EPA/600/R-10/030 | October 2011 | www.epa.gov/ncea
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Fact
andbo
National Center for Environmental Assessment
Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460
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EPA/600/R-10/030
October 2011
HIGHLIGHTS
of the Exposure Factors Handbook
National Center for Environmental Assessment
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
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Disclaimer
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved
for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommenda-
tion for use.
Preferred Citation:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). (2011) Highlights of the Exposure Factors Handbook. National
Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC; EPA/600/R-10/030. Available from the National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA and online at http://www.epa.gov/ncea.
ii Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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Authors, Contributors, and Acknowledgements
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental
Assessment (NCEA) was responsible for the preparation of the Highlights of the Exposure Factors Handbook and the Exposure Factors
Handbook: 2011 Edition. The Highlights document was prepared by ICF International under Contract No. EP-C-09-009. Dr. Linda
Phillips served as the Work Assignment Manager for this Highlights document and is a contributing author on both the Highlights
document and the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition. Westat, Inc., and Versar, Inc., provided technical assistance to the U.S.
EPA in the development of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition under contracts with the U.S. EPA. Ms. Jacqueline Moya
served as the Work Assignment Manager for the development of d\e Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition under these contracts,
providing overall direction and technical assistance, and is a contributing author on both the Highlights document and the Exposure
Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition.
Highlights
Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition
Authors
U.S. EPA
Linda Phillips
Jacqueline Moya
ICF International
Kimberly Osborn
Heather Simpson
Elizabeth Dederick
Design and Graphics
ICF International
Stephanie Bogue
Editing
U.S. EPA
Terri Konoza
Website
U.S. EPA
Maureen Johnson
Authors
U.S. EPA
Jacqueline Moya
Linda Phillips
Laurie Schuda
Westat, Inc.
Robert Clickner
Rebecca Jeffries Birch
NaaAdjei
Peter Blood
Kathleen Chapman
Rey de Castro
Kathryn Mahaffey
Versar, Inc.
Patricia Wood
Adria Diaz
Ron Lee
Word Processing
Westat, Inc.
Versar, Inc.
ECFlex, Inc.
IntelliTech Systems, Inc.
Editing
ECFlex, Inc.
IntelliTech Systems, Inc.
The authors wish to acknowledge the important contributions of the following U.S. EPA individuals who conducted additional
analyses for the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition, as summarized in this Highlights document:
David Hrdy, Office of Pesticide Programs
Henry Kahn, National Center for Environmental
Assessment
David Miller, Office of Pesticide Programs
James Nguyen, Office of Pesticide Programs
Aaron Niman, Office of Pesticide Programs
Allison Nowotarski, Office of Pesticide Programs
Sheila Piper, Office of Pesticide Programs
Kristin Rury, Office of Pesticide Programs
Bernard Scheneider, Office of Pesticide Programs
Nicolle Tulve, National Exposure Research Laboratory
Julie Van Alstine, Office of Pesticide Programs
Philip Villanueva, Office of Pesticide Programs
In addition, the U.S. EPAs National Exposure Research Laboratory (NERL) made an important contribution to the Exposure
Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition by conducting additional analyses of the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS) data.
U.S. EPA input to the NHAPS data analysis came from Karen A. Hammerstrom and Jacqueline Moya from NCEA-Washington
Division; William C. Nelson from NERL-Research Triangle Park; and Stephen C. Hern, Joseph V. Behar (retired), and William H.
Englemann from NERL-Las Vegas.
The U.S. EPAs Office of Water and Office of Pesticide Programs made important contributions by conducting analyses of the U.S.
Department of Agricultures Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) data and the Centers for Disease Control
and Preventions (CDC) National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data to provide general population food
intake rates.
Authors, Contributors, and Acknowledgements
ill
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Foreword
The Exposure Factors Handbook was first published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) in 1989. It
was revised in 1997 and again in 2011 by the U.S. EPA's Office of Research and Development (OPvD), National Center for
Environmental Assessment (NCEA). The purpose of the Handbook is to provide exposure/risk assessors with information on
behavioral and physiological factors that can be used in assessing exposures among both adults and children. The 2011 edition
of the Exposure Factors Handbook incorporates new factors and data provided in the 2008 Child-Specific Exposure Factors
Handbook (U.S. EPA, 2008) as well as other relevant information published through July 2011.
This Highlights document was developed to provide a brief overview of the contents of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011
Edition and to facilitate access to its exposure factors recommendations. As such, it contains a subset of the information
provided in the complete Handbook. This Highlights document is a product of the U.S. EPA's Exposure Factors Program. The
Program has three main goals: (1) provide updates to the Exposure Factors Handbook, (2) identify exposure factor data gaps and
needs in consultation with clients, and (3) develop companion documents to assist clients in the use of exposure factors data.
The activities under each goal are supported by and respond to the needs of the various program offices.
NCEA invites you to visit its Web site at www.epa.gov/ncea where you can view and download chapters from the Exposure
Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition. Each chapter in the Handbook presents recommended values for the exposure factors covered
in the chapter as well as a discussion of the underlying data used in developing the recommendations. U.S. EPA intends to
update its Web site periodically so that the information provided by the Exposure Factors Program is current and relevant.
David Bussard
Director, Washington Division
National Center for Environmental Assessment
Becki Clark
Acting Director
National Center for Environmental Assessment
IV
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Variability and Uncertainty 5
3. Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids 7
4. Non-Dietary Ingestion Factors 9
5. Ingestion of Soil and Dust 11
6. Inhalation Rates 15
7. Dermal Exposure Factors 19
8. Body Weight 25
9. Intake of Fruits and Vegetables 27
10. Intake of Fish and Shellfish 29
11. Intake of Meats, Dairy Products, and Fats 33
12. Intake of Grain Products 35
13. Intake of Home-Produced Foods 37
14. Total Food Intake 41
15. Human Milk Intake 43
16. Activity Factors 45
17. Consumer Products 51
18. Lifetime 53
19. Building Characteristics 55
20. References 57
Contents
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List of Tables and Figures
Table 1-1. Considerations Used to Rate Confidence in Recommended Values 2
Figure 1-1. Schematic Diagram of Exposure Pathways, Factors, and Routes 4
Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates 8
Table 3-2. Recommended Values forWater Ingestion While Swimming 8
Table 4-1. Summary of Recommended Mouthing Frequency and Duration 10
Table 5-1. Recommended Values for Daily Soil, Dust, and Soil + Dust Ingestion (mg/day) 13
Table 6-1. Recommended Long-Term Exposure (MoreThan 30 Days) Values for
Inhalation (Males and Females Combined) 16
Table 6-2. Recommended Short-Term Exposure (LessThan 30 Days) Values for Inhalation
(Males and Females Combined) 17
Table 7-1. Recommended Values forTotal Body Surface Area, Children (Males and Females Combined)
and Adults by Sex 20
Table 7-2. Recommended Values for Surface Area of Body Parts 21
Table 7-3. Recommended Values for Mean Solids Adherence to Skin 22
Table 8-1. Recommended Values for Body Weight 26
Table 9-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Fruits and Vegetables, Edible Portion, Uncooked 28
Table 10-1. Recommended Per Capita and Consumer-Only Values for Fish Intake (g/kg-day),
Edible Portion, Uncooked 30
Table 10-2. Recommended Values for Recreational Marine Fish Intake 31
Table 11-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Meats, Dairy Products, and Fats, Edible Portion, Uncooked . 34
Table 12-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Grains, Edible Portion, Edible Portion, Uncooked 36
Table 13-1. Summary of Recommended Values for Intake of Home-Produced Foods 38
Table 14-1. Recommended Values for Per Capita Total Food Intake 42
Table 15-1. Recommended Values for Human Milk and Lipid Intake Rates for Exclusively
Breast-Fed Infants 44
Table 16-1. Recommended Values for Activity Patterns 46
Table 16-2. Recommended Values for Occupational Mobility 48
Table 16-3. Recommended Values for Population Mobility 49
Table 17-1. Consumer Product Use Studies Included in the Exposure Factors Handbook 52
Table 18-1. Recommended Values for Expectation of Life at Birth: 2005 53
Table 19-1. Recommendations—Residential Parameters 55
Table 19-2. Summary of Recommended Values for Non-Residential Building Parameters 56
vi Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose
This Highlights document presents an overview of the
information provided in the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's (U.S. EPA) Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011
Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011). Excerpts of each chapter of the
Handbook and summaries of key recommendations for
each of the exposure factors are provided.
1.2 About the Handbook
The Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition, hereafter
referred to as the Exposure Factors Handbook or Handbook,
is the update of an earlier version prepared in 1997 (U.S.
EPA, 1997). Its purpose is to (1) summarize data on human
behaviors and characteristics that affect exposure to environ-
mental contaminants, and (2) recommend values to use for
these factors. These recommendations are not legally binding
on any U.S. EPA program and should be interpreted as sug-
gestions that program offices or individual exposure assessors
can consider and modify as needed. Many of these factors
are best quantified on a site- or situation-specific basis. The
decision as to whether to use site-specific or national values
for an assessment may depend on the quality of the compet-
ing data sets as well as on the purpose of the specific assess-
ment. The Handbook includes full discussions of the issues
that assessors should consider in deciding how to use these
data and recommendations.
The Handbook reviews and summarizes data on the various
factors used in the exposure assessment. It contains 19
chapters: an introduction (Chapter 1), a discussion about
the variability and uncertainty in assessing exposure factors
(Chapter 2), and non-chemical specific data on exposure
factors in the following areas:
• ingestion of water and other select liquids (Chapter 3);
• non-dietary ingestion factors (Chapter 4);
• ingestion of soil and dust (Chapter 5);
• inhalation rates (Chapter 6);
• dermal exposure factors (Chapter 7);
• body weight (Chapter 8);
intake of fruits and vegetables (Chapter 9);
intake offish and shellfish (Chapter 10);
intake of meats, dairy products, and fats (Chapter 11);
intake of grain products (Chapter 12);
intake of home-produced foods (Chapter 13);
total food intake (Chapter 14);
human milk intake (Chapter 15);
activity factors (Chapter 16);
consumer products (Chapter 17);
lifetime (Chapter 18); and
building characteristics (Chapter 19).
1.3 Intended Audience
The Exposure Factors Handbook is intended for use by expo-
sure assessors and risk assessors, both within and outside the
U.S. EPA, as a reference tool and primary source of exposure
factor information. It may be used by scientists, economists,
and other interested parties as a source of data and/or U.S.
EPA recommendations on numeric estimates for behavioral
and physiological characteristics needed to estimate expo-
sure to environmental agents.
1.4 Selection of Studies for the Handbook
Information in the Exposure Factors Handbook and in this
Highlights document has been summarized from studies
documented in the scientific literature and other publicly
available sources. Studies were chosen that were seen as
useful and appropriate for estimating exposure factors for
both adults and children. The Handbook contains summa-
ries of selected studies published through July 2011. Certain
studies described in the Handbook are designated as "key,"
that is, the most up-to-date and scientifically sound for
deriving recommendations for exposure factors. The recom-
mended values for most exposure factors are based on the
results of the key studies (see Section 1.5 in the Exposure
Factors Handbook). Other studies designated as "relevant,"
meaning applicable or pertinent, but not necessarily the
most important, are also summarized in the Handbook.
1. Introduction
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1.5 Approach Used to Develop
Recommendations for Exposure Factors
U.S. EPA's procedure for developing recommendations
included study review and evaluations, considering single
versus multiple key studies, evaluating the variability of a
factor across the population, and identifying uncertainties
in the data. Based on these evaluations, U.S. EPA assigned
a confidence rating to each factor. This qualitative rating is
not intended to represent an uncertainty analysis; rather,
it represents U.S. EPA's judgment on the quality of the
underlying data used to derive the recommendation. Table
1-1 summarizes the factors used in selecting studies for con-
sideration in the Handbook and in evaluating data limita-
tions. It should be noted that while U.S. EPA has developed
recommendations for each exposure factor, different values
may be appropriate in consideration of policy, precedent,
strategy, or other factors such as site-specific information.
Table 1 1. Considerations Used to Rate Confidence
in Recommended Values
General Assessment
Factors
Increasing Confidence
Decreasing Confidence
Soundness
Adequacy of Approach
Minimal (or defined) Bias
The studies used the best available methodol-
ogy and capture the measurement of interest.
As the sample size relative to that of the target
population increases, there is greater assur-
ance that the results are reflective of the target
population.
The response rate is greater than 80 percent
for in-person interviews and telephone
surveys, or greater than 70 percent for mail
surveys.
The studies analyzed primary data.
The study design minimizes measurement
errors.
There are serious limitations with the approach used;
the study design does not accurately capture the
measurement of interest.
The sample size is too small to represent the popula-
tion of interest.
The response rate is less than 40 percent.
The studies are based on secondary sources.
Uncertainties with the data exist due to measurement
error.
Applicability and Utility
Exposure Factor of Interest
Representativeness
Currency
Data Collection Period
The studies focused on the exposure factor of
interest.
The studies focused on the U.S. population.
The studies represent current exposure
conditions.
The data collection period is sufficient to
estimate long-term behaviors.
The purpose of the studies was to characterize a
related factor.
Studies are not representative of the U.S. population.
Studies may not be representative of current expo-
sure conditions.
Shorter data collection periods may not represent
long-term exposures.
Clarity and Completeness
Accessibility
Reproducibility
Quality Assurance
The study data could be accessed.
The results can be reproduced or the method-
ology can be followed and evaluated.
The studies applied and documented quality
assurance/quality control measures.
Access to the primary data set was limited.
The results cannot be reproduced, the methodology
is hard to follow, and the author(s) cannot be located.
Information on quality assurance/quality control was
limited or absent.
Variability and Uncertainty
Variability in Population
Uncertainty
The studies characterize variability in the
population studied.
The uncertainties are minimal and can be
identified. Potential biases in the studies are
stated or can be determined from the study
design.
The characterization of variability is limited.
Estimates are highly uncertain and cannot be char-
acterized. The study design introduces biases in the
results.
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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Table 1 1. Considerations Used to Rate Confidence
in Recommended Values (continued)
Evaluation and Review
General Assessment
Factors
Peer Review
Number and Agreement of
Studies
Increasing Confidence
The studies received high level of peer review
(e.g., they are published in peer reviewed
journals).
