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United States
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Environmental Monitoring for Public Access
& Community Tracking
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Urban Sprawl Modeling,
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Disclaimer: This document has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and approved
for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommenda-
tion of their use.
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EPA/625/R-02/016
November 2002
Urban Sprawl Modeling, Air Quality
Monitoring, And Risk Communication:
The Northeast Ohio Project
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
50% Recycled/Recyclable
Printed with vegetable-based ink on
>aper that contains a minimum of
'0% post-consumer fiber content
processed chlorine free
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Dr. Dan Petersen, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Risk Management
Research Laboratory, served as principal author of this handbook. Co-authors included Linda
Stein, Rachel Kaufman, and Mary Lalley of Eastern Research Group, Inc., an EPA contractor. EPA
would like to thank the following people for their input during the development of this handbook:
Tom Brody, U.S. EPA Region 5
William Davis, Northeast Ohio Areawide Coordinating Agency
Stephen Goranson, U.S. EPA Region 5
MaryAnn Lafaire, U.S. EPA Region 5
Jay Lee, Kent State University
Loretta Lehrman, U.S. EPA Region 5
Lyn Luttner, U.S. EPA Region 5
Adam Zeller, Earth Day Coalition
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CONTENTS
PAGE
List of Figures v
List of Tables v
List of Abbreviations vi
c H APTE R l URBAN SPRAWL MODELING, AIR QUALITY MONITORING, AND
RISK COMMUNICATION: THE NORTHEAST OHIO PROJECT 1-1
1.1 Introduction 1-1
1.2 How To Use This Handbook 1-1
1.2.1 Road Map 1-2
1.2.2 Frequently Asked Questions 1-2
CHAPTER 2 THE NORTHEAST OHIO URBAN SPRAWL MODELING
PROJECT 2-1
2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 What Is Urban Sprawl and How Does It Affect Communities? 2-1
2.3 What Is Urban Growth Modeling and How Can It Be Used? 2-2
2.4 How Can an Urban Growth Model Be Developed? 2-2
2.4.1 Using GIS in Urban Growth Modeling 2-3
2.5 How the Northeast Ohio Urban Growth Model Was Developed 2-4
2.5.1 The Regional Case Study 2-4
2.5.2 The Sub-Regional Case Study 2-5
2.5.3 The Urban Growth Simulator 2-10
2.5.4 How Were Data for the Urban Sprawl Modeling Project
Gathered and Managed? 2-14
2.5.5 How Are Urban Growth Modeling Data Communicated
to the Public? 2-14
2.5.6 What Lessons Were Learned in the Northeast Ohio
Urban Sprawl Modeling Project? 2-16
c H AFTER 3 THE NORTHEAST OHIO AIR QUALITY MONITORING PROJECT 3-1
3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.1.1 What Is Time-Relevant Air Quality Monitoring? 3-1
3.1.2 The EPA AirNow Program 3-1
3.1.3 Overview of Air Quality Monitoring 3-1
3.2 Air Quality Information Available From the Northeast Ohio Project 3-2
3.3 How Are Air Quality Data Managed? 3-2
3.3.1 Data Collection 3-2
iii
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PAGE
3.3.2 Data Quality 3-4
3.3.3 Data Storage 3-4
3.3.4 Hardware and Software Used by NEOAIRTo Operate Its Air
Quality Monitoring Web Site 3-5
3.4 How Are the Northeast Ohio Project's Air Quality Data Communicated
to the Public? 3-6
3.4.1 How Does the Public Access Information
on the NEOAIR Web Site? 3-6
3.4.2 How Does the NEOAIR Web Site Display
Time-Relevant Data? 3-7
3.4.3 How Does the NEOAIR Web Site Display Historical Data 3-7
3.4.4 Is Air Quality Information Communicated in Ways Other Than
the NEOAIR Web Site? 3-7
3.5 Lessons Learned in the Northeast Ohio Air Quality Monitoring Project 3-7
CHAPTER 4 THE NORTHEAST OHIO COMMUNICATIONS PROJECT 4-1
4.1 The Northeast Ohio Communications Workgroup 4-1
4.2 What Does the Target Audience Need To Know? 4-1
4.3 Components of the Northeast Ohio Project's Outreach Plan 4-2
4.3.1 How Does the Northeast Ohio Project Communicate
Air Quality Information and Issues to the Public? 4-3
4.3.2 How Does the Northeast Ohio Project Communicate
Urban Growth Modeling to the Public? 4-4
4.3.3 The Northeast Ohio Project's Media Campaign 4-5
4.3.4 What Promotional Materials Were Created, and How Were
They Distributed? 4-6
4.4 Measuring the Success of the Outreach Campaign 4-7
4.5 Lessons Learned in the Northeast Ohio Communications Project 4-7
4.5.1 Diverse Membership Helps Create an Effective Organizational
Structure 4-7
4.5.2 Developing Educational Materials on Innovative Topics Like
Urban Sprawl Is Challenging but Worthwhile 4-7
4.5.3 Develop Long-Term Relationships With Partner Organizations 4-8
4.5.4 Consider Developing Outreach Materials in Multiple
Languages 4-8
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 5-1
APPENDIX A Project Survey of Northeast Ohio Residents
iv
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
2-1 Regional case study simulation 2-4
2-2 Procedures and algorithms 2-6
2-3 Continuous growth model 2-7
2-4 Managed growth (environmental protection) model 2-8
2-5 Controlled growth model 2-9
2-6a Northeast Ohio Urban Growth Indicator Simulator workspace 2-11
2-6b Sample simulation with no growth management strategies applied
(for Boston Heights, Summit County, Ohio) 2-12
2-6c Sample simulation with "Use Growth Boundary/Growth Center" and "Avoid
Critical Natural Areas (CNA)" applied (for Boston Heights, Summit County, Ohio) 2-13
2-7 EMPACT: Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio Web site 2-15
3-1 Northeast Ohio ozone levels, hourly average, stationary map 3-2
3-2 Example of data available in table format from the Northeast Ohio Project Web site 3-3
3-3 Historical ozone data (graph format) for the Northeast Ohio Project 3-3
3-4 Historical ozone data (table format) for the Northeast Ohio Project 3-3
3-5 Data flow for the data retrieval module 3-4
3-6 Web page flow chart for NEOAIR 3-6
3-7 Example of NEOAIR Web site "static" page of general air pollution information 3-6
4-1 Medical brochure developed by the Northeast Ohio Communications Project 4-3
4-2 The Northeast Ohio Project's air quality handbook 4-4
4-3 Bus board displayed on Cleveland-Akron transit authority buses 4-5
4-4 Logo developed for the Northeast Ohio Project 4-6
4-5 The Northeast Ohio Project's Abee mascot 4-6
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
3-1 Types of Information Included in the NEOAIR Database 3-5
3-2 NEOAIR Web Site Software 3-5
4-1 Outreach Materials Developed by the Northeast Ohio Project's
Communications Workgroup 4-2
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LIST CDF ABBREVIATIONS
CNA critical natural areas
CO carbon monoxide
EDC Earth Day Coalition
EMPACT Environmental Monitoring for Public Access and Community Tracking
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
GIS geographic information system
IIS Microsoft Internet Information Services
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAMS national air monitoring stations
NEOAIR Northeast Ohio Air Quality Online
NEOEDEN Northeast Ohio Environmental Data Exchange Networks
N©2 nitrogen dioxide
PAMS photochemical assessment monitoring stations
PM particulate matter
PSA public service announcement
SLAMS state and local air monitoring stations
SO2 sulfur dioxide
VOC volatile organic compound
VI
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1
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING, AIR QUALITY
MONITORING, AND RISK COMMUNICATION:
THE NORTHEAST OHIO PROJECT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Communicating environmental and health risks to the public has increasingly become a responsibility of
local and state officials and private groups involved in environmental monitoring. People have come to
expect access to more information about local air quality, for example, and advances in environmental
monitoring and computer technology (such as the Internet) have made timely—sometimes daily—com-
munication of environmental conditions possible.
One program that addresses these new expectations and options is the Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl
Modeling, Air Quality Monitoring, and Communications Project (hereafter called the Northeast Ohio
Project). The Project provides local environmental and health information useful to residents, local offi-
cials, community planners, and others in a 15-county region in northeast Ohio that includes the greater
Cleveland metropolitan area. Focus groups consisting of staff from state and local government agencies and
representatives of neighborhood, civic, religious, academic, development, banking, business, and environ-
mental groups had previously identified urban sprawl and environmental quality as the top regional
problems. The Northeast Ohio Project addresses the environmental impacts posed by urban sprawl (the
haphazard spreading of low-density development beyond a city's boundaries), provides near-real-time data
on air quality as it affects individual and public health, and conducts an extensive community outreach
program on sprawl and air quality issues.
The Northeast Ohio Project was part of EPA's 1996 to 2002 Environmental Monitoring for Public Access
and Community Tracking (EMPACT) Program, which helped communities provide the public with time-
relevant environmental and associated health risk information. Local governments involved in the program
identify and use effective methods to collect, manage, and distribute environmental health information in a
timely manner to the public. Handbooks such as this one then describe the experiences of municipalities
that have successfully accomplished these data collection and communication objectives so that other com-
munitites can learn from these projects.
1.2 HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
This handbook highlights the key components of the Northeast Ohio Project. Local officials and commu-
nity groups from other municipalities can use this information as guidance for establishing or expanding
their own environmental programs; residents of northeast Ohio can use this handbook to learn about and
access the Project's materials on urban sprawl and air quality in their area. The handbook is organized as
described below.
This handbook covers the three areas addressed by the Northeast Ohio Project:
• Urban sprawl modeling (Chapter 2). Urban sprawl has been associated with a number of
negative community impacts, including reduced air and water quality, traffic congestion, loss
of productive agricultural areas and natural habitat, and increased costs for new services such as
schools and water treatment systems. The Northeast Ohio Project developed case studies and models,
available through the Internet, so that residents and local officials can simulate potential future devel-
opment and better understand the implications of different growth management policies and
programs. The modeling results can be used for more comprehensive land-use planning efforts. In
addition to describing the case studies and models, Chapter 2 explains how the Project developed and
managed the models and its ecological and urban sprawl database and Web site.
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING 1-1
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' Air quality monitoring (Chapter 3). Through a Web site, the Project provides the public with regional
near-real-time and historical data on levels of ozone and other pollutants. This information helps peo-
ple take appropriate actions to protect their health and the environment when air quality is poor. This
chapter describes the general process of air quality monitoring and explains how the Northeast Ohio
Project manages and reports its air quality data.
1 Communications/outreach (Chapter 4). In addition to posting information on Web sites, the
Northeast Ohio Project has conducted communications and outreach efforts through ther media,
including a survey, medical and promotional brochures, handbooks for teachers and students, public
service announcements (PSAs) and news releases, bus boards, a mascot, and a logo. The Project has
distributed these materials to the general public through community events and medical offices, TV
and radio stations, newspapers, schools, transit authorities, libraries, recreation centers, and camps.
1 .2.1 RDAD MAP
Urban Growth
Modeling that
residents and local
officials can use to
simulate different
future growth
management options;
description of how the
urban growth models,
databases, and Web
sites were developed
and managed: see
Chapter 2.
Air Quality Monitoring
that provides the public
with near-real-time and
historical local air qual-
ity data; discussion of
how the air quality data
were managed and
communicated to the
public: see Chapter 3.
Communications/
Outreach to the public
about the urban sprawl
and air quality projects,
including a survey, a
medical brochure,
handbooks for teach-
ers and students, a
Website, PSAs, bus
boards, a mascot, and
a logo; description of
how these materials
were distributed: see
Chapter 4.
1.2.2 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
Whether you are just beginning to think about a program to address urban sprawl or air quality issues or are
in the process of expanding your program, the following frequently asked questions may be useful.
Q: What is urban sprawl?
A: Urban sprawl is the extension of low-density residential, commercial, and/or industrial development into
rural areas beyond a city's boundaries that occurs with little or no prior planning on the community or
regional level. Several local and/or regional problems often occur as a result of sprawl, including degrada-
tion of air and water quality, increased traffic congestion, the decline of inner cities, higher costs for new
services (e.g., roads, schools, water systems), and loss of community character. See Chapter 2, Section
2.2, for more information about urban sprawl.
Q: What is urban growth modeling?
A: Urban growth modeling simulates potential future development scenarios and growth management
options. Such simulation can help you evaluate the impacts of growth on land and other resource use.
The growth management options that a model generates can show, for example, how much environmen-
tally sensitive area or farmland can be saved by managing growth rather than allowing sprawl to occur.
See Chapter 2, Section 2.3, for more on urban growth modeling.
1 -2
CHAPTER 1
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Q: What factors should be considered when using or developing an urban growth model?
A: The Northeast Ohio Project found five factors to be particularly important when developing its urban
growth models: cost, ability to work with available data, accessibility by the public or other audience,
understandability, and model validity. See Chapter 2, Section 2.4, for more information on these factors.
Q: Why is CIS useful for environmental modeling?
A: GIS (geographic information system) technology lets users overlay maps with several different kinds of
information on one another, creating new, more comprehensive maps. GIS provides a way to produce
visual displays of potential future land uses, population growth, and related environmental and other
impacts. The Northeast Ohio Project has used GIS to compare different future development scenarios and
growth management strategies and their effects. See Chapter 2, Section 2.4.1, for more on using GIS.
Q: What types of data might be useful for developing an urban growth model?
A: The Northeast Ohio Project based its urban growth models on several types of environmental and
geospatial information, including: aquatic and terrestrial species/habitats, brownfields (i.e., abandoned or
underused commercial or industrial sites), demographics, flood plains, geology/soils, hydrology/surface
water, land use/cover, planning/zoning, pollution hazard, TIGER/Census, water quality, and wetlands
data. See Chapter 2, Section 2.5.4, for more information on types of useful data.
Q: What are some of the ways that an urban growth model can demonstrate the effects of different development
patterns?
A: Urban growth models often use build-out scenarios (e.g., projections of population growth) for an area as
one key set of data to help determine how much growth could occur (e.g., in terms of population den-
sity) and where it could occur (e.g., in terms of land areas used). Urban growth models can also help
users identify—and determine the acreage of—the most environmentally sensitive lands and farmland
that will be lost to development or saved through certain growth management practices. As is the case
with the Northeast Ohio Project model, these models can then show different ways of managing growth,
such as (1) minimizing the amount of development allowed on environmentally sensitive lands and/or
farmlands or (2) designating urban growth boundaries beyond which development can be restricted in
various ways (e.g., requiring cluster development, providing state funds only for development within the
boundary). See Chapter 2, Section 2.5, for more information on how the Northeast Ohio Project devel-
oped its growth models.
Q: What is time-relevant air quality monitoring?
A: It has become possible to report certain air quality information in near real time (e.g., hourly from 10
a.m. to 7 p.m.) and show trends, such as changes over a 24-hour period. EPA's AirNow program and the
Northeast Ohio Air Quality Monitoring Project provide such information. Having such time-relevant
information allows people to know when air quality in their area may be harmful and to take actions to
protect their health during that time. See Chapter 3, Section 3.1, for more information on time-relevant
air quality monitoring.
Q: How can a time-relevant air quality monitoring project be developed and air monitoring data managed?
A: Often, air quality monitoring stations with data management systems already in place to meet existing
regulations (e.g., for the Clean Air Act) can provide time-relevant data as well. Some municipalities that
decide to provide time-relevant data use this opportunity to update some of their systems (e.g., computer
hardware and software). Air pollutants typically monitored and reported (e.g., in the Northeast Ohio Air
Quality Monitoring Project) include ozone, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and oth-
ers. See Chapter 3, Sections 3.2 and 3.3, for further details regarding the development and management
of air quality monitoring programs.
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING 1-3
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Q: How can urban growth models and air quality monitoring data be communicated to the public?
A: Web sites have become popular tools for reporting and communicating environmental information to the
public and other audiences. The Northeast Ohio Project has developed several Web sites, including one
that features the Project's "Urban Growth Simulator," which lets users develop and compare different
development scenarios. Another Project Web site provides air quality information and allows users to
view graphs, maps, and text data.
In addition to Web sites, it is often useful to develop other avenues of communication, since not everyone
has a computer and ready access to the Internet. The Northeast Ohio Project's Communications Workgroup
has developed a number of outreach materials, including handbooks on urban sprawl and air quality for
teachers and students, a brochure on the health effects of air quality (available to patients in doctors'
offices), bus boards, PSAs for both TV and radio, a promotional brochure, a logo, and a mascot. Consider
developing similar outreach materials in more than one language if doing so would be appropriate for your
audience. See Chapter 4 for detailed information on the Northeast Ohio Project's communication and out-
reach efforts for urban sprawl and air quality monitoring.
1 -4
CHAPTER 1
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2
THE NORTHEAST OHIO URBAN SPRAWL
MODELING PROJECT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A key goal of the Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl Modeling Project was to create a tool accessible to and
usable by the general public so that any citizen could simulate alternative future growth patterns in his or
her community. Achieving this goal involved developing a model that could be applied to a study area
within a 15-county region in northeast Ohio (the 15 counties are Cuyahoga, Geauga, Lake, Lorain,
Medina, Ashtabula, Portage, Stark, Summit, Wayne, Mahoning, Trumbull, Columbiana, Carroll, and
Holmes Counties), as well as to sub-regions of that area.
Northeast Ohio has undergone significant urban development in recent years. The potential negative effects
of this growth made clear the need for better planning. Seeking an appropriate growth management tool
for northeast Ohio, researchers used an EPA EMPACT grant to examine urbanization as an environmental
issue. The researchers reviewed existing environmental analysis and urban growth models and made a rec-
ommendation for a growth modeling program for the region.
2.2 WHAT IS URBAN SPRAWL AND HOW DOES IT
AFFECT COMMUNITIES?
Urban sprawl is the haphazard spreading of low-density residential, commercial, and/or industrial develop-
ment into rural areas near cities. Sprawling development often results in several potential community and
regional problems, including:
• Increased and insufficient land use and energy consumption
• Increased traffic congestion.
• Negative environmental effects, such as reduced air and water quality and loss of open space and
other natural gases
• Higher public costs for new facilities and services for the newly developed areas
(e.g., road construction, sewer/water systems).
• Loss of community character.
• The decline of inner cities as people leave them for sprawled areas.
See http://www.smartgrowth.org for more information on these issues. In recent years, urban sprawl has been
the focus of many geographic, economic, and sociological analyses. For example, a 1998 report entitled
Paying the Costs of Sprawl: Using Fair-Share Costing To Control Sprawl describes the fiscal and ecological
costs of sprawl (http://www.sustainable.doe.gov/articles/sprawl.shtml, 2002). Another study, Living on the Edge,
by researchers from Northern Illinois University and the American Farmland Trust, found that "scatter"
development leads to increased emergency response times for police, ambulances, and firefighters that may
exceed national standards (http://farmlandinfo.org/cae/scatter/e-loetoc.html, 1999).
Americans now rank concerns over sprawl and growth as high as traditional issues such as crime, according
to a study by the Pew Center for Civic Journalism. Survey participants in four cities (Denver, Tampa, San
Francisco, and Philadelphia) listed sprawl and traffic congestion as major community concerns. Sixty per-
cent of the participants in Denver cited sprawl as a top concern in an open-ended question, as did 47
percent in San Francisco and 33 percent in Tampa (http:llwww.pewcenter.orglaboutlpr_ST2000.html, 2000).
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT z-i
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Around Cleveland, Ohio, land occupied by residential, commercial, and industrial uses increased by 33
percent while population decreased by 11 percent from 1970 to 2001 (Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio:
A Handbook for Educators and Their Students in Grades 4-8, produced by the Northeast Ohio Project).
To prevent or control urban sprawl, planners, public administrators, public officials, environmentalists, and
others have begun to monitor and seek to improve land-use decisions and regulations. For example, compre-
hensive (or master) planning is increasingly being used to help communities grow in ways that they choose
rather than undergoing random and undesirable development. Also, zoning changes have been recom-
mended for many communities to discourage sprawl and instead encourage smart growth. Simply defined,
smart growth involves better planning of economic and community growth in balance with local natural
and historical resources. Achieving better community growth might involve concentrating development
where infrastructure (schools, roads, sewer lines, transit systems) is already in place; reinvesting in older
communities instead of abandoning them to create new ones (through efforts such as EPA's brownfields pro-
gram); and preserving open space and community character, thus creating more liveable communities with a
higher quality of life (http://www.nrdc.org/cities/smartGrowth/nsolve.asp, 2001). Assessing the effectiveness of
smart growth planning tools, however, often requires relatively long-term evaluation. Therefore, some deci-
sion-makers and citizens have turned to urban growth modeling to improve and quicken the process of
evaluating planning efforts and smart growth strategies.
2.3 WHAT IS URBAN GROWTH MODELING AND HOW
CAN IT BE USED?
Urban growth modeling uses actual data (when available) and theoretical assumptions about land uses and
environmental effects to produce growth-related scenarios (e.g., build-out analyses) for a given area. Using a
computer program carefully designed to simulate as closely as possible the actual process of past, current, and
potential future development, urban growth modeling can produce alternative development possibilities, dis-
playing the results in various tabular, map, or other formats.
For some time, the ability to apply theoretical growth models to actual land-use forecasting was limited by
the expense of assembling, managing, and manipulating the large quantities of data required for such proj-
ects. However, the recent development of and improvements to computerized digital geospatial databases
and the ability to manage and manipulate these databases using tools such as GIS has made it easier for citi-
zens and local officials to use land-use forecasting, including urban growth modeling.
By allowing current and future land uses to be examined, urban growth modeling can play an important
role in evaluating the impacts of growth on land and water resources. Additionally, modeling can provide
communities with a better understanding of the implications of different growth management policies and
programs and contribute to more comprehensive land use and resource planning efforts.
2.4 HOW CAN AN URBAN GROWTH MODEL BE DEVEL-
OPED?
Clearly identifying the goals that you want a growth management program to achieve is one of the first and
most important steps in choosing an appropriate urban growth model. For the Northeast Ohio Urban
Sprawl Modeling Project, a major goal was to limit negative environmental impacts associated with urban
development. Thus researchers reviewed various environmental analysis computer models and approaches as
they relate to urban growth issues in northeast Ohio.
A literature review can be found on the EMPACT: Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio Web site
(http:llgis. kent. edulgislempactllit_home. htm).
There are many factors to consider when developing a new urban growth model or using an existing one. For
the Northeast Ohio Project, the following five factors (roughly in order of importance) were used to evaluate
10 fully operational noncommercial (academic) and commercial models:
2-2 CHAPTER 2
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• Cost.
• Ability to work with available data.
• Ability to reach a large audience (accessibility).
• Understandability.
• Theoretical soundness (validity).
These five factors are discussed below.
Costs associated with an urban growth modeling program include initial purchase (or development), installa-
tion, and maintenance. Cost is often the initial consideration in developing a new model or adapting an
existing modeling program. For example, although several of the commercial modeling packages fit the cri-
teria of the Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl Modeling Project, they fell outside the budget. Additionally,
while some commercial packages the Project considered could be custom-made, the source code would still
have been owned by the manufacturing company: the user would have needed to work with the company
each time a change needed to be made. This would have increased cost and made it more difficult to make
the program fully accessible to the public.
Ability of the model to work with available data. The type of data a model uses must match the data available
for the study area and the types of information that the community wants to evaluate. For the Northeast
Ohio Project, it was important to have a model that worked with the existing CIS data set and was adaptable
to a specific study area within the 15-county northeast Ohio region so that the growth scenarios could be
modified to meet different local conditions or requirements.
Accessibility and understandability facilitate the key goal of making the model fully available to the public,
allowing citizens and public officials to view the impacts of various development policy choices. Therefore the
Project's modeling program was to be made accessible via the Internet, which meant that the model had to be
written in a programming language that was easily or direcdy adaptable for use on the Web. This requirement
excluded all packages that used copyrighted code. The model, including its assumptions and operations, also
needed to be easily understood by non-technical users.
The theoretical soundness of a model determines its usefulness in providing accurate, valid alternative growth
scenarios. Theoretical soundness, however, is almost inevitably inversely related to understandability. That is,
the more sound a system is, the more complex (and thus more difficult to understand) it usually is. When
choosing a model, one must weigh the degree of accuracy with the need for simplicity.
2.4.1 USING GIS IN URBAN GROWTH MODELING
CIS is an innovative tool that can demonstrate current and future development conditions and simulate
possible growth scenarios, based on defined criteria and assumptions for development. By visually displaying
land and resource use alternatives, including potential environmental and cultural resource impacts, eco-
nomic implications, and potential use conflicts, GIS can help planners, public officials, and citizens better
manage growth.
GIS can combine layers of diverse information as geospatial data themes. It also lets users examine a broad
range of alternatives. An increasing number of municipalities, counties, state and federal government agen-
cies, and private groups are using GIS to help them make rational, ecologically sound decisions about
resource development, impact mitigation, and other environmental management issues.
When using GIS, be aware that creating a comprehensive GIS-based environmental database can often
involve a significant amount of time and money unless you can obtain already-existing data that are current,
easily interpreted, and cost-effective. Even when needed data do exist, they may be difficult to retrieve
because they are fragmented in different systems and databases managed by several public, nonprofit, and
private agencies.
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT 2-3
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2.5 HOW THE NORTHEAST OHIO URBAN GROWTH
MODEL WAS DEVELOPED
After selecting an urban growth modeling program, the Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl Modeling Project
developed two case studies to demonstrate the program's applicability on a regional and sub-regional level.
These studies show the usefulness of relatively simple simulation modeling and illustrate ways to identify or
develop a model that is suitable for different levels of detail (i.e., both the regional and sub-regional levels).
The Project also developed a more detailed Urban Growth Simulator. Both the case studies and the Urban
Growth Simulator are described below.
2.5.1 THE REGIONAL CASE STUDY
The regional case study of the Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl Modeling Project was developed by EcoCity
Cleveland with assistance from researchers at Cleveland State University. It presents one possible land-use
development pattern for a seven-county region, based on various build-out scenarios. The regional case study
model is essentially a simplified sustainability study for the area. Its purpose is to show what residential urban
expansion in the region could look like based on a simple set of assumptions about where growth will occur.
(See Figure 2-1, a map that shows one possible scenario for projected population density and land use based
on a set of assumptions.) The program should not be used as a general guide to urban growth planning.
Users can download the program used for this case study from the Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio Web site
(http://gis.kent.edu/gis/empact/dwl_home.htm). They can also order it on CD-ROM from one of the study's
developers.
Figure 2-1. Regional case Study Simulation. Using the ArcExplorer program, researchers estimated
northeast Ohio's population densities for 2020. A comparison of the 1990 population density
map to this 2020 map indicates that urban sprawl will continue in the region if additional growth
management strategies are not implemented.
2-4
CHAPTER 2
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2.5.2 THE SUB-REGIONAL CASE STUDY
The sub-regional case study, like the regional study, is meant to give local citizens and officials a better
understanding of the implications of different growth policies. However the sub-regional case study exam-
ines the impacts of urban sprawl on farmlands and environmentally critical areas at a more local level—a
single county in northeast Ohio (Portage County). The case study is built on a model, called the Portage
Model, that uses GIS data layers along with various growth management tools and policies to simulate
future residential development patterns in Portage County. The model uses data sets that were readily
available for the study area, including data on:
• Generalized land use (e.g., residential, commercial, industrial, landfill) for a sample year in three
different decades.
• Farmlands.
• Zoning districts.
• Water and sanitary sewer-service areas.
• Roads and highways.
• Steep slopes.
• Surface waters.
• Critical natural areas. (The modelers created this data set by combining information on flood plains,
wetlands, natural heritage areas, and ground-water pollution potential).
• Population projections.
The sub-regional case study allows the user to view three possible future development patterns for Portage
County as a whole and for the individual townships within the county. Each pattern uses one of these three
growth management models:
• Continued growth model. This model assumes that growth and land development patterns continue to
follow current trends, policies, and zoning regulations. This is often used as the baseline model.
• Managed growth (or environmental protection) model. This model assumes that growth management
tools and incentives for altering land development patterns are adopted by all local governments within
a given county. For example, all communities would adopt zoning policies that prohibit residential
development in areas deemed environmentally sensitive. This model also assumes the same rate of pop-
ulation growth as the continuous growth model.
• Controlled growth model. This is the most aggressive of the three models. It assumes a lower population
growth and stricter growth management tools to promote reduced, more compact development.
These models were developed through complex mathematical equations and computer computations,
summarized in Figure 2-2 and described in the steps below.
The steps involved in developing the three growth management models for the sub-regional case study included:
• The computer model first overlays the various GIS data layers being used (land-use changes, wetlands,
etc.) to identify lands that are not yet developed but are zoned for development ("developable lands").
• The model then applies population forecasts and the criteria associated with the growth scenario being
modeled.
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT 2-5
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Growth
management program
Simulations of urban sprawl
Figure 2-2. Procedures and algorithms.
• The simulation continues until all potential development sites available are identified under the particu-
lar growth model being simulated (i.e., controlled, managed growth/environmental protection, or
continued growth model).
The results of the model are presented in maps displaying development patterns and summary tables of the
amount of farmland and critical natural areas lost to development (see Figures 2-3, 2-4, and 2-5).
The sub-regional case study program can be downloaded from the Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio Web site
(http:llgis.kent.edulgislempactldwl_home.htm) and can also be run online. (The regional study cannot be run
online because it relies on ArcExplorer, a map-browsing program that must be installed on the user's com-
puter; the sub-regional study does not use this software.)
The following maps (Figures 2-3, 2-4, and 2-5) show three possible development scenarios for the sub-
regional case study simulation for Aurora Township, Portage County, Ohio, for the year 2015. The Portage
Model was used to simulate three alternative growth build-out scenarios for all of Portage County and for
the individual townships within the county.
Z-6
CHAPTER 2
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Figure 2-3. Continuous growth model. This model assumes that population growth and
land development patterns continue to follow current trends. No new local development
policies or growth management strategies are implemented. The result is extensive,
random, sprawling development. Note the extensive "sim residential" areas, indicating
new residential development.
residential
commercial
public/institutional
industrial
transportation
' utilities
parks/open space
water
extractives
ap.ftacant
sim residential
sim commercial
sim industrial
roads
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT
2-7
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Figure 2-4. Managed growth (environmental protection) model. For this model, the same
population growth is assumed as in Figure 2-3, but some growth management tools are
applied to restrict the amount of land used for new development. For example, no new
development is allowed in wetlands or other environmentally sensitive areas. The result is
more compact development.
residential
commercial
'public/in situtinnal
industrial
transportation
' utilities
' parks/open space
' water
extractives
ag.-vacant
' sim residential
sim commercial
' sim industrial
' roads
2-B
CHAPTER 2
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Figure 2-5. Controlled growth model. This model assumes a lower population growth
combined with more aggressive growth management strategies. The result is even more
compact development and the highest amount of undeveloped land. Note how new
residential development ("sim residential") occurs adjacent to existing residential areas.
residential
commercial
'publitfinaitutiDnal
industrial
transportation
'utilities
' parks/open space
'water
extract ves
ag./Vacant
' sim residential
sim commercial
sim industrial
' roads
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT
2-9
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2.5.3 THE URBAN GROWTH SIMULATOR
The Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl Modeling Project also developed an Urban Growth Simulator model,
which the Project used to provide more information and flexibility to users than the models used in the case
studies. The Urban Growth Simulator allows users (e.g., citizens, interest groups, government agencies,
planners) to project future changes in their communities and observe the implications of various strategies
for managing residential growth. A user can generate individual build-out scenarios and change available
data to view alternative future growth scenarios in map or table formats.
The Simulator is unique among available growth modeling programs in that it allows efficient simulations
of urban growth with minimal requirements of data from users. Its newest version can take simulated build-
out scenarios and calculate estimated nonpoint-source pollution as well as the amount of land used by
simulated growth in categorized soil types. This new version will be used in projects for Geauga County and
the Grand River Watershed in Ohio.
The Urban Growth Simulator was based on the Portage Model, described in Section 2.5.2. Like the sub-
regional case study, it uses extensive data sets so users do not have to compile their own data. However, the
Urban Growth Simulator is more robust than the Portage Model, allowing users to evaluate the effects of
implementing the following three growth management strategies:
• Avoid critical natural areas (CNA). CNA include wetlands, steep slopes, flood plains, areas surround-
ing endangered or threatened animal or plant species, and other areas considered environmentally
sensitive. Under this strategy, permits would not be granted for new development in these areas, and
thus CNA would be protected.
• Establish a growth boundary. Users can place a boundary on new development, making development
more compact by limiting it to a given area and reducing the impacts of sprawl.
• Maximize open space. Requiring new developments to preserve more lands for open space might
involve reducing the lot sizes of new developments, cluster zoning, etc.
In addition to choosing a growth management strategy, Simulator users can modify two other variables that
affect the amount and form of development:
• Lot size. By defining lot sizes, users can choose the land area (in acres) that each new unit would need
in order to be built.
• Frontage or cluster development. Users can also choose to base their modeled development on either:
• Frontage, in which new developments of 5 to 15 units are built along streets, or
• Cluster development, in which new developments are built in subdivisions of 5 to 30 units
grouped together.
Figure 2-6 shows results from the Urban Growth Simulator in map and tabular form (see also
http:llempact.geog.kent.edu). Acreage of CNA and farmlands affected by simulated development is also shown
as an indication of how the environment is being affected.
2-1 D CHAPTER 2
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Type of Land Use
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Total (acres)
250
100
1,350
Figure 2-6b. Sample simulation with no growth management strategies applied (for Boston Heights, Summit
County, Ohio). No growth management strategies were applied in this scenario, resulting in 1,350 acres
developed, including the loss of 53-5 acres of agricultural land and 57-75 acres of CNA.
2-1 2
CHAPTER 2
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Type of Land Use
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Total (acres)
110
100
1,210
Figure 2-6c. Sample simulation with "Use Growth Boundary/Growth Center" and "Avoid Critical Natural Areas
(CNA)" applied (for Boston Heights, Summit County, Ohio). In this case, the combination of two growth
management strategies led to less land being developed than in Figures 2-6a and b. A total of 1,210 acres
were developed, and no CNA were lost. To accommodate growth, however, 76 acres of agricultural land were
lost to development.
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT
2-1 3
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2.5.4 HDW WERE DATA FDR THE URBAN SPRAWL MODELING
PROJECT GATHERED AND MANAGED?
A large amount of data is needed to create a valid urban growth model. The Northeast Ohio Project based its
urban growth models on many types of environmental and geospatial data: aquatic and terrestrial
species/habitats, brownfields, demographics, flood plains, geology/soils, hydrology/surface water, land
use/cover, planning/zoning, pollution hazard, TIGER/Census, water quality, and wetlands data, for example.
These data came from a variety of sources, including the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, EPA's
Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) project, the Northeast Ohio
Data Information Service (NODIS), Magic 2000 CD-ROM data, and the Northeast Ohio Environmental
Data Exchange Networks (NEOEDEN).
NEOEDEN was a project undertaken by four universities (Cleveland State University, Kent State
University, the University of Akron, and Youngstown State University) before the EPA EMPACT grant
began for the Northeast Ohio Project. The goal of NEOEDEN was "to create and maintain a data exchange
network for northeast Ohio, focusing on environmental and geospatial information" by collecting, process-
ing, and making available on the Internet a broad range of environmental and land-use data in a 14-county
northeast Ohio region (http://urban.csuohio.edu/-ucweb/neoeden/neoeden.htm, 2002). NEOEDEN sought to
inventory all relevant publicly available data for northeast Ohio by:
• Identifying programs or organizations that produce, manage, or disseminate geo-referenced environ-
mental data that could be incorporated into NEOEDEN.
• Determining what data each organization had, as well as the suitability of those data for inclusion in
the NEOEDEN database.
• Establishing priorities for collecting and documenting these data based on demand, geographic extent,
uniqueness, and other criteria to be determined by the NEOEDEN organizations and users.
• Identifying other data, currently unavailable in digital form, that might be suitable for the NEOEDEN
database.
In the course of the Northeast Ohio Project, NEOEDEN was expanded to incorporate additional CIS data
sets, database search software, and an Internet mapping server as part of the redesign of the Web site, allow-
ing users to view selected data sets in mapped format or as tables. Currently there are 364 geospatial data
sets on the NEOEDEN Web site. Of these, 32 are downloadable.
Data completeness and timeliness varies across the 15 Ohio counties included in the Northeast Ohio Urban
Sprawl Modeling Project. For some data sets, necessary information was based on assumptions, estimates,
and U.S. Geological Survey records on historical data. The researchers decided to include such data sets
because they felt that some users would still find the information helpful, even if it was incomplete. It is
hoped that the data inventory will continue to be completed and expanded.
2.5.5 HOW ARE URBAN GROWTH MODELING DATA
COMMUNICATED TO THE PUBLIC?
County planning commissions are one key mechanism for using and communicating information for the
Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl Modeling Project. For example, Geauga and Portage Counties have used the
Northeast Ohio Project Web site to generate build-out scenarios that are used at various public meetings by
county residents.
Web site. Kent State University's Department of Geography hosts the EMPACT: Urban Sprawl in
Northeast Ohio Web site, a good resource for the public and local officials (http://gis.kent.edu/gis/empact/;
see Figure 2-7). The site describes the problems of urban sprawl and the usefulness of models and simulators.
z-14 CHAPTER 2
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,-DEVELOPMENT OF
A COMMUNITY-ACCESSIBLE
URBAN SPRAWL
IMPACT ASSE55MENT SY5TEM j
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. »• +*
Figure 2-7. EMPACT: Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio Web Site. (Source: http://gis.kent.edu/gis/empact/)
Users can also download the regional and sub-regional case study simulations from this site, as well as order
the regional study on CD-ROM. They can also run the sub-regional study as well as the Urban Growth
Simulator online at the site. (See Sections 2.5.1 and 2.5.2 for discussions of the case studies and Section
2.5.3 for a description of the Urban Growth Simulator). For quick reference, the Web site also provides
screen capture samples from the case studies.
Documentation for the Urban Growth Simulator. The Project, as part of its communications and outreach
effort, developed an Urban Growth Simulator Self-Guided Workbook that provides step-by-step guidance
through four simulations. The Workbook explains what each menu item is used for and how to use the
Simulator to achieve particular results. The Workbook can be downloaded from the Kent State University
Web site (http://empact.geog.kent.edu/workbook.html) or requested from the Kent State University geography
department.
Educational handbook. A workbook on urban sprawl, titled Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio: A Handbook
for Educators and Their Students in Grades 4—8, was created. It provides teachers with activities, information,
and resources to help them introduce the concept of urban sprawl into their classrooms. It also shows readers
how to use the Urban Growth Simulator, using sections from the Urban Growth Simulator Self-Guided
Workbook.
Seminars and training sessions. The Northeast Ohio Project offered seminars and training sessions to local
organizations from which Project researchers hoped to gather data sets.
URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT
2-1 5
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Chapter 4 discusses a variety of additional communications/outreach efforts conducted by the Northeast
Ohio Project.
2.5.6 WHAT LESSONS WERE LEARNED IN THE NORTHEAST
OHIO URBAN SPRAWL MODELING PROJECT?
Some of the lessons learned in developing the northeast Ohio urban growth models included:
• Set realistic goals for data collection. Collecting comprehensive data from a variety of sources into one
data clearinghouse is a good concept, but can be difficult to achieve for a variety of reasons (discussed
below). It is important early in a growth modeling project to clearly define a realistic scope of data col-
lection and limit modeling efforts accordingly.
Collecting and maintaining data for a growth management project can be expensive, in terms of both
time and money. To reduce this cost, the Northeast Ohio Project attempted to use readily available,
existing data sets to create a centralized database and avoid duplication of research. This effort, how-
ever, was itself challenging. The NEOEDEN team sent out questionnaires to various organizations and
agencies that had data sets useful to the project. The response rate was quite low, and much of the
information ended up coming from state agencies. Also, some organizations were unwilling to donate
their data or did not feel that they had the time to participate.
• Establish a good organizational structure at the start of the project. A good structure might include
having a single, lead entity, such as a state agency, oversee the project and set clear guidelines and
expectations from the beginning, rather than having different organizations responsible for various
aspects of a project. For example, a government agency could take on the responsibility of managing
the project and owning the resulting product, which would then have a place in the agency's annual
budget and possible continued funding and support; this system would help to ensure that the fre-
quent updates involved in data collection and maintenance are performed. If universities are involved,
their role could be to research and develop the product and then turn it over to a regional planning
committee or other government entity to sustain it. The product's creators could train government
employees in the use of the modeling programs and data maintenance. Community nonprofit organi-
zations are often good partners for conducting outreach.
• Obtain project involvement by high-level officials, such as mayors or county engineers, to help support
an urban growth modeling project. Several counties in northeast Ohio (e.g., Summit County) were
successful in promoting a collaborative effort on data collection, in part because they had such high-
level support.
• Consider developing case studies to showcase completed simulation models, for example for different
scales, such as at the regional (e.g., seven-county) and sub-regional (e.g., one-county) levels. The case
studies for the Northeast Ohio Urban Sprawl Modeling Project exemplified successful development
and growth management projections and illustrated a simplified method for performing modeling and
simulations.
• Possibly develop more than one product to fully serve various audiences. While a Web-based system is a
good avenue for those with ready Internet access, you may also want to create a stand-alone system
(such as a CD-ROM) that allows quicker data transfer than the Internet does. CD-ROMs have
another advantage: you can use them to meet the needs of advanced users (e.g., planners). A CD can
be created that contains more detailed or specific data than your Web system does. You can also sup-
ply sophisticated users with CDs containing modeling software (the "back end" of your online model)
to which they can add their own data. In addition, printed materials may be important to develop to
reach people without Internet or computer access.
The air quality monitoring component of the Northeast Ohio Project is discussed in Chapter 3. Additional
outreach and communications efforts conducted by the Northeast Ohio Project are discussed in Chapter 4.
2-1 s CHAPTER 2
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3
THE NORTHEAST OHIO AIR QUALITY
MONITORING PROJECT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Northeast Ohio Air Quality Monitoring Project is one of the three key components of the Northeast
Ohio Project. The purpose of the Air Quality Monitoring Project is to provide public access to monitored
air quality data in 15 counties of northeast Ohio. This information is disseminated through the Project's
Northeast Ohio Air Quality Online, or NEOAIR, Web site (http://neoair.noaca.ohiou.edu/), which presents
near-real-time and historical air quality data. A dynamic interface allows users to select the type of data they
wish to view.
3. 1 .1 WHAT IS TIME-RELEVANT AIR QUALITY MONITORING?
Information on air quality can be provided to the public in near real time, depending on the frequency of
sampling and the speed of data retrieval and processing. Access to real-time data allows people to take
appropriate actions to protect their health and the environment. For example, when certain air pollutant
levels are high, normally healthy people may decide to limit outdoor activities and more sensitive popula-
tions (children, the elderly, people with breathing problems) may choose to stay indoors. Additionally, a
public that is aware of current pollution levels may be encouraged to take steps to reduce air emissions
through measures such as efficient electricity use, carpooling, and use of public transportation. Already
existing air monitoring stations (as described in Section 3.1.3) can often be used to conduct time-relevant
air quality monitoring and reporting programs.
3.1.2 THE EPA AIRNOW PROGRAM
The Northeast Ohio Air Quality Monitoring Project was derived from EPA's AirNow Program (see
http://www.epa.gov/airnow}, which provides the public with easy access to national and regional air quality
information. The AirNow Web site offers daily air quality forecasts as well as real-time air quality informa-
tion for over 100 cities across the United States, and provides links to more detailed state and local air
quality Web sites. The site also includes information on the health and environmental effects of air pollu-
tion, ways that people can protect their health and actions they can take to reduce pollution, and links to
EPA publications that highlight the environmental and health effects of air quality and explain the basic
science of ozone.
Currently, real-time AirNow air quality maps provide ozone levels for 38 states and parts of Canada.
During the ozone season (May through September in most areas, April through October in Ohio), these
maps are updated every hour. Users can view still-frame maps of 1-hour peak values, 8-hour peak values,
and forecasts. Animated maps of hourly averages are also available. Future plans for the AirNow site include
ozone mapping for the contiguous 48 states and real-time mapping of particulate matter. Ways in which
the Northeast Ohio Air Quality Monitoring Project has used and supplemented AirNow data for the
northeast Ohio region are discussed in Section 3.2.
3.1.3 OVERVIEW OF AIR QUALITY MONITORING
Under the Clean Air Act, states are required to establish air quality monitoring networks to measure ambi-
ent concentrations of pollutants for which National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) have been
established. These pollutants, known as criteria pollutants, are particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and lead.
Ambient Air Quality Surveillance requirements (40 CFR Part 58) specify how often monitoring must
occur and where monitoring stations are to be sited.
AIR [DUALITY MONITORING PROJECT 3-1
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The monitoring networks consist of strategically located air monitoring stations and data collection, trans-
fer, and storage systems. The types of stations include state and local air monitoring stations (SLAMS),
national air monitoring stations (NAMS), and photochemical assessment monitoring stations (PAMS).
Information on pollutant concentrations is used to:
• Determine if an area is in compliance with the NAAQS.
• Develop strategies for controlling pollutant levels.
• Provide information to the public about local air quality.
Guidance for establishing a monitoring network can be found at the website
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/cpreldoc.html and in the following EPA documents:
PAMS Implementation Manual, EPA/454/B-93/051 (http://www.epa.gov/ttnamtil/pams.html)
Ozone Monitoring, Mapping, and Public Outreach, Delivering Real-Time Ozone Information to Your
Community, EPA/625/R-99/007
3.2 AIR QUALITY INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM THE
NORTHEAST OHIO PROJECT
The following information on ozone is available at the
Northeast Ohio Project's NEOAIR Web site:
• Near-real-time data, including hourly average
levels depicted on a stationary map and levels
for the previous 24 hours on an animated map.
A map of northeast Ohio with ozone levels is
shown in Figure 3-1. (See Section 3.4.2 for
further discussion of these maps.)
• Tabular presentations of current data at each of 18
air monitoring stations, as shown in Figure 3-2.
• Historical data, shown on maps, tables, and
reports. Examples of historical data are shown in
Figures 3-3 and 3-4.
The NEOAIR Web site differs from the AirNow Web site
Figure 3-1. Northeast Ohio ozone levels, hourly average,
stationary map.
in that it lets users view northeast Ohio in greater detail and thus obtain information on air quality at more
specific locations. Real-time levels for non-ozone pollutants are also included on the NEOAIR Web site.
3.3 HOW ARE AIR QUALITY DATA MANAGED?
The same monitoring and data management systems used to meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act
can often be used as the basis for other air monitoring programs. The NEOAIR Web site, for example, relies
on existing monitors to provide data, with PM2 5 monitors added as part of the Air Quality Monitoring
Project.
3.3.1 DATA CDLLECTIDN
Air monitoring infrastructure that is already in place for data transmission to meet regulatory requirements
(e.g., 40 CFR Part 58) can often be used for other data collection and reporting purposes, such as a local
near-real-time air quality monitoring and reporting program and Web site. For example, the Ohio
Environmental Protection Agency collects data from the air monitoring stations in northeast Ohio for
transmission to the U.S. EPA. The same data are automatically transferred to NEOAIR every 2 hours
during ozone season.
3-2
CHAPTER 3
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*lr quality ™
« Air
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Figure 3-2. Example of data available in table
format from the Northeast Ohio Project Web site.
nrnn,- oh.•
air q
quality
-A- HI
• Air Mgnitnri
i.
i -,-rJB --•------ iv |9
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Figure 3-3. Historical ozone data (graph format) for the
Northeast Ohio Project.
Air quality :: *lj *l Vim
kM frfimtAt.
• *—.• f"r-w»^l .» —T tl*«t IlilKlU •»
Figure 3-4. Historical ozone data (table format) for the
Northeast Ohio Project.
AIR [DUALITY MONITORING PROJECT
3-3
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As a preliminary step in developing the Northeast Ohio Project's air monitoring system, Project staff
reviewed the existing air quality monitoring network to identify any deficiencies. As a result, data loggers
and modems at the monitoring sites were upgraded.
Data received from the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency are automatically reformatted, evaluated,
prepared for presentation, and stored in a database. The database is then accessed to supply data in response
to Web site user queries. The general flow of data is shown in Figure 3-5.
Client
Client request/server
response (HTML)
NEOAIR Web server
(IIS)
SQL query
called by ASP
Raw data
Formatted data
SQL database
Ohio EPA
Format
processing
Figure 3-5. Data flow for the data retrieval module.
3.3.2 DATA QUALITY
It is important to ensure the quality of data collected before it is reported to the public. Data entry errors
can produce erroneous data, as can malfunctioning or inoperable monitors.
Data received by NEOAIR are checked automatically. Data are identified as erroneous if reported values are
outside expected ranges or have changed at greater-than-expected rates. The Web site does not report data
identified as erroneous. Instead, it shows the data as not available, indicated by "-999" in the text or by a
gray area on maps.
3.3.3 DATA STORAGE
The data for the NEOAIR Web site are stored in a database using a Microsoft SQL server. There are seven
different kinds of information in the database, as shown in Table 3-1.
3-4
CHAPTER 3
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TABLE 3-1. TYPES OF INFORMATION INCLUDED IN THE NEDAIR DATABASE
Category
Monitors
Ozone peak values
Ozone exceedances
S02 peak values
S02 exceedances
CO peak values
CO exceedances
Information Included
Monitor name, monitor ID, EPA region, county, latitude, longitude, land use, location type,
available information, and time period.
Daily 1-hour and 8-hour peak values, monitor ID, and date for each of the 18 ozone monitors.
Produced from the peak value data to save data retrieval time. Contains 1-hour and 8-hour
exceedances, monitor ID, and date for each of the 18 ozone monitors.
Daily 1-hour peak values, monitor ID, date, 1-hour max, and 24-hour max for each of the
10S02 monitors.
Produced from the peak value table to save data retrieval time. Contains 24-hour
exceedances, monitor ID, and date for each of the 10 S02 monitors.
Daily 1-hour and 8-hour peak values, monitor ID, and date for each of the two CO monitors.
Produced from peak value table to save data retrieval time. Contains 8-hour exceedances,
monitor ID, and date for each of the two CO monitors.
3.3.4 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE USED BY NEDAIR TD
OPERATE ITS AIR QUALITY MONITORING WEB SITE
The NEOAIR Web site uses a workgroup server/workstation with the following attributes:
• CPU: Intel Pentium III.
• Memory: 128 MB.
• Hard disk: 10 GB.
Software used for the NEOAIR Web site is shown in Table 3-2
TABLE 3-2. NEDAIR WEB SITE SOFTWARE
Software Type
Operating system
Web server
Database server
Web developing tool
Graphic tool
Java developing
and executing tool
Near-Real-Time Data
Non-Ozone
Historical Data
Microsoft Windows NT 4.0 Server or Windows 2000 Server
Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS) 4.0 or 2000
(a component of Windows NT or 2000)
Microsoft SQL Server 7.0
Macromedia Dreamweaver
UltraDev4.0
Mapinfo
Adobe Photoshop 6.0
Adobe Image Ready 3.0
Macromedia Fireworks 4.0
Microsoft Visual InterdevG.O
Java Development Kit 1.1
or higher version
AIR [DUALITY MONITORING PROJECT
3-5
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3.3.4.1 WHAT ARE THE LABOR REQUIREMENTS FDR OPERATING
THE NEDAIR WEB SITE D N C E IT IS RUNNING?
Most functions of the NEOAIR Web site can be automated. Non-automated functions that require person-
nel include creating the 24-hour automated maps; creating or replacing maps and tables due to missing data
or errors; troubleshooting the server's HTTP and FTP service, as well as its overall performance; updating
and maintaining the Web server; updating Web pages; writing and updating programs; and testing new
programs, software, and procedures. It is estimated that these activities could require 10 hours or more
per week of a programmer's time and 3 hours per week or more of a system administrator's time.
3.4 HOW ARE THE NORTHEAST OHIO PROJECT'S AIR
DUALITY DATA COMMUNICATED TO THE PUBLIC?
3.4.1 HDW DDES THE PUBLIC ACCESS INFORMATION ON THE
NEOAIR WEB SITE?
The NEOAIR Web site provides information on ozone, PM, CO, SO2, NO2, and ozone action days.
(The organization of the NEOAIR Web site is shown in Figure 3-6.) The public can access information in
two ways. "Static" pages provide general information on air pollution. Static pages are mainly textual and
do not require any input from the user, except the kind of information in which the user is interested.
An example of a static page is shown in Figure 3-7. "Dynamic" pages allow users to query the Web site
for specific time-relevant and historic data.
Ozone v.
Paniculate matter-^
Nitrogen oxides *•*'*'
Carbon monoxide S
5.
^
Basic nature of the
pollutant, where it
effects on the
environment
Full-screen map
illustrating air quality
levels in northeast Ohio
within the last 2 hours
Figuure 3-6. Web page flow chart for NEOAIR.
• •"•'•Hi •»••
air qiiBtrty u,,,*,
Mn r»i r nun r UN ii iiijiii mi it* nmn^»ii~
• • -:!•• j
Figure 3-7. Example of NEOAIR Web site "static"
page for general air pollution information.
3-6
CHAPTER 3
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3.4.2 HDW DDES THE NEDAIR WEB SITE DISPLAY TIME-
RELEVANT DATA?
The NEOAIR Web site uses maps to display near-real-time concentrations of ozone across northeast Ohio.
Colors on the map represent ranges of ozone concentrations. The ranges are the same as those used by EPA
to define air quality (good, moderate, unhealthy for sensitive groups, unhealthy, very unhealthy) and the col-
ors are the same as those used on EPA's AirNow Web site. The NEOAIR maps differ from the AirNow maps
in that they show a smaller geographical area, providing greater detail. As mentioned previously, two types of
maps are available for ozone: a map showing hourly average levels across northeast Ohio (see Figure 3-1) and
an animated map showing levels for the previous 24 hours. Time-relevant data are also presented in a table
summarizing monitoring station data, as shown in Figure 3-2.
Non-ozone pollutant concentrations are sampled once per day, since they do not change as significantly over
the course of a day as ozone. Data for non-ozone pollutants are presented in a tabular format only: the mon-
itors are relatively sparsely located and do not necessarily represent overall regional conditions, since these
pollutants are not atmospherically generated.
3.4.3 HDW DDES THE NEDAIR WEB SITE DISPLAY
HISTORICAL DATA?
Historical data are displayed in formats similar to those for time-relevant data. Maps of the average ozone
level for 1-hour periods are available as well as animated maps showing the change in ozone levels over 24-
hour periods going back to 2000. Historical data are also available for each monitor, as shown in Figures 3-3
and 3-4. The user can request reports on peak ozone values and ozone exceedances at each monitor going
back as far as 1985. Historical non-ozone data from continuous monitors are currently being added, and
data from non-continuous PM2 5 monitors may be added in the future.
3.4.4 IS AIR QUALITY INFORMATION COMMUNICATED IN WAYS
OTHER THAN THE NEOAIR WEB SITE?
The Northeast Ohio Project has used a variety of additional means to communicate the availability of air
quality monitoring data to the public, including:
• A medical brochure.
• An air quality handbook.
• Bus boards.
• Radio and TV PSAs.
• News releases.
These other forms of public outreach and health risk communication are discussed in Chapter 4.
3.5 LESSONS LEARNED IN THE NORTHEAST OHIO AIR
QUALITY MONITORING PROJECT
The Project's experience in conducting and expanding its air quality monitoring program resulted in some
key lessons learned, including:
• Schedule sufficient time frames for tasks when multiple agencies and organizations are involved, partic-
ularly when multiple groups are involved in developing Web site information.
• Maintain good working relationships with agency and group partners. Good working relations and
communication are especially important to an organization that is involved in only certain aspects of the
data flow, rather than being in control of the data it needs. Without good communication, timely access
to the data to be reported to the public (e.g., to be posted on the Web site) could be problematic.
AIR [DUALITY MONITORING PROJECT s-v
-------
4
THE NORTHEAST OHIO
COMMUNICATIONS PROJECT
4.1 THE NORTHEAST OHIO COMMUNICATIONS
WORKGROUP
The Northeast Ohio Communications Workgroup consists of a diverse group of representatives of federal and
local government agencies, local environmental organizations, health agencies, and local universities. The
Workgroup was organized into a coordination committee and an advisory committee; the Earth Day Coalition
(EDC) was designated the lead organization for outreach. EDC was chosen as the lead because of its experience
with the target audience—inner-city, racially diverse communities of the Cleveland-Akron region in Ohio.
The Workgroup seeks to publicize the availability of the Northeast Ohio Project's air quality and urban sprawl
data and products to the greater Cleveland-Akron community, enabling citizens to make informed decisions on
day-to-day environmental and health concerns that can affect their quality of life.
4.2 WHAT DOES THE TARGET AUDIENCE NEED
TO KNOW?
To create a successful outreach campaign, the Communications Workgroup conducted a survey of
northeast Ohio residents to determine their information needs, knowledge level, and means of gathering
information. This questionnaire was used, for example, to assess the public's computer knowledge and pat-
terns of computer use and determine how to best present information to the target audience of low-income
and minority communities. It was important to learn which communication outlets (other than computers)
the target audience used, so that key information could be conveyed to community members who were not
computer literate. The survey questions are in Appendix A.
The survey was administered to a random sampling (100+ respondents with a +1-6.5% margin of error) of
the potential audiences that might use the Project's data. The Communications Workgroup followed up with
respondents and other participants at six in-depth community meetings. Survey results were compiled and
analyzed, and a report distributed to the Project steering committee.
Survey results included:
• The average inner-city resident was unaware of the environment-to-health link (less than 15 percent
cited awareness). The level of awareness of ozone issues, including Ozone Action Days, was quite low
(with less than 40 percent of the population aware), and knowledge of the health impacts of ozone was
very low (less than 8 percent).
• Over 20 percent of all households have one or more members diagnosed with a respiratory health con-
dition that could be exacerbated by high ozone or particulate levels.
• The number of households with respiratory concerns exceeded 35 percent.
• TV and radio are the major channels of daily information entering the household, with over
85 percent of participants using these media.
• Printed materials from or by the medical community are highly valued and preferred by the survey
respondents and meeting participants.
• Information needs to be relevant and immediate to have an impact on households' decision-making.
COMMUNICATIONS PROJECT 4-1
-------
4.3 COMPONENTS OF THE NORTHEAST OHIO
PROJECT'S OUTREACH PLAN
Outreach conducted by the Northeast Ohio Project's Communications Workgroup was quite extensive, as
shown in Table 4-1 and discussed throughout this chapter.
TABLE 4-1. OUTREACH MATERIALS DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEAST OHIO
PROJECT'S COMMUNICATIONS WORKGROUP
Item/Product
Initial communications survey
Promotional brochure
Medical brochure, Your Air, Your Health,
Your Environment: News You Can Use
Educational handbook, Air Quality in
Northeast Ohio: A Handbook for
Educators and Their Students in
Grades 4-8
Educational handbook, Urban Sprawl in
Northeast Ohio: A Handbook for
Educators and Their Students in
Grades 4-8
Web site, Northeast Ohio EMPACT
Project (hosted by the Neighborhood Link)
Web site, EMPACT: Urban Sprawl in
Northeast Ohio (hosted by Kent State
University)
Urban Growth Simulator
Bus boards
Radio PSAs
Television PSAs
Mascot, Abee (Always Breathe EasiEr)
Logo
• Northeast Ohio Project
• Air quality and related health effects
• Air quality/air pollution
• Northeast Ohio Project
• Urban sprawl and its effect on
the environment
• Northeast Ohio Project
• Northeast Ohio Project:
-Air quality
- Urban sprawl
- Community outreach
• Urban sprawl and its effects on the
local environment and communities
• Urban sprawl
• Air quality
• Northeast Ohio Project
• Air quality and its health effects
• Northeast Ohio Project
• Air quality and its health effects
• Northeast Ohio Project
• Air quality
• Urban sprawl
• Northeast Ohio Project
• Northeast Ohio Project
• General public
• General public of northeast Ohio
(specifically inner-city residents)
• Educators (teachers, camp counselors)
• 9- to 13-year-olds in school and camps
• Educators (teachers, camp counselors)
• 9- to 13-year-olds in school and camps
• General public
• General public
• Local officials
• City/regional planners
• General public
• Students
• Local officials
• City/regional planners
• General public of northeast Ohio,
specifically residents in areas
identified as high-risk or
environmental justice neighborhoods
• General public
• General public
• Children
• General public
• Children
• Local officials
• General public
• Local officials and decision-makers
Unless otherwise noted, "general public" refers to residents of the 15-county area covered by the Northeast Ohio Project.
4-2
CHAPTER 4
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4.3.1 HDW DDES THE NORTHEAST OHIO PROJECT
COMMUNICATE AIR QUALITY INFORMATION AND
ISSUES TO THE PUBLIC?
The community survey described in Section 4.2 represents one of the first forms of community outreach
used by the Northeast Ohio Project. The survey results gave the project important information on how best
to educate the public on air quality issues and also introduced the concept of air quality to this audience.
Outreach efforts that followed the survey are discussed below.
4.3.1.1 MEDICAL BROCHURE ON HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH
AIR QUALITY
The survey distributed to community residents (see Section 4.2) indicated that many citizens of inner-city
northeast Ohio trust information from the medical community. Therefore, a medical brochure entitled Your
Air, Your Health, Your Environment: News You Can Use was produced to provide the general public with
information on air pollution and its effects in northeast Ohio.
The brochure, featuring a picture of a doctor and child on the cover
(Figure 4-1), discusses the six criteria air pollutants (lead, PM, ground-
level ozone, CO, SO2, and NO2), who is most at risk from air pollution,
and how to find out about daily air quality levels. Resources for more
information, including the Northeast Ohio Project's Web site, are listed in
the brochure. A total of 25,000 brochures were produced for at-risk indi-
viduals and distributed to the medical community throughout northeast
Ohio—registered nurses, county health departments, county hospitals,
children's hospitals, asthma clinics, elementary and middle schools, partic-
ipating universities, and nonprofit organizations.
4.3.1.2 AIR QUALITY HANDBOOK
Outreach to educators and students on air quality was accomplished
through Air Quality in Northeast Ohio: A Handbook for Educators and
Their Students in Grades 4—8. The handbook (Figure 4-2) includes
approximately 85 pages of background information, activities, experi-
ments, lesson plans, and resources on air pollution, air quality, and the
Northeast Ohio Project. Teachers reviewed drafts of the handbook during
its development. EDC members used the handbooks to conduct training
at camps and recreation centers.
Example handbook activities include an air quality flashcard game with
cut-out vocabulary cards provided, experiments incorporating observation
and math skills through data collection and analysis, and activities related
directly to the NEOAIR Web site. The handbook indicates appropriate
grade levels for each activity or experiment, along with educator notes that
refer to background information. EDC produced and distributed about
100 copies of the air quality handbook.
The air quality handbook was very well received in the education
community. School principals were enthusiastic about bringing the air
quality educational program to their schools because air pollution-related health problems (e.g., absences
due to asthma) affect so many of their students. Teachers were enthusiastic about free classroom
presentations and educational materials. Many schools requested additional copies.
Figure 4-1. Medical brochure
developed by the Northeast
Ohio Project.
COMMUNICATIONS PROJECT
4-3
-------
Air Quality
in Northeast Ohio
A Kmdtwoli For Educators
and their Students in Grades W-B
Highlights of the educational campaign related to the handbook
included explanations of ozone formation, which were very
successful with students. Also popular among children were
activities involving the Internet. Environmental games worked
well as a communications tool for camp children.
4.3.2 HDW DDES THE NORTHEAST
DHID PROJECT COMMUNICATE
URBAN GROWTH MODELING TO
THE PUBLIC?
A handbook and a Web site are two key communication tools
used by the Northeast Ohio Project to communicate urban
sprawl issues, as discussed below.
4.3.2.1 URBAN SPRAWL IN NORTHEAST
DHID HANDBOOK
Applying the framework of the air quality handbook, EDC cre-
ated a second teaching tool, Urban Sprawl in Northeast Ohio:
A Handbook for Educators and Their Students in Grades 4—8.
The design of this handbook is similar to that of the air quality
handbook. Teachers reviewed and commented on drafts of the
urban sprawl handbook before EDC finalized it. Fi9ure 4~2- The Northeast Ohio Project's air
quality handbook.
The sprawl outreach and education efforts focused on Cuyahoga
County. This is because Cuyahoga contains Cleveland, the biggest city in northeast Ohio and the one for
which the most local, relevant information (e.g., historical growth data) was available. Using this informa-
tion, EDC was able to include examples and activities directly related to the city in the handbook. A sample
activity from the urban sprawl handbook is a role-playing activity in which a fictional growth scenario ("You
live in a small community where a developer would like to put a shopping mall") is presented and students
are assigned various roles within a community. One role might be that of a local shop owner who does not
want additional commercial competition; another might be that of a town official who would like to bring
additional money and tourists to the area. The students play out the scenario, learning that there is not nec-
essarily a right or wrong solution to the situation and that sprawl is a complicated issue.
A section of the handbook covers the Urban Growth Simulator developed by Kent State University and
includes sections from the Urban Growth Simulator Self-Guided Workbook. (See Chapter 2 for a discussion of
the Simulator.)
As with the air quality handbook, 100 copies of the sprawl handbook were produced. Due to limited funds
for outreach, EDC will not be going into schools to conduct educational programs on sprawl, but is still
planning teacher meetings to introduce educators to both handbooks. For example, EDC met with teachers
from "gifted and talented" programs in 15 to 20 schools in Cuyahoga County in February 2002.
4.3.2.2 URBAN SPRAWL IN NORTHEAST OHIO WEB SITE
Another means of communicating the issues of urban sprawl to the public is the EMPACT: Urban Sprawl in
Northeast Ohio Web site, hosted by Kent State University (http://gis.kent.edu/gis/empact/). This Web site
provides an overview of issues related to sprawl and includes background on the usefulness and creation of
urban growth models. It also links to the Urban Growth Simulator, through which users can view different
potential growth scenarios for their community. (See Chapter 2 for more information on urban growth
modeling and this Web site.)
4-4
CHAPTER 4
-------
http://EMPACT.nhlink.net
News You Can Use
:,ini i
i Brcmlhc rucil
says.
Visit 5
our
Jbsitc! -
4.3.3 THE NORTHEAST OHIO PROJECT'S MEDIA CAMPAIGN
In addition to outreach specific to the Project's air quality monitoring and urban growth modeling efforts, a
general media campaign was undertaken to inform people of the existence of the program. The media cam-
paign included bus boards, PSAs, news releases, development of a logo and mascot, a promotional brochure,
and a Web site, as described below.
4.3.3.1 BUS BOARD CAMPAIGN
Thanks to the cooperation of transit authorities in the
Cleveland-Akron area, over 270 buses were outfitted with
boards carrying the message, "News You Can Use: Your Air,
Your Health, Your Environment." (See Figure 4-3.) As part of
the bus board design, a mascot named Abee pointed to the
Web site address (http://EMPACT.nhlink.net). (Abee is described
in Section 4.3.4.2.) While ultimately successful, bus board
development took longer than expected. The Communications
Workgroup learned that it is important to give transit authori-
ties enough time (4 to 6 weeks) to develop bus board programs.
4.3.3.2 PUBLIC SERVICE
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Radio PSAs were developed by EDC and broadcast on 28 radio
stations. The PSAs were 10-, 15-, 20-, and 30-second versions of
the same basic announcement, each describing the Project in a
different degree of detail. Most of the stations carrying the PSAs
were FM stations, but Cleveland's most popular station, an AM
station that covers sports, also aired the announcements.
A PSA for television, written and produced by EDC, was also
part of the outreach campaign. EDC originally planned to pro-
duce this television announcement using a private vendor. After
learning it would cost between $5,000 and $6,000 to create this
one piece, EDC went to the four major networks in the greater Cleveland area (NBC, FOX, ABC, and
WUAB) to see if any would be willing to sponsor the PSA. All four networks offered to produce the com-
mercial for free, but each wanted sole use of the commercial. The Coalition chose NBC because they offered
the most extensive package—two interviews and a Web link as well as the announcement itself.
The PSA aired on the local NBC affiliate throughout the summer, mostly in the afternoons and on week-
ends. It took about 1 day to film the PSA's segments and 1 day to edit them into a single announcement.
The two interviews were held on NBC's "Noon News" program, which airs between 12:00 and 12:30 p.m.
on weekdays. The interviews lasted about 5 to 6 minutes and were also shown throughout the summer. The
second interview included Abee, the mascot. NBC added a link from its Web site to the Northeast Ohio
Project's Web page.
4.3.3.3 NEWS RELEASES
A series of news releases was developed and distributed to over 100 media outlets (including television, radio,
and print publications) in the greater Cleveland area via an in-house electronic fax system. An additional 20
major print publications and TV stations received copies via postal mail. The releases announced the
Northeast Ohio Project's Web site and information provided by the project; the Regional Transit Authority
bus board campaign; the school outreach programs; and Abee, the Northeast Ohio Project mascot.
Your Air, Your Health,
Your Environment.
Figure 4-3. Bus board displayed on
Cleveland-Akron transit authority buses.
COMMUNICATIONS PROJECT
4-5
-------
4.3.3.4 OUTCOME OF THE MEDIA CAMPAIGN
Overall, the media campaign was successful, but not as widespread as originally planned due to the limited
availability of personnel. The Northeast Ohio Project's educational outreach programs run by EDC staff
were in higher demand than expected (see Section 4.4), leaving less staff time to focus on media outreach.
4.3.4 WHAT PRDMDTIDNAL MATERIALS WERE CREATED,
AND HDW WERE THEY DISTRIBUTED?
EMPACT
tnviionrnen'al kAD"1anr*g 'or Pubi c
ar>d CWTimurVly
Figure 4-4. Logo developed for the
Northeast Ohio Project.
4.3.4.1 PROJECT LOGO
To increase visual recognition of the program, the Northeast
Ohio Project created a logo (Figure 4-4), which was featured on
all of the Project's handbooks, brochures, Web sites, and promo-
tional items.
4.3.4.2 MASCOT NAMED ABEE
A mascot was also produced as part of outreach efforts to younger
audiences. Named Abee (Always Breathe EasiEr), this friendly
green dinosaurian character (Figure 4-5) often wears the
Northeast Ohio Project's logo on her chest. Abee appeared on
local television stations, at schools, and at EarthFest 2000, where
she greeted dignitaries such as the Secretary of Health and
Human Services and a congressman. The mascot was also promi-
nently featured in each of the educational handbooks. She also
appeared (often along with the logo) on magnets, t-shirts, and a
hand stamp, which were handed out at events such as EarthFest.
Abee helped create project recognition: people recognized her and
associated the promotional materials with the Project after meeting
her at community events.
4.3.4.3 PROMOTIONAL BROCHURE
The Northeast Ohio Project also developed a promotional
brochure that describes the Project's three components: real-time
air quality monitoring, urban sprawl modeling, and community
outreach activities. This color, glossy brochure describes various
ways for people to obtain the information available on the
Project's Web site. Approximately 25,000 brochures were pro-
duced and distributed to county libraries, Northeast Ohio Project
partners, universities, the Ohio Department of Recreation,
camps, schools, and transit authorities participating in the bus
board program.
4.3.4.4 PROJECT WEB SITE
The Northeast Ohio Project's Web site (http://EMPACT.nhlink.net)
summarizes the Project's initiatives and links to all three project
components (air, communications, sprawl), as well as the EPA home
page and the Web pages of partner organizations. The Project's Web site is hosted on a local server, the
Neighborhood Link. (The Neighborhood Link is a partnership between the City of Cleveland, Cleveland
State University, Ameritech, and the Neighborhood Centers Association. It was designed pro bono by the
firm Luttner and Yachannin Advertising.) Note that the Web site is available at all Cleveland public
libraries, recreation centers, and neighborhood computer centers.
Figure 4-5. The Northeast Ohio Project's
Abee mascot.
4-6
CHAPTER 4
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4.4 MEASURING THE SUCCESS OF THE OUTREACH
CAMPAIGN
One of the best ways to measure success is to establish goals at the outset of a project and then determine
whether they were reached. The Northeast Ohio Project's Communications Workgroup did just this.
The Workgroup used the community survey (see Section 4.2) to identify the needs of the community and
the methods by which the target audience receives its information. As a direct result of those findings, bus
boards were placed on the routes identified as hotspots or environmental justice neighborhoods likely to
include the target audience.
Results from the survey also showed that target populations are very trusting of the medical community and
get most of their health information from hospitals, doctors, and health organizations. Therefore, the
Communications Health Workgroup developed a medical brochure (see Section 4.3.1.1) that was placed in
hospitals and doctor's offices to maximize its availability to the target audience. Thus the initial survey
helped the Project increase its credibility for community members.
The success of the educational programs was fairly easy to determine by the enthusiastic response from both
schools and camps. The original plan was to conduct the program in four schools. Due to the program's
popularity, however, EDC ended up running it in eight schools, plus recreation centers and camps, reaching
more than 1,500 children aged 9 to 13. Teachers and camp counselors are still requesting the return of the
program and speakers. Unfortunately, funding is currently unavailable to run the program. The handbooks
are available, however, and teachers continue to use them.
Teachers commented that they would like to see more programs like the air quality program. It was this
response that encouraged EDC to create the urban sprawl handbook. When EDC approached educators
about reviewing that handbook, the teachers were eager to participate and provide comments.
The Northeast Ohio Project's Web site received its maximum number of "hits" (visits to the site) when the
media and Regional Transit Authority bus board outreach were being conducted, indicating that these cam-
paigns were successful. Since that time, hits have declined somewhat.
4.5 LESSONS LEARNED IN THE NORTHEAST OHIO
COMMUNICATIONS PROJECT
4.5.1 DIVERSE MEMBERSHIP HELPS CREATE AN EFFECTIVE
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
The diversity of members in the Communications Workgroup helped to ensure that a range of viewpoints
from the community and other stakeholders was heard and included in decision-making. The Workgroup's
diversity produced some differences of opinion about what specifically should be communicated. The group
therefore spent time, before launching the outreach campaign, coming to a common decision on a clear
message. The fact that they reached this early consensus—that air pollution, particularly ozone and its
health effects, is a priority concern—was helpful throughout the outreach project. Designating a lead organi-
zation to develop ideas and present them to the group also helped create consistency and stability.
4.5.2 DEVELOPING EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS ON INNOVATIVE
TOPICS LIKE URBAN SPRAWL IS CHALLENGING BUT
WORTHWHILE
Gathering information and developing educational activities on urban sprawl for children in grades 4 through
8 can be challenging because little information is available about this topic for this age group. The topic of
urban sprawl may be more appropriate for older students, but EDC was mandated to develop a single
handbook targeted to the same grade levels as those covered by the air quality handbook. Furthermore,
teachers felt that while sprawl is a difficult concept for children, it is a worthwhile topic to explore.
COMMUNICATIONS PROJECT 4-v
-------
EDC therefore spent time finding relevant educational activities, resulting in the project taking longer than
expected. Ultimately, EDC chose activities on related topics—e.g., associated environmental issues such as
air pollution and water quality—and added urban sprawl components to these activities.
When communicating innovative topics, emphasizing key concepts that may not be intuitive can be impor-
tant. For example, for the topic of urban sprawl, it was important to convey that sprawl can and often does
occur in areas of no or low population growth (e.g., Cuyahoga County). The concept that land use for
development is outpacing population growth may be a difficult but important one for many people (includ-
ing children) to grasp.
4.5.3 DEVELOP LONG-TERM RELATIONSHIPS WITH PARTNER
ORGANIZATIONS
If possible, rather than simply dropping off literature at various organizations, try to develop longer term
relationships with partner groups and others using your materials. For instance, EDC found that developing
relationships with schools and camps was an effective outreach strategy.
4.5.4 CONSIDER DEVELOPING OUTREACH MATERIALS IN
MULTIPLE LANGUAGES
EDC received numerous requests for their materials to be translated into Spanish and Chinese. When plan-
ning your project, consider developing materials in more than one language, especially if your audience is
multiethnic.
4-3
CHAPTER 4
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CONCLUSION
In summary, the Northeast Ohio Project focuses on three areas: urban sprawl, air quality, and public
outreach related to the environmental risks associated with sprawl and poor air quality. The Project's
urban growth model provides a tool for examining the environmental impacts of sprawl (such as
increased traffic, which contributes to unhealthy air pollutant levels) and identifies possible growth scenar-
ios that communities can implement to reduce such impacts. Urban sprawl and its ecological and human
health effects make up a rapidly growing and changing field of study. A Web search on "urban sprawl" will
reveal numerous articles and sites about this topic on local and national scales.
The Northeast Ohio Project's near-real-time measurements of regional air quality let residents know when
air quality is poor; people can then choose to avoid or minimize certain activities that may increase their
health risk on days with poor air quality. Finally, the numerous communications and outreach materials
developed by the Project, such as Web sites, brochures, and logos, successfully inform area residents of the
urban growth modeling tools and air quality information available through the Northeast Ohio Project.
Communities in other areas of the country may want to consider developing similar regional programs.
For more information about the Northeast Ohio Project, email Dan Petersen at
Petersen.Dan@epamail.epa.gov or Stephen Goranson at Goramon.Stephen@epamail.epa.gov.
CONCLUSION 5-1
-------
APPENDIX A
Project Survey of Northeast Ohio Residents
-------
SURVEY OF NORTHEAST OHIO RESIDENTS
)en-ended questions
What issues are you concerned about ( e.g., household/maintenance, economy, natural
resources)?
Does your child or someone in your family have a persistent cough?
Health questions
Is your health: D Excellent II Good Fair Poor
Does anyone in your family have asthma? Who: Q ) Sex: male Age:Q_
female
How long? Q_
What are the symptoms?
Do symptoms change with: a) time of day: DYes DNo If yes, then when is it
worse? (
b) where you are: indoors outdoors
If yes to asthma: have you seen a doctor about this? DYes I No
Are you currently getting medical help? Yes QNo
Does anyone in your family have other breathing problems?
.?
Who: (, Sex: male C Age:
female D
How long? (
What are the symptoms?
Do symptoms change with: a) time of day: DYes CD No If yes, then when is it
worse? f
b) where you are: indoors outdoors
If yes to other breathing problems: have you seen a doctor about this? m Yes D No
Are you currently getting medical help? Yes No
APPENDIX A A-I
-------
I Does anyone in your family get colds, have a cough? Who:(^_ _J Sex: D male D female
Age: (~ "} How long? (^
What are the symptoms? C~
Do symptoms change with: a) time of day: Yes No If yes, then when is it
~
worse
b) where you are: indoors Q or outdoors
If yes to colds, cough: have you seen a doctor about this? Q Yes D No
Are you currently getting medical help? Q Yes Q No
How aware are you?
How good is the air in your neighborhood? (check one):
3 Excellent D Good Fair D Poor Bad
Over the past 5 years has the air quality in your neighborhood been improving or
getting worse? Is it:
D Much better II Better About the same II A little worse H Worse
What are the things that contribute to how clean or dirty the air is in your neighbor
hood? Such as:
H business and industry
D traffic congestion
D availability of parks and open space
H illegal trash dumping
II hospital/other incinerators
D powerlessness due to low or medium income level
D ethnicity/race
D political commitment to environmental issues
D other (what?)
In your opinion, is there a link between air pollution and your family's health?
Yes No Specific comments:
In your opinion, is there a link between indoor air pollution and your family's health?
Yes No Specific comments: \~
A-z APPENDIX A
-------
How informed are you?|
Where do you get information about community issues?
How often do you talk to your doctor, clinic, or health professional? (
What are your sources of general information?
Ask about each type:
Ask specific outlet/name:
How often?
(#1 = primary; #2 = used
daily, #3 = used 3x/week)
#1 #2 #3
TV
radio
newspapers
Internet
community meetings
word of mouth
800 number
other
C
c
c
c
)
Do you have computer Internet access? Yes No Where ?
Do you use the Internet for medical or other information? Yes No
Would you like to get day-to-day information on outdoor air quality? Yes 3 No
In what form should we give it to you (e.g., TV, print-brochure, radio, etc.)?
If we brought outdoor air quality information to you to help you better predict your
asthma attacks, would your activities and quality of life change? ] Yes DNo
How?("
APPENDIX A
A-3
-------
Personal information
Name (
Family figure: mother/father
Which neighborhood
Are you interested in attending
If yes: Address Q_
Phone: (h)
) Age ( } Sex: Q male C female
grandparent (
j Residence in the
a small group meeting in your
) City(
}(w) C
Would you be willing to name your general income level:
D above $10,000 above $20,000 above $40,000 D
_) other
last 5 years: Yes No
neighborhood? D Yes D No
) Zio( )
)
above $60,000
A-4
APPENDIX A
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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Time-Relevant Beach and
Recreational Water Quality
Monitoring and Reporting
E M P A C T
Environmental Monitoring for Public Access
& Cornm unity Tracking
-------
Disclaimer: This document has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation of their use.
