE. The Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy provides information on state and http://www.dsireusa.org/
local government renewable energy and energy efficiency incentives.
Energy Tax Incentives. The Tax Incentives Assistance Project, a collaborative of non-profit
organizations, government agencies, and other stakeholders, provides consumers and businesses
with information on incentives available through the federal Energy Policy Act of 2005.
Federal Grants. The federal grants.gov program provides information on financial incentives
available from 26 government agencies for a range of investments, including renewable energy
generation.
Handbook on Renewable Energy Financing for Rural Colorado. This handbook provides
information on state and federal resources for financing renewable energy projects in Colorado.
Many of the resources identified may be relevant to local governments outside Colorado.
Innovations in Renewable Energy Financing. This National Renewable Energy Laboratory paper
provides information on new strategies for financing renewable energy projects, including REC
sales.
http://www.energytaxincentives.org/
http://www.grants.gov/
http://www.vv/fic/povver/figamer/ca.
gov/filter_detail.asp?itemid=1101
http://www.usaee.org/usaee2007/
submissions/OnlineProceedings/
lnnovations%20in%20Renewable%20
Energy%20Financing%20_Cory_%20
-%20FINAL.pdf
Tools for Screening On-Site Renewable Energy Generation Applications
Clean Power Estimator. This tool provides quick cost-benefit analysis for PV, solar thermal,
wind, and energy efficiency technologies for residential and commercial buildings in specified
geographic regions.
http://www.gosolarcalifornia.org/
tools/clean_power_estimator.php
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
10. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
25
-------
Title/Description
eGRID. EPA's eGRID is a comprehensive source of data on the environmental characteristics of
domestic electric power generation. It compiles data from 24 federal sources on emissions and
resource mixes for virtually every power plant and company that generates electricity in the
United States. It also provides user search options, including aspects of individual power plants,
generating companies, states, and regions of the power grid.
EPA Power Profiler Tool. This EPA tool provides emission factors for a given region to help
calculate the pollution benefits of energy savings. Users enter a ZIP code and specify their
electric utility. This tool uses information from EPA's eGRID database of emissions and electricity
generation data.
Find Solar. Find Solar is a collaborative project involving DOE and the American Solar Energy
Society that enables a user to calculate the costs, savings, and GHG emissions reductions of
converting a portion of a building's energy use to solar generation.
FRESA. The Federal Renewable Energy Screening Application was developed by DOE as a tool for
assessing the comparative benefits of different renewable energy applications at federal facilities.
ProForm. This tool, developed by LBNL, calculates the financial indicators and reduced GHG
emissions of renewable energy projects.
PV Watts. This NREL performance calculator estimates the energy and cost savings from grid-
connected PV systems from various locations around the country. The user can adjust various
data assumptions to accommodate for regional and system specifics.
RETScreen. This international tool was developed by Natural Resources Canada to evaluate the
energy production and savings, emissions reductions, and financial viability of different types
of energy efficiency and renewable energy investments, including on-site renewable energy
generation.
Website
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/
egrid/index.htm
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/
powerprofiler.htm
http://www.findsolar.com/index.
php?page = rightforme
https://www3.eere.energy.gov/femp/
fresa/
http://poet.lbl.gov/Proform/
http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/pvwatts/
http://www.retscreen.net/ang/d_o_
view.php
11. REFERENCES
Albuquerque. 2005. Resolution R-05-329: Adopting Poli-
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American City and County. 2013. Energy Plan Reaps
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Anaheim. 2001. Anaheim Public Utilities Advantage
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Ann Arbor. 2008. 5,000 Solar Roofs. Available: http://
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Apollo Alliance. 2006. New Energy for Cities. Avail-
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Ashland. 2007. Ashland Solar Pioneer Program. Avail-
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Austin. 2007. Austin Climate Protection Plan. Avail-
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Austin Energy. 2007. Rebates and Loans. Available:
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AVEC. 2012. AVEC Wind Program Recap. Avail-
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projects/Wind%20Program%20Recap.pdf. Accessed
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26
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AWEA. 2007. Wind Energy Basics. Available: http://
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AWEA. 2007a. The Economics of Small Wind. Available:
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Black & Veatch. 2012. Cost & Performance Data for
Power Generation. Available: http://bv.com/docs/
reports-studies/nrel-cost-report.pdf.