The number of studies is greater than
3. The results of studies from different
researchers are in agreement.
Decreasing
Confidence
The studies received limited peer review.
The number of studies is 1
from different researchers
The results of studies
are in disagreement.
1.6 The Use of Age Groups When
Assessing Exposure
When the Exposure Factors Handbook was published in 1997,
no specific guidance existed with regard to which age group-
ings should be used when assessing children's exposure. More
recently, U.S. EPA established a consistent set of age groupings
and published guidance on this topic (U.S. EPA, 2005). The
2011 edition of the Handbook attempts to present data in a
manner consistent with the U.S. EPAs recommended set of
age groupings for children. To this date, no specific guidance is
available with regard to age groupings for presenting adult data.
Therefore, adult data (i.e., >21 years of age) are presented using
the age groups defined by the authors of the individual studies.
No attempt was made to re-analyze the data using a consistent
set of age groups for adults. In cases where data were analyzed
by U.S. EPA, age categories were defined as finely as possible
based on adequacy of sample size.
The selection of rates (e.g., inhalation, ingestion, dermal) to be
used for exposure assessments depends on the life stage of the
exposed population and the specific activity levels of this popu-
lation during various exposure scenarios. The recommended
values for adults and children (including infants) for use in
various exposure scenarios are presented in each chapter.
1.7 Considering Life Stage When
Calculating Exposure and Risk
In recent years, there has been an increased concern regarding
the potential impact of environmental exposures among chil-
dren and other susceptible populations such as older adults and
pregnant/lactating women. As a result, U.S. EPA and others
have developed policy and guidance, and undertaken research
to better incorporate life-stage data into human health risk
assessment (Brown et al., 2008). A framework for consider-
ing life stages in human health risk assessments was developed
by U.S. EPA in the report entitled, A Framework for Assessing
Health Risks of Environmental Exposures to Children (U.S. EPA,
2006). Although the framework discusses the importance of
incorporating life stages in the evaluation of risks to children,
the approach can also be applied to other life stages that may
have their own unique susceptibilities, such as older individuals.
1.8 Fundamental Principles of Exposure
Assessment
The definition of exposure as used by the International
Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS, 2001) is the "contact
of an organism with a chemical or physical agent, quantified as
the amount of chemical available at the exchange boundaries of
the organism and available for absorption." This means contact
with the visible exterior of a person such as the skin, and open-
ings such as the mouth, nostrils, and lesions. The individuals
activity patterns as well as the concentration of the chemical
will determine the magnitude, frequency, and duration of
the exposure.
The exposure becomes an absorbed dose when the chemi-
cal crosses an absorption barrier. When the chemical or its
metabolites interact with a target tissue, it becomes a target
tissue dose, which may lead to an adverse health outcome. This
approach has been used historically in exposure assessments
and exposure modeling. It is usually referred to as the source-
to-dose approach. In recent years, person-oriented approaches
and models have gained popularity. This approach is aimed at
accounting for cumulative and aggregate exposures to individu-
als (Georgopoulos, 2008; Price et al., 2003). The person-ori-
ented approach can also take advantage of information about
the individuals susceptibility to environmental factors (e.g.,
genetic differences) (Georgopoulos, 2008).
There are three approaches to calculate exposures: (1) the point-
of-contact approach, (2) the scenario evaluation approach, and
(3) the dose reconstruction approach (U.S. EPA, 1992). The data
presented in the Handbook are generally useful for evaluating
exposures using the scenario evaluation approach. See Section
1.10 in the Exposure Factors Handbook for more detailed infor-
mation on exposure assessment, including dose equations and
the use of exposure factors in probabilistic analyses. Figure 1-1
provides a schematic diagram that shows the linkages of a select
number of exposure pathways with the exposure factors pre-
sented in the Handbook and the corresponding exposure routes.
1. Introduction
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Figure 1-1. Schematic Diagram of Exposure Pathways, Factors, and Routes
Environmental Pathways
Exposure Factors
Exposure Route
X
'O
Q
3
(,
~
(Q
^
(5'
i
Time Indoors (Ch. 16)
Volume of Residence (Ch. 19)
Building Characteristics (Ch. 19)
Air Exchange Rates (Ch. 19)
Inhalation Rate (Ch. 6)
Time Outdoors (Ch. 16)
Inhalation
Non-Dietary Ingestion (Ch. 4)
Soil and Dust Ingestion (Ch. 5)
Time Playing on Sand/Gravel, Grass, and Dirt (Ch. 16)
Body Surface Area (Ch. 7)
Soil Adherence (Ch. 7)
Ingestion
Dermal Contact
Time Swimming (Ch. 16)
Body Surface Area (Ch. 7)
Inhalation Rate (Ch. 6)
Time Showering/Bathing (Ch. 16)
Human Milk Intake (Ch. 15}
Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids (Ch. 3)
1
Ingestion Inhalation Dermal
Dermal Contact
Inhalation
Inhalation
Dermal Contact
Ingestion
Intake of Fruits and Vegetables (Ch. 9)
Intake of Grain Products (Ch. 12)
Total Food Intake |Ch. 14)
Intake of Home-Produced Foods (Ch. 13)
Human Milk Intake (Ch. 15}
Intake of Meats, Dairy Products, and Fats (Ch. 11)
Intake of Fish and Shellfish (Ch. 10)
Ingestion
Human Milk Intake (Ch. 15)
Total Food Intake (Ch. 14)
Ingestion
Notes:
The pathways presented are selected pathways. This diagram is not meant to be comprehensive.
Consumer Products (Ch. 17), such as perfume, are not shown on this diagram. Humans can be exposed to consumer products through all pathways and routes.
Body Weight (Ch. 8) and Lifetime (Ch. 18) potentially modify all exposure pathways.
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2. Variability and Uncertainty
2.1 Variability versus Uncertainty
Accounting for variability and uncertainty is fundamental
to exposure assessment and risk analysis. Characterizing
and communicating uncertainty and variability should be
done throughout all the components of the risk assessment
process (NRC, 1994). Thus, careful consideration of the
variabilities and uncertainties associated with the exposure
factors information used in an exposure assessment is of
utmost importance.
This section highlights some of the fundamental concepts of
variability and uncertainty related to exposure factors data,
as presented in Chapter 2 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
2.2 Types of Variability
Variability in exposure potential is a function of the vari-
ability in human exposure factors (i.e., those related to an
individual's location, activity, behavior or preferences at
a particular point in time, or physiological characteristics
such as body weight), as well as variations in contaminant
concentrations (i.e., those related to pollutant emission rates
and physical/chemical processes that affect concentrations
in various media, e.g., air, soil, food, and water). Four types
of variability can be distinguished: across locations (spatial),
over time (temporal), within an individual (intra-individ-
ual), and among individuals (inter-individual).
2.3 Types of Uncertainty
Uncertainty in exposure analysis is related to the lack of
knowledge concerning one or more components of the
assessment process. U.S. EPA (1992) classified uncertainty
in exposure into three broad categories: (1) uncertainty
regarding missing or incomplete information needed to
fully define exposure and dose (scenario uncertainty), (2)
uncertainty regarding some parameter (parameter uncer-
tainty), and (3) uncertainty regarding gaps in scientific
theory required to make predictions on the basis of causal
inferences (model uncertainty).
Because uncertainty in exposure assessment is fundamen-
tally tied to a lack of knowledge concerning important
exposure factors, strategies for reducing uncertainty neces-
sarily involve reduction or elimination of knowledge gaps.
Strategies for reducing uncertainty include: (1) collection
of new data using a larger sample size, an unbiased sample
design, a more direct measurement method, or a more
appropriate target population; and (2) use of more sophis-
ticated modeling and analysis tools, if data quality allows.
2.4 How the Exposure Factors Handbook
Addresses Variability and Uncertainty
The Exposure Factors Handbook attempts to characterize vari-
ability of each of the exposure factors presented. Variability
is addressed by presenting data on the exposure factors in
one of the following three ways: (1) as tables with percen-
tiles or ranges of values for various life stages, demographi-
cal variables, geographical regions, and sociodemographic
variables where available and applicable; (2) as probability
2. Variability and Uncertainty
-------
distributions with specified parameters including confidence
intervals; or (3) as a qualitative discussion.
The Exposure Factors Handbook addresses uncertainty by pro-
viding qualitative discussions of the limitations associated
with each of the studies used to derive recommendations.
Confidence ratings are also provided based on U.S. EPA's
judgment of the data underlying such recommendations.
For more information about variabil-
ity and uncertainty, refer to Chapter 2
of the Exposure Factors Handbook at
http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-
chapter02.pdf. Detailed information on vari-
ability versus uncertainty is provided in
Section 2.1, types of variability in Section 2.2,
addressing variability in Section 2.3, types of
uncertainty in Section 2.4, reducing uncer-
tainty in Section 2.5, analyzing variability and
uncertainty in Section 2.6, literature review of
variability and uncertainty analysis in Section
2.7, and presenting results of variability and
uncertainty analysis in Section 2.8.
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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3. Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
3.1 Introduction
Water ingestion can be a pathway of exposure to environ-
mental chemicals. Contamination of water may occur at
the water supply source (ground water or surface water);
during treatment (e.g., toxic by-products may be formed
during chlorination); or post-treatment (e.g., leaching of
lead or other materials from plumbing systems). People
may be exposed to contaminants in water when consum-
ing water directly as a beverage, indirectly from foods and
drinks made with water, or incidentally while swimming.
Estimating the magnitude of the potential dose of envi-
ronmental contaminants from water ingestion requires
information on the quantity of water consumed. Chapter
3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook provides information
on ingestion of water consumed as a beverage, ingestion of
other select liquids, and ingestion of water while swimming.
Highlights of these data are provided here.
3.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Drinking Water Ingestion Rates: The recommended
drinking water ingestion rates for general population chil-
dren <3 years of age are based on an analysis of data from
the U.S. Department of Agriculture's 1994-1996 and 1998
Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII)
(Kahn and Stralka, 2008a; Kahn, 2008). The recommended
drinking water ingestion rates for individuals >3 years
of age are based on the U.S. EPA analysis of 2003-2006
data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (NHANES). The CSFII data set includes survey
response data for more than 20,000 people nationwide. The
NHANES data set includes survey responses from more than
18,000 people nationwide. These recommended rates repre-
sent both consumption of water as a beverage (direct intake)
and water used in preparing foods and beverages (indirect
intake). The recommended intake rates for pregnant and
lactating women are also based on an analysis of data from
CSFII (Kahn and Stralka, 2008b). The recommended
data represent intake from community (site-specific) water
supplies and do not include intake from bottled water or
water intrinsic in purchased foods that may be widely dis-
tributed. Table 3-1 provides the recommended per capita
and consumer-only drinking water ingestion rates. Per
capita rates include all survey participants whether or not
they ingested any water from the source during the survey
period. Consumer-only rates exclude individuals who did
not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
Overall, the confidence rating for the recommendations for
drinking water ingestion rates is medium to high.
Water Ingestion Rates While Swimming: The recom-
mended values for water ingestion rates during swimming
for children and adults are presented in Table 3-2. These
values are based on a study by Dufour et al. (2006), which
estimated water ingestion of 53 swimmers (12 adults and 41
children under 18 years of age) during a 45-minute swim-
ming period at an outdoor pool. The overall confidence in
the recommendations for ingestion of water while swimming
is low. Data on the amount of time spent swimming are
provided in Chapter 16 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
3. Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
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Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates3
Age Group
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <18 years
18 to <21 years
>21 years
>65 years
All ages
Pregnant women
Lactating women
Mean
ml/day
ml/
kg-day
95th Percent! I e
ml/day
ml/
kg-day
Per Capita1'
184
227
362
360
271
317
327
414
520
573
681
1,043
1,046
869
819°
1,379°
52
48
52
41
23
23
18
14
10
9
9
13
14
14
13°
21c
839°
896°
1,056
1,055
837
877
959
1,316
1,821
1,783
2,368
2,958
2,730
2,717
2,503°
3,434°
232°
205°
159
126
71
60
51
43
32
28
35
40
40
42
43°
55°
Mean
ml/day
ml/
kg-day
95th Percentile
ml/day
ml/
kg-day
Consumers Onlyd
470°
552
556
467
308
356
382
511
637
702
816
1,227
1,288
1,033
872°
1,665°
137°
119
80
53
27
26
21
17
12
10
11
16
18
16
14°
26°
858°
1,053°
1,171°
1,147
893
912
999
1,404
1,976
1,883
2,818
3,092
2,960
2,881
2,589°
3,588°
238°
285°
173°
129
75
62
52
47
35
30
36
42
43
44
43°
55°
a Ingestion rates for combined direct and indirect water from community water supply. For multiple percent! les, see Chapters of the
Exposure Factors Handbook.
b Per capita intake rates are generated by averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire population (including those individuals that
reported no intake).
° Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
d Consumer-only intake represents the quantity of water consumed only by individuals that reported consuming water during the
survey period.
The source of data for children <3 years is the 1994-1996 and 1998 CSFII (Kahn and Stralka, 2008a; Kahn, 2008); for individuals >3
years and all ages, the source of data is the U.S. EPA analysis of 2003-2006 NHANES data. The source of data for pregnant and lactat-
ing women is the 1994-1996 and 1998 CSFII (Kahn and Stralka, 2008b).
Table 3-2. Recommended Values for
Water Ingestion While Swimming
Age Group
Children
Adults
Mean
ml/
event"
37
16
ml/
hour
49
21
Upper Percentile
ml/
event*
90b
53°
ml/
hour
120b
71°
a Participants swam for 45 minutes.
b 97th percentile.
° Maximum value.
Source: Dufour et al., 2006.
For more information about the key studies used to
derive the recommended water ingestion rate values,
refer to Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook at
http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-chapter03.pdf.
Detailed information on water ingestion studies among
the general population is included in Section 3.3, and
studies regarding pregnant and lactating women can
be found in Section 3.4. Section 3.5 presents relevant
studies on water intake among individuals located in hot
climates or engaging in high activity levels. Section 3.6
presents information on ingestion of water while swim-
ming or diving. Limited information on the ingestion of
select liquids is also provided in Section 3.3.