-------
EPA/625/R-02/017
October 2002
TIME-RELEVANT BEACH AND
RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
MONITORING AND REPORTING
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
50% Recycled/Recyclable
Printed with vegetable-based ink on
paper that contains a minimum of
50% post-consumer fiber content
processed chlorine free
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This handbook is the result of the efforts of many individuals. Linda Stein and Mary Willett
of Eastern Research Group, Inc., an EPA contractor, served as co-authors. Daniel Murray and
Carolyn Wieland, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Office of Research and
Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, provided
technical direction and contract management support, respectively. In addition, the efforts of
the following people were invaluable during the development of this handbook and are deeply
appreciated:
Shannon Briggs, Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
Mary Ellen Bruesch, City of Milwaukee Health Department
David Burnett, Rhode Island Department of Health
Mark Doolittle, Metropolitan District Commission (Massachusetts)
Don Killinger, Cuyahoga County Board of Health (Ohio)
Charles Kovatch, U.S. EPA, Office of Water
Matthew Liebman, U. S. EPA, Region 1
Jill Lis, Cuyahoga County Board of Health (Ohio)
Jack Pingree, Delaware Department of Natural Resources
David Turin, U.S. EPA, Region 1
Gary White, Macomb County Health Department (Michigan)
Ann Maire Fournier, Monmouth County Health Department (New Jersey)
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CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES vi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 Overview 1-1
1.2 Regulations and Guidance for Beach and Recreational Water Quality 1-1
1.3 Introduction to the Case Study Projects 1-3
1.3.1 Real-Time Monitoring and Reporting of Water Quality for the
Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project 1-4
1.3.2 Cities of Milwaukee and Racine Health Departments
Community Recreational Water Risk Assessment and
Public Outreach (Beachhealth) 1-4
1.3.3 Rhode Island Department of Health Narragansett Bay
Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project 1-4
CHAPTER 2 HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK 2-1
2.1 Road Map 2-1
2.2 Frequently Asked Questions 2-2
CHAPTER 3 GETTING STARTED: PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3-1
3.1 Overview of Health Concerns and Water Quality Monitoring 3-1
3.1.1 Water-Related Health Concerns 3-1
3.1.2 Water Quality Monitoring 3-1
3.1.3 Sources of Pathogen Contamination 3-2
3.1.4 Why Time-Relevant Water Quality Monitoring Is Needed 3-3
3.2 Factors To Consider in Designing a Time-Relevant Water
Quality Monitoring Program 3-3
3.3 Examples of Program Objectives and Program Design Considerations 3-7
3.3.1 Real-Time Monitoring and Reporting of Water Quality
for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project 3-7
3.3.2 Cities of Milwaukee and Racine Health Departments
Community Recreational Water Risk Assessment and
Public Outreach (Beachhealth) Project 3-8
3.3.3 Rhode Island Department of Health Narragansett Bay
Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project 3-9
in
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CHAPTER 4 TIME-RELEVANT BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATER
QUALITY MONITORING AND MODELING 4-1
4.1 Overview of Monitoring and Sample Collection 4-1
4.1.1 What Water Quality Parameters Should Be Monitored? 4-1
4.1.2 Where Should Monitoring Sites Be Located? 4-3
4.1.3 When Should Water Quality Monitoring Occur? 4-4
4.1.4 How Are Beach/Recreational Water Quality Samples Collected? 4-4
4.1.5 Who Should Conduct Water Quality Monitoring? 4-6
4.2 Quality Control Plans and Procedures 4-6
4.2.1 Data Verification Methods 4-7
4.2.2 Data Validation 4-8
4.3 Sample Analysis 4-8
4.3.1 Indicator Organism Analysis Methods 4-9
4.4 Predictive Models 4-11
4.5 Interpretation and Use of Monitoring and Modeling Results 4-12
CHAPTER 5 DATA MANAGEMENT 5-1
5.1 Design Considerations for a Data Management System 5-1
5.1.1 Designing or Modifying a Data Management System To
Meet Program Objectives 5-2
5.1.2 Spatially Related Data (Such as CIS) 5-3
5.1.3 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 5-3
5.2 Data Management Systems Used by the Case Study Projects 5-3
5.2.1 Selecting a Data Management System 5-3
5.2.2 Altering Existing Systems To Meet Program Objectives 5-4
5.2.3 System Use and Maintenance 5-4
5.2.4 System Security 5-6
5.3 Data Delivery via the Web 5-7
5.3.1 Web Content 5-7
5.3.2 Future Web Site Goals 5-8
IV
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CHAPTER 6 PUBLIC NOTIFICATION AND RISK COMMUNICATION
FOR BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY 6-1
6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Types of Information To Communicate to the Public 6-1
6.3 Key Public Notification Methods for Beach/Recreational Waters 6-2
6.3.1 Warning Flags 6-2
6.3.2 Beach Signs 6-3
6.3.3 Telephone Hotline 6-3
6.3.4 Project Web Site 6-3
6.3.5 News Media 6-4
6.4 Additional Public Notification and Outreach Methods 6-4
6.5 Developing an Outreach Plan for Public Notification 6-6
6.5.1 Step 1: Who Do You Want To Reach? 6-7
6.5.2 Step 2: What Questions Need To Be Answered? 6-8
6.5.3 Step 3: What Are the Most Effective Ways To Reach Your Audience? . . 6-8
6.5.4 Step 4: How Will Your Outreach Products Reach Your Audience? .... 6-9
6.5.5 Step 5: What Follow-Up Mechanisms Will You Establish? 6-10
6.5.6 Step 6: What Is the Schedule for Implementation? 6-10
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
SAMPLE BEACH SURVEY
EXAMPLES OF SAMPLE COLLECTION PROCEDURES
v
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
4-1 Schematic of the Milwaukee/Racine, Wisconsin, automated beach
monitoring system 4-5
5-1 Data flow for beach/recreational water quality results 5-1
5-2 Sample data form available to the public on the
Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth Web site 5-6
5-3 Colored flag icons used in the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor
Beaches Project to indicate water quality 5-8
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1-1 Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring
Case Study Projects 1-3
3-1 Water Quality Criteria Recommended by EPA for Bacteria 3-5
3-2 Water Quality Criteria Used by Three Case Study Projects 3-5
4-1 Parameters Monitored in Three Case Study Projects 4-2
4-2 EPA-Approved and Other Acceptable Standard Methods for the
Analysis of Bacterial Indicator Organisms in Ambient Waters 4-8
4-3 Analysis Methods Used by the Three Case Study Projects 4-9
4-4 Beach Closing and Reopening Procedures of the Three Case Study Projects 4-13
5-1 Changes Made to Existing Data Management Systems To Meet
Program Objectives 5-4
5-2 Web Content of the Three Case Study Projects 5-7
6-1 Public Notification and Outreach Initiatives Used by the Three
Case Study Projects 6-4
6-2 Examples of Outreach Products 6-9
6-3 Examples of Distribution Methods 6-10
VI
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1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Is it safe to swim at local beaches today? What are
the best ways to communicate current water quality
conditions to the public? This handbook provides
information on how to design and implement a time-
relevant water quality monitoring program for beaches
and other recreational waters. The handbook is
intended for people who are considering developing a
recreational water quality monitoring program for their
community or wish to enhance their existing program.
The National Risk Management Research Laboratory
of EPA's Office of Research and Development initiated
the development of this handbook to help interested
communities learn more about the beach monitoring
projects associated with EPA's Environmental Monitoring for Public Access and Community Tracking
(EMPACT) Program, and to give communities the information they need to conduct their own projects.
Much of the information in this handbook is provided through case studies of three monitoring projects
that address the concerns of recreational swimmers, boaters, and other water users, primarily by:
• Monitoring recreational waters for indicators of waterborne pathogens (disease-causing organisms).
• Collecting and managing water quality data in efficient ways.
• Notifying the public in a timely fashion of water quality conditions.
The handbook follows the three case study projects through the design and implementation of their time-
relevant recreational water quality monitoring programs, the development of management and delivery
systems for water quality data, and the creation and implementation of public notification and risk com-
munication programs.
The three beach/recreational water case study projects highlighted in this document were conducted before
Congress passed the Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health (BEACH) Act in October
2000, and these projects may not necessarily reflect guidance associated with the BEACH Act. The EPA
National Beach Guidance and Required Performance Criteria for Grants, or Beach Guidance Document
(U.S. EPA, 2002), lists the beach program monitoring and notification criteria, as established in the
BEACH Act, that a state must meet to obtain BEACH grants. To learn more about the BEACH Act,
BEACH grants, and the Beach Guidance Document, visit http://www.epa.gov/ost/beaches/on the Internet.
1.2
OR BEACH AND
It is important for beach and recreational water quality managers to be familiar with the applicable statutes,
regulations, and programs discussed below; they contain specific requirements and useful design and
implementation guidance for developing and improving water quality monitoring and public notification
programs.
Introduction
1-1
-------
Beach and recreational water quality has been protected for over 30 years by the federal Clean Water Act
(CWA). Water quality criteria developed under Section 304 of the CWA include Ambient Water Quality
Criteria for Bacteria—1986 (U.S. EPA, 1986; see http://www.epa.gov/ost/standards/bacteria/), which specifies
levels of certain bacteria that should not be exceeded in marine and fresh recreational waters to protect
public health/recreation and aquatic life.
In 1997, EPA established the BEACH Program. Its goals were to improve public health and environmental
protection programs for beachgoers and provide the public with information about the quality of their
beach water. The BEACH Program has focused on strengthening beach standards and testing, providing
faster laboratory test methods, predicting pollution, investing in health and methods research, and inform-
ing the public about water quality and any associated health risks.
The 1999 EPA Action Plan for Beaches and Recreational Waters (U.S. EPA, 1999), developed as a strategy for
accomplishing the goals of the BEACH Program, identified EPA activities that would enable consistent
management of recreational water quality programs and improve the science that supports recreational
water monitoring programs. The signing into law of the BEACH Act, in October 2000, established certain
EPA BEACH Program activities as statutory requirements. The Act requires states and tribes that have
coastal recreational waters to adopt new or revised water quality standards for pathogens and pathogen indi-
cators for which EPA has published water quality criteria, and requires that EPA promulgate new or revised
standards for states and tribes that fail to do so. The BEACH Act also requires EPA to develop and publish
new, improved criteria for pathogens and pathogen indicators. In addition, the Act authorizes EPA to award
grants to states and tribes to develop and implement programs to:
• Monitor and assess, for pathogens and pathogen indicators, coastal recreational waters adjacent to
beaches or similar points of access that are used by the public for swimming, bathing, surfing, or
similar water contact activities.
• Notify the public when coastal recreational water quality standards are exceeded.
EPA BEACH Program activities have included conducting conferences with federal, state, and local
authorities to identify the needs of recreational water quality programs; helping states and tribes adopt
updated water quality criteria for E. coli and/or enterococcus bacteria into their water quality standards;
developing a new, faster laboratory test method for enterococcus bacteria (Method 1600); publishing a
review of potential predictive modeling tools; conducting research on new methods and indicators to assess
waterborne pathogens; establishing a grant program to provide support to states, territories, tribes, and local
governments for coastal recreational water quality monitoring and public notification programs; conducting
an ongoing National Health Protection Survey of Beaches to gather information on state and local monitor-
ing and beach advisory actions; and establishing a "Beach Watch" Web site to improve public access to
information about recreational water quality. Additional information on EPA's BEACH Program can be
found at http://www.epa.gov/ost/beaches.
1-2
Chapter 1
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EPA's Beach Guidance Document
As required under the BEACH Act, EPA has published National Beach Guidance and Required
Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002), also known as the Beach Guidance Document,
to help states develop and implement their beach monitoring and public notification programs.
The document lists grant performance criteria and gives guidance for states seeking to meet the
criteria, including:
• How to evaluate beaches for risk-based classification.
• Beach monitoring and assessment procedures for water sample collection, sample handling,
and laboratory analysis.
• Using predictive models to estimate bacteria levels.
• Developing procedures, such as beach advisories, closings, and openings, for public notification
of beach conditions.
This handbook is independent of the Beach Guidance Document and therefore does not necessarily
reflect guidance associated with the BEACH Act. Readers are encouraged to refer to the Beach
Guidance Document for more detailed information on the topics addressed in this handbook and
for specific information related to the BEACH Act and BEACH grants. The Beach Guidance Document
can be found at http://www.epa.gov/ost/beaches/technical.html.
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO THE CASE STUDY PROJECTS
The projects on which this handbook's case studies are based are listed in Table 1-1 and summarized below.
Table 1-1. Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water
Quality Monitoring Case Study Projects
Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor
Beaches Project
Boston, Massachusetts
http://www.state.ma.us/mdc
http://www.crwa.org
http://www.mwra.state.ma.us
Cities of Milwaukee and Racine
Health Departments Community
Recreational Water Risk Assessment
and Public Outreach (Beachhealth)
Milwaukee and Racine, Wisconsin
http://infotrek.er.usgs.gov/pls/beachhealth
Rhode Island Department of Health
Narragansett Bay Bathing Beaches
Monitoring Project
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island
http://www.healthri.org/environment/
beaches/index.html
Introduction
1-3
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1.3.1 REAL-TIME MONITORING AND REPORT!
QUALITY FOR ' HE CHARLES RIVER BASI
HARBOR BEACHES PROJE
F WATER
TON
Several groups—the Metropolitan District Commission, the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, the
Boston Harbor Association, the Charles River Watershed Association, and others—have worked as partners
for a number of years to improve the water quality of the Charles River and Boston Harbor in
Massachusetts. In 1998, EPA's EMPACT Program funded a project to enhance real-time monitoring and
reporting of water quality for the Charles River and Boston Harbor. Through this project, the partner
groups expanded their existing efforts to provide the public with timely information about water quality
conditions in the Charles River and at Boston Harbor beaches.
1.3.2 CITIES OF MILWAUKEE AND RACINE HEALTH
In 1998, EPA's EMPACT Program funded the Community Recreational Water Risk Assessment and Public
Outreach project to enhance the public beach monitoring and associated health risk advisory efforts that the
City of Milwaukee Health Department and the City of Racine Health Department had been conducting
for several years. Through the "Beachhealth" project, people in Wisconsin can learn about daily water qual-
ity conditions at beaches in the Milwaukee and Racine areas throughout the swimming season.
1.3.3 RHODE ISLAND DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
NARRAGANSETT BAY BATHING BEACHES MONITORING
PROJECT
In 1999, EPA's EMPACT Program helped to fund the Rhode Island Department of Health's Bathing
Beaches Monitoring Project. This project provides time-relevant water quality and safety information for
seven licensed bathing facilities in the Upper Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island. Through effective manage-
ment of these beaches, the Rhode Island Department of Health sought to develop a pilot project to
minimize public health risks associated with swimming at all Rhode Island beaches. The Project sampled a
number of other sites to determine whether water quality would support licensing additional beaches in the
area in the future.
1-4
Chapter 1
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2
HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
This handbook provides information on how to design and implement a time-relevant water quality
monitoring program for beaches and other recreational waters. The information in the handbook is
intended for multiple audiences, including managers of public and private beaches, technicians and
operators of water-quality monitoring equipment and data management systems, public affairs staff, and
other professionals tasked with implementing a timely beach/recreational water quality monitoring pro-
gram. Section 2.1 provides a "road map" that directs you to chapters that may be of greatest interest for
your particular program. Section 2.2 answers frequently asked questions regarding time-relevant beach and
recreational water quality monitoring.
2.1 ROAD MAP
Design a program
that addresses
water quality
monitoring, data
management, and
public notification,
based on specific
program goals
(Chapters).
Implement a water
quality monitoring
program to collect
and analyze time-
relevant beach and
recreational water
quality data
(Chapter 4).
Develop and
implement a data
management
system to manage
and deliver time-
relevant water
quality data
(Chapters).
Create and imple-
ment a public
notification and
risk communica-
tion program to
inform the public
of potential health
risks (Chapter 6).
Each chapter of this handbook provides general information about the particular topics being introduced,
followed by case study examples from three EMPACT time-relevant beach/recreational water quality moni-
toring projects. The examples include successful approaches that you might want to consider in developing
your own programs, as well as references to additional sources of information such as Web sites and guid-
ance documents.
Specifically, the handbook provides the following information:
• Chapter 3 discusses program design, beginning with an overview of health concerns and conventional
beach and recreational water quality monitoring. It then describes time-relevant water quality moni-
toring and some key factors to consider when designing a time-relevant monitoring program. Lastly, it
discusses the stated goals and objectives of each of the three case study projects.
• Chapter 4 discusses water quality sampling and analysis, including information on sample collection,
sample analysis, quality assurance and quality control, predictive models, and interpretation and use
of monitoring results.
• Chapter 5 focuses on data management and data delivery, beginning with a discussion of the design
considerations involved in developing or modifying a system to manage time-relevant data. For each
of the case study programs, the chapter discusses the design, use, and maintenance of data manage-
ment systems and the mechanisms used to deliver data to the public via the Internet.
HOW TD USE THIS HANDBOOK
2-1
-------
• Chapter (f describes methods for effectively notifying the public of potential health risks associated
with contamination of beach and other recreational waters. The chapter discusses the methods used
by the three case study projects for public notification and presents the steps needed to create and
implement a comprehensive outreach plan for public notification.
• Appendix A contains a survey form used by the Rhode Island beach program, and Appendix B includes
examples of sample collection procedures.
2.2 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
Whether you are just beginning to consider time-relevant beach and recreational water quality monitoring for
your community or want to expand an existing program, the following answers to frequently asked questions
may be helpful.
Q: How is a time-relevant water quality monitoring program different from a conventional beach monitoring
program?
A: A time-relevant water quality monitoring program seeks to reduce the time needed to analyze water
quality samples as well as the time it takes to notify recreational water users of any health risks associated
with current water quality conditions. Alternative analysis methods, predictive modeling, and innovative
and quick methods of distributing sample results to the public are some of the ways in which time-rele-
vant programs achieve their goals. In contrast, conventional water quality monitoring programs are often
driven by the (relatively long) time it takes to obtain results using traditional methods of sample analysis
and may not emphasize new and quicker ways to get information to the public.
Q: What are the benefits of designing and implementing a time-relevant recreational water quality monitoring
program?
A: Exposure to recreational waters contaminated with bacteria, viruses, or other disease-causing organisms
can result in a variety of illnesses (e.g., gastrointestinal problems) in people using these waters. Time-
relevant water quality monitoring and reporting can help reduce the period of time in which people are
potentially exposed to high levels of these waterborne organisms. In addition, since bacteria exceedances
are often transient events, time-relevant monitoring allows water quality managers to reopen or unpost
these waters sooner.
Q: Can my existing data management system be used for a time-relevant water quality monitoring program?
A: Yes, most existing data management systems can be used for time-relevant monitoring projects. A system
can be used if it includes the basic components needed to manage and communicate the data, including
a data storage and retrieval system, a data delivery system, and procedures for quality assurance, quality
control, and data security. An information systems specialist can help you to determine what your exist-
ing system can do and how to modify it, if necessary, to meet real-time project requirements.
Q: What are some good ways to tell the public about recreational water quality and associated health risks?
A: Some quick, effective methods are: placing flags at beaches and other key locations that indicate whether
the water quality on a particular day is acceptable for swimming, boating, etc.; training beach lifeguards
to inform beachgoers of daily water quality conditions; developing water quality forecasts that are used
by local media (e.g., television, newspapers) to report daily or weekend recreational water quality condi-
tions; setting up a water quality information telephone "hotline"; and posting water quality results (e.g.,
daily or near-daily) on a well-publicized Web site. See Chapter 6 for more discussion of these and other
methods. It is often useful to include several of these methods in your program to reach a larger number
of people.
2-2 CHAPTER 2
-------
3
BETTING STARTED: PROGRAM DESIGN
C D N S I D E RATI DNS
The first step in designing a time-relevant water quality monitoring and public notification program
for beaches or other recreational waters is to clearly identify the goals of your program. The ultimate
goals are to protect public health from potential health risks associated with use of these waters, and
to notify members of the public who use these waters of any potential risks. This chapter first presents an
overview of health concerns and of beach and recreational water quality monitoring (Section 3.1), then
discusses factors to consider when designing a program (Section 3.2). Section 3.3 describes three case
study projects, focusing on examples of design factors that these projects considered important.1
3.1 OVERVIEW OF HEALTH CONCERNS AND WATER
QUALITY MONITORING
3.1.1 WATER-RELATED HEALTH DDNDERNS
People can be exposed to disease-causing organisms (such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa) in beach and
recreational waters mainly through accidental ingestion of contaminated water or through skin contact.
These organisms, called pathogens, usually come from the feces of humans and other warm-blooded
animals. If taken into the body, pathogens can cause various illnesses and, on rare occasions, even death.
Waterborne illnesses include diseases resulting from bacterial infection (such as cholera, salmonellosis,
and gastroenteritis), viral infection (such as infectious hepatitis, gastroenteritis, and intestinal diseases),
and protozoan infections (such as amoebic dysentery and giardiasis).
3.1.2 WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Conventional beach and recreational water quality monitoring often relies on the use of "indicator organ-
isms" to measure the likelihood of the presence or absence of pathogens. The most commonly monitored
recreational water indicator organisms are fecal coliform, E. coli, and enterococci:
• Fecal coliform. These bacteria are a subgroup of coliform bacteria that usually live in the intestinal
tracts of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Fecal coliform was originally recommended in
1968 by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (the predecessor to EPA) as an effective
water quality indicator organism for beach and recreational waters. It is thought to be a better indica-
tor than total coliform of human (or other warm-blooded species) pathogens. Studies conducted in
the 1970s and 1980s indicated that the presence of this organism showed less correlation to illnesses
associated with swimming than does the presence of some other indicator organisms, including E. coli
and enterococci.
• Escherichia coli (E. coli). E. coli is an accurate indicator of fecal contamination because it constitutes
greater than 90 percent of the fecal coliform bacteria found in human and animal waste. These bacte-
ria can become pathogenic when they contact tissues outside the intestinal tract, particularly the
urinary and biliary tracts, lungs, peritoneum, and meninges. EPA currently recommends E. coli
(or enterococci) as an indicator organism for fresh waters (U.S. EPA, 1986).
• Enterococci. Enterococci are a type of fecal streptococcus bacteria that live in the intestinal tract of
humans and some animals. The risk to swimmers of contracting gastrointestinal illness appears to be
predicted better by enterococci than by fecal coliform; EPA currently recommends enterococci as an
indicator organism for both fresh and marine waters (U.S. EPA, 1986).
1 This handbook reflects lessons learned primarily through three EMPACT projects initiated prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000
and the publication of National Beach Guidance and Required Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002). Some of the practices described
in these projects may not be consistent with current regulatory requirements and guidance. For updated regulatory and guidance information,
see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.
BETTING STARTED 3-1
-------
What Are Bacteria, Viruses, and Protozoa?
Bacteria are one of the most common single-celled microorganisms. Many types of bacteria are found in
recreational waters. Some types of bacteria can be beneficial, while other types, including fecal coliform,
salmonella, staphylococcus, and E. coli, can cause diseases. Fecal waste from warm-blooded animals
(including humans) is a key source of bacteria found in water bodies. Bacteria in recreational waters can often
be successfully eliminated or reduced to levels associated with relatively low health risks through chemical
disinfection treatments, such as chlorination or ozonation of wastewater before it enters the surface water in
the beach area.
Viruses are submicroscopic infectious agents that require host cells in which to live. Many of the viruses
affecting water quality and human health originate in the gastrointestinal tracts of infected animals (including
humans) and are then released to the environment in fecal wastes. Examples of some of the more common
waterborne, disease-causing viruses include hepatitis A, rotaviruses, Norwalk-type viruses, adenoviruses, and
enteroviruses. Viruses are more resistant than bacteria to conventional water treatment such as chlorination.
Treatments such as ultraviolet light and ozonation are more effective than chlorination in treating viruses.
Protozoa are single-celled organisms that live primarily in the aquatic environment. Some disease-causing
protozoa exist in the environment as cysts that hatch, grow, and multiply after ingestion, causing illness.
Two disease-causing, waterborne protozoa of major concern are Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium.
Like viruses, protozoa are more resistant to conventional treatment such as chlorination.
Ingesting water containing bacteria, viruses, or protozoa is the most common route of human exposure to these
microorganisms. A key factor in the successful treatment of these microbes is allowing adequate contact time
with the disinfecting agent. Certain physical and chemical conditions (e.g., high suspended solids) can reduce
treatment effectiveness if not addressed.
For more information on bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, visit http://www.epa.gov/microbes/.
3.1.3 SOURCES DF PATHOGEN CD NTAM I NATI D N
Pathogens generally enter beach/recreational waters through rainfall runoff, which
picks up pathogens as it moves through the environment (e.g., from failing septic
systems, leaking sewers, wastes from wildlife such as birds or domestic animals),
or through point source discharges (i.e., sewage from a pipe or other specific
source). Heavy rainfall ("wet weather") events can elevate pathogen levels
in beach/recreational waters because rainfall can flush pathogens into
a water body from other areas of the watershed. Also, combined sewer
overflow (CSO) pipes may discharge into a recreational water body
during rainfall events, releasing excess discharges of storm water and
sanitary wastewater into the environment with little or no treatment.
Sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs), which are occasional unintentional
discharges of raw sewage, are another potential source of pathogens in recreational water bodies. In areas
with separate storm-water and sanitary-sewer systems, both storm-water discharges and SSOs can carry
high bacteria levels. Contamination from CSOs and SSOs is potentially a greater risk to swimmers than
dry-weather discharges from other point sources because the raw human sewage in CSOs and SSOs often
contain elevated bacteria levels. Other point sources of potential water contamination include discharge
pipes from businesses that adjoin water bodies. Nonpoint-source discharges from poorly maintained
or failing septic systems or other sources of groundwater contamination can also contribute to bacterial
contamination of beach water.
3-2
CHAPTER 3
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More About CSOs and SSOs as Contamination Sources
Not all sewer systems are created equal. While modern systems generally handle rainwater and sanitary
wastewaters from homes and businesses in different pipes, some older systems have "combined" sewers that
carry both rainwater and sewage flows. During normal conditions, the combined flows are delivered to treat-
ment plants. During heavy rainfall, however, flows sometimes double and even triple. These combined systems
are designed so that excess flows (called combined sewer overflows or CSOs) are released from outfalls along
the system into water bodies with little or no prior treatment. This overflow system prevents sewer backups into
homes and onto area streets and also prevents overloading of the treatment plant, but it does so at consider-
able cost to local water quality. For more information on CSOs, visit http://www.epa.gov/npdes/cso/.
A sanitary sewer system is meant to collect and transport all of the sewage that flows into it to a publicly
owned treatment works. Occasionally, though, raw sewage is unintentionally discharged from municipal sani-
tary sewers before it reaches the treatment works. These discharges, called sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs),
occur in almost every system. SSOs have a variety of causes, including but not limited to infiltration and inflow
of ground water and water from other sources, severe weather, improper system operation and maintenance,
and vandalism. These discharges contaminate our waters, causing serious water quality problems. For more
information on SSOs, visit http://www.epa.gov/npdes/sso/.
3. 1 .4 WHY TIME-RELEVANT WATER QUALITY MONITORING
IS NEEDED
When elevated waterborne pathogen levels are found in an area, the public should be notified quickly about
the potential health risks in that area. One problem with conventional beach and recreational water quality
monitoring is the time lag between collecting water samples and providing the public with results. This lag is
due to the time it takes (from 24 to 72 hours) to analyze indicator organism levels. During this time,
pathogen levels, weather, and water conditions may change, and related health risks may also change. Thus,
authorities responsible for informing and protecting the public often must decide on beach and recreational
water postings, closings, and re-openings using indicator organism data that reflect conditions as they were 1
to 3 days earlier. This delay could be particularly problematic after certain events, such as a significant rain-
storm or a sewage spill. To address this time lag problem, time-relevant water quality monitoring strives
to shorten analysis times, use quicker predictive methods, and communicate beach/recreational water quality infor-
mation to the public on a timely (e.g., near-daily) basis so the public can make more informed decisions regarding
recreational water use.
3.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING A
TIME-RELEVANT WATER DUALITY MONITORING
PROGRAM
Program goals and objectives are key factors to identify when designing a time-relevant beach and recre-
ational water quality monitoring program. Regulatory requirements that protect water quality and public
health (e.g., state water quality standards, public health codes) must also be incorporated into the water
quality monitoring program. In addition, available resources and community involvement are important
considerations for program design. These factors are discussed below.
• Program objectives. Your program objectives should support your goals of public health protection and
public notification of health risks. Thus objectives should identify how to effectively and quickly (1)
monitor beaches and other recreational waters to determine whether water quality is sufficient to
protect public health and (2) communicate health risks to those people who use or are otherwise
impacted by area beach and recreational waters (e.g., swimmers, boaters, fishermen, water skiers).
BETTING STARTED
3-3
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Program elements that support these objectives can include monitoring more frequently or at
additional locations, using analytical methods that provide results sooner, using a predictive model
to supplement monitoring and reduce time lags, and improving the public notification process. These
program elements are discussed in Chapters 4 and 6. Your program will be unique; you may decide to
incorporate any or all of these or other elements.
Water quality standards. To comply with CWA requirements, states must establish water quality stan-
dards, which must be approved by EPA. These standards are at the core of each state's water quality
management program. While standards may differ considerably from state to state, they must contain
several key elements to be consistent with EPA regulations. The first of these key elements is the iden-
tification of designated uses for all waters. These use designations should be consistent with CWA
goals—that, wherever possible, waters provide for the protection and propagation offish, shellfish, and
wildlife and provide for recreation in and on the water. These use goals are usually referred to by the
expression "fishable/swimmable." Examples of designated uses most relevant to beach and recreational
waters include primary contact recreation (i.e., swimming and other recreational activities that can
result in ingestion of or immersion in the water) and secondary contact recreation (e.g., boating and
fishing, in which minimal body contact with or ingestion of the water is expected). Another poten-
tially important designated use relevant to public health is shellfish harvesting, which would result in
direct human consumption of the shellfish. Some states designate uses through a class system (Class A,
B, or C), while other states specify the use (e.g., primary contact recreation, drinking water).
A second key element of water quality standards is the adoption of water quality criteria that must be
met to support the designated uses. EPA publishes water quality criteria that guide the states in setting
their own criteria, as required by the CWA (Section 304). Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Bacteria—1986 (U.S. EPA, 1986) recommended the use of E. coli and enterococci as indicator
organisms for bacteria for the designated use of swimming. In that document, EPA recommended that
water quality criteria be based on geometric mean (i.e., drawn from a statistically sufficient number of
samples) densities of bacteria and on maximum single-sample bacteria densities, neither of which are
to be exceeded in marine and fresh recreational waters. The criteria that EPA recommended for
bacteria are shown in Table 3-1. Check with your state environmental or public health agency to find
out what water quality criteria your state has adopted. A state's water quality criteria are used as the
basis to close (or post) and reopen a beach. As discussed below, while many states still use fecal or total
coliform as the basis for their water quality criteria, the BEACH Act requires that coastal states adopt
criteria consistent with the EPA 1986 guidance by 2004. For example, Rhode Island's state standard
currently is 50 colony-forming units per 100 milliliters (50 CPU/100 ml) of fecal coliform, as shown
in Table 3-2; however, Rhode Island anticipates switching to enterococci. The water quality criteria
used by the three projects highlighted in this handbook are discussed in Chapter 4, Table 4-4.
3-4
CHAPTER 3
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TABLE 3- 1
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA RECOMMENDED BY EPA
FOR BACTERIA
Steady-State Geometric
Mean Indicator Density1
Most Commonly Used Single-Sample
Maximum Allowable Density1
Designated Beach Area (Upper 75% CL2)
Fresh Water (in CFU/1 00 ml)3
Enterococci
E. coli
33
126
Marine Water (in CFU/100ml)4
Enterococci
35
61
235
104
1 For an explanation of "geometric mean" and "single-sample maximum allowable density," see the box entitled "EPA Water Quality Criteria Reflect
Health Risks and Recreational Water Uses." For single samples, the "Designated Beach Area" criteria listed above are usually used. Other single-
sample densities (included in EPAs list of recommended criteria but not shown here) may be selected if a reason exists to do so (e.g., a reduced risk
due to an area being less frequently used for swimming). See Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria—1986 on EPAs Beaches Web site
(http://www.epa.gov/ost/standards/bacteria/) for other single-sample density values for other levels of water use.
^ CL = confidence level. A confidence level (or interval) is an estimate of the probability that an interval around the mean value contains the true
mean value. A 95% CL is larger than a 75% CL because there is a higher likelihood that this interval will capture the true mean.
3 Freshwater densities are based on a risk of eight illnesses per thousand swimmers. CPU = colony-forming units; ml = milliliters.
* Marine water densities are based on a risk of 19 illnesses per thousand swimmers. CPU = colony-forming units; ml = milliliters.
Source: U.S. EPA, 1986.
TABLE 3-2. WATER QUALITY CRITERIA USED BY THREE CASE
STUDY PROJECTS1
Boston, Massachusetts
Charles River (Boston area,
fresh water):
1,000 CFU/100 ml FC (secondary
contact waters, e.g., boating) - geo-
metric mean; also 2,000 CFU/100 ml
FC (<10% of single samples)2
200 CFU/100 ml FC (Class B waters
for swimming/fishing) - geometric
mean; also 400 CFU/100 ml FC
(<10% of single samples)
Boston Harbor (marine water):
35 CFU/100 ml
enterococci - geometric mean
104 CFU/100 ml enterococci - single
samples
Milwaukee/Racine, Wisconsin
235 CFU/100 ml
£ coli- single samples
(general recreational water use)
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island
Salt water:
50 MPN/100 ml FC-geometric
mean; also 500 MPN/100 ml FC
(<10% of single samples)
(swimming/boating)2
Fresh water:
200 MPN/100 ml FC (swimming) •
geometric mean
All of the programs listed anticipate switching to E. coli or enterococci by 2004 or sooner.
CPU = colony-forming units; ml = milliliters; FC = fecal coliform; MPN = most probable number.
BETTING STARTED
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In addition to the federal and state requirements and guidance discussed above, additional state and local
requirements may apply. For example, in Massachusetts, beaches are managed and monitored based on the
state public health code (revised in 2000 to make it consistent with EPA requirements), which includes state
water quality criteria. Local protocols may also be established to meet state codes and regulations. Beach
management and monitoring in Rhode Island is based on state codes and regulations as well as beach open-
ing and closure procedures established by the Rhode Island Department of Health and the Rhode Island
Department of Environmental Management. In Wisconsin, the state issues a model beach ordinance, which
municipalities may, but are not required to, use. The City of Milwaukee developed its own beach ordinance
based on the state's model ordinance.
EPA Water Quality Criteria Reflect Health Risks and Recreational Water Uses
The EPA water quality criteria listed in Table 3-1 reflect specific health risks and water uses, as
described below (U.S. EPA, 1986).
Geometric mean. The geometric mean values summarized in Table 3-1 are based on specific levels of
risk of acute gastrointestinal illness: no more than 8 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for fresh water and
no more than 19 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for marine water (U.S. EPA, 1986). EPA has determined
that, when these water quality criteria are implemented in a conservative manner, they are protective
for prevention of gastrointestinal illness resulting from primary contact recreation. EPA recommends
that at least five samples over a 30-day period be taken to calculate the geometric mean.
Single-sample maximum. Noncompliance can also be indicated by unacceptably high single-sample
measurements. Single-sample maximum values can help determine whether to close or post a beach
when a single-sample measurement shows a value that exceeds the single-sample maximum. The
maximum for single samples is set higher than the geometric mean to prevent unnecessary closures
based on a single sample. Use of a single-sample maximum is also important because it is assumed
that environmental conditions that can affect bacteria levels in water (such as rainfall, wind, currents,
tides, and temperature) will vary temporally and spatially. Like the geometric mean, these single-
sample maximums, summarized in Table 3-1, are based on specific levels of risk of acute gastroin-
testinal illness: again, no more than 8 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for fresh waters and no more
than 19 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for marine waters.
' Availability of resources. Funding and staffing constraints can limit the design of a water quality monitor-
ing program. These resource limitations can impact when, where, and how often you monitor water
quality and can also impact your public notification process. If resources are a limiting factor, consider
having program partners administer your monitoring, data management, or notification program.
Other agencies or organizations involved in recreational water quality issues (e.g., watershed associations,
community groups, other state and local agencies) may be interested in contributing funds and/or staff to
support a time-relevant water quality monitoring program. See the latter part of this chapter and
Chapters 5 and 6 for more information on program partners.
' Community input. The design of a successful time-relevant water quality monitoring program should
include public input regarding what people want and need to know about beach and recreational water
quality and related health risks, as well as how they prefer to receive this information (e.g., the Internet,
beach flags, newspaper notices). Also, community members are often a valuable source of information
about an area (e.g., possible sources of contamination).
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3.3 EXAMPLES OF PROGRAM OBJECTIVES AND
PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
This section presents an overview of the objectives for each of the three projects discussed in this handbook,
along with a discussion of some of the design factors (as discussed in Section 3.2) considered by each of the
projects. More detailed information on these projects is provided in later chapters. It should be noted that all
three of these projects were developed prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000 and the Beach
Guidance Document (U.S. EPA, 2002); program managers should review these sources for current require-
ments and recommendations.
3.3.1 REAL-TIME MONITORING AND REPORTING OF WATER
DUALITY FOR THE CHARLES RIVER BASIN/BOSTON
HARBOR BEACHES PROJECT
Boston Harbor is adjacent to Boston, Massachusetts, and influenced by a prominent, densely settled, urban
recreational watershed. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project is a key initiative supporting
the EPA-New England goal of making the Charles River fishable and swimmable by Earth Day 2005. The
overall project objectives are:
• To help reduce public health risks associated with pathogen contamination in the Charles River Basin
and at Boston Harbor area beaches.
• To enhance existing monitoring efforts by the Charles River Watershed Association (CRWA),
Metropolitan District Commission (MDC), and Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) in
the Charles River Basin and at Boston Harbor area beaches.
• To enable the public to make more informed decisions related to river and beach use and public health.
• To evaluate two different analytical methods for enterococci, one of which provides results more quickly,
within 24 hours.
Two key design factors for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project were the use of project
partners to enhance the resources available to the project and the importance of community input and out-
reach, as discussed below.
Project partners. The project was designed to expand the efforts of several
partner organizations that have been working for a number of years to
improve the water quality of Boston-area beaches and the Charles River.
The project enhanced these partners' ability to provide the public with time-
relevant information about water quality conditions. The project design
maximized the use of program partners for both monitoring and public noti-
fication efforts. Wherever possible, The Boston Harbor Association (TBHA)
collaborated with the CRWA to conduct public outreach aimed at enabling a
diverse, multi-cultural public to make more informed decisions related to the
use of both the Boston Harbor beaches and the Charles River. Additional
partners included the MWRA, the MDC, members of the Wollaston Beach
Task Force, and members of the Boston Harbor Water Quality Task Force.
Outreach to the community and public input. The Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project uses several different types of public
outreach to collect feedback on the water quality notification system and to
build community awareness of recreational water quality issues. One example
of this process is a public meeting, hosted by TBHA, that included a discussion by the program partners on
water quality conditions during the beach season and efforts to provide the public with "real-time" informa-
tion. Another example is another TBHA-hosted public workshop, during which comments were solicited
from workshop participants.
BETTING STARTED
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The public outreach components of this program are many and varied and have included:
• Availability of daily water quality conditions from the MDC Web site.
• A telephone hotline that provides updated water quality conditions for Boston Harbor beaches on a
daily basis throughout the beach season.
• Media coverage that includes daily or weekly reports highlighting the water quality conditions at
Boston Harbor beaches.
• Special training sessions to educate lifeguards and other staff about implementing the notification
program and informing the public about water quality conditions.
• Participation in annual beach water quality monitoring symposia organized with Massachusetts
Coastal Zone Management, the Massachusetts Department of Public Health, the Massachusetts
Department of Environmental Protection, and local boards of health.
• Posters, water bottles, and brochures that explain and highlight the beach flagging program.
• "Back to the Beaches" events to promote use of the beaches by neighbors and visitors to Boston
Harbor. During these events, staff from TBHA and the MDC provide the public with in-depth infor-
mation on water quality issues, the notification system, and access to online information on water
quality conditions.
• Notification and other communications with the Massachusetts Department of Public Health and
local boards of health.
See Chapter 6 for a more detailed discussion of the public notification and risk communication efforts
undertaken by all three of the case study projects.
3.3.2 CITIES DF MILWAUKEE AND RACINE HEALTH
DEPARTMENTS COMMUNITY RECREATIONAL
WATER RISK ASSESSMENT AND PUBLIC OUTREACH
(BEACHHEALTH) PROJECT
For approximately the past 30 years, the City of Milwaukee Health Department (MHD) has monitored
Milwaukee public beaches for contamination that could negatively affect public health. MHD has partnered
with the City of Racine Health Department, the U.S. Geological Survey, the University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Great Lakes Water Institute, and other organizations to study the beaches in
Milwaukee and Racine, Wisconsin. The objectives of the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project are:
• To improve documentation and dissemination of environmental data related to health risks associated
with the recreational use of public beaches.
• To improve the type, quantity, and quality of environmental data collected at and around public
beaches in both Milwaukee and Racine Counties for development of a public health risk model.
• To standardize and improve coordination and collaboration of environmental data collected between
local public health agencies (LPHAs), community stakeholders, and other organizations.
• To build community awareness of surface-water pollution prevention.
Three key design factors for the Milwaukee/Racine project included consideration of beach classification
issues, the use of project partners to enhance the resources available to the project, and community input
and outreach, as discussed below.
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Beach classification. The project's design included consideration of which beaches were most at risk for
public exposure to pathogens and increased data collection at those sites. For example, two automated
environmental monitoring stations were added to provide physical and chemical data (including water
temperature, turbidity, fluorescence, conductivity, oxidation/reduction potential, wind speed and direction,
and air temperature) to support health risk determinations. One station is located at Milwaukee's South
Shore Beach, and the other is at North Beach in Racine. These two beaches have historically been prone to
elevated bacteria levels; according to historical monitoring data, both can have elevated pathogen levels after
wet weather events. Also, LPHAs collect water samples at five Milwaukee and Racine beaches during the
summer swimming season. The beaches are tested daily, Monday through Friday. The LPHAs also conduct
daily testing on weekends during the beach season at beaches posted as unsafe due to potentially poor water
quality. Other near-shore data are collected by the City of Milwaukee from the watershed twice weekly at
three recreational sites. In addition, volunteer environmental monitoring is conducted at designated sites.
Project partners. To improve coordination and collaboration in the collection of environmental data by
LPHAs, community stakeholders, and other organizations, MHD partnered with community environmental
education organizations to form a near-shore volunteer monitoring program. Nearly 50 volunteers were
involved in the onsite water quality testing of 13 sites for nine scheduled monitoring events, as well as rainfall
events during the summers of 1999 and 2000. In addition, MHD formalized agreements with other agencies
to share near-shore data and enter the data into a Web site (http://infotrek.er.usgs.gov/pls/beachhealth/).
Community input and outreach. The Milwaukee/Racine project has used several types of public outreach
to collect feedback on new advisory postings at Milwaukee and Racine beaches and to build community
awareness of surface-water pollution prevention. For example, beachgoers at Milwaukee's South Shore Beach
completed surveys, and the beach was posted with large advisory signs providing daily water quality data
during the course of the project. Other public outreach components of this project included:
• Development of a Web site for the project, in both English and Spanish, that includes a technical user's
page with all of the Milwaukee and Racine county and volunteer monitoring data. These data can be
queried and downloaded.
• A beach water quality telephone hotline, which includes recorded advisories, updated daily, for three
Milwaukee beaches.
• Outreach materials such as two brochures on beach pollution. These were handed out at community
events, including the 1999 Wisconsin Beach Sweep and at an EMPACT booth at the Environmental
Expo, held in Milwaukee as part of the International Joint Commission's biennial meeting.
3.3.3 RHODE ISLAND DEPARTMENT DF HEALTH
NARRABANSETT BAY BATHING BEACHES MONITORING
PROJECT
Rhode Island's project is designed to address bacteriological water quality and swimmer safety issues at
beaches in the Providence metropolitan area. Its four main objectives are:
• To develop a comprehensive beach management program through frequent water quality monitoring at
swimming beaches and other potential recreational sites in the upper Narragansett Bay.
• To communicate monitoring information to the public in a time-relevant, easily accessible, and
effective format so the public can make informed decisions regarding environmental health risks and
their daily activities.
• To investigate faster methods and alternative indicators for evaluating water quality.
• To collect specific wet weather data for use in developing a predictive beach closure model based on
rainfall/sewage discharge volume.
BETTING STARTED 3-9
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One of the key design factors for the Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project was consideration of known,
historical sources of contamination, as discussed below.
Historical sources of contamination. Sewage releases have caused use restrictions in large areas of the upper
Narragansett Bay. In the northernmost reaches of the Bay, where many sewage outfalls are located, one area is
permanently closed to shellfishing due to consistently high bacteria levels, while two other areas are deemed
"conditional"—they are automatically closed to shellfish harvesting after certain amounts of rainfall (0.5
inches in one area, 1 inch in the other). While there are no state-licensed beach facilities within the
permanently closed area, there are several beach areas that are used by the public as swimming areas.
In addition, there are several licensed beaches that fall within the conditional areas, and primary contact
activities, such as swimming, diving, and water skiing, occur in these conditional areas. This occurrence of
primary contact activities in areas with use restrictions is a public health concern and demonstrates the need
to consider historical sources of contamination and spatial and temporal factors in a beach management
program.
To address this public health issue, the Rhode Island Beaches Monitoring Project chose sampling sites that
provided spatial coverage of the upper bay, including sites that were not licensed beaches; sampling at these
unlicensed areas could help to determine whether water quality in these areas would support efforts to pursue
beach licenses. The results of the project sampling were used to confirm that the unlicensed sampling sites in
upper Narragansett Bay are not suitable for becoming licensed public beach facilities at this time. Many of
these sites display consistently poor water quality, exceeding the state standard more than 50 percent of the
time. (Standards and criteria used by the three case study projects are listed in Table 3-2 and Table 4-4).
The water quality sampling conducted at licensed facilities in the northernmost regions of the bay found
fluctuating water quality. While these areas frequently displayed acceptable water quality and are suitable for
primary use, the fluctuation demonstrates the need for frequent sampling at these sites.
Information on historical water contamination at sites can contribute to the design and proper management
of a water quality monitoring program by helping to determine where and how frequently monitoring is
needed. More frequent monitoring may be needed at certain areas, even at some licensed beaches, based on
prior history.
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4
TIME-RELEVANT BEACH/RECREATIONAL
WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND
MODELING
Once you have identified the important program design factors to consider and have incorporated
them into your beach and recreational water quality program (as discussed in Chapter 3), the next
step usually involves developing a monitoring protocol that meets the goals of your particular
program. The general steps needed to develop and implement a time-relevant beach/recreational water
quality monitoring program include:
• Establish a monitoring plan that addresses what, where, when, and how water quality monitoring will
occur (Section 4.1).
• Develop plans that specify quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) procedures to be followed
during sample collection and analysis and data interpretation (Section 4.2).
• Conduct analyses of water quality samples (Section 4.3).
• Determine whether it is feasible to develop predictive modeling to provide quicker estimates of water
quality (Section 4.4).
• Interpret the monitoring and modeling results, including information on water quality exceedances
and beach closing and reopening procedures (Section 4.5).
• Notify the public of the monitoring and modeling results and any associated public health risks
(see Chapter 6).
Also, beach program managers should check with state and local authorities to identify the regulatory
requirements that apply to your program. See Chapter 3, Section 3.2, for potentially applicable federal,
state, and local requirements.2
4.1 OVERVIEW OF MONITORING AND SAMPLE
COLLECTION
This section discusses what should be monitored and where, when and how monitoring should be
conducted, and who should conduct it. Each of these considerations should be addressed ahead of time
in a monitoring plan, which can be revised if needed. This section also provides examples of monitoring
considerations addressed by three case study projects.
4. 1 . 1 WHAT WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS SHOULD BE
MDNITDRED?
Decisions about what to monitor should be based on the uses of your beach and recreational waters, the
applicable regulatory standards, and the questions and concerns raised by recreational water users. For
example, are people primarily interested in whether it is safe to swim at a particular beach? Are they also
interested in whether it is safe to boat, fish, or dig clams in the area? The parameters to be monitored and
their levels of acceptable health risk should be chosen to answer such questions. As described in Chapter 3,
water bodies need to meet criteria set by state water quality standards, which apply to existing and desig-
nated uses for specific waters, such as primary contact recreation (e.g, swimming) and secondary contact
recreation (e.g., boating). See Chapter 3 for a discussion of designated uses and state water quality criteria.
^ This handbook reflects lessons learned primarily through three EMPACT projects initiated prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000 and
the publication ofNational Beach Guidance and Required Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002). Some of the practices described in
these projects may not be consistent with current regulatory requirements and guidance. For updated regulatory and guidance information, see
Section 1.2.
TIME-RELEVANT MONITORING AND MODELING
4-1
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In addition, the BEACH Act requires all coastal and Great Lakes states to adopt EPA Ambient Water
Quality Criteria for the pathogen indicator organisms E. coli or enterococci for beach and recreational water
quality monitoring. About one-third of all states monitor for E. coli or enterococci indicator organisms as a
measure of bacteria densities in fresh and marine waters. Other states continue to use other pathogen
indicator organisms, such as total coliforms or fecal coliforms.
Beach and recreational water quality monitoring may include a number of measurements in addition to
those for bacteria indicator organisms—for example, parameters such as rainfall, water and air temperature,
water turbidity, and wind speed and direction. These parameters can be used as supplemental water quality
information to help evaluate chemical, aesthetic, and transport effects that can affect water quality. For
example, wind speed and direction can help identify the direction of water currents that spread a sewage
outfall discharge through a water body. Lake circulation patterns can also be influenced by wind and
rainfall. These parameters may also be used as inputs for predictive models that supplement monitoring,
as discussed in Section 4.4. Table 4-1 summarizes the indicator organisms and supporting measurements
currently evaluated by each of three case study projects. Appendix A includes a survey form used by Rhode
Island to record information on some of these parameters, as well as others. (Note that the Rhode Island
project also observes whether storm-water pipes or other flows across beach areas are present.)
Water quality samples can also be analyzed for nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate. These parameters
may provide information regarding certain contamination sources (e.g., farm runoff or animal feeding
operation discharges). Elevated nutrient concentrations may cause increased algae or aquatic weed
growth, which can reduce recreational water use, especially if the algae or weed growth is severe.
TABLE 4- 1
PARAM ETERS
PROJECTS
MONITORED IN THREE CASE STUDY
Indicator Organisms
Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor
Beaches Project
Fecal coliform
Enterococci
Milwaukee/Racine
Beachhealth Project
£ coli
Rhode Island Beach
Monitoring Project
Fecal coliform
Enterococci
Other Environmental
Measurements
Rainfall
Temperature
Conductivity/salinity
Weather conditions
Rainfall
Water and air temperature
Turbidity
Fluorescence
Conductivity
Oxidation/reduction potential
Wind speed/direction
Chlorophyll
Nitrate
Phosphate
Rainfall
Water temperature
Turbidity
Weather conditions
Prevailing wind
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4.1.2 WHERE SHOULD MONITORING SITES BE LOCATED?
Generally, areas with the greatest risk of public exposure to pathogens need more frequent water quality
monitoring and public notification. Therefore, consider monitoring the primary contact beaches and
recreational areas that have high use or high-density use. Also, consider monitoring along beaches close to
storm-water and sewer outfalls, since these locations may be prone to high bacteria levels; although people
may not swim in these areas, monitoring them can help identify sources of pathogens.
Coastal states that receive BEACH Act funds are required to evaluate and classify their waters based on
public health risk and frequency of use. Monitoring locations and frequency of monitoring in those states
should be consistent with these beach classifications.
Some municipalities monitor all beaches in their area (regardless of proximity to pollutant sources,
for example), while others select monitoring locations based on some or all of the following factors:
• Designated and existing use of the water body, including whether the water body supports primary
contact recreation, secondary contract recreation, shellfishing, drinking water, or other designated
uses. Under the CWA, each state, territory, or tribe is required to designate a use or uses for each
water body within its jurisdiction. (See Chapter 3 for a discussion of designated uses.)
• Frequency and density of use. Monitoring sites should also be selected based on the frequency and den-
sity of use of a beach/recreational water body. Samples should be collected where many people
typically swim or otherwise use the water often, since these areas often pose the highest potential risk of
public exposure to pathogens.
• Potential pollution sources and storm-water discharges. The condition of the watershed feeding
a recreational water body, including the number and location of point and nonpoint pollution
sources and storm-water discharges, is an important factor in where pathogen contamination may
occur. Common sources of pathogen pollution include wastewater treatment (e.g., publicly owned
treatment works) outfall pipes, CSOs, SSOs, storm-water pipes, and malfunctioning septic systems.
Recreational waters near such sources should be considered as potential monitoring sites.
To minimize unwarranted variation among sampling results, collect water samples from the same location
within a site (e.g., in front of a lifeguard station or another clearly defined area) each time sampling occurs.
Choosing Monitoring Sites
The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project in Massachusetts monitors water quality at 13 locations
along four historically contaminated beaches daily and other beaches weekly. Some of the sampling sites are at
lifeguard stations where people typically swim. These beaches were also selected because they are located in
or near heavily populated and/or industrial areas that are directly impacted by sewer system overflows and
contaminated storm drains. Combined sewer overflows have been a major source of pollution to the beaches
and the harbor in general. Research by the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority indicates that beach
water quality is highly variable in response to rainfall, even among different locations along the same beach.
TIME-RELEVANT MONITORING AND MODELING
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4.1.3 WHEN SHOULD WATER QUALITY MONITORING OCCUR?
When designing your water quality monitoring program, consider the time of day samples are collected, the
frequency of monitoring, and wet weather events. Take into account the analysis time required for indicator
organism monitoring: if it takes 24 hours to get results, note that sampling early in the day allows for public
notification earlier the next day. To keep your data consistent, try to collect water samples at the same sites
at the same time of day each time the water is monitored—on sunny days, early morning samples can have
more bacteria than afternoon samples. The frequency of sampling is often determined by how heavily a beach
is used. Beaches used often by a lot of people and beaches located near major sources of potential contamina-
tion need to be monitored more frequently. Seasonal beach use can also impact the frequency of monitoring:
beaches that are unused in the winter will not pose an exposure threat to the public when not in use.
It is important to monitor after exceedances of water quality criteria (which in some cases may be after
rainfall events) to ensure that bacteria concentrations have returned to acceptable levels. Such monitoring
can help you determine when beaches that have been closed because of high bacteria levels may be reopened.
Deciding When To Monitor
Rhode Island's Beaches Monitoring Project conducts beach monitoring from mid-May through mid-September to
coincide with the summer beach season. Samples are collected weekly at each of 23 sites. If a beach is closed
because of an exceedance, it is resampled daily until bacteria densities fall back below the threshold. Rainfall
event samples are collected in place of weekly sampling when it rains prior to a scheduled sampling date. Most
samples are collected between 8:00 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. and delivered to the laboratory for analysis within 4
hours of collection.
In deciding when to monitor, consider when the monitoring results will be received, since this may have impor-
tant public notification implications. For example, consider organizing your monitoring program so that enough
time is allocated for sample results to be received and any associated health risks communicated to the public
before the weekend, when beach and recreational waters are typically used the most.
4.1.4 HOW ARE BEACH/RECREATIONAL
WATER QUALITY SAMPLES
COLLECTED?
It is important to develop, in advance, specific written procedures for the
collection, preservation, and storage of water samples and to adhere to those
procedures. The reference text Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
andWastewater (Clesceri et al., 1998) provides general guidelines for water
sampling. The text covers such matters as obtaining representative samples
and avoiding sample contamination, both of which are critical to the
accuracy of your results. Many states have developed their own protocols.
A typical sample collection protocol for recreational waters might incorpo-
rate the following guidelines, among others:
• Collect samples in areas of greatest use by swimmers (or other relevant
recreational water users), where the water is about 3 feet deep, at about
knee-depth or 1 foot below the water surface.
• The sample analysis method to be used3 will specify appropriate
sample containers, identify whether any preservation is required (such
as storing samples on ice until analysis) and indicate acceptable holding times
3 See Section 4.3.
4-4
CHAPTER 4
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• Remove the sample container cap carefully, ensuring that you do not touch the inside of the cap or the
lip of the sampling container, and face into the current or waves to avoid sample container contamination.
• Minimize sediment or debris in the sample (which may require waiting for sediment to setde after wading
out to the sample collection location). If sediment or debris is present throughout the sample, note this fact
on the sample collection form.
Appendix B includes examples of sample collection procedures used by two of the case study projects.
You should also develop standard procedures for the collection of environmental monitoring data, such as
rainfall, water temperature, wind speed, and any other supporting environmental parameters you monitor, such
as those listed in Table 4-1. (As discussed in Section 4.1.1, these parameters can influence the water quality of a
receiving water body.)
Environmental data can be collected manually or automatically. Manual collection of environmental parameters
usually occurs at the time of water quality sampling and involves meters, monitors, and test kits. The MWRA in
Boston installed three stationary rainfall gauges that automatically monitor rainfall every 15 minutes. The
Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project uses two automated environmental monitoring stations that provide
physical and chemical data to MHD using a call-in system. The system monitors water temperature, turbidity,
fluorescence, conductivity, oxidation/reduction potential, wind speed and direction, and air temperature on a
continual basis. These data are relayed to on-shore computers via radio at predetermined intervals and on
demand. Figure 4-1 shows a schematic of the Milwaukee/Racine automated monitoring system.
Note that other water quality monitoring programs (e.g., volunteer monitoring programs) may already be
collecting environmental data.
Meteorological
Sensors
radio
150 ft
600 ft-
Buoy
data logger/modem
antenna
radio (SDI)
Power anc
Telephon_e
p$
^
Hi
Figure 4-1. Schematic of the Milwaukee/Racine, Wisconsin, automated beach monitoring system.
TIME-RELEVANT MONITORING AND MODELING
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4.1 .5 WHO SHOULD CONDUCT WATER QUALITY MONITORING?
The quality of data produced by a monitoring program depends on the quality of the work undertaken by
field and laboratory staff. Professional health agency personnel, volunteers, and/or contractors have been
successfully used for the collection of water quality samples and environmental monitoring data. Whether
drawn from professional staffer a pool of volunteers, the personnel responsible for sample collection and
environmental measurements at beaches and recreational water areas must be adequately trained for those
activities.
Consider the following factors as you determine the best type of personnel to use:
• The objectives and requirements of the agency legally responsible for the monitoring.
• The availability of staff and funding for monitoring. The use of volunteer personnel can allow your
agency to increase the amount of monitoring performed, although you will need resources for training
volunteers if you use them.
• Program partners, such as other public agencies, community-based environmental groups, or research
and educational entities (such as colleges and universities). These can sometimes be a source of
monitoring or public outreach personnel.
Monitoring Personnel
In the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project, both professional staff from local public health agencies and
volunteer personnel conduct water quality monitoring. The agencies' environmental health specialists and
environmental hygienists are responsible for collecting samples on which health advisories are based.
Additional near-shore data are collected by other agencies and community-based environmental groups made
up of volunteer personnel. The City of Milwaukee Health Department coordinates the volunteer environmental
monitoring events. Training for the volunteers is provided by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Environmental Center, the University of Wisconsin-Extension, and the Riverside Urban Environmental Center.
4.2 QUALITY CONTROL PLANS AND PROCEDURES
To ensure data quality, create good QC documentation for all beach and recreational water quality monitor-
ing and analysis programs. Develop a quality assurance project plan (QAPP), which should include data
quality objectives (DQOs) and standard operating procedures (SOPs).
A QAPP is a formal document that specifies in detail what sampling and analysis procedures are to be used,
how and when sampling will be done, what QA and QC activities are necessary to ensure that the data
collected meet specified standards, and how the data will be analyzed and reported. DQOs are qualitative
and quantitative statements that clarify monitoring program objectives, define the appropriate types of data,
and specify tolerable error levels. DQOs are used as bases for establishing the quality and quantity of data
needed to support decisions.
SOPs describe in detail the method for a given operation, analysis, or action. They are used for technical
activities that need to be performed the same way every time (i.e., standardized). Among such activities
are field sampling, laboratory analysis, and database management. It is often helpful to present an SOP in
sequential steps that reflect the stages of the actual work to be done; it is also helpful to include specific
facilities, equipment, materials and methods, QA and QC procedures, and other factors required to
perform the operation, analysis, or action. An SOP's format and content requirements are flexible
because its content and level of detail will depend on the nature of the procedure being performed.
4-6
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QAPPs should also include data verification and validation procedures (described below). These procedures
will help you ensure that QA/QC objectives and requirements have been met, enable you to verify that the
results of your sampling are accurate, and aid in data interpretation.
To learn more about QA/QC procedures and how to develop a QAPP, see EPA Guidance for Quality
Assurance Project Plans, available at http://www.epa.gov/quality/qs-docs/g5-final.pdf.
What Is an Accredited (Certified) Laboratory, and Why Use One?
An accredited laboratory is one that meets certain requirements set by an accrediting agency, including having
qualified personnel, appropriate instrumentation, and standard operating procedures, and has demonstrated
proficiency in the analysis of samples, for example for particular bacterial indicators.
Some states have established accreditation processes for environmental analyses and require the use of
accredited laboratories. This is often true for drinking water analysis. The use of an accredited laboratory is
recommended for recreational water analyses as well, especially when beach advisory or closure decisions are
to be based on the analytical results. Check with your state regarding its requirements and recommendations for
the use of accredited laboratories.
4.2.1 DATA VERI FID ATI DN METHODS
Data verification provides the confirmation that specified requirements have been fulfilled. For water
quality sampling and analysis, this is done by evaluating whether data have been collected in accordance
with the specifications of the QAPP and whether the DQOs specified in your QC plan have been met. Data
verification also includes a review of the sampling data obtained and QC sample data (e.g., sample
duplicates). Examples of data verification procedures for bacterial indicator samples include:
• Additional tests on samples to identify false positives or false negatives. A false positive rate is
calculated as the percent of colonies that were falsely identified as being made up of indicator microor-
ganisms. A false negative rate is calculated as the percent of colonies that were made up of indicator
microorganisms but were not identified as such. EPA-approved methods specify acceptable false posi-
tive and false negative rates for the relevant media.
• Review of sample records, chain of custody records, and sample tracking records to verify that all
samples collected were analyzed and that the data set results will be complete.
• Data entry checks to detect any potential data entry errors.
• Other types of check, such as graphing data to visually inspect for any potential errors and using
statistical methods to detect invalid data.
• Review of data reductions, transformations, and calculations by rechecking computations and
reviewing the assumptions used.
Verifying that a data collection effort conforms with the QAPP requires confirming that the data pass
specified QC tests, calculations were performed correctly, all samples were treated consistently, and the data
are complete and comply with all plans, DQOs, and SOPs. Data verification should always be followed by
data validation, as described below.
TIME-RELEVANT MONITORING AND MODELING
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4.2.2 DATA VALIDATION
Data validation provides the confirmation that the requirements for an intended use have been fulfilled.
Once data have been verified as meeting QAPP requirements, they are then validated to determine their
technical usability with respect to the planned objectives. This process should produce a validation report
that assesses the usability of the data (and whether any of the data are suspect or need to be qualified), sum-
marizes data results, and summarizes QC and QA results. The report should discuss any discrepancies
between a program's DQOs and the data collected.
4.3 SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Several methods are available to detect the presence of
bacterial indicator organisms as part of an assessment
of beach and recreational water quality. This section
briefly discusses EPA-approved and other standard
methods and describes the methods used by the three
case study projects, including new analysis methods
that are under investigation.
Many government agencies, universities, and other
organizations develop analytical methods. EPA evalu-
ates these methods and approves those methods that
meet its requirements for monitoring organic, inor-
ganic, or microbiological contaminants. The purpose
of developing and using EPA-approved and other
acceptable standard methods is to ensure consistency and quality of analytical results. Furthermore, only
certain methods may be used for compliance monitoring (e.g., of wastewater or drinking water); require-
ments for recreational water monitoring may not be as strict, but some states may have requirements or
preferences for the use of certain methods for recreational water quality monitoring in some situations.
Check with your state to identify any such requirements.
EPA-approved and other standard methods for the analysis of bacterial indicator organisms are listed in
Table 4-2. For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/methods/.
TABLE 4-2. ERA-APPROVED AND OTHER ACCEPTABLE STANDARD
METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF BACTERIAL INDICATOR
ORGANISMS IN AMBIENT WATERS
Bacterial Indicator
£ coli
EPA-Approved and Other
Acceptable Standard Methods1
EPA Method 1103.1
(same as Standard Method 9213D (m-TEC)
Type of Analysis2
MF
Modified EPA Method 1103.1
(modified m-TEC method)
MF
Enterococci
EPA Method 1106.1
(same as Standard Method 9230C)
MF
EPA Method 1600
MF
1 Standard Methods are from Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (Clesceri et al., 1998). In 2002, EPA intends to publish
a revised rule for EPA-approved methods in the Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR Part 136). The proposed rule, published on August 30,
2001, in 66FR45811, included the Enterolert™ and multiple tube fermentation methods discussed later in this chapter. Also, while some states
still use fecal coliform or total coliform as indicator organisms, EPAs Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria—1986 (U.S. EPA, 1986) recom-
mends using K coli or enterococci instead and the BEACH Act requires that all coastal and Great Lakes states switch to K coli or enterococci by
2004. Therefore, approved methods for fecal or total coliform are not listed here.
^ MF = Membrane filtration, described below.
4-s CHAPTER 4
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4.3.1 INDICATOR ORGANISM ANALYSIS METHODS
Indicator organism analysis methods generally fall into one of the following two categories:
• Membrane filtration (MF) tests, in which samples are passed through membrane filters that are then
transferred to petri plates containing selective growth and substrate media (i.e., primary isolation agar
or an absorbent pad saturated with selective broth). Bacteria density estimates are based on a direct
count of bacteria colonies.
• Most probable number (MPN) tests, in which multiple tubes are allowed to ferment for a set period of
time. Certain probability formulas are applied to the number of tubes or wells that produce a positive
reaction, resulting in an estimate of the average density (i.e., concentration) of target organisms in the
sample. (This procedure is used in several standard methods for analyzing fecal and total coliform. It is
also used in some methods for measuring E. coli, e.g., Colilert™, and enterococci, e.g., Enterolert™.)
The time required for some of the most commonly available and used sample analysis techniques ranges
from 24 to 72 hours. This relatively long analysis time is a disadvantage: it can lead to a situation in which
the public is exposed to high bacteria levels for the 1 to 3 days it takes to obtain sample results. This prob-
lem, which is particularly pronounced for the methods with the longest analysis times, can hinder timely
decisions on advisories or closures of recreational water areas and delay public notification. Methods that
require 24 hours of analysis time are an improvement over methods requiring even more time, but even a
24-hour turn-around time is not ideal; researchers are working on identifying even quicker, valid methods of
sample analysis for recreational water quality.
The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor, Milwaukee/Racine, and Rhode Island projects all use one or more
of the methods listed in Table 4-2. Some of the projects involved evaluations of alternative methods that
require 24 hours or less for sample analysis; the projects sought to determine whether use of these methods
could reduce sample analysis time and provide more time-relevant information to the public.
Table 4-3 lists the bacterial indicator organism analysis methods used by each of the three case study proj-
ects, including required analysis times. The following subsections discuss the alternative methods evaluated.
TABLE 4-3. ANALYSIS METHODS
PROJECTS
USED BY THE THREE CASE STUDY
Project
Charles River Basin/
Boston Harbor Beaches Project
Milwaukee/Racine Community
Recreational Water Risk
Assessment and Public Outreach
(Beachhealth)
Rhode Island Beach
Monitoring Project
Bacterial Indicator
Fecal coliform
Enterococci
£ coli
Fecal coliform
£ coli
Enterococci
Test Method
Standard Method 9222D
EPA Method 11 06.1
EPA Method 1600
EPA Method 11 03.1
(Standard Method 921 3D [m-TEC])
Pilot study method
(not recommended by
Milwaukee/Racine program)
Standard Method 9221 B
and E (with EC broth)
Standard Method 9221 E(A-1)
EPA Method 11 03.1
(Standard Method 921 3D [m-TEC])
EPA Method 1600
Enterolert™
Analysis Time
24 hours
48 hours
24 hours
24 hours
6 hours
48-72 hours
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
TIME-RELEVANT MONITORING AND MODELING
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4.3.1.1 CHARLES RIVER BASIN/BOSTON HARBOR BEACHES PROJECT
As part of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project, the MDC compared EPA's enterococci
methods (Method 1106.1 and Method 1600). Method 1106.1 requires an incubation time of 48 hours,
while the incubation time for Method 1600 (released by EPA in 1997) is 24 hours. Thus using Method
1600 can result in faster, more timely public notification of recreational water quality information.
To compare the accuracy of both methods, MDC collected split samples on a weekly basis at 38 sites
(representing 20 beaches) during the June-through-August beach season. The split samples were compared
statistically; both methods were found to give similar results, and both demonstrated comparable accuracy
and precision. Method 1106.1 resulted in a false positive rate of 4 percent, compared to a 2 percent rate for
Method 1600. False negative rates were 8 percent for Method 1106.1 and 7 percent for Method 1600. The
precision rate for Method 1106.1 was 38.7 average relative percent difference (RPD), while Method 1600
had a similar precision rate of 45.2 average RPD. MDC concluded that Method 1600 may result in a
slight, but probably insignificant, increase in beach postings. Method 1600 has the advantage of enabling
the MDC to sample area beaches one day closer to the weekend, which is when the greatest beach use
occurs. Because of the advantages and relative accuracy of Method 1600, MDC has switched from Method
1106.1 to Method 1600.
4.3.1.2 MILWAUKEE/RACINE BEACHHEALTH PROJECT
For the Beachhealth project, a 6-hour method was compared to traditional analysis methods. The data
collected from the 6-hour alternative method were found to be inconsistent, and the test often took much
longer than was predicted, requiring a 7.5-hour incubation instead of the expected 6 hours. This test
method also took longer than expected for the filtering of turbid samples. The Milwaukee/Racine
Beachhealth Project concluded that this 6-hour method was not a satisfactory solution to reducing the
time needed for sample analysis.
4.3.7.3 RHODE ISLAND BEACH MONITORING PROJECT
The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project evaluated and compared several analytical methods to
determine whether the state could switch to a faster method. The project compared two methods for fecal
coliform analysis, including the Standard 48-hour MPN Method (922IB and E, with EC broth) it had
been using and a 24-hour method (922IE [A-l]). Seeking to find faster methods that might also meet
BEACH Act requirements, the Project also tested two analytical methods for enterococci: the 24-hour EPA
Method 1600 and another 24-hour method, called Enterolert™. In addition, Rhode Island tested an E. coli
method (EPA Method 1103.1, which is the same as Standard Method 9213D [m-TEC]). In some cases the
results varied among the different methods tested, but, for the majority of samples, all of the methods used
would result in the same action taken. Rhode Island concluded that:
• Standard Method 922IE (A-l), with its 24-hour reporting time, is quicker but requires the most
man-hours. This method underestimates bacteria counts at higher densities, but as long as Rhode
Island continues to use a (very protective) 50 CPU/100 ml (fecal coliform) water quality standard,
this underestimation does not change the acceptability of the method's results for this state. Since
concluding this project, Rhode Island has switched to using Standard Method 922IE (A-l) in
monitoring recreational waters.
• In anticipation of a switch to using enterococci as an indicator organism, Rhode Island concluded that
the Enterolert™ method was its preferred method for beach water quality analyses. EPA is currently
considering this alternative method for inclusion as an EPA-approved method. EPA Method 1600 was
problematic in Rhode Island's comparative tests because it resulted in filter clogging and poor verifica-
tion of positive colonies.
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4.4 PREDICTIVE MODELS
The primary goal of a beach/recreational water quality monitoring program is to minimize the public health risk
associated with infectious diseases caused by exposure to harmful microorganisms. As discussed in Section 4.3,
laboratory methods commonly used to analyze potentially harmful microorganisms can take from 24 to 72
hours. To address the public health risks associated with this delay, health agencies need additional tools that can
provide a rapid, reliable indication of water quality conditions. The use of validated predictive models to supple-
ment monitoring can meet this need, providing quick, conservative estimates of bacterial indicator organism levels.
Developing a predictive model requires a large amount of data. These data are correlated with other relevant
factors—such as rainfall, tides, and number of bathers—that can affect bacteria levels or the probability that a
water quality standard will be exceeded. An equation (algorithm or calculation) is developed that defines the rela-
tionships between the different variables (e.g., bacteria density, rainfall, etc.). The model is then verified by
plugging actual monitoring results into its equation to see if the model reflects actual conditions. If it does not, it
is adjusted until a fully calibrated and verified model is developed.
Predictive models for beach/recreational water quality often correlate elevated levels of bacterial indicator organ-
isms with environmental factors that can influence bacteria levels, such as rainfall or the number of bathers using
a beach. While elevated bacteria counts often correlate with rainfall events, defining a relationship can be diffi-
cult. Rhode Island, for example, was not comfortable enough with the relationship between bacteria levels and
3-day cumulative rainfall to adopt a rainfall-based predictive model. Other factors, such as fecal contamination
from large concentrations of waterfowl, decaying beach vegetation, and water conditions, may also impact bacte-
ria levels; these factors can be used in a model. Any validated predictive model needs to address program-specific
conditions and elements.
The Milwaukee Health Department uses a rainfall-based model in conjunction with monitoring of E. coli levels
at South Shore Beach in decisions regarding beach advisories. Water quality at South Shore Beach may be influ-
enced by several environmental factors affecting the Milwaukee River watershed, which contains hundreds of
storm-water outfalls and several CSOs. The watershed drains to Lake Michigan just north of South Shore Beach,
where a southward current is generally present. South Shore Beach water quality may also be affected by effluent
from a sewage treatment plant, sewage treatment bypass, and other sources, including waterfowl, domestic pets,
and litter from bathers. The Racine Health Department does not use a rainfall-based model at this time; one of
the objectives of the Beachhealth project was to collect data to explore the possibility of using a rainfall model for
Racine.
One of the monitoring objectives of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project was to develop a
predictive model relating rainfall and CSO operations to bacterial indicators at four Boston Harbor beaches. The
four beaches were sampled seven times per week and analyzed for fecal coliform and enterococcus. Rainfall
gauges were also installed close to these beaches.
A simple rainfall model for each individual Boston Harbor beach was developed. Data analysis showed that
that previous day's rainfall predicted water quality better than the previous 24-hour enterococcus measurement.
A combined rainfall and bacteria protocol was implemented for beach postings.
For the Charles River, the Charles River Watershed Associaton developed a conservative in-house model/
protocol, based on historical data to predict whether bacteria levels would exceed the boating standard for
fecal coliform of 1,000 CPU/100 ml. CRWA then modified the protocol for the four sites monitored under
the EMPACT project, and modified it again for the 2000 monitoring season. The model determined the
appropriate water quality notification level based on antecedent rainfall data and CSO activation.
CRWA analyzed the success and accuracy of the model by determining whether a strong or weak relationship
existed between fecal coliform and total rainfall over a certain period of days and by assessing whether the pre-
dicted water quality was the same as that indicated by sample analysis. Overall, the model was found to predict
water quality conditions fairly accurately, and CRWA determined that the correct water quality notification flag
TIME-RELEVANT MONITORING AND MODELING 4-1 1
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was used 84 percent of the time. The comparison also showed that the predictive model tended to err on the
conservative side, declaring that water quality posed a potential health risk when the sampling results showed
that it did not.
For more information on predictive models, including different types of models, see EPA's Beach Guidance
Document (U.S. EPA, 2002) at http:llwww.epa.govlostlbeachesltechnical.html.
4.5 INTERPRETATION AND USE OF MONITORING
AND MODELING RESULTS
Water quality sampling results and predictive modeling results need to be interpreted by designated, qualified
public health officials, environmental pollution managers, or beach managers; these people are in a position to
determine whether a health risk exists and what appropriate action, if any, should be taken. Possible actions
range from a posting, warning, or advisory to closing the beach and prohibiting people from using the recre-
ational water there until further testing or model predictions indicate that bacterial indicator levels no longer
exceed water quality criteria.
EPA recommends closing or posting a beach when there is an exceedance of water quality standards or when a
predictive model indicates a likelihood of an exceedance. However a state chooses to respond to exceedances, it
is important that authorities responsible for interpretation of water quality monitoring results develop policies and pro-
cedures that are clear and specific (i.e. specify what actions are to be taken). For example, a policy could state that if
a single monitoring result exceeds the single-sample criterion value listed in the state's recreational water quality
standard, an advisory will be issued and an additional sample will be taken from that location within 24 hours.
If the second sample still exceeds water quality criteria, a beach closing will be issued.
Likewise, clear procedures should be established for the lifting of an advisory or closing and the reopening of a
beach. For example, one aspect of a reopening policy could state that a closed beach is to be resampled within a
specified time period. The decision to either issue or remove an advisory or closing should be based on statisti-
cally valid data and an assessment of risks to potential swimmers and other water users. The beach closing and
reopening procedures used by the three case study projects are summarized in Table 4-4.
The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project's procedures for beach closures, for example, specify that decision-
makers must consider (1) whether a direct sewage discharge has been identified in the immediate bathing area
and (2) whether any relevant regulations have been violated, as well as other factors, in determining whether to
take action that could result in closure. After a single high bacteria count is found, the procedures specify, deci-
sion-makers must review the beach profile (e.g., history) of the site. If the site is located near a CSO or if there
are recent reports of a discharge from a nearby wastewater treatment plant, the beach is closed immediately and
resampled. Other area beaches are also resampled. If a second sample exceeds the criteria, the beach is closed
using the following procedures:
• Notify appropriate municipal and state officials.
• Post advisory or closure notices (e.g., change the flag posted at the beach) as needed.
• Issue a press release and update the Web site and hodine with current conditions.
On beaches with more than one sampling location, the beach is closed immediately if measurements from the
majority of the sampling stations exceed the criteria.
Beaches are resampled daily until testing shows that bacteria levels have dropped below the criteria. Rhode
Island's reopening procedures involve:
• Notifying town and state officials of the reopening, including flag changes needed.
• Updating the Web site and hotline with new test results and an indication of the reopening.
• Resuming normal sampling procedures.
Chapter 6 of this document discusses techniques for the posting and public notification of water quality results.
4-12 CHAPTER 4
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— Table 4-4. Beach Closing and Reopening Procedures of the Three Case Study Projects
Water Quality Criteria Used
(If criteria are exceeded, action is
taken, e.g., an advisory/posting or
a closing)
Beach Advisory/Closing
Procedures
Beach Reopening Procedures
Charles River, Massachusetts
Fresh water, secondary contact
waters (e.g., boating), geometric
mean: FC < 1,000 CFU/100 ml; also
FC < 2,000 CFU/100 ml (<10% single
samples) 1
Class B waters for swimming/fishing,
geometric mean: FC < 200 CFU/100
ml; also FC < 400 CFU/100 ml
(<_10% single samples)
(Criteria are based on state water
quality standards. Note that
Massachusetts is considering chang-
ing from fecal coliform to E. co//or
enterococci.)
Posting of water quality flags
(blue = suitable boating condi-
tions; red = potential health risks
associated with elevated bacteria
counts) are based on estimates of
the previous day's fecal coliform
concentrations, 24-hour rainfall
levels, and/or combined sewer
overflow. To be conservative,
boathouses are posted with red
flags if a single sample exceeds
the geometric mean of 1 ,000
CFU/100 ml FC.
River areas reopen based on
either monitoring results indicat-
ing that criteria are no longer
exceeded, or on 4th or 5th day
(depending on the amount of
rainfall) after a significant rainfall
event.
Boston Harbor, Massachusetts
Marine water, single samples:
enterococci < 104 CFU/100 ml
Marine water, geometric mean of
most recent five samples within
the same bathing season: entero-
cocci < 35 CFU/100 ml
(Criteria are based on state water
quality criteria and state public
health code.)
Whenever water contamination
exceeds criteria, or after any sig-
nificant rainstorm (particularly at
beaches with a history of viola-
tions of water quality
requirements), a swimming advi-
sory sign is posted at the
entrance to each parking lot and
beach. Flags are changed from
"blue" (indicating good swimming
conditions) to "red" (indicating
potential health risks associated
with elevated bacteria counts).
The beach is resampled on the same
day of exceedance; if it still exceeds
criteria, or if a significant rainfall has
occurred, it remains closed for the
next 6 days. It is then reopened if
monitoring results indicate that its
water meets criteria.
Milwaukee/Racine, Wisconsin
Fresh water, single samples:
E. coli < 235 CFU/100 ml (general
recreational water use)
Milwaukee Health Department
uses £ coli and rainfall data for
the past 24 to 90 hours in a
model, and Racine Health
Department uses £ coli data for
issuing advisories. The state
issues advisories to counties,
which decide whether to close a
beach. (Counties almost always
follow state advisories).
A "good" rating = yesterday's
£ coli < 235 CFU/100 ml; a
"poor" rating = yesterday's E. coli
> 235 CFU/100 ml if there was a
recent rainfall or > 500 CFU/100
ml if not; other environmental
conditions are also considered
(e.g., high wave action may
clear bacteria from an area).
The beach reopens if the previous
day's Eco// level < 235 CFU/100
ml, or if the level has dropped with
no recent rainfall and a further drop
is expected to result in a level < 235
CFU/100 ml, based on historical
experience.
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island
Salt water, swimming/boating,
geometric mean: FC < 50
MPN/IOOml1
Saltwater, swimming/boating: FC
< 500 MPN/100 ml (<10% of sin-
gle samples)
Saltwater: To be conservative, if a
single sample exceeds the geo-
metric mean, the beach is
retested or closed.
Fresh water (swimming), geomet-
ric mean: FC < 200 MPN/100 ml
Beaches are closed based on
fecal coliform exceedances and
known or potential sources of
contamination. Each beach or
sampling site is unique and
possesses its own history, which
may play a role (based on prior
releases) in deciding whether or
not a specific beach should be
closed. If a release near a beach
occurs from a prior source of
contamination (e.g., wastewater
treatment plant, combined sewer
overflow), the Department of
Health closes the site preemp-
tively, without waiting for analysis
results.
