ORP-81-1
ADVANCED
FOR
RADIUM REMOVAL
^ FROM
DRJNKING WATER:
THE FLATOMINEATER TREATENT PROJECT
Division of Occupational Health
cifid Radiation Control
Texas Deportment of Health
Austin, Texas
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THE FLATONIA WATER TREATMENT PROJECT
for
U,S»
Division of Occupotlonoi Health
end Radiation Control
Texas Deportment of Health
Austin, Texas
i-c
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Page Intentionally Blank
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Advanced Technology for Radium Removal from
Drinking Water:
The Platonia Water Treatment Project
Lewis M. Cook
Texas Department of Health
I, Introduction
In late 1977, the Texas Department of Health received a grant from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to conduct a study to determine the
applicability of using manganese-coated acrylic fibers (Mn-fibers) to remove
radium from drinking water. The project also had as its goals the reduction of the
levels of radium-226 in the municipal water system of Platonia, Texas. Platonia
(Figure 1), a small (population 1,108) town on Interstate 10 approximately mid-way
between Houston and San Antonio in southeast Texas, depends entirely on ground water
(well water) for the municipal supply. Three of the four wells in the water system
exceeded EPA's limit of 5 picoCuries total radium per liter (pCi/1) for drinking
water and two of those exceeded it substantially. About the time the project was
begun, the city drilled another well to augment the system because the well having
the lowest level of radium had failed.
During the course of the project, some of the objectives had to be changed, due to
changes in water useage, philosophy, and waste-generating and disposal requirements.
One of the goals was to remove the radium from the filters so that the filters
could be re-used. This was not attempted for several reasons. The removal of radium
requires that the filters be immersed in Nitric acid, and the acid, containing fairly
high dissolved and suspended radium concentrations,would require disposal in liquid
form. Since waste disposal facilities no longer accept liquids for disposal, and
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Figure 1. Business district. North Main Street, (U.S. 90), Flatonia,
located in Fayette County, Texas.
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the fact that it was thought that the handling of large volumes of liquid radio-
active waste was not a task compatible with the operations of a municipal utility
crew, this part of the proposed project was not attempted.
Despite the many problems encountered, problems which ranged from tangled red tape
and logistics to bad luck that could only be termed bizarre, and despite the numerous
delays and modified objectives, a great deal of information about the process was
gained and the project was technologically successful. The water supply in Flatonia
met the drinking water standards for radium for almost all of 1979 for the first time
in several years.
From the knowledge gained performing this work, we have concluded the technique of
using Mn-fibers to remove radium from drinking water appears to be a relatively
simple, effective procedure which can be compatible with the operations of a
municipal utility crew and probably will operate at an economic advantage over
other methods.
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II. History
The Texas Department of Health began routine sampling of water near uranium
deposits in 1970. Private wells near these deposits have been found to deliver
water containing over 100 pCi/1 of radium-226 to the families using this water.
The work was first reported at the Natural Radiation Environment II Symposium
{Wukasch and Cook, 1972), and was further discussed at an International Radia-
tion Protection Association Symposium in Washington, D.C. (Wukasch and Cook,
1973).
A W_ashi_ngtpri Post story summarizing the paper came to the attention of W.S.
Moore, Ph.D., who contacted us.
Moore, at the time, was working with the U.S. Navy Oceanographic Office, and
was examining the ratios of radium-226 to radium-228 in the oceans to determine
oceanic vertical mixing rates. Because the concentration of radium in ocean
waters is quite low (on the order of 0.05 pCi/1) it was necessary to concentrate
the radium from large volumes of sea water in order to have sufficient quantities
of radium to determine this ratio. The removal was done with acrylic fiber
filters which had been treated with manganese solutions. Radium removal effi-
ciencies were on the order of 90% (Moore and Reid, 1973). Within a month, Moore
had brought an experimental apparatus to Texas at our request, to determine if the
process would reduce the high levels of radium being found in some well water.
It did (Moore and Cook, 1975).
About the same time, we were notified that gamma ray well logs of wells in
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Flatonia showed extremely high levels of gamma ray intensity in the (Miocene
or Oligocene Series) Catahoula tuff (Hill, 1973).
The Catahoula tuff is a host rock for uranium deposits in other parts of South
Texas (Cook, in press), and uranium exploration in the near vicinity of the town
had been conducted. No plans for commercial operation had been announced,
however.
Water sampling showed that all of the wells in the Flatonia municipal water
supply contained detectable levels of radium and radon (Table I). Well locations
are shown on the map of the town in Figure 2.
In August of 1974, Moore and the writer performed tests using the process on
water from well #6 in Flatonia, similar to those done in South Texas in 1973
(Figure 3). In February 1975, other variations of the process were also tested
with encouraging results.
In order for the city water supply to meet the drinking water standard, it
would be necessary for the city to either abandon the present wells and drill
new wells, gambling that those wells would have acceptable radium levels,
or the city could treat the water from the wells to reduce the radium content.
when the costs of drilling new wells were compared to the projected costs of
treating the water by passing it through Mn-fibers, it was decided that a potential
for substantial savings lay in using the fibers.
The process was an experimental one, and if it could successfully be scaled
up to water-treatment plant size, then other communities which have problems
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HIGHWAYS REVISED TO JANUARY 1, 1976
Figure 2. well locations in Flatonia,
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Y*#
Figure 3. Bench scale tests of the process were conducted in Platonia
using 10 inch length filter cartridges. 30 inch length filter
cartridges are used in the housing in Flatonia,
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Table 1
Radium and Radon in the Flatonia Municipal Water System
Radium-226
(pCi/1)
Well
Well
Well
Well
5
6
7
8
3.4
16
14
6.4
( 3)
(13)
( 4)
( 3)
Radon -2 2 2
(PCi/1)
1300
10700
7400
1400
(1)
(15
(1)
(1)
Numbers in parentheses are number of samples.
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with high radium levels in their drinking water would berefit from this new
technology.
It was thought that development of such a process would logically be of interest
to the EPA, so contacts with EPA were made and in September of 1977 a proposal
for the Flatonia Water Treatment Project was submitted. A cost-reimbursement
contract was subsequently issued.