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
4. Non-Dietary Ingestion Factors
4.1 Introduction
Adults and children have the potential for exposure to toxic
substances through non-dietary ingestion when these sub-
stances are transferred from treated surfaces to the hands
or objects that are mouthed. Mouthing behavior includes
all activities in which objects, including fingers, are touched
by the mouth or put into the mouth except for eating
and drinking, and includes licking, sucking, chewing, and
biting (Groot et al., 1998). Adults mouth objects such as
cigarettes, pens and pencils, or their hands. Young children
mouth objects, surfaces, or their fingers as they explore their
environment. Data on mouthing frequency (e.g., contacts
per hour or contacts per minute) and/or duration of mouth-
ing events (how long each contact lasts, expressed in units
of seconds or minutes) are required in order to estimate
the magnitude of exposure to toxic substances through
this behavior. Chapter 4 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
provides information on mouthing behaviors and their fre-
quency and duration in children and adults. Highlights of
these data are provided here.
4.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Hand-to-Mouth and Object-to-Mouth Frequencies:
Mouthing frequencies are expressed in units of contacts
per hour, between either any part of the hand (including
fingers and thumbs) and the mouth, or between an object
or surface and the mouth. The recommended hand-to-
mouth frequencies are based on data from Xue et al. (2007).
The recommendations for frequency of object-to-mouth
contact are based on data from Xue et al. (2009). Xue et
al. (2007, 2009) report a secondary analysis of data from
several studies summarized in Chapter 4 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook, as well as data from unpublished studies.
Table 4.1 presents the recommended values for mouthing
frequency. The overall confidence rating for hand-to-mouth
and object-to-mouth contact frequency is low.
Hand-to-Mouth and Object-to-Mouth Duration:
Recommendations for duration of object-to-mouth con-
tacts are based on data from Juberg et al. (2001), Greene
(2002), and Beamer et al. (2008). Recommendations for
hand-to-mouth duration are not provided because the algo-
rithm to estimate exposures from this pathway is not time
dependent. Table 4-1 presents the recommended values for
mouthing duration. The overall confidence rating for hand-
to-mouth and object-to-mouth duration is low.
For more information about the key studies
used to derive the recommended mouth-
ing frequency and duration values, refer
to Chapter 4 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/
pdfs/efh-chapter04.pdf. Detailed information
about studies on mouthing frequency in children
is included in Section 4.3, and studies regarding
mouthing duration are provided in Section 4.4.
Information on mouthing prevalence (i.e., the
number or percentage of children performing
specific mouthing behaviors at a certain age) is
provided in Section 4.5.
4. Non-Dietary Ingestion Factors
-------
Table 4-1. Summary of Recommended Mouthing Frequency and Duration
Age Group
Birth to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
Age Group
Birth to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6 to <12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
Age Group
Birth to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
Hand-to-Moutha
Indoor Frequency
(contacts/hour)
Mean
-
28
19
20
13
15
7
-
-
95th Percentile
-
65
52
63
37
54
21
-
-
Outdoor Frequency
(contacts/hour)
Mean
-
-
15
14
5
9
3
-
-
95th Percentile
-
-
47
42
20
36
12
-
-
Object-to-Mouthb
Indoor Frequency
(contacts/hour)
Mean
-
11
20
14
9.9
10
1.1
-
-
95th Percentile
-
32
38
34
24
39
3.2
-
-
Mean Duration
(minutes/hour)0
-
11d
9f
7"
101
-
-
-
-
Outdoor Frequency
(contacts/hour)
Mean
-
-
-
8.8
8.1
8.3
1.9
-
-
95th Percentile
-
-
-
21
40
30
9.1
-
-
95th Percentile Duration (minutes/hour)0
-
26e
193
22h
11'
-
-
-
-
8 Source: Xue et al., 2007.
b Source: Xue et al., 2009.
c Source: Juberg et al., 2001 ; Greene, 2002; and Beamer et al., 2008.
d Mean calculated from Juberg et al., 2001 (Oto 18 months) and Greene, 2002 (3 to 12 months).
e Calculated 95th percentile from Greene, 2002 (3 to 12 months).
f Mean calculated from Juberg et al., 2001 (Oto 18 months); Greene, 2002 (3 to 12 months); and Beamer et al., 2008 (6 to 13 months).
9 Calculated 95th percentile from Greene, 2002 (3 to 12 months) and Beamer et al., 2008 (6 to 13 months).
h Mean and 95th percentile from Greene, 2002 (12 to 24 months).
1 Mean calculated from Juberg et al., 2001 (19 to 36 months); Greene, 2002 (24 to 36 months); and Beamer et al., 2008 (20 to 26
months).
i Calculated 95th percentile from Greene, 2002 (24 to 36 months) and Beamer et al., 2008 (20 to 26 months).
- No data.
10
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
5. Ingestion of Soil and Dust
5.1 Introduction
The ingestion of soil and dust is a potential route of exposure
to environmental chemicals for both adults and children.
Children, in particular, may ingest significant quantities
of soil due to their tendency to play on the floor indoors
and on the ground outdoors and their tendency to mouth
objects or their hands. Children may ingest soil and dust
through deliberate hand-to-mouth movements, or unin-
tentionally by eating food that has dropped on the floor.
Adults may also ingest soil or dust particles that adhere to
food, cigarettes, or their hands. Thus, understanding soil
and dust ingestion patterns is an important part of estimat-
ing overall exposures to environmental chemicals. At this
point in time, knowledge of soil and dust ingestion patterns
within the United States is somewhat limited. Chapter 5 of
the Exposure Factors Handbook explains the concepts of soil
ingestion, soil pica, and geophagy; defines soil, indoor and
outdoor settled dust, and dust ingestion; and presents rec-
ommended values for amounts of soil and dust ingested for
adults and children. This information is summarized here.
Definitions: The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention's (CDC) Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry (ATSDR) held a workshop in June 2000 in
which a panel of soil ingestion experts developed definitions
for soil ingestion, soil-pica, and geophagy to distinguish
aspects of soil ingestion patterns that are important from a
research perspective (ATSDR, 2001). The Exposure Factors
Handbook uses the definitions that are based on those devel-
oped by participants in that workshop:
* Soil ingestion is the consumption of soil. This may
result from various behaviors including, but not
limited to, mouthing, contacting dirty hands, eating
dropped food, or consuming soil directly.
• Soil-pica is the recurrent ingestion of unusu-
ally high amounts of soil (i.e., on the order of
1,000-5,000 mg/day or more).
* Geophagy is the intentional ingestion of earths and is
usually associated with cultural practices.
In the Exposure Factors Handbook, soil, indoor and outdoor
settled dust, and dust ingestion are defined generally as:
• Soil. Particles of unconsolidated mineral and/or
organic matter from the earth's surface that are located
outdoors, or are used indoors to support plant growth.
It includes particles that have settled onto outdoor
objects and surfaces (outdoor settled dust).
* Indoor Settled Dust. Particles in building interiors
that have settled onto objects, surfaces, floors, and
carpeting. These particles may include soil particles
that have been tracked or blown into the indoor envi-
ronment from outdoors as well as organic matter.
• Outdoor Settled Dust. Particles that have settled onto
outdoor objects and surfaces due to either wet or dry
deposition. Note that it is not possible to distinguish
between soil and outdoor settled dust, because outdoor
settled dust generally would be present on the upper-
most surface layer of soil.
For the purposes of providing recommended values in the
Exposure Factors Handbook, soil ingestion includes both soil
and outdoor settled dust, and dust ingestion includes indoor
settled dust only.
5. Ingestion of Soil and Dust
11
-------
5.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Table 5-1 shows the central tendency recommendations for
daily ingestion of soil, dust, or soil + dust, in mg/day. It
also shows the high-end recommendations for daily inges-
tion of soil, in mg/day. The high-end recommendations are
subdivided into a general population soil ingestion rate, an
ingestion rate for "soil-pica," and an estimate for individuals
who exhibit "geophagy." The soil pica and geophagy recom-
mendations are likely to represent acute high soil ingestion
episodes or behaviors at an unknown point on the high end
of the distribution of soil ingestion.
The recommendations for children are based on various
key studies presented in Chapter 5 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook (Vermeer and Frate, 1979; Wong, 1988; Calabrese
etal., 1989, 1991, 1997a,b; Barnes, 1990; Davis etal., 1990;
Van Wijnen et al., 1990; Calabrese and Stanek, 1993, 1995;
Stanek and Calabrese, 1995; Hogan et al., 1998; Stanek et
al., 1998; Davis and Mirick, 2006; Ozkaynak et al., 2010).
Studies estimating adult soil ingestion are extremely limited,
and only two of these are considered to be key studies
(Vermeer and Frate, 1979 and Davis and Mirick, 2006).
There are no available studies estimating the ingestion of
dust by adults. Therefore, the assumption used by the U.S.
EPA Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic (IEUBK)
model for lead in children (i.e., 45% soil, 55% dust contri-
bution) was used to derive estimates for soil and dust using
the soil + dust value derived from Davis and Mirick (2006).
The soil ingestion recommendations in Table 5-1 are
intended to represent ingestion of a combination of soil and
outdoor settled dust, without distinguishing between these
two sources. The source of the soil in these recommenda-
tions could be outdoor soil, indoor containerized soil used to
support growth of indoor plants, or a combination of both.
The inhalation and subsequent swallowing of soil particles is
accounted for in these recommended values, therefore, this
pathway does not need to be considered separately. These
recommendations are called "soil."
The dust ingestion recommendations in Table 5-1 include
soil tracked into the indoor setting, indoor settled dust, and
air-suspended particulate matter that is inhaled and swal-
lowed. Central tendency "dust" recommendations are pro-
vided, in the event that assessors need recommendations for
an indoor setting or inside a transportation vehicle scenario
in which dust, but not outdoor soil, is the exposure medium
of concern. The soil + dust recommendations would
include: soil, either from outdoor or containerized indoor
sources; dust that is a combination of outdoor settled dust,
indoor settled dust, and air-suspended particulate matter
that is inhaled, subsequently trapped in mucous and moved
from the respiratory system to the gastrointestinal tract; and
a soil-origin material located on indoor floor surfaces that
was tracked indoors by building occupants. Soil and dust
recommendations represent the mass of ingested soil or dust
on a dry-weight basis. The overall confidence rating for the
soil and dust recommendations is low.
12
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
Table 5-1. Recommended Values for Daily Soil, Dust, and Soil + Dust Ingestion (mg/day)
Age Group
6 weeks to <1 year
1 to <6 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <21 years
Adult
Soil"
General
Population
Central
Tendency0
30
50
-
50
20'
High End
General
Population
Upper
Percentiled
-
-
200
-
-
Soil-Pica6
-
1,000
-
1,000
-
Geophagy*
-
50,000
-
50,000
50,000
Dustb
General
Population
Central
Tendency9
30
60
-
60
30'
General
Population
Upper
Percentileh
-
-
100
-
-
Soil + Dust
General
Population
Central
Tendency0
60
1001
-
100'
50
General
Population
Upper
Percentileh
-
-
200
-
-
a Includes soil and outdoor settled dust.
b Includes indoor settled dust only.
0 Davis and Mirick, 2006; Hogan et al., 1998;VanWijnen et al., 1990; Calabrese and Stanek, 1995; Davis et al.,1990.
d Ozkaynak et al., 2010; Stanek and Calabrese, 1995; rounded to one significant figure.
8 ATSDR, 2001; Calabrese and Stanek, 1993; Calabrese et al., 1989/Barnes, 1990/Calabrese et al., 1991; Calabrese et al., 1997a, b;
Stanek et al., 1998;Vermeer and Frate, 1979; Wong, 1988.
' Vermeer and Frate, 1979.
9 Hogan et al, 1998.
h Ozkaynak et al., 2010; rounded to one significant figure.
1 Total soil and dust ingestion rate is 110 mg/day; rounded to one significant figure it is 100 mg/day.
' Estimates of soil and dust were derived from the soil + dust and assuming 45% soil and 55% dust.
- No data.
For more information about the key studies
used to derive the recommended inges-
tion of soil and dust values, refer to Chapter
5 of the Exposure Factors Handbook at
http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-
chapter05.pdf. Detailed information on meth-
odologies and the studies on soil and dust
ingestion is included in Section 5.3. Information
regarding the limitations of the study method-
ologies is provided in Section 5.4.
5. Ingestion of Soil and Dust
13
-------
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14 Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
6. Inhalation Rates
6.1 Introduction
Ambient and indoor air are potential sources of exposure
to toxic substances. Adults and children can be exposed to
contaminated air during a variety of activities in different
environments. They may be exposed to contaminants in
ambient air, and may also inhale chemicals from the indoor
use of various consumer products. U.S. EPA (1992) defines
exposure as the chemical concentration at the boundary of
the body. In the case of inhalation, the situation is compli-
cated; the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system
as well as the characteristics of the inhaled agent diminishes
the pollutant concentration in inspired air (potential dose)
such that the amount of a pollutant that actually enters
the body through the lung (internal dose) is less than that
measured at the boundary of the body. When constructing
risk assessments that concern the inhalation route of expo-
sure, one must be aware of any adjustments that have been
employed in the estimation of the pollutant concentration
to account for this reduction in potential dose. Assessors
may not always need to select and use inhalation rates when
evaluating exposure to air contaminants; for example, IRIS
and Superfund risk values (i.e., Reference Concentrations
(RfCs) and Unit Risks) already incorporate inhalation rates.
However, Chapter 6 of the Exposure Factors Handbook pro-
vides recommended inhalation rates for both long-term and
short-term exposure scenarios where these factors are needed.
The data are summarized in this Highlights document.
6.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
The recommended inhalation rates for adults and children
are based on three recent studies (Brochu et al., 2006; U.S.
EPA, 2009; and Stifelman, 2007), as well as an additional
study of children (Arcus-Arth and Blaisdell, 2007). Long-
term inhalation is repeated exposure for more than 30 days,
up to approximately 10% of the life span in humans (more
than 30 days). Long-term inhalation rates for adults and
children (including infants) are presented as daily rates
(m3/day). Short-term exposure is repeated exposure for
more than 24 hours, up to 30 days. Short-term inhalation
rates are reported for adults and children (including infants)
performing various activities in m3/minute.