If noncompliance with the state
standard still occurs after resam-
pling, the bathing area is closed.
It is tested every day and does
not reopen untiltest results fall
below criteria.
Rhode Island's program uses a
flagging system similar to
Boston's.
The beach is reopened if five
consecutive samples collected at
least 24 hours apart are at or
below the fecal coliform standard.
Upon reopening, at least three
samples are collected each week
for 3 months.
CPU = colony-forming units; ml = mililiters; FC=fecal coliform; MPN= most probable number.
-------
5
DATA MANAGEMENT
Managing data efficiently can contribute to quicker dissemination of water quality results and
reduce potential public exposure to contaminated waters. The key elements of data management
for beach and recreational water quality programs are shown in Figure 5-1. Data management
can be broadly defined as the handling of sample data results (e.g., recording and analyzing laboratory
results) as well as the delivery of the results to the public (e.g., through Web sites, telephone hotlines, on-
site warning flags). This chapter presents some design considerations for data management systems,
provides examples of the data management approaches used by three beach and recreational water quality
monitoring projects, and focuses on one aspect of data delivery to the public—Web site development.
Additional methods for public notification and risk communication, as well as more information on using
Web sites for these purposes, are discussed in Chapter 6.
Collect
samples
(see
Chapter 4)
Send
samples to
qualified
laboratory
(see
Chapter 4)
Receive
results
from lab
via
computer
or hard-
copy,
perform
QA/QC
Enter and
store data
in database
(electroni-
cally or
manually if
hardcopy)
Analyze
data (e.g.,
compare to
state water
quality
standards,
other
require-
ments)-see
Chapter 4
Notify the
public of
results and
any health
risks (see
also
Chapter 6)
Figure 5-1. Data flow for beach/recreational water quality results. Highlighted steps are covered in this chapter.
As Figure 5-1 shows, water quality samples are collected (as described in Chapter 4), then taken or sent
(e.g., via courier), using proper QC procedures, to a qualified laboratory. The laboratory determines the
densities of indicator organisms of pathogenic bacteria present. The laboratory then communicates the results
to water quality authorities via hardcopy reports, fax, or electronic transfer of results from the laboratory data-
base system. Methods for sending these results as soon as they become available should be included as SOPs
in your program. Your program staff then enters these laboratory data into your database (via electronic data
transfer, or manually for hardcopy data) for analysis, comparing them to state water quality criteria (see
Chapter 3) and any other requirements that might trigger certain actions. The results are then delivered to the
public, e.g., via the Internet (see Section 5.3) and other communication methods (see Chapter 6).
5.1
NS FOR A DATA
This section describes some of the important considerations for designing a data management system, the use
of spatially related data (such as geographic information systems, or GIS), considerations for enhancing an
existing system for a time-relevant beach/recreational water quality monitoring program, and QC and data
security considerations.
DATA MANAGEMENT
5-1
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The best design for a data management system depends on the needs and objectives of your program.
An information systems expert can help you identify the best system design based on your answers to the
following questions:
• What are the program's data needs?
• How are the data results received (manually or electronically)?
• What hardware and software infrastructure is currently available?
• What personnel are available to maintain the data management system?
When designing a data management system, consider the following factors:
• Data storage and retrieval system. You will need a central repository, such as an electronic database,
within which to organize and store laboratory results. For bacterial indicator organisms, laboratory data
results are often entered into a central database from hardcopy result reports, although electronic transfer
may be an option. The central database can be as simple as a collection of spreadsheets or as complex as a
full-scale relational database.
• Data delivery system. A data delivery system is a method of distributing data to your audience.Examples
of data delivery systems include Web sites, newspaper and television forecasts, and signs. Software and
Web sites are increasingly used for data delivery. An effective electronic data delivery system includes a
method to convert database files into an easily understood format for the Web and open-access formats
that allow the public to make secondary use of data. Database files can be converted for use on the Web
using a variety of software, both off-the-shelf and customized.
• QA, QC, and data security procedures. These include processes used to ensure accurate transfer of data
from the laboratory to the central database; provide timely maintenance, backup, and archiving of the
central database; and protect the database and Web site from unauthorized access.
For guidance on QA/QC and security planning, see EPA Guidance for Quality Assurance Project Plans at
http://www.epa.gov/quality/qs-docs/g5-final.pdf.
Important questions to ask your information systems expert are:
• How will the data management system preserve data quality, assurance, and integrity?
• How will data be maintained (back-ups or archives)?
• How will the data be delivered to the public via the Web? What are the system's software and
personnel needs?
• How will Web content be updated and maintained?
An existing data management system can be used for a time-relevant water quality monitoring program if it
meets the following fundamental objectives:
• To collect and manage microbiological data, as well as handle predictive model data if such a model
is used.
• To communicate the data results as quickly as possible to the public.
If your existing data management system cannot accomplish these tasks, you can probably modify it with
the assistance of an information systems specialist.
5-2
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5.1.2 SPATIALLY RELATED DATA (SUCH AS CIS)
A spatially related data system relates data to a physical location that then can be shown visually—for
example, in the form of maps. A popular medium for spatially related data is the Geographic Information
System (GIS), which can display, analyze, and model spatially related information. GIS technology allows
users to quickly overlay several data layers (such as water resources and land uses) and view them at once;
a GIS can be designed so that its users can view and compare different future scenarios and their possible
impacts. Often a GIS is set up so that users can retrieve information, generate maps (including customized
maps), and query data simply by clicking on a map feature. Some GIS maps are useful only for particular
geographic locations. GIS has been used by state agencies for watershed protection, Total Maximum Daily
Loads development, and implementation of other water quality programs.
To generate and display spatially related data, data management systems must include specific location infor-
mation such as latitude and longitude or street addresses. Detailed data usually need to be input
into the system by skilled staff; this process can be labor-intensive and fairly expensive. Once developed, GIS
maps are relatively easy to use and understand by local officials and the public. State environmental agencies
and private organizations are increasingly developing GIS maps that include a variety of environmental fea-
tures relevant to water quality; these maps may be readily available at no cost for display and use, including
through the Internet.
Software applications available for spatially related data range from simple and free software applications
to customizable data management systems designed specifically for integrating GIS data with the Internet.
For communicating beach water quality data to the public, only simple applications are usually needed.
5.1.3 QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL
All water quality monitoring projects should have QA/QC plans that include SOPs for data entry, QA/QC
protocols to check and validate the data, and protocols for system tests/audits to verify that the system is
producing expected results. See Section 4.2 for more information on QA/QC plans.
5.2 DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS USED BY THE CASE
5.2.1 SELECTING A DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The three case study projects discussed in this handbook developed their data management systems after
considering the following factors:
• Data needs: factors such as the number of water quality monitoring stations, sampling frequency,
and data retrieval and storage needs.
• Technical and human resources: the software, hardware, and human expertise available to maintain and
operate the data management system.
• The existing database structure: the need to ensure that existing (historical) data as well as new
data can be incorporated in the system to provide a complete historical context for the monitoring project.
• The ease of use and flexibility of the system: factors, for example, that impact the software/hardware,
training costs, and longevity of the system.
All three case study projects use off-the-shelf technologies to store monitoring data and update Web
content. The software selected was based on ease-of-use considerations and experience with particular soft-
ware already used for data storage. Using these software platforms, project staff constructed (or modified)
databases to accommodate any new data to be collected and to communicate these data to the public in
meaningful ways. They based the design of their databases and Web sites on the factors mentioned above.
Information technology specialists helped project staff design and implement the systems.
DATA MANAGEMENT 5-3
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5
.
TFPI
I OKI
ISTING SYSTEMS TO MEET PROJECT
All three case study projects enhanced their existing data management systems to meet project objectives.
Table 5-1 describes how the projects altered their systems to meet new project objectives.
Table 5-1. Changes Made to Existing Data Management
Systems To Meet Project Objectives
Project
Charles River Basin/Boston
Harbor Beaches Project
Web Site Management
Some project partners host their own
Web sites, while others use an outside
Internet service provider/vendor.
Changes Made to Existing Data
• Added a Web site with daily, monthly, and
historical data.
Rhode Island Beach
Monitoring Project
The Rhode Island Department of
Health hosts its own server.
• Created a Web site with beach closure
information and access to daily, monthly,
and historical data.
Milwaukee/Racine Community
Recreational Water Risk
Assessment and Public
Outreach (Beachhealth)
The U.S. Geological Survey hosts
the Web site.
• Automated monitoring equipment and
Web-based data entry forms.
• Added a Web site with beach closure
information and access to daily and
historical data.
In some cases (e.g., for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor and Rhode Island projects), an increase
in the frequency of monitoring contributed to the need to alter or expand data management systems.
Table 5-1 shows the changes these projects made. The decision to host your own Web site or use an
Internet service provider will depend on your program's priorities and available resources. For example,
you may be able to convey data more quickly if you host your own server, but achieving this quicker
delivery may incur additional costs, including more labor for Web site maintenance, quality control, etc.
In addition, keep in mind that there are ways other than Web sites to communicate your data, such as
telephone hotlines, signs, and the media, as discussed in Chapter 6.
5.2.3 SYSTEM USE AND MAINTENANCE
Data entry, validation, and maintenance are critical to providing accurate data to the public. In the context
of a data management system, this involves entering data into a central database, performing QA/QC pro-
cedures, updating Web content, and performing regular backup and archival operations. All programs must
strike a balance between providing timely data and ensuring data quality. Addressing this challenge is an
important part of the QA/QC plan.
The project partners involved in the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project use a variety of
different software and data entry and validation procedures:
• The MWRA laboratory enters sampling data into a Laboratory Information Management System for
validation and QA/QC. After QA/QC, the MWRA uploads data to a database on a server on the
MWRA's internal network, then formats the data for the Web.
• The MDC and CRWA receive data from the laboratory via fax, transcribe the data to a spreadsheet
file, check the data for accuracy, and then update their Web sites with beach and boating postings.
The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project follows procedures similar to those of the CRWA. The Rhode
Island staff manually enter data into a spreadsheet, check the data for accuracy, and upload the data to their
Web site.
5-4
Chapter 5
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The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project uses a combination of automated and manual data entry pro-
cedures. Meteorological and lake condition data are retrieved via automated telephone modem transfer and
uploaded directly to a database. Water quality information is entered directly into the database using cus-
tomized Web-based input forms. Data validation occurs before the forms are submitted to the database.
After submittal, these data are immediately available to the public via the Beachhealth Web site. Figure 5-2
shows a data query form that the public can use on the Beachhealth Web site to obtain beach water quality
information, based on which parameters they select.
Maintenance procedures are typically based on those already in place for the project's computer network. In all
three case study projects, the network and data management database are routinely backed up and archived.
Data Management Partners
Beach/recreational water quality monitoring project staff and associated partners can learn from one
another in developing a data management system, and can also share data management system
responsibilities. For example, the Charles River Watershed Association's Web site design for the
Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project was used as a starting point for the Rhode Island
Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project Web site. The Rhode Island project's data management system is
managed by the Rhode Island Department of Health, whereas the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor
project's three program partners maintain separate data management systems but share their data.
For example, the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority stores data for 17 beaches in a database,
assists in analysis, and provides daily bacteria and rainfall data on its Web site for five of the beaches
that have a history of being contaminated; the Metropolitan District Commission uses the monitoring
results from the 17 beaches for a telephone hotline, to issue flags at the beaches, and to place flag
icons on its Web site that advise the public on recreational water use.
DATA MANAGEMENT
5-5
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Query Options
Date
Time
Site
Field Person Name
Water Temperature
Wave Height
Amount of Algea
Amount of Waterfowl
Lab Person Name
Turbidity (NTTT)
Ammonia Nitrogen (mg/L)
Nitrite + nitrate Nitrogen (mg/L)
E. Coli B.emark (traditional)
E. Coli Measurement (traditional, CFTI/lOOmL)
E. Coli Remark (fast)
E. Coli Measurement (fast, MPN/lOOmL)
Fecal Coliform Remark
Fecal Coliform Measurement (CFTJ/1 OOmL) f
pH (standrad units)
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m
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Figure 5-2. Sample data form available to the public on the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth Web site.
5.2.4 SYSTEM SECURITY
At its most basic, ensuring the security of a data management system involves restricting access to the data-
base and the software and processes used to update Web content. All three case study projects use password
protection to limit access to their Web development software: to update Web content, a user must enter a
valid user ID and password to access the appropriate files. The projects also use additional security steps,
such as placing their databases behind firewalls with no connection to the Internet.
5-6
Chapter 5
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The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project database is linked to the Web but has additional safeguards—for
example, the general public may not modify the database (other than filling out a site feedback form), and
the code that describes how the Web interface program is designed is hidden (in a package of procedures
inside the software). The latter measure prevents unauthorized users from accessing database tables or pass-
words or otherwise disturbing database integrity.
5.3 DATA DELIVERY VIA THE WEB
5.3.1 WEB CONTENT
All three case study projects use their Web sites to provide time-relevant water quality information to the
public. Table 5-2 describes the main content of each of the Web sites.
Table 5-2. Web Content, of the Three Case Study Projects1
Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project
•CRWA
http://www. crwa. org
•MDC
http://www.state.ma.us/mdc
•MWRA
http://www.mwra.state.ma.us
• Color-coded maps of Charles River water quality for
each month in the current year.
• Tables of historical Charles River water quality data.
• Latest available boating flag notice and sampling data
for eight Charles River locations.
• Results from 1998,1999, and 2000 daily sampling.
• Latest available water quality notices and water
temperature for 17 Boston-area beaches.
• Latest available water quality and rainfall data for five
Boston-area beaches.
Rhode Island Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project
http://www.healthri.org/environment/beaches/index.html
• Latest available beach closure information.
• Tables of beach water quality data for over 100 beaches
from 1995 to present.
• Additional beach- and bather-related information.
Milwaukee/Racine Community Recreational Water Risk
Assessment and Public Outreach (Beachhealth)
http://infotrek. er. usgs.gov/pls/beachhealth
• Latest available beach water quality conditions for
11 Milwaukee/Racine-area
beaches/recreational waters.
• Real-time meteorological and lake conditions.
• Dynamic query access to beach, river, and harbor water
quality data for the 1999-2001 swimming season.
• Dynamic query access to meteorological data for the
1999-2001 swimming season.
These Web sites may be inactive when it is not beach season.
The Web sites of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project and the Rhode Island Beach Monitoring
Project display icons of the different-colored flags the projects use at beaches, as well as explanations of the
flags (see Figure 5-3). These projects' Web sites also provide access (via static tables or online query) to his-
torical data for secondary analysis. Clicking on the beach name links the user to the historical water quality
data profile. Summary tables for the 1999 and 2000 data are also available for all sampling sites. In addition,
the Rhode Island Web site provides a list of current beach closures. The Milwaukee/Racine Web site pro-
vides links to static monthly sampling data and to a dynamic query interface through which a user can
generate customized reports.
DATA MANAGEMENT
5-7
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Colored flags posted at these boating centers indicate water quality conditions for boaters in the
Charles River Basin.
Watch for Water Quality Flags
Blue flags signal suitable boating conditions. Red flags signal potential health risks associated with
elevated bacteria counts.
Click on the flags at each site for recent water quality data.
N
HARVARD
CAMBRIDGE
BOSTON
HARBOR
WATERTQWN
BOSTON
Figure 5-3. Colored flag icons used in the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project to indicate
water quality. Source: Charles River Watershed Association (http://www.crwa.org).
5.3.2 FUTURE WEB SITE GOALS
Developing a data management system is often an iterative process, in which a program begins with a rela-
tively simple system and then enhances the system as program goals and technologies evolve. Taking this
approach allows the program to get started in a reasonable time frame and to further improve service to the
public over time. All three case study projects plan future enhancements to their Web sites, including:
• Two of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project partners (the MWRA and MDC) plan
to provide a tool for predicting water quality (see Chapter 4) based on rain gauge data. This, they
believe, will help them better educate the public about water quality issues and provide data on a more
real-time basis.
• The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project intends to survey its Web audience to determine how to
enhance its Web site, with the aim of giving the public a better context for understanding water qual-
ity information. Project staff expect to add more static maps and, possibly, customized dynamic CIS
mapping capabilities.
• The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project plans to include additional beaches on the Web site as
funding becomes available to test the beaches and post the data. Recent enhancements to data input
forms will facilitate smooth integration of additional water quality data.
For more information about the future goals of these projects, please visit their Web sites (listed in Table 5-2).
5-8
Chapter 5
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6
PUBLIC NOTIFICATION AND RISK
COMMUNICATION FOR BEACH/
RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
One key purpose of a water quality monitoring program is to notify swimmers, boaters, water skiers, fisher-
men, and other recreational water users of any potential health risks associated with the water at a particular
place and time. Once water samples are collected and analyzed and results are compiled (as discussed in
Chapters 4 and 5), a system must be in place to quickly communicate the results to the public so that peo-
ple can make informed decisions about whether to use a particular beach or other recreational water area on
a specific day.4
A number of municipalities and organizations have developed effective public notification programs for
recreational water quality. This chapter presents the general types of information that need to be communi-
cated to the public (Section 6.2), key methods used in selected public notification programs for beaches and
other recreational waters (Section 6.3; use of the Internet is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5), addi-
tional types of public notification and outreach methods (Section 6.4), and step-by-step information on
how to develop an outreach plan for public notification (Section 6.5).
6.2 TYPES OF INFORMATION TO COMMUNICATE TO
THE PUBLIC
Agencies and organizations that monitor recreational waters typically need to present one or more kinds of
information to the members of the public who use those waters, including:
• Public health information. Providing information about the potential public health risks of using
beaches and other recreational water areas is a key goal of any recreational water quality monitoring
agency or organization. Public health information should include an indication of the level of risks
associated with using (e.g., swimming, boating, or fishing in) the waters and a description of associated
potential health effects.
• Monitoring information. It is important that water quality monitoring programs clearly convey the
significance of their monitoring results to the public. This means presenting a clear and simple indica-
tion of current water quality and providing additional details for persons interested in more
information.
• Pollution prevention information. Monitoring agencies and organizations can provide information on
pollution prevention while providing public health information and water quality monitoring results.
Pollution prevention information often includes information on how pollutants enter the water and
what individuals and businesses can do to prevent or reduce this pollution.
• Self-promotional information. Members of the public cannot benefit from an information service if
they do not know it exists. Therefore, a water quality monitoring organization must advertise its serv-
ices to the public so that they will think to consult the organization when they have questions about
water quality.
This handbook reflects lessons learned primarily through three EMPACT projects initiated prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000 and
the publication of National Beach Guidance and Required Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002). Some of the practices described in
these projects may not be consistent with current regulatory requirements and guidance. For updated regulatory and guidance information, see
Section 1.2.
PUBLIC NDTIFICATIDN FDR WATER QUALITY 6-1
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6.3 KEY PUBLIC NOTIFICATION METHODS FOR
BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATERS
There are many ways to inform the public about recreational water quality. A number of beach and other
recreational water monitoring programs, including the three case study projects presented in this handbook
(the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor, the upper Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island, and
Milwaukee/Racine projects) have found certain methods to be particularly successful for public notification
purposes, including warning flags, signs, hotlines, Web sites, and the media, as described below.
6.3.1 WARNING FLAGS
The use of warning flags involves the posting at strategic locations of different-colored flags reflecting differ-
ent levels of health risk. For example, both the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project and the
Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project use flags to give the public a highly visible indication of recre-
ational water quality. Boat houses along the lower Charles River in Boston and surrounding communities
are marked with red flags when fecal coliform levels exceed 1,000 CPU/100 ml. Beaches along the Boston
Harbor are marked with red flags when enterococci levels exceed 104 CPU/100 ml. At other times, when
water quality meets boating or swimming standards set by the Massachusetts Department of Environmental
Protection, the river and harbor are marked with blue flags to indicate suitable conditions for these recre-
ational pursuits.
Health Risk Communication: Effective Methods
Health risk communication. An educational brochure gives river users the following risk
communication message about "red flag" days:
"While it is always a good idea to wash after being on the river, it is particularly important on
red flag days. Some boaters choose to stay off the river on red flag days because elevated
bacterial levels pose a health risk."
Watch for Water Quality Flags, Charles River Watershed Association
Effective methods. Boston's Metropolitan District Commission drew the following conclusions about
which public notification tools were the most valuable:
"...it seems that the best medium for informing the public has been the flagging and web site.
For example, prior to the flagging project many people visiting Wollaston Beach believed that
the Beach was permanently closed for swimming [due] to pollution. Now beach goers look for
the flags to see if it is safe to swim. Although there are more red flag days than we would like,
at least the public is informed about the conditions. As evidence of the public's cognizance of
the postings, we haven't had a reported illness as related to the water conditions in several
years of which we know."
2000 Final EMPACT Report, Metropolitan District Commission
6-2
CHAPTER 6
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6.3.2 BEACH SIGNS
All three of the case study projects found beach signs to be
useful for notifying the public of potential health concerns at
specific beaches. The Milwaukee/Racine project designed
special advisory signs with changeable panels that made it
possible to update the current date and list water quality as
good or poor. ("Good" means that the previous day's E. coli
levels were lower than 235 CPU/100 ml. "Poor" means that
the previous day's E. coli levels were higher than 235
CPU/100 ml if a recent rainfall occurred, or were higher
than 500 CPU/100 ml if no recent rainfall occurred.)
During the summer beach season, the signs are posted at
eye level on the backs of lifeguard stands. The Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor and Rhode Island projects use signs
to explain their colored flags: the signs explain that red flags indicate poor water quality and blue flags indi-
cate good water quality. If your program is considering using water quality/health risk signs, think about
providing them in more than one language—Spanish as well as English, for example. Other languages may
be valuable as well, especially if your site is near communities where those languages are spoken.
6.3.3 TELEPHONE HOTLINE
All three case study projects also use telephone hot-
lines that allow persons without Internet access to
obtain timely information about local beaches (e.g.,
about beach closures). Some beach information hot-
lines are operational only during the beach season.
The Milwaukee/Racine project advertises its bilingual
(English/Spanish) hotline on television and postcards
(see right). The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor
and Rhode Island projects advertise their hotlines in
brochures, Web sites, and newspapers.
\- pr Mfa'ajt.ec bc-KF ads' scry mfwnalran by
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6.3.4 PROJECT WEB SITE
Increasingly, beach and recreational water quality monitoring programs are maintaining Web sites as part of
their overall public notification and outreach strategies. All three case study projects provide timely informa-
tion on water quality conditions at monitored locations on their Web sites (as discussed in Chapter 5,
Section 5.3). This kind of online information allows people who are interested in swimming, boating, or
other water activities to find out if a particular area is closed or poses a potential health risk before actually
going there. In addition to water quality results, some beach Web sites include:
• Technical information about how water quality evaluations are conducted.
• Educational information about how the public can prevent future pollution of recreational waters.
• Links to related Internet resources.
• An option for the user to provide feedback to the Web site developers.
PUBLIC NOTIFICATION FDR WATER DUALITY
6-3
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6.3.5 NEWS MEDIA
The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project and the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project both have
extensive experience working with local news media to promote their programs and distribute time-relevant
recreational water quality information. For example, the CRWA, one of the partners in the Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor project, was able to get a local television station to broadcast information about the
Charles River's water quality on its noon weather forecast and a local newspaper to report this information
once a week. The Milwaukee/Racine project educated the public about its services in the news coverage it
obtained on local television stations. This project also garnered attention from the news media by sending
out frequent press releases and sending daily faxes to media representatives. The Rhode Island Department
of Health has developed a standard operating procedure for distributing press releases on beach
closings/openings; press releases can be faxed out minutes after the decision is made to close or reopen a
beach area.
6.4 ADDITIONAL PUBLIC NOTIFICATION AND
OUTREACH METHODS
In addition to using warning flags, signs, telephone hotlines, Web sites, and the media for public notifica-
tion (as discussed in Section 6.3), the Boston Harbor/Charles River, Milwaukee/Racine, and Rhode Island
projects all have used a variety of other mechanisms. Table 6-1 summarizes these additional public notifica-
tion and outreach methods (those methods used by all three projects are emphasized with shading). The
public notification and outreach initiatives listed in Table 6-1 are discussed below, except for those already
discussed as key methods in Section 6.3.
TABLE 6- 1
PUBLIC NOTIFICATION AND OUTREACH INITIATIVES
USED BY THE THREE CASE STUDY PROJECTS
Charles River Basin/ Milwaukee/Racine Rhode Island Beach
Boston Harbor Project Beachhealth Project Monitoring Project
Advertising and promotional items
Annual water quality "Report Card"
Beach signs
Printed fact sheets/brochures
School curriculum materials/teacher training
Kiosks/information booths
News media
Project Web site
Special public events
Telephone hotline
Visits to local industries/dischargers
Volunteer program
Warning flags
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
6-4
CHAPTER 6
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Advertising and promotional items. The case study projects use a variety of techniques borrowed from com-
mercial advertising, including the distribution of promotional "novelty" items, to increase people's awareness
of the program. The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project hands out business cards with the address of its
Web site to beachgoers on weekends. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project distributes water bot-
tles that display the different-colored flags used to identify whether beaches meet boating and swimming
standards. The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project advertised its program on the backs of buses, using
bright colors and engaging visuals including cartoon images of children of different ethnic backgrounds
playing on the beach with a cityscape in the background; the headline read, "Check out beach water quali-
ties," with a hotline phone number and a Web address prominently displayed. The University of
Wisconsin-Extension's Infosource, a resource that assists nonprofit organizations with public outreach,
places similar ads at no cost to the Beachhealth program.
Annual "Water Quality Report Card"
Each year on Earth Day, the Charles River Watershed Association (a partner in the Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project) publishes a "report card" that serves as a focal point for media
interest. The "grades" (A, B, C, D, and F) are based on the percentage of days on which the lower
Charles River was fishable and swimmable during the preceding year and a comparison of bacteria
levels to swimming and boating standards. Three letter grades are assigned: one for wet weather, one
for dry weather, and one for overall conditions. The grades help provide an indication of the progress
being made in river and harbor water quality conditions toward the goal of having these waters be
fishable and swimmable by the year 2005.
Fact sheets and brochures. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Project and the Milwaukee/Racine
Beachhealth project have developed educational brochures and fact sheets as part of their public education
efforts. Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth, for example, publishes two brochures to educate the public about
pollution prevention efforts. One brochure, It's All Connected, describes the migration pathways of surface
water, drinking water, and wastewater. It also discusses sources of pollution and how target areas are affected.
The other brochure, Simple Solution to Water Pollution: Making Your Home a Pollution Free Zone, describes
how to improve water quality in urban environments. Both of these brochures have been posted on the pro-
ject's Web site and distributed at festivals and expositions.
School activities and teacher training. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project has worked
with the Urban Ecology Institute at Boston College (http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/research/urbaneco/) to develop
a high-school curriculum based on the work that the CRWA is conducting in the lower Charles River. The
curriculum, intended for high schools near this geographic area, teaches basic watershed science and biology
and involves tracking the recovery of the Charles River using specially designed field studies that monitor
plant and animal activity. The Marine Programs project at the University of Rhode Island plans to sponsor
an institute for 20 teachers (http://omp.gso. uri. edu). Any teacher from the communities of Rhode Island and
Massachusetts that
surround Narragansett Bay will be eligible to apply. The teacher institute will focus on a wide range of
environmental, historical, cultural, and economic factors affecting local health and the urban coastal envi-
ronment. Institute products will include materials for incorporation into the project Web site, activity kits
for hands-on use in the classroom, and related resource materials. The Milwaukee/Racine project has also
conducted teacher training.
PUBLIC NDTIFICATIDN FDR WATER QUALITY
6-5
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Kiosks and information booths. The MDC, one of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Project partners,
set up several kiosks on the beaches of Boston Harbor. Each kiosk contains information about water quality
monitoring in seven languages: English, Haitian, Spanish, Portugese, Italian, Vietnamese, and Chinese. The
Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project also used information booths—project staff set them up at several
Milwaukee festivals, where they handed out brochures and fact sheets.
Special public events. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Project, in collaboration with a local radio
station, sponsored a series of "Back to the Beach" parties in 1998, 1999, and 2000. The events were
intended to promote use of local beaches by neighbors and visitors to Boston Harbor. At each event, infor-
mation on water quality conditions, the flagging system, and online resources was provided to the public.
Volunteer programs. In 1999, the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project collaborated with community
environmental educational organizations to create a near-shore volunteer monitoring program. Nearly 50
high-school volunteers tested water quality at 13 different sites throughout the summer. Students gained
experience with scientific methods and learned about different kinds of field test kits, different sources of
Lake Michigan's pollution, and how rain can alter water quality. This program is being continued on a
limited basis.
6.5 DEVELOPING AN OUTREACH PLAN FOR PUBLIC
NOTIFICATION
Outreach to the public is a key component of public notification, as discussed in Sections 6.2 and 6.3
above. It is important to define your outreach goals before you develop any outreach activities. It is useful to
develop clear, simple, action-oriented statements about what you hope to accomplish through outreach.
Once you have established your goals, every other element of the outreach plan should relate to those goals.
Answering the following questions can be helpful:
• Who do you want to reach? (Step 1)
• What questions need to be answered? (Step 2)
• What are the most effective ways to reach your audience? (Step 3)
These and additional questions are addressed in more detail below. Developing an outreach plan that
addresses these questions helps to ensure that the message of your public notification program is the right
one and that it reaches its intended audience.
Lifeguards and Risk Communication
In addition to the more typical outreach activities described in this section, the training of lifeguards in
risk communication can be an important part of your outreach program. Lifeguards have a unique and
important role in communicating with swimmers and other users of recreational waters and can help
provide water quality and health risk information quickly to beachgoers.
An outreach plan provides a blueprint for action and does not have to be lengthy or complicated.
An outreach plan is most effective when a variety of stakeholders and people with relevant expertise are
involved in its development, such as:
• A communications specialist or someone who has experience in developing and implementing an
outreach plan.
• Technical experts in the subject matter (both scientific and policy).
6-6
CHAPTER 6
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• People who represent the target audience (i.e., the people or groups you want to reach).
• Key individuals who will be involved in implementing the outreach plan, such as beach managers and
local health departments.
As you develop your outreach plan, consider inviting other organizations to work cooperatively with you to
develop, plan, and implement the outreach effort. Potential partners may include shoreline owner associa-
tions, local businesses, environmental organizations, schools, boating or fishing associations, local planning
and zoning authorities, and other local or state agencies. Partners can participate in the planning, develop-
ment, or review of outreach materials, as well as distribution. Partnerships can be valuable mechanisms for
leveraging resources as well as enhancing the quality, credibility, and success of outreach efforts.
Developing an outreach plan is a creative and iterative process involving a number of interrelated steps,
as described below. As you move through each of these steps, you might want to revisit and refine the
decisions you made in earlier steps until you have an integrated, comprehensive, and achievable plan.
6.5. 1 STEP 1 : WHD DD YDU WANT TD REACH?
6.5. 1. 1 IDENTIFYING YOUR AUDIENCE(S)
After you identify your goals and put together a development team for your outreach plan, as described
above, the next step is to clearly identify the target audience or audiences for your outreach efforts. Outreach
goals often define the target audiences. You might want to refine and add to your goals after you have specif-
ically considered which audiences you want to reach.
Your primary audience for public notification and outreach will be users of your beaches and other recre-
ational waters, including swimmers, boaters, water skiers, fishermen, and others. You must reach these
people to achieve your goals of public health protection and notification. Your secondary audience might
include local decision-makers, landowners, businesses, schools, and other members of the general public who
may use the beaches and other recreational waters. Some audiences, such as educators and certain organiza-
tions (e.g., fishing and boating clubs), may be willing to help disseminate information to other audiences
you have identified, such as the general public.
Consider whether you should divide "the public" into two or more audience categories. For example, will
you be providing different information to certain groups, such as citizens and businesses? Does a significant
portion of the public you are trying to reach have a different cultural or language background from other
members? If so, it may be most effective to consider these groups as separate audiences.
6.5. 1.2 PROFILING YOUR AUDIENCE(S)
Outreach will be most effective if you tailor the content, type, and distribution of outreach products to your
target audiences. This tailoring can be accomplished by developing profiles of your audiences' situations,
interests, and concerns. Such profiles will help you identify the most effective ways of reaching the audience.
For each target audience, consider:
• What is their current level of knowledge about recreational water quality?
• What do you want them to know about recreational water quality, and what actions would you like
them to take?
• What information is likely to be of greatest interest to them?
• How much time are they likely to give to receiving and assimilating the information?
• How do they generally receive information?
• What professional, recreational, and domestic activities do they typically engage in that might provide
avenues for distributing outreach products? Are there any organizations or centers that represent or
serve them and might be avenues for disseminating your outreach products?
PUBLIC NOTIFICATION FDR WATER QUALITY 6-7
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Profiling an audience essentially involves putting yourself in your audience's shoes. Ways to do this include
consulting with individuals and organizations that represent or are members of the audience, consulting
with colleagues who have successfully developed other outreach products for the audience, and using your
imagination.
6.5.2 STEP 2: WHAT QUESTIONS NEED TD BE ANSWERED?
The second step in outreach planning is to think about what you want to communicate by identifying
the questions that your target audience wants answered. One possible way to identify such questions is to
distribute a beach/recreational water user survey, if resources are available. For example, a key question that
users probably want answered is:
"Is it safe to swim here today?"
Think about the key points, or "messages," you want to communicate. Messages are the "bottom-line"
information you want your audience to walk away with, even if they forget the details. Outreach products
often have multiple related messages. You may have different messages for different audiences.
6.5.3 STEP 3: WHAT ARE THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAYS TD
REACH YDUR AUDIENCE?
The next step in developing an outreach plan is to consider what types of outreach product will best reach
each target audience. There are many types of useful outreach products: print, audiovisual, electronic, and
novelty items, as well as events, as shown in Table 6-2.
The audience profile information you have already assembled will help you select appropriate outreach
products. A communications professional can provide valuable guidance in choosing the most appropriate
products to meet your goals within your resource and time constraints. Questions to consider when
selecting outreach products include:
• When does your audience need the information to make a timely decision on whether to use a
particular beach or other recreational water area?
• What and how much information does your audience really need to know? (The simplest, most
straightforward product generally is most effective.)
• Is the product likely to appeal to the target audience? Is the audience likely to take the time to read,
view, attend, or purchase the product?
• How easy and cost-effective will the product be to distribute or, in the case of an event, organize?
• What time frame is needed to develop and distribute the product?
• How much will it cost to develop the product? Do you have access to the resources needed for
development?
• What related products are already available? Can you build on existing products?
• How newsworthy is the information? Information with inherent news value may be rapidly and
widely disseminated by the media.
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TABLE 6-2. EXAMPLES OF OUTREACH PRODUCTS
Print Items
Daily newspaper notices
Press releases
Audiovisual Items
Exhibits and kiosks (with risk information
changed daily or near-daily as needed)
Cable television programs (if airing is timely)
Radio public service announcements
(if made on a daily or near-daily basis)
Electronic Items
(Assuming that your
audience has access to
and uses these products
daily or near-daily)
E-mail messages
Subscriber list servers
Web pages
Events
Print
(Timely) press conferences
For Your Secondary Audience (less "time-relevant" methods)
Brochures
Editorials
Educational curricula
Fact sheets
Newsletters
Newspaper and magazine articles
Posters
Press releases
Question-and-answer sheets
Utility bill inserts or stuffers
Audiovisual
Cable television programs
Videos
Events
Briefings
Community days
Fairs and festivals
Media interviews
One-on-one meetings
Press conferences
Public meetings
Speeches
Novelty Items
Banners
Bumper stickers
Buttons
Coloring books
Floating key chains for boaters
Frisbee™ discs
Magnets
Mouse pads
6.5.4 STEP 4: HDW WILL YDUR OUTREACH PRODUCTS REACH
YOUR AUDIENCE?
Effective distribution is essential to the success of an outreach strategy. There are many avenues for
distribution, including those listed in Table 6-3.
Consider how each product will be distributed and determine who will be responsible for distribution. For
some products, your organization might manage distribution. For others, you might rely on intermediaries
(such as the media or educators) or organizational partners that are willing to participate in the outreach
effort. Consult an experienced communications professional to obtain information about the resources
and time required for the various distribution options. Some points to consider in selecting distribution
channels include:
• How does the audience typically receive information?
• What distribution mechanisms has your organization used in the past for this audience? Were these
mechanisms effective?
PUBLIC NOTIFICATION FDR WATER QUALITY
6-9
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• Can you identify any partner organizations that might be willing to assist in the distribution?
• Can the media play a role in distribution?
• Will the mechanism you are considering really reach the intended audience? For example, the Internet
can be an effective distribution mechanism, but certain groups may have limited access to it.
• Are sufficient resources available to fund and implement distribution via the mechanisms of interest?
TABLE 6-3. EXAMPLES OF DISTRIBUTION METHODS
For Your Primary Audience (e.g., beach/recreational
water users)
Phone (including hotline)/fax
E-mail (assuming that your audience has access)
Web site (if timely updates are possible and your
audience has access)
TV/radio (if information can be aired timely)
Print media (for daily beach conditions, and for less
timely information, e.g., pollution prevention education)
For Your Secondary Audience
Mailing lists (yours and those of partner organizations)
Journals or newsletters of partner organizations
TV and radio (for less time-dependent messages)
Print media
Hotline that distributes products upon request
Meetings, events, or locations (e.g., libraries, schools,
marinas, public beaches, tackle shops, and sailing clubs)
where products are made available
6.5.5 STEP 5: WHAT FDLLDW-UP MECHANISMS WILL YDU
ESTABLISH?
Successful outreach may generate requests for further information or concern about issues of which you
have made the audience aware. Consider whether and how you will handle this interest. The following
questions can help you develop this part of your strategy:
• What types of reaction or concern are audience members likely to have in response to the outreach
information?
• Who will handle requests for additional information?
• Do you want to indicate on the outreach product where people can obtain further information
(e.g., provide a contact name, number, or address)?
6.5.6 STEP 6: WHAT IS THE SCHEDULE FDR IMPLEMENTATION?
Once you have decided on your goals, messages, audiences, products, and distribution channels, you will
need to develop an implementation schedule. For each product, consider how much time will be needed
for development and distribution. Be sure to factor in enough time for product review. Wherever possible,
build in time for testing and evaluation by members or representatives of the target audience in focus
groups or individual sessions so that you can get feedback on whether you have effectively targeted your
material for your audience.
6-1 D
CHAPTER 6
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REFERENCES
Clesceri, L.S., A.E. Greenberg, and A.D. Eaton, eds. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water
and wastewater. 20th edition. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, American Water
Works Association, and Water Environment Federation.
Rhode Island Department of Health. 2001. Rhode Island Department of Health (RIDOH) EMPACT
Program beach monitoring procedures and protocols for sampling and data management: Revision number
1, May 13, 2000. In: Bacterial water quality monitoring at upper Narragansett Bay bathing beaches, an
EMPACT project, final report, appendix 4. May 2001.
U.S. EPA. 1986. Ambient water quality criteria for bacteria—1986. EPA/440/5-84/002. Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1998. EPA guidance for quality assurance project plans. EPA/600/R-98/018. Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1999. EPA action plan for beaches and recreational waters. EPA/600/R-98/079. Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 2002. National beach guidance and required performance criteria for grants. EPA/823/B-02/004.
Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA Region 1 and Metropolitan District Commission. 1998. Boston Harbor Monitoring: Testing
Enterococcus Method 1600. Revision No. 2, July 23.
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APPENDIX A: SAMPLE BEACH SURVEY
Name of Beach:
Bathing Beach Survey
Date: Time of Day:
Weather Conditions:
Sunny & Clear
Cloudy/Overcast _
Rainy
Foggy
Water Temp:
Windy_
Tidal Flow:
Slow Moderate
Activity on Beach:
Approximate # of people
Sunbathing Fish
Conditions of the Beach:
Overall Appearance:
Low tide
Adults
ing Boating
Children
Walking
Swimming
Other activity
Debris on shore:
Debris in water:
Vegetation in water: 12345
<25% 25% 50% 75% 100% cover
Vegetation in shore: 12345
<25% 25% 50% 75% 100% cover in 1 meter quadrat
Width of wrack on shore (in meters)
Visible Sewage or Sewage Odor
Storrnwater pipes or other flows across beach
Conditions of Water:
Clear: Cloudy & Murky:
Oily Film:
Sources of Pollution:
Water fowl Approximate #—Seagulls
Approximate # of boats:
Wind and Weather Conditions:
Ducks
Geese
Swans _
Additional Comments:
Source: Rhode Island Department of Health; EPA Region 1
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APPENDIX B: EXAMPLES OF SELECTED SAMPLE
COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Example 1:
Field Sampling Procedures
The sampler will stand in the water and collect a sample from a minimum of 3 feet of water, adjacent to,
but not impacted by, moderate swimmer activity and in an undisturbed area of water. The sample will be
taken at least one foot above the bottom. The sampler will stand away from and "downstream from" the
bottle.
• Fill pre-labeled, sterile, screw-capped 250 ml Nalgene bottles to 90% capacity.
• Place samples in iced cooler (4°C).
• Maximum holding time: 6 hours (for fecal coliform, enterococci).
• Delivery to the [certified] laboratory within one hour of completion.
Source: U.S. EPA Region 1 and Metropolitan District Commission, 1998
Example 2:
Procedure for Collection of Bathing Beach Water Samples for Bacteriological Analysis
Arrangements with Laboratory: Testing must be performed by laboratories that are licensed by the RIDOH
for bacteriological testing of water. Because samples must be collected in sterile bottles and because the labo-
ratory may have special requirements for submissions of samples, be sure to contact the laboratory that will
be analyzing the samples prior to collection. The samples must be kept in an iced cooler and must be tested
... following the procedures in the Standard Methods for the Examination ofWater and Wastewater...
Source: Rhode Island Department of Health, 2001
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EMPACT: Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
EPA/625/R-02/017
October 2002
TIME-RELEVANT BEACH AND
RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
MONITORING AND REPORTING
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Disclaimer: This document has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation of their use.
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EMPACT: Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
Continue »
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EMPACT: Time Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
1.2 Regulations and Guidance for Beach and Recreational Water Quality
1.3 Introduction to the Case Study Projects
1.3.1 Real-Time Monitoring and Reporting of Water Quality for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor
Beaches Project
1.3.2 Cities of Milwaukee and Racine Health Departments Community Recreational Water Risk Assessment
and Public Outreach (Beachhealth)
1.3.3 Rhode Island Department of Health Narragansett Bay Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project
CHAPTER 2 HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
2.1 Road Map
2.2 Frequently Asked Questions.
CHAPTER 3 GETTING STARTED: PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
3.1 Overview of Health Concerns and Water Quality Monitoring
3.1.1 Water-Related Health Concerns
3.1.2 Water Quality Monitoring
3.1.3 Sources of Pathogen Contamination
3.1.4 Why Time-Relevant Water Quality Monitoring Is Needed
3.2 Factors To Consider in Designing a Time-Relevant Water Quality Monitoring Program
3.3 Examples of Program Objectives and Program Design Considerations
3.3.1 Real-Time Monitoring and Reporting of Water Quality
for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project
3.3.2 Cities of Milwaukee and Racine Health Departments Community Recreational Water Risk Assessment
and Public Outreach (Beachhealth) Project
3.3.3 Rhode Island Department of Health Narragansett Bay Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project
CHAPTER 4 TIME-RELEVANT BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND MODELING
4.1 Overview of Monitoring and Sample Collection
4.1.1 What Water Quality Parameters Should Be Monitored?
4.1.2 Where Should Monitoring Sites Be Located?
4.1.3 When Should Water Quality Monitoring Occur?
4.1.4 How Are Beach/Recreational Water Quality Samples Collected?
4.1.5 Who Should Conduct Water Quality Monitoring?
4.2 Quality Control Plans and Procedures
4.2.1 Data Verification Methods
4.2.2 Data Validation
4.3 Sample Analysis
4.3.1 Indicator Organism Analysis Methods
4.4 Predictive Models
4.5 Interpretation and Use of Monitoring and Modeling Results
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EMPACT: Time Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
CHAPTER 5 DATA MANAGEMENT
5.1 Design Considerations for a Data Management System
5.1.1 Designing or Modifying a Data Management System To Meet Program Objectives
5.1.2 Spatially Related Data (Such as G\S]
5.1.3 Quality Assurance/Quality Control
5.2 Data Management Systems Used bv the Case Study Projects
5.2.1 Selecting a Data Management System
5.2.2 Altering Existing Systems To Meet Program Objectives
5.2.3 System Use and Maintenance
5.2.4 System Security
5.3 Data Delivery via the Web
5.3.1 Web Content
5.3.2 Future Web Site Goals
CHAPTER 6 PUBLIC NOTIFICATION AND RISK COMMUNICATION FOR BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATER
QUALITY
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Information To Communicate to the Public
6.3 Key Public Notification Methods for Beach/Recreational Waters
6.3.1 Warning Flags
6.3.2 Beach Signs
6.3.3 Telephone Hotline
6.3.4 Project Web Site
6.3.5 News Media
6.4 Additional Public Notification and Outreach Methods
6.5 Developing an Outreach Plan for Public Notification
6.5.1 Step 1: Who Do You Want To Reach?
6.5.2 Step 2: What Questions Need To Be Answered?
6.5.3 Step 3: What Are the Most Effective Wavs To Reach Your Audience?
6.5.4 Step 4: How Will Your Outreach Products Reach Your Audience?
6.5.5 Step 5: What Follow-Up Mechanisms Will You Establish?
6.5.6 Step 6: What Is the Schedule for Implementation?
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A SAMPLE BEACH SURVEY
APPENDIX B EXAMPLES OF SAMPLE COLLECTION PROCEDURES
LIST OF FIGURES
4-1 Schematic of the Milwaukee/Racine. Wisconsin, automated beach monitoring system
5-1 Data flow for beach/recreational water quality results
5-2 Sample data form available to the public on the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth Web site
5-3 Colored flag icons used i the Charles River Basin/Boston I arbor Beaches Project to indicate water quality
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EMPACT: Time Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
LIST OF TABLES
1-1 Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring Case Study Projects
3-1 Water Quality Criteria Recommended by EPA for Bacteria
3-2 Water Quality Criteria Used by Three Case Study Projects
4-1 Parameters Monitored in Three Case Study Projects
4-2 EPA-Approved and Other Acceptable Standard Methods for the Analysis of Bacterial Indicator Organisms in
Ambient Waters
4-3 Analysis Methods Used bvthe Three Case Study Projects
4-4 Beach Closing and Reopening Procedures of the Three Case Study Projects
5-1 Changes Made to Existing Data Management Systems To Meet Program Objectives
5-2 Web Content of the Three Case Study Projects
6-1 Public Notification and Outreach Initiatives Used bvthe Three Case Study Projects
6-2 Examples of Outreach Products
6-3 Examples of Distribution Methods
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EMPACT: Time Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This handbook is the result of the efforts of many individuals. Linda Stein and Mary Willett
of Eastern Research Group, Inc., an EPA contractor, served as co-authors. Daniel Murray and
Carolyn Wieland, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Office of Research and
Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, provided
technical direction and contract management support, respectively. In addition, the efforts of
the following people were invaluable during the development of this handbook and are deeply
appreciated:
Shannon Briggs, Michigan Department of Environmental Quality
Mary Ellen Bruesch, City of Milwaukee Health Department
David Burnett, Rhode Island Department of Health
Mark Doolittle, Metropolitan District Commission (Massachusetts)
Don Killinger, Cuyahoga County Board of Health (Ohio)
Charles Kovatch, U.S. EPA, Office of Water
Matthew Liebman, U.S. EPA, Region 1
Jill Lis, Cuyahoga County Board of Health (Ohio)
Jack Pingree, Delaware Department of Natural Resources
David Turin, U.S. EPA, Region 1
Gary White, Macomb County Health Department (Michigan)
Ann Maire Fournier, Monmouth County Health Department (New Jersey)
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EMPACT: Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Is it safe to swim at local beaches today? What are the best ways to
communicate current water quality conditions to the public? This handbook
provides information on how to design and implement a time-relevant water
quality monitoring program for beaches and other recreational waters. The
handbook is intended for people who are considering developing a
recreational water quality monitoring program for their community or wish to
enhance their existing program.
The National Risk Management Research Laboratory of EPA's Office of
Research and Development initiated the development of this handbook to
help interested communities learn more about the beach monitoring
projects associated with EPA's Environmental Monitoring for Public Access and Community Tracking (EMPACT)
Program, and to give communities the information they need to conduct their own projects. Much of the information in
this handbook is provided through case studies of three monitoring projects that address the concerns of recreational
swimmers, boaters, and other water users, primarily by:
• Monitoring recreational waters for indicators of waterborne pathogens (disease-causing organisms).
• Collecting and managing water quality data in efficient ways.
• Notifying the public in a timely fashion of water quality conditions.
The handbook follows the three case study projects through the design and implementation of their time-relevant
recreational water quality monitoring programs, the development of management and delivery systems for water
quality data, and the creation and implementation of public notification and risk communication programs.
The three beach/recreational water case study projects highlighted in this document were conducted before Congress
passed the Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health (BEACH) Act in October 2000, and these projects
may not necessarily reflect guidance associated with the BEACH Act. The EPA National Beach Guidance and
Required Performance Criteria for Grants, or Beach Guidance Document (U.S. EPA, 2002), lists the beach program
monitoring and notification criteria, as established in the BEACH Act, that a state must meet to obtain BEACH grants.
To learn more about the BEACH Act, BEACH grants, and the Beach Guidance Document, visit
http://www.epa.gov/ost/beaches/ on the Internet.
1.2 REGULATIONS AND GUIDANCE FOR BEACH AND RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
It is important for beach and recreational water quality managers to be familiar with the applicable statutes, regulations,
and programs discussed below; they contain specific requirements and useful design and implementation guidance for
developing and improving water quality monitoring and public notification programs.
Beach and recreational water quality has been protected for over 30 years by the federal Clean Water Act (CWA).
Water quality criteria developed under Section 304 of the CWA include Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria—
1986 (U.S. EPA, 1986; see http://www.epa.gov/ost/standards/bacteria/). which specifies levels of certain bacteria that
should not be exceeded in marine and fresh recreational waters to protect public health/recreation and aquatic life.
In 1997, EPA established the BEACH Program. Its goals were to improve public health and environmental protection
programs for beachgoers and provide the public with information about the quality of their beach water. The BEACH
Program has focused on strengthening beach standards and testing, providing faster laboratory test methods,
predicting pollution, investing in health and methods research, and informing the public about water quality and any
associated health risks.
The 1999 EPA Action Plan for Beaches and Recreational Waters (U.S. EPA, 1999), developed as a strategy for
accomplishing the goals of the BEACH Program, identified EPA activities that would enable consistent management of
recreational water quality programs and improve the science that supports recreational water monitoring programs.
The signing into law of the BEACH Act, in October 2000, established certain EPA BEACH Program activities as
statutory requirements. The Act requires states and tribes that have coastal recreational waters to adopt new or
revised water quality standards for pathogens and pathogen indicators for which EPA has published water quality
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criteria, and requires that EPA promulgate new or revised standards for states and tribes that fail to do so. The
BEACH Act also requires EPA to develop and publish new, improved criteria for pathogens and pathogen indicators.
In addition, the Act authorizes EPA to award grants to states and tribes to develop and implement programs to:
• Monitor and assess, for pathogens and pathogen indicators, coastal recreational waters adjacent to beaches or
similar points of access that are used by the public for swimming, bathing, surfing, or similar water contact
activities.
• Notify the public when coastal recreational water quality standards are exceeded.
EPA BEACH Program activities have included conducting conferences with federal, state, and local authorities to
identify the needs of recreational water quality programs; helping states and tribes adopt updated water quality criteria
for £. co// and/or enterococcus bacteria into their water quality standards; developing a new, faster laboratory test
method for enterococcus bacteria (Method 1600); publishing a review of potential predictive modeling tools; conducting
research on new methods and indicators to assess waterborne pathogens; establishing a grant program to provide
support to states, territories, tribes, and local governments for coastal recreational water quality monitoring and public
notification programs; conducting an ongoing National Health Protection Survey of Beaches to gather information on
state and local monitoring and beach advisory actions; and establishing a "Beach Watch" Web site to improve public
access to information about recreational water quality. Additional information on EPA's BEACH Program can be found
at httD://www.eDa.aov/ost/beaches.
EPA's Beach Guidance Document
As required under the BEACH Act, EPA has published National Beach Guidance and Required
Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002), also known as the Beach Guidance Document,
to help states develop and implement their beach monitoring and public notification programs.
The document lists grant performance criteria and gives guidance for states seeking to meet the
criteria, including:
How to evaluate beaches for risk-based classification.
Beach monitoring and assessment procedures for water sample collection, sample handling,
and laboratory analysis.
Using predictive models to estimate bacteria levels.
Developing procedures, such as beach advisories, closings, and openings, for public
notificationof beach conditions.
This handbook is independent of the Beach Guidance Document and therefore does not necessarily
reflect guidance associated with the BEACH Act. Readers are encouraged to refer to the Beach
Guidance Document for more detailed information on the topics addressed in this handbook and for
specific information related to the BEACH Act and BEACH grants. The Beach Guidance Document can
be found at http://www.epa.aov/ost/beaches/technical.html.
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO THE CASE STUDY PROJECTS
The projects on which this handbook's case studies are based are listed in Table 1-1 and summarized below.
Table 1-1. Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring Case Study Projects
Project Title Location
Charles River Basin/ Boston Harbor Boston,
Beaches Project Massachusetts
Web Site
http://www.state.ma.us/mdc
Cities of Milwaukee and Racine
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Health Departments Community
Recreational Water Risk
Assessment and Public Outreach
(Beachhealth)
Milwaukee and
Racine, Wisconsin
http://infotrek.er.usgs.aov/Dls/
beachhealth
Rhode Island Department of Health
Narragansett Bay Bathing Beaches
Monitoring Project
Narragansett Bay,
Rhode Island
http://www.healthri.org/environment/
beaches/index, html
1.3.1 REAL-TIME MONITORING AND REPORTING OF WATER QUALITY FOR THE CHARLES RIVER
BASIN/BOSTON HARBOR BEACHES PROJECT
Several groups—the Metropolitan District Commission, the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, the Boston
Harbor Association, the Charles River Watershed Association, and others—have worked as partners for a number of
years to improve the water quality of the Charles River and Boston Harbor in Massachusetts. In 1998, EPA's EMPACT
Program funded a project to enhance real-time monitoring and reporting of water quality for the Charles River and
Boston Harbor. Through this project, the partner groups expanded their existing efforts to provide the public with timely
information about water quality conditions in the Charles River and at Boston Harbor beaches.
1.3.2 CITIES OF MILWAUKEE AND RACINE HEALTH DEPARTMENTS COMMUNITY RECREATIONAL WATER
RISK ASSESSMENT AND PUBLIC OUTREACH (BEACHHEALTH)
In 1998, EPA's EMPACT Program funded the Community Recreational Water Risk Assessment and Public Outreach
project to enhance the public beach monitoring and associated health risk advisory efforts that the City of Milwaukee
Health Department and the City of Racine Health Department had been conducting for several years. Through the
"Beachhealth" project, people in Wisconsin can learn about daily water quality conditions at beaches in the Milwaukee
and Racine areas throughout the swimming season.
1.3.3 RHODE ISLAND DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH NARRAGANSETT BAY BATHING BEACHES MONITORING
PROJECT
In 1999, EPA's EMPACT Program helped to fund the Rhode Island Department of Health's Bathing Beaches
Monitoring Project. This project provides time-relevant water quality and safety information for seven licensed bathing
facilities in the Upper Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island. Through effective management of these beaches, the Rhode
Island Department of Health sought to develop a pilot project to minimize public health risks associated with swimming
at all Rhode Island beaches. The Project sampled a number of other sites to determine whether water quality would
support licensing additional beaches in the area in the future.
Table of Contents
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2. HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
This handbook provides information on how to design and implement a time-relevant water quality monitoring program
for beaches and other recreational waters. The information in the handbook is intended for multiple audiences,
including managers of public and private beaches, technicians and operators of water-quality monitoring equipment
and data management systems, public affairs staff, and other professionals tasked with implementing a timely
beach/recreational water quality monitoring program. Section 2.1 provides a "road map" that directs you to chapters
that may be of greatest interest for your particular program. Section 2.2 answers frequently asked questions regarding
time-relevant beach and recreational water quality monitoring.
2.1 ROAD MAP
Design a program
thai addresses
water quality
monitoring, data
management, and
public notification.
baaed on specific
program goals
(Chapter 3).
Implement a water
quality monitoring
and analyze time-
relevant beach and
recreational water
quality data
(Chapter 4).
Develop and
Implement a oata
management
system to manage
and deliver time-
relevant water
quality data
(Chapters).
Create ami imple-
ment a public
notification ami
risk communica-
tion pro gram \o
inform the public
of potential health
risks (Chapter G).
Each chapter of this handbook provides general information about the particular topics being introduced, followed by
case study examples from three EMPACT time-relevant beach/recreational water quality monitoring projects. The
examples include successful approaches that you might want to consider in developing your own programs, as well as
references to additional sources of information such as Web sites and guidance documents.
Specifically, the handbook provides the following information:
• Chapters discusses program design, beginning with an overview of health concerns and conventional beach
and recreational water quality monitoring. It then describes time-relevant water quality monitoring and some key
factors to consider when designing a time-relevant monitoring program. Lastly, it discusses the stated goals
and objectives of each of the three case study projects.
• Chapter 4 discusses water quality sampling and analysis, including information on sample collection, sample
analysis, quality assurance and quality control, predictive models, and interpretation and use of monitoring
results.
• Chapter 5 focuses on data management and data delivery, beginning with a discussion of the design
considerations involved in developing or modifying a system to manage time-relevant data. For each of the
case study programs, the chapter discusses the design, use, and maintenance of data management systems
and the mechanisms used to deliver data to the public via the Internet.
• Chapter6 describes methods for effectively notifying the public of potential health risks associated with
contamination of beach and other recreational waters. The chapter discusses the methods used by the three
case study projects for public notification and presents the steps needed to create and implement a
comprehensive outreach plan for public notification.
• Appendix A contains a survey form used by the Rhode Island beach program, and Appendix B includes
examples of sample collection procedures.
2.2 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
Whether you are just beginning to consider time-relevant beach and recreational water quality monitoring for your
community or want to expand an existing program, the following answers to frequently asked questions may be helpful.
Q: How is a time-relevant water quality monitoring program different from a conventional beach monitoring
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program?
A: Time-relevant water quality monitoring and reporting can help to reduce or eliminate exposure to high levels of
potential waterborne pathogens. Alternative analysis methods, predictive modeling, and innovative and quick methods
of distributing sample results to the public are some of the ways in which time-relevant programs achieve their goals.
In contrast, conventional water quality monitoring programs are often driven by the (relatively long) time it takes to
obtain results using traditional methods of sample analysis and may not emphasize new and quicker ways to get
information to the public.
Q: What are the benefits of designing and implementing a time-relevant recreational water quality monitoring
program?
A: Exposure to recreational waters contaminated with bacteria, viruses, or other disease-causing organisms can result
in a variety of illnesses (e.g., gastrointestinal problems) in people using these waters. Time-relevant water quality
monitoring and reporting can help reduce the period of time in which people are potentially exposed to high levels of
these waterborne organisms. In addition, since bacteria exceedances are often transient events, time-relevant
monitoring allows water quality managers to reopen or unpost these waters sooner.
Q: Can my existing data management system be used for a time-relevant water quality monitoring program?
A: Yes, most existing data management systems can be used for time-relevant monitoring projects. A system can be
used if it includes the basic components needed to manage and communicate the data, including a data storage and
retrieval system, a data delivery system, and procedures for quality assurance, quality control, and data security. An
information systems specialist can help you to determine what your existing system can do and how to modify it, if
necessary, to meet real-time project requirements.
Q: What are some good ways to tell the public about recreational water quality and associated health risks?
A: Some quick, effective methods are: placing flags at beaches and other key locations that indicate whether the water
quality on a particular day is acceptable for swimming, boating, etc.; training beach lifeguards to inform beachgoers of
daily water quality conditions; developing water quality forecasts that are used by local media (e.g., television,
newspapers) to report daily or weekend recreational water quality conditions; setting up a water quality information
telephone "hotline"; and posting water quality results (e.g., daily or near-daily) on a well-publicized Web site. See
Chapter 6 for more discussion of these and other methods. It is often useful to include several of these methods in
your program to reach a larger number of people.
« Back | Table of Contents | Next »
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3. GETTING STARTED:
PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The first step in designing a time-relevant water quality monitoring and public notification program for beaches or other
recreational waters is to clearly identify the goals of your program. The ultimate goals are to protect public health from
potential health risks associated with use of these waters, and to notify members of the public who use these waters of
any potential risks. This chapter first presents an overview of health concerns and of beach and recreational water
quality monitoring (Section 3.1). then discusses factors to consider when designing a program (Section 3.2). Section
3J3 describes three case study projects, focusing on examples of design factors that these projects considered
important.1
3.1 OVERVIEW OF HEALTH CONCERNS AND WATER QUALITY MONITORING
3.1.1 WATER-RELATED HEALTH CONCERNS
People can be exposed to disease-causing organisms (such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa) in beach and
recreational waters mainly through accidental ingestion of contaminated water or through skin contact. These
organisms, called pathogens, usually come from the feces of humans and other warm-blooded animals. If taken into
the body, pathogens can cause various illnesses and, on rare occasions, even death. Waterborne illnesses include
diseases resulting from bacterial infection (such as cholera, salmonellosis, and gastroenteritis), viral infection (such as
infectious hepatitis, gastroenteritis, and intestinal diseases), and protozoan infections (such as amoebic dysentery and
giardiasis).
3.1.2 WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Conventional beach and recreational water quality monitoring often relies on the use of "indicator organisms" to
measure the likelihood of the presence or absence of pathogens. The most commonly monitored recreational water
indicator organisms are fecal coliform, E. coli, and enterococci:
• Fecal coliform. These bacteria are a subgroup of coliform bacteria that usually live in the intestinal tracts of
warm-blooded animals, including humans. Fecal coliform was originally recommended in 1968 by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration (the predecessor to EPA) as an effective water quality indicator
organism for beach and recreational waters. It is thought to be a better indicator than total coliform of the
presence of pathogens found in the feces of humans or other warm-blooded species. Studies conducted in the
1970s and 1980s indicated that the presence of this organism showed less correlation to illnesses associated
with swimming than does the presence of some other indicator organisms, including E. coli and enterococci.
• Escherichia coli (E. coli). E. coli is a specific indicator of fecal contamination because it constitutes
greater than 90 percent of the fecal coliform bacteria found in human and animal waste. These bacteria
can become pathogenic when they contact tissues outside the intestinal tract, particularly the
urinary and biliary tracts, lungs, peritoneum, and meninges. EPA currently recommends E. coli
(or enterococci) as an indicator organism for fresh waters (U.S. EPA, 1986).
• Enterococci. Enterococci are another type of bacteria that live in the intestinal tract of
humans and some animals. The risk to swimmers of contracting gastrointestinal illness appears to be
predicted better by enterococci than by fecal coliform; EPA currently recommends enterococci as an
indicator organism for both fresh and marine waters (U.S. EPA, 1986).
What Are Bacteria, Viruses, and Protozoa?
Bacteria are one of the most common single-celled microorganisms. Many types of bacteria are
found in recreational waters. Some types of bacteria can be beneficial, while other types, including
fecal coliform, salmonella, staphylococcus, and E. coli, can cause diseases. Fecal waste from warm-
blooded animals (including humans) is a key source of bacteria found in water bodies. Bacteria in
recreational waters can often be successfully eliminated or reduced to levels associated with relatively
low health risks through chemical disinfection treatments, such as chlorination or ozonation of
wastewater before it enters the surface water in the beach area.
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Viruses are submicroscopic infectious agents that require host cells in which to live. Many of the
viruses affecting water quality and human health originate in the gastrointestinal tracts of infected
animals (including humans) and are then released to the environment in fecal wastes. Examples of
some of the more common waterborne, disease-causing viruses include hepatitis A, rotaviruses,
Norwalk-type viruses, adenoviruses, and enteroviruses. Viruses are more resistant than bacteria to
conventional water treatment such as chlorination. Treatments such as ultraviolet light and ozonation
are more effective than chlorination in treating viruses.
Protozoa are single-celled organisms that live primarily in the aquatic environment. Some disease-
causing protozoa exist in the environment as cysts that hatch, grow, and multiply after ingestion,
causing illness. Two disease-causing, waterborne protozoa of major concern are Giardia lamblia and
Cryptosporidium. Like viruses, protozoa are more resistant to conventional treatment such as
chlorination.
Ingesting water containing bacteria, viruses, or protozoa is the most common route of human exposure
to these microorganisms. A key factor in the successful treatment of these microbes is allowing
adequate contact time with the disinfecting agent. Certain physical and chemical conditions (e.g., high
suspended solids) can reduce treatment effectiveness if not addressed. For more information on
bacteria, viruses, and orotozoa. visit httD://www.eDa.aov/microbes/.
3.1.3 SOURCES OF PATHOGEN CONTAMINATION
Pathogens generally enter beach/recreational waters through rainfall runoff, which picks
up pathogens as it moves through the environment (e.g., from failing septic systems,
leaking sewers, wastes from wildlife such as birds or domestic animals), or through
point source discharges (i.e., sewage from a pipe or other specific source). Heavy
rainfall ("wet weather") events can elevate pathogen levels in beach/recreational waters
because rainfall can flush pathogens into a water body from other areas of the
watershed. Also, combined sewer overflow (CSO) pipes may discharge into a
recreational water body during rainfall events, releasing excess discharges of storm
water and sanitary wastewater into the environment with little or no treatment. Sanitary
sewer overflows (SSOs), which are occasional unintentional discharges of raw sewage,
are another potential source of pathogens in recreational water bodies. In areas with
separate storm-water and sanitary-sewer systems, both storm-water discharges and SSOs can carry high bacteria
levels. Other point sources of potential water contamination include discharge pipes from businesses that adjoin water
bodies. Nonpoint-source discharges from poorly maintained or failing septic systems or other sources of groundwater
contamination can also contribute to bacterial contamination of beach water.
More About CSOs and SSOs as Contamination Sources
Not all sewer systems are created equal. While modern systems generally handle rainwater and
sanitary wastewaters from homes and businesses in different pipes, some older systems have
"combined" sewers that carry both rainwater and sewage flows. During normal conditions, the
combined flows are delivered to treatment plants. During heavy rainfall, however, flows sometimes
double and even triple. These combined systems are designed so that excess flows (called combined
sewer overflows or CSOs) are released from outfalls along the system into water bodies with little or
no prior treatment. This overflow system prevents sewer backups into homes and onto area streets
and also prevents overloading of the treatment plant, but it does so at considerable cost to local water
A sanitary sewer system is meant to collect and transport all of the sewage that flows into it to a
publicly owned treatment works. Occasionally, though, raw sewage is unintentionally discharged from
municipal sanitary sewers before it reaches the treatment works. These discharges, called sanitary
sewer overflows (SSOs), occur in almost every system. SSOs have a variety of causes, including but
not limited to infiltration and inflow< of ground water and water from other sources, severe weather,
improper system operation and maintenance, and vandalism. These discharges contaminate our
waters, causing serious water quality problems. For more information on SSOs, visit
httD://www.eDa.aov/nodes/sso/.
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3.1.4 WHY TIME-RELEVANT WATER QUALITY MONITORING IS NEEDED
When elevated waterborne pathogen levels are found in an area, the public should be notified quickly about the
potential health risks in that area. One problem with conventional beach and recreational water quality monitoring is the
time lag between collecting water samples and providing the public with results. This lag is due to the time it takes
(from 24 to 72 hours) to analyze indicator organism levels. During this time, pathogen levels, weather, and water
conditions may change, and related health risks may also change. Thus, authorities responsible for informing and
protecting the public often must decide on beach and recreational water postings, closings, and re-openings using
indicator organism data that reflect conditions as they were 1 to 3 days earlier. This delay could be particularly
problematic after certain events, such as a significant rainstorm or a sewage spill. To address this time lag problem,
time-relevant water quality monitoring strives to shorten analysis times, use quicker predictive methods, and
communicate beach/recreational water quality information to the public on a timely (e.g., near-daily) basis so the public
can make more informed decisions regarding recreational water use.
3.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING A TIME-RELEVANT WATER QUALITY
MONITORING PROGRAM
Program goals and objectives are key factors to identify when designing a time-relevant beach and recreational water
quality monitoring program. Regulatory requirements that protect water quality and public health (e.g., state water
quality standards, public health codes) must also be incorporated into the water quality monitoring program. In
addition, available resources and community involvement are important considerations for program design. These
factors are discussed below.
• Program objectives. Your program objectives should support your goals of public health protection and public
notification of health risks. Thus objectives should identify how to effectively and quickly (1) monitor beaches
and other recreational waters to determine whether water quality is sufficient to protect public health and (2)
communicate health risks to those people who use or are otherwise impacted by area beach and recreational
waters (e.g., swimmers, boaters, fishermen, water skiers).
Program elements that support these objectives can include monitoring more frequently or at additional
locations, using analytical methods that provide results sooner, using a predictive model to supplement
monitoring and reduce time lags, and improving the public notification process. These program elements are
discussed in Chapters 4 and 6. Your program will be unique; you may decide to incorporate any or all of these
or other elements.
• Water quality standards. To comply with CWA requirements, states must establish water quality standards,
which must be approved by EPA. These standards are at the core of each state's water quality management
program. While standards may differ considerably from state to state, they must contain several key elements
to be consistent with EPA regulations. The first of these key elements is the identification of designated uses
for all waters. These use designations should be consistent with CWA goals—that, wherever possible, waters
provide for the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and provide for recreation in and on the
water. These use goals are usually referred to by the expression "fishable/swimmable." Examples of
designated uses most relevant to beach and recreational waters include primary contact recreation (i.e.,
swimming and other recreational activities that can result in ingestion of or immersion in the water) and
secondary contact recreation (e.g., boating and fishing, in which minimal body contact with or ingestion of the
water is expected). Another potentially important designated use relevant to public health is shellfish
harvesting, which would result in direct human consumption of the shellfish. Some states designate uses
through a class system (Class A, B, or C), while other states specify the use (e.g., primary contact recreation,
drinking water).
A second key element of water quality standards is the adoption of water quality criteria that must be met to
support the designated uses. EPA publishes water quality criteria that guide the states in setting their own
criteria, as required by the CWA (Section 304). Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria—1986 (U.S. EPA,
1986) recommended the use of E. coli and enterococci as indicator organisms for bacteria for the designated
use of swimming. In that document, EPA recommended that water quality criteria be based on geometric mean
(i.e., drawn from a statistically sufficient number of samples) densities of bacteria and on maximum single-
sample bacteria densities, neither of which are to be exceeded in marine and fresh recreational waters. The
criteria that EPA recommended for bacteria are shown in Table 3-1. Check with your state environmental or
public health agency to find out what water quality criteria your state has adopted. A state's water quality
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criteria are used as the basis to close (or post) and reopen a beach. As discussed below, while many states
still use fecal or total coliform as the basis for their water quality criteria, the BEACH Act requires that coastal
states adopt criteria consistent with the EPA 1986 guidance by 2004. For example, Rhode Island's state
standard currently is 50 colony-forming units per 100 milliliters (50 CFU/100 ml) of fecal coliform, as shown in
Table 3-2; however, Rhode Island anticipates switching to enterococci. The water quality criteria used by the
three projects highlighted in this handbook are discussed in Chapter 4. Table 4-4.
Table 3-1. Water Quality Criteria Recommended by EPA for Bacteria
Steady-State Geometric
Mean Indicator Density1
Most Commonly Used Single-
Sample Maximum Allowable
Density1
Designated Beach Area (Upper
75% CL2)
Fresh Water (in CFU/100 ml3
Enterococci
£. co//
33
126
Marine Water (in CFU/100 ml)4
Enterococci
35
61
235
104
1 For an explanation of "geometric mean" and "single-sample maximum allowable density," see the box entitled "EPA Water Quality Criteria
Reflect Health Risks and Recreational Water Uses." For single samples, the "Designated Beach Area" criteria listed above are usually used.
Other single-sample densities (included in EPA's list of recommended criteria but not shown here) may be selected if a reason exists to do
so (e.g., a reduced risk due to an area being less frequently used for swimming). See Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria—1986 on
EPA's Beaches Web site
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Boston Harbor (marine
water):
35 CFU/100 ml enterococci -
geometric mean
104 CFU/100 ml enterococci -
single samples
1AII of the programs listed anticipate switching to E. coli or enterococci by 2004 or sooner.
2CFU = colony-forming units; ml = milliliters; FC = fecal coliform; MPN = most probable number.
In addition to the federal and state requirements and guidance discussed above, additional state and local
requirements may apply. For example, in Massachusetts, beaches are managed and monitored based on the state
public health code (revised in 2000 to make it consistent with EPA requirements), which includes state water quality
criteria. Local protocols may also be established to meet state codes and regulations. Beach management and
monitoring in Rhode Island is based on state codes and regulations as well as beach opening and closure procedures
established by the Rhode Island Department of Health and the Rhode Island Department of Environmental
Management. In Wisconsin, the state issues a model beach ordinance, which municipalities may, but are not required
to, use. The City of Milwaukee developed its own beach ordinance based on the state's model ordinance.
EPA Water Quality Criteria Reflect Health Risks and Recreational Water Uses
EPA Water Quality Criteria Reflect Health Risks and Recreational Water Uses The EPA water quality
criteria listed in Table 3-1 reflect specific health risks and water uses, as described below (U.S. EPA,
1986).
Geometric mean. The geometric mean values summarized in Table 3-1 are based on specific
levels of risk of acute gastrointestinal illness: no more than 8 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for fresh
water and no more than 19 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for marine water (U.S. EPA, 1986). EPA has
determined that, when these water quality criteria are implemented in a conservative manner, they are
protective for prevention of gastrointestinal illness resulting from primary contact recreation. EPA
recommends that at least five samples over a 30-day period be taken to calculate the geometric mean.
Single-sample maximum. Noncompliance can also be indicated by unacceptably high single-
sample measurements. Single-sample maximum values can help determine whether to close or post a
beach when a single-sample measurement shows a value that exceeds the single-sample maximum.
The maximum for single samples is set higher than the geometric mean to prevent unnecessary
closures based on a single sample. Use of a single-sample maximum is also important because it is
assumed that environmental conditions that can affect bacteria levels in water (such as rainfall, wind,
currents, tides, and temperature) will vary temporally and spatially. Like the geometric mean, these
singlesample maximums, summarized in Table 3-1. are based on specific levels of risk of acute
gastrointestinal illness: again, no more than 8 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for fresh waters and no
more than 19 illnesses per 1,000 swimmers for marine waters.
Availability of resources. Funding and staffing constraints can limit the design of a water quality monitoring
program. These resource limitations can impact when, where, and how often you monitor water quality and can
also impact your public notification process. If resources are a limiting factor, consider having program partners
administer your monitoring, data management, or notification program. Other agencies or organizations
involved in recreational water quality issues (e.g., watershed associations, community groups, other state and
local agencies) may be interested in contributing funds and/or staff to support a time-relevant water quality
monitoring program. See the latter part of this chapter and Chapters 5 and 6 for more information on program
partners.
Community input. The design of a successful time-relevant water quality monitoring program should include
public input regarding what people want and need to know about beach and recreational water quality and
related health risks, as well as how they prefer to receive this information (e.g., the Internet, beach flags,
newspaper notices). Also, community members are often a valuable source of information about an area (e.g.,
possible sources of contamination).
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3.3 EXAMPLES OF PROGRAM OBJECTIVES AND PROGRAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
This section presents an overview of the objectives for each of the three projects discussed in this handbook, along
with a discussion of some of the design factors (as discussed in Section 3.2) considered by each of the projects. More
detailed information on these projects is provided in later chapters. It should be noted that all three of these projects
were developed prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000 and the Beach Guidance Document (U.S. EPA, 2002);
program managers should review these sources for current requirements and recommendations.
3.3.1 REAL-TIME MONITORING AND REPORTING OF WATER QUALITY FOR THE CHARLES RIVER
BASIN/BOSTON HARBOR BEACHES PROJECT
Boston Harbor is adjacent to Boston, Massachusetts, and influenced by a prominent, densely settled, urban
recreational watershed. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project is a key initiative supporting the EPA-
New England goal of making the Charles River fishable and swimmable by Earth Day 2005. The overall project
objectives are:
• To help reduce public health risks associated with pathogen contamination in the Charles River Basin and at
Boston Harbor area beaches.
• To enhance existing monitoring efforts by the Charles River Watershed Association (CRWA), Metropolitan
District Commission (MDC), and Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) in the Charles River
Basin and at Boston Harbor area beaches.
• To enable the public to make more informed decisions related to river and beach use and public health.
• To evaluate two different analytical methods for enterococci, one of which provides results more quickly, within
24 hours.
Two key design factors for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project were the use of project partners to
enhance the resources available to the project and the importance of community input and outreach, as discussed
below.
Project partners. The project was designed to expand the efforts of several partner
organizations that have been working for a number of years to improve the water quality of
Boston-area beaches and the Charles River. The project enhanced these partners' ability
to provide the public with time-relevant information about water quality conditions. The
project design maximized the use of program partners for both monitoring and public
notification efforts. Wherever possible, The Boston Harbor Association (TBHA) collaborated
with the CRWA to conduct public outreach aimed at enabling a diverse, multi-cultural public
to make more informed decisions related to the use of both the Boston Harbor beaches
and the Charles River. Additional partners included the MWRA, the MDC, members of the
Wollaston Beach Task Force, and members of the Boston Harbor Water Quality Task
Force.
Outreach to the community and public input. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor
Beaches Project uses several different types of public outreach to collect feedback on the
water quality notification system and to build community awareness of recreational water quality issues. One example
of this process is a public meeting, hosted by TBHA, that included a discussion by the program partners on water
quality conditions during the beach season and efforts to provide the public with "real-time" information. Another
example is another TBHA-hosted public workshop, during which comments were solicited from workshop participants.
The public outreach components of this program are many and varied and have included:
• Availability of daily water quality conditions from the MDC Web site.
• A telephone hotline that provides updated water quality conditions for Boston Harbor beaches on a daily basis
throughout the beach season.
• Media coverage that includes daily or weekly reports highlighting the water quality conditions at Boston Harbor
beaches.
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• Special training sessions to educate lifeguards and other staff about implementing the notification program and
informing the public about water quality conditions.
• Participation in annual beach water quality monitoring symposia organized with Massachusetts Coastal Zone
Management, the Massachusetts Department of Public Health, the Massachusetts Department of
Environmental Protection, and local boards of health.
• Posters, water bottles, and brochures that explain and highlight the beach flagging program.
• "Back to the Beaches" events to promote use of the beaches by neighbors and visitors to Boston Harbor.
During these events, staff from TBHA and the MDC provide the public with in-depth information on water
quality issues, the notification system, and access to online information on water quality conditions.
• Notification and other communications with the Massachusetts Department of Public Health and local boards of
health.
See Chapter 6 for a more detailed discussion of the public notification and risk communication efforts undertaken by all
three of the case study projects.
3.3.2 CITIES OF MILWAUKEE AND RACINE HEALTH DEPARTMENTS COMMUNITY RECREATIONAL WATER
RISK ASSESSMENT AND PUBLIC OUTREACH (BEACHHEALTH) PROJECT
For approximately the past 30 years, the City of Milwaukee Health Department (MHD) has monitored Milwaukee public
beaches for contamination that could negatively affect public health. MHD has partnered with the City of Racine Health
Department, the U.S. Geological Survey, the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Great Lakes Water Institute, and
other organizations to study the beaches in Milwaukee and Racine, Wisconsin. The objectives of the
Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project are:
• To improve documentation and dissemination of environmental data related to health risks associated with the
recreational use of public beaches.
• To improve the type, quantity, and quality of environmental data collected at and around public beaches in both
Milwaukee and Racine Counties for development of a public health risk model.
• To standardize and improve coordination and collaboration of environmental data collected between local
public health agencies (LPHAs), community stakeholders, and other organizations.
To build community awareness of surface-water pollution prevention.
Three key design factors for the Milwaukee/Racine project included consideration of beach classification issues, the
use of project partners to enhance the resources available to the project, and community input and outreach, as
discussed below.
Beach classification. The project's design included consideration of which beaches were most at risk for public
exposure to pathogens and increased data collection at those sites. For example, two automated environmental
monitoring stations were added to provide physical and chemical data (including water temperature, turbidity,
fluorescence, conductivity, oxidation/reduction potential, wind speed and direction, and air temperature) to support
health risk determinations. One station is located at Milwaukee's South Shore Beach, and the other is at North Beach
in Racine. These two beaches have historically been prone to elevated fecal indicator bacteria levels; according to
historical monitoring data, both can have elevated pathogen levels after wet weather events. Also, LPHAs collect water
samples at five Milwaukee and Racine beaches during the summer swimming season. The beaches are tested daily,
Monday through Friday. The LPHAs also conduct daily testing on weekends during the beach season at beaches
posted as unsafe due to potentially poor water quality. Other near-shore data are collected by the City of Milwaukee
from the watershed twice weekly at three recreational sites. In addition, volunteer environmental monitoring is
conducted at designated sites.