The proposal entailed participation of three governmental entities: EPA, the
Texas Department of Health, and the City of Flatonia, The EPA provided money
for the purchase of equipment and suppliess consultation fees and interstate
travel. The Health Department paid the salaries of the principle investigator,
his assistant, and paid for laboratory services and intra-state travel. The city
of Flatonia furnished the work space, people and equipment for installation of
process equipment and sample collection as well as work space in Flatonia, W.S,
Moore, who holds U.S. patent numbers 3,965., 283 and 4,087,, 583 on the fibers
and their preparation, allowed this technology to be utilized on a royalty-
free basis.
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III. Operations Conducted.
The Mn-fliter preparation area was constructed in the fall of 1977 in anticipation
of using the area as a filter regeneration facility. Accordingly, an emergency
shower was also installed, as was an extra large capacity (about 2,000 liters)
spill absorption and containment "tray" in the bottom of the work area. Vermi-
culite was used as the absorber, (Figure 4)
The filter housing foundation for the south plant area was placed near the buried
water lines leading to the elevated ground storage tank on the south edge of
town, (Figure 5). The lines from well 6 and well 7 connect just to the west
of this area.
Well 9 was drilled and developed and was connected into the vertical riser pipe
at the tank. This routing was chosen so that the water from wells 6 and 7 could
be routed through the filter and the water from well 9 could be put into the
system without being sent through the filter. The pipe from well 9 to the tank
crosses the feed pipe from well 6 near well 9, and had the radium removal equip-
ment not been in the system, there would have been a connection at the point where
the well 9 output pipe crosses the well 6 pipe. The length of pipe necessary
to extend the well 9 connection to the tank was supplied to the city under
this project.
The filter housing was installed in the Flatonia system about one year after
the foundation was prepared, due to difficulties discussed elsewhere in this
report.
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Figure 4, The filter preparation area was to be used for filter prepa-
ration and regeneration. The use of 2 x 8 lumber provided
a sturdy platform for the drums, which weigh about 500 pounds
each when full.
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Figure 5. Location for the South Water Treatment Plant,
14
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The foundation (6' x 6' x 9") was constructed in December 1977 of reinforced
concrete (Figures 6 and 7). This proved to be larger than strictly necessary but
provided a comfortable work area.
After the filter housing arrived, the plumbing was connected. Difficulty in
cutting cast iron pipe was encountered. Since the mechanical joint pipe fittings
required nipples between adjacent fittings, small pieces of the pipe were needed.
A hydraulic pipe cutter (Figure 8} was used, but failed to cut the pipe. The
pipe, instead of fracturing like case iron does, merely deformed under the pressure.
The pipe was supposed to have been cast iron but a well-intentioned contractor
had substituted a stronger, less brittle pipe.
The city crew supplied a small piece of cast iron pipe for some of the needed
fittings and the mild steel pipe was used for the rest. The city crew took the
pipe to Prototype Machine Shop, where it was cut into lengths using a band saw
(several bands were used in the attempt). No charge was levied for this service.
The city crew also dug up the buried water line and made the hook-up.
In the meantime, filters had been treated. Figure 9 shows the beginning steps
and Figure 10 shows 60 treated filters. The surgical gloves used to protect
hands proved to be not sufficiently durable. Stains from the permanganate last
a few days to a week before they wear off. The solutions, when spilled on the
skin, do not cause pain (Figure 11).
The filter housing hardware was installed (Figure 12), the filters inserted,
and the spring and cap assemblies were joined and pushed onto the filter tops
(Figure 13). Next the hold-down plate was installed, the head bolted down,
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If
Figure 6. Constructing the form for the foundation of the South Water
Treatment Plant.
16-
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Figure 7. The finished form.
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Figure 8. Problems were encountered in cutting pipe supplied under
contract. The supplied pipe was not cast iron but a more
durable and stronger, mild steel. The hydraulic pipe cutter
operates only on brittle pipe.
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Figure 9. Filters at initial chemical addition step.
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Figure 10, Filters at end of treatment.
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Figure 11, Manganese stains result when holes develop in gloves. The
stains cause a short-term discoloration, are painless and
should remove radium from water.
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. *«i*s;
Figure 12. Installation of "V" shaped filter guide bars. Note circular
hold-down plate which is used to compress filter springs.
22'
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and testing was begun (Figure 14).
Tests for chemical changes in the water before and after it passed through
the filters included radium removal, presence of acrylonitrile and/or other organic
chemicals as well as routine chemical analyses and taste and odor (Table II & Figure
15). The treated water was dumped on the ground during this early data gathering
period between the Initial installation and receipt of laboratory results indicating
acceptable quality water was delivered.
Prior to the beginning of the tests, cards were mailed to the customers of the
utility, briefly describing the project and requesting notification of any com-
plaints. A few complaints were received concerning aestnetic quality of the
water prior to the time that any water was treated by the filtering system.
After the system was connected, no complaints related to the operation were
received. The card is shown in Figure 16.
The radium removal efficiency was substantial, but less than expected. As a
result, the treated water was added to the system only when needed after the
initial trial run.
In June 1979, the filters were exchanged with a new "batch to test several
theories about the process, which will be discussed in detail later in this
report. At that time, most of the interior of the filter housing were painted
with epoxy paint.
The second filter housing is to be installed at the downtown water plant
(Figure 17). The city warehouse just to the west of this plant is shown in
Figure 18. It is in this building that our filter preparation area is housed.
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Table II
Chemical Tests - well 6 water
Test
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Sulphate
Chloride
Fluoride
Nitrate
Potassium
Dissolved Solids
Phenolphthalein
Alkalinity as CaCO
Total Alkalinity as CaCO-,
Total Hardness as CaCO3
Diluted Conductance
(ymhos/cm)
pH
Before
Filter
108
4
67
0
346
24
81
0.4
< 0.02
NA
454
0
284
285
870
7.6
After
1000 gal.
88
4
61
0
336
23
79
0,4
< 0.02
29
449
0
275
233
B64
7.5
After
4000 gal.
92
3
60
0
337
23
80
0.4
< 0,02
24
448
0
276
243
864
7.6
After
8000 gal.
101
4
59
0
341
24
73
0.4
< 0.02
NA
429
0
280
271
852
7.7
Gas Chromatography + Mass spectroscopy test for acrylonitrile and related chemicals
negative.
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Figure 14. The assembled filter mechanism at the early testing stage.
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Figure 15. Tests for chemical, radiological, and aesthetic quality
were conducted prior to adding water to the municipal water
system.
27
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&OTXCE
The Texas Departmer.t of Health, working ±n cooperation with
the City of Flatonia -with financial assistance from the O. S.