The Exposure Factors Handbook provides recommendations
for both long- and short-term exposure inhalation rates.
Values for short- versus long-term are necessary because the
length of exposure influences the type and severity of any
effects associated with the exposure.
Table 6-1 presents the long-term mean and 95th percentile
data, by age group, for males and females combined. Table
6-2 presents the short-term data by activity level. The short-
term values represent averages of the activity level data from
the one key study from which short-term inhalation rate
data were available (U.S. EPA, 2009). The overall confi-
dence rating in the inhalation rates is medium.
6. Inhalation Rates
15
-------
Long-term exposure is repeated exposure
for more than 30 days for adults and children
(including infants).
Short-term exposure is repeated exposure for
more than 24 hours, up to 30 days, for adults
and children (including infants) performing
various activities.
Table 6-1. Recommended Long-Term Exposure (MoreThan 30 Days) Values for
Inhalation (Males and Females Combined)
Age Group6
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
21 to <31 years
31 to <41 years
41 to <51 years
51 to <61 years
61 to <71 years
71 to <81 years
81 years and older
Mean
m3/day
3.6
3.5
4.1
5.4
5.4
8.0
8.9
10.1
12.0
15.2
16.3
15.7
16.0
16.0
15.7
14.2
12.9
12.2
Sources Used
for Means
a
a, b
a, b
a, b
a, b, c, d
a, b, c, d
a, b, c, d
a, b, c, d
a, b, c, d
a, b, c, d
a, b, c, d
b, c, d
b, c, d
b, c, d
b, c, d
b, c, d
b,c
b,c
95th Percentile'""
m3/day
7.1
5.8
6.1
8.0
9.2
12.8
13.7
13.8
16.6
21.9
24.6
21.3
21.4
21.2
21.3
18.1
16.6
15.7
Sources Used
for 95th Percentiles
a
a, b
a, b
a, b
a, b, c
a, b, c
a, b, c
a, b, c
a, b, c
a, b, c
a, b, c
b, c
b, c
b, c
b, c
b, c
b,c
b,c
8 Arcus-Arth and Blaisdell, 2007.
b Brochu et al., 2006.
c U.S. EPA, 2009.
d Stifelman, 2007.
e When age groupings in the original reference did not match the U.S. EPA's age groupings used for the Handbook, means from all
age groupings in the original reference that overlapped U.S. EPA's age groupings by more than 1 year were averaged, weighted by
the number of observations contributed from each age group. Similar calculations were performed for the 95th percentiles. See Table
6-25 of the Exposure Factors Handbookhr concordance with U.S. EPA's age groupings.
' Some 95th percentile values may be unrealistically high and not representative of the average person.
9 For multiple percentiles, seeTables 6-4, 6-6 to 6-8, 6-10, 6-14, and 6-15 in the Exposure Factors Handbook; none available for
Stifelman, 2007.
16
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
Table 6-2. Recommended Short-Term Exposure (Less Than 30 Days) Values for Inhalation
(Males and Females Combined)
Activity Level
Sleep or Nap
Sedentary/Passive
Light Intensity
Age Group
years
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <31
31 to <41
41 to <51
51 to <61
61 to <71
71 to <81
81 years and older
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <31 years
31 to <41 years
41 to <51 years
51 to <61 years
61 to <71 years
71 to <81 years
81 years and older
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
21 to <31 years
31 to <41 years
41 to <51 years
51 to <61 years
61 to <71 years
71 to <81 years
81 years and older
Mean
m3/minute
3.0x10-3
4.5x10-3
4.6x10-3
4.3x10-3
4.5x10-3
5.0x10-3
4.9x10-3
4.3x10-3
4.6x10-3
5.0x10-3
5.2x10-3
5.2x10-3
5.3x10'3
5.2x10'3
3.1x10-3
4.7x10-3
4.8x10'3
4.5x10'3
4.8x10-3
5.4x10-3
5.3x10'3
4.2x10'3
4.3x10-3
4.8x10'3
5.0x10-3
4.9x10-3
5.0x10-3
4.9x10'3
7.6x10-3
1.2x10-2
1.2x10-2
1.1x10-2
1.1x10'2
1.3x10-2
1.2x10-2
1.2x10'2
1.2x10'2
1.3x10-2
1.3x10-2
1.2x10'2
1.2x10-2
1.2x10-2
95th Percentile8
m3'minute
4.6x10-3
6.4x10'3
6.4x10'3
5.8x10-3
6.3x10-3
7.4x10-3
7.1 x10'3
6.5x10-3
6.6x10-3
7.1 x10'3
7.5x10-3
7.2x10-3
7.2x10-3
7.0x10-3
4.7x10-3
6.5x10-3
6.5x10-3
5.8x10'3
6.4x10-3
7.5x10-3
7.2x10-3
6.5x10-3
6.6x10-3
7.0x10-3
7.3x10-3
7.3x10-3
7.2x10-3
7.0x10-3
1.1x10'2
1.6x10-2
1.6x10-2
1.4x10'2
1.5x10-2
1.7x10-2
1.6x10-2
1.6x10-2
1.6x10-2
1.6x10-2
1.7x10-2
1.6x10-2
1.5x10-2
1.5x10-2
6. Inhalation Rates
17
-------
Table 6-2. Recommended Short-Term Exposure (Less Than 30 Days) Values for Inhalation
(Males and Females Combined) (continued)
Activity Level
Moderate Intensity
High Intensity
Age Group
years
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <31 years
31 to <41 years
41 to <51 years
51 to <61 years
61 to <71 years
71 to <81 years
81 years and older
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
21 to <31 years
31 to <41 years
41 to <51 years
51 to <61 years
61 to <71 years
71 to <81 years
81 years and older
Mean
m3/minute
1.4x10'2
2.1x10-2
2.1x10-2
2.1x10'2
2.2x10'2
2.5x10-2
2.6x10'2
2.6x10'2
2.7x10-2
2.8x10-2
2.9x10'2
2.6x10-2
2.5x10-2
2.5x10-2
2.6x10-2
3.8x10'2
3.9x10-2
3.7x10-2
4.2x10'2
4.9x10'2
4.9x10-2
5.0x10'2
4.9x10'2
5.2x10-2
5.3x10-2
4.7x10'2
4.7x10-2
4.8x10-2
95th Percentile8
m3'minute
2.2x10'2
2.9x10-2
2.9x10-2
2.7x10'2
2.9x10-2
3.4x10-2
3.7x10'2
3.8x10'2
3.7x10-2
3.9x10-2
4.0x10'2
3.4x10-2
3.2x10-2
3.1x10-2
4.1x10-2
5.2x10'2
5.3x10-2
4.8x10-2
5.9x10'2
7.0x10-2
7.3x10-2
7.6x10-2
7.2x10'2
7.6x10-2
7.8x10-2
6.6x10-2
6.5x10-2
6.8x10-2
a For multiple percentiles, seeTables 6-17 and 6-19 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
Source: U.S. EPA, 2009.
For more information about the key
studies used to derive the recommended
inhalation rate values, refer to Chapter
6 of the Exposure Factors Handbook at
http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-
chapter06.pdf.These studies are discussed in
Section 6.3 and information on other relevant
studies is provided in Section 6.4.
18
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
7. Dermal Exposure Factors
7.1 Introduction
Dermal exposure can occur during a variety of activities
in different environmental media and microenvironments
(U.S. EPA, 1992a, 1992b, 2004). These include:
* water (e.g., bathing, washing, swimming);
• soil (e.g., outdoor recreation, gardening, construction);
• sediment (e.g., wading, fishing);
" liquids (e.g., use of commercial products);
• vapors/fumes (e.g., use of commercial products); and
* solids or residues (e.g., soil/dust or chemical residues
on carpets, floors, counter tops, outdoor surfaces, or
clothing).
Chapter 7 of the Exposure Factors Handbook provides informa-
tion on factors that affect dermal exposure, including body
surface area, dermal adherence of solids to the skin, film thick-
ness of liquids on the skin, transfer of chemical residues from
surfaces to the skin, and other factors. However, recommended
values are only provided for skin surface area and adherence of
solids to the skin. Factors that influence dermal uptake (i.e.,
absorption) and internal dose, including chemical-specific
factors, are not provided in the Handbook.
7.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Body Surface Area: The recommended mean and 95th
percentile total body surface area values are summarized in
Table 7-1. These data are based on body weight and height
data, used with empirical formulae, to estimate skin surface
area for various age groups. For children under 21 years of
age, the recommendations for total body surface area are
based on the U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 1999-2006
body weight and height data. These data are presented for
the standard age groupings recommended by U.S. EPA
(2005) for male and female children combined. For adults
21 years and over, the recommendations for total body
surface area are based on the U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES
2005-2006 body weight and height data for males and
females. The recommendations for the percentage of the
total body surface area represented by individual body parts
are provided in Table 7-2. The percentages are based on data
from U.S EPA (1985) for children under 2 years of age and
adults, and Boniol et al. (2007) for children over 2 years of
age. Table 7-2 also provides age-specific body part surface
areas (m2) that were obtained by multiplying the mean body
part percentages by the total body surface areas presented
in Table 7-1. Overall confidence in the body surface area
factors is medium for total surface area and low for surface
area of individual body parts.
Adherence of Solids to Skin: The adherence factor (AF)
describes the amount of material that adheres to the skin
per unit of surface area. Although most research in this area
has focused on soils, a variety of other solid residues can
accumulate on the skin, including household dust, sedi-
ments, and commercial powders. The recommended dermal
AFs represent the amount of material on the skin at the time
of measurement. U.S. EPA (1992b) recommends interpret-
ing AFs as representative of contact events. Assuming that
the amount of solids measured on the skin represents accu-
mulation between washings and that people wash at least
once per day, these adherence values can be interpreted as
daily contact rates (U.S. EPA, 1992b). The rate of solids
accumulation on skin over time has not been well studied,
but probably occurs fairly quickly. Therefore, pro-rating the
adherence values for exposure time periods of less than one
day is not recommended.
7. Dermal Exposure Factors
19
-------
Soil adherence values are based on field studies that con-
sidered factors such as activity, sex, age, field conditions,
and clothing worn (Holmes et al., 1999; Kissel et al., 1996;
Shoaf et al., 2005). Recommended mean AF values are
summarized in Table 7-3 according to common activities.
Overall confidence in the soil AFs is low.
Table 7 1. Recommended Values forTotal Body Surface Area, Children (Males and Females Combined)
and Adults by Sex
Age Group
Mean
95th Percentile8
m2
Males and Females Combined1'
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
0.29
0.33
0.38
0.45
0.53
0.61
0.76
1.08
1.59
1.84
0.34
0.38
0.44
0.51
0.61
0.70
0.95
1.48
2.06
2.33
Adult Males0
21 to 30 years
30 to <40 years
40 to <50 years
50 to <60 years
60 to <70 years
70 to <80 years
80 years and over
2.05
2.10
2.15
2.11
2.08
2.05
1.92
2.52
2.50
2.56
2.55
2.46
2.45
2.22
Adult Females0
21 to 30 years
30 to <40 years
40 to <50 years
50 to <60 years
60 to <70 years
70 to <80 years
80 years and over
1.81
1.85
1.88
1.89
1.88
1.77
1.69
2.25
2.31
2.36
2.38
2.34
2.13
1.98
a For multiple percentiles, seeTables 7-9 (for males and females-combined data), 7-10, and 7-11 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
b Source: U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES 1999-2006 data.
c Source: U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES 2005-2006 data.
20
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
Table 7-2. Recommended Values for Surface Area of Body Parts
Age Group Head Trunk Arms Hands Legs Feet Source
Mean Percent of Total Surface Area
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6 to <12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
Adult Males— 21+ years
Adult Females — 21+ years
18.2
18.2
18.2
18.2
16.5
8.4
8.0
6.1
4.6
4.1
6.6
6.2
35.7
35.7
35.7
35.7
35.5
41.0
41.2
39.6
39.6
41.2
40.1
35.4
13.7
13.7
13.7
13.7
13.0
14.4
14.0
14.0
14.3
14.6
15.2
12.8
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.3
5.7
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.5
4.5
5.2
4.8
20.6
20.6
20.6
20.6
23.1
25.3
25.7
28.8
30.4
29.5
33.1
32.3
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.3
6.3
6.4
6.8
6.6
6.1
6.7
6.6
a
b
c
Mean Surface Area by Body Partd m2
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
Adult Males— 21+ years
Adult Females — 21+ years
0.053
0.060
0.069
0.082
0.087
0.051
0.061
0.066
0.073
0.075
0.136
0.114
0.104
0.118
0.136
0.161
0.188
0.250
0.313
0.428
0.630
0.759
0.827
0.654
0.040
0.045
0.052
0.062
0.069
0.088
0.106
0.151
0.227
0.269
0.314
0.237
0.015
0.017
0.020
0.024
0.030
0.028
0.037
0.051
0.072
0.083
0.107
0.089
0.060
0.068
0.078
0.093
0.122
0.154
0.195
0.311
0.483
0.543
0.682
0.598
0.019
0.021
0.025
0.029
0.033
0.038
0.049
0.073
0.105
0.112
0.137
0.122
e
f
c
95th Percentile Surface Area by Body Part9 m2
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6 to <12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
Adult Males— 21+ years
Adult Females — 21+ years
0.062
0.069
0.080
0.093
0.101
0.059
0.076
0.090
0.095
0.096
0.154
0.121
0.121
0.136
0.157
0.182
0.217
0.287
0.391
0.586
0.816
0.960
1.10
0.850
0.047
0.052
0.060
0.070
0.079
0.101
0.133
0.207
0.295
0.340
0.399
0.266
0.018
0.020
0.023
0.027
0.035
0.033
0.046
0.070
0.093
0.105
0.131
0.106
0.070
0.078
0.091
0.105
0.141
0.177
0.244
0.426
0.626
0.687
0.847
0.764
0.022
0.025
0.029
0.033
0.038
0.044
0.061
0.100
0.136
0.142
0.161
0.146
e
f
c
8 Source: U.S. EPA, 1985.
b Source: Boniol et al., 2007.
c U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2006 data and U.S. EPA, 1985.
d Children's values calculated as mean percentages of body part times mean total body surface area.
e U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 1999-2006 data and U.S. EPA, 1985. Percentages based on small number of observations for this age
group.