Project partners. To improve coordination and collaboration in the collection of environmental data by LPHAs,
community stakeholders, and other organizations, MHD partnered with community environmental education
organizations to form a near-shore volunteer monitoring program. Nearly 50 volunteers were involved in the onsite
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water quality testing of 13 sites for nine scheduled monitoring events, as well as rainfall events during the summers of
1999 and 2000. In addition, MHD formalized agreements with other agencies to share near-shore data and enter the
data into a Web site (http://infotrek.er.usgs.gov/pls/beachhealth/).
Community input and outreach. The Milwaukee/Racine project has used several types of public outreach to collect
feedback on new advisory postings at Milwaukee and Racine beaches and to build community awareness of surface-
water pollution prevention. For example, beachgoers at Milwaukee's South Shore Beach completed surveys, and the
beach was posted with large advisory signs providing daily water quality data during the course of the project. Other
public outreach components of this project included:
• Development of a Web site for the project, in both English and Spanish, that includes a technical user's page
with all of the Milwaukee and Racine county and volunteer monitoring data. These data can be queried and
downloaded.
• A beach water quality telephone hotline, which includes recorded advisories, updated daily, for three Milwaukee
beaches.
• Outreach materials such as two brochures on beach pollution. These were handed out at community events,
including the 1999 Wisconsin Beach Sweep and at an EMPACT booth at the Environmental Expo, held in
Milwaukee as part of the International Joint Commission's biennial meeting.
3.3.3 RHODE ISLAND DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH NARRAGANSETT BAY BATHING BEACHES MONITORING
PROJECT
Rhode Island's project is designed to address bacteriological water quality and swimmer safety issues at beaches in
the Providence metropolitan area. Its four main objectives are:
• To develop a comprehensive beach management program through frequent water quality monitoring at
swimming beaches and other potential recreational sites in the upper Narragansett Bay.
• To communicate monitoring information to the public in a time-relevant, easily accessible, and effective format
so the public can make informed decisions regarding environmental health risks and their daily activities.
• To investigate faster methods and alternative indicators for evaluating water quality.
• To collect specific wet weather data for use in developing a predictive beach closure model based on
rainfall/sewage discharge volume.
One of the key design factors for the Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project was consideration of known, historical
sources of contamination, as discussed below.
Historical sources of contamination. Sewage releases have caused use restrictions in large areas of the upper
Narragansett Bay. In the northernmost reaches of the Bay, where many sewage outfalls are located, one area is
permanently closed to shellfishing due to consistently high bacteria levels, while two other areas are deemed
"conditional"—they are automatically closed to shellfish harvesting after certain amounts of rainfall (0.5 inches in one
area, 1 inch in the other). While there are no state-licensed beach facilities within the permanently closed area, there
are several beach areas that are used by the public as swimming areas. In addition, there are several licensed
beaches that fall within the conditional areas, and primary contact activities, such as swimming, diving, and water
skiing, occur in these conditional areas. This occurrence of primary contact activities in areas with use restrictions is a
public health concern and demonstrates the need to consider historical sources of contamination and spatial and
temporal factors in a beach management program.
To address this public health issue, the Rhode Island Beaches Monitoring Project chose sampling sites that provided
spatial coverage of the upper bay, including sites that were not licensed beaches; sampling at these unlicensed areas
could help to determine whether water quality in these areas would support efforts to pursue beach licenses. The
results of the project sampling were used to confirm that the unlicensed sampling sites in upper Narragansett Bay are
not suitable for becoming licensed public beach facilities at this time. Many of these sites display consistently poor
water quality, exceeding the state standard more than 50 percent of the time. (Standards and criteria used by the three
case study projects are listed in Table 3-2 and Table 4-4V
The water quality sampling conducted at licensed facilities in the northernmost regions of the bay found fluctuating
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water quality. While these areas frequently displayed acceptable water quality and are suitable for primary use, the
fluctuation demonstrates the need for frequent sampling at these sites.
Information on historical water contamination at sites can contribute to the design and proper management of a water
quality monitoring program by helping to determine where and how frequently monitoring is needed. More frequent
monitoring may be needed at certain areas, even at some licensed beaches, based on prior history.
1 This handbook reflects lessons learned primarily through three EMPACT projects initiated prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000
and the publication of National Beach Guidance and Required Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002). Some of the practices
described in these projects may not be consistent with current regulatory requirements and guidance. For updated regulatory and guidance
information, see Chapter 1. Section 1.2.
« Back | Table of Contents | Next »
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4. TIME-RELEVANT BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATER
QUALITY MONITORING AND MODELING
Once you have identified the important program design factors to consider and have incorporated them into your
beach and recreational water quality program (as discussed in Chapters), the next step usually involves developing a
monitoring protocol that meets the goals of your particular program. The general steps needed to develop and
implement a time-relevant beach/recreational water quality monitoring program include:
• Establish a monitoring plan that addresses what, where, when, and how water quality monitoring will occur
(Section 4.1V
• Develop plans that specify quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) procedures to be followed during
sample collection and analysis and data interpretation (Section 4.2).
• Conduct analyses of water quality samples (Section 4.3).
• Determine whether it is feasible to develop predictive modeling to provide quicker estimates of water quality
(Sectjon_4v4).
• Interpret the monitoring and modeling results, including information on water quality exceedances and beach
closing and reopening procedures (Section 4.5).
• Notify the public of the monitoring and modeling results and any associated public health risks (see Chapter 6).
Also, beach program managers should check with state and local authorities to identify the regulatory requirements
that apply to your program. See Chapters. Section 3.2. for potentially applicable federal, state, and local
requirements.2
4.1 OVERVIEW OF MONITORING AND SAMPLE COLLECTION
This section discusses what should be monitored and where, when and how monitoring should be conducted, and
who should conduct it. Each of these considerations should be addressed ahead of time in a monitoring plan, which
can be revised if needed. This section also provides examples of monitoring considerations addressed by three case
study projects.
4.1.1 WHAT WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS SHOULD BE MONITORED?
Decisions about what to monitor should be based on the uses of your beach and recreational waters, the applicable
regulatory standards, and the questions and concerns raised by recreational water users. For example, are people
primarily interested in whether it is safe to swim at a particular beach? Are they also interested in whether it is safe to
boat, fish, or dig clams in the area? The parameters to be monitored and their levels of acceptable health risk should
be chosen to answer such questions. As described in Chapters, water bodies need to meet criteria set by state water
quality standards, which apply to existing and designated uses for specific waters, such as primary contact recreation
(e.g, swimming) and secondary contact recreation (e.g., boating). See Chapter 3 for a discussion of designated uses
and state water quality criteria.
In addition, the BEACH Act requires all coastal and Great Lakes states to adopt EPA Ambient Water Quality Criteria
for the pathogen indicator organisms E. coli or enterococci for beach and recreational water quality monitoring. About
one-third of all states monitor for E. coli or enterococci indicator organisms as a measure of bacteria densities in fresh
and marine waters. Other states continue to use other pathogen indicator organisms, such as total coliforms or fecal
coliforms.
Beach and recreational water quality monitoring may include a number of measurements in addition to those for
bacteria indicator organisms—for example, parameters such as rainfall, water and air temperature, water turbidity, and
wind speed and direction. These parameters can be used as supplemental water quality information to help evaluate
chemical, aesthetic, and transport effects that can affect water quality. For example, wind speed and direction can help
identify the direction of water currents that spread a sewage outfall discharge through a water body. Lake circulation
patterns can also be influenced by wind and rainfall. These parameters may also be used as inputs for predictive
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models that supplement monitoring, as discussed in Section 4.4. Table 4-1 summarizes the indicator organisms and
supporting measurements currently evaluated by each of three case study projects. Appendix A includes a survey
form used by Rhode Island to record information on some of these parameters, as well as others. (Note that the
Rhode Island project also observes whether storm-water pipes or other flows across beach areas are present.)
Water quality samples can also be analyzed for nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate. These parameters may
provide information regarding certain contamination sources (e.g., farm runoff or animal feeding operation discharges).
Elevated nutrient concentrations may cause increased algae or aquatic weed growth, which can reduce recreational
water use, especially if the algae or weed growth is severe.
Table 4-1. Parameters Monitored in Three Case Study Projects
Charles River Milwaukee/Racine
Basm/Boston Beachhealth
Harbor Beaches
Project J
Rhode Island
Beach Monitoring
Project
Indicator Organisms
Other Environmental
Measurements
Fecal coliform
Enterococci
Rainfall
Temperature
Conductivity/salinity
Weather conditions
£. co//
Rainfall
Water and air
temperature
Turbidity
Fluorescence
Conductivity
Oxidation/reduction
potential
Wind speed/direction
Chlorophyll
Nitrate
Phosphate
Fecal coliform
Enterococci
Rainfall
Water temperature
Turbidity
Weather conditions
Prevailing wind
4.1.2 WHERE SHOULD MONITORING SITES BE LOCATED?
Generally, areas with the greatest risk of public exposure to pathogens need more frequent water quality monitoring
and public notification. Therefore, consider monitoring the primary contact beaches and recreational areas that have
high use or high-density use. Also, consider monitoring along beaches close to storm-water and sewer outfalls, since
these locations may be prone to high bacteria levels; although people may not swim in these areas, monitoring them
can help identify sources of pathogens.
Coastal states that receive BEACH Act funds are required to evaluate and classify their waters based on public health
risk and frequency of use. Monitoring locations and frequency of monitoring in those states should be consistent with
these beach classifications.
Some municipalities monitor all beaches in their area (regardless of proximity to pollutant sources, for example), while
others select monitoring locations based on some or all of the following factors:
• Designated and existing use of the water body, including whether the water body supports primary contact
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recreation, secondary contract recreation, shellfishing, drinking water, or other designated uses. Under the
CWA, each state, territory, or tribe is required to designate a use or uses for each water body within its
jurisdiction. (See Chapter 3 for a discussion of designated uses.)
• Frequency and density of use. Monitoring sites should also be selected based on the frequency and density of
use of a beach/recreational water body. Samples should be collected where many people typically swim or
otherwise use the water often, since these areas often pose the highest potential risk of public exposure to
pathogens.
• Potential pollution sources and storm-water discharges. The condition of the watershed feeding a recreational
water body, including the number and location of point and nonpoint pollution sources and storm-water
discharges, is an important factor in where pathogen contamination may occur. Common sources of pathogen
pollution include wastewater treatment (e.g., publicly owned treatment works) outfall pipes, CSOs, SSOs,
storm-water pipes, and malfunctioning septic systems. Recreational waters near such sources should be
considered as potential monitoring sites.
To minimize unwarranted variation among sampling results, collect water samples from the same location
within a site (e.g., in front of a lifeguard station or another clearly defined area) each time sampling occurs.
Choosing Monitoring Sites
The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project in Massachusetts monitors water quality at 13
locations along four historically contaminated beaches daily and other beaches weekly. Some of the
sampling sites are at lifeguard stations where people typically swim. These beaches were also
selected because they are located in or near heavily populated and/or industrial areas that are directly
impacted by sewer system overflows and contaminated storm drains. Combined sewer overflows have
been a major source of pollution to the beaches and the harbor in general. Research by the
Massachusetts Water Resources Authority indicates that beach water quality is highly variable in
response to rainfall, even among different locations along the same beach.
4.1.3 WHEN SHOULD WATER QUALITY MONITORING OCCUR?
When designing your water quality monitoring program, consider the time of day samples are collected, the frequency
of monitoring, and wet weather events. Take into account the analysis time required for indicator organism monitoring:
if it takes 24 hours to get results, note that sampling early in the day allows for public notification earlier the next day.
To keep your data consistent, try to collect water samples at the same sites at the same time of day each time the
water is monitored—on sunny days, early morning samples can have more bacteria than afternoon samples. The
frequency of sampling is often determined by how heavily a beach is used. Beaches used often by a lot of people and
beaches located near major sources of potential contamination need to be monitored more frequently. Seasonal beach
use can also impact the frequency of monitoring: beaches that are unused in the winter will not pose an exposure
threat to the public when not in use.
It is important to monitor after exceedances of water quality criteria (which in some cases may be after rainfall events)
to ensure that bacteria concentrations have returned to acceptable levels. Such monitoring can help you determine
when beaches that have been closed because of high bacteria levels may be reopened.
Deciding When To Monitor
Rhode Island's Beaches Monitoring Project conducts beach monitoring from mid-May through mid-
September to coincide with the summer beach season. Samples are collected weekly at each of 23
sites. If a beach is closed because of an exceedance, it is resampled daily until bacteria densities fall
back below the threshold. Rainfall event samples are collected in place of weekly sampling when it
rains prior to a scheduled sampling date. Most samples are collected between 8:00 a.m. and 11:30
a.m. and delivered to the laboratory for analysis within 4 hours of collection.
In deciding when to monitor, consider when the monitoring results will be received, since this may have
important public notification implications. For example, consider organizing your monitoring program so
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that enough time is allocated for sample results to be received and any associated health risks
communicated to the public before the weekend, when beach and recreational waters are typically
used the most.
4.1.4 HOW ARE BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY SAMPLES COLLECTED?
It is important to develop, in advance, specific written procedures for the collection,
preservation, and storage of water samples and to adhere to those procedures. The
reference text Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
(Clesceri et al., 1998) provides general guidelines for water sampling. The text covers
such matters as obtaining representative samples and avoiding sample contamination,
both of which are critical to the accuracy of your results. Many states have developed
their own protocols. A typical sample collection protocol for recreational waters might
incorporate the following guidelines, among others:
• Collect samples in areas of greatest use by swimmers (or other relevant
recreational water users), where the water is about 3 feet deep, at about knee-
depth or 1 foot below the water surface.
• The sample analysis method to be used3 will specify appropriate sample
containers, identify whether any preservation is required (such as storing samples on ice until analysis) and
indicate acceptable holding times.
• Remove the sample container cap carefully, ensuring that you do not touch the inside of the cap or the lip of
the sampling container, and face into the current or waves to avoid sample container contamination
• Minimize sediment or debris in the sample (which may require waiting for sediment to settle after wading out to
the sample collection location). If sediment or debris is present throughout the sample, note this fact on the
sample collection form.
Appendix B includes examples of sample collection procedures used by two of the case study projects.
You should also develop standard procedures for the collection of environmental monitoring data, such as rainfall,
water temperature, wind speed, and any other supporting environmental parameters you monitor, such as those listed
in Table 4-1. (As discussed in Section 4.1.1. these parameters can influence the water quality of a receiving water
body.)
Environmental data can be collected manually or automatically. Manual collection of environmental parameters usually
occurs at the time of water quality sampling and involves meters, monitors, and test kits. The MWRA in Boston
installed three stationary rainfall gauges that automatically monitor rainfall every 15 minutes. The Milwaukee/Racine
Beachhealth project uses two automated environmental monitoring stations that provide physical and chemical data to
MHD using a call-in system. The system monitors water temperature, turbidity, fluorescence, conductivity,
oxidation/reduction potential, wind speed and direction, and air temperature on a continual basis. These data are
relayed to on-shore computers via radio at predetermined intervals and on demand. Figure 4-1 shows a schematic of
the Milwaukee/Racine automated monitoring system.
Note that other water quality monitoring programs (e.g., volunteer monitoring programs) may already be collecting
environmental data.
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Meteorological
Sensors
radio
150ft
600ft
Buoy
r
antenna
radio (SDI)
aftery
Power an
Telephone
/////////////////////S
Figure 4-1. Schematic of the Milwaukee/Racine, Wisconsin, automated beach monitoring system.
4.1.5 WHO SHOULD CONDUCT WATER QUALITY MONITORING?
The quality of data produced by a monitoring program depends on the quality of the work undertaken by field and
laboratory staff. Professional health agency personnel, volunteers, and/or contractors have been successfully used for
the collection of water quality samples and environmental monitoring data. Whether drawn from professional staff or a
pool of volunteers, the personnel responsible for sample collection and environmental measurements at beaches and
recreational water areas must be adequately trained for those activities. Consider the following factors as you
determine the best type of personnel to use:
• The objectives and requirements of the agency legally responsible for the monitoring.
• The availability of staff and funding for monitoring. The use of volunteer personnel can allow your agency to
increase the amount of monitoring performed, although you will need resources for training volunteers if you
use them.
• Program partners, such as other public agencies, community-based environmental groups, or research and
educational entities (such as colleges and universities). These can sometimes be a source of monitoring or
public outreach personnel.
Monitoring Personnel
The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project in Massachusetts monitors water quality at In
the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project, both professional staff from local public health agencies
and volunteer personnel conduct water quality monitoring. The agencies' environmental health
specialists and environmental hygienists are responsible for collecting samples on which health
advisories are based. Additional near-shore data are collected by other agencies and community-
based environmental groups made up of volunteer personnel. The City of Milwaukee Health
Department coordinates the volunteer environmental monitoring events. Training for the volunteers is
provided by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Environmental Center, the University of
Wisconsin-Extension, and the Riverside Urban Environmental Center.
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4.2 QUALITY CONTROL PLANS AND PROCEDURES
To ensure data quality, create good QC documentation for all beach and recreational water quality monitoring and
analysis programs. Develop a quality assurance project plan (QAPP), which should include data quality objectives
(DQOs) and standard operating procedures (SOPs).
A QAPP is a formal document that specifies in detail what sampling and analysis procedures are to be used, how and
when sampling will be done, what QA and QC activities are necessary to ensure that the data collected meet specified
standards, and how the data will be analyzed and reported. DQOs are qualitative and quantitative statements that
clarify monitoring program objectives, define the appropriate types of data, and specify tolerable error levels. DQOs are
used as bases for establishing the quality and quantity of data needed to support decisions.
SOPs describe in detail the method for a given operation, analysis, or action. They are used for technical activities that
need to be performed the same way every time (i.e., standardized). Among such activities are field sampling,
laboratory analysis, and database management. It is often helpful to present an SOP in sequential steps that reflect the
stages of the actual work to be done; it is also helpful to include specific facilities, equipment, materials and methods,
QA and QC procedures, and other factors required to perform the operation, analysis, or action. An SOP's format and
content requirements are flexible because its content and level of detail will depend on the nature of the procedure
being performed.
QAPPs should also include data verification and validation procedures (described below). These procedures will help
you ensure that QA/QC objectives and requirements have been met, enable you to verify that the results of your
sampling are accurate, and aid in data interpretation.
To learn more about QA/QC procedures and how to develop a QAPP, see EPA Guidance for Quality Assurance
Project Plans, available at http://www.epa.gov/quality/qs-docs/g5-final.pdf.
What Is an Accredited (Certified) Laboratory, and Why Use One?
An accredited laboratory is one that meets certain requirements set by an accrediting agency,
including having qualified personnel, appropriate instrumentation, and standard operating procedures,
and has demonstrated proficiency in the analysis of samples, for example for particular bacterial
indicators.
Some states have established accreditation processes for environmental analyses and require the use
of accredited laboratories. This is often true for drinking water analysis. The use of an accredited
laboratory is recommended for recreational water analyses as well, especially when beach advisory or
closure decisions are to be based on the analytical results. Check with your state regarding its
requirements and recommendations for the use of accredited laboratories.
4.2.1 DATA VERIFICATION METHODS
Data verification provides the confirmation that specified requirements have been fulfilled. For water quality sampling
and analysis, this is done by evaluating whether data have been collected in accordance with the specifications of the
QAPP and whether the DQOs specified in your QC plan have been met. Data verification also includes a review of the
sampling data obtained and QC sample data (e.g., sample duplicates). Examples of data verification procedures for
bacterial indicator samples include:
• Additional tests on samples to identify false positives or false negatives. A false positive rate is calculated as
the percent of colonies that were falsely identified as being made up of indicator microorganisms. A false
negative rate is calculated as the percent of colonies that were made up of indicator microorganisms but were
not identified as such. EPA-approved methods specify acceptable false positive and false negative rates for the
relevant media.
• Review of sample records, chain of custody records, and sample tracking records to verify that all samples
collected were analyzed and that the data set results will be complete.
• Data entry checks to detect any potential data entry errors.
• Other types of check, such as graphing data to visually inspect for any potential errors and using statistical
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methods to detect invalid data.
• Review of data reductions, transformations, and calculations by rechecking computations and reviewing the
assumptions used.
Verifying that a data collection effort conforms with the QAPP requires confirming that the data pass specified QC
tests, calculations were performed correctly, all samples were treated consistently, and the data are complete and
comply with all plans, DQOs, and SOPs. Data verification should always be followed by data validation, as described
below.
4.2.2 DATA VALIDATION
Data validation provides the confirmation that the requirements for an intended use have been fulfilled. Once data
have been verified as meeting QAPP requirements, they are then validated to determine their technical usability with
respect to the planned objectives. This process should produce a validation report that assesses the usability of the
data (and whether any of the data are suspect or need to be qualified), summarizes data results, and summarizes QC
and QA results. The report should discuss any discrepancies between a program's DQOs and the data collected.
4.3 SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Several methods are available to detect the presence of bacterial
indicator organisms as part of an assessment of beach and
recreational water quality. This section briefly discusses EPA-approved
and other standard methods and describes the methods used by the
three case study projects, including new analysis methods that are
under investigation.
Many government agencies, universities, and other organizations
develop analytical methods. EPA evaluates these methods and
approves those methods that meet its requirements for monitoring organic, inorganic, or microbiological contaminants.
The purpose of developing and using EPA-approved and other acceptable standard methods is to ensure consistency
and quality of analytical results. Furthermore, only certain methods may be used for compliance monitoring (e.g., of
wastewater or drinking water); requirements for recreational water monitoring may not be as strict, but some states
may have requirements or preferences for the use of certain methods for recreational water quality monitoring in some
situations. Check with your state to identify any such requirements
EPA-approved and other standard methods for the analysis of bacterial indicator organisms are listed in Table 4-2.
For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/methods/.
Table 4-2. EPA-Approved and Other Acceptable Standard Methods for the Analysis of Bacterial Indicator
Organisms in Ambient Waters
Bacterial
Indicator
£. co//
Enterococci
EPA-Approved and Other Acceptable Type of Analysis2
Standard Methods1
EPA Method 1103.1
(same as Standard Method 9213d (m-TEC)
Modified EPA Method 1103.1
(modified m-TEC method)
EPA Method 1106.1
(same as Standard Method 9230C)
EPA Method 1600
MF
MF
MF
MF
1 Standard Methods are from Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (Clesceri et al., 1998). In 2002, EPA intends
to publish a revised rule for EPA-approved methods in the Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR Part 136). The proposed rule, published on
August 30, 2001, in 66FR45811, included the Enterolert™ and multiple tube fermentation methods discussed later in this chapter. Also,
while some states still use fecal coliform or total coliform as indicator organisms, EPA's Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria—1986
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(U.S. EPA, 1986) recommends using E. coli or enterococci instead and the BEACH Act requires that all coastal and Great Lakes states
switch to E. coli or enterococci by 2004. Therefore, approved methods for fecal or total coliform are not listed here.
2 MF = Membrane filtration, described below.
4.3.1 INDICATOR ORGANISM ANALYSIS METHODS
Indicator organism analysis methods generally fall into one of the following two categories:
• Membrane filtration (MF) tests, in which samples are passed through membrane filters that are then transferred
to petri plates containing selective growth and substrate media (i.e., primary isolation agar or an absorbent pad
saturated with selective broth). Bacteria density estimates are based on a direct count of bacteria colonies.
• Most probable number (MPN) tests, in which multiple tubes are allowed to ferment for a set period of time.
Certain probability formulas are applied to the number of tubes or wells that produce a positive reaction,
resulting in an estimate of the average density (i.e., concentration) of target organisms in the sample. (This
procedure is used in several standard methods for analyzing fecal and total coliform. It is also used in some
methods for measuring E. coli, e.g., Colilert™, and enterococci, e.g., Enterolert™.)
The time required for some of the most commonly available and used sample analysis techniques ranges from 24 to
72 hours. This relatively long analysis time is a disadvantage: it can lead to a situation in which the public is exposed to
high bacteria levels for the 1 to 3 days it takes to obtain sample results. This problem, which is particularly pronounced
for the methods with the longest analysis times, can hinder timely decisions on advisories or closures of recreational
water areas and delay public notification. Methods that require 24 hours of analysis time are an improvement over
methods requiring even more time, but even a 24-hour turn-around time is not ideal; researchers are working on
identifying even quicker, valid methods of sample analysis for recreational water quality.
The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor, Milwaukee/Racine, and Rhode Island projects all use one or more of the
methods listed in Table 4-2. Some of the projects involved evaluations of alternative methods that require 24 hours or
less for sample analysis; the projects sought to determine whether use of these methods could reduce sample analysis
time and provide more time-relevant information to the public. Table 4-3 lists the bacterial indicator organism analysis
methods used by each of the three case study projects, including required analysis times. The following subsections
discuss the alternative methods evaluated.
Table 4-3. Analysis Methods Used by the Three Case Study Projects
Project
Charles River Basin/
Boston Harbor
Beaches Project
Milwaukee/Racine
Community
Recreational Water
Risk Assessment and
Public Outreach
(Beachhealth)
Rhode Island Beach
Monitoring Project
Bacterial Indicator
Fecal coliform
Enterococci
E. coli
Fecal coliform
Test Method Jnalysis
Time
Standard Method
9222D
EPA Method
1106.1
EPA Method
1600
EPA Method
1103.1 (Standard
Method 921 3D
[m-TEC])
Pilot study
method (not
recommended by
Milwaukee/Racine
program)
Standard Method
9221 Band E
(with EC broth)
24 hours
48 hours
24 hours
24 hours
6 hours
48-72 hours
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£. co//
Enterococci
Standard Method
9221E(A-1)
EPA Method
1103.1 (Standard
Method 921 3D
[m-TEC])
EPA Method
1600
Enterolert™
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
24 hours
4.3.7.7 CHARLES RIVER BASIN/BOSTON HARBOR BEACHES PROJECT
As part of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project, the MDC compared EPA's enterococci methods
(Method 1106.1 and Method 1600). Method 1106.1 requires an incubation time of 48 hours, while the incubation time
for Method 1600 (released by EPA in 1997) is 24 hours. Thus using Method 1600 can result in faster, more timely
public notification of recreational water quality information.
To compare the accuracy of both methods, MDC collected split samples on a weekly basis at 38 sites (representing 20
beaches) during the June-through-August beach season. The split samples were compared statistically; both methods
were found to give similar results, and both demonstrated comparable accuracy and precision. Method 1106.1 resulted
in a false positive rate of 4 percent, compared to a 2 percent rate for Method 1600. False negative rates were 8
percent for Method 1106.1 and 7 percent for Method 1600. The precision rate for Method 1106.1 was 38.7 average
relative percent difference (RPD), while Method 1600 had a similar precision rate of 45.2 average RPD. MDC
concluded that Method 1600 may result in a slight, but probably insignificant, increase in beach postings. Method 1600
has the advantage of enabling the MDC to sample area beaches one day closer to the weekend, which is when the
greatest beach use occurs. Because of the advantages and relative accuracy of Method 1600, MDC has switched from
Method 1106.1 to Method 1600.
4.3.7.2 MILWAUKEE/RACINE BEACHHEALTH PROJECT
For the Beachhealth project, a 6-hour method was compared to traditional analysis methods. The data collected from
the 6-hour alternative method were found to be inconsistent, and the test often took much longer than was predicted,
requiring a 7.5-hour incubation instead of the expected 6 hours. This test method also took longer than expected for
the filtering of turbid samples. The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth Project concluded that this 6-hour method was not
a satisfactory solution to reducing the time needed for sample analysis.
4.3.7.3 RHODE ISLAND BEACH MONITORING PROJECT
The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project evaluated and compared several analytical methods to determine whether
the state could switch to a faster method. The project compared two methods for fecal coliform analysis, including the
Standard 48-hour MPN Method (9221B and E, with EC broth) it had been using and a 24-hour method (9221E [A-1]).
Seeking to find faster methods that might also meet BEACH Act requirements, the Project also tested two analytical
methods for enterococci: the 24-hour EPA Method 1600 and another 24-hour method, called Enterolert™. In addition,
Rhode Island tested an £. co// method (EPA Method 1103.1, which is the same as Standard Method 9213D [m-TEC]).
In some cases the results varied among the different methods tested, but, for the majority of samples, all of the
methods used would result in the same action taken. Rhode Island concluded that:
• Standard Method 9221E (A-1), with its 24-hour reporting time, is quicker but requires the most man-hours. This
method underestimates bacteria counts at higher densities, but as long as Rhode Island continues to use a
(very protective) 50 CFU/100 ml (fecal coliform) water quality standard, this underestimation does not change
the acceptability of the method's results for this state. Since concluding this project, Rhode Island has switched
to using Standard Method 9221E (A-1) in monitoring recreational waters.
• In anticipation of a switch to using enterococci as an indicator organism, Rhode Island concluded that the
Enterolert™ method was its preferred method for beach water quality analyses. EPA is currently considering
this alternative method for inclusion as an EPA-approved method. EPA Method 1600 was problematic in
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Rhode Island's comparative tests because it resulted in filter clogging and poor verification of positive colonies.
4.4 PREDICTIVE MODELS
The primary goal of a beach/recreational water quality monitoring program is to minimize the public health risk
associated with infectious diseases caused by exposure to harmful microorganisms. As discussed in Section 4.3.
laboratory methods commonly used to analyze potentially harmful microorganisms can take from 24 to 72 hours. To
address the public health risks associated with this delay, health agencies need additional tools that can provide a
rapid, reliable indication of water quality conditions. The use of validated predictive models to supplement monitoring
can meet this need, providing quick, conservative estimates of bacterial indicator organism levels.
Developing a predictive model requires a large amount of data. These data are correlated with other relevant factors—
such as rainfall, tides, and number of bathers—that can affect bacteria levels or the probability that a water quality
standard will be exceeded. An equation (algorithm or calculation) is developed that defines the relationships between
the different variables (e.g., bacteria density, rainfall, etc.). The model is then verified by plugging actual monitoring
results into its equation to see if the model reflects actual conditions. If it does not, it is adjusted until a fully calibrated
and verified model is developed.
Predictive models for beach/recreational water quality often correlate elevated levels of bacterial indicator organisms
with environmental factors that can influence bacteria levels, such as rainfall or the number of bathers using a beach.
While elevated bacteria counts often correlate with rainfall events, defining a relationship can be difficult. Rhode Island,
for example, was not comfortable enough with the relationship between bacteria levels and 3-day cumulative rainfall to
adopt a rainfall-based predictive model. Other factors, such as fecal contamination from large concentrations of
waterfowl, decaying beach vegetation, and water conditions, may also impact bacteria levels; these factors can be
used in a model. Any validated predictive model needs to address program-specific conditions and elements.
The Milwaukee Health Department uses a rainfall-based model in conjunction with monitoring of E. coli levels at South
Shore Beach in decisions regarding beach advisories. Water quality at South Shore Beach may be influenced by
several environmental factors affecting the Milwaukee River watershed, which contains hundreds of storm-water
outfalls and several CSOs. The watershed drains to Lake Michigan just north of South Shore Beach, where a
southward current is generally present. South Shore Beach water quality may also be affected by effluent from a
sewage treatment plant, sewage treatment bypass, and other sources, including waterfowl, domestic pets, and litter
from bathers. The Racine Health Department does not use a rainfall-based model at this time; one of the objectives of
the Beachhealth project was to collect data to explore the possibility of using a rainfall model for Racine.
One of the monitoring objectives of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project was to develop a
predictive model relating rainfall and CSO operations to bacterial indicators at four Boston Harbor beaches. The four
beaches were sampled seven times per week and analyzed for fecal coliform and enterococcus. Rainfall gauges were
also installed close to these beaches.
A simple rainfall model for each individual Boston Harbor beach was developed. Data analysis showed that that
previous day's rainfall predicted water quality better than the previous 24-hour enterococcus measurement. A
combined rainfall and bacteria protocol was implemented for beach postings.
For the Charles River, the Charles River Watershed Associaton developed a conservative in-house model/protocol,
based on historical data to predict whether bacteria levels would exceed the boating standard for fecal coliform of
1,000 CFU/100 ml. CRWAthen modified the protocol for the four sites monitored under the EMPACT project, and
modified it again for the 2000 monitoring season. The model determined the appropriate water quality notification level
based on antecedent rainfall data and CSO activation.
CRWA analyzed the success and accuracy of the model by determining whether a strong or weak relationship existed
between fecal coliform and total rainfall over a certain period of days and by assessing whether the predicted water
quality was the same as that indicated by sample analysis. Overall, the model was found to predict water quality
conditions fairly accurately, and CRWA determined that the correct water quality notification flag was used 84 percent
of the time. The comparison also showed that the predictive model tended to err on the conservative side, declaring
that water quality posed a potential health risk when the sampling results showed that it did not.
For more information on predictive models, including different types of models, see EPA's Beach Guidance Document
(U.S. EPA, 2002) at http://www.epa.gov/ost/beaches/technical.html.
4.5 INTERPRETATION AND USE OF MONITORING AND MODELING RESULTS
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Water quality sampling results and predictive modeling results need to be interpreted by designated, qualified public
health officials, environmental pollution managers, or beach managers; these people are in a position to determine
whether a health risk exists and what appropriate action, if any, should be taken. Possible actions range from a posting,
warning, or advisory to closing the beach and prohibiting people from using the recreational water there until further
testing or model predictions indicate that bacterial indicator levels no longer exceed water quality criteria.
EPA recommends closing or posting a beach when there is an exceedance of water quality standards or when a
predictive model indicates a likelihood of an exceedance. However a state chooses to respond to exceedances, it is
important that authorities responsible for interpretation of water quality monitoring results develop policies and
procedures that are clear and specific (i.e. specify what actions are to be taken). For example, a policy could state that
if a single monitoring result exceeds the single-sample criterion value listed in the state's recreational water quality
standard, an advisory will be issued and an additional sample will be taken from that location within 24 hours. If the
second sample still exceeds water quality criteria, a beach closing will be issued.
Likewise, clear procedures should be established for the lifting of an advisory or closing and the reopening of a beach.
For example, one aspect of a reopening policy could state that a closed beach is to be resampled within a specified
time period. The decision to either issue or remove an advisory or closing should be based on statistically valid data
and an assessment of risks to potential swimmers and other water users. The beach closing and reopening
procedures used by the three case study projects are summarized in Table 4-4.
The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project's procedures for beach closures, for example, specify that decision-
makers must consider (1) whether a direct sewage discharge has been identified in the immediate bathing area and
(2) whether any relevant regulations have been violated, as well as other factors, in determining whether to take action
that could result in closure. After a single high bacteria count is found, the procedures specify, decision-makers must
review the beach profile (e.g., history) of the site. If the site is located near a CSO or if there are recent reports of a
discharge from a nearby wastewater treatment plant, the beach is closed immediately and resampled. Other area
beaches are also resampled. If a second sample exceeds the criteria, the beach is closed using the following
procedures:
• Notify appropriate municipal and state officials.
• Post advisory or closure notices (e.g., change the flag posted at the beach) as needed.
• Issue a press release and update the Web site and hotline with current conditions.
On beaches with more than one sampling location, the beach is closed immediately if measurements from the majority
of the sampling stations exceed the criteria.
Beaches are resampled daily until testing shows that bacteria levels have dropped below the criteria. Rhode Island's
reopening procedures involve:
• Notifying town and state officials of the reopening, including flag changes needed.
• Updating the Web site and hotline with new test results and an indication of the reopening.
• Resuming normal sampling procedures.
Chapter6 of this document discusses techniques for the posting and public notification of water quality results.
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2 This handbook reflects lessons learned primarily through three EMPACT projects initiated prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000
and the publication of National Beach Guidance and Required Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002). Some of the practices
described in these projects may not be consistent with current regulatory requirements and guidance. For updated regulatory and guidance
information, see Section 1.2.
3 See Section 4.3.
« Back I Table of Contents I Next »
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Table 4-4. Beach Closing and Reopening Procedures of the Three Case Study Projects
Charles River,
Massachusetts
Boston Harbor,
Massachusetts
Milwaukee/Racine, Narragansett Bay,
Wisconsin Rhode Island
Water Quality Criteria Fresh water, secondary
Used (If criteria are
exceeded, action is
taken, e.g., an
advisory/posting or a
closing)
contact waters (e.g.,
boating), geometric mean:
FC< 1.000CFU/100 ml;
also FC< 2,000 CFU/100
ml (£10% single samples)1
Class B waters for
swimming/fishing, geometric
mean: FC < 200 CFU/100
ml; also FC < 400 CFU/100
ml (<. 10% single samples)
(Criteria are based on state
water quality standards.
Note that Massachusetts is
considering changing from
fecal coliform to E. coli or
enterococci.)
Marine water, single
samples: enterococci < 104
CFU/100 ml
Marine water, geometric
mean of most recent five
samples within the same
bathing season: enterococci
< 35 CFU/100 ml
(Criteria are based on state
water quality criteria and
state public health code.)
Fresh water, single
samples: E. coli < 235
CFU/100 ml (general
recreational water use)
Salt water,
swimming/boating,
geometric mean: FC < 50
MPN/100 ml1
Saltwater,
swimming/boating: FC <
500 MPN/100 ml(<10%
of single samples)
Saltwater: To be
conservative, if a single
sample exceeds the
geometric mean, the
beach is retested or
closed.
Fresh water (swimming),
geometric mean: FC < 200
MPN/100 ml
Beach
Advisory/Closing
Procedures
Posting of water quality
flags (blue = suitable
boating conditions; red =
potential health risks
associated with elevated
bacteria counts) are based
on estimates of the previous
day's fecal coliform
concentrations, 24-hour
rainfall levels, and/or
combined sewer overflow.
To be conservative,
boathouses are posted with
red flags if a single sample
exceeds the geometric
mean of 1,000 CFU/100 ml
FC.
Whenever water
contamination exceeds
criteria, or after any
significant rainstorm
(particularly at beaches with
a history of violations of
water quality requirements),
a swimming advisory sign is
posted at the entrance to
each parking lot and beach.
Flags are changed from
"blue" (indicating good
swimming conditions) to
"red" (indicating potential
health risks associated with
elevated bacteria counts).
Milwaukee Health
Department uses £ coli
and rainfall data for the
past 24 to 90 hours in a
model, and Racine Health
Department uses £ coli
data for issuing advisories.
The state issues
advisories to counties,
which decide whether to
close a beach. (Counties
almost always follow state
advisories).
A "good" rating =
yesterday's £ coli < 235
CFU/100 ml; a "poor"
rating = yesterday's £. coli
>235 CFU/100 ml if there
was a recent rainfall or >
500 CFU/100 ml if not;
other environmental
conditions are also
considered (e.g., high
wave action may clear
bacteria from an area).
Beaches are closed based
on fecal coliform
exceedances and known
or potential sources of
contamination. Each
beach or sampling site is
unique and possesses its
own history, which may
play a role (based on prior
releases) in deciding
whether or not a specific
beach should be closed. If
a release near a beach
occurs from a prior source
of contamination (e.g.,
wastewater treatment
plant, combined sewer
overflow), the Department
of Health closes the site
preemptively, without
waiting for analysis
results.
If noncompliance with the
state standard still occurs
after resampling, the
bathing area is closed. It is
tested every day and does
not reopen until test
results fall below criteria.
Rhode Island's program
uses a flagging system
similar to Boston's.
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Beach Reopening
Procedures
River areas reopen based
on either monitoring results
indicating that criteria are
no longer exceeded, or on
4th or 5th day (depending
on the amount of rainfall)
after a significant rainfall
event.
The beach is resampled on
the same day of
exceedance; if it still
exceeds criteria, or if a
significant rainfall has
occurred, it remains closed
for the next 6 days. It is then
reopened if monitoring
results indicate that its
water meets criteria.
The beach reopens if the
previous day's E. coli level
<235 CFU/100 ml, or if
the level has dropped with
no recent rainfall and a
further drop is expected to
result in a level < 235
CFU/100 ml, based on
historical experience.
The beach is reopened if
five consecutive samples
collected at least 24 hours
apart are at or below the
fecal coliform standard.
Upon reopening, at least
three samples are
collected each week for 3
months.
Table of Contents
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5. DATA MANAGEMENT
Managing data efficiently can contribute to quicker dissemination of water quality results and reduce potential public
exposure to contaminated waters. The key elements of data management for beach and recreational water quality
programs are shown in Figure 5-1. Data management can be broadly defined as the handling of sample data results
(e.g., recording and analyzing laboratory results) as well as the delivery of the results to the public (e.g., through Web
sites, telephone hotlines, onsite warning flags). This chapter presents some design considerations for data
management systems, provides examples of the data management approaches used by three beach and recreational
water quality monitoring projects, and focuses on one aspect of data delivery to the public—Web site development.
Additional methods for public notification and risk communication, as well as more information on using Web sites for
these purposes, are discussed in Chapter 6.
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tromlst
rii
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Figure 5-1. Data flow for beach/recreational water quality results. Highlighted steps are covered in this chapter.
As Figure 5-1 shows, water quality samples are collected (as described in Chapter 4). then taken or sent (e.g., via
courier), using proper QC procedures, to a qualified laboratory. The laboratory determines the densities of indicator
organisms of pathogenic bacteria present. The laboratory then communicates the results to water quality authorities via
hardcopy reports, fax, or electronic transfer of results from the laboratory database system. Methods for sending these
results as soon as they become available should be included as SOPs in your program. Your program staff then enters
these laboratory data into your database (via electronic data transfer, or manually for hardcopy data) for analysis,
comparing them to state water quality criteria (see Chapters) and any other requirements that might trigger certain
actions. The results are then delivered to the public, e.g., via the Internet (see Section 5.3) and other communication
methods (see Chapter 6).
5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR A DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
This section describes some of the important considerations for designing a data management system, the use of
spatially related data (such as geographic information systems, or CIS), considerations for enhancing an existing
system for a time-relevant beach/recreational water quality monitoring program, and QC and data security
considerations.
5.1.1 DESIGNING OR MODIFYING A DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TO MEET PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
The best design for a data management system depends on the needs and objectives of your program. An information
systems expert can help you identify the best system design based on your answers to the following questions:
• What are the program's data needs?
• How are the data results received (manually or electronically)?
• What hardware and software infrastructure is currently available?
• What personnel are available to maintain the data management system?
When designing a data management system, consider the following factors:
• Data storage and retrieval system. You will need a central repository, such as an electronic database, within
which to organize and store laboratory results. For bacterial indicator organisms, laboratory data results are
often entered into a central database from hardcopy result reports, although electronic transfer may be an
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EMPACT: Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting
option. The central database can be as simple as a collection of spreadsheets or as complex as a full-scale
relational database.
• Data delivery system. A data delivery system is a method of distributing data to your audience. Examples of
data delivery systems include Web sites, newspaper and television forecasts, and signs. Software and Web
sites are increasingly used for data delivery. An effective electronic data delivery system includes a method to
convert database files into an easily understood format for the Web and open-access formats that allow the
public to make secondary use of data. Database files can be converted for use on the Web using a variety of
software, both off-the-shelf and customized.
• QA, QC, and data security procedures. These include processes used to ensure accurate transfer of data from
the laboratory to the central database; provide timely maintenance, backup, and archiving of the central
database; and protect the database and Web site from unauthorized access.
For guidance on QA/QC and security planning, see EPA Guidance for Quality Assurance Project Plans at
http://www.epa.gov/quality/qs-docs/g5-final.pdf.
Important questions to ask your information systems expert are:
• How will the data management system preserve data quality, assurance, and integrity?
• How will data be maintained (back-ups or archives)?
• How will the data be delivered to the public via the Web? What are the system's software and personnel
needs?
• How will Web content be updated and maintained?
An existing data management system can be used for a time-relevant water quality monitoring program if meets the
following fundamental objectives:
• To collect and manage microbiological data, as well as handle predictive model data if such a model is used.
• To communicate the data results as quickly as possible to the public.
If your existing data management system cannot accomplish these tasks, you can probably modify it with the
assistance of an information systems specialist.
5.1.2 SPATIALLY RELATED DATA (SUCH AS GIS)
A spatially related data system relates data to a physical location that then can be shown visually—for example, in the
form of maps. A popular medium for spatially related data is the Geographic Information System (GIS), which can
display, analyze, and model spatially related information. GIS technology allows users to quickly overlay several data
layers (such as water resources and land uses) and view them at once; a GIS can be designed so that its users can
view and compare different future scenarios and their possible impacts. Often a GIS is set up so that users can
retrieve information, generate maps (including customized maps), and query data simply by clicking on a map feature.
Some GIS maps are useful only for particular geographic locations. GIS has been used by state agencies for
watershed protection, Total Maximum Daily Loads development, and implementation of other water quality programs.
To generate and display spatially related data, data management systems must include specific location information
such as latitude and longitude or street addresses. Detailed data usually need to be input into the system by skilled
staff; this process can be labor-intensive and fairly expensive. Once developed, GIS maps are relatively easy to use
and understand by local officials and the public. State environmental agencies and private organizations are
increasingly developing GIS maps that include a variety of environmental features relevant to water quality; these
maps may be readily available at no cost for display and use, including through the Internet.
Software applications available for spatially related data range from simple and free software applications to
customizable data management systems designed specifically for integrating GIS data with the Internet. For
communicating beach water quality data to the public, only simple applications are usually needed.
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5.1.3 QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY CONTROL
All water quality monitoring projects should have QA/QC plans that include SOPs for data entry, QA/QC protocols to
check and validate the data, and protocols for system tests/audits to verify that the system is producing expected
results. See Section 4.2 for more information on QA/QC plans.
5.2 DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS USED BY THE CASE STUDY PROJECTS
5.2.1 SELECTING A DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The three case study projects discussed in this handbook developed their data management systems after considering
the following factors:
• Data needs: factors such as the number of water quality monitoring stations, sampling frequency, and data
retrieval and storage needs.
• Technical and human resources: the software, hardware, and human expertise available to maintain and
operate the data management system.
• The existing database structure: the need to ensure that existing (historical) data as well as new data can be
incorporated in the system to provide a complete historical context for the monitoring project.
• The ease of use and flexibility of the system: factors, for example, that impact the software/hardware, training
costs, and longevity of the system.
All three case study projects use off-the-shelf technologies to store monitoring data and update Web content. The
software selected was based on ease-of-use considerations and experience with particular software already used for
data storage. Using these software platforms, project staff constructed (or modified) databases to accommodate any
new data to be collected and to communicate these data to the public in meaningful ways. They based the design of
their databases and Web sites on the factors mentioned above. Information technology specialists helped project staff
design and implement the systems.
5.2.2 ALTERING EXISTING SYSTEMS TO MEET PROJECT OBJECTIVES
All three case study projects enhanced their existing data management systems to meet project objectives. Table 5-1
describes how the projects altered their systems to meet new project objectives.
Table 5-1. Changes Made to Existing Data Management Systems To Meet Project Objectives
Project
Charles River Basin/Boston
Harbor Beaches Project
Web Site Management
Some project partners host their
own Web sites, while others use
an outside Internet service
provider/vendor.
Changes Made to Existing
Data Management
Systems
Added a Web site with
daily, monthly, and
historical data.
Rhode Island Beach
Monitoring Project
The Rhode Island Department of
Health hosts its own server.
Created a Web site with
beach closure information
and access to daily,
monthly, and historical
data.
Milwaukee/Racine Community
Recreational Water Risk
Assessment and Public
Outreach (Beachhealth)
The U.S. Geological Survey hosts
the Web site.
Automated monitoring
equipment and Web-
based data entry forms.
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Added a Web site with
beach closure information
and access to daily and
historical data.
In some cases (e.g., for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor and Rhode Island projects), an increase in the
frequency of monitoring contributed to the need to alter or expand data management systems. Table 5-1 shows the
changes these projects made. The decision to host your own Web site or use an Internet service provider will depend
on your program's priorities and available resources. For example, you may be able to convey data more quickly if you
host your own server, but achieving this quicker delivery may incur additional costs, including more labor for Web site
maintenance, quality control, etc. In addition, keep in mind that there are ways other than Web sites to communicate
your data, such as telephone hotlines, signs, and the media, as discussed in Chapter 6.
5.2.3 SYSTEM USE AND MAINTENANCE
Data entry, validation, and maintenance are critical to providing accurate data to the public. In the context of a data
management system, this involves entering data into a central database, performing QA/QC procedures, updating Web
content, and performing regular backup and archival operations. All programs must strike a balance between providing
timely data and ensuring data quality. Addressing this challenge is an important part of the QA/QC plan.
The project partners involved in the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project use a variety of different
software and data entry and validation procedures:
• The MWRA laboratory enters sampling data into a Laboratory Information Management System for validation
and QA/QC. After QA/QC, the MWRA uploads data to a database on a server on the MWRA's internal network,
then formats the data for the Web.
• The MDC and CRWA receive data from the laboratory via fax, transcribe the data to a spreadsheet file, check
the data for accuracy, and then update their Web sites with beach and boating postings.
The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project follows procedures similar to those of the CRWA. The Rhode Island staff
manually enter data into a spreadsheet, check the data for accuracy, and upload the data to their Web site.
The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project uses a combination of automated and manual data entry procedures.
Meteorological and lake condition data are retrieved via automated telephone modem transfer and uploaded directly to
a database. Water quality information is entered directly into the database using customized Web-based input forms.
Data validation occurs before the forms are submitted to the database. After submittal, these data are immediately
available to the public via the Beachhealth Web site. Figure 5-2 shows a data query form that the public can use on
the Beachhealth Web site to obtain beach water quality information, based on which parameters they select.
Maintenance procedures are typically based on those already in place for the project's computer network. In all three
case study projects, the network and data management database are routinely backed up and archived.
Data Management Partners
Data Management Partners Beach/recreational water quality monitoring project staff and associated
partners can learn from one another in developing a data management system, and can also share
data management system responsibilities. For example, the Charles River Watershed Association's
Web site design for the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project was used as a starting
point for the Rhode Island Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project Web site. The Rhode Island project's
data management system is managed by the Rhode Island Department of Health, whereas the
Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project's three program partners maintain separate data
management systems but share their data. For example, the Massachusetts Water Resources
Authority stores data for 17 beaches in a database, assists in analysis, and provides daily bacteria and
rainfall data on its Web site for five of the beaches that have a history of being contaminated; the
Metropolitan District Commission uses the monitoring results from the 17 beaches for a telephone
hotline, to issue flags at the beaches, and to place flag icons on its Web site that advise the public on
recreational water use.
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Beach Water Quality Query Paqe
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Figure 5-2. Sample data form available to the public on the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth Web site.
5.2.4 SYSTEM SECURITY
At its most basic, ensuring the security of a data management system involves restricting access to the database and
the software and processes used to update Web content. All three case study projects use password protection to limit
access to their Web development software: to update Web content, a user must enter a valid user ID and password to
access the appropriate files. The projects also use additional security steps, such as placing their databases behind
firewalls with no connection to the Internet.
The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project database is linked to the Web but has additional safeguards—for example,
the general public may not modify the database (other than filling out a site feedback form), and the code that
describes how the Web interface program is designed is hidden (in a package of procedures inside the software). The
latter measure prevents unauthorized users from accessing database tables or passwords or otherwise disturbing
database integrity.
5.3 DATA DELIVERY VIA THE WEB
5.3.1 WEB CONTENT
All three case study projects use their Web sites to provide time-relevant water quality information to the public. Table
5-2 describes the main content ofeach of the Web sites.
Table 5-2. Web Content of the Three Case Study Projects1
Project
Web Content
Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project
CRWA
http://www.crwa.ora
Color-coded maps of Charles River water quality
for each month in the current year.
Tables of historical Charles River water quality
data.
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MDC
httD://www.state.ma.us/mdc
MWRA
httD://www.mwra.state.ma.us
Latest available boating flag notice and sampling
data for eight Charles River locations.
Results from 1998, 1999, and 2000 daily sampling.
Latest available water quality notices and water
temperature for 17 Boston-area beaches.
Latest available water quality and rainfall data for
five Boston-area beaches.
Latest available beach closure information.
Rhode Island Bathing Beaches Monitoring Project
http://www.healthri.org/environment
/beaches/index, html
Tables of beach water quality data for over 100
beaches from 1995 to present.
Additional beach-and bather-related information.
Milwaukee/Racine Community Recreational Water Risk Assessment and Public Outreach
(Beachhealth)
http://infotrek.er. usas.aov/Dls/beachhealth
Latest available beach water quality conditions for
11 Milwaukee/Racine-area beaches/recreational
waters.
Real-time meteorological and lake conditions.
Dynamic query access to beach, river, and harbor
water quality data for the 1999-2001 swimming
season.
Dynamic query access to meteorological data for
the 1999-2001 swimming season.
These Web sites may be inactive when it is not beach season.
The Web sites of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project and the Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project
display icons of the different-colored flags the projects use at beaches, as well as explanations of the flags (see Figure
5-3). These projects' Web sites also provide access (via static tables or online query) to historical data for secondary
analysis. Clicking on the beach name links the user to the historical water quality data profile. Summary tables for the
1999 and 2000 data are also available for all sampling sites. In addition, the Rhode Island Web site provides a list of
current beach closures. The Milwaukee/Racine Web site provides links to static monthly sampling data and to a
dynamic query interface through which a user can generate customized reports.
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Colored flags posted at these boating centers indicate water qua lily conditions for boaters in the
Charles River Basin.
Watch tor Water Quality Flags
lUuf fbgv signal suitable boating conditions. Hi ii Jl.i.m signal potential health risks associated with
elevated oacteria counts.
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CAMBRIDGE
BOSTON
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WATEBTOWN
K»CK HATf
BOSTON
Figure 5-3. Colored flag icons used in the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches water quality. Source:
Charles River Watershed Association (http://www.crwa.org).
5.3.2 FUTURE WEB SITE GOALS
Developing a data management system is often an iterative process, in which a program begins with a relatively simple
system and then enhances the system as program goals and technologies evolve. Taking this approach allows the
program to get started in a reasonable time frame and to further improve service to the public over time. All three case
study projects plan future enhancements to their Web sites, including:
• Two of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project partners (the MWRA and MDC) plan to provide
a tool for predicting water quality (see Chapter 4) based on rain gauge data. This, they believe, will help them
better educate the public about water quality issues and provide data on a more real-time basis.
• The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project intends to survey its Web audience to determine how to enhance
its Web site, with the aim of giving the public a better context for understanding water quality information.
Project staff expect to add more static maps and, possibly, customized dynamic GIS mapping capabilities.
• The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project plans to include additional beaches on the Web site as funding
becomes available to test the beaches and post the data. Recent enhancements to data input forms will
facilitate smooth integration of additional water quality data.
For more information about the future goals of these projects, please visit their Web sites (listed in Table 5-2).
Table of Contents
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6. PUBLIC NOTIFICATION AND RISK COMMUNICATION
FOR BEACH/ RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
One key purpose of a water quality monitoring program is to notify swimmers, boaters, water skiers, fishermen, and
other recreational water users of any potential health risks associated with the water at a particular place and time.
Once water samples are collected and analyzed and results are compiled (as discussed in Chapters 4 and 5), a
system must be in place to quickly communicate the results to the public so that people can make informed decisions
about whether to use a particular beach or other recreational water area on a specific day.4
A number of municipalities and organizations have developed effective public notification programs for recreational
water quality. This chapter presents the general types of information that need to be communicated to the public
(Section 6.2). key methods used in selected public notification programs for beaches and other recreational waters
(Section 6.3: use of the Internet is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5). additional types of public notification and
outreach methods (Section 6.4). and step-by-step information on how to develop an outreach plan for public
notification (Section 6.5).
6.2 TYPES OF INFORMATION TO COMMUNICATE TO THE PUBLIC
Agencies and organizations that monitor recreational waters typically need to present one or more kinds of information
to the members of the public who use those waters, including:
• Public health information. Providing information about the potential public health risks of using beaches and
other recreational water areas is a key goal of any recreational water quality monitoring agency or organization.
Public health information should include an indication of the level of risks associated with using (e.g.,
swimming, boating, or fishing in) the waters and a description of associated potential health effects.
• Monitoring information. It is important that water quality monitoring programs clearly convey the significance of
their monitoring results to the public. This means presenting a clear and simple indication of current water
quality and providing additional details for persons interested in more information.
• Pollution prevention information. Monitoring agencies and organizations can provide information on pollution
prevention while providing public health information and water quality monitoring results. Pollution prevention
information often includes information on how pollutants enter the water and what individuals and businesses
can do to prevent or reduce this pollution.
• Self-promotional information. Members of the public cannot benefit from an information service if they do not
know it exists. Therefore, a water quality monitoring organization must advertise its services to the public so
that they will think to consult the organization when they have questions about water quality.
6.3 KEY PUBLIC NOTIFICATION METHODS FOR BEACH/RECREATIONAL WATERS
There are many ways to inform the public about recreational water quality. A number of beach and other recreational
water monitoring programs, including the three case study projects presented in this handbook (the Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor, the upper Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island, and Milwaukee/Racine projects) have found certain
methods to be particularly successful for public notification purposes, including warning flags, signs, hotlines, Web
sites, and the media, as described below.
6.3.1 WARNING FLAGS
The use of warning flags involves the posting at strategic locations of different-colored flags reflecting different levels
of health risk. For example, both the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project and the Rhode Island Beach
Monitoring Project use flags to give the public a highly visible indication of recreational water quality. Boat houses
along the lower Charles River in Boston and surrounding communities are marked with red flags when fecal coliform
levels exceed 1,000 CFU/100 ml. Beaches along the Boston Harbor are marked with red flags when enterococci levels
exceed 104 CFU/100 ml. At other times, when water quality meets boating or swimming standards set by the
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Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, the river and harbor are marked with blue flags to indicate
suitable conditions for these recreational pursuits.
Health Risk Communication: Effective Methods
Health risk communication. An educational brochure gives river users the following risk
communication message about "red flag" days:
"While it is always a good idea to wash after being on the river, it is particularly
important on red flag days. Some boaters choose to stay off the river on red flag days
because elevated bacterial levels pose a health risk."
Watch for Water Quality Flags, Charles River Watershed Association
Effective methods. Boston's Metropolitan District Commission drew the following conclusions about
which public notification tools were the most valuable:
"...it seems that the best medium for informing the public has been the flagging and web
site. For example, prior to the flagging project many people visiting Wollaston Beach
believed that the Beach was permanently closed for swimming [due] to pollution. Now
beach goers look for the flags to see if it is safe to swim. Although there are more red
flag days than we would like, at least the public is informed about the conditions. As
evidence of the public's cognizance of the postings, we haven't had a reported illness
as related to the water conditions in several years of which we know."
2000 Final EMPACT Report, Metropolitan District Commission
6.3.2 BEACH SIGNS
All three of the case study projects found beach signs to be useful for
notifying the public of potential health concerns at specific beaches. The
Milwaukee/Racine project designed special advisory signs with changeable
panels that made it possible to update the current date and list water quality
as good or poor. ("Good" means that the previous day's E. coli levels were
lower than 235 CFU/100 ml. "Poor" means that the previous day's E. coli
levels were higher than 235 CFU/100 ml if a recent rainfall occurred, or
were higher than 500 CFU/100 ml if no recent rainfall occurred.) During the
summer beach season, the signs are posted at eye level on the backs of
lifeguard stands. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor and Rhode Island
projects use signs to explain their colored flags: the signs explain that red
flags indicate poor water quality and blue flags indicate good water quality. If your program is considering using water
quality/health risk signs, think about providing them in more than one language—Spanish as well as English, for
example. Other languages may be valuable as well, especially if your site is near communities where those languages
are spoken.
6.3.3 TELEPHONE HOTLINE
All three case study projects also use telephone hotlines that allow
persons without Internet access to obtain timely information about
local beaches (e.g., about beach closures). Some beach information
hotlines are operational only during the beach season. The
Milwaukee/Racine project advertises its bilingual (English/Spanish)
hotline on television and postcards (see right). The Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor and Rhode Island projects advertise their
hotlines in brochures, Web sites, and newspapers.
6.3.4 PROJECT WEB SITE
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Increasingly, beach and recreational water quality monitoring
programs are maintaining Web sites as part of their overall public
notification and outreach strategies. All three case study projects provide timely information on water quality conditions
at monitored locations on their Web sites (as discussed in Chapters. Section 5.3). This kind of online information
allows people who are interested in swimming, boating, or other water activities to find out if a particular area is closed
or poses a potential health risk before actually going there. In addition to water quality results, some beach Web sites
include:
• Technical information about how water quality evaluations are conducted.
• Educational information about how the public can prevent future pollution of recreational waters.
• Links to related Internet resources.
• An option for the user to provide feedback to the Web site developers.
6.3.5 NEWS MEDIA
The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project and the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project both have extensive
experience working with local news media to promote their programs and distribute time-relevant recreational water
quality information. For example, the CRWA, one of the partners in the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project, was
able to get a local television station to broadcast information about the Charles River's water quality on its noon
weather forecast and a local newspaper to report this information once a week. The Milwaukee/Racine project
educated the public about its services in the news coverage it obtained on local television stations. This project also
garnered attention from the news media by sending out frequent press releases and sending daily faxes to media
representatives. The Rhode Island Department of Health has developed a standard operating procedure for
distributing press releases on beach closings/openings; press releases can be faxed out minutes after the decision is
made to close or reopen a beach area.
6.4 ADDITIONAL PUBLIC NOTIFICATION AND OUTREACH METHODS
In addition to using warning flags, signs, telephone hotlines, Web sites, and the media for public notification (as
discussed in Section 6.3). the Boston Harbor/Charles River, Milwaukee/Racine, and Rhode Island projects all have
used a variety of other mechanisms. Table 6-1 summarizes these additional public notification and outreach methods
(those methods used by all three projects are emphasized with shading). The public notification and outreach
initiatives listed in Table 6-1 are discussed below, except for those already discussed as key methods in Section 6.3.
Table 6-1. Public Notification and Outreach Initiatives Used by the Three Case Study Projects
Charles River Basin/
Boston Harbor
Project
Advertising and promotional
items
Milwaukee/Racine
Beachhealth Project
Rhode
Island
Beach
Monitoring
Project
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Annual water quality "Report
Card"
Beach signs
Printed fact
sheets/brochures
School curriculum
materials/teacher training
Kiosks/information booths
News media
Project Web site
Special public events
Telephone hotline
Visits to local
industries/dischargers
Volunteer program
Warning flags
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Advertising and promotional items. The case study projects use a variety of techniques borrowed from commercial
advertising, including the distribution of promotional "novelty" items, to increase people's awareness of the program.
The Rhode Island Beach Monitoring Project hands out business cards with the address of its Web site to beachgoers
on weekends. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project distributes water bottles that display the different-colored
flags used to identify whether beaches meet boating and swimming standards. The Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth
project advertised its program on the backs of buses, using bright colors and engaging visuals including cartoon
images of children of different ethnic backgrounds playing on the beach with a cityscape in the background; the
headline read, "Check out beach water qualities," with a hotline phone number and a Web address prominently
displayed. The University of Wisconsin-Extension's Infosource, a resource that assists nonprofit organizations with
public outreach, places similar ads at no cost to the Beachhealth program.
Annual "Water Quality Report Card"
Each year on Earth Day, the Charles River Watershed Association (a partner in the Charles River
Basin/Boston Harbor Beaches Project) publishes a "report card" that serves as a focal point for media
interest. The "grades" (A, B, C, D, and F) are based on the percentage of days on which the lower
Charles River was fishable and swimmable during the preceding year and a comparison of bacteria
levels to swimming and boating standards. Three letter grades are assigned: one for wet weather, one
for dry weather, and one for overall conditions. The grades help provide an indication of the progress
being made in river and harbor water quality conditions toward the goal of having these waters be
fishable and swimmable by the year 2005.
Fact sheets and brochures. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Project and the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth
project have developed educational brochures and fact sheets as part of their public education efforts.
Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth, for example, publishes two brochures to educate the public about pollution prevention
efforts. One brochure, It's All Connected, describes the migration pathways of surface water, drinking water, and
wastewater. It also discusses sources of pollution and how target areas are affected. The other brochure, Simple
Solution to Water Pollution: Making Your Home a Pollution Free Zone, describes how to improve water quality in urban
environments. Both of these brochures have been posted on the project's Web site and distributed at festivals and
expositions.
School activities and teacher training. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor project has worked with the Urban
Ecology Institute at Boston College (http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/research/urbaneco/)to develop a high-school curriculum
based on the work that the CRWA is conducting in the lower Charles River. The curriculum, intended for high schools
near this geographic area, teaches basic watershed science and biology and involves tracking the recovery of the
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Charles River using specially designed field studies that monitor plant and animal activity. The Marine Programs
project at the University of Rhode Island plans to sponsor an institute for 20 teachers (http://omp.gso.uri.edu). Any
teacher from the communities of Rhode Island and Massachusetts that surround Narragansett Bay will be eligible to
apply. The teacher institute will focus on a wide range of environmental, historical, cultural, and economic factors
affecting local health and the urban coastal environment. Institute products will include materials for incorporation into
the project Web site, activity kits for hands-on use in the classroom, and related resource materials. The
Milwaukee/Racine project has also conducted teacher training.
Kiosks and information booths. The MDC, one of the Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Project partners, set up
several kiosks on the beaches of Boston Harbor. Each kiosk contains information about water quality monitoring in
seven languages: English, Haitian, Spanish, Portugese, Italian, Vietnamese, and Chinese. The Milwaukee/Racine
Beachhealth project also used information booths—project staff set them up at several Milwaukee festivals, where they
handed out brochures and fact sheets.
Special public events. The Charles River Basin/Boston Harbor Project, in collaboration with a local radio station,
sponsored a series of "Back to the Beach" parties in 1998, 1999, and 2000. The events were intended to promote use
of local beaches by neighbors and visitors to Boston Harbor. At each event, information on water quality conditions,
the flagging system, and online resources was provided to the public.
Volunteer programs. In 1999, the Milwaukee/Racine Beachhealth project collaborated with community environmental
educational organizations to create a near-shore volunteer monitoring program. Nearly 50 high-school volunteers
tested water quality at 13 different sites throughout the summer. Students gained experience with scientific methods
and learned about different kinds of field test kits, different sources of Lake Michigan's pollution, and how rain can
alter water quality. This program is being continued on a limited basis.
6.5 DEVELOPING AN OUTREACH PLAN FOR PUBLIC NOTIFICATION
Outreach to the public is a key component of public notification, as discussed in Sections 6.2 and 6.3 above. It is
important to define your outreach goals before you develop any outreach activities. It is useful to develop clear, simple,
action-oriented statements about what you hope to accomplish through outreach. Once you have established your
goals, every other element of the outreach plan should relate to those goals. Answering the following questions can be
helpful:
• Who do you want to reach? (Step 1)
• What questions need to be answered? (Step 2)
• What are the most effective ways to reach your audience? (Step 3)
These and additional questions are addressed in more detail below. Developing an outreach plan that addresses these
questions helps to ensure that the message of your public notification program is the right one and that it reaches its
intended audience.
Lifeguards and Risk Communication
In addition to the more typical outreach activities described in this section, the training of lifeguards in
risk communication can be an important part of your outreach program. Lifeguards have a unique and
important role in communicating with swimmers and other users of recreational waters and can help
provide water quality and health risk information quickly to beachgoers.
An outreach plan provides a blueprint for action and does not have to be lengthy or complicated. An outreach plan is
most effective when a variety of stakeholders and people with relevant expertise are involved in its development, such
as:
• A communications specialist or someone who has experience in developing and implementing an outreach
plan.
• Technical experts in the subject matter (both scientific and policy).
• People who represent the target audience (i.e., the people or groups you want to reach).
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• Key individuals who will be involved in implementing the outreach plan, such as beach managers and local
health departments.
As you develop your outreach plan, consider inviting other organizations to work cooperatively with you to develop,
plan, and implement the outreach effort. Potential partners may include shoreline owner associations, local businesses,
environmental organizations, schools, boating or fishing associations, local planning and zoning authorities, and other
local or state agencies. Partners can participate in the planning, development, or review of outreach materials, as well
as distribution. Partnerships can be valuable mechanisms for leveraging resources as well as enhancing the quality,
credibility, and success of outreach efforts.
Developing an outreach plan is a creative and iterative process involving a number of interrelated steps, as described
below. As you move through each of these steps, you might want to revisit and refine the decisions you made in
earlier steps until you have an integrated, comprehensive, and achievable plan.
6.5.1 STEP 1: WHO DO YOU WANT TO REACH?
6.5.7.7 IDENTIFYING YOUR AUDIENCE(S)
After you identify your goals and put together a development team for your outreach plan, as described above, the
next step is to clearly identify the target audience or audiences for your outreach efforts. Outreach goals often define
the target audiences. You might want to refine and add to your goals after you have specifically considered which
audiences you want to reach.
Your primary audience for public notification and outreach will be users of your beaches and other recreational waters,
including swimmers, boaters, water skiers, fishermen, and others. You must reach these people to achieve your goals
of public health protection and notification. Your secondary audience might include local decision-makers, landowners,
businesses, schools, and other members of the general public who may use the beaches and other recreational
waters. Some audiences, such as educators and certain organizations (e.g., fishing and boating clubs), may be willing
to help disseminate information to other audiences you have identified, such as the general public.
Consider whether you should divide "the public" into two or more audience categories. For example, will you be
providing different information to certain groups, such as citizens and businesses? Does a significant portion of the
public you are trying to reach have a different cultural or language background from other members? If so, it may be
most effective to consider these groups as separate audiences.
6.5.1.2 PROFILING YOUR AUDIENCE(S)
Outreach will be most effective if you tailor the content, type, and distribution of outreach products to your target
audiences. This tailoring can be accomplished by developing profiles of your audiences' situations, interests, and
concerns. Such profiles will help you identify the most effective ways of reaching the audience. For each target
audience, consider:
• What is their current level of knowledge about recreational water quality?
• What do you want them to know about recreational water quality, and what actions would you like them to
take?
• What information is likely to be of greatest interest to them?
• How much time are they likely to give to receiving and assimilating the information?
• How do they generally receive information?
• What professional, recreational, and domestic activities do they typically engage in that might provide avenues
for distributing outreach products? Are there any organizations or centers that represent or serve them and
might be avenues for disseminating your outreach products?
Profiling an audience essentially involves putting yourself in your audience's shoes. Ways to do this include consulting
with individuals and organizations that represent or are members of the audience, consulting with colleagues who
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have successfully developed other outreach products for the audience, and using your imagination.
6.5.2 STEP 2: WHAT QUESTIONS NEED TO BE ANSWERED?
The second step in outreach planning is to think about what you want to communicate by identifying the questions that
your target audience wants answered. One possible way to identify such questions is to distribute a beach/recreational
water user survey, if resources are available. For example, a key question that users probably want answered is:
"Is it safe to swim here today?"
Think about the key points, or "messages," you want to communicate. Messages are the "bottom-line" information you
want your audience to walk away with, even if they forget the details. Outreach products often have multiple related
messages. You may have different messages for different audiences.
6.5.3 STEP 3: WHAT ARE THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAYS TO REACH YOUR AUDIENCE?
The next step in developing an outreach plan is to consider what types of outreach product will best reach each target
audience. There are many types of useful outreach products: print, audiovisual, electronic, and novelty items, as well
as events, as shown in Table 6-2. The audience profile information you have already assembled will help you select
appropriate outreach products. A communications professional can provide valuable guidance in choosing the most
appropriate products to meet your goals within your resource and time constraints. Questions to consider when
selecting outreach products include:
• When does your audience need the information to make a timely decision on whether to use a particular beach
or other recreational water area?
• What and how much information does your audience really need to know? (The simplest, most straightforward
product generally is most effective.)
• Is the product likely to appeal to the target audience? Is the audience likely to take the time to read, view,
attend, or purchase the product?
• How easy and cost-effective will the product be to distribute or, in the case of an event, organize?
• What time frame is needed to develop and distribute the product?
• How much will it cost to develop the product? Do you have access to the resources needed for development?
• What related products are already available? Can you build on existing products?
• How newsworthy is the information? Information with inherent news value may be rapidly and widely
disseminated by the media.
Table 6-2. Examples of Outreach Products
Print Items
For Your Primary Audience (for relatively quick,
"time-relevant" risk communication)
Daily newspaper notices
Press releases
Audiovisual Items
Exhibits and kiosks (with risk
information changed daily or
near-daily as needed)
Cable television programs (if
airing is timely)
Radio public service
announcements if made on a
daily or near-daily basis)
Electronic Items
(Assuming that your audience has
access to and uses these products
E-mail messages
Subscriber list servers
Web pages
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daily or near-daily)
Events
(Timely) press conferences
For Your Secondary Audience (less "time-relevant"
methods)
Print
Audiovisual
Events
Novelty Items
Brochures
Editorials
Educational curricula
Fact sheets
Newsletters
Cable television programs
Briefings
Community days
Fairs and festivals
Media interviews
Banners
Bumper stickers
Buttons
Coloring books
Newspaper and magazine
articles
Posters
Press releases
Question-and-answer sheets
Utility bill inserts or stuffers
Videos
One-on-one meetings
Press conferences
Public meetings
Speeches
Floating key chains for boaters
Frisbee™ discs
Magnets
Mouse pads
6.5.4 STEP 4: HOW WILL YOUR OUTREACH PRODUCTS REACH YOUR AUDIENCE?
Effective distribution is essential to the success of an outreach strategy. There are many avenues for distribution,
including those listed in Table 6-3. Consider how each product will be distributed and determine who will be
responsible for distribution. For some products, your organization might manage distribution. For others, you might rely
on intermediaries (such as the media or educators) or organizational partners that are willing to participate in the
outreach effort. Consult an experienced communications professional to obtain information about the resources and
time required for the various distribution options. Some points to consider in selecting distribution channels include:
• How does the audience typically receive information?
• What distribution mechanisms has your organization used in the past for this audience? Were these
mechanisms effective?
• Can you identify any partner organizations that might be willing to assist in the distribution?
• Can the media play a role in distribution?
• Will the mechanism you are considering really reach the intended audience? For example, the Internet can be
an effective distribution mechanism, but certain groups may have limited access to it.
• Are sufficient resources available to fund and implement distribution via the mechanisms of interest?
Table 6-3. Examples of Distribution Methods
For Your Primary Audience (e.g.,
beach/recreational
water users)
Phone (including hotline)/fax
For Your Secondary Audience
Mailing lists (yours and those of partner organizations)
E-mail (assuming that your audience has
access)
Journals or newsletters of partner organizations
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: Time-Relevant Beach and Recreational Water Q
Web site (if timely updates are possible
and your audience has access)
TV/radio (if information can be aired
timely)
Print media (for daily beach conditions,
and for less timely information, e.g.,
pollution prevention education)
uality Monitoring and Reporting
TV and radio (for less time-dependent messages)
Print media
Hotline that distributes products upon request
Meetings, events, or locations (e.g., libraries, schools,
marinas, public beaches, tackle shops, and sailing clubs)
where products are made available
6.5.5 STEP 5: WHAT FOLLOW-UP MECHANISMS WILL YOU ESTABLISH?
Successful outreach may generate requests for further information or concern about issues of which you have made
the audience aware. Consider whether and how you will handle this interest. The following questions can help you
develop this part of your strategy:
• What types of reaction or concern are audience members likely to have in response to the outreach
information?
• Who will handle requests for additional information?
• Do you want to indicate on the outreach product where people can obtain further information (e.g., provide a
contact name, number, or address)?
6.5.6 STEP 6: WHAT IS THE SCHEDULE FOR IMPLEMENTATION?
Once you have decided on your goals, messages, audiences, products, and distribution channels, you will need to
develop an implementation schedule. For each product, consider how much time will be needed for development and
distribution. Be sure to factor in enough time for product review. Wherever possible, build in time for testing and
evaluation by members or representatives of the target audience in focus groups or individual sessions so that you can
get feedback on whether you have effectively targeted your material for your audience.
4 This handbook reflects lessons learned primarily through three EMPACT projects initiated prior to the passage of the BEACH Act in 2000
and the publication of National Beach Guidance and Required Performance Criteria for Grants (U.S. EPA, 2002). Some of the practices
described in these projects may not be consistent with current regulatory requirements and guidance. For updated regulatory and guidance
information, see Section 1.2.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: SAMPLE BEACH SURVEY
Sample Beach Survey (PDF)
Source: Rhode Island Department of Health; EPA Region 1
APPENDIX B: EXAMPLES OF SELECTED SAMPLE COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Example 1:
Field Sampling Procedures
The sampler will stand in the water and collect a sample from a minimum of 3 feet of water, adjacent to, but not
impacted by, moderate swimmer activity and in an undisturbed area of water. The sample will be taken at least one
foot above the bottom. The sampler will stand away from and "downstream from" the bottle.
• Fill pre-labeled, sterile, screw-capped 250 ml Nalgene bottles to 90% capacity.
• Place samples in iced cooler (4°C).
• Maximum holding time: 6 hours (for fecal coliform, enterococci).
• Delivery to the [certified] laboratory within one hour of completion.
Source: U.S. EPA Region 1 and Metropolitan District Commission, 1998
Example 2:
Procedure for Collection of Bathing Beach Water Samples for Bacteriological Analysis
Arrangements with Laboratory: Testing must be performed by laboratories that are licensed by the RIDOH
for bacteriological testing of water. Because samples must be collected in sterile bottles and because the laboratory
may have special requirements for submissions of samples, be sure to contact the laboratory that will
be analyzing the samples prior to collection. The samples must be kept in an iced cooler and must be tested
... following the procedures in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater...
Source: Rhode Island Department of Health, 2001
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REFERENCES
Clesceri, L.S., A.E. Greenberg, and A.D. Eaton, eds. 1998. Standard methods for the examination ofwaterand
wastewater. 20th edition. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association,
and Water Environment Federation. Rhode Island Department of Health. 2001.
Rhode Island Department of Health (RIDOH) EMPACT Program beach monitoring procedures and protocols for
sampling and data management: Revision number 1, May 13, 2000. In: Bacterial water quality monitoring at upper
Narragansett Bay bathing beaches, an EMPACT project, final report, appendix 4. May 2001.
U.S. EPA. 1986. Ambient water quality criteria for bacteria—1986. EPA/440/5-84/002. Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1998. EPA guidance for quality assurance project plans. EPA/600/R-98/018. Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1999. EPA action plan for beaches and recreational waters. EPA/600/R-98/079. Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 2002. National beach guidance and required performance criteria for grants. EPA/823/B-02/004.
Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA Region 1 and Metropolitan District Commission. 1998. Boston Harbor Monitoring: Testing Enterococcus
Method 1600. Revision No. 2, July 23.
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APPENDIX A: SAMPLE BEACH SURVEY
Name of Beach:
Bathing Beach Survey
Date: Time of Day:
Weather Conditions:
Sunny & Clear
Cloudy/Overcast _
Rainy
Foggy
Water Temp:
Windy_
Tidal Flow:
Slow Moderate
Activity on Beach:
Approximate # of people
Sunbathing Fish
Conditions of the Beach:
Overall Appearance:
Low tide
Adults
ing Boating
Children
Walking
Swimming
Other activity
Debris on shore:
Debris in water:
Vegetation in water: 12345
<25% 25% 50% 75% 100% cover
Vegetation in shore: 12345
<25% 25% 50% 75% 100% cover in 1 meter quadrat
Width of wrack on shore (in meters)
Visible Sewage or Sewage Odor
Storrnwater pipes or other flows across beach
Conditions of Water:
Clear: Cloudy & Murky:
Oily Film:
Sources of Pollution:
Water fowl Approximate #—Seagulls
Approximate # of boats:
Wind and Weather Conditions:
Ducks
Geese
Swans _
Additional Comments:
Source: Rhode Island Department of Health; EPA Region 1
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United States
Environmental Protecfio
Delivering
teter Quality Info
The
National Aquar
^ACT Proiec
Environmental Monitoring for Public Ace
• M
& Community Tracking
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Disclaimer
This document has been reviewed by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation of their use.
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EPA/625/R-02/018
September 2002
Delivering Timely
Water Quality Information
to Your Community
The Chesapeake Bay and
National Aquarium in Baltimore
EMPACT Projects
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Recycled/Recycle ble
Printed with vegetable-based ink on
paper that contains a minimum of
50% post-consumer fiber content
processed chlorine free.
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CONTRIBUTORS
Scott Minamyer of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Risk Management
Research Laboratory, managed the development of this Handbook with the support of Pacific
Environmental Services, Inc., an EPA contractor. Bruce Michael, Ned Burger, and Glenn Page also
provided valuable assistance for the development of the handbook.