Environmental Protection Agsncy, will bsgla a as** water treat-
ment process in & few tweaks. After preliminary testing, the
water from some of the City's wells will be passed through
specially treated' filters before being added to the distribu-
tion system. The filters are spra froa acrylic yarn and
treated with oxides of aoanganese. They will remove radium,
naturally present in sosas of the well waters, without changing
the appearance or taste of the water.
No problems with the delivered water are expected, however, if
you should have a complaint, please save a sample of the
water and call the City Office at 885-3337.
Figure 16.
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Figure 1"? . Downtown water treatment area where second filter unit is
to be installed.
29-
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Figure 18. The City Warehouse is shown to the left of the base of the
elevated water storage tank. It is the location of the
filter preparation area.
30<
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Forms for this second unit foundation have been made, and this will be smaller
than the foundation for the first unit. The city will conduct the operation of
this second installation and filter operation under guidance and consultation
with the Health Department.
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IV. Logistic Problems Encountered
A, Delays
The project was designed to last one year, based upon expected paperwork
delays, manufacturing schedules, available travel money, and manpower.
Belays far exceeding reasonable expectations were encountered. Reviews of
purchase orders for the filter housings by the Fiscal Division of the Health
Department, followed by a review and bid requests issued by the Texas Board
of Control, bid opening , and the award of contracts required from 8-11 weeks,
Construction of the first filter housing took 22 weeks, although 6-8 weeks
had been the estimate given by the supplier.
That first filter housing actually never made it to Flatonia. It was destroyed
in shipment when vandals burned the shipping warehouse in Austin on July 27,
1978, as the housing was awaiting forwarding to Flatonia. In the meantime,
we had ordered the second housing. We planned to substitute it for the first
housing. This replacement for the first filter housing didn't arrive in
Flatonia until December 1978. In early February 1979, the paperwork for the
purchase of the second filter housing was begun. The delivery of this second
e
housing occurred on November 16, 1979. Installation of this second unit is
planned by the Flatonia crew in the spring of 1980.
32'
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B. Materials
Several problems related to materials were encountered during the project.
The treatment of the first set of filters proceeded slowly, much more slowly
than expected. Two 55-gallon drums were filled with 60 filters for the
treatment procedure. The drums were lined with polyethylene bags of 6 mil thickness,
which proved to be insufficiently strong to prevent leaks and subsequent corrosive
attack of the steel drum. Next, for protection of the drums they were coated with an
epoxy paint used for water tanks. The paint, after drying more than the recommended
curing time, was also attacked by the potassium permanganate. Finally, drum liners
i
made of 1/8 inch thick .polyethylene were lent to us by W.S. Moore, Ph.D., the
consultant, in order that they could be obtained without significant delay.
The filter treatment consists of soaking the filters in a potassium permanganate
solution for lengths of time which depend upon the strength of the solution and
temperature (U.S. Patents 3,965,283 and 4,087,583). This reouires about 7-10
minutes at 175°F and a concentration at 60 grams of potassium permanganate per liter
of water. At 86 F, the processing requires 3 to 4 days, at the same solution strength,
The fibers, in becoming coated with oxides of manganese, turn from pure white
through tati to a chocolate color (at about 4% manganese by weight) and finally
to jet black (at around 10% manganese by weight). The desired degree of treat-
ment is about 7-8% manganese by weight, resulting in a very dark drown fiber.
On or about March 7, 1978, before the filters were delivered, a phone conver-
sation was held with the contractor, • who was informed of the need for acrylic
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fiber filters, and that any other substance would not work. The contractor
stated that he had acrylic fiber filters and another type, a polyurethane,
in stock, that the polyurethane was slightly more expensive and it would be
supplied at the same price, if desired. This suggestion was rejected, again
with the admonition given that only acrylic fibers were acceptable.
On March 29, 1978, 42 boxes of 12 filters each were delivered to Flatonia.
The filters were inspected and appeared acceptable, being the correct length
and diameter, being made of white fibers spun onto 1" plastic centers.
Immediately, 60 filters were placed in a drum containing a solution of potassium
permanganate (40 g/1).
On March 31, a check on progress of the filter treatment was conducted. The
temperature of the unheated drum was 72°F and the degree of manganese loading
on the fibers was estimated to be less than 1%. On April 5, a drum heater was
connected to a second drum filled with water and another 60 filters to determine
heater settings.
On April 6, heaters were connected to both drums and chemicals were mixed for
treatment of all the 120 filters, enough for one filling of the filter housing
plus five for testing.
On April 7, the manganese level of the filter was checked. Again less than 1%
manganese by weight was deposited on the filter. Because of possible inter-
ference caused by the epoxy coating on the drums by the chemicals, processing
was suspended by draining the chemical solution and leaving the filters to stand
in water,
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Upon receipt of loaned polyethylene drum liners, processing was resumed on
May 2, 1978.
Then, 60 of the filters were placed in a drum with about 20 grams of
per liter, heated to 83°F. On May 4, the temperature was increased to 93°P by
Flatonia City workers. On May 5 the fibers had 1-2% manganese by weight,
estimating from the color. The solution strength was increased to 40 grams
per liter and the temperature increased to 98°F to speed the seemingly slow
uptake of manganese .
By May 8, the fibers still had not absorbed more than 2% manganese by weight,
so the solution strength was increased to 60 grams per liter, the "reference"
strength, and the temperature was kept at 98°F.
On May 9, the city recorded the temperature as being 103 F, and it was left at
that warm temperature until May 12, by which time it was anticipated they would
have been treated to 7 - 10% manganese by weight.
The fibers actually contained less than 3% manganese. The drum heater was
disconnected. A sample of 100% orlon acrylic (white) yarn was obtained to
compare it with those being used in Flatonia. Part of one of the unused Flatonia
filters was unwound and 3.8 gram bundled sample of each type of yarn was taken,
They were dropped simultaneously in a heated solution of potassium permanganate
solution at approximately 50 grams per liter at 180 F. They were stirred inter-
mittently and removed together after 7 minutes in the hot potassium permanganate
solution. They were then placed in a beaker and washed until no trace of the
purple solution remained.
35 <:
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Because of the differing winding of the yarns, there was no possibility of con-
fusing the two samples.
The orlon acrylic yarn reacted exactly as expected, turning jet black. The
sample from the filter delivered to Flatonia reacted differently,
The degree of darkening on it was very much less than the orlon acrylic. The
final color on this sample was beige, representing much less than 1% manganese
by weight.
