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INNOVATIVE RESEARCH FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Technical Information Resource on Rare Earth Elements Now Available to
Public and Private Sector Stakeholders
Background
Rare earth elements (REEs)
include the series of 15
lanthanide metals, plus scandium
and yttrium. REEs have become
increasingly important in recent
years because their unique
chemical and physical properties
have contributed to technological
advances in many areas, such as
electric car batteries (lanthanum),
high-power magnets (holmium,
thulium, dysprosium,
neodymium), lasers (erbium,
dysprosium, yttrium,
neodymium, holmium), solar
panels (ytterbium), magnetic
resonance imaging (gadolinium),
liquid crystal displays (LCDs)
and fluorescent lighting
(europium), televisions and
computer monitors (yttrium).
Recovery of REEs is
accomplished through complex
processing methods to
chemically break down the
minerals containing the REEs.
Although several minerals
contain REEs, three relatively
abundant ores include: bastnasite,
xenotime, and monazite.
In 1984, the Mountain Pass mine
in California supplied nearly all
of U.S. demand and a third of the
world's demand for REEs. Since
that time, China has become the
world's leading producer of
REEs, with approximately 95
percent of worldwide production.
Due to rising demand and the
reduction in supply, the cost of
The rare earth element yttrium is
used in the production of
computer monitors, camera
lenses, energy efficient lighting,
and cubic zirconia gems.
REEs has increased dramatically
in recent years.
REE mines outside of China are
currently being evaluated or are
in development, including sites in
the U.S. For example, the
Mountain Pass mine has been
ramping up production over the
last few years. This mine, along
with other potential sites in the
western United States, may
represent the principal future
domestic supply of REEs.
Recycling of REEs is a growing
industry. When compared with
primary processing from mining,
recycling may provide significant
environmental benefits with
respect to air emissions,
groundwater protection,
acidification, eutrophication, and
climate protection.
Research into alternative
materials is another strategy that
is being explored in response to
the REE supply issues.
Generally, this can fall into two
main categories: research into
alternatives to REEs, or research
into alternative product designs
that require fewer or no REEs.
Aerial view of Mountain Pass
Mine, which in 1984 supplied
100% of REEs in the U.S. (With
Permission of GoogleEarth (© 2012
Google) and USDA Farm Service
Agency and © 2012 GeoEye)
Product Details
An EPA technical information
report, "Rare Earth Elements:
A Review of Production,
Processing, Recycling, and
Associated Environmental
Issues" has been produced as an
introductory resource for those
interested in learning more about
REE mining and alternatives to
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development (ORD)
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meet demand. Contents of the
report include:
• Resource Processing
• Rare Earth Element
Recovery/Alternative
Material Use
• Potential Human Health and
Ecological Issues of
Production, Processing, and
Recycling of REEs
• Mine conceptual site model
and exposure pathways
• Research on Alternatives to
REEs
• Summary, Key Findings
from Literature Review, and
Potential Next Steps
Outcomes and Impacts
Analysis of the future supply and
demand for each of the REEs
indicates that, by 2014, global
demand could exceed current
production by 60% (as compared
to July 2011 levels).
This EPA report is a timely
introductory information
resource during an invigorated
growth phase of this industry.
The report serves as a technical
information resource to mining
industries. It can also be a
resource for environmental
managers, policy makers, those
investigating alternatives to
mining, and other stakeholders. It
is valuable to anyone concerned
with identifying the potential
environmental impacts and health
effects across the REE supply
chain. The report also identifies
areas where further information
gathering may be needed.
Products containing REEs in 2008
End Use of REE
Metallurgical alloys
Electronics
Chemical catalysts
Phosphors for
computer monitors,
radar, X-ray
intensifying film, and
television
Catalytic converters
(Autos)
Glass polishing &
ceramics
Permanent magnets
Petroleum refining
catalysts
Other
Percentage
29%
18%
14%
12%
9%
6%
5%
4%
3%
The environmental impacts from
mining operations to extract REE
ores may be as significant as
current metals/minerals mining
practices.
Currently, commercial recycling
of REEs is limited; however, it
was reported in the literature that,
several new facilities will soon
begin operation. When
compared with primary
processing of metals, controlled
recycling of REEs may provide
significant benefits with respect
to air emissions, groundwater
protection, acidification, and
eutrophication. The focus of
these new commercial efforts
will be on magnets, batteries,
lighting/luminescence, and
catalysts.
CONTACTS
Technical Inquiries.
JohnMcKernan, 513-569-7415
mckernanj ohntgiepa. gov
Robert Weber, 913-551-7918
weber.robert(@,epa. gov
Communications:
Roger Yeardley, 513-569-7548
veardlev.roger(@,epa.gov
SELECTED REFERENCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
(2012) "Rare Earth Elements: A Review of
Production, Processing, Recycling, and
Associated Environmental Issues"
EPA/600/R-12/572 (http://nepis.epa.gov/
Adobe/PDF/P 1 OOEUBC.pdf)
U.S. Department of Energy. (2011) "Critical
Materials Strategy"
(http ://energy. gov/pi/office-policy-and-
international-affairs/downloads/2011-critical-
materials-strategy)
U.S. Geological Survey. (2011) "Rare Earth
Elements - End Use and Recyclability"
(http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2011/5094/pdf/sir20
ll-5094.pdf)
U.S. Geological Survey. (2010) "The
Principal Rare Earth Elements Deposits of the
United States - A Summary of Domestic
Deposits and a Global Perspective"
(http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5220/)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development (ORD)
EPA/600/F-13/296
November 2013
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