' Boniol et al., 2007 and U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES 1999-2006 data; some body parts and age groups presented by Boniol et al.
(2007) were combined to be consistent with the body part categories and age groups used here.
9 Children's values calculated as mean percentage of body part times 95th percentile total body surface area.
Note: Surface area values reported in m2 can be converted to cm2 by multiplying by 10,000 cm2/m2.
7. Dermal Exposure Factors
21
-------
Table 7-3. Recommended Values for Mean Solids Adherence to Skin
Face
Arms Hands
Legs
Feet
mg/cm2
Children
Residential (indoors)3
Daycare (indoors & outdoors)1"
Outdoor sports0
Indoor sportsd
Activities with soil6
Playing in mud*
Playing in sediment9
-
-
0.012
-
0.054
-
0.040
0.0041
0.024
0.011
0.0019
0.046
11
0.17
0.011
0.099
0.11
0.0063
0.17
47
0.49
0.0035
0.020
0.031
0.0020
0.051
23
0.70
0.010
0.071
-
0.0022
0.20
15
21
Adults
Outdoor sportsh
Activities with soil'
Construction Activities'
0.0314
0.0240
0.0982
0.0872
0.0379
0.1859
0.1336
0.1595
0.2763
0.1223
0.0189
0.0660
-
0.1393
-
' Based on weighted average of geometric mean soil loadings for 2 groups of children (ages 3 to 13 years; N = 10) playing indoors.
Source: Holmes et al., 1999.
1 Based on weighted average of geometric mean soil loadings for 4 groups of daycare children (ages 1 to 6.5 years; N = 21) playing
both indoors and outdoors. Source: Holmes et al., 1999.
: Based on geometric mean soil loadings of 8 children (ages 13 to 15 years) playing soccer. Source: Kissel et al., 1996.
1 Based on geometric mean soil loadings of 6 children (ages a 8 years) and 1 adult engaging inTae Kwon Do. Source: Kissel et al.,
1996.
' Based on weighted average of geometric mean soil loadings for gardeners and archeologists (ages 16 to 35 years). Source: Holmes
et al., 1999.
Based on weighted average of geometric mean soil loadings of 2 groups of children (age 9 to 14 years; N = 12) playing in mud.
Source: Kissel et al., 1996.
' Based on geometric mean soil loadings of 9 children (ages 7 to 12 years) playing in tidal flats. Source: Shoaf et al., 2005.
1 Based on weighted average of geometric mean soil loadings of 3 groups of adults (ages 23 to 33 years) playing rugby and 2 groups
of adults (ages 24 to 34 years) playing soccer. Source: Holmes et al., 1999; Kissel et al., 1996.
Based on weighted average of geometric mean soil loadings for 69 gardeners, farmers, groundskeepers, landscapers, and archeolo-
gists (ages 16 to 64 years) for faces, arms, and hands; 65 gardeners, farmers, groundskeepers, and archeologists (ages 16 to 64
years) for legs; and 36 gardeners, groundskeepers, and archeologists (ages 16 to 62 years) for feet. Source: Holmes et al., 1999;
Kissel et al., 1996.
Based on weighted average of geometric mean soil loadings for 27 construction workers, utility workers, and equipment operators
(ages 21 to 54 years) for faces, arms and hands; and based on geometric mean soil loadings for 8 construction workers (ages 21 to
30 years) for legs. Source: Holmes et al., 1999.
• No data.
22
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
For more information about the key studies used to derive the dermal exposure factors, refer to
Chapter 7 of the Exposure Factors Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-chapter07.pdf.
Detailed information on surface area studies is included in Section 7.3, and studies regarding adher-
ence of solids to the skin are described in Section 7.4. Data on the film thickness of liquids on human
skin is provided in Section 7.5, and information on residue transfer studies is provided in Section 7.6
of the Handbook. Information on other factors that may affect dermal exposure (e.g., frequency and
duration of hand contact and thickness of the skin) is provided in Section 7.7.
For guidance on how to use skin surface area and dermal AFs, as well as other factors, readers are
referred to Dermal Exposure Assessment: Principles and Applications (U.S. EPA, 1992b) and Risk
Assessment Guidelines for Superfund (RAGs) Part E (U.S. EPA, 2004). Additional information on con-
sumer products use and activity factors that may affect dermal exposure is presented in Chapters 16
and 17 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
7. Dermal Exposure Factors
23
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24 Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
8. Body Weight
8.1 Introduction
Body weight is one of several physiological factors needed
to calculate potential exposures. The average daily dose
(ADD) is a dose that is typically normalized to the average
body weight of the exposed population. If exposure occurs
only during childhood years, the average child body weight
during the exposure period should be used to estimate risk
(U.S. EPA, 1989). Conversely, if adult exposures are being
evaluated, an adult body weight value should be used.
Chapter 8 of the Exposure Factors Handbook provides rec-
ommendations for body weight for the general U.S. popula-
tion. These recommendations are highlighted here.
8.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Data on body weight come from the U.S. EPA analysis of
NHANES 1999-2006 data. The recommendations for body
weight are summarized in Table 8-1. The recommended
values represent mean body weights in kilograms for the
age groups for children recommended by U.S. EPA in
Guidance for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood Exposures
to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005) and for
adults. If percentile data are needed, Tables 8-3 through 8-5
in the Exposure Factors Handbook can be used to select the
appropriate data for percentiles or mean values. However,
use of upper percentile body weight values is not routinely
recommended for calculating ADDs because inclusion of
an upper percentile value in the denominator of the ADD
equation would be a non-conservative approach. The mean
recommended value for adults (80 kg) is different from the
70 kg commonly assumed in U.S. EPA risk assessments.
Assessors are encouraged to use values that most accurately
reflect the exposed population. When using values other
than 70 kg, however, exposure assessors should consider if
the dose estimate will be used to estimate risk by combin-
ing it with a dose-response relationship that was derived
assuming a body weight of 70 kg. If such an inconsistency
exists, the assessor may need to adjust the dose-response
relationship as described in the appendix to Chapter 1 of
the Exposure Factors Handbook. Overall confidence in the
body weight recommendations is high.
For more information aboutthe key studies used
to derive the recommended body weight
values, refer to Chapter 8 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/
ncea/efh/pdfs/ef h-chapter08.pdf. Detailed
information on the key body weight study is pro-
vided in Section 8.3 and relevant body weight
studies are discussed in Section 8.4. Sections
8.5 and 8.6 present relevant studies on pregnant
women and fetal weight.
8. Body Weight
25
-------
Table 8-1. Recommended Values for Body Weight
Age Group
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6 to <11 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
Adults
Mean"
kg
4.8
5.9
7.4
9.2
11.4
13.8
18.6
31.8
56.8
71.6
80.0
a For multiple percentile values, see availableTables 8-3
through 8-5 in the Exposure Factors Handbook. Body weight
data for males and females are presented separately in
Tables 8-4 and 8-5.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 1999-2006 data.
26
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
9. Intake of Fruits and Vegetables
9.1 Introduction
The American food supply is generally considered to be
one of the safest in the world. Nevertheless, fruits and
vegetables may become contaminated with toxic chemicals
by several different pathways. Ambient pollutants from
the air may be deposited on or absorbed by the plants, or
dissolved in rainfall or irrigation waters that contact the
plants. Pollutants may also be absorbed through plant roots
from contaminated soil and ground water. The addition of
pesticides, soil additives, and fertilizers may also result in
contamination of fruits and vegetables. To assess exposure
through this pathway, information on fruit and vegetable
ingestion rates is needed. Chapter 9 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook provides information on and recommendations
for fruit and vegetable ingestion rates. This information is
highlighted here.
9.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Table 9-1 presents a summary of the recommended values
for per capita and consumer-only intake of total fruits and
total vegetables. These values are based on the U.S. EPA
analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data. NHANES collected
24-hour dietary intake data via interviews conducted on 2
non-consecutive days. U.S. EPA converted intake data on the
foods people reported eating to the quantities of agricultural
commodities eaten (e.g., an apple pie may contain the com-
modities apples, flour, fat, sugar, and spices), and estimated
intake rates for fruits and vegetables. Consumer-only intake
is defined as the quantity of fruits and vegetables consumed
by individuals during the survey period. These data are gen-
erated by averaging intake across only the individuals in the
survey who consumed these food items. Per capita intake
rates are generated by averaging consumer-only intakes
over the entire population (including those individuals that
reported no intake). The U.S. EPA analysis was conducted
using childhood age groups that differed slightly from U.S.
EPAs Guidance on Selecting Age Groups for Monitoring and
Assessing Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants
(U.S. EPA, 2005). However, for the purposes of the recom-
mendations presented here, childhood data were placed in
the standardized age categories closest to those used in the
analysis. Overall confidence in the averages is medium-high,
low for some individual fruits and vegetables with small
sample size, and low in the long-term upper percentiles.
9. Intake of Fruits and Vegetables
27
-------
Table 9-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Fruits and Vegetables, Edible Portion, Uncookeda-b
Age Group
Per Capita
Mean
g/kg-day
95th Percentile
g/kg-day
Consumers Only
Mean
g/kg-day
95th Percentile
g/kg-day
Total Fruits
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to < 3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
21 to <50 years
>50 years
6.2
7.8
7.8
4.6
2.3
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.4
23.0°
21.3C
21.3C
14.9
8.7
3.5
3.5
3.7
4.4
10.1
8.1
8.1
4.7
2.5
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.5
25.8°
21.4C
21.4C
15.1
9.2
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.6
Total Vegetables
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to < 3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
21 to <50 years
>50 years
5.0
6.7
6.7
5.4
3.7
2.3
2.3
2.5
2.6
16.2°
15.6C
15.6C
13.4
10.4
5.5
5.5
5.9
6.1
6.8
6.7
6.7
5.4
3.7
2.3
2.3
2.5
2.6
18.1°
15.6C
15.6C
13.4
10.4
5.5
5.5
5.9
6.1
Individual Fruits and Vegetables— See Tables 9-5 and 9-6 in the Exposure Factors Handbook
a Analysis was conducted using slightly different childhood age groups than those recommended in Guidance on Selecting Age
Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005). Data were placed in
the standardized age categories closest to those used in the analysis.
b For multiple percentiles, seeTables 9-3 and 9-4 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
c Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data.
For more information about the key studies used to derive the recommended values for intake of
fruits and vegetables, refer to Chapter 9 of the Exposure Factors Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/
ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-chapter09.pdf. Detailed information on the intake studies is provided in Section 9.3.
Section 9.4 presents information on the conversion between intake rates for wet weight and dry
weight (i.e., the weight of the food consumed after the moisture content has been removed). For more
information on consumption of individual fruits and vegetables, refer to Chapter 9 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook.
For more information on potential contaminant loss to cooking and conversions necessary to account
for such losses, refer to Chapter 13 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
28
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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10. Intake of Fish and Shellfish
10.1 Introduction
Contaminated finfish and shellfish are potential sources of
human exposure to toxic chemicals. Pollutants are carried
in the surface waters, but also may be stored and accumu-
lated in the sediments as a result of complex physical and
chemical processes. Consequently, finfish and shellfish are
exposed to these pollutants and may become sources of
contaminated food. Accurately estimating exposure to toxic
chemicals in fish requires information about the nature of
the exposed population (i.e., general population, subsistence
fishers) and their intake rates. Because the catch of recre-
ational and subsistence fishermen is not "diluted" by fish
from other water bodies, these individuals and their families
represent the population that is most vulnerable to exposure
by intake of contaminated fish from a specific location.
Chapter 10 of the Exposure Factors Handbook provides rec-
ommended values for fish intake for the general population
and recreational marine anglers. Highlights of Chapter 10
are presented here.
10.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
General Population: Recommendations for general popu-
lation intake (presented in Table 10-1) are based on the U.S.
EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data. The overall
confidence in the recommendations is medium-high for the
mean and low for the long-term upper percentiles.
Recreational Marine Anglers: The recommended values
for recreational marine anglers are presented in Table 10-2.
These values are based on the surveys of the National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS, 1993). The overall confidence in
these recommendations is low-medium for adults and low
for children.
Recreational Freshwater Anglers and Native American
Fishers: Recommended values are not provided for rec-
reational freshwater anglers or Native American fishers
because these data are limited to certain geographic areas
and cannot be readily generalized to these populations as a
whole; however, data from several relevant studies are pro-
vided in the Exposure Factors Handbook (see Sections 10.5
and 10.6). The following general observations can be made
for freshwater recreational anglers: the range of average
consumption for anglers from rivers, lakes, and ponds
from Alabama, Connecticut, Indiana, Maine, Michigan,
Minnesota, North Dakota, and Wisconsin varies from 5 to
51 g/day (includes all survey respondents); the consump-
tion rate offish from rivers in Georgia and Tennessee ranges
from 20 to 70 g/day; and the consumption rate offish from
three lakes in Washington averages 10 g/day for adults. A
summary of intake rates for Native American anglers is pro-
vided in Table 10-6 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
10. Intake of Fish and Shellfish
29
-------
Table 10-1. Recommended Per Capita and Consumer-Only Values for Fish Intake (g/kg-day).