The consultant for the project, Willard S. Moore, Ph.D., the developer of the
treatment process, was called and he- reported having tested numerous acrylic
fibers manufactured under differing processes and had never found an acrylic
fiber which failed to take up manganese oxides.
As a final test, the vendor's filter material was heated to between 170 ^ a°d
190° F in the same solution used for the simultaneous test for over one hcur
and did not darken significantly more.
It was therefore concluded that the filters delivered to Flatonia were something
other than the spun acrylic fiber filters specified. Laboratory tests for infra-
red reflectance spectrometry confirmed the discrepancy.
C. State Budgetary Process
It should be briefly mentioned that these were significant delays due to the
somewhat complex purchasing system the State of Texas uses. No "petty cash"
system existed, so for relatively small items which were needed quickly (in a few
minutes rather than several days or weeks) the investigators purchased these with
personal funds. Examples include extension cords, small springs, and bleach
(for disinfecting).
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V, Water Treatment
A. Radium Concentration Variations
Earlier testing of the activity of well 6 gave consistent results of around
14 pci/l. During this earlier period, well 6 provided most of the water used by
the town. At that time the town used wells, 6, 8, 5, and 7 for their supply,
approximately in that order when volume is considered. Well 5 failed in 1977
and another well was drilled, well 9A. This new well did not produce the quan-
tity that the driller had guaranteed, and another well, numbered 9B, was drilled
by off-setting well 9A. This offset produced over 250 gallons per minute, a
greater production rate than any other well in the system. It plus well 8
is sufficient to provide most of the water needed by Flatonia all during the
fall, winter, and early spring, but demand during the summer requires all of the
wells in the system.
When well 6 was turned on at the beginning of the project in December of
1978, the concentration of radium in the water was 38 pCi/1. Heavy pumping
caused the concentration to drop to 20 pCi the next day, A similar pattern
of activity was seen in June of 1979 after the second set of filters was installed
and was used for treating the town's water in the summer.
Apparently, the most highly contaminated water is drawn from near the
well, and water more distant from the well has less activity. After the
well is shut down, the radium levels climb once again to around 35 -
37 <
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40 pCi/1. After continued heavy use, the radium levels decreased to around
the levels originally measured, around 14 pCi/1.
Well 7 showed a little variation also. The levels of radium in well 7 seemed to
increase slightly with pumping.
B. Description of Filter Housing
The filter housing used in this project is a Facet Model 115R3, a cylindrical
steel pressure vessel- about 36 inches in diameter and standing about seven
feet tall. The filters are 30 inches tall, and are arranged in a concentric
circular pattern, with a "wedge" of filters missing on the outer rows to accom-
modate the inlet. The filters fit over "cups" with steel "V" channel guide bars
inserted to hold the filters upright. The guide bars are removable and fit very
loosely into the cups. The filters are held upright and vertical by a spring
and cap assembly fitted into the top of the filters. A \ inch thick circular
steel plate, about 2 inches in diameter less than the inside diameter of the
vessel, is bolted down over the springs, the springs being compressed, thereby
holding the filters in place. This hold-down plate has a circular hole which
is aligned above the intake. The doomed top of the housing is held on with
swing belts and sealed by a rubber "0" ring. The vessel is rated for 150 psig,
with a maximum differential of 75 psig between the inlet and output.
The water flows into the housing at a level below the bottom of the filters,
and rises in the empty "V" space above the inlet. From this point, it can
pass among the filters and be filtered, or can rise and flow through the springs
and down between the filters. Alternatively, the incoming water could flow up
through the hole in the hold-down plate, then around the edge of the hold-down
plate to the area between the tops of the filters and the plate, in the space where
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the compressed springs stand.
The water passes through the filter, from the outside into the center hole of
the filter and then down through the tube and through the 115 holes in the
bottom of the filter chamber. The outlet for the housing is opposite the intake.
The housing has a drain pipe on the bottom, which can be used for sampling, as
a "bleed" or as an alternate output at relatively low flow rates (less than
150 gallons per minute), permitting dumping of the filtered water.
C. Results and Problems
The initial filter loading and tests in early December 1978, achieved a large
reduction in the levels of radium in the water passed through the filter.
Treated water was dumped on the ground until analysis results were received
from the Health Department laboratory which showed an absence of any organic
chemicals from the filtered water which could have come either from the manu-
facturer of the acrylic fiber of the chemical treatment in Flatonia. Even
after heavily concentrating the sample, no traces of any chemicals attributable
to the filter could be detected using gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy.
After the negative report on the presence of organics was received, and analyses
for radium showed that radium levels were below 5 pCi/1 for the commingled
water, the filter output was put into the system.
Apart from this early work to prove that the process worked, the filtered water
was added to the system only when it was needed to keep up with demand.
Well 9 was out of service for a few weeks in January 1979 and wells 6 and 7
were needed. During this period the 250,000 gallon elevated ground storage
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tank needed cleaning of the sand and iron sulfide precipitate in it and well 6
was used to flush and fill this tank.
The reason for using well 6 as little as feasible was the fact that the efficiency
of the filter system was not as great as had been expected, and adding the water
that passed through the filter system to the municipal water supply when it
wasn't strictly necessary would be contrary to the ALARA* principle.
Simply dumping the filtered water on the ground was also viewed as wasteful
and was not done except for flushing loose manganese oxides from the filter
system and for the initial testing phases.
The results of the water treatment project with respect to the removal of
radium from the drinking water in Flatonia are shown in Table III.
The initial removal efficiency with the first set of filters was less than
expected. Earlier work with smaller filters (although with larger flow per
filter) had led to the expectation that initial removal efficiencies approaching
99% could be expected. The initial radium removal efficiencies were actually
around 80%. The cause of this low efficiency was speculated to be due to one
of several factors;
1. Possibly uneven manganese uptake by fibers in the
middle of the winding of the cartridge's core.
2. "Channeling" through the filter housing.
3. Chemical Interference caused by Iron oxides (rust)
in the filter housing.
4. An empty filter space in the housing.
5. Insufficient amount of manganese treatment of the fiber.
*As low as reasonably achievable.