Bend. 2007. Solar Services Agreement. Available: http://
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Berkeley. 2007. Services, Incentives, and Energy Rebate
Programs. Available: http://www.cityofberkeley.info/
sustainable/residents/ResSidebar/EnergyServices.
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Boston. 2007. Executive Order: Relative to Climate
Action in Boston. Available: http://www.cityofboston.
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Boston. 2007a. Sustainability Accomplishments. Avail-
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Boston. 2008. Boston Plans Wind Turbines for City
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Accessed 3/11/2008.
Boston. 2008a. Thinking BIG About Boston's Solar
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pdf. Accessed 3/27/2008.
Boston. 2008b. Wind Energy. Available: http://www.
cityofboston.gov/environmentalandenergy/wind.asp.
Accessed 3/27/2008.
Boston. 2008c. Solar Boston. Available: http://www.
cityofboston.gov/climate/solar.asp. Accessed
3/27/2008.
Boston. 2008d. Mayor Announces Plans for Wind
Turbines. Available: http://www.cityofboston.gov/
climate/solar.asp. Accessed 3/27/2008.
Boulder County. 2013. Sustainable Energy Plan. Avail-
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ability/pages/sustainableenergyplan.aspx. Accessed
10/18/2013..
BUSD. 2007. Resolution Number 07-52. Available:
http://www.berkeley.k!2.ca.us/SB/docs/bd_of_ed_
june_20_07_packet.pdf. Accessed 9/28/2007.
Butler. 2008. City's Planning Board Finalizes its Wind
Energy Ordinance. Sentinel and Enterprise. 12 January
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California Assembly. 2001. Chapter 562: An Act Relat-
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bill_20011007_chaptered.pdf. Accessed 7/6/2007.
California Public Utilities Commission. 2013. About
the California Solar Initiative. Available: http://www.
cpuc.ca.gov/puc/energy/solar/aboutsolar.htm.
Accessed 8/30/2013.
Carolina Live. 2012. More energy created by wind
in North Myrtle Beach. Available: http://www.
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Cayuga County Soil and Water Conservation
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County Soil and Water Conservation District's Commu-
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CEC. 2007. DER Equipment: Microturbines. Available:
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ment/reciprocating_engines/cost.html. Accessed
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On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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27
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Chevron. 2007. From Waste to Watts: City ofRialto
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Accessed 9/28/2007.
City of Auburn and Cayuga County. 2009. Compre-
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City of Boulder. 2013. Energy Efficiency Upgrades at
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City of Milwaukee. 2013. Milwaukee Shines. Available:
http://city.milwaukee.gov/milwaukeeshines. Accessed
8/29/2013.
Clean Energy Jobs Act. 2012. Voters Approve Prop 39
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Columbia Water & Light. 2013. 2013 Renewable
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The Daily Caller. 2012. Successes, Failures For Major
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DSIRE. 2007. Lakeland Electric - Solar Water Heat-
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DSIRE. 2007a. Pike County - Wind Turbine Siting
Standards. Available: http://www.dsireusa.org/
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DSIRE. 2007b. Rockingham County - Small Wind
Ordinance. Available: http://dsireusa.org/library/
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DSIRE. 2007c. Yellow Springs Utilities - Net Metering.
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DSIRE. 2012. City of Tallahassee Utilities -
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DSIRE. 20l2a. Maryland - Commercial Clean
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DSIRE. 20l3a. California Financial Incentives. Avail-
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DSIRE. 20l3c. Harford County - Property Tax Credit
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DSIRE. 2013d. Oregon - Small-Scale Energy Loan
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28
11. REFERENCES
On-Site Renewable Energy Generation | Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series
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DSIRE. 20l3e. Alaska - Renewable Energy
Grant Program. Available: http://www.dsire-
usa.org/incentives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_
Code=AK12F&re=l&ee=l. Accessed 8/30/2013.
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State and Local
Climate and Energy Program
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
1200 PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE, NW
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
WWW.EPA.GOV/STATELOCALCLIMATE/RESOURCES/STRATEGY-GUIDES.HTML
EPA430-R-09-046
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