Edible Portion, Uncookeda-b
Age inYears
Per Capita
N
%
Consuming
Mean
95th
percentile
Consumers Only
N
Mean
95th
percentile
Finfish
All
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
20 to <50 years
Females 13 to 49 years
50+ years
16,783
865
1,052
1,052
978
2,256
3,450
3,450
4,289
4,103
3,893
23
2.6
14
14
15
15
15
15
23
22
29
0.16
0.03
0.22
0.22
0.19
0.16
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.14
0.20
1.1
0.0C
1.2C
1.2°
1.4
1.1
0.7
0.7
1.0
0.9
1.2
3,204
22
143
143
156
333
501
501
961
793
1,088
0.73
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.3
1.1
0.66
0.66
0.65
0.62
0.68
2.2
2.9C
4.9C
4.9°
3.6°
2.9C
1.7
1.7
2.1
1.8
2.0
Shellfish
All
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
20 to <50 years
Females 13 to 49 years
50+ years
16,783
865
1,052
1,052
978
2,256
3,450
3,450
4,289
4,103
3,893
11
0.66
4.4
4.4
4.6
7.0
5.1
5.1
13
11
13
0.06
0.0
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.4
0.0C
0.0°
0.0°
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.3
0.4
1,563
11
53
53
56
158
245
245
605
474
435
0.57
0.42
0.94
0.94
1.0
0.72
0.61
0.61
0.63
0.53
0.41
1.9
2.3C
3.5°
3.5°
2.9C
2.0C
1.9
1.9
2.2
1.8
1.2
Total Finfish and Shellfish
All
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
20 to <50 years
Females 13 to 49 years
50+ years
16,783
865
1,052
1,052
978
2,256
3,450
3,450
4,289
4,103
3,893
29
3.1
17
17
18
22
18
18
31
28
36
0.22
0.04
0.26
0.26
0.24
0.21
0.13
0.13
0.23
0.19
0.25
1.3
0.0°
1.6°
1.6C
1.6
1.4
1.0
1.0
1.3
1.2
1.4
4,206
30
183
183
196
461
685
685
1,332
1,109
1,319
0.78
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.3
0.99
0.69
0.69
0.76
0.68
0.71
2.4
2.9°
5.9°
5.9C
3.6C
2.7°
1.8
1.8
2.5
1.9
2.1
a Analysis was conducted using slightly different childhood age groups than those recommended in Guidance on Selecting Age
Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005). Data were placed in
the standardized age categories closest to those used in the analysis.
b For multiple percentiles, seeTables 10-7 through 10-12 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
c Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data.
30
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
Table 10-2. Recommended Values for Recreational Marine Fish Intake
Age Group
Per Capita8
Mean (g/day)
95th Percentile (g/day)
Atlantic
3 to <6 yearsb
6 to <11 yearsb
11 to <16yearsb
16to<18yearsb
>18 years
2.5
2.5
3.4
2.8
5.6
8.8
8.6
13
6.6
18
Gulf
3 to <6 yearsb
6 to <11 yearsb
11 to <16yearsb
16to<18yearsb
>18 years
3.2
3.3
4.4
3.5
7.2
13
12
18
9.5
26
Pacific
3 to <6 yearsb
6 to <11 yearsb
11 to <16yearsb
16to<18yearsb
>18 years
0.9
0.9
1.2
1.0
2.0
3.3
3.2
4.8
2.5
6.8
a Represents per capita values for recreational fishing population only. Data from U.S. EPA analysis
of NMFS (1993) assumed to represent adults >18 years. Per capita values represent both survey
individuals who ate recreational fish during the survey period and those that did not, but may eat
recreationally caught fish during other periods.
b Recommendations for children were estimated based on the ratios of marine fish intake for
general population children to that of adults using data from EPA's analysis of CSFII data (seeTable
10-31 of the Exposure Factors Handbook), multiplied by the adult recreational marine fish intake
rates for the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific regions, using data from NMFS (1993) (seeTable 10-50 of
the Exposure Factors Handbook).The ratios of each age group to adults >18 years were calculated
separately for the means and 95th percentiles.
For more information about the key studies used to derive fish and shell-
fish intake values, refer to Chapter 10 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-chapter10.pdf. Detailed informa-
tion on fish intake studies among the general population is included in
Section 10.3. Information on marine recreational studies is included in
Section 10.4, and details of freshwater recreational studies are found in
Section 10.5. Section 10.6 presents information about Native American
studies of fish intake and Section 10.7 discusses other populations. Serving
size studies are included in Section 10.8 and other factors to be considered
for fish consumption (e.g., dry weight vs. wet weight) are discussed in
Section 10.9.
10. Intake of Fish and Shellfish
31
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32 Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
11. Intake of Meats, Dairy Products, and Fats
11.1 Introduction
Meats, dairy products, and fats may become contaminated
with toxic chemicals by several pathways. These food sources
can become contaminated if animals are exposed to con-
taminated media (i.e., soil, water, or feed crops). To assess
exposure through this pathway, information on meat, dairy,
and fat ingestion rates is needed. Chapter 11 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook provides information and recommenda-
tions on ingestion rates for meats, dairy products, and fats.
These data are highlighted in this document.
11.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
The recommended ingestion rates for total meat, dairy, and
fats are presented in Table 11-1. The data for meats and dairy
products are based on the U.S. EPA analyses of NHANES
2003-2006 data. The data for fats are based on the U.S. EPA
analysis of datafrom the 1994-1996/1998 ContinuingSurvey
of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) (U.S. EPA, 2007).
NHANES and CSFII collected 24-hour dietary intake
data via interviews conducted on 2 non-consecutive days.
U.S. EPA converted intake data on the foods people reported
eating to the quantities of agricultural commodities eaten
(e.g., beef stew may contain the commodities beef, potatoes,
carrots, and other vegetables), and estimated intake rates for
meats, dairy products, and fats. Both consumer-only and
per capita intake recommendations are given in Table 11-1.
Consumer-only intake is defined as the quantity of meats,
dairy products, or fats consumed by individuals during the
survey period averaged across only the individuals who con-
sumed these food items during the survey period. Per capita
intake rates are generated by averaging consumer-only
intakes over the entire population. The U.S. EPA analysis
of NHANES data was conducted using childhood age
groups that differed slightly from U.S. EPAs Guidance on
Selecting Age Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood
Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005).
However, for the purposes of the recommendations pre-
sented here, childhood data were placed in the standardized
age categories closest to those used in the analysis. Overall
confidence in the values for intake of meats, dairy products,
and fats is medium-high for the averages and low for the
long-term upper percentiles.
For more information about the key studies
used to derive the recommended values
for meat, dairy product, and fat intake,
refer to Chapter 11 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/
pdfs/efh-chapter11.pdf. Detailed information
on studies of meat and dairy product intake is
provided in Section 11.3, and information on
studies of fat intake is found in Section 11.4.
For more information on the consumption
of specific meats, dairy products, and fats,
refer to Chapter 11 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook. Information on the conversion
between wet-weight and dry-weight intake
rates is provided in Section 11.5, and informa-
tion on the conversion between wet-weight
and lipid-weight intake rates is provided in
Section 11.6.
11. Intake of Meats, Dairy Products, and Fats
33
-------
Table 11-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Meats, Dairy Products, and Fats, Edible Portion, Uncooked
Age Group
Per Capita
Mean
g/kg-day
95th Percentile
g/kg-day
Consumers Only
Mean
g/kg-day
95th Percentile
g/kg-day
Total Meats9- b- c
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
21 to <50 years
>50 years
1.2
4.0
4.0
3.9
2.8
2.0
2.0
1.8
1.4
5.4d
10.0d
10.0d
8.5
6.4
4.7
4.7
4.1
3.1
2.7
4.1
4.1
3.9
2.8
2.0
2.0
1.8
1.4
8.1d
10.1d
10.1d
8.6
6.4
4.7
4.7
4.1
3.1
Total Dairy Products8- b- °
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <50 years
>50 years
10.1
43.2
43.2
24.0
12.9
5.5
5.5
3.5
3.3
43.2d
94.7d
94.7d
51.1
31.8
16.4
16.4
10.3
9.6
11.7
43.2
43.2
24.0
12.9
5.5
5.5
3.5
3.3
44.7d
94.7d
94.7d
51.1
31.8
16.4
16.4
10.3
9.6
Individual Meat and Dairy Products— See Tables 11-5 and 11-6 in the Exposure Factors Handbook
Total Fatse-f
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <31 years
31 to <41 years
41 to <51 years
51 to <61 years
61 to <71 years
71 to <81 years
>81 years
5.2
4.5
4.1
3.7
4.0
3.6
3.4
2.6
1.6
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
16
12
8.2
7.0
7.1
6.4
5.8
4.2
3.0
2.7
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.5
7.8
6.0
4.4
3.7
4.0
3.6
3.4
2.6
1.6
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
16
12
8.3
7.0
7.1
6.4
5.8
4.2
3.0
2.7
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.5
a Analysis was conducted using slightly different childhood age groups than those recommended in Guidance on Selecting Age
Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005). Data were placed in
the standardized age categories closest to those used in the analysis.
b For multiple percentiles, seeTables 11-3 and 11-4 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
c Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data.
d Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
e For multiple percentiles, seeTables 11-31 and 11-33 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
f Source: U.S. EPA, 2007.
34
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
12. Intake of Grain Products
12.1 Introduction
Grain products may become contaminated with toxic
chemicals by several different pathways. Ambient air pol-
lutants may be deposited on or absorbed by the plants, or
dissolved in rainfall or irrigation waters that contact the
plants. Pollutants may also be absorbed through plant roots
from contaminated soil and ground water. The addition
of pesticides, soil additives, and fertilizers may also result
in contamination of grain products. To assess exposure
through this pathway, information on ingestion rates of
grain products is needed. Chapter 12 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook provides information and recommendations on
ingestion rates of grain products for the general population.
Highlights of these data are provided here.
12.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Table 12-1 presents a summary of the recommended values
for per capita and consumer-only intake of total grain
products. The U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006
data was used in selecting recommended intake rates.
NHANES collects 24-hour dietary intake data via inter-
views conducted on 2 non-consecutive days. U.S. EPA
converted intake data on the foods people reported eating
to the quantities of agricultural commodities eaten (e.g., an
apple pie may contain the commodities apples, flour, fat,
sugar, and spices), and estimated intake rates for total grain
products. Consumer-only intake is defined as the quantity
of grain products consumed by individuals during the
survey period. These data are generated by averaging intake
across only the individuals in the survey who consumed
these food items. Per capita intake rates are generated by
averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire popula-
tion (including those individuals who reported no intake).
The U.S. EPA analysis was conducted using childhood age
groups that differed slightly from U.S. EPAs Guidance on
Selecting Age Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood
Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005).
However, for the purposes of the recommendations pre-
sented here, childhood data were placed in the standardized
age categories closest to those used in the analysis. Overall
confidence in the recommended values is medium-high for
the averages and low for the long-term upper percentiles.
For more information about the key studies
used to derive the recommended grain intake
rates, refer to Chapter 12 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/
ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-chapter12.pdf. Detailed
information on the grain intake studies are
presented in Section 12.3, and information
on the conversion between dry (after the
moisture content has been removed from
food weight) and wet intake rate is pro-
vided in Section 12.4. For more information
on consumption of specific grain products
refer to Chapter 12 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook.
12. Intake of Grain Products
35
-------
Table 12-1. Recommended Values for Intake of Grains, Edible Portion, Edible Portion, Uncooked3
Age Group
Per Capita
Mean
g/kg-day
95th Percentile
g/kg-day
Consumers Only
Mean
g/kg-day
95th Percentile
g/kg-day
Total Grains'*
Birth to 1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
20 to <50 years
>50 years
3.1
6.4
6.4
6.2
4.4
2.4
2.4
2.2
1.7
9.5°
12.4C
12.4C
11.1
8.2
5.0
5.0
4.6
3.5
4.1
6.4
6.4
6.2
4.4
2.4
2.4
2.2
1.7
10.3°
12.4C
12.4C
11.1
8.2
5.0
5.0
4.6
3.5
Individual Grain Products— See Tables 12-5 and 12-6 in the Exposure Factors Handbook
a Analysis was conducted using slightly different childhood age groups than those recommended in Guidance on Selecting Age
Groups for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005). Data were placed in
the standardized age categories closest to those used in the analysis.
b For multiple percentiles, seeTables 12-3 and 12-4 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
c Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data.
36
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
13. Intake of Home-Produced Foods
13.1 Introduction
Ingestion of home-produced foods can be a pathway for
exposure to environmental contaminants. Home-produced
foods can become contaminated in a variety of ways. Ambient
pollutants in the air may be deposited on plants, adsorbed
onto or absorbed by the plants, or dissolved in rainfall or
irrigation waters that contact the plants. Pollutants may also
be adsorbed onto plant roots from contaminated soil and
water. Finally, the addition of pesticides, soil additives, and
fertilizers to crops or gardens may result in contamination
of food products. Meat and dairy products can become con-
taminated if animals consume contaminated soil, water, or
feed crops. Farmers, as well as rural and urban residents who
consume home-produced foods, may be potentially exposed
if these foods become contaminated. Exposure via the con-
sumption of home-produced foods may be a significant route
of exposure for these populations (U.S. EPA, 1989, 1996).
Assessing exposures to individuals who consume home-
produced foods requires knowledge of intake rates of such
foods. Chapter 13 provides recommended ingestion rates of
home-produced food. The data presented may be used to
assess exposure to contaminants in foods grown, raised, or
caught at a specific site. These data are highlighted here.
13.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Data from the 1987-1988 Nationwide Food Consumption
Survey (NFCS) were used to generate intake rates for home-
produced foods (USDA, 1987-1988). The recommended
values for mean and upper percentile (i.e., 95th percentile)
intake rates for the various food groups for consumers only
are presented in Table 13-1. Adjustments may be made to
account for preparation losses (see Section 13.3.2 of the
Handbook). Table 13-1 also provides mean and 95th per-
centile per capita intake rates for populations that garden,
farm, or raise animals based on an analysis by Phillips and
Moya (2011). The per capita data have been adjusted to
account for preparation losses. Overall confidence in the
recommended values for intake of home-produced foods
is low-medium for means and short-term distributions and
low for long-term distributions.
For more information about the key studies
used to derive the recommended values
for intake of home-produced foods, refer to
Chapter 13 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-
chapter13.pdf. Detailed information on the
key studies for intake of home-produced
food is included in Section 13.3, and detailed
information on the relevant study is provided
in Section 13.4. For more information on con-
sumption of specific home-produced foods
refer to Chapter 13 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook.