40<
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Table III
Water Processing Results
Radium Concentration
Volume
Date
12/05/78
12/06/78
12/11/78
12/13/78
12/14/78
12/18/78
12/19/78
12/20/78
12/21/78
1/18/79
1/19/79
2/06/79
Time (Gal. x 1000)
1500
1000
1230
1330
1530
1205
1305
1405
1505
1406
1416
1446
0880
0950
0950
unk
0745
0845
0935
1300
1340
1050
1230
1330
1320
1335
1350
1
4
8
16
114
123
129
141
255
261
267
273
333
334
337
405
535
535
(877)
991
1123
1249
1252
1256
1278
1290
1304
1962
1964
1965
2/13/79
6/22/79
1055
1120
1140
1300
1966
3
6
• 8
17
Well
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
b
6
6
6
6
6
6+7
6+7
6+7
6
6+7
7
7
6+7
6
7
6+7
Before Filters
pCi/1
38
28
24
19
20
20
26
22
22
23
27
33
25
(27)
(27)
(27)
(27)
(27)
(27)
29
32
40
17
19
20
37
32
17
9.5
27
27
10
22
After Filters
PCi/1
6.7
6.6
3.6
4.0
4.8
7.0
5.9
5.9
7.1
6.3
7.1
7.2
8.7
7.6
6.8
8.2
4.6
4.6
4.4
5.8
9.4
7.0
10.9
10.8
7.5
6.1
5.7
8.1
6.9
0.2
2.0
7,9
4.2
2.1
3.2
Radium Remov.
83
86
80
63
70
70
73
71
67
68
68
77
73
70
83
83
84
V8
65
80
66
72
56
68
72
78
79
98
79
71
84
79
85
-------
Radium Concentration
Volume Before Filters After Filters Radium Removal
Date Time (Gal, x 1000) Well pCi/1 pCi/jl %
7/11/79 1300 6 19 5.1 73
1305 7 18 7.0 61
1310 6+7 25 1.1 95
8/09/79 1255 2468 6 16 6.5 59
1320 2470 6 13 8.3 36
-------
_ 1 —
To test the first possibility, one of the unused filter cartridges was sacrificed
to examine the interior windings of the fiber. The center tube, a one-inch
diameter perforated tube, allows the solutions access to the interior windings,
while access to the outside windings is obtained from being in contact with
the solution in the drum, but the chemical solution can reach the windings in
the middle of the filter only by diffusion from the center tube and from the
outside.
There was no apparent difference in the manganese content of the fibers in the
middle of the cartridge compared to the inside windings or the outside windings.
-2-
Based upon data gathered from radiation surveys, channeling was suspected. A
method to test this supposition was devised. Channeling of the water through the
filter housing, causing some filters to filter more water than others, would mean
that the water would move more quickly through some of the filters. This, in turn,
would mean that the water would spend less time in the filter medium and a smaller
percentage of radium would be removed.
The filter housing is designed so that it is likely that some of the filters
would have less flow through them than others. The incoming water is routed
up the side of the housing in a "V" shaped space devoid of filters, which is
bordered by filters. It first passes the filters next to the opening and
can reach the filters diametrically opposite the inlet by passing around
all of the filters in the middle of the housing.
Evidence that this channeling was occurring was obtained during leach tests of two filti
which were removed for testing purposes (Table IV). The leaching solution in
43-
-------
TABLE IV
Concentration of Radium-226 in Leach Solutions
Description
226 Ra
(pCi/1)
Cartridge No. 1 - Filter Batch
3rd Circle of filters from outside,
Mid-way from water input
15 min. Leaches
Leach 1 - pH 3.0 at start
Leach 2 - pH 2.0 at start
Leach 3 - pH 1.0 at start
Leach 1M HNCU
16 +_ 10
122 + 20
625 +_ 44
4150 + 100
Cartridge No. 2 - Filter Batch 1
1st (outside) Circle, 7/8 from input
Leach - 24 hours @ 0.5M HNO-
395 + 9
Cartridge No. 3 - Filter Batch 2
3rd Circle from outside, at input
Not Leached
Cartridge No. 4 - Filter Batch 2
4th Circle, Mid-way from input
Leach - 15 min. @ 0.5M HNO.
2480 + 80
44 <
-------
each case was 0.5 M HNO , while the amounts of dissolved radium obtained from
leaching differed by a factor of 6, The filter from which the higher amount
of radium was removed came from near the middle of the housing, while the other
filter came from diametrically opposite the input of the filter,
To re-route the flow of the incoming water, a baffle of corrugated iron sheet
was cut to fit into the "V" shaped inlet slot and to act as a riser to allow
water to flow up through the circular hole in the filter hold-down plate,
around the edges of the plate and into the filter spring area, thence to the
filters. The baffle was installed on January 18, 1979 but test results (See
Table III) did not show any significant improvement. Whatever channeling or
other preferential flow existed, there was no significant improvement over the
radium removal rate before the baffle was installed.
Consideration was given to using a. plugging medium to partially block some of
the filters. This would tend to distribute water more evenly throughout the
filter housing. However, this was not attempted due to perceived difficulties
in operations.
At times it is desirable to backflush the filter housing, and some slight back
flushing would occur with the well cycling on and off automatically during
operations. This would dislodge any filter plugging medium. Suggested items
to attempt the plugging were polyethylene sheet chips, sand/ and diatomaceous
earth.
During the project, a special apparatus for testing a single filter was developed,
These tests were designed to determine the effect of varying the flow rate
through the filters. Two separate tests were conducted. The second test was
necessary due to the large variation in the radium content of the input water
-------
which put the accuracy of the results of the first test in question.
With well 6 in operation, approximately 3 liters of water per minute are passed
per filter. With well 7 added to the flow of well 6, this increases to around
3.5 liters per minute. With well 7 alone, the flow is about C.5 liter per
minute.
The results obtained are shown in Table V. At relatively low flow rates, the
radium removal efficiency is somewhat greater than at higher flow rates ; the
same effect is also seen when Table III is examined. Since well 7, when used
alone, produces water at a significantly slower rate than well 6, one would
expect that the radium removal rates would be higher than when well 6 was used.
This is observed. There is one apparent exception. In August of 1979, samples
were collected of well 6, well 7 and well 6 plus well 7, both before and after the
filter. Because insufficient time elapsed between well switch manipulations
to allow the system to be purged of water from the previous arrangement, samples
labeled well 7, and well 6 and 7, actually were of water which was at least
partly of well 6, well 7 and/or wells 6 and 7. The volume of the housing was
calculated to be about 250 gallons, and inasmuch as well 7 pumped only about
25 - 30 gallons per minute, about 10 minutes of operation would have been
necessary for one filter housing volume to be processed (disregarding the
volume of water in the lines). Since this was on the order of the length of
time between samples in this particular series of samples, the obviously anoma-
lous results were obtained.