Chesapeake Bay and Fort McHenry Team
Karen Klima, EPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds (OWOW)
Joseph Macknis, EPA Chesapeake Bay Program
Bruce Michael, Maryland Department of Natural Resources (MD DNR)
Drew Koslow, MD DNR
Chris Asdland, MD DNR
Glenn Page, Director of Conservation, National Aquarium in Baltimore (NAIB)
Walter Boynton, University of Maryland Chesapeake Biological Laboratory
Ned Burger, University of Maryland Chesapeake Biological Laboratory
Chris Trumbauer, MD DNR
John Ungarelli, MD DNR
Angie Lawrence, Chesapeake Bay Program Manager, NAIB
Dan O'Connell, MD DNR
MD DNR, Resource Assessment Service, Tidewater Ecosystem Assessment Division
National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
University of Maryland Center of Environmental Services, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory
(CBL)/Horn Point Laboratory (HPL)
Morgan State University
The Chesapeake Bay Program - Americas Premier Watershed Restoration Program
National Aquarium in Baltimore (NAIB)
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 EMPACT Overview 1
1.2 Background 2
1.3 Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project 4
2. HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK 9
3. WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 11
3.1 Water Quality Monitoring: An Overview 11
3.2 Timely Water Quality Monitoring 13
3.3 Water Quality Field Sampling 36
4. MANAGING AND TRANSFERRING WATER QUALITY DATA 45
4.1 System Overview 45
4.2 Transferring and Managing Remote Water Quality Sampling Information 48
4.3 Transferring and Managing Field Water Quality Sampling Data (Nutrients) 54
5. DEVELOPING IMAGES TO PRESENT WATER QUALITY
MONITORING DATA 55
5.1 What is Data Visualization? 55
5.2 Various Data Visualization Software 56
5.3 Visualization Software Used on the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project 59
5.4 Guidelines for Interpreting and Conveying the Significance of the Water Quality Data 61
6. COMMUNICATING WATER QUALITY INFORMATION 63
6.1 Developing an Outreach Plan for Timely Water Quality Reporting 63
6.2 Elements of the Chesapeake Bay Outreach Programs 70
6.3 Resources for Presenting Water Quality Information to the Public 71
6.4 Success Stories 76
6.5 Most Frequently Asked Questions and Answers 77
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CONTENTS (continued)
7. RELATED PROJECTS 83
7.1 Technology Transfer Project 83
7.2 Wetlands Restoration at Fort McHenry 84
7.3 Data Integration Project 87
APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS & ACRONYM LIST A-l
IV
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 EMPACT Overview
This handbook offers step-by-step instructions about how to provide timely
water quality data to your community. It was developed by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Environmental Monitoring for
Public Access and Community Tracking (EMPACT) program. The EMPACT
program was created by EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD) to
introduce new technologies that make it possible to provide timely environmental
information to the public. EMPACT has worked with several of the largest
metropolitan areas and Native American Tribes in the country to help these
communities:
• Collect, manage, and distribute timely environmental information.
• Provide residents with easy-to-understand information they can use in making
informed, day-to-day decisions.
To make this and some other EMPACT projects more effective, partnerships with the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States
Geological Survey (USGS) were developed. EPA works closely with these federal
agencies to help achieve nationwide consistency in measuring environmental data,
managing the information, and delivering it to the public.
Environmental information projects were initiated in more than 86 of 156 EMPACT-
designated metropolitan areas and Native American Tribes. These projects cover a
wide range of environmental issues, including water quality, groundwater
contamination, smog, ultraviolet radiation, and overall ecosystem quality. Some of
these projects were initiated directly by EPA. Others were launched by communities
themselves. Local governments from any of the 156 EMPACT metropolitan areas and
Native American Tribes were eligible to apply for EPA-funded Metro Grants to
develop their own EMPACT projects. The 156 EMPACT metropolitan areas and
Native American Tribes are listed in the table at the end of this chapter.
One such Metro Grant recipient is the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project. The project
provides the public with timely water quality monitoring data and impacts of water
quality management activities in the Baltimore - Washington Area. The EMPACT
project also supplements Maryland DNR efforts to characterize water quality
conditions in estuarine systems that have experienced or have the potential to
experience harmful algal blooms.
INTRODUCTION
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1.2 Background
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States and one of the most
productive in the world. It is approximately 200 miles long and varies in width from
4 to 30 miles across. The Bay watershed drains 64,000 square miles of land in six states
- Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and New York and
Washington D.C. The Bay area is home to approximately 16 million people and
supports nearly 2,700 different plant and animal species.
Scientific and estuarine research conducted on the Bay between 1976 and 1983
pinpointed four problems requiring immediate attention: nutrient enrichment,
sediment loading, dwindling underwater Bay grasses, and toxic pollution. These
findings led to the development of the Chesapeake Bay Program in 1983 and the
Chesapeake Bay Monitoring Program in 1984, which monitors the overall health of the
Bay through the collection of comprehensive data on physical, chemical and biological
characteristics throughout the year in the main-stem of the Bay and tributaries.
Information obtained through these programs is vital to evaluate the progress of
management actions aimed at restoring the Bay and its tributaries, to address emerging
issues such as Pfiesteria, and to provide guidance for future actions.
In 1997, toxic Pfiesteria pisddda (fee-STEER-ee-uh pis-kuh-SEED-uh) killed
thousands of fish in several of Maryland's Lower Eastern Shore tributaries to the
Chesapeake Bay, including the lower Pocomoke River in Maryland and Virginia, the
Chicamicomico River , and King's Creek in Maryland. Pfiesteria pisddda is a toxic
dinoflagellate that has been associated with fish lesions and fish kills in coastal waters
from Delaware to North Carolina. A natural part of the marine environment,
dinoflagellates are microscopic, free-swimming, single-celled organisms, usually
classified as a type of alga. The vast majority of dinoflagellates are not toxic. Although
many dinoflagellates are plant-like and obtain energy by photosynthesis, others,
including Pfiesteria, are more animal-like and acquire some or all of their energy by
eating other organisms.
[Source: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/pfiesteria/fact.html#ll]
A statewide Pfiesteria, water, and habitat quality monitoring program was initiated by
the Maryland Department of Natural Resources (MD DNR) to measure key
components of the ecosystem, including pollutant inputs, water quality, habitat and
living resources. In conjunction with this program, the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT
Project was established to provide timely information regarding water quality
information and the relationship to possible toxic Pfiesteria pisddda outbreaks on the
Pocomoke River. This project was meant to supplement data collected as part of the
comprehensive Pfiesteria monitoring program that is integrated with water and living
resource quality assessments through the broader Chesapeake Bay Monitoring
Program. The EMPACT project enables people to learn more about Maryland's
waterways and keep up to date with water quality and Pfiesteria issues.
CHAPTER 1
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In 1998, the first year of EMPACT continuous monitoring, two stations were
established in the Pocomoke River to monitor various water quality parameters: one
at Cedar Hall Wharf and the other in Shelltown. In 1999, another surface meter (sonde)
was deployed on the Pocomoke at Rehobeth and a bottom meter was added at Cedar
Hall Wharf. Data from the bottom meter provides information about possible
differences between bottom and surface conditions.
For 2000, the project was expanded to provide a more bay-wide representation of water
and habitat quality and potential impacts to living resources. Two sondes were
depolyed in the Magothy River: one at Cattail Creek and one at Stonington. These
stations provide data from a waterway in a more urban setting. The Stonington site is
located adjacent to a large submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) bed. SAV provides
critical habitat for living resources and the restoration of SAV is critical to bay recovery.
Two additional monitors were placed in lower eastern shore tributaries: one in the
Chicamacomico River at Drawbridge and one in the Transquaking River at Decoursey
Bridge. These two waterways have repeatedly shown evidence of Pfiesteria. Through
a cooperative program with the National Aquarium in Baltimore (NAIB), data is also
being collected from a station established in 2001 in the Baltimore Harbor adjacent to
the Fort McHenry field station.
[Source: http://mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/empact/faq.html]
Initially, the monitoring stations were not equipped with telemetry to collect real-time
data; however in 2000, most of the stations were outfitted with this equipment so that
timely data could be collected. "Timely data" refers to data that is collected and
communicated to the public in a time frame that is useful to their day-to-day decision-
making about their health and the environment, and relevant to the temporal variability
of the parameters measured. Figure 1.1 shows the geographical location of the
monitoring stations.
In addition to supplementing the Pfiesteria program, this project provided a means to
gain a greater understanding of how tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay function. For
example, the relationship between storm events and fresh water flows to the Pocomoke
is poorly understood because of its altered watershed hydrology resulting from human
activities over the past several years. This is an important process to understand
because of the likely linkage between runoff, nutrient loading, and conditions that
influence Pfiesteria populations.
Other objectives of the EMPACT projectwere to measure and evaluate low dissolved
oxygen conditions that affect certain Maryland waterways during the summer months
and to evaluate SAV habitat conditions. Low oxygen conditions can stress fish and
other aquatic organisms, and can lead to fish kills under severe conditions. SAV is a
key living resource in Chesapeake Bay and provides valuable habitat for fish, crabs and
other species.
INTRODUCTION
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Figure 1.1 Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Monitoring Stations
1.3 Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project
Note: The National Aquarium in Baltimore (NAIB) project is discussed in
Chapter 7.
1.3.1 O
verview
The Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project was initiated in 1998 and ended in 2001.
During that time, the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project maintained as many as eight
continuous water quality monitoring sites. Most sites were equipped with sampling and
telemetry equipment. Timely data was available from the Rehobeth and Cedar Hall
Wharf Stations on the Pocomoke River, the Stonington Station on the Magothy River,
the Drawbridge Station on the Chicamacomico River, the Decoursey Bridge Station on
the Transquaking River, and from the Fort McHenry Field Station in Patpsco River.
The data for the Shelltown site on the Pocomoke River and the Cattail site on the
Magothy was downloaded manually by MD DNR scientists. [Source: http://
mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/newmontech/contmon/index.cfm]
Note: Although the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project has ended, MD DNR
continues to collect timely water quality data at many of the monitoring
sites listed above. In some cases, the equipment has been moved to other
sites to collect similar data.
CHAPTER
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The field monitors (or sondes) were located at a constant depth of one meter below the
surface of the water, with the exception of Cedar Hall Wharf on the Pocomoke, which
also has a surface and bottom meter. The sondes were programmed to record seven
environmental parameters: water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen saturation,
dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, turbidity, and fluorescence. Each parameter was
recorded every 15 minutes. Once a week (May through October), the monitors were
replaced with clean, recalibrated units. The data collected by the sondes were
downloaded and reviewed using the software, EcoWatch® for Windows™, that was
provided with the sonde. Scientists reviewed the data to identify and delete obvious
erroneous data. After reviewing the data, the scientist sends the data to the Web site
manager where graphs are prepared for placement on the EMPACT Web site for the
public to view. The Web site manager also archives the data for long-term storage. A
telemetry system, which includes cellular phones located in the sampling stations,
transferred the near real-time monitoring results to the MD DNR and NAIB twice each
day. These data were processed and stored in a database within minutes so that Web
users could query and generate graphs of the data.
In addition to the data collected by the sondes, water samples were collected at each
location weekly for analysis in the laboratory. The analyses were used to calibrate the
sondes and to check the data for accuracy. Water samples were collected for nutrient
analysis, Chlorophyll A levels, and water column respiration rates.
1.3.2 Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project Objectives
Overall project objectives included the following:
• Record chemical and physical data that will provide an understanding of the
environmental factors that contribute to the occurrence of harmful algal blooms
and low dissolved oxygen occurrences in the Chesapeake and Coastal Bays.
• Provide in-situ timely data to the Maryland DNR that supplements state efforts
for Pfiesteria surveillance monitoring and SAV restoration.
• Utilize high-frequency timely data along with weekly measurements to
characterize physical conditions and time frames over which physical processes
occur. Identification of recurring events and their associated physical
conditions are used as a basis for the development of future monitoring
schemes to optimize recognition of any signals, impacts or events in the
tributaries.
• Provide comprehensive assessments of technical environmental data in an easy
to understand format that will increase the public's understanding of factors
contributing to the frequency of toxic outbreaks of Pfiesteria and Pfiesteria-like
organisms, fish kills, low dissolved oxygen and the loss of SAV habitat.
INTRODUCTION
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1.3.3 EMPACT Project Team
The Chesapeake Bay Project team consisted of the following members and key
partners:
I. Key Personnel
• Tony Allred, MD DNR - Data management oversite.
• Bruce Michael, MD DNR - EMPACT project coordination and management.
• Drew Koslow, Chris Aadland, Maryland DNR - Data management and analysis,
Web site design and maintenance.
• Ned Burger, University of Maryland Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Chris
Trumbauer, MD DNR, and John Ungarelli, MD DNR - Responsibilities
included field work and in-house downloading and archiving raw data from
instruments following each weekly deployment, making and documenting any
data deletions or conversions, and transferring the corrected data to DNR.
• Glenn Page, National Aquarium in Baltimore, Director of Conservation -
oversees all conservation efforts for NAIB.
• Angie Lawrence, National Aquarium in Baltimore, Chesapeake Bay Program
Manager - responsible for all tidal wetland restoration efforts, manages
volunteers.
• Dan O'Connell, Maryland DNR - database manager/programmer, maintains
the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Web site.
II. Key Partners
• Maryland DNR, Resource Assessment Service, Tidewater Ecosystem
Assessment Division.
• NAIB (National Aquarium in Baltimore).
• NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration).
• University of Maryland Center of Environmental Services, Chesapeake
Biological Laboratory (CBL)/Horn Point Laboratory (HPL).
• Morgan State University.
• The Chesapeake Bay Program.
• Other local partners.
CHAPTER
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1.3.4 Project Costs
The costs to conduct a water quality monitoring project similar to the Chesapeake Bay
Project can vary significantly. Factors affecting the cost include, but are not limited
to, the size and location of your study area, the number and types of parameters you
want to measure, the number of monitoring stations that you want to deploy, whether
you want a telemetry system to receive timely data, the personnel needed to collect and
analyze the data, the number of samples to collect, and the amount of new equipment
which will need to be purchased.
Each year from 1998 through 2000, Maryland's DNR applied for and received
incremental EMPACT funding for their water quality monitoring program, totaling
f 475K. In 1998, the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project received f 100K to set up and
maintain continuous monitoring at two sites on the Pocomoke River. Foursondes (two
per monitoring site) were purchased for weekly collection of monitoring data. With an
EMPACT Grant of $125K in 1999, four more sondes were purchased and set up to
provide continuous monitoring at two additional sites on the Pocomoke. No telemetry
was installed during these two years. A grant of $250K in 2000 enabled the Chesapeake
Bay project to expand its continuous monitoring program Bay-wide. Two sites on the
Magothy River and one site each on the Transquaking and Chicamacomico Rivers were
set up, requiring the purchase and maintenance of eight additional sondes. With the
additional funds, the purchase and use of telemetry was also initiated.
Figure 1.2 provides an example of the expenditure breakdown for the major project
phases/tasks which occurred in 2000. In addition to EMPACT Grant funding,
Maryland DNR provided funding for nutrient analysis, and staff time for project
oversight, data management, data analysis and interpretation, and information
dissemination. The University of Maryland also provided staff time for project
oversight. [Source: EMPACT EPA Project Plan 2000, Revised January.]
One should keep in mind that significant initial capital costs may be incurred when
implementing such a monitoring effort. For example, if you need to purchase
equipment to measure parameters (i.e., sondes) or if you want to have access to timely
data which would require telemetry hardware and software, then you should account
for such expenditures. A monitoring station equipped with sondes and electronic
hardware for a telemetry system can cost $17,000 to $22,000, excluding the manpower
necessary for maintaining the equipment.
Added to this are annual costs for staff time necessary for sample collection and
maintaining the sondes, data management, data analysis, and Web page maintenance.
Utilizing a telemetry system also has additional costs such as cell phone charges.
INTRODUCTION
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Figure 1.2 Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Grant (FY2000)
Travel (non-EPA)
QA/QC
$6,000
$6,000-
S us taxability
$6,000
— Other Misc. Costs
$18.000
Project Planning
$7,000
Technological Transfer
$0,000
Communication/Outreach
$18,000
Monitoring
S115.000
Data Interpretation
S11,000
Information Delivery —f \
I nformation Management
S7,OQQ
1 .3.5 Technology Transfer Handbook
The Technology Transfer and Support Division of the EPA's ORD National Risk Management
Research Laboratory initiated development of this handbook to help interested communities learn
more about the Chesapeake Bay Project. The handbook also provides technical information
communities need to develop and manage their own timely water monitoring, data visualization, and
information dissemination programs. ORD, workingwith the Chesapeake Bay Project team, produced
this handbook to leverage EMPACT's investment in the project and minimize the resources needed
to implement similar projects in other communities.
Free copies of both print and CD-ROM versions of the handbook are available for direct on-line
ordering from EPA's Office of Research and Development Technology Transfer Web site at http://
www.epa.gov/ttbnrmrl. A PDF version of the Handbook can be downloaded directly from the same
Web site. You can also order a copy of the handbook (print or CD-ROM version) by contacting ORD
Publications by telephone or mail at:
EPA ORD Publications
US EPA-NCEPQ
P.O. Box 42419
Cincinnati, OH 45242
Phone: (800) 490-9198 or (513) 489-8190
Note: Please make sure you include the title of the handbook and the EPA document number
in your request.
We hope you find the handbook worthwhile, informative, and easy to use.
8 CHAPTER
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2. HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
This handbook provides you with step-by-step information on how to develop a
program to provide timely water quality data to your community, using the
Chesapeake Bay Project in Maryland as a model. It contains detailed guidance on how
to:
Design, site,
operate, and
maintain a
system to
gather timely
water quality
data.
Design,
operate, and
maintain a
system to
retrieve,
manage, and
analyze your
timely water
quality data.
Use data
visualization
tools to
graphically
depict these
data.
Develop a plan
to communicate
the results of
your timely
water quality
monitoring
efforts to
residents in
your
community.
This Handbook also provides information on how to conduct a wetland restoration
effort in your community. Specifically:
• Chapter 3 provides information about water quality monitoring - the first step
in the process of generating timely information about water quality and making
it available to residents in your area. The chapter begins with an overview of
water quality monitoring in estuarine systems and then focuses on the
monitoring components that are part of the Chesapeake Bay Project.
• Chapter 4 provides step-by-step instructions on how to collect, transfer, and
manage timely water quality data. This chapter discusses time-series sampling
equipment calibration, transferring sampling data, managing sampling data, and
checking sampling data for quality. In addition, this chapter presents details on
water quality field sampling including details on sampling, water quality
parameter analyses, and data transfer and management.
• Chapter 5 provides information about using data visualization tools to
graphically depict the timely water quality data you have gathered. The
chapter begins with a brief overview of data visualization. It then provides a
more detailed introduction to selected data visualization tools utilized by the
Chesapeake Bay team. You might want to use these software tools to help
analyze your data and in your efforts to provide timely water quality
information to your community.
• Chapter 6 outlines the steps involved in developing an outreach plan to
communicate information about water quality in your community. It also
HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK
9
-------
provides information about the Chesapeake Bay Project's outreach efforts. The
chapter includes a list of resources to help you develop easily understandable
materials to communicate information about your timely water quality
monitoring program to a variety of audiences.
• Chapter 7 discusses related projects that were conducted by the National
Aquarium in Baltimore. Such projects include a similar water quality
monitoring project at the Fort McHenry National Monument in Baltimore, MD;
wetlands restoration efforts at Fort McHenry; and the development of a GIS
product to provide online access to water quality information.
This handbook is designed for decision-makers considering whether to implement a
timely water quality monitoring program in their communities and for technicians
responsible for implementing these programs. Managers and decision-makers likely
will find the initial sections of Chapters 3, 4, and 5 most helpful. The latter sections
of these chapters are targeted primarily at scientists and technicians and provide
detailed "how to" information. Chapter 6 is designed for managers and communication
specialists. Chapter 7 is designed to inform individuals or groups about other projects
which resulted or benefitted from the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project.
The handbook also refers you to supplementary sources of information, such as Web
sites and guidance documents, where you can find additional guidance with a greater
level of technical detail. The handbook also describes some of the lessons learned by
the Chesapeake Bay team in developing and implementing its timely water quality
monitoring, data management, and outreach program.
10 CHAPTER 2
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3. WATER QUALITY
MONITORING/SAMPLING
This chapter provides information about water quality monitoring and sampling - the
first step in the process of generating timely information about water quality and
making it available to residents in your area.
The chapter begins with a broad overview of water quality monitoring and then focuses
on the monitoring components that were part of the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT
Project. The chapter also provides instructions on how to install, operate, and maintain
continuous monitoring equipment. Readers primarily interested in an overview of
water quality monitoring might want to focus on information presented in this
introductory section and the introductory parts of Sections 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3. If you are
responsible for the design and implementation of a water quality monitoring project
whose goal is to provide timely water quality sample results to the public, you should
review Subsections 3.2.1 through 3.2.8. They provide an introduction to the specific
steps involved in developing and operating a water quality monitoring project and
information on where to find additional guidance. If you are responsible for the design
and implementation of a water quality field sampling project, you should review
Subsections 3.3.1 through 3.3.2. They provide information on setting up a field
sampling program. Subsections 3.3.3 and 3.3.4 provide instructions on how to collect
and analyze water samples for various parameters.
3.1 Water Quality Monitoring: An Overview
Water quality monitoring provides information about the condition of streams, lakes,
ponds, estuaries, and coastal waters. It can also tell us if these waters are meeting their
standards for designed uses, such as for swimming, fishing, or drinking. Water quality
monitoring can consist of the following types of measurements:
• Chemical measurements of constituents such as nutrients, metals, and oils in
water.
• Physical measurements of general conditions such as temperature, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity/salinity, current speed/direction, water level, water
clarity.
' measurements of the abundance, variety, and growth rates of aquatic
plant and animal life in a water body or the ability of aquatic organisms to
survive in a water sample.
You can conduct a variety of water quality monitoring projects, including:
• At fixed locations on a continuous basis.
• At selected locations on an as-needed basis or to answer specific questions.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 11
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• On a temporary or seasonal basis (such as during the summer at swimming
beaches).
• On an emergency basis (such as after a spill).
Note: As you will read later, the majority of Chesapeake Bay's Water Quality
Monitoring Project was conducted on a seasonal basis from April/May
through October which corresponds to the times of highest biological
activity and it is representative of the SAV growing season in Maryland.
Many agencies and organizations conduct water quality monitoring, including state
pollution control agencies, Indian tribes, city and county environmental offices, the
EPA and other federal agencies, and private entities, such as universities, watershed
organizations, environmental groups, and industries. Volunteer monitors - private
citizens who voluntarily collect and analyze water quality samples, conduct visual
assessments of physical conditions, and measure the biological health of waters - also
provide increasingly important water quality information. The Web site of the EPA
Office of Water (http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring) is a good source of
background information on water quality monitoring. The EPA provides specific
information about volunteer monitoring at http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/
vol.html.
Water quality monitoring is conducted for many reasons, including:
• Characterizing waters and identifying trends or changes in water quality over
time.
• Identifying existing or emerging water quality problems.
• Gathering information for the design of pollution prevention or restoration
programs.
• Determining if the goals of specific programs are being met.
• Complying with local, state, and federal regulations.
• Responding to emergencies such as spills or floods.
EPA helps administer grants for water quality monitoring projects and provides
technical guidance on how to monitor and report monitoring results. You can find a
number of EPA's water quality monitoring technical guidance documents on the Web
at: http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/techmon.html. The EPA's Office of
Water has developed a Watershed Distance Learning Program called the "Watershed
Academy Web." This program, which offers a certificate upon completion, is a series
of self-paced training modules that covers topics such as watershed ecology,
management practices, analysis and planning. More information about the Watershed
Academy Web can be found on the Web at: http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/. The
EPA also has a Web site entitled "Surf Your Watershed" which can be used to locate.
12 CHAPTERS
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use, and share environmental information on watersheds. For more information about
the resources available on Surf Your Watershed, please see the following Web site:
http://www.epa.gov/surf3. The EPA also has a collection of watershed tools
available on the Web at http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/watershed/tools/. The
watershed tools deal with topics such as data collection, management and assessment,
outreach and education, and modeling.
In addition to the federal EPA resources listed above, you can obtain information about
lake and reservoir water quality monitoring from the North American Lake
Management Society (NALMS). NALMS has published many technical documents,
including a guidance manual entitled Monitoring Lake and Reservoir Restoration. For more
information, visit the NALMS Web site at http://www.nalms.org. State and local
agencies also publish and recommend documents to help organizations and
communities conduct and understand water quality monitoring. For example, the State
of Maryland maintains a Web site (http://www.dnr.state.md.us/bay/monitoring/)
that lists its monitoring strategy for the Chesapeake Bay. State and local organizations
in your community might maintain similar listings.
In some cases, special water quality monitoring methods, such as remote monitoring,
or special types of water quality data, such as timely data, are needed to meet a water
quality monitoring program's objectives. Timely environmental data are collected and
communicated to the public in a time frame that is useful to their day-to-day decision-
making about their health and the environment, and relevant to the temporal variability
of the parameter measured. Monitoring is called remote when the operator can collect
and analyze data from a site other than the monitoring location itself.
3.2 Timely Water Quality Monitoring
The Chesapeake Bay Project monitored a range of water quality parameters including
chloropyhll A, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, salinity (conductivity), temperature, and
total suspended solids. This information was used to help the State of Maryland,
EMPACT project stakeholders and partners, as well as the public, better understand
the environmental conditions that can lead to harmful algal blooms, fish kills or the
emergence or decline of SAV.
The Chesapeake Bay Project monitored various water quality parameters at eight
locations along five rivers feeding into the Chesapeake Bay: Cedar Hall Wharf,
Shelltown, Rehobeth (located along the Pocomoke River); Fort McHenry (located
along the Baltimore Harbor in the Patapsco River); Cattail Creek and Stonington
(located along the Magothy River); Drawbridge (located along the Chicamacomico
River); and Decoursey Bridge (located along the Transquaking River). At these
locations, the team operated monitoring equipment which monitor water quality using
commercially available sondes. A sonde is a group of sensors which transmits timely
water quality data to a data acquisition/telemetry system mounted above the water
level. Provided below is a schematic showing the general equipment associated with
the monitoring station.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 13
-------
Figure 3.1 Monitoring Station
Antennae —-
Solar Panel
Control Panel containing the
following: Bafejy, Modem,
CR1 OX Data Logger, _
Radio Transmitter, \v
Voice Synthesizer
i
F eld Cable
Fixed
Location
PVC Tube
YSI Sonde—
Every 15 minutes, the water quality monitoring station unit equipped with a YSP 6600
multiprobe water quality sensor measured the following parameters:
• Dissolved oxygen
• DO% Saturation
• Fluorescense/Chlorophyll A
• pH
• Specific conductance/Salinity
• Turbidity
• Water temperature
The remainder of this chapter provides guidelines for designing a water quality
monitoring project. It also provides information on the sample collection and analysis
procedures used for the field sampling effort.
14
CHAPTER 3
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3.2.1 Designing a Timely Water Quality Monitoring Project
The first step in developing a timely water quality monitoring project is to define your
objectives. Keep in mind that timely monitoring might not be the best method for your
organization or community. For example, you would not likely need timely monitoring
capability to conduct monthly monitoring to comply with a state or federal regulation.
In order to clearly define the objectives of your particular water quality monitoring
project, you need to understand the system you are planning to monitor. This means
that you need to collect background information about the aquatic system, such as
naturally occurring processes, system interactions, system ecology, and human impacts
on the system.
Since the Chesapeake Bay monitoring project involves estuarine ecology, the following
paragraphs provide some basic background information about this topic.
Estuarine Ecology
Estuaries are bodies of water that are balanced by freshwater and sediment influx from
rivers and the tidal actions of the oceans, thus providing transition zones between the
freshwater of a river and the saline environment of the sea. The result of this interaction
is an ecologically rich environment where estuaries, with large expanses of adjacent
marshes and seagrasses, provide a highly productive ecosystem that supports wildlife
and fisheries and contributes substantially to the economy of coastal areas. As
spawning, nursery, and feeding grounds, estuaries are invaluable to fish and shellfish.
Estuaries and wetland environments are intertwined. Coastal emergent wetlands
border estuaries and the coast and include tidal saltwater and freshwater marshes.
Coastal wetlands serve as an essential habitat for a diverse range of species. These
wetlands are used as a nursery, nesting area, shelter or feeding area by shorebirds,
migratory waterfowl, fish, crabs, invertebrates, reptiles, and mammals. Mudflats, salt
marshes, mangrove swamps, and barrier island habitats also provide year-round nesting
and feeding grounds for abundant populations of gulls, terns, and other shorebirds.
Estuaries, marshes and associated watersheds provide habitat for many threatened and
endangered species.
Effect of Nutrients on the Chesapeake Bay
Nutrients and organic matter enter the Bay from a variety of sources, including sewage
treatment plant effluents, stream inputs, local non-point drainage and direct rainfall on
bay waters. A portion of organic matter sinks to the bottom, decomposes and
contributes to the development of hypoxic (low oxygen) and anoxic (no oxygen)
conditions. Estuarine sediments have the ability to store nutrients that can later allow
a "flux" of nutrients from sediments to the water. These fluxes can fuel high rates of
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 15
-------
phytoplankton growth and biomass accumulation. Once phytoplankton die, they fall
to the bottom where they are decomposed by bacteria. The process of decomposition
requires the use of oxygen (see Figure 3.2). Therefore, large amounts of organic matter
created by dead phytoplankton blooms can deplete oxygen in bottom sediments which
can lead to hypoxia or anoxia. Hypoxia and anoxia are common in eutrophic estuarine
systems and threaten our living resources, including SAV, shellfish, fish and other
fauna.
Figure 3.2. Components in the Chesapeake Bay That Produce and Consume
Oxygen
/ Respiration -
/ oxygen cons u mpt cm
\4
BesnratiwT- \ Photosynthesis - oxygen production
\ Respration - oxygen consumption
oxygen consumption
Vi
sn products
Respiration - oxygen consumption
[Source: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/bay/monitoring/eco/affect.html].
There are usually three overlapping zones in an estuary: an open connection with the
sea where marine water dominates, a middle area where salt water and fresh water mix,
and a tidal river zone where fresh water dominates. Tidal forces cause the estuarine
characteristics to vary. Also variation in the seasonal discharge of rivers causes the
limits of the zones to shift, thus increasing the overall ecological complexity of the
estuaries.
[Source: http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=l&pg=2&ti=761570978#sl]
Most of the world's freshwater runoff eventually encounters the oceans in estuaries.
Tides or winds help mix the lighter, less dense fresh water from the rivers with the salt
water from the ocean to form brackish water. The salinity of brackish water is typically
2 to 10 parts per thousand (ppt), while the salinity of sea water is about 35 ppt. Due
mostly to changes in the river flow, the three main estuarine zones - sea water, brackish,
16
CHAPTER 3
-------
and freshwater - can shift seasonally and vary significantly from one area to another.
[Source: http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=l&pg=2&ti=761570978#sl]
Note: The salinity in the Chesapeake Bay varies from fresh water levels in the
upper bay to 20-30 ppt in the low bay.
Harmful Algal Blooms
Microscopic, single-celled plants
(phytoplankton) serve as the primary
producers of energy at the base of the
estuarine food web. Some species of
phytoplankton grow very fast, or
"bloom," and accumulate into dense,
visible patches near the surface of the
water. Although the causes of algal
blooms are not entirely known,
scientists suspect that blooms occur as
a result of a combination of high
temperatures, a lack of wind, and,
frequently, nutrient enrichment. Some
algal blooms are called brown tides.
While not harmful to humans, they
cause serious ecosystem impacts due to
decreases in light penetration and
dissolved oxygen. Brown tides can
cause seagrass die-offs and fish kills.
Some algae, such as Pfiesteria may
produce potent toxins that can cause
fish kills and human health problems.
Due to the significant health and
economic concerns surrounding the
outbreaks of toxic Pfiesteria that
Maryland experienced in 1997, a primary goal of the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project
is to supplement Maryland's larger Pfiesteria monitoring efforts.
Pfiesteria
Pfiesteriapisddda is a toxic dinoflagellate that has been associated with fish lesions and
fish kills in coastal waters from Delaware to North Carolina. A natural part of the
marine environment, dinoflagellates are microscopic, free-swimming, single-celled
organisms, usually classified as a type of algae. The vast majority of dinoflagellates are
not toxic. Although many dinoflagellates are plant-like and obtain energy by
photosynthesis, others, including Pfiesteria, are more animal-like and acquire some or
all of their energy by eating other organisms.
How An Algal Bloom Can Occur
Ideal conditions for algal growth occurs when
you have a combination of algae, high levels of
nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus), and
water temperature and salinity levels conducive
to phytoplankton growth in the water body.
In such conditions, the algae consumes the
excess nutrient causing a decrease in
dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus in the water
body.
During the day, overall dissolved oxygen (DO)
increases as phytoplankton produces oxygen
as photosynthesis occurs.
At night, the DO levels decrease sharply as the
algae consumes oxygen.
As the amount of nutrients are depleted, the
algae population decreases sharply in what is
called a "crash."
As this crash occurs, the dead phytoplankton
sinks to the bottom of the water column where
they are consumed by decomposers.
Since decomposers require oxygen to break
down the algae, DO levels decrease.
Low oxygen levels can be detrimental to fish
health. If DO levels drop to below 3 mg/L, fish
kills will result!
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING
17
-------
Pfiesteria normally exists in non-toxic forms, but becomes toxic when it detects an
ephemeral substance that live fish excrete or secrete into the water. In its toxic form,
Pfiesteria secretes toxins into the water which make the fish lethargic. These toxins also
injure the fish skin causing bleeding sores and hemorrhaging. North Carolina State
University has conducted much research on Pfiesteria. For more information, refer to
http://www.pfiesteria.org/pfiesteria.
Designing the Chesapeake Bay Project
The Chesapeake Bay Project team's decision to collect timely water quality data was
made so that the data would serve as a communications link with the public, providing
frequent updates of "real-time" data and emphasizing that the state and EPA are
watching 24 hours a day specific areas which could experience harmful algal blooms
or other environmental problems. Citizens can access the frequently updated data on
the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Web site (http://mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/
newmontech/contmon/index.cfm) which depicts actual conditions being measured in
the Pocomoke, Chicamacomico, Transquaking, and Magothy Rivers as well as at Fort
McHenry in the Baltimore Harbor.
The project team decided to conduct timely monitoring of water quality to be able to
detect algal blooms early and to provide timely environmental information to natural
resource and human health protection agencies. Having timely data allows entities to
respond quickly to adverse environmental conditions, make appropriate decisions to
ensure economic and environmental sustainability of the affected environment, and
protect the health of commercial and recreational users.
3.2.2 Selecting Your Monitoring Duration and Frequency
The duration of your monitoring will depend on your project objectives. For example,
like the Chesapeake Bay project, if you want to measure the environmental conditions
that contribute to Pfiesteria outbreaks or other harmful algal blooms, you will want to
monitor when those conditions generally occur in your region.
The goal of the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT monitoring program is to have most of the
sites collecting data from April through October. These dates correspond to the SAV
growing season and are when Pfiesteria outbreaks are most likely to occur. However,
if your goal is to monitor the effects of freshwater river diversions on a coastal wetland,
you may want to monitor water quality year-round.
• If you want to identify existing or emerging water quality problems such as algal
blooms, you could tailor your monitoring frequency to collect data often
enough to identify problems early in order to take measures to alleviate the
problem and warn the public.
• If you want to study seasonal water quality problems, you may want to increase
your monitoring frequency during seasons when water quality problems are
18 CHAPTERS
-------
more predominant (i.e., low dissolved oxygen levels and associated fish kills
during summer months).
It is appropriate to experiment with different monitoring frequencies to optimize your
ability to fulfill your project's objectives.
Chesapeake Bay Monitoring Season
Most of the stations collect data
from April through October
year-round and occasionally other
sites are maintained year-round
to test equipment
The Chesapeake Bay project team
programmed its monitoring station to
collect water quality data every 15
minutes. This monitoring frequency
provides timely environmental data to
The Fort McHenry station operates supplement Maryland's rapid response
and comprehensive water and habitat
quality assessments of Maryland
tributaries that have a potential risk for
harmful algal blooms. It also provides the
temporal resolution they need to see
naturally occurring cyclical changes in various parameters (e.g., Chlorophyll A
fluctuations occurring during the daytime and nighttime).
3.2.3 Selecting Water Quality Parameters for Monitoring
The monitoring parameters that you select depend on your project's objectives and the
technologies available to you. The Chesapeake Bay/NAIB project teams chose to
monitor the following water quality parameters every 15 minutes using the YSI 6600
probe:
• Dissolved oxygen (mg/1)
• DO % saturation (%)
• Fluorescence (%)
• pH
• Salinity (ppt)
• Turbidity (NTU)
• Water temperature (degrees Celsius)
The importance of each parameter is discussed below.
Dissolved Oxygen. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is an indicator of the habitability of
estuarine waters for marine life and it is routinely measured by monitoring programs
interested in characterizing the eutrophic state of estuaries. DO is recognized as an
indicator of the extent of eutrophication because wide fluctuations in DO often result
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 19
-------
from increased primary productivity of phytoplankton and may reflect prior nutrient
loading. DO concentrations may also vary because of natural processes, such as
stratification, depth, wind-induced mixing, and tidal fluxes. DO levels below 5 mg/
L can stress organisms while sustained DO levels of less than 3 mg/L can result in fish
kills. [Source: http://mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/empact/Current_results_display.cfm.]
Sufficient evidence exists that DO < 2 mg/L is extremely stressful to most aquatic
organisms. Hypoxia (condition where DO is less than 2 mg/L) increases stress from
other factors (e.g., contaminants) on marine organisms, whereas anoxic conditions
(DO < 0.1 mg/L) produce toxic hydrogen sulfide which can be lethal to marine biota.
Many states require DO concentrations of 4-5 mg/L for estuaries to meet their
designated use criteria. Low DO is usually observed from May through September in
Chesapeake Bay and is primarily driven by nutrient loading. [Source: http://
www.epa.gov/ged/gulf.htm]. Additional information about hypoxia can also be found
on the following USGS Web site: http://www.rcolka.cr.usgs.gov/midconherb/
hypoxia.html.
DO% Saturation. DO saturation percent shows the level of dissolved oxygen as a
percentage of the possible DO the water could contain. Generally, colder water can
hold more DO than warmer water. Supersaturation (over 100% DO saturation) can
occur when there is a large algal bloom. During the daylight, when the algae are
photosynthesizing, they can produce oxygen so rapidly that it is not able to escape into
the atmosphere, thus leading to short-term saturation levels of greater than 100%.
Fluorescence. Fluorescence is an indirect measure of the amount of Chlorophyll A
in the water column. Since the primary source of the photosynthetic pigment
Chlorophyll A is phytoplankton, we can use the fluorescence reading (percent full scale
or %FS) as an indicator of phytoplankton populations in the water column. [Source:
http://mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/empact/Current_results_display.cfm]
pH. pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration (or acidity) in the water. A
pH of 7 is considered neutral. Values lower than 7 are considered acidic and higher than
7 are basic. Many important chemical and biological reactions are strongly affected by
pH. In turn, chemical reactions and biological processes (e.g., photosynthesis and
respiration) can affect pH. If water becomes either too alkaline or acidic, it can become
inhospitable to many species of aquatic life. Lower pH values can also increase the
amount of dissolved metals in the water. High pH values can be an indication of an
algae bloom.
Salinity. Salinity (or electrical conductivity) is an estimator of the amount of total
dissolved salts or total dissolved ions in water. Many factors influence the electrical
conductivity/salinity of estuarine water, including the watershed's geology, the
watershed's size, wastewater from point sources, runoff from nonpoint sources,
atmospheric inputs, evaporation rates, precipitation, fresh water diversion from rivers,
tidal surges, and some types of bacterial metabolism. Electrical conductivity/salinity
20 CHAPTER 3
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affects the distribution and health of benthic animals, fish, and vegetation. Both
excessively high or low salinities can negatively impact the estuarine ecosystem.
Salinity levels are important to aquatic organisms, as some organisms are adapted to
live only in brackish or saltwater, while others require fresh water. If the salinity levels
get too high, the health of freshwater fish and grasses in the system can be affected.
Turbidity. Turbidity (or backscatter) describes the clarity of the water. Turbidity is
a measurement of the amounts of total suspended solids in the water. The particles that
make up the turbidity can range from sediment to phytoplankton. In combination with
the Chlorophyll A measurements, it can be determined if mineral matter or organics
dominate. Predominant organics can be an indication of an algal bloom, which could
mean that algae below the zone of light penetration are decaying and consuming
oxygen, which in turn, can result in hypoxia that affects bottom dwelling organisms.
Measurements of turbidity and backscatter are interrelated in that water with high
turbidity measurements also yields high reflectance measurements. Simply put, the
more particles that are present in the water, the more light can be scattered back to the
sensor. Increased turbidity has several adverse effects on water quality, including the
following:
• Turbidity reduces light penetration, which deceases the growth of aquatic
plants and organisms. The reduced plant growth reduces photosynthesis, which
results in decreased daytime releases of oxygen in the water.
• Suspended particles eventually settle to the bottom, suffocating eggs and/or
newly hatched larva, and occupy potential areas of habitat for aquatic
organisms.
• Turbidity can also negatively impact fish populations by reducing the ability of
predators to locate prey, shifting fish populations to species that feed at the
estuary bottom.
• Fine particulate material can affect aquatic organisms by clogging or damaging
their sensitive gill structures, decreasing their resistance to disease, preventing
proper egg and larval development, and potentially interfering with particle
feeding activities.
• Increased inputs of organic particles deplete oxygen as the organic particles
decompose.
• Increased turbidity raises the cost of treating surface water for the drinking
water supply.
Water Temperature. Water temperature is a product of warming from the sun and
air and is another variable affecting suitability of the waterway for aquatic organisms.
Water temperature affects metabolic rates and thus has a direct effect on biological
activity and the growth of aquatic animal life and aquatic vegetation. Generally, high
temperatures (up to a certain limit) increase biological activity and growth, while low
temperatures decrease biological activity and growth. For example, high temperatures
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 21
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in nutrient rich environments promote algal growth and may lead to algal blooms. If
water temperatures are consistently higher or lower than average, organisms can be
stressed and may have to relocate to areas with a more suitable water temperature.
Temperature also affects biological activity by influencing lake water chemistry, such
as the oxygen content of the water. Warm water contains less dissolved oxygen than
cold water. Low dissolved oxygen levels in the water might not be sufficient to support
some types of aquatic life.
3.2.4 Selecting Monitoring Equipment
The type of monitoring method selected depends on your data quality objectives and
the purpose of the monitoring. A group of sensors configured together to measure
specific physical properties are available as single instruments and are commonly
referred to as a sonde, which typically has a single recording unit or electronic
datalogger to record the output from the group of sensors. When you select your
monitoring equipment, you should carefully consider ease of use, equipment lifetime,
reliability, and maintenance requirements. You also might consider using equipment
that has been used successfully for similar types of projects.
Note: For descriptions of other EPA EMPACT projects see http://www.epa.gov/
ttbnrmrl/Ha ndbks.htm.
The Chesapeake Bay Project team selected the YSI 6600 sensor package to collect
timely water quality data. This capability provides opportunities for multi parameter
data collection and helped the project team to meet its objectives as described below:
• Archive and display timely water and habitat quality parameters on the Internet
for presentation of the data to the general public.
• Provide timely interpretation, as appropriate, relevant to water and habitat
quality monitoring data.
• Provide timely environmental data to supplement Maryland's rapid response
and comprehensive water and habitat quality assessments of Maryland
tributaries that have a potential risk for harmful algal blooms.
• Demonstrate the local government's response to emerging water and habitat
quality issues of concern to the public.
Even though the teams use YSI equipment, other manufactures provide similar or
alternative equipment. For example, Hydrolab (http://www.hydrolab.com) is another
multi-parameter sensor manufacturer. The Maryland DNR uses Hydrolab sensors for
some of its other monitoring projects. However, the Chesapeake Bay project team
chose the YSI sensor because of its patented Rapid Pulse Dissolved Oxygen Sensor,
which provides accurate results without the need for a mechanical stirrer.
22 CHAPTER 3
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Description of a Typical Monitoring Station
The typical monitoring site utilized for the Chesapeake Bay project consists of two
types of equipment: monitoring equipment and telemetry equipment. The monitoring
equipment consists of a sensor package and a field cable. The telemetry equipment,
which is necessary for providing near real-time data to an end user, consists of a
datalogger, a battery, a solar panel, modem, and voice synthesizer. The telemetry
equipment is discussed in Chapter 4. Information about the monitoring equipment
utilized by the Chesapeake Bay team was obtained from the Yellow Springs
Instruments, Inc. (YSI) Web site (http://www.ysi.com) and is discussed below.
Sensor Package. The Chesapeake Bay team selected the YSI 6600 sensor package
which has a multi-sensor probe, called a sonde, to measure the various water quality
parameters. A picture of the YSI 6600 sensor package is shown in Figure 3.3.
The 6600 sonde is YSI's premier unit and can be deployed to measure water quality in
fresh, sea, or polluted water at depths up to 200 meters. It is 3.5" in diameter, 20.4"
long, and weighs approximately 6 pounds. It has an internal power supply consisting
of 8 C-size alkaline batteries. The battery life is approximately 75 days assuming that
you buy quality batteries and sample at 15-minute intervals at 25°C. A fully loaded YSI
6600 sonde can measure 11 different parameters and calculate up to 7 additional
parameters. The YSI 6600 has 384 kilobytes of logging memory and can store up to
150,000 readings.
Figure 3.3 YSI 6600 Multi-probe sensor
[Photo Courtesy of YSI]
The YSI sondes are
warranted for two years; all
cables are warranted for one
year; and dissolved oxygen,
temperature/conductivity,
pH, turbidity, and
Chlorophyll A probes are
warranted for one year.
Also when selecting your
equipment, you will want to
ensure that it meets generally
accepted accuracy and
sensitivity requirements.
The USGS Web site (http:/
ood source for background
/water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/wri004252/#pdf) is a
information on calibration and data QA/QC of "real-time" water quality monitoring
systems. Table 3.1 shows the YSI sensor calibration requirements and how it compares
to the USGS sensor calibration/accuracy requirements.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING
23
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The information in this Section is summarized from the USGS document titled
"Guidelines and Standard Procedures for Continuous Water-Quality Monitors: Site
Selection, Field Operation, Calibration, Record Computation, and Reporting"
available from the USGS Web site listed above. The USGS guidelines referred to in
this document have evolved based on decades of experience with water-quality
monitoring. For more information on the YSI 6600's performance specifications, see
http://www.ysi.com.
Initially, the Chesapeake Bay team deployed YSI 6920 sondes. The 6920 sonde lacked
the capability to measure both turbidity and fluorescence simultaneously because it
had only one optical port. As a result, the team could only monitor turbidity. The YSI
6600 is equipped with two optical ports, so when it became available, the team replaced
its 6920 sondes with the 6600 so they could also monitor Chlorophyll A which required
the additional optical port.
Field Cable. The field cable is a communication link between the YSI 6600 and
either a computer or data collection device. The field cable attaches directly to a
connector built into the sonde. The other end of the field cable is a military-style 8 pin
connector (MS-8). The MS-8 connector plugs directly into YSI 610-D or 610DM
display/loggers. Using a YSI 6095B MS-8 to DB-9 adapter, the sonde can be
connected directly to a computer for setup, calibration, and uploading files.
PVC Tube. Although not part of the standard YSI-issued sonde equipment, the
Chesapeake Bay Team mounts the YSI sonde inside a specially prepared PVC tube.
The tube adds further protection for the sonde against the local wildlife, debris, and
human tampering. When deploying the sonde inside a PVC tube, the tube should be
painted with an anti-fouling coating to prevent algae and barnacles from attaching to
the pipe and fouling the DO and fluorescence sensors.
Care should be taken when choosing an antifouling coating, because some will not
work in certain conditions. Because Chesapeake Bay's sondes are located in tidal
waters, they use an ablative antifouling paint which will remain active as the sonde is
continuously re-exposed to water due to tidal forces. If you want to monitor water
quality in a fresh water lake where the salinity levels are lower and there are no tidal
influences, you should choose a different type of antifouling paint. Antifouling paints
can be purchased from boat and marine suppliers.
Other Peripheral Equipment and Software. For the initial setup of the sonde,
you will also need a computer with a communications port (DB-9). YSI recommends
that the initial setup procedure take place in a laboratory environment rather than in
the field. YSI provides a copy of its EcoWatch® for Windows™ (EcoWatch®) which
is necessary for programming the sonde. The software is a Windows 3.1 program that
works well with Windows 95, 98 and Windows NT. EcoWatch® must be used with an
IBM-compatible PC equipped with at least a 386 processor and a 3.5" floppy disk drive.
EcoWatch® is discussed further in Chapter 4.
24 CHAPTER 3
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Table 3.1 Performance Specifications for the YSI 6600.
,/c. n , Recommended
n Yol rertormance ,,c^c n r
Parameter c .,. ,. UbUb rertormance
opecitication r .r. . *
opecitication
Dissolved Oxygen
% Dissolved Oxygen
Saturation
Fluorescence/
Chlorophyll A
PH
Cond uctivity/Sa linity
Turbidity
Water Temperature
Range
Resolution
Accuracy
Range
Resolution
Accuracy
Ra nge
Resolution
Range
Resolution
Accuracy
Ra nge
Resolution
Accuracy
Ra nge
Resolution
Accuracy
Range
Resolution
Accuracy
0 to 50 mg/l
0.01 mg/l
0 to 20 mg/l: ±2% of reading
or 0.2mg/l, whichever is
greater;
20 to 50 mg/l:±6% of reading
0 to 500%
0.1%
0 to 200%: ± 2% of reading
or 2% air saturation, whichever
is g reater;
200 to 500%: ±6% of reading
0 to 1 00% FS
0.1% FS
0 to 14 units
0.01 unit
±0.2 unit
0 to 70 ppt
0.01 ppt
± 1 % of reading or
0.1 ppt, whichever is greater
0 to 1000 NTU
0.1 NTU
±5% of reading or 2 NTU,
whichever is greater
-5 to 45 °C
0.01 °C
±0.15 °C
±0.3 mg/l
Not Addressed
Not Addressed
±0.2 pH units
±3%
±5%
±0.2 °C
* See http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/wri004252/#pdf, Table 9.
3.2.5 Siting Monitors
The water quality monitoring location(s) that you select depends on your project's
objectives. When you select your monitoring location(s), you should carefully consider
the following factors:
• Will the data collected at this ocation(s) fulfill your project's objectives? For
example, if you would like a means for early detection of harmful algal blooms,
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING
25
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26
you need to make sure that you are monitoring parameters that will indicate
such.
• Is your community supportive of equipment installation for monitoring in the
location(s) you selected?
• Does the monitoring equipment at the selected location(s) present a danger to
your community? For example, is the location(s) in an area with heavy boating,
swimming, or personal water craft traffic?
• Is your monitoring equipment safe at the selected location(s)? For example, is
the equipment protected from vandalism, tampering, or weather-related
damage?
• Are there any local, state, or federal regulations that you need to consider in
siting the monitor(s)?
• Is access to the monitoring location(s) adequate?
Siting the Chesapeake Bay Locations
You should attempt to place the sonde in an inconspicuous location in a remote area.
Human tampering is a risk associated with unattended stations. The Chesapeake Bay
team had two options when deciding how to prevent human tampering. One option
was to make the station as visible as possible (e.g., place signs stating that monitoring
is being conducted, who to report incidents of vandalism to, and visibly securing the
sonde). The other option was to hide the station as much as possible. The Chesapeake
Bay team chose to hide their monitors or put them in areas where known individuals
could easily check the station. To date, the team has not had any problems with human
tampering.
The Chesapeake Bay team decided to locate the monitoring system at eight locations
(see Table 3.2). Locations were selected because of past fish kills or fish health
problems attributable to low DO, or they were adjacent to SAV beds.
Baltimore Harbor - The Maryland Department of Natural Resources is working
with the NAIB and Morgan State University to operate a continuous monitoring station
in Baltimore Harbor. This station yields water quality and habitat information from a
very urban setting adjacent to the Fort McHenry wetland restoration site. The sonde
is located inside a PVC pipe attached to a corrugated bulkhead adjacent to the Ft.
McHenry wetland restoration site (see Chapter 7).
Pocomoke River - Cedar Hall Wharf - In 1998, the YSI 6600 monitor was
anchored to a dock at the Beverly Farm in Cedar Hall Wharf. One surface meter
was used at this location. The shallow water location of this meter contrasts with
the mid-channel meter placement at Shelltown. The location of this site is such
that water quality is still somewhat affected by bay conditions, but not as strongly
CHAPTER 3
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as the Shelltown site. Due to the upstream, near-shore placement, water conditions
are generally smoother at this site as well.
Table 3.2 Location and Placement of the Chesapeake Bay Monitoring
Stations.
Baltimore Harbor-
Fort McHenry Field Station
Pocomoke-Cedar Hall Wharf
Pocomoke-Shelltown
Pocomoke-Rehobeth
Magothy-Cattail Creek
Magothy-Stonington
Chicamacomico- Drawbridge
Transquaking-Decoursey
Bridge
Near Shore
Near Shore
Center Channel
Near Shore
Near Shore
At the End of a Long
Pier
Center Channel
(narrow channel area)
Center Channel
One monitor suspended 1 meter
below surface
One monitor suspended 1 meter
below surface;
Second monitor anchored 1 meter
above river bed
Suspended 1 meter below surface
Suspended 1 meter below surface
Suspended 1 meter below surface
Suspended 1 meter below surface
Suspended 1 meter below surface
Suspended 1 meter below surface
Pocomoke-Shelltown - The original location (1998) of the Shelltown station was
in the Pocomoke River on a dock near Shelltown. In 1999, the station was moved to
a piling driven into the sediment slightly downstream at Williams Point (near the
Pocomoke Sound). Williams Point is one of the Pocomoke River sites of the 1997
Pfiesteria outbreaks resulting in fish kill estimated at 10,000 to 15,000 fish. This station
is more affected by bay conditions than further upstream conditions. Due to its
proximity to the bay, salinity levels at this station are generally higher than at other
stations.
Pocomoke-Rehobeth -The site was installed in 1999. The YSI 6600 monitor is
anchored to a piling near a retaining wall at Rehobeth. This area is close to shore and
somewhat protected from wave action and high rates of water flow. Being the furthest
away from the bay, this site is the least affected by bay water quality fluctuations. Due
to its distance from the Bay, this site experiences lower salinity levels than the other
continuous monitoring sites.
Magothy-Stonington - This site was installed in 2000. The YSI 6600 monitor is
anchored at the end of a long pier located in a residential area. The pier is maintained
by a home owners association so MD DNRhad to obtain permission to place the station
there.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING
27
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Magothy-Cattail - This site was installed in 2000. The YSI 6600 monitor is
anchored on the side of a residential pier. MD DNR obtained permission from the
home owner to place the station at this site. This station is located in an inlet area where
the water does not circulate well and typically shows very low DO levels. A non-toxic
Pfiesteria piscicida outbreak was confirmed in 1999 near this site. Once the EMPACT
project ended, this monitor was moved to the Whitehurst location on the Magothy
River.
Chicamacomico-Drawbridge - This site was installed in 2000. The YSI 6600
monitor is located on the side of a small fishing pier. The location is fairly remote but
there is a small boat manufacturing company located next to the pier. In 1997, a portion
of the Chicamacomico River near Drawbridge Road in Dorchester County was closed
after a significant number of menhaden were found in distress and dying with Pfzesteria-
like lesions. Results of water samples from the Chicamacomico indicated the presence
of toxic levels of Pfzesteria ^
Trcmsquaking-Decoursey Bridge - The YSI 6600 monitor is anchored on the side
of a small bridge in a remote area. To prevent tampering, the team made an effort to
position the station so that it could not easily be seen from the road or bridge. This
station was located near the site of a non-toxic Pfzesteria outbreak in 1999. Once the
EMPACT project ended, this monitorwas moved to the Severn river to collect similar
data.
3.2.6 Installing the Monitoring System
This section discusses some of the basic preparation and installation procedures for the
monitoring system. Detailed step-by-step installation procedures for the monitoring
equipment are available from the YSI's Environmental Monitoring Systems
Operations Manual for 6-Series sondes. The user's manual for the YSI 6-Series sondes
can be downloaded from the Yellow Springs Instruments, Inc. Web site at http://
www.ysi.com. If you purchase a YSI sonde, you will receive a manual.
Unpack and Inspect the Monitoring Equipment
The first step to installing the monitoring system is to unpack and inspect the
equipment. As soon as you receive the equipment, you should do the following:
• Remove the equipment from the shipping boxes or containers.
• Using the enclosed packing slip, perform an inventory of all items. If you are
missing any items, contact the manufacturer immediately.
• Conduct a thorough visual inspection of all items. If you observe any damage,
contact the manufacturer and the carrier.
28 CHAPTER 3
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Prepare the Sonde for Use
The second step to installing the monitoring system is to prepare the sonde for
calibration and operation. You should perform the following basic procedures:
• Install the DO membrane on the DO probe.
• Install the other probes (e.g., turbidity, conductivity, temperature, pH etc.).
• Provide power for the sonde (e.g., install batteries or external power supply).
• Connect the field cable to the sonde.
Install Software
The third step to installing the monitoring system is to install the necessary computer
software. As stated earlier, YSI recommends that the software be installed on a
computer in a laboratory setting for the initial setup of the sondes.
Two different types of computer software can be used with YSI's environmental
monitoring systems. EcoWatch® for Windows11*1 or PC6000, which is a DOS-based
software. The Chesapeake Bay team uses EcoWatch® for Windows11*1.
To get started with EcoWatch® for Windows11*1, perform the following steps:
• Install EcoWatch® for Windows11*1 on your computer. Place Disk 1 of
EcoWatch® in your 3.5" drive, select "Run" and type "a:\setup.exe" at the
prompt. Click on "OK" and the display will indicate that EcoWatch® is being
installed. Follow the instructions on the screen after the installation is
complete.
• Connect your field cable (and sonde) to a communication port on the computer
where EcoWatch® is installed.
• Click on the EcoWatch® icon on your computer to begin running the software.
• Select the Sonde icon on the Ecowatch tool bar and then select the proper
communication port to which your sonde is connected (e.g., 1 or 2).
• Ensure that the baud rate is 9600 on the Conini menu.
• Specify a parallel port to select a printer.
• Select Sonde from the EcoWatch® menu to communicate between your
computer and the sonde. Once the proper communication port is selected, a
window showing a # sign will appear. Type "menu" after the # sign and press
Enter to get the Sonde Main Menu. From the Sonde Main Menu, you can
set up the date and time, choose communication baud rates, select page
lengths, identify your instruments (sondes), enable the sondes' sensors, and
develop a report to show the parameters you want to see when you collect your
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 29
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data. For detailed instructions on these procedures refer to the YSI
Environmental Monitoring Systems Operations Manual for 6-Series sondes.
You may encounter some problems with the communication between the sonde and
the computer. Possible causes and recommended actions to correct the problem are
provided in the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Troubleshooting Communication Problems Between the Sonde and
Computer.
Possible Cause
Sonde has no power
Recommended Actions
Check the batteries or the power source
Field Cable connection is loose
Check both ends of the field cable
Damaged Connectors
Check the pins at both ends; they should
be straight, dry and clean
Com port not selected
Change to other port or try another
computer or display/logger
Calibrate the Probes on the Sonde
The next step to installing the monitoring system is to calibrate and check the sonde
according to the manufacturer's instructions. Various reagents and calibration
standard solutions are required to calibrate the various probes. YSI makes a calibration
cup for their sondes which serves as a chamber for all calibrations and minimizes the
amount of reagents required to calibrate the sonde. You may use laboratory glassware
instead to perform the calibrations; however, you should take special precautions to
avoid damaging the probes.
Program the Sonde for Monitoring
After the sensors have been enabled and calibrated and a report is developed to display
your monitoring results, you are ready to program the sonde foryour unique monitoring
conditions. Selecting 1-Run from the main menu will allow you to set up your
parameters for your study. You have two monitoring options: "discrete sample" and
"unattended sample." The monitoring frequency for discrete sampling is likely to be
for only seconds in order to obtain short term or "snapshot" results as you move from
site to site during the day. The monitoring frequency for unattended sampling is usually
longer (e.g., minutes) because the sonde will be deployed for days or weeks at a time.
This is where you specify your sampling interval (e.g., seconds or minutes), the
sampling start date, the sampling start time, the duration for sampling, and which
parameters to log.
30
CHAPTER 3
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Once you program your monitoring parameters, the internal software of the sonde will
automatically calculate the expected battery life and the amount of time to fill the
internal memory of the sonde. You can use this information to determine if your
monitoring program should be adjusted or if you need new batteries, etc.
Once you finish programming the sonde you can begin collecting monitoring data. The
data collected by the sonde is saved in a .dat file in the sonde's memory (386 kilobytes
max.).
Note: The Chesapeake Bay project programs their sondes for unattended
sampling.
3.2.7 Using EcoWatch® to Capture, Upload and Analyze
Data
This section discusses the basic steps for using EcoWatch® to capture, upload, and
analyze data collected by the sonde. The procedures listed below were summarized
from the YSI's Environmental Monitoring Systems Operations Manual for 6-Series
sondes. You will need to refer to this manual for detailed step-by-step operation
guidance.
Capturing Data
EcoWatch® can be used to capture real-time data to your computer's hard drive or
to a disk. To use this function, you will need to do the following:
• Connect the sonde's field cable to your computer's communications port.
• Run the EcoWatch® software.
• Click on the Sonde icon and choose the correct communications port.
• From the sonde's Main menu, press 1-Run and then 1-Discrete Sample.
• Verify that the sample interval is set to the correct value.
• Open the Real-Time menu, click on New and select the directory where you
want the data transferred. Name the file giving it the extension .RT.
• Click OK and wait for data transfer to begin. EcoWatch® will automatically
save the data as a .DAT file in your designated directory.
• When finished, open the Real-Time menu, choose Close, and click on OK.
Uploading Data
EcoWatch® can also be used to retrieve data already stored in the sonde's memory (i.e.,
sondes which have been running unattended). To use this function, you will need to
perform the following procedures:
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 31
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• Connect the sonde's field cable to your computer's communications port.
• Run the EcoWatch® software.
• Click on the Sonde icon and choose the correct communications port.
• Enter the File menu, and select 1-Directory to view the files currently stored
in the sonde's memory.
• Select 2-Upload to upload the data to your computer.
• Select 1-Proceed and choose a file transfer protocol (PC6000 is recommended
because it is faster). A status box will appear on the screen indicating the status
of the file transfer.
• Select 4-View File to see the data in any file currently stored in the sonde's
memory.
• If you want to permanently delete the data from the sonde's memory select 6-
Delete.
Analyzing Data
Once you have uploaded the sonde's data to your computer, you can use EcoWatch®
to view, plot, manipulate and report the data. For example, when you select File and
Open to open a data file, you can see a one-page plot showing line graphs of all the data
logged on your sonde. Based on your selection, you can view as many (or as few) graphs
as you prefer. You can also set time limits to view data within a specified time frame
(e.g., a day as opposed to a week). Viewing data using EcoWatch® is useful because
you can see daily variations in parameters such as temperature and dissolved oxygen.
You may see obvious erroneous data such as flat-line data where the sonde was out of
the water just prior to deployment. While in the graph mode, you can put your cursor
on the graph and hold down the right mouse button causing a vertical dotted line to
appear. The instantaneous value will appear where the vertical line crosses the graph.
You can move the mouse to scan the graph and read the corresponding instantaneous
values. EcoWatch® allows you to view data in a tabular mode as well. The software
also has a Statistics function which will calculate minimum, maximum, mean, and
standard deviation information for each activated parameter.
Saving, Importing, Exporting, and Printing Data
EcoWatch® has various options under its File menu to save, import, export, and print
data. You can modify and save or rename a file. Once saved, you can export a file in
a Comma & '' Delimited format (.CSV) or print it to a compatible printer. EcoWatch®
has a Help function which will explain these features.
32 CHAPTER 3
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3.2.8 Maintaining the Monitoring System
The scheduled maintenance activities for your monitoring system will likely involve
cleaning and calibration of your water quality monitoring sensors and replacement of
desiccant for the water level sensor. Maintenance frequency is generally governed by
the fouling rate of the sensors and this rate varies by sensor type, hydrologic
environment, and season. The performance of temperature and specific conductance
sensors tends to be less affected by fouling, whereas the dissolved oxygen, pH, and
turbidity sensors are more prone to fouling. The use of wiper or shutter mechanisms
on modern turbidity instruments has decreased the fouling problem significantly. For
stations with critical data quality objectives, service intervals may be weekly or more
often. Monitoring sites with nutrient-enriched waters and moderate to high
temperatures may require service intervals as frequently as every third day. In cases of
severe environmental fouling, the use of an observer for servicing the water quality
monitor should be considered. In addition to fouling problems, physical disruptions
(such as recording equipment malfunction, sedimentation, electrical disruption,
debris, or vandalism) also may require additional site visits. The service needs of water
quality monitoring stations equipped with telemetry can be recognized quickly, and the
use of satellite telemetry to verify proper equipment operation is recommended. The
USGS Web site (http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/wri/wri004252/#pdf) is a good source
for background information on operation and maintenance of near-real time water
quality monitoring systems. The information in this Section is summarized from the
USGS document titled "Guidelines and Standard Procedures for Continuous Water-
Quality Monitors: Site Selection, Field Operation, Calibration, Record Computation,
and Reporting." This document is available from the USGS Web site listed above.
Chesapeake Bay Project Maintenance Activities
Because of the potential fouling of the dissolved oxygen sensor, the Chesapeake Bay
team decided that all stations should be maintained weekly May through October.
Personnel from the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory (CBL) maintained the three
stations located on the Pocomoke River once each week. MD DNR personnel
maintained the four stations located on the Magothy, Chicamacomico, and
Transquaking Rivers each week, and similarly the Baltimore Aquarium personnel
maintained the station located at Fort McHenry once each week. In the event of
physical disruptions (such as recording equipment malfunction, sedimentation,
electrical disruption, debris, or vandalism), the Chesapeake Bay/NAIB teams would
conduct additional site visits. Also during weekly visits (May through October), the
teams collect water samples to be analyzed later for nutrient analysis (see Section 3.3).
Although some of the stations are not close to each other, the teams can typically
service up to four monitoring stations in a single day.
Each team had two YSI 6600 sondes for each monitoring station. During the weekly
field visit, the team removed the deployed sonde from the station and replaced it with
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 33
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a freshly calibrated sonde. Both the field monitor being retrieved and the replacement
field monitor were recording simultaneous data for beginning and endpoint
comparison. Prior to deploying the fresh sonde, the team used a long brush to scrub
the inside of the PVC tube where the sonde is placed. The team was careful to switch
the sondes prior to a monitoring event that occurs in 15 minute intervals to avoid
interruptions in the data collection.
The sondes were retrieved from each monitoring station and wrapped in wet towels
to keep the DO membrane in a 100% saturated-air environment. The sondes
continued to log data while out of the water so they could achieve equilibrium for the
post calibration test. The sondes were taken back to the laboratory where they
continued to log data overnight in order to equilibrate. Usually the next day, the team
performed post calibration tests for each of the sensors to determine if they operated
correctly while in the field. The pH, turbidity, conductivity and Chlorophyll A sensors
were calibrated against known standard solutions. The calibration of the dissolved
oxygen sensor was conducted in the controlled environment of the team's laboratory.
Calibration of the temperature sensor was not required.
In addition to the post calibration test, the team used EcoWatch® to upload and visually
inspect the data collected by the sonde (see Chapter 4 for further discussions). The
team checked the sonde's batteries and inspected and cleaned the various sensors
according to the manufacturer's instructions. The sensors were carefully cleaned to
remove algae and any other organisms that could foul the sensors. The team typically
spent one half to a full day calibrating, inspecting, and cleaning the sonde's sensors.
The detailed maintenance requirements and procedures for the monitoring equipment
are available from the user's manuals of the individual pieces of equipment. The user's
manual for the YSI 6600 sensor package can be downloaded from the Yellow Springs
Instruments, Inc. Web site at http://www.ysi.com.
34 CHAPTER 3
-------
Table 3.4 Common Troubleshooting Issues and Actions
Symptoms
Dissolved
Oxygen reading
unstable or
inaccurate
Possible Cause
Probe not properly calibrated
Action
Membrane not properly installed or
punctured
DO probe electrodes require cleaning
Water in probe connector
Algae or other contaminant clinging to
probe
Barometric pressure is incorrect
Calibrated at extreme temperature
DO charge too high (>100):
(1) Anode polarized (tarnished)
(2) Probe left on continuously
DO charge too low (<25);
insufficient electrolyte.
DO probe has been damaged
Internal failure
^H ^^^^m
Follow DO calibration procedures
Follow setup procedure
Follow DO cleaning procedure
Dry connector; reinstall probe
Rinse DO probe with clean water
Repeat DO calibration procedure
Recalibrate at/near sample temperature
Enable DO charge parameter in sonde
report menu. Run sonde, if charge is
over 1 00, recondition probe. Follow
DO cleaning procedure.
Replace electrolyte and membrane
Replace probe
Return sonde for:
pH, chloride,
ammonium, or
nitrate readings
are unstable or
inaccurate.
Error messages
appear during
calibration
Probe requires cleaning
Follow probe cleaning procedure
Probe requires calibration
Follow calibration procedures
pH probe reference junction has dried
out from improper storage
Soak probe in tap water or buffer until
readings become stable
Water in probe connector
Dry connector; reinstall probe
Probe has been damaged
Replace probe
Calibration solutions out of spec or
contaminated
Use
alibration solutions
Internal failure
Return sonde for service
Level Sensor
unstable or
inaccurate
Desiccant is spent
Replace desiccant
Level
" hole is obstructed
Follow level sensor cleaning procedure
Level sensor has been damaged
Return sonde for:
Internal failure
Return sonde for service
Conductivity
unstable or
inaccurate.
Error messages
appear during
calibration
Conductivity improperly calibrated
Follow recalibration procedure
Conductivity probe requires cleaning
Follow cleaning procedure
Conductivity probe damaged
Replace probe
Calibration solution out of spec or
contaminated
Use new calibration solution
Internal failure
Return sonde for service
Calibration solution or sample does
not cover entire sensor
Immerse sensor full
Installed probe
has no reading
Sensor has been disabled
Enable sensor
Water in probe connector
Dry connector; reinstall probe
Probe has been damaged
Replace probe
Report output improperly set
Set up report output
Internal failure
Return sonde for:
Temperature
unstable or
inaccurate
Water in connector
Dry connector; reinstall probe
Probe has been damaged
Replace probe
Turbidity probe
unstable or
inaccurate.
Error messages
appear during
calibration
Probe requires cleaning
Follow probe cleaning procedure
Probe requires calibration
Follow calibration procedure
Probe has been damaged
Replace probe
Water in probe connector
Dry connector; reinstall probe
Calibration solutions out of spec
Use new calibration solutions
Wiper is not turning or is not
synchronized
Activate wiper. Assure rotation.
Make sure set screw is tight
Wiper is fouled or damaged
Clean or replace wiper
Internal failure
Return probe for service
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING
35
-------
36
3.3 Water Quality Field Sampling
3.3.1 Purpose of Field Sampling
The team also collected water samples during their weekly visits. The samples were
collected to analyze for chemical properties that cannot be measured by the automated
field monitors, to calibrate the field monitors, and to verify the accuracy of transmitted
and downloaded data.
3.3.2 Parameters Measured from Field Samples
The following parameters were measured from the samples collected during weekly
maintenance visit:
• Chlorophyll A
• Nutrients
Particulate carbon
Particulate nitrogen
Dissolved organic carbon
Dissolved organic nitrogen
Dissolved organic phosphorus
Dissolved inorganic phosphorus
Particulate phosphorus
Nitrate-Nitrite
Nitrite
Ammonium
• Total suspended solids
The importance of each of these parameters is discussed below.
Chlorophyll A
Chlorophyll A can be an indicator of the first level response to nutrient enrichment.
Measurements of chlorophyll A (via fluorescence) in the water column represent the
standing stock or biomass of phytoplankton. Blooms of phytoplankton often indicate
that an estuary is undergoing eutrophication. In some estuaries, there is a good
correlation between nitrogen loadings from various sources and concentrations of
Chlorophyll A. In other estuaries, however, the relationship does not hold and it is
possible, in fact, for an estuary to receive heavy loads of nitrogen and yet not exhibit
increases in phytoplankton biomass. Other factors such as light limitation, depth of
the mixing zone, flushing rates, and contaminants may affect the growth of
phytoplankton.
CHAPTER 3
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Nutrients
Particulate Carbon and Dissolved Organic Carbon. Organic matter plays
a major role in aquatic systems. It affects biogeochemical processes, nutrient recycling,
biological availability, chemical transport and interactions. It also has direct
implications in the planning of wastewater treatment and drinking water treatment.
Organic matter is typically measured as total organic carbon (TOG) and dissolved
organic carbon (DOC), which are essential components of the carbon cycle. [Source:
BASIN Water Quality Terminology, http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/natural/
wqterms.html]
Particulate Nitrogen, Dissolved Organic Nitrogen, Nitrate-Nitrite,
Nitrite, and Ammonia. Nitrogen is required by all organisms for the basic
processes of life to make proteins, to grow, and to reproduce. Nitrogen is very common
and found in many forms in the environment. Inorganic forms include nitrate (NO3)
and nitrite (NO^. Organic nitrogen is found in the cells of all living things and is a
component of proteins, peptides, and amino acids. Excessive concentrations of
nitrate, nitrite, or ammonia can be harmful to humans and wildlife. Nitrate, nitrite, and
ammonia enter waterways from lawn fertilizer run-off, leaking septic tanks, animal
wastes, industrial waste waters, sanitary landfills and discharges from car exhausts.
[Source: BASIN Water Quality Terms, http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/natural/
wqterms.html]
Particulate Phosphorus, Dissolved Organic Phosphorus, Dissolved
Inorganic Phosphorus. Phosphorus is a nutrient required by all organisms for the
basic processes of life. Phosphorus is a natural element found in rocks, soils, and
organic material. Its concentration in clean water is generally very low; however,
phosphorus is used extensively in fertilizer and other chemicals, so it can be found in
higher concentrations in areas of human activity. Phosphorus is generally found as
phosphate (PO4~3). High levels of phosphate, along with nitrate, can overstimulate the
growth of aquatic plants and algae, resulting in high dissolved oxygen consumption,
causing death of fish and other organisms. The primary sources of phosphates in
surface water are detergents, fertilizers, and natural mineral deposits. [Source: BASIN
Water Quality Terms, http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/natural/wqterms.html]
Total Suspended Solids (TSS). TSS refers to matter (e.g., silt, decaying plant and
animal matter, industrial wastes, and sewage) suspended in water, and is related to both
specific conductance and turbidity. High levels of TSS in water can have detrimental
effects because it reduces sunlight passing through the water, which reduces the rate
of photosynthesis, which lowers the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. [Source:
BASIN General Information on Solids, http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/
FECAL/mfo/TSS.html]
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 37
-------
3.3.3 Sample Collection Procedures
The team used an Alpha™ water bottle to collect the field samples. To collect the
sample, the 2 liter Alpha™ bottle is opened and horizontally-mounted on a line. The
Alpha™ bottle is lowered into the water and positioned at probe depth (i.e., 1 meter
below the surface). Once in position, a small stainless steel weight (called a messenger)
which is attached to the line), is released and slides down the line to the Alpha™ bottle.
The impact of the messenger causes the Alpha™ bottle to close thereby collecting a
raw water sample. The Alpha™ bottle is removed from the water. The results from
the analysis of the water sample are related to readings from the field monitor that
correspond to both the beginning and end-point readings for respective data records.
Note: An additional Hydrolab sonde and data display are also taken to the
field to obtain instantaneous temperature, salinity, and DO readings.
Raw sample water is drawn immediately from the Alpha™ bottle to a 500-ml Nalgene
bottle for further processing (see Figure 3.4). A standard thermometer is placed in the
Nalgene bottle to equilibrate while additional raw sample water is drawn from the
Alpha™ bottle for Winkler dissolved oxygen determinations. From the Alpha™
bottle, one clear glass 300-ml BOD bottle is filled and preserved immediately.
Figure 3.4 Water Sampling Alpha™ Bottle
Note:
For more information on the use and costs of Alpha™ bottles and other
peripheral equipment see http://www.wildco.com/liquid.html.
Next, raw water in the 500 ml Nalgene bottle is shaken gently. Using a vacuum pump,
flask and filter apparatus, a measured quantity is filtered through a pre-combusted filter
38
CHAPTER 3
-------
pad (Whatman 25 mm diameter 0.7 jam particle retention) for participate carbon and
particulate nitrogen analysis (1 pad for each). Pads are folded and placed in aluminum
foil pouches on ice.
Figure 3.5 GF/F Filter Being Placed in a Foil Pouch
The filter apparatus is then exchanged to accommodate larger filter pads. Raw water
in the 500 ml Nalgene bottle is shaken gently, a measured quantity is filtered through
a 47 mm filter pad for Chlorophyll A analyses and the pad is folded and placed in an
aluminum foil pouch on ice.
At this point, the resulting filtrate is decanted and a portion used to rinse respective
containers for the following samples. A measured quantity of filtrate is retained in a
capped test tube for dissolved organic nitrogen and phosphorus analyses. Three auto-
analyzer (AA) vials are filled for nitrite-nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium analyses. A
capped Teflon® tube is filled for dissolved organic carbon analysis.
The remaining raw water in the 500-ml Nalgene bottle is shaken and a measured
quantity is filtered through a pre-weighed filter pad (Whatman 47 mm diameter GF/
F filter pad) for particulate phosphorus and total suspended sediment analysis (1 pad
for each). Pads are rinsed twice with deionized water, folded and placed in aluminum
foil pouches on ice (see Figure 3.5).
Remaining water in the Alpha™ bottle is shaken and a portion is used to fill a 500-ml
Nalgene bottle for phytoplankton species composition analysis. The sample is
preserved using 5 ml Lugol's solution (a strong iodine solution).
All on-site sample processing is completed within 30 to 45 minutes of water collection.
The three aluminum pouches, three AA vials, one Teflon® tube and one test tube from
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING 39
-------
each site remain on ice during the transport back to the laboratory, where they are
frozen until later laboratory analysis. The samples processed by the MD DNR and
Baltimore personnel are sent by courier to the CBL for analysis.
3.3.4 Sample Analysis Procedures
When CBL receives the processed samples, they perform a variety of analyses. Winkler
titration procedures are performed and water samples for nutrient and Chlorophyll A
determination are processed and sent out for laboratory analysis. Beginning and end-
point Winkler dissolved oxygen determinations are completed and used for calibration
of instrument measurements. Since laboratory analyses results of Chlorophyll A and
turbidity measurements require a longer time for completion, calibration of those
parameters is completed at a later time. All time-series data are edited to reflect any
calibration corrections or deletions as needed and documented.
Standard oceanographic and estuarine methods of chemical analysis are used for all
determinations of dissolved and particulate materials. The water quality techniques
used by CBL to conduct the water quality analyses are described below. Further
discussion on these techniques are discussed in the Nutrient Analytical Services
Laboratory's Standard Operating Procedures found at http://www.cbl.cees.edu/
nasl/documents/SOP.pdf.
Determination of ammonia is by the Berthelot Reaction in which a blue-colored
compound similar to indophenol forms when a solution of ammonium salt is added to
sodium phenoxide, followed by the addition of sodium hypochlorite. The addition of
potassium sodium tartrate and sodium citrate solution prevents precipitation of
hydroxides of calcium and magnesium. This is an automated colorimetric technique.
The reaction forms a blue color measured at 630 nm using the Technicon TrAAcs-800
Nutrient Analyzer. [Methodology: Technicon Industrial Method No. 804-86T.
August 1986. Technicon Industrial Systems. Tarrytown, New York, 10591]
Nitrate reacts under acidic conditions with sulfanilamide to form a diazo compound
that couples with N-1-naphthylethylenediamine dihydrochloride to form a reddish-
purple azo dye measured at 520 nm using the Technicon TrAAcs-800 Nutrient
Analyzer. [Methodology: Technicon Industrial Method No. 818-87T. February 1987.
Technicon Industrial Systems. Tarrytown, New York, 10591]
For Nitrite + Nitrate measurement, filtered samples are passed through a granulated
copper-cadmium column to reduce nitrate to nitrite. The nitrite (originally present plus
reduced nitrate) then is determined by diazotizingwith sulfanilamide and coupling with
N-1-naphthylethylenediamine dihydrochloride to form a colored azo dye that is
measured at 550 nm using a Technicon AutoAnalyzer II. Nitrate concentration is
obtained by subtracting the corresponding nitrite value from the nitrite + nitrate
concentration. [Technicon Industrial Method No. 158-71 W/A j- Tentative. 1977.
40 CHAPTER 3
-------
Technicon Industrial Systems. Tarrytown, New York, 10591 and USEPA. 1979.
Method No. 353.2 in Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. United
States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
Cincinnati, Ohio. Report No. EPA-600/4-79-020, March 1979.]
Methods for measuring dissolved organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are
described below. All procedures require the addition of potassium persulfate to a
sample, which when under heat and pressure, breaks down the organic constituents to
inorganic forms. Inorganic fractions then are subtracted from the total dissolved
sample to yield the dissolved organic concentration. See Figures 3.6, 3.7 and 3.8.
Figure 3.6 General Laboratory Procedures for Nutrient Analyses.
• Ammonia. Phosphate, Nitrite and Nrtrate are filtered on 07 urnGF/F
1.4 ml labeled AAilcups 3 replicate)
• Total Dissolved Nitrogen. Total Dissolved Phosphorous - filtered on 0.7
(10 mK labeled test tubes)
• DOC - filtered 0.7 um GF/F (20 ml. labeled test tubes)
• Total 3us.pondod Solids • 0 7 urn GF.'F filter pad {labeled 2 roplitat&s)
• ParticulatE carbon and particulBto nrlrngen - 0,7 um GF.'F filter pad (2 replicates)
* Farticulata Phosphorus-07 um GF/Ffilter pad (labeled 2 replicates)
Samples brought to lab and wunted. Data sheets are cheeked for completeness.
Frozen for analysis within 28 days
Chlorophyll a
Total Dissolved Nitrogen
Total Dissolved Phosphorus
Nitrite. Nitrate
Ammonia. Phosphate
ParticulntE! Carbon,
Paniculate Nitrogon
Paniculate Phosphorus
Total Suspended Solids.
Dara input to Lotus form
The method for determining Total Dissolved Nitrogen and Phosphorus is a persulfate
oxidation technique for nitrogen and phosphorus where, under alkaline conditions,
nitrate is the sole nitrogen product and phosphate is the sole phosphorus product.