13. Intake of Home-Produced Foods
37
-------
Table 13-1. Summary of Recommended Values for Intake
of Home-Produced Foods3
Age Group
Consumers Only, Unadjusted1"-0
(g/kg-day)
Mean
95th Percentile
Age Group
Per Capita for Populations that Garden
(or Farm), Adjusted"1-6 (g/kg-day)
Mean
95th Percentile
Home-Produced Fruits*
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 11 years
12 to 19 years
20 to 39 years
40 to 69 years
>70 years
8.7
4.1
3.6
1.9
2.0
2.7
2.3
60.6
8.9
15.8
8.3
6.8
13.0
8.7
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <16 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <50 years
50+ years
1.0(1.4)
1.0(1.4)
0.78(1.0)
0.40(0.52)
0.13(0.17)
0.13(0.17)
0.15(0.20)
0.24(0.31)
4.8(9.1)
4.8(9.1)
3.6(6.8)
1.9(3.5)
0.62(1.2)
0.62(1.2)
0.70(1.3)
1.1 (2.1)
Home-Produced Vegetables9
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 11 years
12 to 19 years
20 to 39 years
40 to 69 years
>70 years
Age Group
5.2
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.5
2.1
2.5
19.6
7.7
6.2
6.0
4.9
6.9
8.2
Consumers Only, Unadjusted1"-0
(g/kg-day)
Mean
95th Percentile
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <16 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <50 years
50+ years
Age Group
1.3(2.7)
1.3(2.7)
1.1 (2.3)
0.80(1.6)
0.56(1.1)
0.56(1.1)
0.56(1.1)
0.60(1.2)
7.1 (14)
7.1 (14)
6.1 (12)
4.2(8.1)
3.0(5.7)
3.0(5.7)
3.0(5.7)
3.2(6.1)
Per Capita for Populations that Farm
(or Raise Animals)d-e (g/kg-day)
Mean
95th Percentile
Home-Produced Meats'1
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 11 years
12 to 19 years
20 to 39 years
40 to 69 years
>70 years
3.7
3.6
3.7
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.4
10.0
9.1
14.0
4.3
6.2
5.2
3.5
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <50 years
50+ years
1.4(1.4)
1.4(1.4)
1.4(1.4)
1.0(1.0)
0.71 (0.73)
0.71 (0.73)
0.65(0.66)
0.51 (0.52)
5.8(6.0)
5.8(6.0)
5.8(6.0)
4.1 (4.2)
3.0(3.1)
3.0(3.1)
2.7(2.8)
2.1 (2.2)
Home-Produced Dairy
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 11 years
12 to 19 years
20 to 39 years
40 to 69 years
>70 years
_i
-
-
-
-
-
"
-
-
-
-
-
-
"
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
21 to <50 years
50+ years
11 (13)
11 (13)
6.7 (8.3)
3.9(4.8)
1.6(2.0)
1.6(2.0)
0.95(1.2)
0.92(1.1)
76 (92)
76 (92)
48 (58)
28 (34)
12(14)
12(14)
6.9(8.3)
6.7 (8.0)
38
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
Table 13-1. Summary of Recommended Values 1
of Home-Produced Foods3 (cont
Age Group
Consumers Only, Unadjusted1"-0
(g/kg-day)
Mean
95th Percentile
Age Group
or Intake
nued)
Per Capita for Populations that Farm
(or Raise Animals)d-e (g/kg-day)
Mean
95th Percentile
Home-Caught Fish'
1 to 2 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 11 years
12 to 19 years
20 to 39 years
40 to 69 years
>70 years
-
-
2.8
1.5
1.9
1.8
1.2
-
-
7.1
4.7
4.5
4.4
3.7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
a Analysis was conducted prior to the Agency's issuance of Guidance on Selecting Age Groups for Monitoring and Assessing
Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005).
b Not adjusted to account for preparation or post-cooking losses.
c Source: U.S. EPA Analysis of 1987-1988 MFCS.
d Adjusted for preparation and post-cooking losses.
e Source: Phillips and Moya, 2011.
' For consumers only, multiple percentiles are available inTable 13-5 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
9 For consumers only, multiple percentiles are available inTable 13-10 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
h For consumers only, multiple percentiles are available inTable 13-15 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
' Data not presented for age groups/food groups where less than 20 observations were available or data not available for that age or
food group.
' For consumers only, multiple percentiles are available inTable 13-20 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
13. Intake of Home-Produced Foods
39
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40 Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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14.Total Food Intake
14.1 Introduction
Contamination of foods may occur as a result of environ-
mental pollution of the air, water, or soil, or the intentional
use of chemicals such as pesticides or other agrochemicals.
Ingestion of contaminated foods is a potential pathway of
exposure to such contaminants. To assess chemical exposure
through this pathway, information on dietary composition
is sometimes needed. Chapter 14 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook provides data on total food intake and diet com-
position. Recommended values for total food intake are
highlighted here, and information on the proportion of the
total diet made up by the major food groups is provided in
Section 14.3.1 of the Handbook.
14.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
The recommended values for total food intake are based on
the U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data. Total
food intake was defined as intake of the sum of all foods,
beverages, and water ingested. A summary of recommended
values for total food intake is presented in Table 14-1. Total
intake recommendations are provided as per capita rates,
which are generated by averaging consumer-only intakes
over the entire population. Overall confidence in the recom-
mendations for total food intake is medium.
In an earlier analysis, U.S. EPA (2007) derived distributions
to characterize (1) total food intake among various groups
in the U.S. population, subdivided by age, race, geographic
region, and urbanization; (2) the contribution of various
food categories (e.g., meats, grains, vegetables) to total food
intake among these populations; and (3) the contribution
of various food categories to total food intake among indi-
viduals exhibiting low- or high-end consumption patterns
of a specific food category (e.g., individuals below the 10th
percentile or above the 90th percentile for fish consump-
tion). This analysis was based on data from USDA's CSFII
1994-1996, 1998 (USDA, 2000). Data on these specific
contributions to total intake are provided in Tables 14-4
through 14-11 in the Exposure Factors Handbook.
For more information about the key study
used to derive the total food intake values,
refer to Chapter 14 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/
pdfs/efh-chapter14.pdf. Detailed information
on the key study for total intake as well as
a key study on the composition of the diet
are provided in Section 14.3 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook.
14.Total Food Intake
41
-------
Table 14-1. Recommended Values for Per Capita Total Food Intake
Age Group
Mean
95th Percentile8
g/kg-day
Children
Birth to <1 year
1 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years0
11 to <1 6 years'1
16 to <21 years'1
91
113
79
47
28
28
208b
185b
137
92
56
56
Adults
20 to <50 years
50 years and older
29
29
63
59
Note:Total food intake was defined as intake of the sum of all foods, beverages, and water ingested.
a For multiple percentiles, seeTable 14-12 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
b Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
c Based on data for ages 6 to <13 years.
d Based on data for ages 13 to <20 years.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2003-2006 data.
42
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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15. Human Milk Intake
15.1 Introduction
Human lactation is known to impart a wide range of benefits
to nursing infants, including protection against infection,
increases in cognitive development, and avoidance of aller-
gies due to intolerance to cow's milk (AAP, 2005). Ingestion
of human milk has also been associated with a reduction
in risk of postneonatal death in the United States (Chen
and Rogan, 2004). The American Academy of Pediatrics
recommends exclusive breast-feeding for approximately the
first six months and supports the continuation of breast-
feeding for the first year and beyond if desired by the mother
and child (AAP, 2005). However, contaminants may find
their way into human milk of lactating mothers because
mothers are themselves exposed, thus making human milk a
potential source of exposure to toxic substances for nursing
infants. Estimating the magnitude of the potential dose to
infants from human milk requires information on the milk
intake rate (quantity of human milk consumed per day) and
the duration (months) over which breast-feeding occurs.
Information on the fat content of human milk is also needed
for estimating dose from human milk residue concentra-
tions that have been indexed to lipid content. Chapter 15 of
the Exposure Factors Handbook provides recommendations
for human milk intake rates and lipid intake rates. These
data are highlighted here.
15.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
A summary of recommended values for human milk and
lipid intake rates is presented in Table 15-1. These values are
based on data from Pao et al. (1980), Dewey and Lonnerdal
(1983), Butte et al. (1984), Neville et al. (1988), Dewey
et al. (199la, b), Butte et al. (2000), and Arcus-Arth et al.
(2005). These studies presented data by month, and these
month-by-month intakes were composited to yield intake
rates for the standardized age groups by calculating weighted
averages. Recommendations were converted to mL/day
using a density of human milk of 1.03 g/mL rounded to
two significant figures. The overall confidence in the rec-
ommended values for human milk and lipid intake rates
is medium.
For more information about the key studies used
to derive the recommended human milk intake
values, refer to Chapter 15 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/
ncea/efh/pdfs/ef h-chapter15.pdf. Detailed
information on human milk intake studies is
included in Section 15.3. Key studies on lipid
content and lipid intake from milk are discussed
in Section 15.4, and a relevant study on lipid
intake is included in Section 15.5. Section 15.6
discusses other factors that influence the initia-
tion, continuation, and amount of human milk
intake.
15. Human Milk Intake
43
-------
Table 15-1. Recommended Values for Human Milk and Lipid Intake Rates for Exclusively
Breast-Fed Infants
Age Group
Mean
ml/day
mL/kg-day
Upper Percentile3
ml/day
mL/kg-day
Human Milk Intake
Birth to <1 monthb-c
1 to <3 monthsb-c-d-e-f
3to<6 monthsb"c"d"e"f"9"h
6to<12 monthsb"c"d"f"9"h
510
690
770
620
150
140
110
83
950
980
1,000
1,000
220
190
150
130
Lipid Intake1
Birth to <1 monthb-c
1 to<3 monthsb"c"d"e-f
3to<6 monthsb"c"d"e"f"9"h
6to<12 monthsb"c"d"f"9"h
20
27
30
25
6.0
5.5
4.2
3.3
38
40
42
42
8.7
8.0
6.1
5.2
a Upper percentile is reported as mean plus two standard deviations.
b Neville etal., 1988.
c Arcus-Arth et al., 2005.
d Pao et al., 1980.
e Butte etal., 1984.
f Dewey and Lonnerdal, 1983.
a Butte etal., 2000.
h Dewey etal., 1991 b.
' The recommended value for the lipid content of human milk is 4.0 percent. See Section 15.4 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
44
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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16. Activity Factors
16.1 Introduction
Individual or group activities are important determinants
of potential exposure because toxic chemicals introduced
into the environment may not cause harm to an individual
until an activity is performed that subjects the individual to
contact with those contaminants. The types of activities and
time spent on these activities varies among individuals on
the basis of, for example, culture, ethnicity, hobbies, loca-
tion, sex, age, socioeconomic characteristics, and personal
preferences. Chapter 16 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
summarizes data on how much time individuals spend
participating in various activities in various microenviron-
ments and on the frequency of performing various activi-
ties. Information is also provided on occupational mobility
and population mobility. Highlights of this information are
provided here.
16.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Activity Factors: The recommended values for activity
factors are summarized in Table 16-1. Note that, except
for swimming, all activity factors are reported in units of
minutes/day. Time spent swimming is reported in units of
minutes/month. These data are based on two key studies
presented in this chapter: a study of children's activity pat-
terns in California (Wiley et al., 1991) and the National
Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS) (U.S. EPA,
1996). The recommendations for total time spent indoors
and the total time spent outdoors are based on the U.S. EPA
re-analysis of the source data from Wiley et al. (1991) for
children <1 year of age and U.S. EPA (1996) for childhood
age groups > 1 year of age. For adults 18 years and older,
the recommended values are taken directly from the source
document (U.S. EPA, 1996). The overall confidence in the
recommendations for activity factors is medium for the
mean and low for the upper percentile.
Occupational Mobility: Table 16.2 presents the recom-
mended values for occupational mobility for males and
females. These values are derived from Carey (1988, 1990).
The overall confidence in the recommendations for occupa-
tional mobility is medium.
Population Mobility: There are two key studies from which
the population mobility recommendations were derived: the
U.S. Bureau of the Census American Housing Survey (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 2008) and Johnson and Capel (1992).
Table 16-3 presents the recommendations for population
mobility. The overall confidence in these recommendations
is medium.
16. Activity Factors
45
-------
Table 16-1. Recommended Values for
Activity Patterns
Age Group
Mean
95th Percentile
Source
Time Indoors (total)
minutes/day
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6 to <12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 year
18 to <65 years
>65 years
1,440
1,432
1,414
1,301
1,353
1,316
1,278
1,244
1,260
1,248
1,159
1,142
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
a
b
c, d
Time Outdoors (total)
minutes/day
Birth to <1 month
1 to <3 months
3 to <6 months
6to<12 months
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 year
18 to <65 years
>65 years
0
8
26
139
36
76
107
132
100
102
281
298
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
a
b
c, e
Time Indoors (at residence)
minutes/day
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
18 to <65 years
>65 years
1,108
1,065
979
957
893
889
833
948
1,175
1,440
1,440
1,296
1,355
1,275
1,315
1,288
1,428
1,440
b
c
Showering
minutes/day
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
15
20
22
17
18
18
20
-
-
44
34
41
40
45
b
46
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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Table 16-1. Recommended Values for
Activity Patterns (continued)
Age Group
Mean
95th Percentile
Source
Bathing
minutes/day
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
19
23
23
24
24
25
33
30
32
45
60
46
43
60
b
Bathing/Showering
minutes/day
18 to <65 years
>65 years
17
17
-
-
c
Swimming
minutes/month
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16to<21 years
18 to <65 years
>65 years
96
105
116
137
151
139
145
45'
40f
-
-
181
181
181
181
181
181
181
b
c
Playing on Sand/Gravel
minutes/day
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
18 to <65 years
>65 years
18
43
53
60
67
67
83
Of
Of
-
121
121
121
121
121
-
121
-
b
c
Playing on Grass
minutes/day
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
18 to <65 years
>65 years
52
68
62
79
73
75
60
60f
121*
-
121
121
121
121
121
-
121
-
b
c
16. Activity Factors
47
-------
Table 16-1. Recommended Values for
Activity Patterns (continued)
Age Group
Mean
95th Percentile
Source
Playing on Dirt
minutes/day
Birth to <1 year
1 to <2 years
2 to <3 years
3 to <6 years
6 to <11 years
11 to <1 6 years
16 to <21 years
18 to <65 years
>65 years
33
56
47
63
63
49
30
Of
Of
-
121
121
121
121
120
-
120
-
b
c
a U.S. EPA analysis of source data from Wiley et al. (1991). Average for boys and girls, whole population.
b U.S. EPA re-analysis of source data from U.S. EPA (1996).