There may well have been some preferential flow through the housing even with
the baffle inserted in the housing, as the filters offered little resistance
to the flow of water at the processing rate used (up to 120 gallons per minute).
-------
Differential pressure across the housing was less than two pounds per square
inch. It is thought that a higher differential pressure across the filters
would lead to less uneven flow through the housing,
Based upon the data and experiments, it still cannot be discounted that signi-
ficant preferential flow through the housing exists,
-3-
The first filter housing was not epoxy coated at the factory. It was thought
that rust in the housing would not be significant, since some pipes in the city
system had been in use nearly 50 years . Substantial amounts of rust were
encountered, however. The chlorination step used for sterilizing the filters
before filtered water could be added to the system produced water discolored
with iron, and rusting was evident on the interior of the vessel and especially
on the hardware (springs, "v"-bar guides, cups) . The possibility that the iron
from the vessel in the chlorine solution could somehow interfere with the ability
of the manganese fibers to remove radium could not be discounted , so the interior
of the vessel, the springs, cups, and "V" bars were wire brushed and painted
with epoxy paint designed for painting the interior of water supply tanks. The
filters from this first part of the test were removed and the second batch of
filters were used for the second part of the test.
No effect of the iron could be demonstrated,
The fourth possibility, that of a filter inadvertently left out or a cap
being knocked loose, causing a substantial volume of water to flow through the
housing unfiltered was proven impossible by a careful inspection and count
during the openings of the vessel .
47-c
-------
-5-
The possibility that the first batch of filters, which contained significantly
less manganese (about 6 - 7%) than the second (7 - 8%) was considered a likely
cause of the low efficiency of the filter. The second batch did not perform
as well as was expected from our earlier tests either.
It is quite likely though, that the effect of preferential flow in the single
stage filter is a contributor to reducing the efficiency.
Our earlier bench-scale experiments used a two-stage filtration system. It
was known that a higher filtration efficiency could be obtained at a lower
flow rate per filter cartridge, and it was thought that the simplest way to
apply the manganese fiber radium removal procedure would be to use a large
single filter housing having a low flow rate per filter. In view of the low
efficiencies actually found, it would appear that the best method would be to
use at least two stages of filtration. This would allow the use of smaller
units, and may circumvent the problem of waiting for a factory to custom make
a larger unit, when the smaller ones may be more quickly obtained.
The use of smaller units would also result in a greater differential pressure
across the unit and probably a more uniform flow through it.
48-
-------
VI. Recommendations for Use of Manganese Fibers to
Routinely Treat Water for Removal of Radium
A. Planning
The process is at least 80% efficient in a single stage of filtration at first,
and with two or more filter housings in series, should exceed 95%,
The single filter tests at various flow rates from 2 to 16 liters per minute,
Table V, show a large filtering ability even at flow rates as high as 16 liters
per minute (over four times the flow ratein the filter housing). Scaling down
the size of the filter housing by a factor of 4 could be done and, assuming 80%
radium removal each, for two housings in series the removal rate should be 96%.
PVC pipe fittings are less expensive and should be used. The installation is
also simpler. They were avoided to prevent "false positives" in our tests for
organic chemicals.
Treating used filters in potassium permanganate solutions after one use,
instead of disposing of them directly and testing for radium removal ability,
should also be tried.
Small filter housings are available and should be used. This would -permit one
person to perform filter handling operations, which due to the weight of the filter
holddown plate, now requires two people to handle. The small filter housings also
may be more readily available.
-------
Table V
Single Filter Tests at about 3% liters per Minute
Tests were performed to determine the
filter history on radium removal performance.
Output
Cartridge Condition pCi/1
Cartridge No. 3, Used, Not Leached 1.0 + 1.5
Unused Filters 0 +0.2
Leached Cartridge 1.2 + 1.6
Input water, well 6 29+2.6
50<
-------
B. Operations
Step-by-step instructions for treatment, filter loading and disposal are
included as Tables VI, VII, and VIII.
C. Costs
The costs of operation could not be determined as well as desired due in part
to a reduction of state travel funds and the absence of the second filter
housing. More data should be available for the final version of this report.
The cost analyses shown below (Table IX) are therefore maximums. The cost
total for expendable supplies and labor is $1,137.75 for one filter housing
change (sufficient for at least 2.5 million gallons), or approximately 45 cents
per thousand gallons (maximum). Laboratory analyses, overhead, amortization
and installation of equipment costs are not included, nor is modification of
the system to provide series filtration. More data on filter exhaustion would
reduce costs for these items.
This analysis shows that this process can favorably compete with other water
treatment processes. Any attempt to remove the radium and re-use the filters
should serve to greatly lower the cost of new filters, (the major expense),
but should only be undertaken by persons with a familiarity of health physics.
Means for neutralizing and solidifying wastes generated should also be included.
Reprocessing the filter should also include a bath in a potassium salt, KCl
for example, as it is suspected that the process operates as an ion exchange
+ 4-t-
between K and Ra
-------
An efficient crew accustomed to installing equipment in water treatment plants
should be able to conduct operations according to the schedule in Table X,
52 <
-------
TABLE VI
Step-by-Step Instructions
- Filter Treatment -
For 120 Filters
Minimum crew; 1 (2 desirable)
Materials needed:
Work area (with water supply, drain, electricity)
2-55 gallon drums with lids
2-53 gallon 1/8" rigid polyethylene drum liners
*60 Ibs. reagent grade potassium permanganate (KMnO )
crystals
*120 - 30 inch spun acrylic filters
lh rail polyethylene sheet - two 3" diameter circles
2 polyethylene buckets - 2 to 5 gallon size with pouring
spout
Drum syphon pump
**Stirring stick
*70 gallons Hot (110 - 120°F) water
**2 — Drum heating strips, rings and 20 gauge wire (15')
2 - Drum heater variable power supplies
Polyethylene scoop (for KMnO^}
50 foot garden hose connected to water supply
**Rubber gloves - dishwashing type
Rubber boots and rain suit (plastic, water repellant)
*24 Plastic bags - leaf type, sturdy (1.5 mil) minimum 36"
depth
Paper towels
Goggles (for splash protection)
*Consumed, not reuseable
**Subject to rapid wear/or chemical attack
i—*~t
53-c"
-------
Table VI (Cont'd)
Remember - these filters are to be installed in your drinking water supply.