Ammonium molybdate and antimony potassium tartrate react in an acid medium with
dilute solutions of phosphorus to form an antimony-phospho-molybdate complex
which is reduced to an intensely blue-colored complex by ascorbic acid. Color is
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING
41
-------
proportional to phosphorus concentration. Digested samples are passed through a
granulated copper-cadmium column to reduce nitrate to nitrite. The nitrite then is
determined by diazotizing with sulfanilamide and coupling with N-l-
naphthylethylenediamine dihydrochloride to form a colored azo dye. Color is
proportional to nitrogen concentration. Color is measured by a Techni-con
AutoAnalyzer II. [D'Elia, C.F., P.A. Steudler and N. Corwm. 1977. Determination of
Total Nitrogen in Aqueous Samples using Persulfate Digestion. Limnol. Oceanogr.
22:760-764. and Valderrama, J.C. 1981. The Simultaneous Analysis of Total Nitrogen
and Total Phosphorus in Natural Waters. Mar. Chem. 10:109-122]
Figure 3.7 General Laboratory Procedures for Nitrogen Analyses.
Total Nitrogen
Pour sample water
through a 0.7 urn GF/F filter
ParticulaLe Nitrogen
(Elemental Analysis retained
on Filter)
Total Dissolved Nitrogen
(Alkaline Persulfate N [filtrate])
Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (DIN)
(IMO3- + N0r + N04+)
Dissolved Organic Nitrogen
(Alkaline Persulfate N [filtrate] - DIN)
NO,-
{All measured by standard automated Cotoflmetnc Procedures)
Total Phosphorus is determined using an automated colorimetric analysis. Ammonium
molybdate and antimony potassium tartrate react in an acid medium with dilute
solutions of phosphorus to form an antimony-phospho-molybdate complex which is
reduced to an intensely blue-colored complex by ascorbic acid. Color is measure at 880
nm using a Technicon Auto-Analyzer II. The color is proportional to phosphorus
concentration. [Menzel, D.W. and N. Corwin, 1965. The Measurement of Total
Phosphorus in Seawater Based on the Liberation of Organically Bound Fractions by
Persulfate Oxidation. Limno. Oceanogr. 10:280-282 and USEPA. 1979. Method No.
365.3 in Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. United States
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati,
Ohio. Report No. EPA-600/4-79-020. March 1979.]
42
CHAPTER 3
-------
Total Inorganic Carbon (TIC) is determined by the measurement of carbon dioxide
released by acidification of a sample. As pH decreases, carbonate and bicarbonate ions
are converted to dissolved CO2. The CO2 is purged from solution, concentrated by
trapping on a molecular sieve column, then desorbed and carried into a non-dispersive
infrared analyzer (IR). The IR (OI Corp. Model 700 TOC Analyzer) is calibrated to
display the mass of TIC in the sample divided by the sample volume. [Menzel, D.W.
and R.F. Vaccaro. 1964. The Measurement of Dissolved Organic and Particulate
Carbon in Seawater. Limnol. Oceanogr. 9:138-142]
Figure 3.8 General Laboratory Procedures for Phosphorus Analysis.
Total Phophorus
Pour sample water
through a 0.7 urn GF/F filter
Particulate Phosphorus
(Extraction Filter)
Total Dissolved Phosphorus
(Alkaline Persulfate [filtrate])
Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorus (DIP)
Dissolved Organic Phosphorus
(Alkaline Pcrsulfate [filtrate] * DIP)
(All measured by sands re automated
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) is determined by the measurement of CO2 released by
chemical oxidation of organic carbon in a sample. The sample is acidified and purged
of TIC and sodium persulfate, a strong oxidizer, is added. The oxidant quickly reacts
with organic carbon in the sample at 1 00°C to form CO2. When the oxidation reaction
is complete, CO2 is purged from solution, concentrated by trapping on a molecular
sieve column and detected as described for TIC. [Methodology: Menzel and Vaccaro,
1964.]
Direct measurement of particulate carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus is the preferred
method used by the Nutrient Analytical Services Laboratory (NASL). It is believed
that a greater volume filtered onto the pad yields a more representative sample. Direct
measurement is also rapid, sensitive and more precise.
For ^articulate Carbon and Nitrogen, samples are combusted in pure oxygen under static
conditions. Products of combustion are passed over suitable reagents in the
combustion tube where complete oxidation occurs. In the reduction tube, oxides of
nitrogen are converted to molecular nitrogen. The carbon dioxide, water vapor and
WATER QUALITY MONITORING/SAMPLING
43
-------
nitrogen are mixed and released into the thermal conductivity detector where the
concentrations of the sample gases are measured. Instrumentation: CE-440 Elemental
Analyzer.
^articulate Phosphorus is determined using a high temperature/HCl extraction technique
where organic phosphorus is broken down to the inorganic form at 550°C, extracted in
IN HC1 for 24 hours and analyzed for phosphate using a Technicon AutoAnalyzer II.
This is a total analysis where both inorganic and organic components are included. It
has been determined that for Chesapeake Bay waters there is a varied and sometimes
substantial inorganic particulate phosphorus component both temporally and spatially.
[Aspila, I., H. Agemian and A.S.Y. Chau. 1976. A Semi-Automated Method for the
Determination of Inorganic, Organic and Total Phosphate in Sediments. Analyst
101:187-197]
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is the retained material on a standard glass filter pad after
filtration of a well-mixed sample of water. The filtrate is measured and the filter is
weighed. Results are expressed in mg/1. [APHA. 1975. Method 208D. Total
Nonfilterable Residue Dried at 103-105 C (Total Suspended Matter) in Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 14th Edition. American Public
Health Association. Washington, D.C. 1193pp. and USEPA. 1979. Method No.
160.2 (with slight modification) in Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and
Wastes. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development. Cincinnati, Ohio. Report No. EPA-600/4-79-020, March 1979.
460pp.]
Chlorophyll A is measured using a fluorometric method where a filter pad containing
particulate material is extracted in 90% acetone in the cold and dark for 12 hours prior
to analysis. Fluorescence of the extract is measured before and after acidification using
a Turner Fluorometer Model 112. Fluorescence is proportional to Chlorophyll A
concentration. [Strickland, J.D.H. and T.R. Parsons. 1972. A Practical Handbook of
Seawater Analysis. Bulletin 167 (2nd Ed.). Fisheries Research Board of Canada,
Ottawa, Canada, and Parsons, T.R., Y. Maita and C.M. Lalli. 1984. Determination of
Chloropyhlls and Total Carotenoids: Spectrophotometric method, pp. 101-112 in
Parsons, T.R., Y. Maita and C.M. Lalli. A Manual of Chemical and Biological Methods
for Seawater Analysis. Pergamon Press, Oxford.]
44 CHAPTER 3
-------
4. MANAGING AND TRANSFERRING
WATER QUALITY DATA
In the previous chapter, we discussed how to collect water quality data using
automated monitors (or sondes) and by manual sampling. Using either method,
you can accumulate vast amounts of data for your project. This Chapter discusses
how to manage and transfer the water quality data once it is either collected and stored
in the sonde's memory or manually collected in the field.
A data collection, transfer, and management system has potential benefits for your
community. The system may allow you to automate the collection of water samples
and control the resulting data flexibly and easily. By using the system's software (e.g.,
EcoWatch®), you can program your water quality monitors to collect data at specified
intervals. Then you can call the monitoring station as needed for data transmission, or
program your system to call for transmissions of data at specified times. Once the data
arrives, the information can be formatted and stored or otherwise prepared for export
to another database, or it can be analyzed using geographical information system (GIS)
or data visualization software and placed on a Web site.
The system's flexibility enables you to establish sampling and data transfer protocols
based on your specific monitoring needs. For example, you might program your
monitoring station unit to monitor every hour, 7 days a week, in order to characterize
general conditions. You might also want to conduct sampling specific to certain
events, such as conditions conducive to algal blooms, during which you might monitor
water quality on a 15-minute basis. Sampling on this scale helps analysts learn more
about smaller scale conditions that may only last for a few hours or days. This
information would be lost if samp ling was only conducted on a weekly or monthly basis.
Readers interested in an overview of the management and transfer equipment and
procedures utilized by the Chesapeake Bay project should focus primarily on the
introductory information in Section 4.1 below. If you are responsible for or interested
in managing and transferring remotely collected water quality data, you should carefully
read the technical information presented in Section 4.2. Details on managing and
transferring water quality data collected manually are discussed in Section 4.3.
4.1 System Overview
Each sonde used in the Chesapeake Bay project records 96 readings for seven
parameters every 24 hours, 4,704 data points per week are generated at each site. If
you are only interested in obtaining and analyzing the data, you can periodically visit
your monitoring station (e.g., once per week), retrieve the sonde, download the data,
and run your analysis as described in Section 3.2.7. One limitation with this approach
is that you would not have access to timely data. If you downloaded data from the
MANAGING AND TRANSFERRING WATER QUALITY DATA 45
-------
sonde only once per week, chances are that any notable events would have already
transpired. Another downside is that you would not be aware of a sonde malfunction
until your next visit and could miss several days of monitoring.
When the Chesapeake Bay project first started, the team did not utilize a telemetry
system and simply visited the monitoring station each week to upload the data as
described in Section 3.2.7. As funds became available in 2000, the team decided to
equip most of its monitoring stations with a telemetry system so they could receive
timely data. This new telemetry equipment enabled users to view important water
quality data the day it was collected. Table 4.1 identifies the monitoring stations
equipped with telemetry. The telemetry system automatically sends a 12-hour block
of data (i.e., physical parameters discussed in Section 3.2.3) directly to MD DNR twice
each day (at 7:30 A.M. and 7:30 P.M). The frequency of data access can be determined
by the project needs and objectives. Once received at MD DNR, this data is
automatically processed, graphed and placed on the EMPACT Web site. Utilizing the
telemetry system allowed the team to deposit raw data automatically on the EMPACT
Web site for the public to view. Receiving timely data also allows the team to evaluate
the performance of the sonde or specific sensors and to determine if more frequent
maintenance or service is required for the sonde.
Table 4.1 EMPACT Monitoring Stations Equipped With Telemetry.
. c, ,. -T- | . Physica Data Chemica Data
Location-Motion lelemetry _ , _ , _
Iranster rreq uency Iranster rrequency
Baltimore Harbor- Fort
Me Henry
Pocomoke-
Cedar Hall Wharf
Pocomo ke- She II town
Pocomoke-Rehobeth
Magothy-Cattai Creek
Magothy-Stonington
Chicamacom ica-
Drawbridge
Tra nsquaking-
Decoursey Bridge
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Two transfers per day
Two transfers per day
Downloaded from sonde
once each week '
Two transfers per day
Downloaded from sonde
once each week
Two transfers per day
Two transfers per day
Two transfers per day
Manually collected each
week
Manually collected each
wee k
Manually collected each
week
Manually collected each
wee k
Manually collected each
week
Manually collected each
wee k
Manually collected each
week
Manually collected each
wee k
1 TheShelltown site will be equipped with telemetry soon.
The water samples collected manually each week for nutrient analysis are sent to CBL
for analysis. Figure 4.1 shows the overall management and transfer of the data collected
by the Chesapeake Bay team.
46
CHAPTER 4
-------
Figure 4.1 Data Flow for the Physical and Chemical Measurements
Raw physical data
collected by YSI 6600
Sendee very 15 minutes
DNR receives two
raw data
transmissions each
day via the
Telemetry System
1
Sonde is switched
weekly and taken to
laboratory where raw
data is downloaded
Scientists review
and QA raw data
Scientists send
Qa'ed data to DNR
Chemical data
{water samples}
collected once
each week
CBL uses
spreadsheets to
Q A data from
laboratory analysis
CBL sends data
to DNR for
further QA and
data archiving
DNR publishes
provisional
real-time data to the
EMPACT website
(data turnaround is 12 hours)
DNR archives and
publishes Qa'ed data
to the EMPACT website*
(data turnaround is 2 weeks)
DNR publishes
chemical data to the
EM PACT website
(data turnaround is 1 year)
Final QA/QC at end of monitoring season.
Data archived in Access Database,
yearly data presented on EMPACT website
' Wr-er the weekly O^'ed sata 15 puchshgd to :ie EWPAC"
website it overwrites the corresponding provisional data
MANAGING AND TRANSFERRING WATER QUALITY DATA
47
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4.2 Transferring and Managing Remote Water
Quality Sampling Information
4.2.1 Designing a Data Transfer System
As a first step in designing a data transfer system, you will need to determine what data
communication (or telemetry) equipment to install at your sampling site. In general,
the type of equipment you choose, especially the telemetry equipment, will depend on
where your monitoring stations will be located and the communication options
available to you. For example, if the station is not located near your computer network
lines then your local or wide area network is probably not a viable communication
option. Telemetry equipment enables data collected at a sampling station to be
transferred to a receiving station located elsewhere. A complete telemetry system
includes equipment components for data storage, retrieval/transfer, and archiving.
Each of these components are discussed below.
Data Storage Equipment. Although a sonde may have internal memory for storing
data, if telemetry is utilized the sonde's data must be scanned, interpreted (e.g.,
converted to other units), and stored in a datalogger. The information stored in the
datalogger can be transferred to various storage media, such as a computer hard drive
or diskette. The data can then be retrieved from the computer or diskette and analyzed
or manipulated using a spreadsheet or data analysis package. There are various
manufacturers of dataloggers. Such manufacturers include Campbell Scientific, Inc.
(CSI) (http://www.campbellsci.com), Sutron Corporation (http://www.sutron.com),
Yellow Springs Instruments, Inc (YSI) (www.ysi.com), and Geo Scientific Ltd.
(www.geoscientific.com).
Data Retrieval/Transfer Equipment. Once the data is stored in a datalogger, it must
be transferred from the datalogger to a computer for analysis or manipulation. This
transfer process can be done using telecommunication equipment, a portable
;omputer, or a storage module.
c
Telecommunication Equipment. Using telecommunication equipment, a
computer can call the datalogger (or vice-versa) to transfer the data.
Telecommunication options include cellular telephone (analog or digital), a computer
equipped with a modem, two-way radio, direct connect (e.g., local or wide area
networks), or satellites. Manufacturers of such equipment include CSI (http://
www.campbellsci.com), Sutron Corporation (http://www.sutron.com), and YSI
(www.ysi.com).
Portable Computers. A portable computer can be carried to the site and used to
download data from the datalogger. The computer would need to be equipped with a
software which can communicate with the datalogger. For example, the software
EcoWatch® for Windows™ can be used to download data from YSI sondes.
48 CHAPTER 4
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Storage Module. A portable hand held storage medium can be carried to the site.
Such hand held units are typically more rugged and compact than portable computers
and more convenient to use in adverse conditions. Manufacturers of such equipment
include CSI (http://www.campbellsci.com), YSI (www.ysi.com), and Hydrolab
Corporation (www.hydrolab.com).
Data Archiving. You should develop a database to store the data that you collect. You
may want to consider having different databases for raw unreviewed data and reviewed
data. For the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project, the data collected by the sampling
monitor is transmitted via cell phone at set time intervals and stored on MD DNR's
computer network in an MS Access database.
Other. In addition to hardware, such as dataloggers and communication equipment,
you will also need software to program the datalogger and telemetry equipment. Such
software can create a datalogger program, send the program to the datalogger, monitor
and collect data from the datalogger, and analyze the collected data. The Chesapeake
Bay team uses EcoWatch® for Windows™ to program how often the datalogger queries
its sonde and which parameters to query and store. The team also uses the software
PC208 to program the telemetry equipment. The PC208 software enables MD DNR
to program when each monitoring station is contacted to retrieve data from the
datalogger.
4.2.2 Selecting Your Transfer Frequency
How frequently you transfer data from your monitoring station to a receiving station
will depend on your goals and objectives. For example, if your intent is to provide
timely data to the public, then you must decide how timely (e.g., hourly or daily) is
appropriate. If you use cellular telephone telemetry, you will have to balance factors
such as providing timely data and costs because the more frequently you transfer data,
the higher your monthly telephone bill.
Due to the cost of using cellular telephone telemetry, the MD DNR and NAIB decided
to transfer data twice each day so that the data published on the Web site collected at
the monitoring stations on the Pocomoke, Magothy, Chicamacomica, and
Transquaking Rivers and NAIB is no more than 12 hours old. Each data transfer takes
approximately 2 to 4 minutes. MD DNR and Baltimore plan to switch to digital
telemetry in order to reduce costs while providing unlimited access data.
4.2.3 Selecting Data Storage/Telemetry Equipment
Ned Burger of the CBL was responsible for procuring and installing the data storage and
telemetry equipment for the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project. Due to the
complexities and the numbers of various technical solutions for installing telemetry at
the various monitoring sites, Mr. Burger decided to hire a contractor to recommend and
MANAGING AND TRANSFERRING WATER QUALITY DATA 49
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implement the best alternative for the Chesapeake Bay sites. He requested quotes from
five vendors and selected one. Mr. Burger provided the contractor with details about
the Stonington site so they could recommend a telemetry solution. Once a solution was
developed, the contractor procured and installed the following equipment at the
Stonington site in September 2000:
• CR10X Datalogger
• Modem
• Battery and Solar Panel
• Voice Synthesizer (optional)
Figure 4.2 shows the telemetry equipment at the Stonington site. In Figure 4.2, the
battery is the large black object located in the bottom of the control panel. The CR10X
datalogger is located just above the battery. The voice synthesizer is located above the
CR10X datalogger. The modem is located just to the left of the datalogger. Each of
these pieces of equipment are discussed below.
Note: The white pouches contain desiccant which absorbs moisture that may
condense inside the control panel.
Figure 4.2 Telemetry Equipment at the Stonington Site (excluding the solar
panel).
50
CHAPTER 4
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CR10X Datalogger. The project utilizes the Campbell Scientific, Inc. (CSI)
CR10X datalogger for data storage (http://www.campbellsci.com). It is a
programmable datalogger/controller that scans the sonde's sensors, measures and
interprets the signals sent by the sensor, and saves the result in its memory (128 K Static
Random Access Memory).
Telemetry Equipment (e.g., modem). The monitoring station and the MD
DNR-based computer are equipped with communications hardware featuring a
cellular transmitter. This equipment allows the monitoring station and computer at
MD DNR to "talk" to each other over long distances. At the MD DNR, the software
automatically contacts the monitoring station for data collection and transfer. The
project team uses analog cellular phone telemetry. However, they plan to switch to a
digital phone telemetry in the near future to reduce the costs of phone charges.
Figure 4.3 Solar Panel (Stonington Site).
Battery and Solar Panel. Each
monitoring station is equipped with a
large sealed rechargeable battery and
solar power assembly. Typically, the
monitoring station can run on battery
power for about three days. However,
due to the monitoring frequency and
the number of parameters being
monitored, solar panels are necessary
to charge the battery. To determine
your power needs see http://
www.campbellsci.com/power.html.
Voice Synthesizer (optional).
The voicesynthesizer is a device that
allows the team to call the monitoring
station to obtain a verbal readout (via
a computer-generated voice) of the last
set of data that was logged by the
datalogger. For example, MD DNR can call the station and find out the last pH and
DO measurements at the site. This optional piece of equipment can be used as a
diagnostic tool to troubleshoot potential problems with the data collection or telemetry
equipment. By utilizing the voice synthesizer, the team can use any wireless phone to
call the monitoring station from any location and obtain the most recent readings.
4.2.4 Siting the Equipment
The telemetry equipment should be co-located with the sampling equipment since it
will be attached to the monitoring equipment via a field cable (see Figure 3.1). As
MANAGING AND TRANSFERRING WATER QUALITY DATA
51
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with the monitoring equipment, you will want the telemetry equipment to be incon-
spicuous to decrease the chance of vandalism. If your system requires a solar panel,
you will want to ensure that your panel is situated to receive as much direct sunlight
as possible.
One important consideration is that the telemetry equipment must be above water
(see Figure 3.1). You will need to account for rises in water level due to tidal vari-
ances, wave action, and storm surges. For example, if your monitoring station and
telemetry equipment is located on a coastline, you will want to ensure that your te-
lemetry equipment is mounted far enough above sea level to be clear of wave action
and storm surges due to hurricanes.
The Chesapeake Bay team placed their telemetry equipment near their monitoring
stations. The telemetry equipment is mounted inside a weather resistant control box
several feet above the monitoring station.
4.2.5 Installing the Transfer/Telemetry Equipment
The Chesapeake Bay team hired a contractor to select and install the telemetry
equipment at the Stonington site. They performed the following:.
• Installed telemetry antennas and correctly pointed directional antennas.
• Assembled the electrical system.
• Connected the sensor package (sonde) to the telemetry equipment sensor.
• Positioned and connected the solar panel.
• Connected the power supply (battery).
• Performed testing to ensure proper operation.
• Tested the sensors.
After the telemetry equipment was installed at the Stonington monitoring site, the
contractor installed the PC208 software on a computer at the CBL. The contractor
programmed the PC208 software to communicate and obtain results from the
Stonington monitoring site twice each day.
After the telemetry equipment was installed at the Stonington site, Mr. Burger
evaluated its operation over the winter. In the following spring, he directed the
contractor to assemble similar equipment for the other sites. The contractor assembled
and shipped the equipment to Mr. Burger which he installed at the other sites listed in
Table 4.1.
52 CHAPTER 4
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4.2.6 Programming the Transfer/Telemetry Equipment
The Chesapeake Bay team uses a software called PC208 to program the telemetry
equipment to automatically contact each monitoring station every 12 hours. The
software resides at the MD DNR and CBL. The program calls the datalogger and
instructs it to transmit all raw data that was recorded during the previous 12 hours. The
data transfer takes about 2-4 minutes. Once transmitted, the raw data is stored in a
dedicated data folder on the MD DNR server. Once the folder receives the data, the
data is then automatically processed through various program modules (developed in
Visual Basic) which converts the data to the appropriate format. For example, one of
the modules converts the date tags from Julian to Gregorian format.
4.2.7 Maintaining the Transfer/Telemetry Equipment
Since the system is equipped with cellular telemetry, proper equipment operation can
be verified at all times allowing quick identification of any service needs of the water
quality monitoring station.
4.2.8 Data Storage
It is recommended that you store and archive all sample records, raw data, quality
control data, and results. A variety of media are available for archiving data (e. g., CD-
ROMs, Zip disks, floppy diskettes, and hard copy). The server storing the data should
also be backed up daily to prevent data loss.
4.2.9 Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)
Depending on the type of data (real-time versus non-real-time data) you are providing
to the public, you can spend different amounts of time and effort on quality control
checks. If your goal is to provide real-time data, there is no time for extensive manual
QA/QC checks. For real-time data, you may choose not to QA/QC the data and
simply place it on your Web site noting that it is provisional data which has not been
reviewed for accuracy. You may choose to program your system to perform QA/QC
checks to identify obvious erroneous data (e.g., a pH of 12 in a stream). On the other
hand, if you are providing non-real-time data, you have time to perform extensive
manual QA/QC reviews.
To ensure timely access to the data and to avoid data management problems, the water
quality monitoring data should be processed soon after data collection and retrieval.
The Chesapeake Bay team uses macros in the Access database to discard any data that
is considered an outlier. Once received the data is stored, processed, graphed, and
placed on the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Web site. A statement that the data is
provisional is also placed on the Web site. In the future, the team plans to program some
automatic QA/QC checks to remove obvious data errors from the timely data prior to
placing it on their Web site.
MANAGING AND TRANSFERRING WATER QUALITY DATA 53
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The QA/QC of the timely data occurs after the weekly visit to the monitoring site when
the sonde is replaced. The sonde removed from the field is taken back to the lab where
the data is downloaded to a computer using EcoWatch®. Scientists use features in
EcoWatch® to graph the data. The graphs are visually inspected to identify obvious
erroneous data (e.g., extremely high values) or data that was collected prior to the sonde
being placed in the water.
After the data is quality assured using Access, it is imported back into EcoWatch® and
graphed again for a final visual QA/QC. This data is exported from EcoWatch® into
a .CSV file and placed in a designated directory on the MD DNR network. When the
data is placed in the designated directory, it is automatically processed, graphed and
sent to the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Web site. This data, which is approximately 2
weeks old, replaces provisional timely data already displayed on the Web site.
4.3 Transferring and Managing Field Water
Quality Sampling Data (Nutrients)
4.3.1 Data Transfer
After the nutrient water samples are collected, processed, and transported to CBL as
described in Section 3.3.3, they are analyzed as described in Section 3.3.4. Analytical
results are then entered into a spreadsheet and exported to .CSV files. These files are
e-mailed to MD DNR for storage, processing, and posting on the Chesapeake Bay
EMPACT Web site.
4.3.2 Data Management
Because analysis time varies for each nutrient parameter, the analytical data is stored
in a spreadsheet (Quattro Pro) as it is received. Mr. Ned Burger of the CBL is
responsible for assembling and organizing the raw nutrient analytical data. Once
assembled and reviewed (see Section 4.3.3), he sends the data to the Maryland DNR.
Data delivery to Maryland DNR is approximately six weeks for the nutrient samples
analyzed by CBL. Mr. Drew Koslow and Chris Aadland are responsible for
maintenance, organization, and management of the data received at MD DNR. The
nutrient data for the entire monitoring year is placed on the MD DNR Web site a few
months after the end of the monitoring season.
4.3.3 Quality Control
The analysis of the water samples collected each week are keyed into QuattroPro.
Print-outs of the data are manually checked for errors by laboratory personnel. As
necessary, the data files are reviewed and a second printout is re-verified by a different
staff member, then the data is transferred (via e-mail) to MD DNR. Final QA/QC
checks occur at the end of the monitoring season when the data are stored in an Access
database.
54 CHAPTER 4
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5. DEVELOPING IMAGES TO
PRESENT WATER QUALITY
MONITORING DATA
Once your water quality monitoring network is in place and you have collected
and received the resulting data, you can provide your community with water
quality information using data visualization tools to depict such information
in graphical form. Using visualization tools, you can create graphical representations
of water quality data that can be downloaded on Web sites and/or included in reports
and educational/outreach materials for the community.
Section 5.1 provides a basic introduction and overview to data visualization and is
useful if you are interested in gaining a general understanding about data visualization.
Section 5.2 discusses the various types of data visualization software. You should
consult Section 5.2 if you are responsible for choosing and using data visualization
software to model and analyze your data. Section 5.3 discusses the charting software,
CFXGraphics Server, which was used by the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project to
produce graphs of their water quality data which are placed on the project Continuous
Monitoring Web site. Section 5.4 discusses guidelines for interpreting and conveying
the significance of water quality data.
5.1 What is Data Visualization?
Data visualization is the process of converting raw data to images or graphs so that the
data are easier to comprehend and understand. A common example of data
visualization can be seen when you watch the weather report on television. The
electronic pictures of cloud cover over an area or the location and path of an impending
hurricane are examples of satellite data that have been visualized with computer
software. Graphs and charts, such as those found on the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT
Web site, are another example of data visualization.
Displaying data visually enables you to communicate results to a broader audience,
such as residents in your community. A variety of software tools can be used to convert
data to images. Such tools range from standard spreadsheets and statistical software
to more advanced analytical tools such as:
• Web-based application servers
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
• Satellite imaging software products
DEVELOPING IMAGES TO PRESENT WATER QUALITY MONITORING DATA 55
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By applying the appropriate visualization tools to water quality data, you can help
residents in your community gain a better understanding of factors affecting the water
quality in area rivers or nearby estuaries (e.g., chlorophyll A or turbidity). You can use
the visualized data for a variety of purposes such as:
• Characterizing water quality conditions.
• Exploring trends in pH, dissolved oxygen concentration, salinity, specific
conductance, turbidity, and water temperature.
• Making resource management decisions.
• Supporting public outreach and education programs (e.g., providing graphs on a
public Web site or in brochures).
5.2 Various Data Visualization Software
There are a number of commercially available computer software programs that allow
you to graphically represent water quality data. Examples of these software tools are
listed in Table 5.1 below.
Table 5.1. Various Software Tools to Visualize Water Quality Data
Tool Group
Spreadsheet Software
Tools
Microsoft Excel,
Corel Quattro Pro, and
Lotus 123
Prima ry Uses
Displays raw data
Creates graphs of individual
pa rameters
Allows for the investigation
of correlations or trends in
water quality variables
Geographic Information
Systems (CIS)
Exa m pies include
Arclnfo, ArcView,
GeoMedia, and
Maplnfo Professional
Integrate and model spatial
data (e.g., water quality and
land use)
Develop Internet mapping
applications
Web-based application
servers/graphics engines
CFXGraphics Server/
Cold Fusion,
PopChart,
ChartWorks, and
KavaChart
Develops and sends user-
defined graphs of real-time
data to the user's Web
browser.
5.2.1 Spreadsheet Programs
Spreadsheet programs such as Micros oft Excel, Quattro Pro, and Lotus 123 can be used
to develop images of water quality data. These programs are handy for organizing large
amounts of data and can be used to create various types of graphs and tabular
56
CHAPTER 5
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summaries of water quality parameters plotted over time. These software can be
purchased at most stores which sell computer equipment and software. They are easy
to install and run on a variety of operating systems (e.g., Windows 95/98/NT).
Graphs or charts developed using spreadsheets can be placed on a Web site or pasted
into a brochure, report, or presentation. If your goal is to produce a static graph or chart
of non-real time water quality data and place it on a Web site, then spreadsheet software
would accomplish your goal. However, if you want the users to define their own
parameters to graph real-time data, then you will need to use more sophisticated
software such as Web-based applications (see Section 5.2.3)
5.2.2 GIS
GIS is a software and hardware system that helps scientist and other technicians
capture, store, model, display, and analyze spatial or geographic information. This
technology offers powerful tools for analyzing and visualizing spatial trends in
environmental data. The USGS Web site contains a user-friendly introduction to GIS
at http://info.er.usgs.gov/research/gis/titie.html.
GIS includes a varied range of technologies. Using GIS technology allows you to
produce a wide range of graphical outputs, including maps, drawings, animations, etc.
To choose, obtain, and use them, you will need to understand the various technologies
available which might be appropriate for your needs and situation. For more
information on specific GIS software packages, you can consult manufacturer's Web
sites including:
• ESRI (http://www.esri.com), whose suite of tools includes Arclnfo, Arc View,
and ArcIMS internet mapping software.
• Intergraph (http://www.intergraph.com/gis/), whose software includes
GeoMedia and GeoMedia Web Map.
• Maplnfo (http://www.map.info.com/), whose products include Maplnfo and
Maplnfo Xtreme (an Internet mapping software).
Although the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT team did not utilize GIS for its project, the
NAIB has an EMPACT project that uses the GIS application ArcIMS to link data from
various GIS/information servers, including the Maryland's DNR EMPACT project,
as well as information from EPA's Watershed Information Network and the
Chesapeake Bay Program. This application will eventually be available on the NAIB
Web site, www.aqua.org. The user will be able to access information about land use/
land cover, percent impervious, projected growth centers, and watershed association
headquarter and meeting locations for five major tributaries feeding into the
Chesapeake Bay. ArcIMS, produced by ESRI, is a product designed to display
DEVELOPING IMAGES TO PRESENT WATER QUALITY MONITORING DATA 57
-------
geographic information from multiple GIS data sources through the internet (see
Chapter 7).
You can read about how GIS was used in another EMPACT project in the handbook
entitled Delivering Timely Water Quality Information to Your Community: The Lake success -
Minneapolis 'Project (EPA/625/R-00/013). You can request a copy of this Handbook
by writing or calling EPA ORD Publications (see Section 1.3.5 of this handbook).
5.2.3 Web-based Application Servers and Graphics Engines.
Web-based application servers and graphics engines can be programmed to take user-
defined queries from Web browsers, submit them to a database, format the query (e.g.,
make a graph of the queried data), and send the information back to the user's Web
browser. There are various charting software packages that allow you to graph data for
display on a Web browser. Such charting software packages include, but are not limited
to, CFXGraphicsServer, (http://www.cfxgraphicsserver.com), PopChart (http://
www.corda.com), ChartWorks (http://www.corda.com), and KavaChart (http://
www.ve.com). The capability (as well as the price) of these and other similar software
varies significantly so before purchasing any software you should consult a Web
developer to discuss your graphing needs.
Depending on the charting software package, some feature Java servlets or applets.
Java servlets are said to be "server-side" meaning they run or process on the server. Java
applets are "client-side" meaning they download and run on the user's computer. This
distinction is important because server-side charting software can usually generate the
graph in file formats (e.g., jpg or gif) that are browser-friendly, can be downloaded and
saved on a computer, and are easier to print. Applets do not generate the graphs in a
separate file but embeds them in an HTML page so that graphics may not print as shown
on the computer screen. Also the charting software listed does not run alone. Instead
they must be run with Web-based application servers such as Cold Fusion, Apache,
BEA Web Logic, or IBM WebSphere. Such Web-based servers supply the interface
between the user and the charting software.
Before attempting to use such software you should have some experience in Web
development and database management. Web development experience is important
in order to develop user-friendly query forms that allow users to easily specify the data
they want to see. Database management experience is important because charts will
be generated from data in either yours or someone else's database. Also, depending on
the Web-based product you select, you may also need programming experience with at
least one scripting language such as JavaScript, VBScript, PERL, or Dynamic HTML.
58 CHAPTER 5
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5.3 Visualization Software Used on the
Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project
Once the timely data arrives at MD DNR, it is processed with various Visual Basic
modules to convert the data appropriately and store it in a database. Maryland's DNR
decided to allow the public to specify their own data parameters when viewing the
current (e.g., real-time) or archived data. As a result, MD DNR needed an application
that could develop user-defined graphs quickly. They used a Web application
development tool developed by Macromedia (http://www.allaire.com) called Cold
Fusion and an add-on graphics server engine called CFXGraphicsServerwhich is owned
by TeraTech, Inc. (http://www/teratech.com). CFXGraphicsS erver is a high-
performance graphing and charting engine that is compatible only with Cold Fusion.
As shown in Figure 5.1, the user, via their Web browser, can select one of the eight
monitoring stations from which to view data. In this case the Shelltown station on the
Pokomoke River has been selected. Once a station has been selected, the user clicks
on the Get Date Range button and is sent to another form which allows them to select
a date or date range, and either physical or chemical parameters (see Figure 5.2). After
the user makes their selection, the data is returned to the user in graphical form. An
example of this is shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.1 MD DNR's First Web-Based Interactive Form.
Baltimore Harbor/
Patapsco River:
3helrt":.i.ijn: May 16 - Octobers
Rehobeth: May 16 - October 4
fvbgothy River
Cattail Creek: May 1 - October 31
and will be up all winter}
Stonington: January 1 - December 31
[will be up all winter :
Drawbridge: May 2 - October 31
Decoursey: May 2 - October 31
Patapsi
lartirr
i Harbor: Jst
lary 1 - December 31
The Chesapeake Bay BtrtPACT project currently
the Hocomoke Kiver. one in the Uhicamacomica
rvbgothy River. Through a cooperative program with
the National Aquarium in Baltimore, we will also have
the data from their station in Baltimore Harbor at the
Ft. McHenry wetlands when the station becomes
operational later this summer. These meters measun
physical parameters of water quality every fifteen
minutes. Choose the options below to view the most
recent data. Notes: Monrtoring en the Chicamacomic
-anH hfagothy Rhrpre hpQan in &ariy July Pn^nmnk*
chemical results will not be immediately available.
Cftoose a location:
t
Pocomoke - Shelltown
jjgFjfnoSn^^
Pocomoke - Cedar Hall Wharf
Pocomoke - Rehobeth
Magothy- Cattail Creek
Magothy- Stonington
- Drawbridge
Tran s q u aki n g - Decoursey Bridge
Baltimore Harbor
i failures are reflected as '0' and do not
graph.
t Results | A-chived Results | Pfiesteria | Chesapeake Bay
DEVELOPING IMAGES TO PRESENT WATER QUALITY MONITORING DATA
59
-------
CFXGraphicsS erver has a "Point & Click" drill-down capability to graphically present
complex data at various levels of detail. CFXGraphicsServer allows your Web developer
to generate over 30 graph types and styles with over 100 various graph attributes. It
also includes a full VTML "Visual Interface" that requires virtually no coding to
generate the graphs. The graphics engine server generates the graphic images in jpg or
gif formats.
Figure 5.2 MD DNR's Second Web-Based Interactive Form.
I Pop-up windows: EMPACT Map Contacts I Credits \
Pocomoke:
Current Results
The Chesapeake Bay BV1PACT project currently
maintains seven continuous monitoring sites: three in
River, one in the Transquaking River, and two in the
lufagothy River. Through 3 cooperative program wrth
the National Aquarium in Baltimore, we will also have
the data -from their station in Baltimore Harbor at the
Ft. McHenry wetlands when the station becomes
operational later this summer. These meters measure
physical parameters of mater quality every fifteen
minutes. Choose the options below to view the most
recent data. Notes: Monitoring on the Chicamacomico
and Magothy Rivers began in early July. Pocomoke
River monitoring was initiated in early June for 2000,
Chemical / Nutrient data is not measured real-time.
and requires laboratory analysis. Because of this.
Station Selected is:
'
Start Date: No. Days:
Magothy:
JT3
Select date parameters:
f* Physical
**" Chemical / Nutrients (results z
laboratory analysed for 2000)
Get Results |
BolPACT Home I Current Results I Archived Results I Pfiesteria I Chesapeake Bay I BdPACT FAQ
Currently, CFXGraphicsS erver will only run under the Windows operating system - a
UNIX version is not available. There are three versions of the graphics engine. They
are as follows:
CFXGraphicsS erver - Developer is the least expensive version and provides a developer
with a local host restricted version which can be used to build and test an application.
Because this version only supports local host access, it can not produce graphs that can
be viewed on external machines.
CFXGraphicsS erver - Professional is the mid-priced version and can produce graphs for
a single Web site on a server using one Internet protocol (IP) address. The number of
clients which can browse the graphs are unlimited.
60
CHAPTER 5
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CFXGraphicsServer-Enterprise is the most expensive version and can produce graphs for
an unlimited number of IP addresses that are hosted on any one server. [Source: http:/
/www.cfxgraphicsserver.com]
Figure 5.3 Ouput Results
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Concentration
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)% Saturation
e.e
_7.o-
f 3.3-
S 3.5-
re
o.o
77.8
58.3
38.9
19.4
CO
date
date
The graphs above show the concentration and saturation of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the
water. Since most aquatic organisms such as shellfish and other living resources require
oxygen to survive, this is a very important measure of water quality. DO levels below 5 mg/l
can stress organisms. Sustained DO levels of less than 3 mg/l can result in fish kills. DO
saturation percent shows the level of dissolved oxygen as a percentage of the possible DO the
water could contain. Generally, colder water can hold more DO than warmer water. Super-
saturation (over 1 00% DO saturation) can occur when there is a large algal bloom. During
the daylight, when the algae are photosynthesizing, they can produce oxygen so rapidly that it
is not able to escape into the atmosphere, thus leading to short-term saturation levels of
greater than 1 00%. The cycles evident in these data, however, appear to be driven primarily
by tidal influences.
5.4 Guidelines for Interpreting and Conveying
the Significance of the Water Quality Data
Data visualization also includes providing supporting interpretative text to make the
data meaningful to the general population. Displaying data visually enables you to
communicate results to a broader audience, such as residents in your community, while
providing data interpretation can help the community to understand how it impacts the
health of the surrounding environment.
Visual representation of the data is extremely useful to a knowledgeable professional
and helpful to the general public but must be supported by additional explanatory
material. For instance, a line graph of DO is only slightly more meaningful to the
general public than a table of DO values; a crucial element is to supplement the line
graphs with interpretive text by a qualified analyst. Consequently, the Chesapeake Bay
project provides the public with line graphs accompanied by interpretive text
explaining the overall importance of the parameters. An example of this are line graphs
of DO and DO% Saturation as well as interpretive text for the Pocomoke-Shelltown
station on September 5, 2001 shown in Figure 5.3.
DEVELOPING IMAGES TO PRESENT WATER QUALITY MONITORING DATA
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6. COMMUNICATING WATER
QUALITY INFORMATION
In addition to designing and implementing a timely water quality monitoring
system, you will also want to consider how and what types of data to communicate
to the community. This chapter is designed to help you develop an approach for
communicating pertinent water quality information to people in your community, or
more specifically, your target audience. This chapter provides the following:
• The steps involved in developing an outreach plan.
• Guidelines for effectively communicating information.
• Resources to assist in promoting community awareness.
• The outreach initiatives implemented by the Chesapeake Bay teams.
6.1 Developing an Outreach Plan for Timely
Water Quality Reporting
Your outreach program will be most effective if you ask yourself the following
questions:
• Who do you want to reach? (i.e., Who is your target audience?)
• What information do you want to distribute or communicate?
• What are the most effective mechanisms to reach your target audience?
Developing an outreach plan ensures that you have considered all important elements
of an outreach project before you begin. The plan itself provides a blueprint for action.
An outreach plan does not have to be lengthy or complicated. You can develop a plan
simply by documenting your answers to each of the questions discussed below. This
will provide you with a solid foundation for launching an outreach effort.
Your outreach plan will be most effective if you involve a variety of people in its
development. Where possible, consider involving:
• A communications specialist or someone who has experience developing and
implementing an outreach plan.
• Technical experts in the subject matter (both scientific and policy).
• Someone who represents the target audience (i.e., the people or groups you
want to reach).
• Key individuals who will be involved in implementing the outreach plan.
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As you develop your outreach plan, consider whether you would like to invite any
organizations to partner with you in planning or implementing the outreach effort.
Potential partners might include shoreline property owner associations, local
businesses, environmental organizations, schools, boating associations, local health
departments, local planning and zoning authorities, and other local or state agencies.
Partners can participate in planning, product development and review, and
distribution. Partnerships can be valuable mechanisms for leveraging resources while
enhancing the quality, credibility, and success of outreach efforts. Developing an
outreach plan is a creative and iterative process involving a number of interrelated
steps, as described below. As you move through each of these steps, you might want
to revisit and refine the decisions you made in earlier steps until you have an integrated,
comprehensive, and achievable plan.
6.1.1 What Are Your Outreach Goals?
Defining your outreach goals is the initial step in developing an outreach plan.
Outreach goals should be clear, simple, action-oriented statements about what you
hope to accomplish through outreach. Once you have established your goals, every
other element of the plan should relate to those goals. Here were some project goals
for the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project:
• To display and archive timely water and habitat parameters on the Internet for
presentation and interpretation of the data to the general public.
• To provide timely interpretation, as appropriate, relevant to water and habitat
quality monitoring data.
• To demonstrate government response to emerging water and habitat quality
issues of concern to the public.
• To supplement Maryland DNR efforts to characterize water quality conditions
in estuarine systems that have experienced or have the potential to experience
harmful algal blooms, loss of submerged aquatic vegetation or experienced low
dissolved oxygen events.
• To provide timely environmental data to supplement Maryland's rapid response
and comprehensive water and habitat quality assessments of Maryland
tributaries that have a potential risk for harmful algal blooms.
6.1.2 Whom Are You Trying To Reach?
Identifying Your Audience(s)
The next step in developing an outreach plan is to clearly identify the target audience
or audiences for your outreach effort. As illustrated in the Chesapeake Bay project
goals above, outreach goals often define their target audiences (e.g., the public, coastal
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scientists, and fisheries). You might want to refine and add to your goals after you have
defined your target audience(s).
Target audiences for a water quality outreach program might include the general public,
local decision makers and land management agencies, educators and students (high
school and college), special interest groups (e. g., homeowner associations, fishing and
boating organizations, gardening clubs, and lawn maintenance/landscape
professionals). Some audiences, such as educators and special interest groups, might
serve as conduits to help disseminate information to other audiences you have
identified, such as the general public.
Consider whether you should divide the public into two or more audience categories.
For example: Will you be providing different information to certain groups, such as
citizens and businesses? Does a significant portion of the public you are trying to reach
have a different cultural or linguistic background from other members? If so, it likely
will be most effective to consider these groups as separate audience categories.
Defining Your Audience(s)
Once you have identified your audiences, the next step is to determine their situations,
interests, and concerns. Outreach will be most effective if the type, content, and
distribution of outreach products are specifically tailored to the characteristics of your
target audiences. Understanding the makeup of your audience will help you identify
the most effective ways of reaching them. For each target audience, consider:
• What is their current level of knowledge about water quality?
• What do you want them to know about water quality? What actions would you
like them to take regarding water quality?
• What information is likely to be of greatest interest to the audience? What
information will they likely want to know once they develop some awareness
of water quality issues?
• How much time are they likely to give to receiving and assimilating the
information?
• How does this group generally receive information?
• What professional, recreational, and domestic activities does this group
typically engage in that might provide avenues for distributing outreach
products? Are there any organizations or centers that represent or serve the
audience and might be avenues for disseminating your outreach products?
Ways to identify your audience and their needs include consulting with individuals or
organizations who represent or are members of the audience, consulting with
colleagues who have successfully developed other outreach products for the audience,
and using your imagination.
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Chesapeake Bay's Target Audience
Chesapeake Bay's target audience consisted of the following:
General Public. The general public, including students, can monitor the conditions
in the various rivers and learn about the link between physical conditions, nutrient
concentrations, Pfiesteria outbreaks, and water quality problems.
Tributary Strategy Teams. In 1995, ten Tributary Teams were initiated in
Maryland. The Governor appointed 350 members to the Tributary Teams. The
Tributary Strategy Teams are one of the State's maj or programs to reduce nutrient input
into the Chesapeake Bay. The purpose and mission of the Tributary Teams are to:
• support and promote actions and policies to ensure healthy watersheds with
abundant and diverse living resources;
• through education, heighten awareness of each individual's impact on water
quality;
• promote implementation of projects to restore and protect living resources and
water quality; and
• facilitate communication and coordination among governments, landowners,
businesses, and all other citizens toward this common goal.
[Source: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/bay/tribstrat/index.html]
The Tributary Teams will use the data collected by the EMPACT program to evaluate
water quality conditions, monitor nutrient levels and gauge the effectiveness of their
nutrient reduction strategies.
Researchers and Scientists. Researchers and scientists can use the EMPACT
data to better understand the linkages between water quality and toxic Pfiesteria
outbreaks, low DO occurrences, and SAV habitat restoration.
Environmental Managers. Environmental managers use the EMPACT data to
make decisions on how to manage the Bay's watersheds to help prevent future Pfiesteria
outbreaks. [Source: Time-Relevant Data Collection of Physical, Chemical and
Biological Parameters to Monitor and Characterize a Tributary Targeted for Maryland's
Pfiesteria Monitoring Program in Chesapeake Bay, January 2000]
6.1.3 What Do You Want To Communicate?
The next step in planning an outreach program is to think about what you want to
communicate. In particular at this stage, think about the key points, or "messages," you
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want to communicate. Messages are the "bottom line" information you want your
audience to walk away with, even if they forget the details.
A message is usually phrased as a brief (often one-sentence) statement. For example:
• National Aquarium in Baltimore joins Chesapeake Bay EMPACT.
• EMPACT expands!
Outreach products will often have multiple related messages. Consider what messages
you want to send to each target audience group. You may have different messages for
different audiences.
6.1.4 What Outreach Products Will You Develop?
The next step in developing an outreach plan is to consider what types of outreach
products will be most effective for reaching each target audience. There are many
different types of outreach: print, audiovisual, electronic, events, and novelty items.
Table 6.1 provides some examples of each type of outreach product.
The audience profile information you assembled earlier will be helpful in selecting
appropriate products. A communications professional can provide valuable guidance
in choosing the most appropriate products to meet your goals within your resource and
time constraints. Questions to consider when selecting products include:
• How much information does your audience really need? How much does your
audience need to know now? The simplest, most effective, most
straightforward product generally is most effective.
• Is the product likely to appeal to the target audience? How much time will it
take to interact with the product? Is the audience likely to make that time?
• How easy and cost-effective will the product be to distribute or, in the case of
an event, organize?
• How many people is this product likely to reach? For an event, how many
people are likely to attend?
• What time frame is needed to develop and distribute the product?
• How much will it cost to develop the product? Do you have access to the
talent and resources needed for development?
• What other related products are already available? Can you build on existing
products?
• When will the material be out of date? (You probably will want to spend fewer
resources on products with shorter lifetimes.)
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Table 6.1 Various Distribution and Outreach Products to Communicate Data
Distribution Avenues
Mailing lists
Outreach Products
$ Brochures
$ Newsletters
$ Fact sheets
$ Utility bill inserts or stuffers
Phone/fax
$ Promotional hotline
E-mail/Internet
$ Newsletters
$ E-mail messages
$ Web pages
$ Subscriber list servers
Radio/TV
$ Cable TV programs
$ Public service announcements
$ Videos
$ Media interviews
$ Press conferences/releases
Journals or newsletters
$ Newsletters
$ Editorials
$ Newspaper and magazine articles
Meetings, community events, or
locations (e.g., libraries, schools,
marinas, public beaches, tackle
shops) where products are made
available
$ Exhibits
$ Kiosks
$ Posters
$ Question-and-answer sheets
$ Novelty items (e.g., mouse pads,
golf tees, buttons, key chains,
magnets, bumper stickers, coloring
books, frisbees)
$ Banners
$ Briefings
$ Fairs and festivals
$ Meetings (one-on-one and public)
$ Community days
$ Speeches
$ Educational curricula
• Would it be effective to have distinct phases of products over time? For
example, an initial phase of products designed to raise awareness, followed by
later phases of products to increase understanding.
• How newsworthy is the information? Information with inherent news value is
more likely to be rapidly and widely disseminated by the media.
You also need to consider how each product will be distributed and determine who will
be responsible for distribution. For some products, your organization might manage
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distribution. For others, you might rely on intermediaries (such as the media or
educators) or organizational partners who are willing to participate in the outreach
effort. Consult with an experienced communications professional to obtain
information about the resources and time required for the various distribution options.
Some points to consider in selecting distribution channels include:
• How does the audience typically receive information?
• What distribution mechanisms has your organization used in the past for this
audience? Were these mechanisms effective?
• Can you identify any partner organizations that might be willing to assist in the
distribution?
• Can the media play a role in distribution?
• Will the mechanism you are considering really reach the intended audience?
For example, the Internet can be an effective distribution mechanism, but
certain groups might have limited access to it.
• How many people is the product likely to reach through the distribution
mechanism you are considering?
• Are sufficient resources available to fund and implement distribution via the
mechanisms of interest?
6.1.5 What Follow-up Mechanisms Will You Establish?
Successful outreach may cause people to contact you with requests for more
information or expressing concern about issues you have addressed. Consider whether
and how you will handle this interest. The following questions can help you develop
this part of your strategy:
• What types of reactions or concerns are audience members likely to have in
response to the outreach information?
• Who will handle requests for additional information?
• Do you want to indicate on the outreach product where people can go for
further information (e. g., provide a contact name, phone number, address,
email address/Web site, or establish a hotline)?
6.1.6 What Is the Schedule for Implementation?
Once you have decided on your goals, audiences, messages, products, and distribution
channels, you will need to develop an implementation schedule. For each product,
consider how much time will be needed for development and distribution. Be sure to
factor in sufficient time for product review. Wherever possible, build in time for testing
and evaluation by members or representatives of the target audience in focus groups
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or individual sessions so that you can get feedback on whether you have effectively
targeted your material for your audience. Section 6.3 contains suggestions for
presenting technical information to the public. It also provides information about
online resources that can provide easy to understand background information that you
can use in developing your own outreach projects.
6.2 Elements of the Chesapeake Bay Outreach
Programs
The Chesapeake Bay team use a variety of mechanisms to communicate timely water
quality information - as well as information about the project itself - to the general
public. The team developed a Web site (part of the MD DNR Web site) as the primary
vehicle for communicating timely information to the public. They also give
presentations at conferences or Tributary Team meetings to inform the public about
the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT program. These elements of the project's
communication program are discussed below.
Note: NAIB is developing a variety of outreach tools (e.g., a restoration
development manual, CD-ROM's, and an interactive Web site. See
Chapter 7 for more information .
6.2.1 Bringing Together Experts.
The EMPACT project stakeholders are made up of a variety of organizations that
provide input on the information generated from the project and how it is
communicated. These stakeholders are identified below.
• EPA Office of Water's Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds (OWOW)
• Maryland Department of Natural Resources (MD DNR)
• University of Maryland
• Maryland's Tributary Strategy Teams (comprised of farmers, watermen, industry
representatives, interested citizens, local and state government officials)
• National Aquarium in Baltimore
6.2.2 Web Site.
The Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Web site is part of the Maryland DNR Web site and
can be accessed at http://mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/newmontech/contmon/
index.cfm. The Web site is the main avenue used by the team for disseminating the
water quality information. The site has links that provide current and archived
monitoring results. The site also has links that provide information about Chesapeake
Bay, algal bloom, Pfiesteria, and the effects of hurricanes on the water quality.
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MD DNR is continuously modifying the Web site so that it is more user friendly. In
the near future, the Web site will be modified so that users can access the data more
easily.
Note: NAIB's Web site is http://www.aqua.org.
Experience Gained and Lessons Learned
The Chesapeake Bay Team has learned that it is best to keep the Web site simple. For
example, keep the Web page lengths to a minimum so that users will not have to scroll
through pages and pages of data.
Also when developing a Web site, design the site so it can be easily changed or modified.
Some off-the-shelf Web development packages allow you to quickly design a site, but
may not let you make changes easily without redesigning large portions of the Web site.
The team also learned that it takes a significant amount of time to maintain a site that
provides timely data. As a result, they recommend that anyone interested in developing
a Web site to provide data to the public be prepared to commit the resources of a Web
programmer to maintain the site.
6.2.3 Piggybacking on Existing Events.
The Chesapeake Bay team found opportunities to promote the EMPACT project at
other events. In August, 2001 MD DNR manned a booth at the Maryland State Fair
where they displayed posters and answered questions about the EMPACT monitoring
project. Representatives from the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Team also periodically
present papers about the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT project at Tributary Team
meetings.
6.3 Resources for Presenting Water Quality
Information to the Public
As you develop your various forms of communication materials and begin to
implement your outreach plan, you will want to make sure that these materials present
your information as clearly and accurately as possible. There are resources on the
Internet to help you develop your outreach materials. Some of these are discussed
below.
6.3.1 How Do You Present Technical Information to the
Public?
Environmental topics are often technical in nature and full of jargon, and water quality
information is no exception. Nonetheless, technical information can be conveyed in
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simple, clear terms to those in the general public not familiar with water quality. The
following principles should be used when conveying technical information to the
public:
• Avoid using jargon.
• Translate technical terms (e.g., reflectance) into everyday language the public
can easily understand.
• Use active voice.
• Write short sentences.
• Use headings and other formatting techniques to provide a clear and organized
structure.
The following Web sites provide guidance regarding how to write clearly and
effectively for a general audience:
• The National Partnership for Reinventing Government has a guidance
document, Writing User-Friendly Documents, that can be found on the Web at
http: / /www.plainlanguage.gov.
• The American Bar Association has a Web site that provides links to on-line
writing labs (http://www.abanet.org/lpm/bparticlel 1463_front. shtml). The
Web site discusses topics such as handouts and grammar.
As you develop communication materials for your audience, remember to tailor your
information to consider what they are already likely to know, what you want them to
know, and what they are likely to understand. The most effective approach is to
provide information that is valuable and interesting to the target audience. For
example, the fishermen in the Chesapeake Bay are concerned about Pfiesteria
outbreaks, so it would be of interest to them to convey information about Pfiesteria and
related conditions. Also, when developing outreach products, be sure to consider
special needs of the target audience. For example, ask yourself if your target audience
has a large number of people who speak little or no English. If so, you should prepare
communication materials in their native language.
The rest of this section contains information about resources available on the Internet
that can assist you as you develop your own outreach projects. Some of the Web sites
discussed below contain products, such as downloadable documents or fact sheets,
which you can use to develop and tailor your education and outreach efforts.
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6.3.2 Federal Resources
EPA's Surf Your Watershed
http://www.epa.gov/surf3
This Web site can be used to locate, use, and share environmental information on
watersheds. One section of this site, "Locate Your Watershed," allows the user to enter
the names of rivers, schools, or zip codes to learn more about watersheds in their local
area or in other parts of the country. The EPA's Index of Watershed Indicators (IWI)
can also be accessed from this site. The IWI is a numerical grade (1 to 6), which is
compiled and calculated based on a variety of indicators that point to whether rivers,
lakes, streams, wetlands, and coastal areas are "well" or "ailing."
EPA's Office of Water Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual
http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/lake
EPA developed this manual to present specific information on volunteer lake water
quality monitoring methods. It is intended both for the organizers of the volunteer lake
monitoring program and for the volunteer(s) who will actually be sampling lake
conditions. Its emphasis is on identifying appropriate parameters to monitor and listing
specific steps for each selected monitoring method. The manual also includes quality
assurance/quality control procedures to ensure that the data collected by volunteers
are useful to States and other agencies.
EPA's NonPoint Source Pointers (Fact sheets)
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/facts
This Web site features a series of fact sheets (referred to as "pointers") on nonpoint
source pollution (e.g., pollution occurring from storm water runoff). The pointers
cover topics including: programs and opportunities for public involvement in nonpoint
source control, managing wetlands to control nonpoint source pollution, and managing
urban runoff.
EPA's Great Lakes National Program Office
http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/about.html
EPA's Great Lakes National Program Office Web site includes information about
topics such as human health, visualizing the lakes, monitoring, and pollution
prevention. One section of this site (http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/gl2000/lamps/
index.html) has links to Lakewide Management Plans (LaMP) documents for each of
the Great Lakes. A LaMP is a plan of action developed by the United States and Canada
to assess, restore, protect and monitor the ecosystem health of a GreatLake. The LaMP
has a section dedicated to public involvement or outreach and education. The program
utilizes a public review process to ensure that the LaMP is addressing their concerns.
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You could use the LaMP as a model in developing similar plans for your water
monitoring program.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Service
http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/water/quality/frame/wqam
Under "Guidance Documents," there are several documents pertaining to water
quality that can be downloaded or ordered. These documents are listed below.
• A Procedure to Estimate the Response of Aquatic Systems to Changes in
Phosphorus and Nitrogen Inputs
• Stream Visual Assessment Protocol
• National Handbook of Water Quality Monitoring
• Water Quality Indicators Guide
• Water Quality Field Guide
6.3.3 Education Resources
Project WET (Water Education for Teachers)
http: / /www.montana. edu/wwwwet
One goal of Project WET is to promote awareness, appreciation, knowledge, and good
stewardship of water resources by developing and making available classroom-ready
teaching aids. Another goal of WET is to establish state- and internationally-sponsored
Project WET programs. The WET site has a list of all the State Project WET Program
Coordinators.
Water Science for Schools
http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/index.html
The USGS's Water Science for Schools Web site offers information on many aspects
of water and water quality. The Web site has pictures, data, maps, and an interactive
forum where you can provide opinions and test your water knowledge. Water quality
is discussed under "Special Topics."
Global Rivers Environmental Education Network (GREEN)
http://www.earthforce.org/green
The GREEN provides opportunities for middle and high school-aged youth to
understand, improve and sustain watersheds in their community. This site (http://
www.igc.apc.org/green/resources.html) also includes a list of water quality projects
being conducted across the country and around the world.
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Adopt- A-Watershed
http://www.adopt-a-watershed.org/about.htm
Adopt-A-Watershed is a school-community learning experience for students from
kindergarten through high school. Their goal is to make science applicable and relevant
to the students. Adopt-A-Watershed has many products and services available to
teachers wishing to start an Adopt-A-Watershed project. Although not active in every
state, the Web site has a list of contacts in 25 States if you are interested in beginning
a project in your area.
National Institutes for Water Resources
http://wrri.nmsu.edu/niwr/niwr.html
The National Institutes for Water Resources (NIWR) is a network of 54 research
institutes throughout each of the 50 States, District of Columbia, the Virgin Islands,
Puerto Rico, and Guam/Federated States of Micronesia. Each institute conducts
research to solve water problems unique to their area and establish cooperative
programs with local governments, state agencies, and industry.
6.3.4 Other Organizations
The Chesapeake Bay Program - America's Premier Watershed Restoration
Program
http://www.chesapeakebay.net/
This Web site provides information about the current condition of the Chesapeake Bay.
It also provides information about the habitats, animals, plants, Bay stressors, water
quality monitoring, and Bay restoration efforts. The site also provides information
about how to get involved in restoration efforts for the Bay.
North American Lake Management Society (NALMS) Guide to Local
Resources
http://www.nalms.org/
This Web site provides resources for those dealing with local lake-related issues.
NALMS's mission is to forge partnerships among citizens, scientists, and professionals
to promote the management and protection of lakes and reservoirs. NALMS's Guide
to Local Resources (http://www.nalms.org/resource/lnkagenc/links.htm) contains
various links to regulatory agencies, extension programs, research centers, NALMS
chapters, regional directors, and a membership directory.
The Watershed Management Council
http://watershed.org/wmc/aboutwmc.html
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The Watershed Management Council (WMC) is a nonprofit organization whose
members represent a variety of watershed management interests and disciplines. WMC
membership includes professionals, students, teachers, and individuals whose interest
is in promoting proper watershed management.
Gulf of Mexico Program
http://gmpo.gov
The EPA established the Gulf of Mexico Program (GMP). Their mission is to provide
information and resources to facilitate the protection and restoration of the coastal
marine waters of the Gulf of Mexico and its coastal natural habitats. The GMP's Web
site has links to existing coastal projects, has links to educator and student resources,
and provides near-real time oceanic data.
The Barataria - Terrobonne National Estuary Program (BTNEP)
http://www.btnep.org
BTNEP is the result of a cooperative agreement between the EPA and the State of
Louisiana under the National Estuary Program. The program's charter was to develop
a coalition of government, private, and commercial interests to identify problems,
assess trends, design pollution control, develop resource management strategies,
recommend corrective actions, and seek implementation commitments for the
preservation of Louisiana's Barataria and Terrebonne basins.
6.4 Success Stones
In the summer of 1998, there was a massive fish kill of approximately 500,000
menhaden in the Bullbegger Creek, a tributary of the Pocomoke River. This kill
occurred approximately one year after the toxic Pfiesteria outbreaks in the Pocomoke.
The severity of the fish kill received a lot of publicity and the public was extremely
concerned that the kill was caused by a reoccurrence of toxic Pfiesteria.
MD DNR believed that the fish kill was caused by low DO levels and not Pfiesteria;
however, due to the remote location of the Pocomoke, scientist could not take water
samples until after the kill occurred. Analysis of the discrete samples taken after the
kill showed DO readings of 4.0 mg/1 and higher which did not confirm low DO as the
cause of the kill.
Fortunately, MD DNR had deployed the YSI sonde at Shelltown which is directly
across from Bullbegger Creek. MD DNR reviewed the data logged by the sonde and
discovered that the morning of the kill, at around 5:00 am, the sonde recorded DO
values of less than 1.0 mg/1 with consistent readings during the morning hours at levels
lethal to fish.
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This evidence was sufficient for MD DNR to document that low DO levels, not toxic
Pfiesteria, was the probable cause of the fish kill. The fishermen and citizens in the area
were relieved to learn that they were not experiencing another toxic outbreak of
Pfiesteria.
6.5 Most Frequently Asked Questions and
Answers
This section contains questions frequently asked about the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT
project as well as about the Bay in general.
Q: What are the goals of the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project?
A: The primary objective of the Chesapeake Bay EMPACT Project originally was to
provide time-relevant information regarding Pfiesteriapisddda and water quality on
the Pocomoke River, a tributary of Chesapeake Bay. The Pocomoke was the
location of toxic Pfiesteria outbreaks in 1997. This project is meant to supplement
data collected as part of the larger statewide Pfiesteria, water, and habitat quality
monitoring program coordinated by the Maryland Department of Natural
Resources. Due to human health concerns, possible living resource impacts,
business concerns for the local seafood industry, and extensive media coverage,
many people throughout the state have a renewed interest in water and habitat
quality. This EMPACT project will allow people to learn more about Maryland's
waterways and keep up to date with water quality and Pfiesteria issues.
For 2000, the EMPACT project was expanded to provide a more bay-wide
representation of water and habitat quality. Four new stations were initiated by
MD DNR in the summer of 2000. Two monitors were placed in the Magothy River.
Not only will this provide data from a waterway in a more urban setting, but this
river also provides critical SAV habitat and has experienced fish kills in previous
years. Two more continuous monitors were also placed in lower eastern shore
tributaries. Stations on the Chicamacomico and Transquaking Rivers will provide
data from two more systems that have repeatedly shown evidence of Pfiesteria.
Additionally, this project will enable us to gain a greater understanding of how
tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay function. For example, the relationship between
storm events and freshwater flows to the Pocomoke is poorly understood because
of its altered watershed hydrology. This is an important process to understand
because of the likely linkage between runoff, nutrient loading, and conditions that
influence Pfiesteria populations.
A secondary objective of this project is to measure and evaluate low dissolved
oxygen conditions (hypoxia and anoxia) that affect certain Maryland waterways
during the summer months. These low oxygen conditions put stress on fish and
COMMUNICATING WATER QUALITY INFORMATION 77
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other aquatic organisms; if the conditions are severe enough or persist long enough,
they can force fish out of an area or even lead to fish kills. Several fish kills believed
to have been caused by low dissolved oxygen have occurred in various tributaries
the past several years. EMPACT monitoring may provide further insight into these
events.
Q: What types of meters are used?
A: The sondes (or meters) used for the EMPACT project are all manufactured by
Yellow Springs Instruments (YSI). YSI 6600 sondes are being used at all the
monitoring sites. With the exception of the bottom meter at Cedar Hall Wharf on
the Pocomoke, meters are located at a constant depth of one meter below the
surface of the water. This is achieved by mounting them inside PVC pipes to
prevent drifting, and attaching them to structures to maintain a constant depth. In
1998, the first year of EMPACT program monitoring, two stations were used: one
at the Beverly Farm in Cedar Hall Wharf, the other near Williams Point in
Shelltown. For 1999, two more locations were added: one surface meter further
upstream near Rehobeth and a bottom meter at the Cedar Hall Wharf location. The
addition of the bottom meter provides us with information to determine possible
differences between surface and bottom conditions. For 2000, four more meters
were added to three different waterways, giving MD DNR a more bay-wide
continuous monitoring presence. In 2001, a monitoring station was established
near Fort McHenry in the Baltimore Harbor as part of NAIB's Technology Transfer
Project.
Q: How is the monitoring done?
A: Each sonde originally was programmed to record four environmental parameters:
water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO) saturation, and DO
concentration. For 2000, all sondes were upgraded to record three additional
parameters: pH, turbidity, and fluorescence (a measure of Chlorophyll A present
in the water column). Each parameter is recorded every 15 minutes. Once every
week, each station is accessed by field staff. The sondes are retrieved, and the
stored data is transferred electronically into a computer spreadsheet. To prevent
biofouling during warm months, the sondes are replaced weekly with clean,
recalibrated units. The deployed sondes are brought back to the lab for cleaning
and maintenance. Additionally, May through October water samples are taken at
each location weekly, brought back to the lab, and analyzed with established
methods. These results are used to calibrate the sondes and to check the data for
accuracy. The samples are also tested for chemical parameters that cannot be
measured by the sondes, such as dissolved inorganic nutrients, Chlorophyll A
levels, and water column respiration rates. These three tests help provide an
understanding of environmental factors that contribute to the occurrence of
harmful algal blooms and low oxygen conditions. The field monitors are active
78 CHAPTER 6
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from April through late October, except for Fort McHenry and Stonington which
are active year-round.
Q: What is biofouling?
A: Biofouling occurs when aquatic organisms such as algae begin to grow on the
sondes. If buildup gets too thick, the sondes will not be able to obtain accurate
results. This is especially a problem with the dissolved oxygen sensors on the
sondes, as they contain soft membranes that are ideal for algal growth. If the sondes
stay out in the field for longer than one week during the summer months, the risk
of losing data due to biofouling increases greatly. For this reason, the sondes are
rotated weekly with clean, calibrated sondes. The deployed sondes are brought
back to the lab for cleaning and maintenance. In addition to biofouling, errors can
also be caused by crabs poking holes in the soft DO sensor membrane. Once that
membrane has been penetrated, DO measurements are no longer viable. The
addition of a screen around the sensors has prevented most crabs from getting to
the membrane. [Source: http://mddnr.chesapeakebay.net/empact/faq.html]
Q: How big is the Bay?
A: The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It is about 200 miles
long. At the Bay Bridge near Annapolis, it is only 4 miles across, but it is 30 miles
across at the widest point near the mouth of the Potomac River. The Bay watershed
drains 64,000 square miles of land in six states - Maryland, Virginia, Delaware,
Pennsylvania, West Virginia and New York and Washington, D.C. To give some
idea of the size, the Bay watershed is about 5 times bigger than the state of Maryland
and 30 times larger than Delaware, yet it is only one-fourth the size of Texas!
Q: How many kinds (species) of plants and animals live in the Bay?
A: About 2,700 different plants and animals live in the Bay.
Q: How many people live in the Bay watershed?
A: In 1960 there were 11 million people. Currently, approximately 16 million people
live in the watershed.
Q: Won't all those people living in the watershed have a large impact on the
Bay?
A: Yes, they certainly will. The biggest problem is the change in land use. All of those
people (that's you and me by the way) have to live somewhere. We go to work, to
school, to church, to shopping malls, and to the grocery store. And we want to have
fun! We cut down trees, pave roads and parking lots and build houses, malls,
schools, etc. By changing the landscape we change the way the natural system
COMMUNICATING WATER QUALITY INFORMATION 79
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works. Consequently, there is more soil erosion, more polluted run-off from paved
surfaces, higher volumes of water rushing through streams during storms, and our
natural systems have less capability of buffering these impacts - not to mention all
of the water we use and the wastewater we produce.
Q: Isn't trash the largest pollution problem in the Bay today?
A: No, trash is not the biggest problem although it really is ugly. Trash is one form of
pollution that we can control by putting litter where it belongs. The biggest threat
to the Bay is excess amounts of nutrients, specifically nitrogen and phosphorus.
These nutrients come primarily from animal waste (including human waste), from
fertilizers on crops and on lawns, and from the air.
Q: Don't aquatic plants need nutrients to grow?
A: Yes, they do. The problem occurs when there are too many nutrients. This causes
microscopic plants called algae to reproduce rapidly. These algae "blooms" form
large mats which block sunlight from reaching the submerged aquatic vegetation
(SAV), or grasses growing on the Bay's bottom. SAV is an ideal habitat for small
fish and crabs. Without sunlight, the SAV dies robbing the fish and crabs of food
and shelter.
Q: Do the algae blooms cause other problems?
A: Yes. When the algae begin to die, most sink to the bottom of the Bay, where the
process of decomposition takes oxygen from the water. All animals need oxygen
to live, so when oxygen levels get low, fish swim away if they can. Aquatic animals
that cannot move such as oysters may die if oxygen levels get too low. In fact,
during the summer, most of the water deeper than 30 feet has no oxygen and cannot
support any aquatic life.
Q: Why are aquatic plants so important to the health of the Bay?
A: There are many reasons submerged aquatic vegetation, often called SAV, are vital.
SAV is a producer in the Bay's food web. This means SAV uses the sun's light to
make food through a process called photosynthesis. SAV also produce oxygen as
a by-product of photosynthesis. Waterfowl eat the seeds and roots of SAV while
microscopic animals called zooplankton live on decaying SAV.
SAV also filter and trap sediment which could make the water cloudy. SAV beds
slow down the motion of waves which helps to protect the shoreline. Finally, these
grass beds are hiding places for small fish trying to escape larger predators and for
soft crabs waiting for their shells to harden.
80 CHAPTER 6
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Q: Why did the Governor pledge to plant trees on 600 miles of streams in
Maryland by the year 2010. What is that all about?
A: Scientists have known for years that trees play a vital role in our natural systems.
Recent evidence indicates that trees are extremely important in maintaining
healthy streams and a healthy Chesapeake Bay. Trees planted on streambanks, so
called forest buffers, perform many functions. Forest buffers capture rainfall and
regulate streamflow, even out temperature changes in the water and the air,
stabilize streambanks, and provide habitat for fish and wildlife - all of which are
beneficial to Maryland's streams, creeks and rivers. They also improve water
quality downstream in the Bay by filtering nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus
and by removing sediments. So, the more trees we plant along the banks of our
streams and rivers, the cleaner and healthier our environment and the Bay will be.
[Source: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/bay/education/faq/bayfacts.html]
COMMUNICATING WATER QUALITY INFORMATION 8'
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82 CHAPTER 6
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7. RELATED PROJECTS
Maryland's DNR has been able to pass along their knowledge and experience
so that the National Aquarium in Baltimore (NAIB), through a technology
transfer project, could implement a similar water quality monitoring project
near the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine in Baltimore. In
addition to the water quality monitoring project near Fort McHenry, the NAIB is also
conducting a wetland restoration effort at Fort McHenry. Finally, through a data
integration project, NAIB is developing a GIS application to integrate various data
sources to provide even more information to the communities in and around the
Chesapeake Bay. Section 7.1 discusses the NAIB's Technology Transfer Project.
Section 7.2 discusses the NAIB's wetland restoration effort at Fort McHenry. Section
7.3 discusses the NAIB's data integration project.
7.1 Technology Transfer Project
Through a technology transfer project, Maryland's DNR assisted the NAIB in
installing a similar water quality monitoring station at the Fort McHenry National
Monument and Historic Shrine in Baltimore, MD. The NAIB is a non-profit institution
dedicated to promoting good stewardship of aquatic environments through exhibits,
education, and ecological restoration programs.
The water quality monitoring station is equipped with the same basic hardware (i.e.,
YSI sonde, datalogger, and telemetry equipment) as the stations maintained by the
Maryland DNR for their EMPACT water quality monitoring program. The Fort
McHenry station collects the same water quality parameters (i.e., temperature, specific
conductivity, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, Chlorophyll A, and turbidity) every 15
minutes. The data collected by the Aquarium is used to help further an understanding
of the causes and effects of human activity on a watershed, interpret watershed health,
and promote watershed stewardship.
Similar to MD DNR's project, the Aquarium queries the monitoring station twice each
day and stores the near real-time data on their server and a Web site being designed to
display the data at a 6th grade reading level. The data is also displayed on the MD DNR
Web site.
Note: The Aquarium Web site (http://www.aqua.org) allows users to retrieve
data directly from the Aquarium Web site.
The Aquarium also installed a weather monitoring station near the Fort McHenry
wetland. The weather station monitors total rainfall, photosynthetically active
radiation, wind speed, wind direction, air temperature, relative humidity, and
barometric pressure. The data, which is collected and stored as 15 minute averages,
RELATED PROJECTS 83
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is downloaded twice a day from the weather station. The weather is also available on
the Aquarium Web site.
Through a similar technology transfer effort, the NAIB transferred the experience they
gained with the water quality monitoring equipment to students at Morgan State
University (MSU). Through a job training program, NAIB has worked with eight MSU
students teaching them how to service and maintain the water quality monitoring and
telemetry equipment.
7.2 Wetlands Restoration at Fort McHenry
The Fort McHenry wetland is not a natural wetland, but was constructed in 1982 to
mitigate the impact stemming from the construction of the Fort McHenry tunnel. The
10-acre wetland site, adjacent to the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic
Shrine in Baltimore, Maryland, was chosen as a field station by NAIB because of its
location at the head of a tidal tributary and its significance as a cultural landmark. The
constructed wetland served as a refuge for many species of wildlife, including sea
ducks, heron, muskrats, and red-winged blackbirds. However, after the wetland was
established, there was no plan to maintain it. Over time the wetland degraded due to
the growth of non-native grasses and accumulation of trash and debris. In 1997, the
National Parks Service, in partnership with the NAIB's Conservation Department,
began efforts to restore and maintain the wetland.
To restore the Fort McHenry Wetland, the Aquarium partnered with various agencies
and groups including, but not limited to:
• National Park Service
• Maryland DNR
• US Department of Commerce (NOAA)
• US EPA
• Chesapeake Bay Program
• Morgan State University
• Baltimore Bird Club
• Boy Scouts of America
The components of the Fort McHenry restoration project includes the following:
• Site activities (e.g., clean-up and planting of beneficial marsh grasses)
• An avian monitoring program
• Development of a manual for community involvement in tidal marsh restoration
that can be used in other areas of the country.
84 CHAPTER 7
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Each of these components are discussed below.
7.2.1 Site Clean-up Activities
During the last few years, the NAIB's Aquarium Conservation Team (ACT), has led
13 public field days at the site. The field days allows participants to learn how to restore
tidal wetlands. More than 1,100 volunteers have logged a total of 8,500 hours in tidal
marsh restoration activities. Such activities include planting beneficial vegetation and
catalogging and removing more than 155,000 pieces of debris, most which were plastic
or foamed plastic items.
7.2.2 Avian Monitoring
NAIB and the Baltimore Bird Club formed a partnership to implement an Avian
Monitoring Program at Fort McHenry. The program began on August 17,1999. In the
program's first year of monitoring, Baltimore Bird Club members spent 114 hours
counting and observing over 6,180 birds, representing 120 species in and around the
wetland. It is interesting to note that the number of bird species observed at the 10-
acre site represents approximately 30% of all the birds recorded in the state of
Maryland. Members also installed a variety of nesting boxes and platforms in and
around the wetland which have been inhabited by tree swallows, purple martins, wrens,
and a pair of osprey.
7.2.3 Restoration Development Manual
The tidal wetlands at Fort McHenry National Monument provides a model for
community-based involvement in restoration activities. The NAIB is developing a
manual for community involvement in tidal marsh restoration that can be used in other
areas of the country. The manual is designed for use by volunteer programs and covers
such topics as restoration, maintenance, and monitoring for restored or created tidal
wetlands. Specifically, the manual will enable volunteers to determine the following
parameters for a tidal marsh:
• Initial logistics and basic site information, including site history and geography
• Hydrology and topography
• Sediment trapping capabilities
• Sediment properties (organic carbon and grain size)
• Groundwater level, salinity, and redox potential
• Vegetation community structure
• Faunal utilization
RELATED PROJECTS 85
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By applying the methodologies outlined in the manual, volunteers can generate
detailed tidal wetland structural information which will be disseminated to evaluate the
capacity of the wetland to perform various functions and collect all necessary field data
within a maximum labor effort of 100 hours per site per year.
7.2.4 Principles of Wetland Restoration
The EPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds (OWOW) has assembled a list
of wetland restoration principles that are critical to the success of any restoration
project. These principles focus on scientific and technical issues, but as in all
environmental management activities, the importance of community perspectives and
values should not be overlooked. The restoration principles are as follows:
• Preserve and Protect Aquatic Resources
• Restore Ecological Integrity
• Restore Natural Structure
• Restore Natural Function
• Work Within the Watershed and Broader Landscape Context
• Understand the Natural Potential of the Watershed
• Address Ongoing Causes of Degradation
• Develop Clear, Achievable, and Measurable Goals
• Focus on Feasibility
• Use Reference Sites
• Anticipate Future Changes
• Involve a Multi-disciplinary Team
• Design for Self-sustainability
• Use Passive Restoration when Appropriate
• Restore Native Species, Avoid Non-native Species
• Use Natural Fixes and Bioengineering Techniques
• Monitor and Adapt Where Changes are Necessary
For a detailed explanation of these restoration principles, see http://www.epa.gov/
owow/wetlands/restore/principles.html.
86 CHAPTER 7
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7.3 Data Integration Project
Currently, the Aquarium is leading a project with the Maryland DNR, the Chesapeake
Bay Program, EPA Region III, and several other regional partners to integrate and
interpret real-time water quality information as well as other data sources to raise
public awareness and stimulate action. The Aquarium, with the help of its partners,
is developing an interactive GIS product accessible through the Internet which will
provide a comprehensive and clear view of Chesapeake Bay's real-time water quality
results to the general public. Such products will include GIS-based maps for five major
sub-watersheds in the Chesapeake Bay. These maps which will present concrete and
germane information for the non-technical user. For example, for each of the sub-
watersheds, GIS-based maps will be developed to include population, percent
developed/protected land, land use, and public involvement opportunities. Also a GIS
application could be developed to allow the user to input their address, locate their
watershed, and follow the path of water from their home, through the network of storm
drains, to the Bay.
To facilitate broader use of the information, the Aquarium will develop and distribute
20,000 copies of a CD-ROM product for its stakeholders. The CD-ROM will serve as
a communication/outreach tool which will allow users without access to the Internet
(e.g., schools) to have access to water quality and other relevant environmental
information for areas of the Chesapeake Bay. For more information on this project,
contact Glenn Page (gpage@aqua.org) at the NAIB at (410) 576-3808.
[Source: Improving Public Access to Water Quality and Watershed Information in the
Chesapeake Bay, Quality Assurance Project Plan, National Aquarium in Baltimore,
May 18, 2001.]
RELATED PROJECTS 87
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APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS & ACRONYM LIST
AA: Auto-analyzer
Algae: Simple single-celled, colonial, or multi-celled aquatic plants. Aquatic algae
are (mostly) microscopic plants that contain chlorophyll and grow by photosynthesis.
They absorb nutrients from the water or sediments, add oxygen to the water, and are
usually the major source of organic matter at the base of the food web.
Algal bloom: Referring to excessive growths of algae caused by excessive
nutrient loading.
Anoxia: Absence of oxygen in water.
B
CBL: Chesapeake Biological Laboratory
Chlorophyll: Green pigment in plants that transforms light energy into chemical
energy by photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll A: A type of chlorophyll found in plants and algae which makes
photosynthesis possible.