= U.S. EPA, 1996.
d Total minutes per 24 hours (1,440) minus time outdoors, doers only.
B Sum of minutes spent outdoors away from the residence and minutes spent outdoors at the residence. Doers only.
' Median value, mean not available in U.S. EPA (1996).
• Percentiles were not calculated for sample sizes less than 10 or in cases where the mean was calculated by summing
the means from multiple locations or activities.
Note: All activities are reported in units of minutes/day, except swimming, which is reported in units of minutes/month.There are
1,440 minutes in a day.Time indoors and outdoors may not add up to 1,440 minutes due to activities that could not be classified as
either indoors or outdoors.
Table 16-2. Recommended Values for
Occupational Mobility
Age Group
All ages, >1 6 years
16-24 years
25-29 years
30-34 years
35-39 years
40-44 years
45-49 years
50-54 years
55-59 years
60-64 years
65-69 years
>70 years
MedianTenure (years)
Men*
7.9
2.0
4.6
7.6
10.4
13.8
17.5
20.0
21.9
23.9
26.9
30.5
MedianTenure (years)
Women*
5.4
1.9
4.1
6.0
7.0
8.0
10.0
10.8
12.4
14.5
15.6
18.8
48
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
Table 16-2. Recommended Values for
Occupational Mobility (continued)
Age Group
16-24 years
25-34 years
35-44 years
45-54 years
55-64 years
>64 years
Total, >1 6 years
Occupational Mobility Rateb-c
(percent)
12.7
6.6
4.0
1.9
1.0
0.3
5.3
8 Source: Carey (1988).
b Source: Carey (1990).
c Occupational mobility rate = percentage of persons employed in an occupation who had voluntarily entered it from another
occupation.
Table 16-3. Recommended Values for Population Mobility
Residential Occupancy Period"
Current ResidenceTimeb
Mean
12yrs
13yrs
95th
Percentile
33yrs
46yrs
a Source: Johnson and Capel (1992).
b Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census (2008).
For more information about the key studies
used to derive the recommended activity
factors, refer to Chapter 16 of the Exposure
Factors Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/
ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-chapter16.pdf. Detailed
information on relevant studies of activity
patterns is provided in Section 16.3. Studies
on occupational mobility are discussed in
Section 16.4, and studies on population
mobility are discussed in Section 16.5.
17. Consumer Products
49
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50 Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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17. Consumer Products
17.1 Introduction
Consumer products may include cleaners, solvents, paints,
pesticides, personal care products, or other types of products
used in and around the home. These products may contain
toxic or potentially toxic chemical constituents to which
people may be exposed as a result of their use. Potential
routes of exposure to consumer products or chemicals
released from consumer products during use include inges-
tion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Non-users, including
children, can be passively exposed to chemicals in these prod-
ucts. Because people spend a large amount of time indoors,
the use of household chemicals in the indoor environment
can be a principal source of exposure (Franklin, 2008).
Limited information is available on how the various prod-
ucts are used by consumers, including the many ways in
which these products are handled, the frequency and dura-
tion of contact, and the measures consumers may take to
minimize exposure/risk (Steenbekkers, 2001). Chapter 17
of the Exposure Factors Handbook summarizes available
information regarding the amount used, frequency of use,
and duration of use for various consumer products typically
found in consumer households. Due to the large range and
variation among consumer products and their exposure
pathways, it is not feasible to recommend specific exposure
values as has been done in other chapters of the Exposure
Factors Handbook. However, Table 17-1 summarizes
information about the various consumer product studies
described in Chapter 17 of the Exposure Factors Handbook.
Users are encouraged to refer to the Handbook for more
detailed information about these studies.
17. Consumer Products
51
-------
Table 17-1. Consumer Product Use Studies Included in the Exposure Factors Handbook
Source
CTFA, 1993
Westat, 1987a
Westat, 1987b
Westat, 1987c
Abt, 1992
U.S. EPA, 1996
Bass etal., 2001
Weegels and van
Veen, 2001
Loretz et al.,2005
Loretz etal. ,2006
Hall etal., 2007
Loretz etal. ,2008
Sathyanarayana
et al., 2008
Study
Summary of the Results
of Surveys of the Amount
and Frequency of Use
of Cosmetic Products by
Women
Household Solvent Products:
A National Usage Survey
National Usage Survey
of Household Cleaning
Products
National Household Survey
of Interior Painters
Methylene Chloride
Consumer Products Use
Survey Findings
National Human Activity
Pattern Survey (NHAPS)
What's Being Used at Home:
A Household Pesticide
Survey
Variation of Consumer
Contact with Household
Products: A Preliminary
Investigation
Exposure Data for Cosmetic
Products: Lipstick, Body
Lotion, and Face Cream
Exposure Data for Personal
Care Products: Hairspray,
Spray Perfume, Liquid
Foundation, Shampoo,
Body Wash, and Solid
Antiperspirant
European Consumer
Exposure to Cosmetic
Products, a Framework
for Conducting Population
Exposure Assessments
Exposure Data for Cosmetic
Products: Facial Cleanser,
Hair Conditioner, and Eye
Shadow
Baby Care Products:
Possible Sources of Infant
Phthalate Exposure
Description
The Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association (CTFA)
conducted three surveys on frequency of use of various
cosmetic products.
A nationwide survey was conducted to determine con-
sumer exposure to common household products believed
to contain methylene chloride or its substitutes.
A nationwide telephone survey was conducted to gather
information on cleaning activities performed in the interior
of homes during the previous year; some participants were
re-interviewed or asked to keep diaries of activities.
A survey of household members who had painted the
interior of the home during the last 12 months prior to the
survey date; participants were asked questions relating to
frequency and time spent for interior painting activities,
the amount of paint used, and protective measures used,
(i.e., wearing gloves, hats, and masks or keeping a window
open).
A telephone survey of nearly 5,000 households was
conducted to gather data on use of paint strippers, non-
automotive spray paint, and adhesive removers in order
to estimate the percent of the population using these
products.
Data were collected on the duration and frequency of
selected activities and the time spent in selected microen-
vironments via 24-hour diaries; data were also collected
on duration and frequency of use of selected consumer
products such as microwave ovens and paints.
A survey (one-to-one interview) was conducted to assess
the use of pesticide products in homes with children; the
study obtained information on what pesticides were used,
where they were used, and how frequently they were
used.
A survey was conducted to determine consumer exposure
to common household products that are used once a day
or every other day (i.e., dishwashing detergent, all-purpose
cleaners, and hair styling products).
A nationwide survey was conducted to estimate the usage
(i.e., frequency of application and amount used per appli-
cation) of lipstick, body lotion, and face cream in women.
A nationwide survey was conducted to determine the
usage (i.e., frequency of use and amount used) of hair-
spray, spray perfume, liquid foundation, shampoo, body
wash, and solid antiperspirant in women.
A probabilistic European population model of exposure
for six cosmetic products (i.e., body lotion, deodorant/
antiperspirant, lipstick, facial moisturizer, shampoo, and
toothpaste) was developed using market information and
a controlled products use study.
Data from a study conducted in 2005 were used to
estimate frequency of use and usage amount for facial
cleanser, hair conditioner, and eye shadow.
This study estimated dermal exposure to phthalates
in infants via the dermal application of personal care
products; products studied were baby lotion, baby powder,
baby shampoo, diaper cream, and baby wipes.
Exposure Factors
Handbook Section
17.3.1
17.3.2
17.3.3
17.3.4
17.3.5
17.3.6
17.3.7
17.3.8
17.3.9
17.3.10
17.3.11
17.3.12
17.3.13
52
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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18. Lifetime
18.1 Introduction
The length of an individuals life is an important factor
to consider when evaluating cancer risk because the dose
estimate is averaged over an individual's lifetime. Because
the averaging time is found in the denominator of the dose
equation, a shorter lifetime would result in a higher poten-
tial risk estimate, and conversely, a longer life expectancy
would produce a lower potential risk estimate. Chapter 18
of the Exposure Factors Handbook provides information and
recommendations for life expectancy. These data are high-
lighted here.
18.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
The life expectancy values presented in Table 18-1 are based
on data from Xu et al. (2010). These data are based on
information compiled from death certificates. Using data
for 2007, life expectancy for an average person in the United
States is 78 years. If sex is a factor considered in the assess-
ment, note that the average life expectancy value for females
is higher than for males. It is recommended that the assessor
use the appropriate value of 75 years for males or 80 years
for females. If race is a consideration in assessing exposure
for individuals, note that the life expectancy is longer for
Whites than for Blacks. Therefore, assessors are encouraged
to use values that most reflect the exposed population. Tables
18-4 and 18-5 in the Exposure Factors Handbook provide life
expectancy data for Whites and Blacks separately.
The recommended value of 78 for the total population is dif-
ferent than the 70 years commonly assumed for the general
population in U.S. EPA risk assessments. The Integrated
Risk Information System (IRIS) does not use a 70-year life-
time assumption in the derivation of RfCs and RfDs, cancer
slope factors, or unit risks. Therefore, using a value differ-
ent than 70 years will not result in an inconsistency with
the toxicity data. Overall confidence in the life expectancy
recommendations is high.
Table 18-1. Recommended Values for Expectation
of Life at Birth: 2005
Population
Total
Males
Females
Life Expectancy (years)
78
75
80
Source: Xu et al.,2010.
For more information about the key study used
to derive the recommended lifetime values,
refer to Chapter 18 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook at http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/
efh-chapter18.pdf. Detailed information on the
key study on lifetime is included in Section 18.3.
18. Lifetime
53
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54 Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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19. Building Characteristics
19.1 Introduction
Unlike previous chapters in the Exposure Factors Handbook
that focus on human behavior or characteristics that affect
exposure, Chapter 19 focuses on building characteristics.
Assessment of exposure in indoor settings requires informa-
tion on the availability of the chemical(s) of concern at the
point of exposure, characteristics of the structure and micro-
environment that affect exposure, and human presence
within the building. Chapter 19 of the Exposure Factors
Handbook provides recommended values on residential and
non-residential building characteristics that affect exposure
in an indoor environment. Information from Chapter 19 is
highlighted here.
19.2 Recommended Exposure Factors
Table 19-1 presents the recommendations for residential
building volumes and air exchange rates. The U.S. EPA
2010 analysis of the 2005 Residential Energy Consumption
Survey (REGS) is the basis of the recommended housing
volumes (U.S. DOE, 2008a). The residential air exchange
rate is based on the perfluorocarbon tracer (PFT) database
(Koontz and Rector, 1995). Table 19-2 presents the rec-
ommendations for non-residential buildings. These data
come from the Commercial Building Energy Consumption
Survey (CBECS) (U.S. DOE, 2008b). The recommended
air exchange rates for non-residential buildings come
from Turk et al. (1987). The overall confidence ratings
are medium for residential and non-residential build-
ing volumes. The data for air exchange rates are limited.
Therefore, the recommendations for this factor have been
assigned low confidence ratings and these values should be
used with caution. Information on several other factors for
which specific recommendations are not provided, are also
presented in Chapter 19 of the Handbook.
Table 19-1. Recommendations—Residential Parameters
Volume of Residence
492 m3 (central estimate)3
154 m3 (lower percentile)b
Air Exchange Rate
0.45 ACHC (central estimate)1
0.18 ACH (lower percentile)6
a Average value presented inTable 19-6 in the Exposure Factors Handbook recommended for use as a central estimate for all single
family homes, including mobile homes and multi-family units.
b 10th percentile values recommended to be used as a lower percentile estimate.
c ACH = air changes per hour.
d Median value recommended to be used as a central estimate (Table 19-24 in the Exposure Factors Handbook).
e 10th percentile value recommended to be used as a lower percentile value (Table 19-24 in the Exposure Factors Handbook).
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of U.S. DOE, 2008a; Koontz and Rector, 1995.
19. Building Characteristics
55
-------
Table 19-2. Summary of Recommended Values for Non-Residential Building Parameters
Volume of Building (m3)a-b
Vacant
Office
Laboratory
Non-refrigerated warehouse
Food sales
Public order and safety
Outpatient healthcare
Refrigerated warehouse
Religious worship
Public assembly
Education
Food service
Inpatient healthcare
Nursing
Lodging
Strip shopping mall
Enclosed mall
Retail other than mall
Service
Other
All buildings6
Air Exchange Rate'-9
Mean0
4,789
5,036
24,681
9,298
1,889
5,253
3,537
19,716
3,443
4,839
8,694
1,889
82,034
15,522
11,559
7,891
287,978
3,310
2,213
5,236
5,575
Mean (SD)1.5(0.87) ACH
Range 0.3-4.1 ACH
10th Percentiled
408
510
2,039
1,019
476
816
680
1,133
612
595
527
442
17,330
1,546
527
1,359
35,679
510
459
425
527
0.60 ACH
' U.S. EPA analysis of U.S. DOE, 2008b.
b Volumes were calculated assuming a ceiling height of 20 feet for warehouses and enclosed malls and 12 feet for other structures
(seeTable 19-20 of Exposure Factors Handbook).
c Mean values are recommended as central estimates for non-residential buildings (seeTable 19-20 of Exposure Factors Handbook).
d 10th percentile values are recommended as lower estimates for non-residential buildings (seeTable 19-20 of Exposure Factors
Handbook).
e Weighted average assuming a ceiling height of 20 feet for warehouses and enclosed malls and 12 feet for other structures (seeTable
19-20 of Exposure Factors Handbook).
' Air exchange rates for commercial buildings (seeTable 19-27 of Exposure Factors Handbook).
9 Turketal., 1987.
SD = Standard deviation.
ACH = Air changes per hour.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of U.S. DOE, 2008a; Koontz and Rector, 1995.
56
Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
-------
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U.S. DOE (Department of Energy). (2008a) Residential Energy Consumption Survey (REGS). Report No. DOE/EIA-0314
(93), U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC.
U.S. DOE (Department of Energy). (2008b) Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS). Form
EIA-871A. U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC. Available at
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cbecs.
64 Exposure Factors Handbook—Highlights
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