Keep them clean.
1. Head warning on chemical containers. Potassium permanganate, (KMnC>4}
improperly handled, can cause fire and/or explosions.
2. Place drums in work area.
3. Put liners inside drums.
4. Put (clean) gloves on.
5. Place 60 filters in drum, arranging them vertically (it may be helpful
to tip drum to a 45° angle).
6. Put boots and rain suit on.
7. Connect hose and turn on x
-------
Table VI (Cont'd)
19. Repeat steps 16 - 18 until all crystals have dissolved.
20. Add hot water to bring liquid level in liner up so that filters are covered
by at least 2 cm (3/4 inch) of solution. Filters may float, and will need
to be pushed down.
21. By repeatedly filling and emptying bucket using syphon pump, cycle 50
gallons of solution from the bottom of the drum to the top to mix solution
well.
22. Pill the small annular space between the drum and drum liner with water to
within 3 inches of the top. This "jacket" of water conducts the heat from
the drum heater to the filters.
23. Rinse off the drum and other equipment and dry drum with paper towels.
24. Wrap the drum heater around the base of the drum. Use the small spring
and wire to keep it in good contact with the drum by wrapping the wire
once around the drum. Connect the spring to one end of the heater, the
wire to the other end of the spring and also to the other end of the heater
strip. Spring should be stretched so that drum heater remains in good
contact with the drum.
25. Place round polyethylene sheet cover on top of filters and cover with drum lid.
26. Connect heater power supply, and test for operation. Allow 8-16 hours
for stable temperature to be reached. Adjust the power supply to keep
within the range 86°F (30°C) to 104°F (40°C) .
27. Once each day or two, repeat Step 21. Remove the heater before working
with solutions. Replace heater afterwards.
28. After 2 or 3 days, the transparency of the solution will begin to change
from a dark, deep purple to a more transparent and lighter shade. Some
brown fine precipitate (manganese oxide) will also form.
As soon as any noticeable lightening in color has occurred, add 5 pounds
of KMnO^j to the solution in the drum by disconnecting the drum heater and
removing the heater strip (to keep accidental spills off of it) and following
these steps:
29. Connect hose and turn on water and leave on.
30. Put syphon pump in drum.
31. Holding pump hose so that any pumped solution runs back into the drum,
prime the pump. Lift the chemical bucket up and hold it over the chemical
solution in drum (to avoid spilling on the floor) put the hose in the
bucket and lower the bucket so that the syphon brings solution from bottom
of drum into bucket. As the bucket fills to 2/3 full, stop the flow by
opening the syphon relief valve.
32. Add 5 Ibs. of crystal potassium permanganate to the bucket and stir.
33. Stir solution and crystal mixture in bucket for several minutes.
-------
Table VI (Cont'd)
34. Pour solution into drum (same as step 12).
35. Repeat steps 31, 33 and 34 until all 5 Ibs. have been dissolved.
36. Reconnect heater, following steps 23, 24, 25 and 26.
37. Twice more over the next few days, as the strength of the solution decreases,
add more KMnO^ in 5 Ib. lots following steps 28 through 36.
After all these steps have been completed and the solutions kept warm, the purple
color will completely disappear, indicating that all 30 pounds of KMno. in each
drum has been converted to oxides of manganese and potassium. Once the color
of the liquid has changed to clear, the heaters may be disconnected and removed.
The filter fibers should contain about 7.5% Manganese by weight. When the brown
precipitate is washed off of the filters they will have a very dark chocolate
to black color. Check one or two of the filters by removing and washing them.
The filters are ready for loading into the filter housing now.
Keep the filters in the solutions without rinsing, until they are ready for use.
56 <
-------
TABLE VII
Step-by-Step Instructions
Loading Filter Housing
Minimum Crew: 2
Materials;
1 quart bottle 5% liquid chlorine bleach
Boots, rain suits, gloves
24 plastic garbage bags (needed only if transportation of filters
is necessary)
115 treated filters
Wrenches and jack for filter housing opening
Paper towels
Hose connected to water system
Filter housing internal parts
Procedure
1. Open bypass valve and close inlet and outlet valves on housing
2. Open drain valve. Open filter housing and insert rods for filters in
cups in bottom of housing.
£
3. Put on gloves, boots and rain gear.
4. Remove filters from lined drums (place 5 in each bag if bagging).
5. Slide filters over rods onto cups until all 115 filters are in place.
Pill from the center outward.
6. Count the number of filters installed. (Every one of the 115 filter
positions must be filled).
7, Place cups with springs on the filters, beginning in the center and moving
outward.
8. Lift the cover plate over the springs, align holes and slide over vertical
bolts. (This must be done carefully to avoid dislodging springs). If
any springs fall into the housing, it will be necessary to retrieve and
replace them. A straightened wire from a coat hanger and a flashlight
will be of great assistance.
-------
Table VII (Cont'd)
9. Tighten bolts to hold filters in place.
10. Supply water pressure to the filter inlet valve.
11. Open filter inlet valve and allow water to run into filter housing and
overflow. Water will also exit through the opened housing drain valve.
12. close filter inlet, allow water level in housing to drop to about 1/3 of
the length of the filters and close the filter drain.
13. Put rubber gasket in place and prepare to lower filter housing head.
14. Pour the entire bottle of bleach into filter housing through the hole in
the hold-down plate over the inlet "V".
15. Lower and bolt down the head of the housing.
16. Open filter housing inlet valve slightly. Air will be expelled through
the air relief valve in the top of the housing as the housing is filled.
When the sound of the air flowing out of the valve ceases, the housing
is full.
17. Open the filter housing drain valve fully for a few seconds, and close it
when the smell of the bleach is detectable.
18. Close the filter inlet valve tightly. Pressure to the housing inlet valve
now may be removed if necessary.
19. IMPORTANT: The filter housing must remain undisturbed, full of the chlorine
solution for at least 24 hours for proper disinfection.
20. After at least 24 hours, open the filter housing drain valve and let housing
empty. Smell the water to verify a strong chlorine bleach smell is still
present.
21. Apply water pressure to the filter input valve.
22. Open the inlet valve on the filter housing, letting water flow from the main,
through the filters and then waste the water out of the filter drain valve
to purge the filter housing of chlorine and precipitated manganese.