CO2: Carbon dioxide
CSI: Campbell Scientific, Inc.
CWSRF: Clean Water State Revolving Fund
Dissolved oxygen (DO): The concentration of oxygen (O^ dissolved in water,
usually expressed in milligrams per liter, parts per million, or percent of saturation (at
the field temperature). Adequate concentrations of dissolved oxygen are necessary
GLOSSARY OF TERMS & ACRONYM LIST A-'
-------
to sustain the life of fish and other aquatic organisms and prevent offensive odors.
DO levels are considered a very important and commonly employed measurement
of water quality and indicator of a water body's ability to support desirable aquatic
life. Levels above 5 milligrams per liter (mg O2/L) are considered optimal and fish
cannot survive for prolonged periods at levels below 3 mg O2/L. Levels below 2 mg
O2/L are often referred to as hypoxic and when O2 is less than 0.1 mg/L, conditions
are considered to be anoxic.
DNR: Department of Natural Resources
DO: Dissolved oxygen
DOC: Dissolved organic carbon
DVT(s): Data visualization tools
Ecosystem: The interacting plants, animals, and physical components (sunlight,
soil, air, water) of an area.
EDF: Environmental Defense Fund
EM PACT: Environmental Monitoring for Public Access and Community Tracking
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency
Estuary: Body of water that provides a transition zone between the freshwater of
a river and the saline environment of the sea.
Eutrophicdtion: The process by which surface water is enriched by nutrients
(usually phosphorus and nitrogen) which leads to excessive plant growth.
% full scale: Unit of measurement for fluorescence
ft: feet
FTP: File transfer protocol
A-2 APPENDIX A
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Geographic Information System (GIS): A computer software and hard
ware system that helps scientists and other technicians capture, store, model, display,
and analyze spatial or geographic information.
GREEN: Global Rivers Environmental Education Network
fig/I: micrograms (10~6 grams)/liter
flS/cm: micro siemens per centimeter
H
HCI: Hydrochloric acid
HNO,: Nitric acid
o
H2SO4: Sulfuric acid
HPL: Horn Point Laboratory
Hypoxid: Physical condition caused by low amounts of dissolved oxygen in water
(i.e., less than 2 mg/L).
I
1C: Inorganic carbon
IMS: Information Management System
K
L: liter
LdMP: Lakewide Management Plans
GLOSSARY OF TERMS & ACRONYM LIST A-3
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M
m: meters
mg: milligrams
mg/L: milligrams /liter
Monitor: To track a characteristic, such as dissolved oxygen, nitrate level, or fish
population, over a period of time using uniform methods to evaluate change.
MS: Military style
N
NAIB: National Aquarium in Baltimore
NALMS: North American Lake Management Society
NdOH: Sodium hydroxide
Near-real-time: Refers to data current enough to be used in day-to-day deci-
sion-making. These data are collected and distributed as close to real time as pos-
sible. Reasons for some small time delays in distributing the collected data include
the following: (1) the time it takes to physically transmit and process the data, (2)
delays due to the data transmission schedule (i.e., some collected data are only
transmitted in set time intervals as opposed to transmitting the data continuously),
and (3) the time it takes for automated and preliminary manual QA/QC.
NH,: Ammonia
o
NH4: Ammonium ion
NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
nm: Nanometer, 10~9 meter
Non-point Source: Diffuse, overland runoff containing pollutants. Includes
runoff collected in storm drains.
NRCS: Natural Resources Conservation Service
NTU: Nephelometric turbidity unit
A-4 APPENDIX A
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Nutrient loading: The discharge of nutrients from the watershed into a receiv-
ing water body (e.g., wetland). Expressed usually as mass per unit area per unit time
(kg/hectare/yr or Ibs/acre/year).
ORD: Office of Research and Development
Organic: Refers to substances that contain carbon atoms and carbon-carbon
bonds.
OWOW: Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds
pH scale: A scale used to determine the alkaline or acidic nature of a substance.
The scale ranges from 0 to 14 with 0 being the most acidic and 14 the most basic.
Pure water is neutral with a pH of 7.
Parameter: Whatever it is you measure - a particular physical, chemical, or
biological property that is being measured.
Pfiesteria Piscicida: A toxic dinoflagellate that has been associated with fish
lesions and fish kills in coastal waters from Delaware to North Carolina.
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants convert carbon dioxide to
sugars and oxygen using sunlight for energy.
ppt: parts per thousand
Point Source: A pipe that discharges effluent into a stream or other body of
water.
Primary Productivity: The productivity of the photosynthesizers at the base of
the food chain in ecosystems. (Adapted from the USGS Water Science Glossary at
http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/dictionary.html.)
PVC: Polyvmyl chloride
GLOSSARY OF TERMS & ACRONYM LIST A-5
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Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC): QA/QC procedures are
used to ensure that data are accurate, precise, and consistent. QA/QC involves
established rules in the field and in the laboratory to ensure that samples are repre-
sentative of the water you are monitoring, free from contamination, and analyzed
following standard procedures.
Remote Monitoring: Monitoring is called remotewhen the operator can collect
and analyze data from a site other than the monitoring location itself.
Runoff: Precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation water that appears in uncontrolled
surface streams, rivers, drains or sewers. Runoff may be classified according to speed
of appearance after rainfall or melting snow as direct runoff or base runoff, and
according to source as surface runoff, storm interflow, or ground-water runoff.
(Adapted from the USGS Water Science Glossary at http://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/
dictionary.html.)
Salinity: Measurement of the mass of dissolved salts in water. Salinity is usually
expressed in ppt.
SAV: Submerged aquatic vegetation
SC: Specific conductance
Sediment: Fine soil or mineral particles
SMSA: Standard metropolitan statistical area
Sonde: A group of sensors configured together to measure specific physical
properties of water. A sonde may be attached to a single recording unit or electronic
data logger to record the output from the group of sensors.
Specific Conductance (SC): The measure of how well water can conduct an
electrical current. Specific conductance indirectly measures the presence of com-
pounds such as sulfates, nitrates, and phosphates. As a result, specific conductance
can be used as an indicator of water pollution. Specific conductivity is usually
expressed in »S/cm.
A-6 APPENDIX A
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Stratification: An effect where a substance or material is broken into distinct
horizontal layers due to different characteristics such as density or temperature.
(Adapted from Water on the Web at http://wow.nrri.umn.edu/wow.)
STP: Sewage treatment plant
Suspended solids (SS or Total SS [TSS]): Very small particles that remain
distributed throughout the water column due to turbulent mixing exceeding gravita-
tional sinking.
TDS: Total dissolved solids
Timely data: Data that are collected and communicated to the public in a time
frame that is useful to their day-to-day decision-making about their health and the
environment, and relevant to the temporal variability of the parameter measured.
TOC: Total organic carbon
TSS: Total suspended solids
Turbidity: The degree to which light is scattered in water because of suspended
organic and inorganic particles. Turbidity is commonly measured in NTU's.
USGS: United States Geological Survey
w
Watershed: The entire drainage area or basin feeding a stream or river. Includes
surface water, groundwater, vegetation, and human structures.
WET: Water Education for Teachers
WMC: Watershed Management Council
GLOSSARY OF TERMS & ACRONYM LIST A-7
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YSI: Yellow Springs Instruments, Inc.
A-8 APPENDIX A
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•
,
Facilitating
ttfr. ~ ^ - -
Monitoring Data
Theiiving Everglades Web Site
•JHXV
\
PA
Environmental Monitoring for Public Access
\ & Community Tracking
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Acknowledgments
The development of this handbook was managed by Scott Minamyer (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).
While developing this handbook, we sought the input of many individuals. Gratitude is expressed to each per-
son for their involvement and contributions.
Brian R. Turcotte, Lead Engineer, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Department, South Florida Water
Management District
Marie Pietrucha, Division Director, Technology Resource Team, Water Supply Department, South Florida
Water Management District
Loisa Kerwin, Director, Riverwoods Field Laboratory, Florida Center for Environmental Studies, Florida
Atlantic University
Nate Booth, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey
Christopher J. Heyer, Resource Assessment Service—Tidewater Ecosystem Assessment, Maryland Department
of Natural Resources
Angie Lawrence, Chesapeake Bay Program Manager, National Aquarium in Baltimore
Ram Jadvani, IT Engineer, South Florida Water Management District
Alana Edwards, Education Specialist, Riverwoods Field Laboratory, Florida Center for Environmental Studies,
Florida Atlantic University
Cover photos courtesy of: South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD); Butler Chain of Lakes with
insets: purple gallinule (Porphyrula martinica), home page of The Living Everglades web site, white fragrant water
lily (Nymphaea odorata), and map-based data query feature of The Living Everglades web site.
Disclaimer
This document has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation of their use.
-------
EPA-625-R-02-020
January 2003
Facilitating Public Access
to Government Environmental
Monitoring Data
The Living Everglades Web Site
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Recycled/Recyclable
Printed with vegetable-based ink on paper that contains a minimum of
50% postconsumer fiber content processed chlorine-free.
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Resources
A number of resources were used to develop this handbook that readers might find useful when seeking more
information. These resources cover many aspects of the Everglades restoration effort and provide access to web-
based databases containing environmental monitoring and restoration information. See the following web sites:
Everglades Restoration
www.sfwmd.gov
The South Florida Water Management District's web site provides information on the district's mission and
projects, as well as recent news and publications.
www.evergladesplan.org
This site provides information on efforts underway to restore the Everglades under the Comprehensive
Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP). It also includes background information on related issues, including the
science of the Everglades and why restoration is important.
www.nps.gov/ever/home.htm
This National Park Service web site provides a wealth of information on the Everglades, its habitats, flora and
fauna, geology, and history. It explains the stresses on the ecosystem and the preservation efforts under way.
http://sofia.usgs.gov
South Florida Information Access (SOFIA) provides information in support of research, decision-making, and
resource management for the South Florida ecosystem restoration effort. The web site is sponsored by the U.S.
Geological Survey's Place-Based Science Program.
Web-Based Databases Containing Environmental Monitoring and Restoration
Information
www.epa.gov/empact
The web site for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Environmental Monitoring for Public Access
and Community Tracking Program (EMPACT) provides information about the program and its projects.
www.epa.gov/neengprg/
The goal of EPA's National Environmental Information Exchange Network Grant Program is to advance the
National Environmental Information Exchange Network by encouraging state and other partners' data integra-
tion efforts. Funding will be provided through grants for capacity-building capabilities for network participation.
www.epa.gov/oei/analysis.htm
This site provides links to many web-based databases created by EPA's Office of Environmental Information.
www.ep a. gov/ip bp ages/
Provided every 4 months, the Information Products Bulletin announces to the public the availability of signifi-
cant information products involving environmental monitoring and restoration. The bulletin is a joint effort
between EPA and the Environmental Council of States.
www.sso.org/ecos/eie/index.html
The Environmental Information Exchange web site from the Environmental Council of the States provides
links to many useful resources for states interested in improving the collection, management, and exchange of
environmental information.
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Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Making Environmental Information Accessible to the South Florida Public 1
1.2 The Purpose and Organization of This Handbook 2
1.3 TheRoleofEMPACT 4
Chapter 2 The Everglades Restoration Effort 5
2.1 What Are the Primary Stresses on the Everglades Ecosystem? 5
2.2 What Is Being Done to Protect the Everglades? 6
2.3 What Is the Role of the SFWMD? 7
2.4 What Information Does the SFWMD Collect on the Everglades? 8
Chapter 3 Overview of The Living Everglades Web Site 10
3.1 What Types of Information Are Available on the Web Site? 10
3.1 a History of Everglades 11
3-lb Geology 11
3.1c Habitats 11
3.Id Water Resources 12
3.1e Weather 12
3-2 What Are the Main Interactive Features of the Web Site? 13
3.2a Data Queries 13
3.2b Education, Curricula, and Other Resources 15
3-2c Fun and Games 15
3-2e Virtual Tour 16
Chapter 4 Creating a Similar Web Site 17
4.1 Determine the Main Functions for Your Web Site 17
4.2 Conduct a Data Inventory 18
4.3 Choose a Data Access/Delivery System 19
4.3a User-Friendliness 19
4.3b Scalability 20
4.4 Decide How To Make Your Web Site User-Friendly 21
4.4a The GUI 21
4.4b A Consistent Look 21
4.4c Special Features 21
4.4d Proper Function and Response 22
4.5 Ensure Ease of Management and Updates 22
4.6 Determine Costs, Time Required, Difficulty Level, and Labor Requirements 22
4.7 Create the Web Site and Involve Stakeholders 23
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Chapter 5 Behind the Web Site: The Software Application Design 24
5.1 Overview of the Design 24
5.2 A Closer Look at Each Tier 26
5.2a The Third Tier: The Data Mart 26
5 -2b Constructing the Third Tier 27
5.2c The Middle Tier: The Command Center 29
5.2d Constructing the Middle Tier 30
5-2e The Top Tier: The Presentation Layer 31
5-2f Constructing the Top Tier 31
5-3 Protecting the Software Application: Backups and Security Issues 31
5.4 Lessons Learned 32
Chapter 6 Working With Stakeholders and Partners 34
6.1 What Are Stakeholders and Why Are They Important? 34
6.2 How Do You Identify and Select Stakeholders? 35
6.3 How Do You Determine the Roles and Commitment of Stakeholders and Partners? 35
6.4 What Are the Benefits of Forming Partnerships? 37
6.5 What Challenges to the Stakeholder Process Can You Anticipate and Address? 37
6.6 What Format Will Be Most Effective for Working With Stakeholders? 38
6.7 What Happens Beyond the Stakeholder Process? 38
6.8 Case Study: Using Workshops To Reach Out to Potential Users 39
Appendix A: Schema for Data Mart 42
Appendix B: Table List for Data Mart 43
Appendix C: Additional Documentation for Data Mart 60
Appendix D: Stakeholder Recruitment Tools/Agenda 73
Appendix £: Frequently Asked Questions 77
Appendix F: Glossary 81
Appendix G: Technical Contacts 88
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Chapter 1—Introduction
More than a century ago, the Florida Everglades covered more than 4 mil-
lion acres of land, extending from Central Florida to the southernmost
tip of the state and the Florida Keys. An abundance of wading and
migratory birds populated the region. Many other plant and animal species
also made their home in the Everglades—some of which were found nowhere
else in the world. These species had adapted to and flourished in the seasonal
wet/dry cycles that characterized the region.
As early as the 1800s, settlers tried to drain portions of the region—some of
which remained under water a good part of the year—to help them develop
and farm the land. But it wasn't until the 20th century that a massive govern-
ment effort was initiated to drain thousands of areas of swamp land and divert
water from the Everglades with the help of canals and levees. These efforts were
successful in that they made a large portion of the state habitable and farmable,
helped to control flooding, and brought fresh water to South Florida for
municipal use and irrigation. These efforts also altered
the natural flow of the Everglades, however, and sent
valuable fresh water out to sea.
As a result, the area encompassing the Everglades was
reduced by more than 50 percent of its original size.
Altered water patterns and habitat losses had significant
effects on biodiversity in the region. Additional stresses
on the ecosystem include increased fires, degraded water
quality, and invasions of exotic species.
Today, a vast effort to restore the Florida Everglades is
underway, involving federal, state, tribal, and local agen-
cies; universities; research and scientific centers; and citi-
zens' groups. Hundreds of engineers, ecologists,
hydrologists, and other professionals are working together to implement a planned restora-
tion effort, led by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the South Florida Water
Management District (SFWMD).
This project—the largest wetlands restoration project of its kind ever undertaken—is a
decades-long, $8 billion endeavor, funded in part by the taxpayers of South Florida. It is
therefore imperative that the residents of South Florida
have direct access to the latest environmental information
collected regarding the changing health of the Everglades
ecosystem and the progress of the restoration effort.
1.1 Making Environmental
Information Accessible to the
South Florida Public
Under the Everglades Forever Act, the state of Florida has
mandated the SFWMD to restore the health of the
Everglades. Central to this effort is the collection and
analysis of current and historical data on environmental
Introduction
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3, *L 2
H ,
L-
• Jk
health indicators in the region. The SFWMD collects
meteorological, hydrological, water quality, and
flora/fauna species distribution data on the Everglades
and maintains archival information as well. This infor-
mation is currently stored in a database that has not
been easily accessible to the public.
In 1999, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) awarded the SFWMD an Environmental
Monitoring for Public Access and Community
Tracking (EMPACT) Metro Grant of nearly $500,000
for a pilot project, known as Public Reporting and
Dynamic Access: Changing Regional Environmental
Health of South Florida's Everglades Ecosystem.
^^•_^hj The purpose of this project is to make infor-
mation on the health of the Everglades more
accessible and understandable to the resi-
dents, scientists, teachers, and government
agencies of South Florida (see text box on
page 3 for more details on the project).
This goal is being accomplished through the
dissemination of public information materi-
als and the establishment of an Internet site
called The Living Everglades. Together, these
tools serve as a public information and com-
munication network to report the latest
environmental information regarding the
changing state of health of the Everglades
ecosystem.
1.2 The Purpose and Organization of This Handbook
This handbook was developed to document The Living Everglades web site development
process and to share information with other communities looking to establish a similar infor-
mation network on ecological restoration efforts. The manual explains, in a step-by-step
process, how the SFWMD created its web site, including
choosing particular data features, developing the architec-
ture to support the site (with a focus on providing map-
based access to time-series data and documents), and
soliciting input from stakeholders to create a user-friendly
web site. With this information, we hope that communi-
ties can take aspects of the project and customize it to
meet their own local needs.
The handbook is designed primarily for agencies that
already collect environmental data and want to make
these data more accessible to other users, such as
researchers or the community at large. These agencies will
find all chapters of the handbook relevant, but should be aware that Chapters 4 and 5 (and
some of the appendices), which delve into the web site development process, might be most
Chapter 1
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ifwnn.gov
The Five Key Objectives of the Project
To make environmental information about the Everglades accessible to its intended users, the SFWMD
established the following five objectives for the web site project:
1. Establish an easy-to-use "data mart" with essential ele-
ments derived from the SFWMD's existing database. The
data mart will be designed in a format that integrates
the spatial and temporal aspects of the data. The
SFWMD will use emerging technology that is compatible
with the agency's database to implement a web-enabled
data mart. The SFWMD's geographic information system
(GIS) will be a component of the data mart. The combi-
nation of GIS and environmental data will provide the
basis for a graphical user interface that captures user
input necessary to build a data mart query through spa-
tial visualization (maps), time-window selection, and
data specifics.
*. JL ± JL -Si
2. Use the new combined database/web technology to
communicate hydrologic and water quality data through
an external web site and web-based Java™ application,
which is fully supported by the database technology.
Include cooperating stakeholders in the design and
implementation of the interface, providing for optimal
public interaction with the web page at all educational
and interest levels. Use the stakeholders' vision to devel-
op a dynamic web site with future expansion possibili-
ties. Combine spatial and temporal aspects of the data
to build an interface that can query the data over space and time.
3. Establish an environmental reference source on the web page that details the SFWMD's environ-
mental goals, rationale for action taken, projects in progress, future projects under consideration,
and environmental guidelines based on the most current science. Provide a database of SFWMD
documents of current and planned projects and water supply plans that can be searched by key-
words or phrases.
4. Provide customized mapping, time-series graphics, audio material, and word or phrase search of
SFWMD documents in the data mart distributed through the web site to educate and inform the
users in English and Spanish.
5. Provide coordinated outreach and training programs on the contents of the data mart, its web-
based interface, and educational opportunities for teachers, media professionals, scientists, and the
public through the efforts of cooperating stakeholders and the SFWMD.
suited to computer programmers, software consultants, and other Information Technology
(IT) specialists.
The handbook is organized as follows:
• Chapter 2, The Everglades Restoration Effort, provides background on the stresses on
the Florida Everglades, the role of the SFWMD in preserving and restoring the ecosystem,
Introduction
-------
the environmental data the agency collects and monitors, and the database used to store
these data.
• Chapter 3, Overview of The Living Everglades Web Site, explains the organization,
contents, and uses of The Living Everglades web site.
• Chapter 4, Creating a Similar Web Site, discusses the basic steps in setting up a similar
web site, including establishing the key audiences and purpose, conducting a data invento-
ry, choosing a data access/delivery system, ensuring ease of use and management, and
determining resource requirements.
• Chapter 5, Behind the Web Site: The Software Application Design, provides a behind-
the-scenes look into the architecture and programming of the three-tiered web site.
• Chapter 6, Working With Stakeholders and Partners, discusses how the SFWMD
effectively worked with partners and stakeholders to develop a user-friendly web site, train
users, and promote the site.
1.3 The Role of EMPACT
EPA created EMPACT in 1997 to take advantage of new technolo-
gies that make providing environmental information to the public in near real-time possible.
EMPACT projects aim to help communities collect, manage, and distribute time-relevant
environmental information, as well as provide residents with easy-to-understand, practical
information they can use to make informed, day-to-day decisions.
EPA partnered with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to help achieve nationwide consistency in measuring envi-
ronmental data, managing the information, and delivering it to the public. The EMPACT
program ended in 2001, having achieved its goal of helping communities gain access to cur-
rent and accurate environmental information in their jurisdictions.
EMPACT projects were initiated in more than 160 metropolitan areas in 39 states. These
projects covered a wide range of environmental issues, such as groundwater contamination,
ocean pollution, smog, ultraviolet radiation protection, and overall ecosystem quality. Some
of these projects were initiated directly by EPA, while others were launched by communities
with the help of EPA-funded Metro Grants. EMPACT projects have helped local govern-
ments build monitoring infrastructures and disseminate environmental information to mil-
lions of people.
Chapter 1
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Chapter 2—The Everglades
Restoration Effort
Tihe Everglades is a unique ecological system, found nowhere else in the world. It is one of
our nation's greatest ecological treasures and contributes to Florida's water supply, econo-
my, and recreation. The region also serves as the habitat for thousands of diverse species
of wildlife and plant life, some of which are found only in the Everglades. Many different
kinds of habitats are found in the Everglades, including marine and estuarine environments,
mangroves, sawgrass prairies, cypress swamps, and pinelands.
The Everglades watershed begins in Central Florida's Kissimmee River basin and extends to
the Florida Bay. It is part of a larger system of creeks, streams, rivers, and lakes called the
Kissimmee-Okeechobee-Everglades System.
2.1 What Are the Primary Stresses on the Everglades
Ecosystem?
In 1948, the Central and Southern Florida
(C&SF) Project was authorized to provide
flood control, water control, water supply,
and other services to the portions of Florida
stretching from Orlando to Florida Bay. The
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the
SFWMD thereby constructed an elaborate
and effective water management system,
which diverted billions of gallons of water
from the region. The system accomplished
its goals but also had significant ecological
impacts on the region such as the reduction
of wildlife habitat and the disruption of
hydrological cycles.
As a result, water management is the critical
issue for the Everglades today. The biodiversity in the region requires clean
water in correct quantities to survive. In the past, flooding from summer
storms in the Kissimmee River basin created an extremely wide, but shallow,
river that slowly flowed to the Gulf of Mexico. The summer rains would
then give way to a 6-month dry season. The Everglades' plants and animals
are adapted to this seasonal wet/dry cycle.
Today, however, water system controls disrupt this natural flow. Now, too
much water is often withheld from the Everglades during the wet season,
and too much water is diverted into it during the winter drought. Water
storage is also affected.
These changes in water flows have reduced available habitat and food sup-
plies for many wildlife species in the Everglades. They also have disrupted
feeding and nesting cycles, leading to declines in certain species.
The Everglades Restoration Effort
-------
In addition to water management problems, the region's water quality itself has been degrad-
ed over time. Salinity changes, excess nutrients, and pollution all play a part in reducing the
water quality in the Everglades ecosystem:
• The diversion of freshwater from the region can cause salt water to penetrate aquifers,
affecting water supplies and the ability of soils to support plants.
• Excess nutrients (eutrophication), such as phosphorus and nitrates from agricultural
runoff, affect the region in a number of critical ways. Eutrophication robs water bodies of
needed oxygen and damages existing biological communities;
for example, it can lead to invasions of cattails, which out-
compete and take over areas of native plant populations such
as sawgrass.
• Pollutants, such as pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides,
also are a growing problem in the Everglades. High levels of
mercury, a toxic metal, have been found in a variety of
wildlife, including fish, raccoons, alligators, and Florida
panthers.
Another stress on the ecosystem is the existence of non-native
plants and animals (also known as exotic species), which have
been introduced to the Everglades over the years as pets, orna-
mentals, food sources, or biological controls. Some new
species have not posed threats to the natural
balance of the ecosystem. Others, however,
do not have natural predators in the area and,
as a result, have overpopulated and become
unmanageable. Introduced species also pose
threats to native species through predation
and competition for food and habitat.
Indicators of Ecological Problems in the
Everglades
• 90 to 95 percent reduction in wading bird populations.
• 68 threatened or endangered plant and animal
species.
• 1.7 billion gallons of water per day on average lost
through discharge to the ocean.
• 1 million acres of the ecosystem under health advi-
sories for mercury contamination.
• Over 1.5 million acres infested with invasive, exotic
plants.
• Declining population levels of commercially and
recreationally important fish species in the St. Lucie
and Caloosahatchee estuaries and Biscayne and
Florida Bays.
• Defoliation of seagrasses, fish kills, and deformed
fish within the St. Lucie estuary.
• Continued reduction in number of birds initiating
breeding in South Florida.
• Repetitive water shortages and salt water intrusion.
Source: www.evergladesplan.org
The growing human population in the
Everglades watershed—nearly 900 new resi-
dents move into Florida every day—increases
the demand for natural resources, including
water. More development also means more
buildings and paving, which can reduce the
ability of rainwater to penetrate into aquifers.
With less freshwater available, Florida resi-
dents might need to increasingly resort to
drinking desalinated water. Suburban sprawl,
caused by the growing population, also
threatens to engulf the Everglades, resulting
in critical habitat loss for the flora and fauna
of the region.
2.2 What Is Being Done to
Protect the Everglades?
In 1947, Marjory Stoneman Douglas, a
South Florida resident, published what
Chapter 2
-------
became a best-selling book, The Everglades: River of Grass. The book awakened
people to both the natural beauty and importance of the Everglades, as well as
civilization's alarming impacts on this ecosystem.
Later that year, Congress established Everglades National Park in the southern
section of the Everglades to preserve and protect the area. But the founding of
the park did not stop the ecosystem's decline. Wading bird populations have
declined dramatically since the 1930s, and a number of plant and animal species
are now endangered, including the Florida panther, West Indian manatee,
American crocodile, wood stork, and green turtle. Water quality has continued 1
to decline, and exotic species flourish in certain areas.
In 1992, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was authorized to develop a com- a,
prehensive plan to restore and preserve South Florida's natural ecosystem, while
enhancing water supply and maintaining flood protection. The resulting Central op
and South Florida Project Comprehensive Review Study—commonly called the
Restudy—led by the Corps and the SFWMD, culminated in the development Marjory Stoneman Douglas
of a Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan
(CERP). The CERP was submitted to Congress in April
1999 and approved in December 2000.
The CERP is the "road map," or framework, to restore,
protect, and preserve the water and biological resources
of Central and South Florida. It includes more than 60
major components designed to reverse the course of
declining ecosystem health. According to the USGS, the
current CERP represents the single greatest—and likely
the last—opportunity to dramatically improve the eco-
logical health of the greater Everglades in South Florida.
The interagency interdisciplinary process to develop the
CERP was a partnership that involved participants from
diverse backgrounds, interests, and agency missions. The
flexibility and openness of this process is ongoing during
implementation, to allow for continual dialogue and
improvements to the plan.
The CERP is part of a larger effort to restore the
Everglades ecosystem and provide for a sustainable South
Florida. This larger effort is being developed under the
direction of the South Florida Ecosystem Task Force by
federal, state, local, and tribal leaders. The Task Force is
focusing on bringing together more than 200 restoration
projects under one framework.
2.3 What Is the Role of the SFWMD?
In 1949, the Florida Legislature created the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control
District, the predecessor to the SFWMD. In 1972, under the Florida Water Resources Act,
the state created five water management districts, with expanded responsibilities for regional
water resource management and environmental protection. The districts' boundaries are
determined by watersheds and other natural, hydrologic, and geographic features. In 1976,
'The Everglades ecosystem must
be restored both in terms of
water quality and water quantity
and must be preserved and pro-
tected in a manner that is long
term and comprehensive."
- The Everglades Forever Act
(Florida Statute No. 373.4922)
The Everglades Restoration Effort
-------
the legislature approved a constitutional amendment giving each district the
authority to levy property taxes.
The SFWMD's main responsibility is operating and maintaining the C&SF
Project, which consists of 1,800 miles of canals and levees, 200 water control
structures, and 16 major pump stations. The district spans 16 counties in
Florida, with a total population of about 6 million residents—accounting for
more than one-third of the state's residents. This geographic region covers near-
ly 18,000 square miles and includes areas of agricultural lands and water con-
servation areas, along with urban areas undergoing growth and development.
The mission of the SFWMD is to manage and protect water resources of the
region by balancing and improving water quality, flood control, natural sys-
tems, and water supply. The agency is working to restore and manage ecosys-
tems, protect water quality, and improve and plan for long-term water supply
and flood control needs. The district's budget is funded by a combination of
property taxes and other non-property sources, such as federal and state rev-
enues and grants.
To implement the CERP, the SFWMD is collaborating with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection to provide the right amount of water
and the right flow conditions to the Everglades while providing water for urban and agricultural
needs for a 50-year population projection. To complete this task, the SFWMD and its partners
are developing new management tools, conducting scientific and economic studies, carrying out
public outreach activities, and implementing engineering projects.
2.4 What Information Does the SFWMD Collect on the
Everglades?
The SFWMD collects and stores a variety of data addressing the health of the Everglades
ecosystem. The kinds of data collected and monitored include:
• Water quality data, including information on salinity levels, phosphorus and other nutri-
ents, mercury, and pesticides and other toxic substances.
• Hydrological and meteorological data such as rainfall quantity, seepage, flow volumes,
flooding events, dry conditions, and water levels.
• Biological data, including fish, amphibian, reptile, wading bird, mammal, and invertebrate
populations; nesting information; and plant spatial data.
Much of the data are stored in DBHYDRO, a quality-
assured archival database, with supplemental monitoring
data in other SFWMD databases. The databases are a
result of cooperative programs with agencies such as
USGS, the Everglades National Park, the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), and local government agen-
cies. Currently, DBHYDRO maintains water quality,
hydrological, and meteorological information on more
than 30,000 station-years of data collected at more than
6,000 stations within the district.
Chapter 2
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While DBHYDRO has become an important reference for hydrologic and water quality
investigations in South Florida, the information in the database has not been available direct-
ly to the public. Instead, interested parties may submit questions through the DBHYDRO
web site, and the answers are provided via e-mail by district researchers. (See
.) The
SFWMD also makes an external copy of the database once a
month. This access is facilitated by the DBHYDRO Browser
web page at .
A primary focus of the SFWMD EMPACT Everglades proj-
ect— The Living Everglades web site—is to improve public
access of DBHYDRO monitoring data. The web site enables
users to access near real-time data by using maps and easy-to-
perform, targeted search queries. Query results then can be
viewed in chart form (see Chapter 3, "Overview of The Living
Everglades Web Site"). The purpose of The Living Everglades
web site is not to replace DBHYDRO, but rather to take much
of the information stored in the database and make it easier for
users to access.
Not all of the data stored on DBHYDRO and other district databases are currently made
available through The Living Everglades web site; however, the SFWMD plans to expand the
web site's data content in the future through its Enterprise Data Management Program. For
example, the web site's water quality data currently focuses on nitrogen and phosphorous,
but does not yet provide access to SFWMD's data on mercury, pesticides, and other toxic
substances. Also, the web site does not yet provide access to SFWMD's biological data.
The Everglades Restoration Effort
-------
Chapter 3—Overview of The Living
Everglades Web Site
This chapter summarizes the major categories of information that are included on The
Living Everglades web site. Users can access information on hundreds of ecological param-
eters through the site data queries, described later in this chapter. The web site also pro-
vides users with a better understanding of the SFWMD's projects and programs.
The web site is attractive, engaging, and streamlined for easy navigation and contains an
array of colorful photo images and dynamic graphics. Every page and section also includes a
primary contact person, who can be reached directly through e-mail links. The SFWMD set
up these direct contacts so that users' requests, questions, and comments can be quickly for-
warded to a person who is familiar with the project or program described.
The Living Everglades web site can be accessed online at .
3.1 What Types of Information Are Available on the Web Site?
The home page of The Living Everglades web site houses an overview of the historical and
geological characteristics of the Everglades, as well as a list of the ecological parameters about
which the database provides information. The web site home page is organized into eight
main subheadings:
About This Site, which includes background infor-
mation on the web site project and EPA's EMPACT
program. The page also describes the web site devel-
opment team and the stakeholders and partners sup-
porting the project.
Everglades Information, which includes informa-
tion on history, geology, habitats, wildlife, water
resources, and weather in the Everglades; a topo-
graphical map of the region; links to other web sites;
and a list of frequently asked questions.
Virtual Tour, which provides a map of the South
Florida watershed region.
Obtaining Data, which serves the main focus of the
web site—links to map-based and pre-defined data
queries where users can access SFWMD's data on
numerous ecological parameters throughout the
region.
Tutorial, which instructs users on querying the site
and finding information.
Education, which includes various curricula, lesson
plans, and links to sources of additional information
for teachers and students.
1 0
Chapter 3
-------
• Glossary, which defines relevant terms in nontechnical language.
• Fun, which includes games, coloring books, postcards, and web links for schoolchildren.
3.1 a History of Everglades
To give users a solid overview of the Everglades, The Living Everglades web site provides links
to 11 other web sites (including those sponsored by the National Park Service, the National
Wildlife Federation, and the Historical Museum of Southern Florida), which describe the
state of the Everglades from the mid-1800s to the present day, the impacts humans have had
on water quantity and quality, and the overall environmental health of the region.
These web sites educate users by providing information on the history of the Everglades from
various perspectives. The National Park Service, for example, tells "The Everglades Water
Story," which illustrates the size and habitat of the Everglades before the area was inhabited
by humans, along with the impacts that reservoirs, farming, and industrial development have
had in reducing the diversity and number of wildlife populations in the area. The Florida
Everglades site prepared by the Chamber of Commerce includes a first-person historical
account of the changes in the Everglades told by a lifetime resident of the region.
3.1 b Geology
The landscapes in the Everglades today are a direct
result of geologic events in the past. The Living
Everglades web site therefore includes links to
seven web sites that review the geological influ-
ences on the Everglades area, beginning with the
impacts from climate change and rising sea levels
that occurred as glaciers receded.
This portion of the site also includes a series of
downloadable maps from the Florida Geologic
Survey. Understanding the geology of the
Everglades gives users an appreciation of how this
fragile ecosystem and its various habitats devel-
oped over the course of time and a perspective on
the dramatic effects of natural and human activi-
ties on the region in just two centuries.
3.1 c Habitats
Though the Everglades is often characterized as a swamp or marsh, several very distinct habi-
tats exist within its boundaries. Slight changes in elevation, water salinity, and soil can create
entirely different landscapes, each with its own community of plants and animals. The
"Habitats" section of the web site includes a "virtual tour" of the Florida Everglades devel-
oped by the USGS Center for Coastal Geology. This section contains information on general
characteristics of the Everglades ecosystem and specific descriptions of the animal and plant
life residing in the region.
Natural areas are important for their recreational value, historic importance, native wildlife,
and scientific research. Many natural areas also benefit people indirectly, even those that are
seldom visited. Salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and coastal lagoons are necessary habitats
Overview of the Living Everglades Web Site
1 1
-------
for almost all species of marine fish and shellfish. Scrub areas
allow rainfall to soak underground, recharging water reservoirs
that contain drinking water. Swamps and other wetlands con-
trol floods, purify water, and produce freshwater fish. An
understanding of the different habitats within the Everglades
gives users a greater appreciation of the ecosystem and its eco-
logical, economic, and social value.
3.1d
Water Resources
Water Quality Parameters
The "Water Resources—Water Quality Parameters" section of
the web site includes information on dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, alkalinity,
salinity, and fecal coliform bacteria. These are some of the many parameters that are meas-
ured and graphed in the "Map-Based Data Queries" section, located under "Obtaining Data"
on the navigation bar on the home page. Understanding these terms can help users find
information when conducting a map-based data query.
Physical Parameters
This section of the site includes information on rainfall water levels, water flow, turbidity,
electrical conductivity, water temperature, air temperature, and soils. The descriptions for
each parameter described in this section can help users understand the data they view when
conducting map-based data queries on the site.
3.1e Weather
This section of the web site reviews the weather conditions in the Everglades region, includ-
ing temperature and rainfall. The ability to monitor weather trends is a helpful tool for scien-
tists interested in maintaining the environmental qualities of the region. By monitoring water
and weather conditions, and by using canals and levees as necessary to send water out to sea
or to storage areas before, during, and after storms, the impact and duration of flooding in
the area can be controlled.
The climate in the Everglades is primarily
humid subtropical, with two seasons: the 5-
month rainy season, from June through
October, when 70 percent of the year's rain
falls and most hurricanes occur; and the 7-
month dry season, from November through
May.
In South and Central Florida, average yearly
rainfall is about 53 inches, though actual rain-
fall varies widely from year to year and from
location to location. For example, historical
annual rainfall for the city of Miami ranges
from a high of 89 inches to a low of 34 inches.
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Due to this wide range, one part of the region might be flooded at the same time another
area is in the midst of a drought.
3.2 What Are the Main Interactive Features of the Web Site?
The Living Everglades web site features several interactive sections where the user can plot
graphs and charts for the specific parameters described previously. The web site also includes
educational tools and features for elementary to college-level students and teachers. Details
on these features of the web site are highlighted in the following sections.
3.2a Data Queries
The heart of The Living Everglades web site includes the two main methods for obtaining
environmental data about the Everglades ecosystem: (1) the map-based data queries, and (2)
the pre-defined data queries. These data queries make it easy for users to obtain up-to-date,
long-range, and historical data on a variety of topic areas.
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Map-Based Data Queries
The "Map-Based Data Queries" section of the web site
guides users through a variety of environmental manage-
ment data for most of Central and South Florida. Before
launching into the map-based data query, users can click
"Tutorial" on the navigation bar on the home page for an
animated, self-guided tour on how to use this section.
The "Map-Based Data Query" link takes users to a map
divided into separate watershed regions. From here, users
can select the "Region Search" tool to get information on
a specific watershed: "Media Found" and "Data
Parameters."
The "Media Found" section includes documents on the
SFWMD restoration projects related to the watershed
area selected as well as descriptive audio and video files
(users need RealPlayer™ to view audio
and video files).
The "Data Parameters" section offers various selection
criteria for users, including data frequency and type.
Users can select daily or random interval frequency levels;
they also can select data based on both levels of frequen-
cy. The data type options vary by the region and frequen-
cy of the parameters selected, but they can include water
level, water flow, phosphorus, rainfall, and more. After
selecting for data frequency and type, users are shown a
list of agencies that supply these data.
Once users select the agencies whose data they would like to review, small icons pop up on
the map, indicating the monitoring stations where these data are collected. Up to five data
collection sites can be selected at one time.
I'--.
Overview of the Living Everglades Web Site
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Sample Data Search
Conducting a data search on The Living Everglades web site using a map-based query is a simple
process. Consider the following example.
For the watershed region located in East Collier County, users can select:
Level of frequency: "Daily" and "At Random."
Data Type: "Water level."
Agency:
"Everglades National Park," "South Florida Water Management District," and
"U.S. Geological Survey."
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When users hit the "Search" button, the map indicates
the monitoring stations where these data are collected.
Users can select one station by clicking on the icon indi-
cating the section on the map. For example, they might
select the "Airplane" site. After hitting the "Plot Selection"
button, users can access all of the data collected at that
monitoring station for the selected data type. The data
can be displayed as a line chart, a bar graph, a data
table, or a combination of the three. Users can then
choose the time period for which they would like to chart
data. Users also can copy and paste the data tables into
a spreadsheet program to conduct a statistical analysis
of the data.
Users can search the site by large regions that encompass many watershed areas or by smaller
regions that focus on a portion of one watershed, using the "Rectangle Search" tool. The
"Layer Control" option changes layers settings; by stripping away layers, a variety of features
can be viewed. For example, users can take away the watershed layer to view the map by
county instead. Highways and canals also
Region Search Tool can be added or stripped away, so users can
Layer Control Tool Rectangle Search Tool have a more specific view of the area being
searched. The "Region Search" tool and the
"Rectangle Search" tool can still be used to
hone in on the specific data for a watershed
or county.
Pre-Deftned Data Queries
Pre-defined data queries are intended to pro-
vide up-to-date answers on frequently asked
questions without requiring users to use the
map interface. As of summer 2002, the web
site included three pre-defined data queries:
• Average water level per month in
2000 for Lake Kissimmee.
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• Monthly rainfall in 2000 for Lee County.
• Top 10 rainy days in 1999 for Lake Okeechobee.
The SFWMD will add more pre-defined data queries to the site in the
future.
3.2b Education, Curricula, and Other Resources
The role of teachers and educators in Everglades restoration is vital, for the
students of today might very well be the engineers and ecologists who
design and implement Everglades restoration activities tomorrow. The
"Education" section of the site includes a host of web pages compiled to
help teachers gather educational resources centered on the Greater
Everglades ecosystem. The site highlights a myriad of web links, including
teachers' workshops that focus on the Everglades and water quality in
South Florida. Resources for teachers include a list of books, guides, and
curricula developed by scientists and educators, as well as classroom ses-
sions whereby teachers can take a 3-hour trip on the Kissimmee River,
where they will be introduced to field methods in water quality monitor-
ing, aquatic plant and invertebrate sampling, and
identification techniques.
Additional resources for teachers and students
include audio and video tapes on the Everglades,
available from the Everglades National Park
Bookstore and the SFWMD. Moreover, users
can find books and other publications focusing
on the Everglades through these and other
sources noted on the web site.
Teachers who have developed a lesson plan using
the web site materials are encouraged to post
their plan to the web site. As the SFWMD
receives lesson plans, they are posted on the page
so other teachers can access them. Teachers who
develop Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test
or Sunshine State Standards correlations using the
materials also will be able to post these to the web
site. Educational resources can be forwarded to
Loisa Kerwin, Director, Riverwoods Field
Laboratory at .
3.2c Fun and Games
The "Fun" section of the web site is aimed at
making learning about the Everglades, wildlife,
and nature interesting to schoolchildren. This
section of the site features:
Overview of the Living Everglades Web Site
1 5
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• Printable coloring book pages depicting drawings of animals that live in the region,
including the alligator, spoonbill, manatee, wood stork, and sea turtle.
• A "Concentration"-type game where players try to match up the year with the number of
species counted in the Everglades at that time.
• E-postcards that children can send to friends and family, which feature a picture of a
wood stork, manatee, or spoonbill—animals that make their home in the Everglades.
• Links to a variety of educational web sites, including an EPA Planet Protectors Club
Online Coloring Book and other materials from EPA. The site also includes links to web
pages created by the National Park Service highlighting classroom activities for children in
kindergarten through 6th grade, resources for teachers, and links to ,
a web site developed by Defenders of Wildlife to teach schoolchildren about endangered
species.
3.2e Virtual Tour
The Living Everglades web site will eventually include a "Tour Your Watershed" section, which
will contain links to information on the Kissimmee Pviver, Lake Okeechobee, the Everglades,
and the Florida Bay.
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Chapter 4—Creating a Similar
Web Site
This chapter provides basic instructions to help
other agencies and organizations plan for and cre-
ate a web site similar to The Living Everglades web
site. The chapter assumes that your organization is
already collecting, storing, and managing environ-
mental data in a database system that you would
like to make publicly accessible through a web site.
The steps in the web site development process
include the following:
• Determine the main functions for your web site
• Conduct a data inventory
• Choose a data access/delivery system
• Decide how to make your web site user-friendly
• Ensure ease of management and updates for your web site
• Determine costs, time required, difficulty level, and labor requirements
• Create your web site
• Involve stakeholders
Keep in mind that creating a web site does not mean that your organization needs to host
the web site. There are many businesses called application service providers that can provide
web hosting services for you.
4.1 Determine the Main Functions for Your Web Site
The first step in the web site development process is to determine your web site's main func-
tions by considering its purpose and audience. For example, the SFWMD wanted The Living
Everglades web site to provide useful, clear, and up-to-date information on the Everglades and
the SFWMD's restoration projects to a wide breadth of Florida citizens, including teachers
and students, the general public, and environmental scientists at universities and nonprofit
organizations.
The SFWMD wanted the taxpayers of South Florida to understand the stresses on the
Everglades ecosystem and the status of efforts to restore and preserve the region. In addition,
by having teachers and students use The Living Everglades web site, the SFWMD hoped the
next generation would gain an understanding of the value of ecosystems such as the
Everglades and would learn how to use high-tech tools, such as web-accessible environmental
databases, for gaining knowledge of the status of ecosystems. The web site also provides easy
access to data in DBHYDRO and other SFWMD databases that could be helpful to envi-
ronmental researchers and scientists. In addition to these primary audiences, the SFWMD
recognized that the audience for the web site will likely include many other interested parties
Creating a Similar Web Site
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in the United States and internationally, given the scope and historical importance of the
Everglades restoration project.
Given the purpose and audiences for The Living Everglades web site, SFWMD decided the
site should provide the following functions:
• Background information. Background information on the Everglades and the science of
ecological monitoring and restoration can help users appreciate the importance of the
Everglades system, learn what must be achieved to restore the Everglades, and understand
the scope of the problems facing agencies involved in the restoration and preservation
effort.
• Map-based query feature. Users can query the environmental database using maps that
visualize results, facilitate ease of use, and help provide a relational context. Maps enable
users to access data from a particular site in the Everglades by simply clicking on that area
on an online map (they do not need to know the names or locations of the SFWMD's
monitoring stations). The maps also show users where geographical elements are located
in relation to each other. This facilitates an understanding of how ecological processes in
one area, such as water flow in the Kissimmee River, can affect wildlife habitat in areas
downstream from the river, such as in the Everglades.
• Chart query results. By presenting the results of queries in a time-series chart, which is a
chart indicating the time or date for each data observation, users can better understand
data trends and patterns.
• Spatially relevant data. "Spatially relevant" data all have geographical locations connected
with them so users can gain an understanding of the environmental health of different
areas and specific parts of the ecosystem.
• Temporally relevant data. By giving the public access to the most up-to-date, quality-
assured data available from public agencies, SFWMD can ensure the data are "temporally
relevant"; that is, data are available from recent enough observations to allow for analysis
of the current ecological situation.
• User-friendliness. The SFWMD wanted to ensure that all Florida
citizens—not just computer technicians—would be able to obtain
useful information from the web site on the health of the Everglades
and the district's restoration projects.
4.2 Conduct a Data Inventory
After deciding your site's functions, the next step is to conduct an inven-
tory of your existing data. To create a web site similar to The Living
Everglades, consider the types of environmental data already stored on
your organization's database (e.g., water levels, pollution concentrations,
wildlife population data), but also consider:
• Relevant GIS data.
• Environmental reference documents that describe your ecological
restoration projects and goals.
• Audio and video files that relate to various regions in the ecosystem
(e.g., pictures or vocalizations of native wildlife species, aerial views
of particular landscapes).
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• Other relevant public data in the area.
The inventory will help you identify what data you have, along with any data gaps. At this
point, you might want to contact other environmental organizations and agencies to deter-
mine if they have any of the data you are seeking. For example, you will likely need to obtain
GIS data from other agencies, such as USGS. Keep in mind that occasionally you might
need clearance or permission to make data from other agencies and organizations publicly
accessible.
When you seek data from other agencies and organizations, you might want to consider
forming partnerships with them. Through these partnerships, you might be able to share
data more easily in the future, develop future projects jointly, and increase the publicity for
your site (see Chapter 6, Working With Stakeholders and Partners).
4.3 Choose a Data Access/Delivery System
After deciding what data sources to make available through your web site, you will need to
choose a method for accessing and conveying this information. This method will be your data
access/deli very system. This system will need to be constructed using various software compo-
nents (see Chapter 5 for information on the software design of The Living Everglades web
site). As a general rule, the more sophisticated the system, the higher the cost. Two of the
biggest issues you will need to address are user-friendliness and scalability.
4.3a User-Friendliness
The less sophisticated the intended user, the more simple
and user-friendly your data query and results visualization
should be. Keep in mind that more sophisticated users
(e.g., scientists, researchers) also will demand a simple and
user-friendly data query and results visualization and will
avoid using a more difficult interface even if they are capa-
ble of using it. A more user-friendly site helps all users save
time and avoid frustration.
Because the SFWMD wanted its site to be accessible to a
wide variety of audiences, it chose to construct a very user-
friendly and powerful data access/delivery system—the
map-based query feature of The Living Everglades web site.
This system is user-friendly because it allows users to access
SFWMD environmental data via maps and conveys the
results of user queries through charts. SFWMD's system dis-
plays maps at various scales (i.e., close-ups or showing the
entire map), clearly shows the location of monitoring stations,
and is interactive (i.e., it allows users to choose monitoring
stations by clicking on the map itself).
When contemplating your own data access/delivery needs,
think how user-friendly your site needs to be. Consider, for
example, if users require time-series charts or if they can ade-
quately view results in a simple data table or text file. Also,
consider if you need a map-based query feature. Although
maps make it easier for users to choose data from particular
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Creating a Similar Web Site
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locations, if your agency only has data from a few stations, you might simply list the loca-
tions and provide hotlinks to the data available for each station. Also, if you do want to pro-
vide a map but have only a few monitoring stations, you will probably not need to make the
map interactive.
Finally, if you are interested in providing environmental reference documents and audio and
video files through your site, you have the option to not make these accessible through a
map-based query. You could still provide access to these files via hotlinks on a different
HTML page. The SFWMD used innovative software that allowed it to make all of these files
available through its map-based query feature.
4.3b Scalability
Scalability refers to the ability of software and hardware to adapt to increased demands, such
as the number of simultaneous users and the amount of data
uploaded or downloaded per day. Different data delivery/access sys-
tems vary in their scalability. If your data delivery/access system can-
not handle user demands, the speed with which the web site processes
users' data queries might decrease substantially. Worse, it might crash
and require significant resources to repair. After anticipating the num-
ber of users using your site and the amount of data to be downloaded,
contact software vendors (see Appendix G, Technical Contacts) to
determine if they can meet your scalability needs.
If you do not anticipate any significant scalability issues, you might be
able to save money on the software you need to create your data
access/delivery system. You can use Microsoft® Access, for example,
to serve as a data mart—the subset of your database that will be acces-
sible through your web site—if you do not anticipate a large number
of simultaneous users or data downloads. If you decide to use
Microsoft® Access version 2002 for your data mart, your cost will be approximately $340.
Your choice of software products should be made holistically however, by considering how
well software products purchased from different vendors will interact with each other.
Because the SFWMD anticipated that The Living Everglades site would be used by a large
number of people and would involve downloading significant amounts of data, the district
purchased software components that could handle high system demands (see Chapter 5 for
more information). The SFWMD decided to use the Oracle® 8i database server for a number
of reasons, including its ability to address the SFWMD's scalability concerns. Depending on
the license purchased, this software can cost many thousands of dollars. In addition, IT staff
for Oracle generally run at least twice as high as IT staff for Microsoft® Access.
After considering your data access/delivery system needs, you might determine that you
would like to construct the same data access/delivery system used by the SFWMD for The
Living Everglades web site. In this case, you can receive for free some of the custom-made
software design components used by SFWMD to construct this system since these compo-
nents were created using EMPACT funds. (Contact Brian Turcotte, 561 682-6579, or Marie
Pietrucha, 561 682-6309, both of the SFWMD, for more information; also see the
Appendices to this handbook for more details.)
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Keep in mind that the SFWMD's data access/delivery system is not your only option. You
can create a useful web site that includes at least some of the same features of the SFWMD's
site by using different software and making different design choices.
4.4 Decide How To Make Your Web Site User-Friendly
To make your web site user-friendly you will need to address the graphical user interface
(GUI), develop a consistent look for your site, provide special features that make the site easy
to use, and make sure the site functions properly and responds quickly to user requests.
4.4a The GUI
An important part of the data access/delivery system
is the GUI. GUI is a term used to describe the
HTML links, icons, buttons, checkboxes, and drop-
down lists that allow the user to tell the web site to
perform certain commands with a click or two of a
mouse button. For example, when the user clicks on
an HTML link, represented by underlined text, this
tells the web site to open a window and access the
new web site referred to by the underlined text.
In an example from the SFWMD site, when the
user clicks on an icon of a polygon within the map-
based query, this tells the web site that the user
wants to choose data from a particular region from the map and allows the user to click on
that region to start the data-gathering process. A good GUI can make a web site much more
user-friendly which will make it more enjoyable and easier for people to use the web site.
For the map-based query feature, the SFWMD made use of a number of icons, checkboxes,
and drop-down lists to facilitate ease of use. For example, by providing an icon that a user
could click on to choose to perform a regional search in the map-based query, the SFWMD
avoids requiring the user to learn and enter programming language. In most cases, the soft-
ware used by the web site designer to create the web site provides a variety of GUI options to
the designer.
4.4b A Consistent Look
Developing a consistent look for your web site is important because it can make your web
site more pleasing to the eye, more memorable, and less confusing to read and use. A consis-
tent look requires "branding"—the consistent use of colors, fonts, images, and graphic ele-
ments; menus and navigation aides; and footer information.
4.4c Special Features
You might want to consider adding special features to your web site to help users learn how to
navigate your site more quickly. These features include help functions, search functions, site
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Creating a Similar Web Site
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maps, and e-mail contacts to allow users to ask questions and provide feedback to you. Self-help
features can reduce the amount of time your organization spends providing technical support to
users. The SFWMD, for example, provides an online, self-guided tutorial through The Living
Everglades web site that teaches users how to perform the map-based query.
4.4d Proper Function and Response
You must also ensure that your web site functions properly and responds quickly to user
requests. To provide quick response times for users, the SFWMD designed The Living
Everglades web site in such a way as to minimize the amount of data processing that needs to
occur on the user's computer, which increases response times. The main disadvantage of this
method is that it requires a high-performance central server, which can increase costs.
4.5 Ensure Ease of Management and Updates
Web site management and updates take considerable time and effort. Two main strategies can
ensure the ease of management and updates of your web site. One is to use a software appli-
cation design that makes it easy to modify or replace the software components that make
your web site possible. The other is to make sure your web site can handle anticipated system
loads and therefore avoid system crashes.
By designing your web site properly, you will be able to minimize the costs and other
resources required to manage and update it. For example, the SFWMD's choice of software
(the Oracel9iAS application server) and web design makes updates simpler; SFWMD does
not have to change programming language within each of the web pages individually.
Instead, it can change code used by all web pages within the application server itself. This
method reduces the redundancy of programming code in the web site design (see Chapter 5
for more information on the SFWMD's software application design).
4.6 Determine Costs, Time Required, Difficulty Level, and
Labor Requirements
The costs, time required, difficulty level, and labor requirements for
developing your web site will depend on a number of factors, includ-
ing the functions you choose for your web site, the types of data you
choose to make accessible, the data access/delivery system itself, and
your available funds. In addition, you will need to carry out a major
effort in terms of extracting data from your archival database, cleaning
up and transforming your data, and loading your data into the data
mart. The extent and cost of the data extraction, transformation, and
loading effort will depend on the state of your data (i.e., differing data
formats and database structures). As you plan the development of
your web site, you might want to use the table on page 23 to help you
identify your costs.
To create The Living Everglades web site (including carrying out the
stakeholder process and promoting the web site), the SFWMD
received an EMPACT grant for $488,598. The SFWMD also provided a matching contribu-
tion as part of the grant agreement. As mentioned earlier, an organization looking to create a
similar web site might be able to incur significantly fewer resources by utilizing the
SFWMD's custom-made software products and programming language (contact Brian
Turcotte, 561 682-6579, or Marie Pietrucha, 561 682-6309, at the SFWMD for more infor-
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mation). These products include the web site design and data mart design. In addition, if
you decide to streamline the functions for your web site or reduce the sophistication of your
data access/delivery system, your costs will be less. On the other hand, reducing the cost of
some of the essential components of your web site might be difficult (e.g., the cost of provid-
ing temporally relevant data).
The SFWMD estimates that creating a similar web site to The Living Everglades site would
require three or four software developers working for about 6 months (moderate to heavy
commitment of time). SFWMD rates the difficulty of this project anywhere from moderate-
ly complex to complex.
Identifying Costs
What Is Required? Costs
Initial research
Determining functions
Data inventory
Investigating software for data delivery/access system
Software purchases
Database server
Application server
Web server
Mapping software
Chart software
Web design software
Design and programming costs (usually requires hiring software consultants)
Data mart design
Data extraction/clean up/load (80% of effort in data marts)
Creating a single working product from various software components
Web site design
Administrative costs
Planning
Training
Direction and oversight
Deliverable review
Ongoing support and maintenance
Stakeholder process
Identifying stakeholders and partners
Establishing partner agreements
Carrying out stakeholder training sessions
Promoting your web site
4.7 Create the Web Site and Involve Stakeholders
After you have completed the preparatory work covered in this chapter, you will be able to
proceed with the actual steps required to create your web site. Chapter 5 describes how the
SFWMD created its site to achieve its goals, the general steps required to construct the web
site, and the SFWMD's recommendations for other agencies interested in creating a similar
site. Chapter 6 describes how to work with stakeholders to ensure your web site meets the
needs of your intended audiences.
Creating a Similar Web Site 23
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Chapter 5—Behind the Web Site:
The Software Application Design
I his chapter describes the overall structure of The Living Everglades web site, the functions
of each software component included in the web site design, and general instructions for
constructing the web site based on this design. If you are a project manager, note that
this chapter and the appendices in this manual can be
used by a software consultant or an in-house expert as a
starting point for the creation of your web site. Please
refer to the glossary (Appendix F) for definitions of com-
puter terms used in this chapter.
The Living Everglades web site is a highly complex soft-
ware application that required a significant amount of
expertise and resources. If your agency does not have the
same amount of in-house expertise as the SFWMD, you
can still create a similar web site with enough financial
resources, consulting expertise, and technical assistance
from outside sources.
If you are interested in creating a similar web site for your
own organization, consider which aspects of The Living
Everglades web site are necessary to include. As discussed
in Chapter 4, developing a useful web site that includes
some of The Living Everglades features is possible without
using all of the same software or techniques. Lastly, for
useful tips when creating your web site, refer to
SFWMD's lessons learned from developing The Living
Everglades web site listed at the end of this chapter.
The SFWMD's Philosophy on the
Software Design of The Living
Everglades Web Site
The philosophy behind the software design
for the web site was to provide a database-
driven site that uses data structures and
access methods specifically designed to
handle time-series, spatial, and multimedia
data. The SFWMD used the Java™ pro-
gramming language in its design because it
provides a direct and portable interface to
the web site's data structures, which ensures
flexibility and high performance. In addi-
tion, the SFWMD designed the site within a
Model-View-Controller (MVC) framework,
which separates three distinct forms of func-
tionality within an application. In the case of
The Living Everglades web site, the data
mart is the Model, the user interface is the
View, and the Java™ programming lan-
guage, which "serves up" information from
the data mart to the user, is the Controller.
For more information on the MVC frame-
work, see the Glossary (Appendix F).
5.1 Overview of the Design
For the SFWMD to create the map-based query feature,
provide quick response times for users, address scalability
issues, and ensure ease of management and updates, it
needed to purchase sophisticated software components
and then program the components to coordinate with
each other and handle the tasks required of them.
Some parts of The Living Everglades web site (not the
map-based query feature) are constructed using a stan-
dard web architecture. When the user types in the URL
for The Living Everglades home page, for example, the
user's web browser accesses the web site information
housed on a server located in the SFWMD's home office
and displays it for the user on his or her computer.
Whenever the user clicks on a hotlink within the web
site, the server tells the web browser to open a window
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Three-tiered Design
User
Presentation Layer (web site)
display results in chart
dynamic map interface
SFWMD
2nd Tier (application web server)
database answer
in chart form
database
query
charl
ng software
KavaChart
mapping software
3rd Tier (archived data and database server)
archival database and other data sets
dBHydro
GIS data
other data ~
and access web site information
from the URL location referred to
by that hotlink.
These simple functions require only
two layers of software and hardware:
(1) the web browser housed on the
user's computer, and (2) the server
software housed on the SFWMD's
web server. This situation is
described as a two-tiered client/serv-
er architecture, where "the client" is
a term for the user's computer
(including the interface or presenta-
tion layer), and the second tier is the
web server.
To provide the map-based query fea-
ture and time-series charts through
The Living Everglades web site, how-
ever, the SFWMD needed to expand the site's design by adding specialized software compo-
nents to the second tier and a third tier containing a database server. This setup is described
as a three-tiered client/server architecture. The third tier, which can be thought of as the bot-
tom tier, is the location where a subset of the SFWMD's environmental data—the data that
the SFWMD chooses to make available to the general public—are stored.
The subset of environmental data is called the data mart and is managed by the SFWMD
through the Oracle® 8i database server software. The data mart is periodically updated with
data from the district's archival database, called DBHYDRO (see Chapter 3 for more details
on DBHYDRO). The updates flow through a data gateway. In addition to environmental
measurement data, the data mart includes other applicable information as well, such as GIS
data, environmental references and other documents, and audio and video files. The data
updates are one of the most complex "back end" pieces that SFWMD uses.
The specialized components that the SFWMD added to the second tier include mapping
software, charting software (to chart time-series data), and a combination application/web
server. The mapping software, called MapXtreme® for Java™, and charting software, called
KavaChart, communicate with the data mart on the third tier and provide visuals of the
results of database queries and other user commands. The application/web server, called
Oracle® 9iAS, obtains information provided by MapXtreme and KavaChart and then pro-
vides these to the client (i.e., the user's computer via the web browser).
The SFWMD made sure that all of the components for its software application, both on the
third tier and the middle tier, use the Java™ programming language when issuing new com-
mands and when communicating with each other. According to the SFWMD, compared to
other programming languages (e.g., ColdFusion, Active Server Pages, and PHP), Java™ pro-
vides maximum portability—it works in a wide variety of computer environments, in both
the SFWMD's UNIX-based servers and its Windows-based servers—and provides perform-
ance enhancement by improving response times to user requests. (Note: the SFWMD does,
however, use some of the above programming languages to create dynamic web pages for
other purposes.)
enable map-based
database query
reply
data ma
rt
Oracle 81
Behind the We b Site
2 5
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The installation and integration of these software and hardware components is a very com-
plex process. To succeed, the SFWMD made use of software development consultants rather
than relying solely on in-house expertise.
5.2 A Closer Look at Each Tier
In this section, you will learn more details about each of the three tiers that make up the web
site and general instructions for constructing each tier.
5.2a The Third Tier: The Data Mart
On the third tier, the SFWMD uses Oracle® 8i
database server software. Oracle® 8i helped the
SFWMD realize the potential for The Living
Everglades project. SFWMD believed that an impor-
tant benefit of using Oracle® 8i as a database server
was that it can store and manage many types of
information, including spatial data (such as maps
and other GIS data); time-series data; and a variety
of text and media files, such as documents, audio
files, and video files.
Most other database servers can only manage one
type of information—either spatial data, time-series
data, or media files and documents. In addition, since Oracle® 8i is a relational database,
SFWMD knew that the software was capable of referencing these various types of informa-
tion to each other. For example, when a user chooses to access data from a particular geo-
graphical region, the database provides the user not only with the appropriate time-series
data, but also all text and media files from that geographical region.
One of the reasons why Oracle® 8i can perform these functions is that it makes use of
object-oriented programming and the object-relational model. In addition to the features
noted above, object-oriented programming provides a number of other benefits including
reduced development time, simplified system design, and greater system security. Finally,
since this software makes use of the Java™ programming language, it can be used to create a
web-accessible database. SFWMD noted that Oracle® 8i is set up to communicate with
Java™-based software programs, such as MapXtreme® for Java™ and KavaChart (see
Appendix G for technical contacts), which are deployed on the middle tier. It does not
require any Java™ code sent between the two tiers to be recompiled or modified in any way.
The modules of Oracle® 8i that store and manage the different types of data are Oracle®
Spatial, Oracle® Time Series, and Oracle® interMedia. On the SFWMD's data mart,
Oracle® Spatial holds GIS data that the SFWMD obtained from USGS, EPA, and the dis-
trict's own primary spatial data sets. The GIS data includes map coverages of water basins,
counties, land use, canals, roads, lakes, and preserves. These data were loaded into Oracle®
Spatial directly from Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) coverage format using
FME® Oracle Suite from Safe Software. On Oracle® interMedia, the SFWMD stores
Microsoft® Word documents and Excel spreadsheets, PDF files, and video and audio files.
The core of the database includes the subset of environmental measurement data from
DBHYDRO and is stored on the Oracle® Time Series module.
2 6
Chapter 5
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Oracle®
Spatial
CIS data
The data mart is updated periodically with new,
up-to-date data from DBHYDRO (and other
applicable data sources). Specifically, the Oracle®
Time Series module is updated every week,
Oracle® Spatial every 6 months or as needed,
and Oracle® interMedia as needed. The data
mart is located on a Solaris 8 server, which pro-
vides a UNIX-based operating environment.
DBHYDRO (the archival database) is managed
using the Oracle® 7.3.4 database server software
and is located on an Open VMS server, separate
from the data mart. All of the data in DBHY-
DRO have gone through a rigorous quality assur-
ance/quality control (QA/QC) process. Because
of the QA/QC process, the data available through
The Living Everglades web site are not real-time
data; however, the data are timely. (Note: The
SFWMD uses telemetry to collect real-time data for its daily monitoring purposes.)
A firewall exists between the data mart and DBHYDRO because the SFWMD does not
want the production version of DBHYDRO to be accessible to the general public, which
ensures the data remain secure and unaltered. DBHYDRO, therefore, remains internal to the
SFWMD. The firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a pri-
vate network.
Oracle®
interMedia
Document
storage
5.2b Constructing the Third Tier
To set up a data mart on the third tier, you will need to complete three main steps:
• Purchase database server software.
• Create the data mart design.
• Create scripts or purchase specialized software (ETL tools) for data extraction, data
cleanup, and loading into the data mart.
Your first step is to purchase database server soft-
ware and have a server with enough power to store
and run the software. The next step is to create a
schema, or database structure, that defines what
data will be in the database, how the data will
relate to each other, and the attributes and methods
associated with each data type (which need to be
defined for software that makes use of object-ori-
ented programming). (See Appendix A for the enti-
ty-relationship diagram that represents the data
mart structure used for the third tier of The Living
Everglades web site.)
The final step, which generally requires 80 percent
of the resources necessary to implement a data
HIGHWAY_
GEOM
LENGTH
PREFIX
HIGHWAY TYPE
SUFFIX
8TH_CODE
Behind the We b Site
2 7
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mart, is to extract, prepare, and load your archival data into the data mart, using your own
custom-designed scripts or extraction, transformation, and loading (ETL) software tools.
Scripts perform a number of functions, including helping to populate the data mart with
updated information from your archival database (see Appendix C for more information on
scripts used by the SFWMD). ETL tools are especially useful for implementing data marts
when your archival databases are varied in structure and contain data in various formats.
You will usually need to hire a software consultant who specializes in creating and managing
databases (especially object-relational databases) to set up a data mart, due to its complexity
and technical requirements; however, you should be able to accomplish some initial steps
with the help of the database software user's manual. One step that can save you time is to
make use of the schema already created by the SFWMD. The schema, which can be thought
of as a blank template, is generic enough that it can work for any organization's database
regardless of the format. The SFWMD is offering the schema to other agencies and organiza-
tions for free. In addition to providing the schema to agencies, the SFWMD can provide the
table list (see Appendix B for the schema's table list), which describes the purpose of each
data table within the schema and a description of the data fields within each table.
After creating the schema, you will need to load your collection points (environmental meas-
urement data) into it, as well as any other files, such as environmental reference sources (doc-
uments), audio and video files (if desired), and site-specific GIS data. You can obtain GIS
data from USGS and state agencies. Some GIS data are available on the Internet. You will
not need to enter information manually into the data mart. Instead you can use ETL tools or
scripts that can add the data automatically to the appropriate data mart tables.
The costs of creating the data mart depend largely on the consultant's fees, server software
purchased, and the variety of data formats and data structures on your organization's archival
databases. Keep in mind that costs will likely be lower if you choose to use the SFWMD's
schema.
For more details on implementing a data mart, see Appendix C, which provides the develop-
ment documentation for the data mart used for The Living Everglades web site. It is impor-
o o
tant to note that SFWMD had previously spent a lot of time developing and streamlining the
archival database, DBHYDRO, which allowed for a relatively simple data extraction, trans-
formation, and loading process.
Media_Type_Master
media_mime_type
This table would hold the different types of media/document details, such as their exten-
sions, type of document, and the software needed to access these media/documents.
Table name
media type id
media type
media extension
media plugin reader
media URL
Data Type
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size
10
50
6
200
256
Constraints
Primary Key
Not Null
Not Null
Comments
Unique number given to the document type.
Description of type e.g. Word, Excel, Adobe, ram
etc.
e.g. .txt, .doc, .pdf, .jpg, .gif, .avi, .ram etc.
MS-Word, Acrobat Reader, Real Player etc.
Column would contain the URL suggesting
VARCHAR2
256
where the Media Reader can be found for
download.
Mime Type for the particular file extension.
Useful to identify the Plug-in Reader for that file.
2 8
C h a pte
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5.2c The Middle Tier: The Command Center
The middle tier of The Living Everglades
software application includes the Oracle® command center
9iAS (v. 1.0.2.2) application/web server soft-
ware, MapXtreme® for Java™, KavaChart,
Java™ 2 Platform Enterprise Edition
(J2EE), and frequently used bits of Java™- web site interface _^^_^J^_ data mart
based code. The components on the middle
tier are the "brains" of the software applica-
tion—together, they receive and carry out
the commands of the user. In addition, the
middle tier components create all of the
visualizations on the web site, including the
maps, charts, GUI, text, and web site
design. The middle tier components are all located on a server that has a Windows 2000
operating system. (Note: MapXtreme® for Java™ and KavaChart could be run on an inde-
pendent platform instead of the same server as the other components.)
The Oracle® 9iAS application/web server software "serves up" the web pages and images to
the client, receives commands and other input from the user, and exchanges information
with the applications on the middle tier such as MapXtreme® for Java™ and KavaChart.
The web server part of the Oracle® 9iAS includes the OC4J (Orion) servlet container for
J2EE. All of the middle tier components are Java™-based. To interpret compiled Java™
code, Oracle® 9iAS makes use of the Java Virtual Machine.
In addition to exchanging information with Oracle® 9iAS, MapXtreme® for Java™ and
KavaChart exchange information with the data mart located on the third tier. For example,
by making use of the GIS data on Oracle® Spatial (on the third tier), MapXtreme® for
Java™ provides the map interface for the user via the web browser (the top tier, see Section
5.2e). Similarly, KavaChart creates charts and tables using the time-series data on Oracle®
Time Series (on the third tier). Just like the database server software, both MapXtreme® for
Java™ and KavaChart make use of the object-relational model.
The map interface provided by MapXtreme® for Java™ works through a process called
geocoding. This process assigns coordinate values (latitude and longitude) to the maps.
When the user chooses a particular point on the map, MapXtreme® for Java™ determines
the map coordinates referred to by the point, and then accesses the environmental informa-
tion from the third tier's data mart that covers those coordinates (Oracle® interMedia on the
third tier makes location queries possible by providing geometric locator services for the
user).
By placing already compiled, frequently used bits of Java™ code on the middle tier that are
accessed whenever needed, the SFWMD enables The Living Everglades web site to respond
more quickly to user requests and makes the entire software application easier to manage and
to further develop. Some of this code is organized and archived in libraries within the middle
tier. This organization method is better than having too much Java™ code on the HTML
pages themselves. The HTML for these web pages instead include a short Java™Script com-
mand that references the Java™ code in the middle tier libraries to perform a particular
action. This approach allows for flexibility in the user's choice of web browser since process-
ing is dependent on the application/web server instead of the user's particular choice of web
browser. The Java™ code libraries provide many services, including customized user inter-
Behind the We b S i te 29
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face presentation features, off-the-shelf server-side mapping application programming inter-
faces, database connectivity and query processing, server-side graphing, and HTTP response/
request services.
J2EE is the coordinating center for the entire middle tier. The SFWMD used J2EE to estab-
lish the connections between Oracle® 9iAS, MapXtreme® for Java™, and KavaChart. J2EE
makes the entire system work by allowing all of the different components to work together to
produce a result that can be transmitted to the user's computer via the web browser.
5.2d Constructing the Middle Tier
The first step in creating the middle tier is to purchase the software components. The most
expensive software component is MapXtreme® for Java™, which can cost between $10,000
and $30,000, depending on the server. KavaChart (including source code) costs about
$1,000. You will at least need a trial development license from MapXtreme® for Java™ to
get started. When you license MapXtreme® for Java™, you can have as many development
licenses for it as you want as long as the licenses are not for production work. Oracle® 9iAS
also has a cost, but you can save money by substituting freeware server software such as the
Apache Tomcat servlet container (for more information, go to the Jakarta Project web site at
). Other middle tier components (such as frequently used
bits of custom-developed Java™ code) are available for free from the SFWMD to interested
government agencies.
After purchasing the software components, you will need the expertise of a software develop-
er to piece together the various components and then make sure these components can
receive commands from the client and obtain query results from the data mart. The software
developer will use application program interfaces (APIs) within MapXtreme® for Java™ and
KavaChart for program configuration and will then use J2EE to connect the various middle
tier components into a single working unit.
To create the web pages, you can use web development software such as Macromedia®
Dreamweaver®. The GUI for the web pages can be created using this web development soft-
ware, and the GUI for the map-based query feature can be created using ready-made compo-
nents within MapXtreme® for Java™. The web site design created by the SFWMD can be
given to other government agencies for their use for free.
Keep in mind that there are pros and cons associated with using software such as
MapXtreme® for Java™ or KavaChart since both require a large amount of custom coding.
Although this type of software allows for full customization of your product to meet your
needs, it can be expensive to maintain and document and requires more dependence on in-
house staff knowledge. Another option is to create your web site using a simpler, ready-made
web portal product. Web portals, which are web sites that provide a wide range of resources
and services, can give users the ability to create their own sophisticated web sites using easy-to-
use on-line tools.
To ensure the web pages are compliant with Section 508 of the amended Rehabilitation Act
of 1998, you will need to ensure all graphic elements contain embedded "alt tags" for visually
disabled users. These "alt tags" include descriptions of any pictures, charts, and maps that can
be heard by visually disabled users when accessed using specialized software.
30 Chapters
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5.2e The Top Tier: The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is the top tier. Through
the user interface such as a web browser, the
user can view and interact with the web pages
"served" to the user's computer (i.e., the client)
by the middle tier. The web pages are created
with HTML code as well as Java™Script and
Java™ Server Pages (JSP). The user accesses
the map-based query feature through the pres-
entation layer and is able to use the map query
GUI to send commands to the SFWMD's
data mart. The GUI captures user input neces-
sary to build a data mart query through maps,
time window selection, and data specifics. A
firewall exists between the presentation layer
and the middle tier for data security.
5.2f Constructing the Top Tier
The presentation layer is created by all of the workings of the middle tier software. The user
will need to have a web browser (Internet Explorer or Netscape version 4.7 or better) and a
computer with sufficient power to use the web site, especially the map-based query feature.
The Living Everglades site is structured in such a way, however, as to minimize the user's hard-
ware requirements while still providing excellent response time to user queries and commands.
5.3 Protecting the Software Application: Backups and Security
Issues
You will probably want to back up your software
application after you construct it. The SFWMD
backs up The Living Everglades site with:
• Daily incremental backups
• Weekly full file system backups
• Weekly Oracle® exports to removable media
The SFWMD also has a disaster recovery plan as
defined by its standard IT department practices. It
can restore from backups, but does not have a "hot"
site that it can "cut" to in case of hardware failure.
Security can be provided by constructing two firewalls: one between your archival database
and the data mart, and another between the client and the middle tier. In addition to con-
structing fire walls, the SFWMD retained a sufficient amount of redundancy in the software
application to address security issues. The SFWMD found that the main security concern it
had was from Java™Script, which tends to "expose" pathways to the server. To address this
concern, you can set up a development server inside the firewall to develop and test
Java™Script applications that are inaccessible to users and then use a separate production
server (also called a deployment server) to install Java™Script applications that are user-
accessible.
Behind the We b Site
3 1
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5.4 Lessons Learned
The SFWMD learned a number of lessons when developing The Living Everglades web site.
The SFWMD recommends the following when constructing your web site:
• If possible, use only one IT company for both the data mart and the user interface.
The SFWMD hired one IT company to develop the data mart and a second IT company
to create the web site interface. Using different IT companies for each of these tasks
slowed down the development process. If two IT companies are necessary, be sure to facil-
itate the communication between all parties through explicit Statements of Work.
• Set aside funds for teaching staff new technology. The SFWMD did not realize that it
was required by its change control procedures (i.e., procedures to protect the information
security of in-house computer systems) to use in-house IT staff to implement the middle
tier technology in SFWMD's production environment. The SFWMD did not initially
budget for this and therefore needed to spend extra time teaching IT staff the new tech-
nology, performing coordination, and providing the desired oversight. The SFWMD
found it challenging to develop mentoring methodologies for agency staff for this new
technology.
• Take steps to avoid IT bottlenecks. The SFWMD encountered several IT bottlenecks
because it had difficulty obtaining a timely commitment of hours from SFWMD database
administrators and UNIX system administrators to perform certain necessary tasks. To
avoid this problem, the SFWMD recommends ensuring IT management and rank-and-
file employees commitment from the beginning, and not just the approval of executive
management. The SFWMD spent a lot of time educating IT management (four training
sessions in 2 years). Realize that your IT department will usually be very busy and under-
staffed and might experience staff turnover. Stakeholder interest (see Chapter 6) and feed-
back might refuel interest among upper management, who then can provide relief to
overburdened IT staff.
• Provide sufficient attention to web site content management to ensure resources are
used effectively and without redundancy. The SFWMD found that maintaining meta-
data for documents in the Oracle® interMedia portion of the data mart and linking these
documents to spatial features was a part-time job on a continuing basis for a content man-
ager. Web site content management is a new discipline and requires management atten-
tion to ensure resources are utilized effectively and without redundancy. The SFWMD
sees the data mart as a content management system. It notes that its data mart is comple-
mentary to commercial content management systems because it extends functionality that
is not part of any commercial package. On the other hand, the data mart does not replace
commercial content management offerings because such offerings have robust workflow
built into them to handle version control and approval.
• Address data security. The SFWMD data mart is created from documents and data
stored in different places and is backed up incrementally on a daily basis with a full
backup performed each week. If the database were lost or corrupted, it could be re-creat-
ed. For additional security, the database tables are "owned" by a single Oracle schema for
which password access is limited to a few key individuals. Also, all of the data tables have
public synonyms and the pseudo-user "public" has "read access" to all tables.
• Consider the pros and cons of using software consultants. Software consultants can
provide for faster development of sophisticated web sites and can bring new expertise in-
32 Chapters
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house; however, they are generally more expensive per hour than in-house staff, and find-
ing consultants with an environmental background might be difficult. Although in-house
staff are usually less expensive per hour than consultants, there is always the risk of "staff
flight" after providing training on new technology. On the other hand, in-house staff
might become more dedicated to the project because they have had the chance to develop
the web site.
Budget extra time for deliverable review.
Questions for IT Consultants
In the initial phases of searching for qualified consultants to construct a web site similar to The Living
Everglades web site, the SFWMD recommends asking the following questions:
Oracle Database Administrator (for building the data mart):
• Are you an Oracle Certified Database Administrator?
• Do you have at least 4 years of professional experience? (practical experience is helpful)
Java™ Application Development (for writing the source code):
• Are you a J2EE Certified Programmer?
• Do you have at least 4 years of professional experience? (practical experience is helpful)
• What is your prior experience with Internet-based map servers such as MapXtreme® for Java™?
Database Programmer (for implementing the data mart):
• What is your prior experience with Oracle® Spatial? ^-9
• What is your prior experience with Oracle® TimeSeries? ^
• What is your prior experience with Oracle® interMedia?
Behind the We b S i te 33
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Chapter 6—Working With
Stakeholders and Partners
It is important not to create your web site in isolation—you will need the input of stake-
holders and partners to ensure that your web site is both useful and user-friendly to all of
them. This chapter explains how to work effectively with stakeholders and partners. You
will learn why an implementing agency needs partners and stakeholders, how to identify and
recruit partners and stakeholders, and how to conduct the stakeholder process. A case study is
included at the end of the chapter showing how the SFWMD worked with one partner to
improve the project web site, train specific audiences how to use it, and ultimately promote
opportunities for the public to extract and view data.
6.1 What Are Stakeholders and Why Are They Important?
In general, stakeholders are people or organizations with a
particular interest or investment in a project. They can
include the intended audience and users of the project's
• I^^^^H products, as well as those individuals who are supporting
a project (financially, technically, politically, or otherwise).
By definition, stakeholders are affected by the perform-
ance or outcome of a project, and therefore, many are
compelled to participate in the project's development.
Involving stakeholders in a project can help an agency
receive valuable direction and feedback as a project pro-
gresses. This input creates a more useful and better target-
ed end product, plus it saves time and money down the
road that might have to be spent to correct or revise the product. Stakeholder involvement
also is critical for building consensus and support for the finished product.