23. Purge the housing of this by occasionally shutting off and opening the
drain valve.
24. After no further brown precipitate is seen, leave the filter drain valve
open and close the filter by-pass valve. The water in the main will
now flow through the filter and be dumped through the filter drain valve.
25. The filter output valve may now be opened to feed treated water into the
system. Close filter drain valve.
58<
-------
Table VII (Cont'd)
26. Close the filter drain valve and regulate filter pressure. (30 psig for
well 6 and 7-25 psig for well 6 or 7 alone)
-------
TABLE VIII
Step-by-Step Instructions
Filter Removal and Disposal
Minimum Crew: 2
Materials:
Hose connected to water system
24 plastic garbage (leaf) bags minimum height 36"
2 drums for radioactive waste with absorbent material.
Disposable gloves, booties, overalls (water repellant)
Portable alpha survey meter
Masking tape
Paper towels
Box (for springs) - 1 cubic foot size
Wrenches and jack for opening housing
Dishwashing detergent
Procedure
1, Open bypass valve if water needed in system
2. Drain filter housing by closing intake and outlet valves, and opening low
point 1" valve on bottom of housing. Allow at least 24 hours for filters
to drain.
3. Open drums, put plastic liner in, drape excess over drum lip and side. Put
1" of absorbent material on bottom of drum. Tip drum to about 45° angle
to facilitate loading.
4. Put on disposable gloves, booties and rain suit. Tape sleeves.
5. Open housing, remove spring cover plate, remove spring/cap assembly on filters.
6. With a helper holding the plastic bag, remove 5 filters, one at a time, and
put them in the plastic bag. Tie bag. Helper puts the bag in the drum.
7. Repeat step 6 until 60 filters have been put in the first drum and 55 in the
other,
8. Put disposable gloves, shoes, towels and coveralls from the last job in the
small empty space in the side of the second drum, add absorbent material on
-------
Table VIII (Cont'd)
top of the filters, tie drum lining bag and seal drums. Wipe off drums
with towels. Remove protective clothing. Put coveralls, gloves, booties,
and towels in plastic bag to be stored for disposal at the next filter
unloading. Survey personnel for contamination (hands, face, clothes, feet)
using alpha survey meter.
9. Survey drum for:
gamma ray radiation levels
ftlpha contamination
Wipe drum with filter paper for contamination test.
Count wipe (must be less than 22,000 dpm) to meet U, S. Department of
Transportation Regulations. Should not exceed 500 dpm.
10. Using damp paper towels, wipe off any area of skin which shows any evidence
of foreign material from the filters. Using liquid dishwasing detergent,
wash areas. Discard towels in plastic bag to be saved for disposal at next
replacement.
11. Perform final decontamination survey on personnel. Remove any residual con-
tamination by washing. Skin must be dry to detect alpha contamination.
12. Call disposal company to pick up drum.
-------
Table IX
Costs of Operation
Consumable Supplies per Filter Loading
Filters 115 @ $7.05 810.75
Potassium permanganate 60 Ibs. @ $2.45 157.00
Miscellaneous 10.00
Sub Total $977 .75
Labor 16 hrs. @ $10.00 __ 160.00
Total $1,137.75
-------
Table X
Time Analysis
(Person Hours)
Filter Housing Installation
Foundation
Plumbing
Filter Preparation
Initial Loading Chemical Mixing 2 people
Checking, Stirring, Mixing
Filter Installation
Transportation
Vessel Opening
Installation
Vessel Closing and Chlorination
Flushing
2 people
3 people
2 people
1 person
1 person
2 people
2 people
2 people
1 person
Total
Hours
6 hours 12 hours
10 hours 30 hours
4 hours 8 hours
8 hours 8 hours
h hour h hour
h hour % hour
1 hour 2 hours
h hour 1 hour
\ hour Jj hour
-------
VII Acknowledgements
The writer would like to thank W.S. Moore, Ph.D., for his invaluable
advice and assistance, Bradley Caskey for his able help, and Daniel Janek
of the City of Flatonia and his crew.
64
-------
VIII References
Cook, L.M., in Press, the Uranium District of the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain,
in The NaturalRadiation Environment III., Proceedings of the Third
International Symposium on the Natural Radiation Environment,
Houston, Texas. April 23 - 28, 1978.
Hill, R.B., 1973 Private Communication
Moore, W.S., and D.R. Reid, 1973 Extraction of Radium from Natural Waters
Using Manganese - Impregnated Acrylic Fibers, Jour. Geophys. Res. 1973.
P. 8880-8886.
Moore/ W.S. and L.M. Cook, 1975, Radium Removal from Drinking Water
Nature 253; 262-263
Wukasch, M.C. and L.M. Cook, 1972, Environmental Surveillance in South Texas,
in The_Natural Radiation Environment_ II, Proceedings of the Second
International Symposium on the Natural Radiation Environment, Houston,
Texas, August 7-11, 1972, P. 845-862, U.S. ERDA Conf. 720806-P2.
Wukasch, M.C. and L.M. Cook, 1973, High Radioactivity in Drinking Water
and Ground Water in South Texas, in Proceedings of the International
Radi_ation Protection Association, III International Congress, Washington,
D.C., September 9-14, 1973, P. 272-278, U.S. AEC, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
-------
Page Intentionally Blank
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1. REPORT NO.
ORP Contract Report 81-1
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO,
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Advanced Technology for Radium Removal from Drinking
Water: The Flatonia Water Treatment Project
5. REPORT DATE
1981
6, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Lewis M, Cook
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Division of Occupational Health and Radiation Control
Texas Department of Health
Austin, Texas
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
88-01-3985
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U-S?} Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation Programs
ANR-458
Washington, D.C. 204SO
13. TYPE, OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
_ ' Final _
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
200/03 "-•'
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to determine the applicability of using manganese-coated
acrylic fibers to remove R.adium from drinking water.
The technique of using Manganese-coated fibers to remove radium from drinking
water is a simple, effective and economical procedure which is compatible with
the operations of.a municipal utflfty crew.- -•-.,..
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFlERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI FieW/GlOUp
Radium
Drinking Water
Filters
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS 'This Reportt
unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
66
20. SECURITY CLASS (This pagei
unclassified
22, PRICE
EP& form 2220-1 (R«s», 4-77} PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
1<
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