The Living Everglades web site project involved three distinct groups of stakeholders:
• Intended users of the web site, including educators, students, citizens, scientists, and
environmental groups. Restoring the Everglades is an endeavor that directly impacts the
citizens of South Florida, who are helping to subsidize the project through their tax dol-
lars; it is therefore critical that these individuals' perspectives and needs for the web site are
communicated and understood.
• Partners, or those intended users that are actively helping to make the project happen by
providing resources, specialized skills, or in-kind donations. Partners in The Living
Everglades web site included a variety of agencies and institutions, including colleges, local
government offices, and businesses.
• The media, including television stations and broadcasters, radio managers and broadcast-
ers, and newspaper publishers and reporters, who can help promote the finished product.
The SFWMD identified and recruited stakeholders and partners to participate in the design
phase of the project, as well as to assist with outreach, training, and promotion.
3 4
Chapter 6
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6.2 How Do You Identify and Select
Stakeholders and Partners?
When identifying stakeholders and potential partners,
consider the audience and purpose of your project.
Most likely, your audience and your stakeholders are
the same people. For example, your audience may be
defined by a geographic region, or by their profession
or investment in the project. Think about who is
going to use the finished product and who cares about
the information it will communicate. These considera-
tions will help you figure out who has a stake in the
outcome of your project and how you might involve
them.
Often, stakeholders are already organized in groups, such as government agencies, communi-
ty action groups, and educators, each with their own communication network. They have
regularly scheduled meetings or conference calls and use web sites, e-mail lists, and list
servers to communicate with one another. Tapping into
these networks can help you identify and reach more
stakeholders. If your organization has a Public
Information Department, be sure to partner with them
early and often.
The SFWMD's targeted audience includes the nearly 6 million peo-
ple who live in the 16-county region served by the district. Of those, 4.7
million live in Dade, Broward, Orange, and Palm Beach Counties. To reach
out to the students, educators, and citizens who live in this area, the SFWMD
coordinated with organizations that have existing networks in these counties—in
particular, the Florida Center for Environmental Studies (see Section 6.8 in this chapter
for more information on the stakeholder recruitment process).
The SFWMD maintains an ongoing partnership with scientists in the environmental
community who work with the agency's engineers and researchers to propose visual per-
formance measures for water quality and hydrologic data of the type that are housed in the
web site's data mart. The SFWMD tapped into this existing network and utilized it to for
review and comment in developing the web site's GUI.
6.3 How Do You Determine the Roles and Commitment of
Stakeholders and Partners?
Once you have engaged a group of stakeholders and partners, they must understand their
specific roles and commitment. Generally, a stakeholder's role is to represent the interests of
its respective group. The stakeholder's commitment is to clearly communicate its group's per-
spectives and comments to project developers, who in turn make adjustments to meet the
stakeholder's needs.
Partners are sometimes compensated for their efforts, or another arrangement is worked out
(see box on page 36). Becoming a partner requires a different level of commitment that is
worth documenting. A commitment letter or Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) are
ways to ensure that everyone involved understands their roles and expectations. A commit-
ment letter or MOU should spell out what each party will contribute to the project, outline
Working With Stakeholders and Partners
35
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Partner Commitment
Partner commitment can take a variety of forms, includ-
ing the following:
• In-kind donations. An "in-kind" donation is a noncash
contribution of time, services, or goods by a donor to
support a project. In-kind donations are valuable in
building relationships and expanding your resource
capability, since you can reserve your cash to pay for
services that you haven't been able to get donated.
• Cost-share. Partners and the originating agency split
the costs of a particular project, such as developing a
curriculum.
• Donations. Partners provide monetary funds, which
are typically used at your agency's discretion.
• Compensated effort. A partner agrees to perform a
particular service or task and is compensated for its
effort by a specified fee.
measurable goals, establish specific time
frames, and delineate resource allocations or
in-kind contributions.
Partners in the development of The Living
Everglades web site played various roles,
such as collecting needed evaluation data,
assessing the user-friendliness and function-
ality of the site, and promoting the site
through advertising assistance (see box on
"Partner Roles" below).
In exchange for the services offered by part-
ners, the SFWMD provided regular updates
of the progress of its efforts and supplemen-
tal training to designated partner represen-
tatives. These representatives, in turn,
provided training to other staff, students, or
teachers who utilized the web site for
research projects, teaching assignments, and
other activities.
Partners and Their Roles
The SFWMD worked closely with one partner, the Florida Center for Environmental Studies (CES),
located at Florida Atlantic University, to host workshops for potential web site users (stakeholders) and
to coordinate outreach and training to universities, community colleges, and K-12 educators. CES also
collected best practices from teachers and reached additional users through a list server for stakehold-
ers and EMPACT advertisements on its web site (see Section 6.8 at the end of this chapter for more
information on CES and its role in the project).
The SFWMD worked with a number of other partners to enhance and promote the web site, including
the following:
• Palm Beach Community College. Palm Beach Community College provided regular communica-
tion and feedback on improving the ease of use and functionality of the site.
• Palm Beach County of Environmental Resources Management (ERM). ERM worked with the
SFWMD's system designers to ensure the site's relevance and ease of use. The agency also provid-
ed advertising assistance, including providing a hotlinkto The Living Everglades web site from
ERM's homepage.
• Palm Beach Soil and Water Conservation District. This district provided feedback to the SFWMD
on the ease of use of The Living Everglades web site and suggestions for improving its functionality
for different stakeholder groups.
• Scientific Environmental Applications, Inc. This company assessed the web site for ease of acces-
sibility and education soundness.
36
C h a p t e
-------
6.4 What Are the Benefits of
Forming Partnerships?
Partnerships should be mutually beneficial for both
the implementing agency and the partner. The
implementing agency benefits by involving part-
ners who can offer critical advice and feedback for
enhancing the project and ensuring its goals are
met. Involving partners in the development and
testing phase can often save resources that would
have to be expended later to "fix" a project.
Partners also help spread the word about the proj-
ect to potential users and can be instrumental in
actively advertising and evaluating the project,
thereby reaching greater numbers of the targeted
audience.
Partners benefit by playing an active role in a project's development. They get a chance to
offer their input and have their voices heard. They also gain valuable information and train-
ing to enhance their own programs and the opportunity to promote some of their work.
6.5 What Challenges to the Stakeholder Process Can You
Anticipate and Address?
Remember that your project will not be the sole responsibility or "job" of any stakeholder or
partner. Your organization, therefore, must make it easy for stakeholders and partners to ful-
fill their roles. Get feedback in an organized, convenient way, such as selecting the stakehold-
ers' preferred means of communicating—whether by e-mail, phone calls, faxes, or
face-to-face meetings. When meeting, choose meeting times and locations that are conven-
ient to the stakeholders involved. The meeting facilitator also should be organized, efficient,
and well-prepared.
Below are some general guidelines to consider when interacting with stakeholders:
• Ask project developers to attend stakeholder meetings. Communicating stakeholder
comments to project developers can often be difficult, since they do not always "speak the
same language." Face-to-face interaction allows stakeholders to express their comments
and concerns without third-party translation. Project developers see first-hand how users
interact with and respond to the project. By interacting directly with stakeholders, devel-
opers can resolve issues more easily.
• Keep stakeholders informed. Clarify expectations and commitments up front. Let them
know you appreciate their time and effort by carefully listening to their feedback. Once
they have offered input, communicate how you addressed their comments and keep them
informed of the project's status.
• Make it easy and enjoyable for them to participate. The SFWMD chose central loca-
tions and served lunch to its workshop participants to help them fit the 3.5-hour work-
shop into the participants' day (see Section 6.8 in this chapter for more information on
the workshops).
Working With Stakeholders and Partners
37
-------
• Be prepared. If your project is "in the works," provide a product that is usable enough to
solicit stakeholder feedback. For example, isolate one version of your web site that func-
tions well enough to be tested.
• Grant easy access. If your web site or database is not publicly accessible through the
Internet, you may have to assemble your stakeholders in one place to provide access to the
product. Another option would be to password-protect a web site or establish a file trans-
fer protocol and grant access to only stakeholders.
6.6 What Format Will Be Most Effective for Working With
Stakeholders?
Once stakeholders have access to a working version of your project, you must decide how
you will interact with them. Do you want to interact with them one at a time, or would it be
more efficient to address groups at time? A number of formats are available, including indi-
vidual phone calls, workshops, conference calls, video conferences, meetings, web sites, e--
mail, and list server distributions. The most effective format depends on what resources you
have available, the number of participants, and the level of interaction you expect.
The SFWMD and its partner CES integrated stakeholder feedback, user training, and out-
reach into a workshop format. The workshop format allowed the SFWMD to address an
entire group of stakeholders at one time and grant direct access to the project. It also enabled
stakeholders to interact directly with the project's developers (see Section 6.8 for more infor-
mation). To reach more of the 16-county region, they recruited additional partners who
could use their own facilities to host the workshops.
6.7 What Happens Beyond the Stakeholder Process?
When the stakeholder process is complete, you will have a usable project and a baseline of
targeted users. How do you maintain the process and continue to promote your resource?
If your project involves a web site or database, it will be accessed by users who will likely con-
tinue to have questions and comments. One way to track and respond to these comments is
to set up a section on the web site for submitting electronic questions. Users can post or e--
mail questions that you or even other users can answer. Compile frequently asked questions
and post them on the web site. This will save time and resources by not having to answer the
same questions over and over again.
Many times, the targeted audience of your project has great ideas about how to use your
resource, whether it's a database, web site, or other source of information. For example, the
SFWMD and its partners collected best educational practices from teachers involved in the
stakeholder process. These best practices include curricula, projects, and lessons that educators
created while teaching their own students about the changing health of the Florida Everglades.
Stakeholders and partners also can help you to continue to promote your web site after its
completion. By distributing information digests summarizing ecological analyses of data from
The Living Everglades web site to stakeholders and partners in many locations, the SFWMD
will effectively promote its web site to its audience.
The SFWMD has plans to contact the media to further promote and advertise The Living
Everglades web site. It expects to take this step when the web site has been fully tested and is
in working form. To reach an even greater number of stakeholders, the SFWMD will work
with the media to identify other public channels such as TV, radio, and newspapers.
38 Chapter6
-------
6.8 Case Study: Using Workshops To Reach Out to Potential
Users
The SFWMD contracted with CES to host workshops for target audiences, including the
general public, teachers, and environmental professionals and scientists. CES recruited work-
shop participants, prepared training materials, facilitated the workshops, and gathered stake-
holders' comments.
Initially, CES facilitated and implemented three regional workshops for elementary, middle,
and high school teachers and other educators. The purpose of the workshops was to intro-
duce teachers to the web site, provide examples of how they can use it, explain origins of
data and resources, and link data and resources with the CERP
The SFWMD bundled together web site user training, stakeholder input, and outreach into
a single workshop format, with three goals in mind:
• Training. Availability of the data to the cooperating stakeholders will enhance educational
opportunities in the principles of environmental protection by augmenting existing edu-
cational programs throughout South Florida, such as the university system, the public and
private school systems, and environmental organizations.
• Outreach. The stakeholders will promote the web site as material for classroom projects
and discussions in which teachers and students learn about the Everglades ecosystem
health indicators.
• Stakeholder input. Cooperating stakeholders play an active role in developing the design
of the web interface. Stakeholders can:
— Provide design review of the web interface.
— Suggest the proper level of detail and user-friendliness.
— Propose appropriate graphic formats to convey environmental information for public
consumption.
— Aid in document selection and organization.
The SFWMD partnered with CES because of its unique qualifications. As part of the Florida
State University System (SUS), CES is sponsored by Florida Atlantic University, represents
11 universities, and acts as a facilitator and coordinator of research and training related to the
environment—particularly those programs addressing water-dominated ecosystems. As a
research and training facilitator and environmental education center, CES includes field
studies for students and professional development opportunities for educators, as well as
workshops, internships, and academic programs.
As a partner in developing The Living Everglades web site, CES agreed to fulfill the following
tasks:
• Train educators how to utilize The Living Everglades web site as a teaching resource.
• Collect information on "best practices" from teachers.
• Survey users and evaluate the utility of the web site.
king With Stakeholders and Partners 39
-------
Identifying and Recruiting Stakeholders
To identify and recruit stakeholders, the SFWMD and CES advertised information about
The Living Everglades project and outreach program on web sites and sent e-mail flyers and
invitations to targeted audiences (see copies in Appendix D).
Promoting the Workshops
To promote the workshops, CES sent workshop promotional flyers and materials to science
coordinators of middle and high school students. In addition, CES promoted the workshops
electronically using the state's existing educational network and stakeholder networking. The
educational network includes county school boards and professional organizations such as the
Florida Association of Science Teachers and the League of Environmental Educators of
Florida. For example, CES reached secondary school science teachers by working closely with
county science coordinators and the Broward and Palm Beach County School boards. As part
of the SUS, CES also worked with its existing network of faculty and contacts. CES contact-
ed school boards and regional stakeholders network to promote the workshops and web site
to teachers.
Choosing a Location for Workshops
To select locations for workshops that would reach the greatest number of people, CES
sought population centers throughout the SFWMD's 16-county region. Within each strategic
region (which, in this case, included Orlando, Miami, and Ft. Myers), CES identified organi-
zations that had suitable facilities. To host a workshop, an organization had to have a com-
puter training facility with an adequate number of computers with Internet connections. In
many cases, CES worked with existing stakeholders to sponsor workshops or already had a
strong working relationship with suitable organizations through previous successful projects.
Assembling Workshop Tools
Before actually facilitating the workshops, CES invested time and effort in assembling the
tools it would need to effectively meet its outreach, training, and stakeholder goals. By invest-
ing this time and effort, CES optimized the time of attending stakeholders. (An agenda is
available in Appendix D.) The tools used in the workshop included:
• PowerPoint presentation. To kick off the meeting, the SFWMD used a PowerPoint pres-
entation to give an overview of the Everglades Restoration Project, the agency's role, and
the status of The Living Everglades web site.
• Draft web site. To effectively host a training session, CES needed a product from which
to work, which was a challenge since the web site was a work in progress. By working
closely with the software developers, however, CES established a working draft web site
and prepared it for stakeholder review by developing examples of queries and results on
the web page, and a help system and tutorial to guide the user in navigating the web page.
CES worked with developers to understand the current status of the draft web site. To
provide better feedback to the SFWMD, CES invited the developers of the web site to the
stakeholder meetings. This way, developers witnessed firsthand the interaction of users and
the web site and could make the most appropriate changes.
Chapter 6
-------
Tutorial. To help initiate users, CES developed a tutorial to illustrate how to navigate the
site. The tutorial was made available on the draft web site. For the workshops, CES creat-
ed the same tutorial in PowerPoint and walked users through their first data request. In
addition, CES produced a comprehensive Users Guide that was used to help train users
about the complexities of the site and was distributed to all workshop participants.
Development worksheet. CES developed a web development worksheet as a tool for
attendees to critique the web site, provide suggestions for improvement, and list addition-
al resources they would like to see included. Stakeholders were asked to develop at least
three questions for the "Frequently Asked Questions" section of the web site. This task
helped the SFWMD and CES appreciate the web site from the users' perspective. The
worksheet also asked participants to develop three predefined queries, one for each of the
data parameters: water quality, hydrology, and weather.
king With Stakeholders and Partners
-------
Appendix A: Schema for Data Mart
The following schema, illustrated in this entity relationship diagram, shows the design and
interrelationships for the data mart for The Living Everglades web site.
The SFWMD will make the data mart schema available at no cost to all interested agencies
and organizations. Contact Brian Turcotte, 561 889-4794, or Marie Pietrucha, 561 682-
6309, for more information.
SECTKJKLQTR
SECTION_SUB_QTH
HORIZJ3ATUM
ALT_HORI?_DATUM
SECTIONJUB_J8UB_QTH
USER_OSID
DATE_CHEATED
42
Appendix A
-------
Appendix B: Table List for Data
Mart
The following table list for the data mart for The Living Everglades web site describes the
characteristics and purpose of each data mart table and each field within each table.
The interrelationships of the tables is illustrated in the data mart entity relationship diagram
(Appendix A).
Media_Type_Master
media_mime_type
This table would hold the different types of media/document details, such as their exten-
sions, type of document, and the software needed to access these media/documents.
Table name
media type id
media type
media extension
media plugin reader
mediaJJRL
Data Type
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size
10
50
6
200
256
Constraints
Primary Key
Not Null
Not Null
Comments
Unique number given to the document type.
Description of type e.g.Word, Excel, Adobe, ram
etc.
e.g. .txt, .doc, .pdf, .jpg, .gif, .avi, .ram etc.
MS-Word, Acrobat Reader, Real Player etc.
Column would contain the URL suggesting
where the Media Reader can be found for
download.
VARCHAR2
256
Mime Type for the particular file extension.
Useful to identify the Plug-in Reader for that file.
Media Agency
Table Name
media src agency id
media agency name
media aqency contact
This maintains the Agency which digitized the Document. This is separate from
TS AGENCY which stores the agency data who have collected the data.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size
4
50
50
Constrains Comments
Primary Key Unique number given to the agency
tizes the media/document.
Name of the Agency which digitized
ment.
Name of the contact person.
which digi-
the docu-
Table List for Data Mart
43
-------
Media Master
Table Name
media_id
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
media_type_id
This contains the general attributes of a document/media
Data Type
NUMBER
INUMbtK
media_title
media_date_creation
media_start_date
media_end_date
mediaJSBN
media_DEWEY_NO
media_Other_Ref_No
media_SFWMD_ref_no
media_physical_cabinet
media_project_no
VARCHAR2
DATE
DATE
DATE
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
media_hyper_link_File_path VARCHAR2
media_quantity
media_unit_of_measure
media_summary
mediajanguage
media_storage_code
media_batch_no
media_comments
media_image_text
Media_avi_flag
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
CLOB
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
media_complexity_No NUMBER
VARCHAR2
Size Constrains Comments
10 Primary Key Unique number given to the media/document.
10 Foreign Key
2000 Not Null
Not Null
Not Null
15
15
15
15
2000
30
256
15
5
30
Not Null
30
4000
4000
1 Not Null
1 Not Null
This is the Foreign Key refers to
Media_Type_Master.
Title of the Document.
Data of Creation of the media/document.
Start Data of Validity of the media/document.
End Date of Validity of the media/document.
Reference Number.
Reference Number.
Reference Number.
Reference Number.
Location - where the physical media/document
is located.
Project number for which the media/document
is related. This refer to Projectjd in SP_Projects
table.
Hyper link of the media/document, or Path of
the file.
The Quantity Example. No. of Pages, No. of
Floppy disks need to store the e-document, etc.
Ex. Pages, Mega Bytes, Slides etc.
The Executive Summary of the Document.
Language of the Document. Would be descrip-
tive such as English, Spanish etc. (International).
Storage code referring .. If the media is stored
in Oracle (O), or as a File (F) or is it a URL (U).
Reference No. which indicates the batch of digi-
tization given to the agency.
General Comments.
Any text related to that is related to a specific
Image, Audio or Video which is to be displayed
as the sub-titles.
0 thru 9 will decide the complexity number for
the document. Default is 0. 0 is least complex.
T - for Text/Word/Excel/PDF documents, A for
Audio file, V for Video/animation files and I for
Image files.
44
Appendix B
-------
Media
_Text
Table Name
media
media
media
_text_
Jd
id
^m
sequence
This table would
Data Type
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMBER
contain
Size
7
10
3
the Text documents.
Constrains
Primary Key
Foreign Key
Comments
Unique number assigned
This is the Foreign
This column would
key to
to
the
Media
hold the
Text Document.
master table.
sequence number
media text
CLOB
Not Null
for the media/document if that particular
media/document is split and needed to be
assembled during the display time.
The contents such as MS-Word, Text Files etc.
Media AVI
Table Name
media_avi id
mediajd
media_sequence
media avi
This table would contain the Text, Audio, Video Image files.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMBER
BLOB
Size Constrains Comments
7
10
3
Primary Key Unique number assigned to the Text Document.
Foreign Key This is the Foreign key to Media master table.
This column would hold the sequence number
for the media if that particular media is split
and needed to be assembled during the display
time.
Not Null All audio, video and image files, such as Bit
Map Files, GIFs, JPGs, MP3s, AVIs etc.
Media_AuthorShip
Table Name
media_Author_id
media_author_name
media_desig nation
media-Comments
Has the details of the author worked on the media/document.
Media New Old Name
Table Name
media_name_id
mediajd
media_new_name
media old name
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size Constrains Comments
10
30
30
256
Primary Key Unique number given to Authorship for this
media/document.
Name of the Author.
Author's Designation.
Comments about the author.
This holds the old and new names of the media or the document.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size Constrains Comments
10 Primary Key Unique number for the name.
10 Foreign Key This is the Foreign key to Media master table.
256 New Name of the Document.
256 Old Name of the Document.
Media_Keyphrase
Table Name
Phrase_id
mediajd
media_key phrase
This table would hold all the keywords that would be used to identify a particular docu-
ment/media for display. Mostly used for Non-Text documents e.g. Audio, Video, etc.
Data Type Size Constrains Comments
NUMBER 15 Primary Key A Unique Key Assigned to the Key Phrase.
VARCHAR2 10 Foreign Key This is the Foreign key to Media Master table.
VARCHAR2 128 Not Null Phrase which would be useful for the search of
a document or media.
Table List for Data Mart
45
-------
Media_StopList
Table Name
stoplistjd
media_id
media_Stoplist
This table would hold all the keywords that would be used to identify the documents using
which the document/media should not be displayed. Mostly used for Non-Text documents
e.g. Audio, Video, etc.
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
NUMBER 15 Primary Key Unique Key assigned to the Stoplist.
VARCHAR2 10 Foreign Key This is the Foreign key to Media Master table.
VARCHAR2 1 28 Not Null Phrase can be used to avoid the selection of the
documents/media for display.
Media_Syn_Hom
Table Name
Syn_hom_id
media_id
media_Synonyms
media_homonyms
This table holds the synonyms or the homonyms of the media/document.
Data Type
NUMBER
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size Constrains Comments
15 Primary Key Unique Key assigned to the synonym/homonym.
10 Foreign Key This is the Foreign key to Media master table.
1 28 Synonyms of media/document.
1 28 Homonyms for the media/document.
Media_Object
Table Name
media_id
Object_GID
Table name
This is used to relate spatial data with Inter-Media. Used for searching document based
on spatial data.
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
NUMBER 10 Foreign Key This is the Foreign key to Media master table.
VARCHAR2 32 Foreign Key Refers to Media_master, SP_County, SP_Sites,
SP_Wetlands, SP_Landuse, SP_Projects,
SP_Water_Conservation, SP_Station,
SP_Preserves, SP_Political_County, SP_Highway,
SP_Parks, SP_Lakes, SP_Basin, SP_Canals.
VARCHAR2 30 Not Null The table name whose primary key is referred
in object_GID as foreign key. Should be vali-
dated from data dictionary.
^
SP_County
This table keeps track of the counties relevant to DBHYDRO.
Table Name
Object_GID
County name
Geom
County fips
fips
dropped.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size
32
32
Constrains Comments
Primary Key The Unique identifier of County.
Full name of county.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the County.
3
6
*FIPS code (001 -135)
*State FIPS code (1 2) This item could
be
46
Appendix B
-------
SP Political County
Table Name
Object_GID
Geom
Fips County
County Abbr
County Name
Stores the Political
Data Type
VARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Boundaries of a
County. Used for query, not for display.
Size Constrains Comments
32 Primary
3
2
32
Key The Unique identifier of Political County.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Political County.
*State FIPS code (3-digit: 001-135)
*2-digit County Abbreviation.
"County Name.
SP Basin
Table Name
Object_GID
Basin_name
Geom
This table keeps a list of the hydrologic basins relevant to SFWMD. These basins should
match those tracked in the District's geographic information system (GIS).
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
VARCHAR2 32
VARCHAR2 40
SDO GEOMETRY
Primary Key The Unique identifier of Basin.
The full name of the hydrologic basin.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Basin.
SP Lake
This table stores data about lakes of South Florida.
Table Name
Object_GID
Lake Name
Geom
Poly_Code
Lake Type
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size
32
50
2
6
Constrains Comments
Primary Key The Unique identifier of Lakes.
Full Name of the Lake.
Spatial Component. Used to store
information for the lakes.
This item will not exist.
This item will not exist.
the geometry
Table List for Data Mart
47
-------
able Name
Canal Name
Geom
Length
Mews Class
Canal Type
Class
Alias
Verified
NRCS
Date_
Water
Bottom width
Top width
Depth
side slopel
side slope2
able Name
Highway Name
Geom
Length
Prefix
Highway Type
Suffix
STR_Code
ype
ARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
ype
ARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDO_GEOMETRY
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
50
9
12
20
6
25
3
10
11
3
5,2
5,2
5,2
3
3
50
9
2
4
2
2
rimary Key
Full Name of the Canal.
Spatial Component. Used to store
information for the Canals.
"Length of this REACH; Total canal
calculated by application.
"Unnecessary.
"Primary, Secondary, River, etc.
"Major vs. Minor.
"Alias Name for canal.
*??
*??
*??
*??
Bottom width of canal.
Top width of canal.
Depth of canal.
One side of slope.
Other side of slope.
rimary Key
Full Name of the highway.
Spatial Component. Used to store
information for the Highways.
the geometry
length to be
the geometry
"Length of this road segment; Total length to be
calculated by application.
*NE, SW, etc.
*ST, RD, AVE, etc.
*W, N, SE, etc.
* Relative size of road (i.e., Interstate vs. boule-
vard)
48
Appendix B
-------
able Name
Site
Site Name
Geom
SP_Park
Table Name
Object_GID
Park Name
Geom
ype
ARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
This table contains
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDO GEOMETRY
10
60
rimary Key
Abbreviation for the site.
Full Name of the Site.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Sites.
information about different parks of south Florida.
Size
32
50
Constrains Comments
Primary Key The Unique identifier of the Park.
Full Name of the Park.
Spatial Component. Used to store the qeometry
SP Preserve
Table Name
Object_GID
Preserve_Name
Geom
information for the Parks.
This table contains information about different projects of SFWMD e.g., Everglades
Nutrient Removal Project.
Table Name
Object_GID
Project id
Project Name
Geom
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDO GEOMETRY
Size
32
8
50
Constrains
Primary Key
Unique Key
Comments
The Unique identifier of Projects.
Refers to column Group Name in TS Group
table.
Full Name of the Project.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Projects.
This table contains information about different preserves for e.g. National Preserves.
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
VARCHAR2 32
VARCHAR2 50
SDO GEOMETRY
Primary Key The Unique identifier of Preserves.
Full Name of the Preserve.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Preserves.
SP Water Conservation
Table Name
Object_GID
Conservation_Name
Geom
This Table contains information about water conservation areas.
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
VARCHAR2 32
VARCHAR2 50
SDO GEOMETRY
Primary Key The Unique identifier of Water Conservation.
Full Name of the Conservation.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Wet Conservation.
Table List for Data Mart
49
-------
SP_Wetland
Table Name
Object_GID
Wetland Name
Geom
Attrib
Sys
Subs
Classl
Class2
Subcl
Subc2
H2O
Chem
Mod_
NWI_Env
NWI_Veg
NWI_Codel
able Name
Geom
Flues Levl
Flucs_Lev2
Flues Lev3
This table contains
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
ype
ARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
information about wetlands.
Size
32
50
20
1
1
3
2
1
1
2
1
10
1
1
2
3
3
4
Constrains Comments
Primary Key The Unique identifier of Wetlands.
Full Name of the Wetland.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Wetlands.
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
*See NWI metadata
rimary Key anduse
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the land use.
*See LU95 metadata
*See LU95 metadata
*See LU95 metadata
50
Appendix B
-------
SP_Station
Table Name
Station
Site
Object_GID
Station desc
Lat
Longitude
Travel info
Landmsl
Submitting agency
Hue code
Station Type
Horiz control date
For min date
Station attributes.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
DATE
DATE
Size Constrains
1 0 Primary Key
10 Foreign Key
32 Unique Key
78
9.3
9.3
2000
7.2
8
8
13
Comments 1
A common pneumonic by which to refer to the
location.
Name for general location of station (often used
to simplify plotting). Refers to SP Site.
The Unique identifier of station.
Description of the location.
Latitude.
Longitude.
Information on how to get to the station.
Station elevation (ft msl).
Used to track the origin of the station record.
USGS Hydrologic Unit Code. HUCs are similar
to basins.
Used to track the nature of the environment in
which the station is located.
The date the location was determined.
Derived from the start date of all the time series
at this station.
Por_max_date
Class
Section_qtr
Section_sub_qtr
Horiz_datum
Alt_horiz_datum
Section_sub_sub_qtr
Geom
User_osid
Date created
DATE
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
SDCM3EOMETRY
VARCHAR2
DATE
2
12
12
Derived from the end date of all the time series
at this station.
Used to distinguish between water quality and
hydrologic stations or both. Valid values are
ALL, DTA, and WQ.
A Vi mile by Vi mile "square" within a given
section. These squares divide the section into
quarters.
1 Vi, by Vi, mile "square" within a given quarter
section.
Coordinate system for location information.
Should be NAD83.
Identification of alternate horizontal datum
(coordinate system). For practical purposes this
is NAD27 for all data. However, this design
allows for it to be any coordinate system.
1 1/8 by 1/8 mile "square" within a given sub
quarter section.
Spatial Component. Used to store the geometry
information for the Station.
Used for auditing changes to this table.
Used for auditing changes to this table.
Table List for Data Mart
-------
ARCHAR2
rimary Key single character that is indicative of the quali-
Description
VARCHAR2
45
The translation of the code into meaningful lan-
guage. For instance, a code of 'E' means the
value was Estimated.
TS_Date_Quality
Table Name
Date quality
Accuracy
Indicates Accuracy Of Time Stamp.
Data Type Size Constrains
VARCHAR2 1 Primary Key
VARCHAR2 10
Comments
A single character which is translated into some
amount of time by the associated "accuracy"
column.
The accuracy to which a given time stamp is
known +/- the amount of time show.
TS_Frequency
Table Name
Frequency
Freq_description
TS_Missing_and_Gap
Table Name
Code
Value
Revision date
This table contains a list of the frequencies at which various time series are summarized.
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
VARCHAR2 2 Primary Key Abbreviation of the frequency (i.e. DA is for
Daily)
VARCHAR2 20 Spelled out description of the abbreviation.
Time series details for missing and not available data.
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
VARCHAR2 5
DATE
VARCHAR2 1
Primary Key This columns refers to ts_keyword_tab.
Primary Key Starting Date the data was found missing.
Foreign Key This column refers to TS_code. Contains values
of M and N referring to Missing and Not
Available data.
End date
TS_Daily_Data
Table Name
Dbkey
Daily date
DATE
Daily Values Data.
Data Type Size
VARCHAR2 5
DATE
Constraints
Primary Key
Primary Key
Ending Date the data was found missing.
Comments
This columns refers to ts keyword tab.
Time series data: Oracle date data type with
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
DATE
hours and minutes portion equal to 0000.
1 Foreign Key A quality indicator that references the TS_code
table.
8.3
Time series data value.
Revision date for data. Code changed or value
changed.
52
Appendix B
-------
TS Random Data
Date_quality
Comments
TS Recorder
Table Name
Recorder
Recorder_description
Data Which Is Collected At Irregular Or Widely Spaced Intervals.
Table Name
Dbkey
Random date
Code
Data Type
VARCHAR2
DATE
VARCHAR2
Size Constrains Comments
5 Primary Key This columns refers to ts keyword tab.
Primary Key Date/time stamp for value.
1 Foreiqn Key Indicates quality or other attributes of value.
VARCHAR2
Refers to TS_code table.
Foreign Key Indicates date/time accuracy. Refers to
TS_Date_Quality.
Value
Revision date
Comments
Data.
TS Comment
Table Name
Samp id
NUMBER
DATE
VARCHAR2
This table stores
Data Type
VARCHAR2
8.3
50
comments for sample
Size Constrains
13 Foreign Ke\
Code changed or value changed.
General Comments about Random
data stored in table "sample".
Comments
' Identifies a discrete sample within a
Sample
project.
VARCHAR2
240
Usually sequential numbers 00001 - 99999.
Refers to TS_Sample.
Comments for Sample Data.
*.,.
99.
Recording Device details.
Data Type
Size Constrains Comments
VARCHAR2 4 Primary Key Abbreviation of the recording device.
VARCHAR2 70 Description of the abbreviation.
Table List for Data Mart
53
-------
Typejabel
Units
Usgs_param
Data_class
Storet_code
Geosys_code
Description
Test number
Ndec
Method
Subclass
Heading
Rep_units
Comments
TS_Statistic_Type
Column Name
Statistic_type
Type_label
USGS Code
ARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
rimary Key
NUMBER
25
30
5
7
5
2
200
3
10
5
8
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
LONG
Statistical method used to report data.
Data Type Size Constraints Comments
VARCHAR2 4 Primary Key Code for Statistic type.
VARCHAR2 30 Description of Statistic type.
NUMBER 5 USGS Code for Statistic type.
The long name for the data type.
Units of measurement of the specific data type.
This attribute might more correctly be modeled
at the result or data record level.
The 5 digit code used by the USGS to indicate
the type of measurement.
This field has the value 'FLOW, 'STAGE',
WEATHER', or 'WQ' and provides for the sepa-
ration of datatypes into different disciplines.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
database alias for this particular data type.
Code used by Florida Bureau of Geology
GEOSYS system.
A description of the data type.
Test number is a SFWMD assigned identifier
used to supplement EPA STORET codes for
water quality data. Sometimes the EPA may not
have a STORET number for a given kind of
measurement so the SFWMD assigns a test
number in its place.
The number of places to the right of the decimal
point to which a given data type should be
reported. This attribute would more correctly be
modeled at the result or data record level. This
information is used in conjunction with the num-
ber of significant figures in the result.
The method by which a water quality sample
was analyzed to obtain the given result.
The text to appear as a column heading in stan-
dard output reports.
Units in which the value for this data type are
reported. The benefit of storing all data int he
same units is that the data can be readily com-
pared to one another without conversion.
Anything additional about this data type.
54
Appendix B
-------
TS Keyword Tab
| Column Name
Dbkey
Data type
Frequency
Statistic type
Recorder
Agency
Station
Group name
Strata
Repnum
Gate no
Start date
End date
Rank
Slot no
Station desc
Lat
Longitude
Xcoord
Ycoord
Quad index
County
Basin
Town
Kw Range
Section
LandMSL
XY error
Table maintained by triggers on underlying DBHYDRO tables. This table feeds the search
engine for the database access program known as DBACCESS.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
DATE
DATE
NUMBER
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
Size
5
5
2
4
4
4
10
8
7.3
2
2
1
1
78
9.3
9.3
10.3
10.3
8
3
8
2
2
2
7.2
8.4
Constraints
Primary Key
Foreign Key
Foreign Key
Foreign Key
Foreign Key
Foreign Key
Foreign Key
Foreign Key
Comments |
The system assigned primary key for this table.
Dbkey is the unique identifier for each time
series (data set).
The short name for the data type. Refers to
TS_Data_Type table.
Abbreviation of the frequency (i.e. DA is for
Daily). Refers to TS Frequency table.
Summary statistic (mean, min, max, etc.). Refers
to TS Statistic Type table.
Abbreviation of the recording device. Refers to
TS_Recorder table.
The agency responsible for the quality control of
the specific time series. This column references
tx agency.
A common pneumonic by which to refer to the
location. Refers to SP Station Table.
Group name is used to refer to a group of
related stations. Refers to TS Group table.
Distance above local ground elevation (feet).
Replication number: used to distinguish between
like groups.
Gate number.
Date at which data starts.
Date at which data ends.
Subjective ranking of time series reliability.
Slot number for slot gates.
Description of the location.
Latitude.
Longitude.
Florida state plane x-coordinate NAD83.
Florida state plane y-coordinate NAD83.
A system-assigned key based on latitude and
longitude.
Abbreviation for county.
The short name for the hydrologic basin.
Township.
Range.
Section. There are typically 36 sections to a
township-range intersection. Each section is typi-
cally 1 square mile.
Land surface elevation.
Error in state plane coordinates (ft).
Table List for Data Mart
55
-------
Elev error
Site
Alternate id
Usgs id
Station id
Sitejd
Struct type
Quad name
Lpno
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
8.4
10
15
15
8
8
4
40
3
Data_class
Horiz_datum
Program_type
Sample_type_new
Matrix
Collect_method
TS_Agency
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
12
5
5
5
Error in elevation (ft).
Name for general location of station (often used
to simplify plotting).
Identifier to the USGS database system.
Identifies sampling station for water quality data
points. Descriptions and geographical coordi-
nates can be found in table SP_station.
Unique Identifier assigned to the site.
The abbreviation for the structure type.
Quadrangle sheet name as given by the USGS.
Land Planning Number. A SFWMD internal
numbering scheme starting at 1.
This field has the value 'FLOW, 'STAGE',
'WEATHER', or 'WQ' and provides for the sepa-
ration of datatypes into different disciplines.
Coordinate system for location information.
Should be NAD83.
Separates normal monitoring activities from
results that are deemed "experimental" in
nature.
Keeps track of the kind of sample. This is espe-
cially useful for water quality data. This field is
called sample type new because of an effort
underway to make this attribute hold a single
piece of information. Previous use of the sample
type field allowed for several pieces of informa-
tion to be stored in one column. As part of
decomposing sample type, sample type new,
matrix, and collect_method were created.
The medium in which the water to be analyzed
is resident.
The method by which the water quality sample
was collected.
This table contains information about cooperating agencies and organizations who con-
tribute data to the database.
Column Name
Agency
DEP_Agency
Agency Name
Contact Person
Address
Phone
Data Type
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
Size
4
3
50
30
60
10
Constraints Comments
Primary Key The agency abbreviation used in
the database.
Florida Dept. Of Environmental Regulation
Agency Code.
The full name of the cooperating
organization.
Contact Person in the Agency.
Address of the Agency.
Phone.
agency or
56
Appendix B
-------
ARCHAR2
rimary Key
Group_desc
Manager
Division_name
Class
Username
Startdate
Stopdate
Activity code
Full_description
Mandate
TS_Remark
BBEE
Remark_code
Remarks
VARCHAR2 70 Description of the Group.
VARCHAR2 30 Manager of the Group.
VARCHAR2 30 Division Name.
VARCHAR2 7 Allows for creation of views based on whether
this field is ALL', 'DTA, or 'WQ'. The projects
view excludes DTA groups.
VARCHAR2 30 The network userid of the group manager. This
is more appropriately implemented as a 1 :M
relationship and not a 1:1.
DATE The beginning date of the group or project.
DATE The end date of the group or project.
VARCHAR2 20 The Financial System activity code for water
quality projects.
Long A lengthy description for the group. For the
major water quality projects this text comes from
Richard Pfeuffer's technical publication.
VARCHAR2 8 For water quality projects the mandate indicates
whether the project is a Legislative Mandate,
Governing Board mandate, or special project.
Knowing the mandate allows for better prioriti-
zation of monitoring activities.
Comprised of one or more data qualifiers as applied by the lab or project manager.
Data Type Size Constraints Comments
VARCHAR2 3 Primary Key Comprised of one or more data qualifiers as
applied by the lab or project manager. These
data qualifiers are approved by DER
VARCHAR2 50 General Comments for Sample.
Table List for Data Mart
57
-------
TS_Sample
This table contains test results for all samples which have been analyzed by the sfwmd lab
and from contract labs
1 Column Name
Samp id
Project code
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
Size
13
8
Constraints
Primary Key
Foreign Key
Comments 1
Identifies a discrete sample within a project.
Usually sequential numbers 00001-99999.
Identifies project specific sample. Derived from
the project description. Eg. "Enrp" is the project
code for samples collected in the "everglades
nutrient removal project". Refers to SP-Projects.
Station id
Depth
Date_collected
Discharge
Up_dwn_stream
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
DATE
NUMBER
NUMBER
10 Foreign Key
7.2
Sample_type_new
VARCHAR2
Matrix
Weather code
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
5
2
Identifies sampling station for water quality data
points. Descriptions and geographical coordi-
nates can be found in table SP_Station.
Sample depth in meters. Surface samples have
"zero" depth as do samples for which depth is
unknown.
Date and time the sample was collected by the
field person.
A code indicating whether or not water was
flowing at the time of the sampling event and in
which direction it was flowing if it was flowing.
Indicates where a sample was collected with
respect to a control structure. If downstream
and flowing then higher turbidity may be
expected. Code are 0 = Undefined.
1 =Upstream, 2 = Downstream.
Keeps track of the kind of sample. This is espe-
cially useful for water quality data. This field is
called sample type new because of an effort
underway to make this attribute hold a single
piece of information. Previous use of the sample
type field allowed for several pieces of informa-
tion to be stored in one column. As part of
decomposing sample type, sample type new,
matrix, and collect_method were created.
The medium in which the water to be analyzed
is resident.
Weather conditions when sample was taken g.
0 = Undefined, 01 =clear skies, 02=slight over-
cast, 03 = medium overcast, 04=very overcast,
05 = drizzles, 06 = rain.
58
Appendix B
-------
Result
Column Name
Samp_id
Remark code
Test number
Test_Name
Value
Units
Contains the Test results of the Sample that was collected for given samplejd.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
Size Constraints Comments
1 3 Foreign Key
Foreign Key
Unique
25
11.3
Identifies a discrete sample within a project.
Usually sequential numbers 00001-99999.
Refers to TS_Sample.
Comprised of one or more data qualifiers as
applied by the lab or project manager. These
data qualifiers are approved by DEP. Refers to
TS-Remark table.
Numeric code used to identify individual tests
within the laboratory. Description with test
names and numbers can be found in table
wqdora.tests_done. Eg. 25=TP04 "total phos-
phorus".
Numeric field which contains the result analyzed
for a specific test. Descriptions with test names
and numbers can be found in table
wqdora.tests_done. Eg 25=TP04 "total phos-
phorus".
Contains the units in which a test value is
reported by the laboratory (SFWMD or contrac-
tor) eg. MICROG/L. Ideally, all units for a given
test should be reported the same. When a lab
gives us different units for a test it should trigger
a review of the value so we make sure the data
set is consistent with respect to units.
TS Results Comment
Column Name
Samp_id
Test number
Lab_number
Comments
Date_analyzed
Dtim entered
Contains comments for the test results and general comments for the Sample for given
samplejd.
Data Type
VARCHAR2
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
VARCHAR2
DATE
DATE
Size Constraints Comments
1 3 Foreign Key
Foreign Key
2000
Identifies a discrete sample within a project.
Usually sequential numbers 00001-99999.
Refers to TS_Results.
Numeric code used to identify individual tests
within the laboratory. Descriptions with test
names and numbers can be found in table
wqdora.tests_done. Eg. 25 = TP04 "total phos-
phorus". Refers to TS_Results.
LIMS number.
Comments for Sample data.
Date and time the sample was analyzed by the
field person.
Date and time the row was loaded into the
sample table.
""Comments provided by Mr. Matthew Hinton
Table List for Data Mart
59
-------
Appendix C: Additional
Documentation for Data Mart
This appendix includes the instructions for creating the data mart for The Living Everglades
web site; however, if you plan to deviate from this data mart structure, this appendix will not
be enough by itself to allow you to create your data mart. In that case, your software consult-
ants will need to gain an understanding of the overall architecture of the data mart, which is
beyond the scope of this document.
Although these instructions are specific to the SFWMD's data mart, they contain informa-
tion that might prove useful to the IT specialists you have on staff and/or any software con-
sultants you hire to help you duplicate The Living Everglades web site.
The following are excerpts from "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March
2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
EMPACT Data Marl Goals
• Establish an easy-to-use data mart with essential elements derived from the existing DBHYDRO
database in a format that will support a web-based data mining application that integrates the
spatial and temporal aspects of the data.
• Use emerging database technology, compatible with the agency's relational database manage-
ment system, to implement a web-enabled data mart. The district's GIS will be a component of the
data mart.
• The combination of GIS and DBHYDRO will provide the basis for a graphical user interface (GUI)
that captures user input necessary to build a data mart query through spatial visualization (maps),
time window selection, and data specifics.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Functional Requirements
• Create the data mart
• Migrate the data from DBHYDRO to data mart
• Migrate the interMedia from various sources to data mart
• Real-time data transfer from DBHYDRO to data mart after migration
• Real-time intermedia data transfer from various sources to data mart after migration
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Appendix C
-------
Computing Environment
• Hardware. Sun Microsystems Enterprise 220R server running Solaris 2.7 (2 UltraSparc-ll 450MHz
processors, 2Gb memory, 32x CD-ROM, 182Gb Sun StorEdge A5100 disk storage array)
• Software. Oracle® 8i Enterprise Edition, Oracle Jserver, Oracle Adv Security Option v8, Oracle
Partitioning Option v8, Oracle® Spatial Cartridge, Oracle® Time Series Cartridge, Oracle®
Intermedia, Oracle SQL*Plus 8.1.7. FME beta version Build 480.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
EMPACT Data Mart Implementation
Novara has designed the transformation engine to create and implement the data mart.
Transformation Engine
This transformation engine consists of various components, and this chapter describes all in detail. It
contains configuration, creation, implementation, and migration scripts for spatial and time series,
and the intermedia front-end tool. This is physically divided into a directory structure, which takes care
of all the operations.
Directory Structure for Transformation Engine
The directory structure contains the Time Series, Spatial, and InterMedia directories. Each of the directo-
ries again contains the sub-directories for SQL files, LOG files, and for spatial, it also contains FME files.
For naming convention and for simplicity, the following variable is used and is defined:
EMPACT_HOME
For simplicity, we will mention $EMPACT_HOME for reference but it should be treated according to the
operating system.
Under $EMPACT_HOME there are four sub-directories:
• Configuration
• Spatial
• TimeSeries
• InterMedia
Each sub-directory contains some files and directories, which are described in the following sections in
detail.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Additional Documentation for Data Mai
-------
Configuration
This section contains the information regarding the configuration of the data mart and describes the
scripts used to create the data mart and its objects and for the manipulation of the objects. The scripts
are located in the following directory:
$EMPACT_HOME/configu ration
This directory contains two subdirectories:
• CREATE_SQL which contains the scripts to create various objects in Data Mart
• MAINTENANCE_SQL which contains the scripts to drop the index, table or to truncate the data
from the objects.
Each file contains self-descriptive commands as well as comments and description to make it easy to
understand. For any of these files, the following is the syntax to execute them.
$Oracle_HOME/bin/sqlplus (USER_SPECIFICATION) @file_name
USER_SPECIFICATION consists of the username/password@Oracle_service_name format.
Example:
sqlplus empact/password@emond @empact_table.sql
Here I have omitted $Oracle_HOME/bin as that is in my system PATH.
CREATE_SQL directory
This directory consists of the SQL scripts used to create the data mart. The following files are in this
directory:
• empact_ts_devl.sql. This script contains the commands to create all of the tablespaces in the
EMOND (i.e., the development instance of the EMPACT data mart). You should execute this script
from SQL*Plus and not from Server Manager (svrmgrl) as it contains the PROMPT command. If you
want to use it from server manager, comment out the PROMPT commands.
• empact_ts_prod.sql. This script is the same as the above script except, this is for the production
instance (i.e., EMONP). All three instances contain the separate distribution of data files. For distri-
bution, they have $ORAD1 and $ORAD2 variables declared. Please make sure that you have
declared these parameters pointing to the proper file system before running the script.
• empact_ts_trng.sql. This script is the same as the above two scripts except it is for training and
testing the data mart (i.e., EMONT). All other descriptions are the same as the other two scripts.
• empactjjser.sql. This script contains the CREATE USER command for creation of the EMPACT user.
It also contains the commands to grant the privileges to this user.
• empact_resource.sql. This script contains the command to assign the resources (i.e., quota on the
tablespaces to the EMPACT user).
• empacMable.sql. This file contains the CREATE TABLE commands for all the tables of the data
mart. All the tables have their own tablespace and storage clause. If any of them is partitioned, it
has a partition clause or if IOT (Index Organized Table) then it has an IOT clause. Storage clause is
estimated from the current size of database.
• empact_index.sql. This script contains the commands to create the indexes for all the tables
defined above. Some special parameters and tablespace and storage clause consideration is also
inc u e ' continued on next page
62 AppendixC
-------
continued from previous page
• empact_constraint.sql. This script contains the constraint clauses for all the tables of the data
mart. This file contains constraints other than PRIMARY KEY and NOT NULL, which are already
covered by the empact_table.sql script.
• empact_view.sql. This script contains the commands for creation of the data mart views.
• empact_sequence.sql. This script contains the commands to create the sequences used for the
data mart.
• empact_im_index.sql. This script contains the "PREFERENCES" and index creation commands for
InterMedia indices.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Step-By-Step Procedure To Create the Data Mart
For detailed description of each of these steps and scripts, refer to the configuration section where the
scripts are defined and described.
1. Create the data mart by using db_? Scripts that are standard to the SFWMD. Make sure to check
the log after creation. If the log is clean and there are no errors, then go to the next step.
2. Add user EMPACT with the privileges by executing the following script:
sqlplus system/password @empact_user.sql
3. Create the tablespaces according to the instance you want to create. Choose the proper script for
that instance. Make sure to check the log after creation. If the log is clean and there are no errors,
then go to the next step.
4. Assign the quota on these tablespaces (unlimited) to the EMPACT user by executing the following script:
sqlplus system/password @empact_resource.sql
5. Create the tables using the empact_table.sql script. Make sure to check the log after creation. If the
log is clean and there are no errors, then go to the next step.
6. Create the sequences using empact_sequence.sql script. Make sure to check the log after creation.
If the log is clean and there are no errors, then go to the next step.
7. At this stage, do not create the indices and also do not run the script for constraints. This can cause
performance problems for the data transfer.
8. Run the scripts for Spatial. Go to the $EMPACT_HOME/spatial and run the script "trans_fme.bat".
If there are problems running the full script, edit the script and place the rem before the wetland
and landuse commands (starting with the "for" command). Run one by one the components by
altering the rem against the "for" commands.
trans_fme.bat empact novara emond
Give the proper username, password and Oracle service name if it is changed. Make sure to check
the log after creation. If the log is clean and there are no errors, then go to the next step.
9. Run the script for station and site by running "trans_sql.bat" from the same directory.
trans sql.bat empact novara emond
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Give the proper username, password, and Oracle service name if it is changed. Make sure to check
the log after creation. If the log is clean and there are no errors, then go to the next step.
10. Run the Scripts for Time Series data transformation.
11. Run the script for constraints, (i.e,. empact_constraint.sql) by giving the following command
Sqlplus empact/password@emond @empact_constraint.sql
12. Run the script for indices to create the index (i.e., empactjndex.sql) by giving the following commands
Sqlplus empact/password@emond @empact_index.sql
Sqlplus empact/password@emond @empact_im_index.sql
13. Run the script to create the views of the data mart by giving the following command.
Sqlplus empact/password@emond @empact_view.sql
14. Check the log files at all the stages and make sure the creation process is clean. Take the back-
up at this stage. You are ready with the EMPACT database instance.
MAINTENANCE_SQL directory
This directory contains the scripts for maintenance of the data such as dropping objects or deleting
data, etc.
The following are the files in this directory:
empact_drop_table.sql. This script contains the commands to drop the tables from the data mart.
The sequence of dropping objects is important here. If you modify this script, make sure the integrity is
maintained, as it is necessary to drop the tables otherwise it will give you an error.
empact_drop_index.sql. This script contains the commands to drop the indices from the data mart.
This script is useful when you want to rebuild the index of the data mart.
empact_flush_table.sql. This script contains the commands to delete the data from all the tables. As
with the empact_drop_table.sql script, the sequence of command is important here too. If you modify
this script make sure to maintain this sequence otherwise it will give an error.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Appendix C
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Empact Backup
For the backup of the Empact database instances the following script is provided.
empact_hot_backup.ksh
This is UNIX script and is created to take the hot backup of EMPACT database instances. The instance
name is passed as a parameter at the runtime of this script. The script takes the Tablespaces in backup
mode all at one time because there will be no transaction—this is a data mart and transactions will be
done through the scripts only and those are scheduled. Some variables defined in this script must be
declared first in order to execute this script properly. You can schedule the execution of this script at night-
time when the hit for the queries are less. Before executing this script, make sure that the database
instance is in ARCHIVELOG mode otherwise the script will generate an error. The script copies the files to
file system and then once the files are copied and tablespaces are taken online, it compressed those files.
Example:
i
empact_hot_backup.ksh emonp > empact_hot_backup.log
This command will take the backup of emonp instance and will store the output to empact_hot_back-
up.log file which should be in /Oracle/local/log/ directory and after finishing the script, it will be e-
mailed to all the DBAs of district.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Spatial
This contains two types of transformations, one is based on FME and one uses SQL*Plus. FME trans-
formation is provided by means of mapping files, which are described in detail later in this section.
SQL transformation is in the form of SQL scripts. The data and information coming from ESRI Arclnfo
or ESRI export format is migrated using the FME mapping files while the information and data coming
from WREP and DCVP databases (e.g., for station and site) are migrated through the SQL script which
is also described in detail later.
Note: You must run the FME mapping files and related scripts only on the computer where FME
(Feature Manipulation Engine, provided by Safe Software URL: http://www.safe.com) is installed. Also
check the connectivity with Oracle using SQL*Plus or any other tool that you use to connect to Oracle.
FME Mapping Files
FME mapping files are located in the following directory:
$ EMPACT_H OME\spatia l\f me
The following is the list of features whose mapping files are in this directory along with the file name:
1. County $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\county.fme
2. Basin $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\basin.fme
3. Lake $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\lake.fme
4. Park $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\park.fme
5. Water Conservation Area $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\wca.fme
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6. Canal $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\canal.fme
7. Preserve $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\preserve.fme
8. Highway $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\highway.fme
These files contain the mapping information required to transfer the DATA from Arclnfo to Oracle
Spatial.
The following features have their own directory:
1. Land Use $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\landuse
2. Wetland $EMPACT_HOME\spatial\nwi
Each directory contains separate mapping files for the listed feature for each of the counties within the
South Florida Water Management District (e.g. landuse has 15 different files for 15 counties for the
land use feature)
Again the land use feature's mapping files are used to migrate the data from ESRI Arclnfo coverage to
Oracle® Spatial while the Wetland feature's mapping files are used to migrate the data from ESRI
Export (eOO) format files to Oracle® Spatial. This is because, due to the large amount of data we are
transferring, a lack of performance and when we tried using export format, it was increased signifi-
cantly hence we have used this format for Wetland coverage.
IMPORTANT
The following procedure is to be done because the data for land use of Palm Beach County was giv-
ing the Oracle internal error when the FME was used. We have contacted FME regarding this but are
still awaiting for the reply. Once you receive the new build of FME solving this problem, you can use
following file to translate the data using FME.
D:\SFWMD\migrate_scripts\FINAL\spatial\fme\landuse
This directory contains the following files:
shp2sdo.exe
This is an executable file which is used to generate the three files, .sql, .dot and ctl files for creation of
object, data file and SQL*Loader control file.
command syntax:
shp2sdo -g
-i -n -d
-x (,) -y (,)
= name of the shapefile to convert (do not include the .SHP suffix)
= name of the output layer and prefix for the generated output files
= name of the geometry column in the output table
= name of the id column
Xmin, Xmax, Ymin, Ymax: layer dimensions. If not specified, then the actual bounds of the shape file
are used
Example:
shp2sdo G:\landuse\lul995\pblu95 Iu95_pb -i objjd
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Appendix C
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continued from previous page
and it will generate the three files
Iu95_pb.sql which contains the DDL command to create the table
Iu95_pb.ctl which is the control file
Iu95_pb.dat which contains the data
All these files are included in this directory.
Then run the following command:
sqlplus empact/password@emonp @lu95_pb.sql
It will create the table. Here you can give the different username password specifications. After that
run the following command:
sqlldr empact/password@emonp control = lu95_pb.ctl data = lu95_pb.dat
and it will insert the data in the above created table. After running this, run the script
landuse_of_pb_trns.sql to pull this data into the SP_LANDUSE table by giving following command:
sqlplus empact/password@emonp @landuse_of_pb_trns.sql
Then you can delete the table LU95_PB created by the above procedure.
Full Migration
For all the above features, the mapping files are provided and also the master script using DOS com-
mands is provided by NOVARA. You must use the DOS batch file for most of the cases where you
want to transfer all the data.
The name of the script (DOS batch file) is as follows:
$ EMPACT_H OME\spatia l\tra ns_f me. bat
This dos batch file requires the following syntax:
trans_fme.bat (username) (password) (Oracle_service_name)
trans_fme.log
Note: for most of the cases, when you want to translate the data, use the above command only. A
separate command for each feature listed later in this section is not advisable, as it will not maintain
the data integrity of spatial data.
Selective Migration
The above file contains the commands to execute the fme.exe file using the mapping files described
above. That is used for full translation while if you want to migrate a selective feature, there are two
methods described below:
Command Mode:
Command mode can be used in the command window and it requires some parameters as given
here:
fme.exe (mapping_file_name) —_Oracle_UserName (username) —_Oracle_Password (password) —
DestDataset (Oracle_service_name)
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GUI Mode:
The mapping files also give you the capability to run it in GUI mode and give the parameters interac-
tively. For this, open Windows Explorer, go to the directory where the mapping file is, right click on the
file and click on "FME: Translate" option. It will open the FME window and will ask for the parameters.
The parameters description is as follows:
• Coverage Directory. This parameter requires the directory and file name in which the Arclnfo data is.
• Minimum X. Enter the minimum X coordinates of the boundary of the feature.
• Minimum Y. Enter the minimum Y coordinate of the boundary of the feature.
• Maximum X. Enter the maximum X coordinates of the boundary of the feature.
• Maximum Y. Enter the maximum Y coordinate of the boundary of the feature.
• Username. Enter the Oracle User Name.
• Password. Enter the Oracle Password. It won't display on the screen for security purposes.
• Service Name. Enter the service name of the Oracle instance in which you want to migrate the
data. Again, before giving all these three parameters, first check and make sure that the connectiv-
ity is there.
Once you give all the parameters and click on the OK button, the translation will start. At this stage, if
you want to cancel the translation, you can by clicking the CANCEL button on the window. For source
directory, make sure the specified drive and directory exists and you have a read permission on them.
If you want to browse and select the directory, you can do it by clicking on the ARROW button on the
right side of the text box of the directory.
Default for all the parameters are given but you can modify them. Also, the parameters Minimum X
Minimum Y, Maximum X and Maximum Y do not have any impact as it is not overwritten on the one
which we have given in the creation script. So if you want to actually modify, go to the table creation
script and modify the parameters and run that.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
68 AppendixC
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Editing the Mapping Files
In this section, the command and parameters are provided which are used in the FME mapping files.
Note: It is not advisable to edit the commands with the comments "Do Not Delete the Following"
unless and until you refer to the AAANUALS of FME.
Commands
• GUI. With this command you can display and prompt for the variables and titles. Following are the
options available and the syntax of that.
• TITLE. Used to display the title of the window of GUI. Example: GUI TITLE County DATA Translation
- SFWMD.
• INTEGER. Used to prompt for the integer type of variable. Note: In the example, "Dimension:" is
the prompt to display. Same is for all the following commands Example: GUI INTEGER
_Oracle_Dimension Dimension.
• FLOAT. Used to prompt for the float type of variable. Example: GUI FLOAT _Oracle_Minx Minimum X.
• CHOICE. Used to display the list box from which the user has choice to select. Example: GUI
CHOICE _Oracle_lndicies Yes%No%lncremental Create Indicies.
• TEXT. Used to prompt for the text type of variable. Example: GUI TEXT _Oracle_UserName User
Name.
• PASSWORD. Used to prompt for the password type of variable (* will be displayed at the time of
keystrokes). Example: GUI PASSWORD _Oracle_Password Password.
• DEFAULT_MACRO. Usually this is used in combination with GUI, to specify the default value of that
particular variable. Example: DEFAULT_MACRO _Oracle_UserName empact.
• LOG_FILENAME. With this command, you can specify the log file where the log will be generated
for particular mapping file. Default is same as the mapping filename with extension .log. Example:
LOG_FILENAME ./log/county.log.
• LOG_APPEND. Here you can give YES or NO. if you give YES, the next time you run the transla-
tion, log will be appended to the log file otherwise original log file will be deleted and new log will
be generated. Default is "NO". Example: LOG_APPEND NO.
• READER_TYPE. This is the command where you can specify the reader type i.e. format of the source
file (e.g., EDO for ESRI export format, ARCINFO for ESRI Arclnfo coverage etc.) Example:
READER_TYPE ARCINFO.
• WRITER_TYPE. This command is to specify the writer type (e.g., Oracle for Oracle relational model,
Oracle® 8i for Oracle objects relational Model etc.) Example: WRITERJTPE Oracle® 8i.
• Oracle8l_SERVER_TYPE. This command is used to indicate which format the data should be trans-
lated into (either relational or object) Default is Oracle® 8i.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Additional Documentation for Data Mai 69
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Understanding the FME Mapping File
FME mapping files are separated in two sections. One section consists of the definition and assign-
ment of values to the variable and set the environment for the translation in which the above men-
tioned commands are used. The other section consists of the mapping of source attributes to the
destination attributes as well as the parameter and variables we have defined in the previous section.
The Mapping Definition section consists of the definition of source and destination objects and the
relation between the attributes of source and destination.
Full description of the mapping section is out of the scope here, but for that you can refer the FME
documentation. However some understanding and the entries we have made is described here.
Following is the listing from mapping file:
ARCINFO_DEF DBASINS_poly
DBASINS_ binint
BASIN char(25)
In this section, the source object description is given. First line indicates the reader type (i.e., ARCIN-
FO) and the name of the source object (i.e., DBASINS_poly), followed by the definition of attributes for
that object.
Oracle8l_DEF SP_BASIN
Oracle_model object
Oracle_create_indices $(_Oracle_lndicies)
Oracle_index_commit_interval $(_Oracle_lndexCommitlnterval)
Oraclejevels $(_Oracle_Levels)
Oracle_numtiles $(_Oracle_NumTiles)
Oracle_min_x $(_Oracle_Minx)
Oracle_min_y $(_Oracle_Miny)
Oracle_max_x $(_Oracle_Maxx)
Oracle_max_y $(_Oracle_Maxy)
Oracle_dim $(_Oracle_Dimension)
OBJECT_GID varchar2(32)
GEOM geometry
BASIN_NAME varchar2(40)
In this section of mapping, the writer type is defined (i.e., Oracle® 8i) in this example followed by the
object name in which the data will be transferred (i.e., SP_BASIN) here.
The first 10 parameters pertain to the metadata of the spatial and index creation and the rest of the
three are the definition of attributes of the object.
ARCINFO DBASINS_poly
eOO_type eOO_poly
DBASINS_%DBASINS_
BASIN %BASIN "
In this section, the value of source attributes is assigned to the variable qualified by %.
Oracle® 8i SP_BASIN
Oracle_type Oracle_area
OBJECT_GID ©Concatenate ("13", %DBASINSJ
BASIN_NAME %BASIN
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Appendix C
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continued from previous page
In this section the value assigned to the variable is now reassigned to the destination attributes. Here
we can use the functions to manipulate the source value. In above example, the value of DBASIN_
variable is concatenate with "1 3" (i.e., constant) used for the basin coverage.
Note: All the coverages have one unique constant assigned in the EMPACT data mart.
If you have more questions regarding this, please refer to the FME documentation manual.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Time Series
Migration Procedure for Time Series Data
Time series data comes from DBHYDRO. We are migrating the data as per the selected tables.
First we will migrate the master table data then child tables.
The following are the master tables:
DM_AGENCY,
DM_FREQUENCY,
DM_REC ORDER,
DM_STATISTIC_TYPE,
DMJ3ROUP,
DM_CODE,
DM_DATE_QUALITY,
DM_DATA_TYPE,
(Note: We are filtering the 32 data types while migrating it to EMPACT. TS_VALID_DATATYPE is
designed to store the valid data type for the ease of maintenance).
And the following are the transactions:
KEYWORDJAB:
DM_MISSING_AND_GAP
DM_DAILY_DATA
DM_RANDOM_DATA
Water quality data tables:
SAMPLE:
COMMENTS
This migration procedure is divided into a few steps:
1. One time Full Migration for all the master, transaction and water quality data
2. Weekly (or regular time interval) update of transaction tables that takes care of new insertion,
updates and deletions
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Additional Documentation for Data Mai 71
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Step-by-Step Procedure for Full Migration
• Step 1. First of all run the script for the master table that will migrate all the master table data
using Sql*plus. This will migrate all master data from DBHYDRO into the EMPACT data mart. Here
all the data is migrated based on direct insert statement. Each and every master table script run by
this script will create log file in the log directory. This will help to find successful operation or failed
one. The following are the tables that will be migrated using this script. DM_AGENCY, DM_FRE-
QUENCY, DM_RECORDER, DM_STATISTIC_TYPE, DM_GROUP, DM_DATA_TYPE , DM_CODE,
DM_DATE_QUALITY. Run the ts_migrate.sql script
• Step 2. Then transfer the data for keyword tab table using ts_keyword_tab.sql. This script will filter
the 32 data types decided in design phase and migrate in to ts_keyword_tab table. The lookup
table for this 32 data type is TS_VALID_DATATYPE. Run the ts_keyword_tab.sql script (USAGE
@ts_keyword_tab ) This is a dedicated transaction to rollback segment RBS_LARGE.
• Step 3. The next step is to transfer the data for ts_missing_and_gap table using
Ts_missing_and_gap.sql script. Run the ts_missing_and_gap.sql script (USAGE
@ts_missing_and_gap.sql). This is a dedicated transaction to rollback segment RBS_HUGE.
• Step 4. Transfer the data for ts_random_data using ts_random_data.sql script. Run the ts_ran-
dom_data.sql script (USAGE @ts_random_data).
• Step 5. Transfer the data for ts_daily_data table using ts_daily_data.sql script. Run the
ts_daily_data.sql script (USAGE @ts_daily_data). This is a dedicated transaction to rollback seg-
ment RBS_LARGE. This is a big transaction. So, we have created rollback segment RBS_LARGE for
this transaction. Its size is 600 MB.
• Step 6. Water quality data. Run the ts_Remark.sql script (USAGE @ts_remark.sql). Run the ts_sam-
ple.sql script (USAGE @ts_sample.sql). This is a dedicated transaction to rollback segment
RBSJHUGE.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Update on Regular Intervals
Follow the steps to update the EMPACT data mart at regular intervals
Use the following script to keep track of deleted data into DBHYDRO and deleting the same from
EMPACT at regular intervals. Run the script ts_deleted_data.sql for keep track of deleted data in
DBHYDRO (Usage @ts_deleted_data). This is a dedicated transaction to rollback segment RBSJHUGE.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
Intermedia
Please refer to the Oracle® Intermedia user's guide and reference manual.
Source: "EMPACT User Guide, EMPACT Data Mart," March 2001, Novara Comp Services, Inc.
72 AppendixC
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Appendix D: Stakeholder
Recruitment Tools/Agenda
Meeting Agenda
EMPACT: Environmental Monitoring Public Access & Community
Tracking
The Living Everglades Stakeholders Meeting
SFWMD B50 Building
NT PC Training Room
January 30, 2002
Objective of the Workshop: To obtain specific stakeholder review, feedback, and
contributions for improving the site, as well as the training workshop format.
Noon Arrival and lunch
1:00 Brief updates on project (Big picture - Brian Turcotte, SFWMD)
1:30 Overview of site design changes (Trudy Morris, SFWMD)
2:00 Discussion and suggestions from stakeholders
2:30 Pilot Training Workshop (Loisa Kerwin & Alana Edwards - CES)
• Spring training workshops schedule and partners
• Overview of watershed
• Demonstration of tools to enhance research & education projects
• Tutorial on data retrieval and application
• Learn how to build your own profile
3:00 Participants navigate the site
Complete worksheet questions
Complete workshop evaluation
3:20 Wrap-up comments
3:30 Thanks and departure
Stakeholder Recruitment Tools/Agenda
73
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Web Site Evaluation for Workshop Attendees
EMPACT: Environmental Monitoring Public Access & Community Tracking
Jhe Living Everglades
"Public Reporting and Dynamic Access: Changing Regional Environmental Health of South Florida's Everglades
Ecosystem"
Web Site Development
Worksheet
Date:
The objective of this workshop is to obtain feedback and constructive suggestions for improving
EMPACT's The Living Everglades web site. Please remember that the web site is still a prototype under-
going design changes. Your feedback is critical to the success of this project. Please take a few min-
utes to give us some insight and your perspective by providing some information that can be used to
improve the site.
Remember that the site should be easy to use, yet informative and interesting for a wide range of
audiences including the general public, teachers, environmental professionals, and the media. The
site is now undergoing design changes that will improve these characteristics:
• Artistic and creative aspects
• Lay out and user-friendliness
• Ease of navigation through site, and
• Outlining the types of data accessible.
1. Please help us to improve The Living Everglades web site by offering constructive suggestions. First,
clearly indicate the section of the site, and then list the change or additions that would improve the
section indicated.
2. Please list any web resources that you want to be certain are linked to The Living Everglades web site.
3. In the Everglades Information section there are Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). Please develop
at least two FAQs questions that a new user to the site would ask in order to gain more back-
ground knowledge about the The Living Everglades. For example, "What agencies are responsible
for the restoration of the Everglades?"
Appendix D
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4. In the Obtaining Data sections, there are "predefined queries" that are statements used to focus a
data search. Please develop three predefined queries, one for each of the data parameters: water
quality, hydrology and weather. To help ensure that there are predefined queries addressing all 1 6
counties, please develop queries that are specific for your geographic region.
The query must specify a time range, location and data parameter in order to retrieve and graph the
requested data. An example of a new query could be: "Average monthly water levels for Lake
Okeechobee in the years 2000-2002".
5. Which topic in the Fun section of The Living Everglades web site did you find most interesting -
Coloring Books, Games, web Post Cards or Fun web Links? How could this section be improved?
Stakeholder Recruitment Tools/Agenda 75
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Workshop Evaluation Form
This evaluation form is a review of the training workshop format and facilitators, not the web site, as
the site is still under development. In your opinion, please respond with a score within the range of
1-5, with 5 indicating the highest score and 1 indicating the lowest score. Please fill in the blanks for
the open-ended items.
Strongly agree (5), Agree (4), Neither agree nor disagree (3), Disagree (2), Strongly disagree (1)
(4)1 (3)1 (2)
(5)
(1)
1. The facilitator had a strong understanding of the topic.
2. The facilitator(s) were organized and well prepared.
3. The specific objectives for this workshop were clearly stated and
accomplished in a clear, sequential manner.
4. The tutorial was clear and understandable.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
5. The workshop clearly demonstrated the applications available on the
web site.
6. The workshop allowed sufficient time for independent navigation of the
web site.
7. The workshop allowed sufficient time for completion of the worksheet.
8. The training workshop was valuable to me in order to learn the
potential applications of the web site.
9. I will be willing to host an EMPACT training workshop for my
organization.
1 .The best features of this training were:
2.Areas for improvement in the training workshop:
12. Please list any other comments, suggestions, requests, or concerns:
76
Appendix D
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Appendix E: Frequently Asked
Questions
1 Why are the Everglades at risk?
Water management is the primary challenge facing the Everglades. Thousands of acres of the
original Everglades have been drained, developed, or farmed, and a complex system of water
controls divert water from the Everglades. Additional stresses include pollution, introduction
of non-native species, species loss, and habitat loss.
2 What is being done to restore the Everglades?
A decades-long, $8 billion effort is currently underway to restore the Everglades, which is
being funded by both government monies and taxpayer dollars.
In 1992, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was authorized to develop a comprehensive plan
to restore and preserve South Florida's natural ecosystem, while enhancing water supply and
maintaining flood protection. The resulting Central and South Florida Project
Comprehensive Review Study—commonly called the Restudy— culminated in the develop-
ment of a Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP). The CERP was submitted to
Congress in April 1999 and approved in December 2000. The CERP is the "road map" for
restoring and protecting the Everglades.
The CERP is part of a larger effort to restore the Everglades ecosystem and provide for a sus-
tainable South Florida. This larger effort is being developed under the direction of the South
Florida Ecosystem Task Force by federal, state, local, and tribal leaders. The task force is
focusing on bringing together over 200 restoration projects under one framework.
3 What is the role of the South Florida Water Management
District (SFWMD) in the Everglades restoration plan?
The SFWMD's mission is to manage and protect South Florida's water resources by balanc-
ing and improving four major elements: water quality, flood control, natural systems, and
water supply. The SFWMD's main responsibility is operating and maintaining the Central
and Southern Florida Flood Control Project, built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to
harness the water resources of South Florida. The project consists of 1,800 miles of canals
and levees, 200 water control structures, and 16 major pump stations.
To implement the CERP, the SFWMD is collaborating with the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection to provide the right
amount of water and the right flow conditions to the Everglades while providing water for
urban and agricultural needs for a 50-year population projection. To complete this task, the
SFWMD and its partners are developing new management tools, conducting scientific and
economic studies, carrying out public outreach activities, and implementing engineering
projects.
4 What kind of data does the SFWMD collect?
The SFWMD collects data on water quality, hydrology, and flora/fauna species distributions
from individual research projects and approximately 6,000 monitoring stations throughout
South Florida. Some examples of the many types of data collected include water pollution
quently Asked Questions 77
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and salinity data, water flow, inundation patterns, species population and nesting data for
wading birds, and plant spatial coverage data.
The SFWMD also manages environmental reference documents on the goals and status of
Everglades restoration projects, geographic information system (GIS) data that map and
describe the features of South Florida, and audio and video files that provide a closer look at
the wildlife and water resources of the Everglades.
5 Why are these data useful for the public to access?
By accessing the SFWMD's comprehensive environmental measurement data, the general
public will be able to determine the current health of the Everglades ecosystem. Water quality
and hydrology measures describe the quality of wildlife habitat and the suitability of water
and wildlife resources for human consumption. By comparing the Everglades restoration
goals outlined in the SFWMD environmental reference documents to available data describ-
ing the current status of the Everglades ecosystem, the general public can assess the progress
of restoration projects.
6 Where can a user access The Living Everglades site?
Users can access The Living Everglades web site through the SFWMD's home page at
.
7 What are the primary kinds of data that are available on
the site?
Through the map-based query option, users can access data on water quality and hydrology
in the Everglades ecosystem, environmental reference documents, and audio and video files.
Biological data will be made available once CERP partners mutually agree on performance
measures for the data and when all of the appropriate data are gathered together.
8 What were the basic steps to setting up The Living
Everglades site?
The SFWMD first developed a data mart to contain the information that it wanted to make
accessible to the public via The Living Everglades web site. To create this web-accessible data
mart, the SFWMD used Oracle® 8i database server software, which is able to store environ-
mental measurement data as well as GIS data and audio, video, and document files.
To create a user-friendly web-based interface to the data mart, the SFWMD developed a web
site design, and underlying this design, a software application consisting of the Oracle® 9iAS
application/web server, MapXtreme® for Java™ mapping software, KavaChart charting soft-
ware, and other components.
9 What resources were expended to develop The Living
Everglades web site?
To develop The Living Everglades web site, the SFWMD hired software consultants, pur-
chased software, and provided management time for planning, direction, and review. The
costs to complete the data mart and web site design were approximately $200,000; however,
the costs for other agencies and organizations could be less, because SFWMD could provide
programming code for the data mart schema and web site design to others at no cost.
Appendix E
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Contact Brian Turcotte, 561 682-6579, or Marie Pietrucha, 561 682-6309, for more infor-
mation.
10 Can other agencies or organizations create a web site
similar to The Living Everglades?
Yes. This EPA EMPACT technology transfer manual can get you started; however, you will
ultimately need the technical assistance of software consultants to create this type of web site.
Contact Brian Turcotte, 561 682-6579, or Marie Pietrucha, 561 682-6309, of the SFWMD
for more information.
11 Why involving stakeholders in a project like The Living
Everglades web site is important?
For The Living Everglades web site, the stakeholders consisted of Florida citizens, including
students and teachers, the general public, and environmental scientists. The SFWMD's goal
for The Living Everglades web site was to ensure that all Florida citizens could assess the
progress of Everglades restoration projects. To achieve this goal, the SFWMD needed to
work with each group of stakeholders to create a web site that served their needs and provid-
ed a user-friendly interface.
12 What lessons did The SFWMD learn while developing The
Living Everglades web site?
The SFWMD learned a number of lessons when developing The Living Everglades web site.
The SFWMD recommends the following when constructing your web site:
• If possible, use only one IT company for both the data mart and the user interface.
The SFWMD hired one IT company to develop the data mart and a second IT company
to create the web site interface. Using different IT companies for each of these tasks
slowed down the development process. If two IT companies are necessary, be sure to facil-
itate the communication between all parties through explicit Statements of Work.
• Set aside funds for teaching staff new technology. The SFWMD did not realize that it
was required by its change control procedures (i.e., procedures to protect the information
security of in-house computer systems) to use in-house IT staff to implement the middle
tier technology in SFWMD's production environment. The SFWMD did not initially
budget for this and therefore needed to spend extra time teaching IT staff the new tech-
nology, performing coordination, and providing the desired oversight. The SFWMD
found it challenging to develop mentoring methodologies for agency staff for this new
technology.
• Take steps to avoid IT bottlenecks. The SFWMD encountered several IT bottlenecks
because it had difficulty obtaining a timely commitment of hours from SFWMD data-
base administrators and UNIX system administrators to perform certain necessary tasks.
To avoid this problem, the SFWMD recommends ensuring IT management and rank-
and-file employees commitment from the beginning, and not just the approval of execu-
tive management. The SFWMD spent a lot of time educating IT management (four
training sessions in 2 years). Realize that your IT department will usually be very busy
and understaffed and might experience staff turnover. Stakeholder interest (see Chapter 6)
and feedback might refuel interest among upper management, who then can provide
relief to overburdened IT staff.
quently Asked Questions 79
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Web site content management requires management attention to ensure resources are
used effectively and without redundancy. The SFWMD found that maintaining meta-
data for documents in the Oracle® interMedia portion of the data mart and linking doc-
uments to spatial features was a part-time job on a continuing basis for a content
manager, web site content management is a new discipline and requires management
attention to ensure resources are utilized effectively and without redundancy. The
SFWMD sees the data mart as a content management system. It notes that its data mart is
complementary to commercial content management systems since it extends functionality
that is not part of any commercial package. On the other hand, the data mart does not
replace commercial content management offerings because such offerings have robust
workflow built into them to handle version control and approval.
Address data security. The SFWMD data mart is created from documents and data
stored in different places and is backed up incrementally on a daily basis with a full back-
up performed each week. If the database were lost or corrupted it could be re-created. For
additional security, the database tables are "owned" by a single Oracle schema for which
password access is limited to a few key individuals, all of the data tables have public syn-
onyms, and the pseudo-user "public" has "read access" to all tables.
Consider the pros and cons of using software consultants. Software consultants can
provide for faster development of sophisticated web sites and can bring new expertise in-
house; however, they are generally more expensive per hour than in-house staff, and find-
ing consultants with an environmental background might be difficult. Although in-house
staff are usually less expensive per hour than consultants, there is always the risk of "staff
flight" after providing training on new technology. On the other hand, in-house staff
might become more dedicated to the project because they have had the chance to develop
the web site.
Budget extra time for deliverable review.
Appendix E
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Appendix F: Glossary
Active Server Pages: A specification for a dynamically created web page that utilizes ActiveX
scripting—usually VB Script or Jscript code. When a browser requests an ASP page, the web
server generates a page with HTML code and sends it back to the browser; therefore, ASP
pages are similar to CGI scripts, but they enable Visual Basic programmers to work with
familiar tools. (Definition from .)
Alkalinity: The capacity of bases to neutralize acids. Lime, for example, is an alkaline sub-
stance that can be added to lakes to decrease their acidity.
API (application program interface): A set of routines, protocols, and tools for building
software applications. A good API makes developing a program easier by providing all the
building blocks for a programmer to put together. (Definition from .)
Application: Software that performs a function for users.
Application server: A program that handles all application operations between users and an
organization's back-end applications or databases. In the case of The Living Everglades web
site, the applications include mapping and charting software, and the database includes the
data mart.
Archival database. The database that includes all of an organization's environmental meas-
urement data but is only accessible to the organization and not to the public.
ASP.NET: A server-side web technology created by Microsoft®. ASPNET takes an object-
oriented programming approach to web page execution. Every element in an ASP.NET page
is treated as an object and run on the server. Because the code is run straight from the
processor, pages load much faster than classic Active Server Pages, where embedded VBScript
or JScript had to be continuously interpreted and cached. (Definition from .)
Client: Clients are computers on which users run applications. Clients rely on servers for
resources, such as files, devices, and sometimes processing power. (Definition from
.)
Client/server architecture: Design of a computer system or web site that involves at least
two networked computers—the client and the server.
ColdFusion: A product that includes a server and a development toolset designed to inte-
grate databases and web pages. Cold Fusion web pages include tags written in Cold Fusion
Markup Language (CFML) that simplify integration with databases and avoid the use of
more complex languages like C++ to create translating programs. (Definition from
.)
Crash: A serious computer failure. A computer crash means that the computer itself stops
working or that a program aborts unexpectedly. (Definition from .)
Glossary
-------
D
Data access/delivery system: A system for providing users with access to environmental data
that includes a database query and a method for displaying query results.
Database: A collection of data organized by fields, records, and files. A field is a single piece
of information; a record is a complete set of fields; and a file is a collection of records.
(Definition from .)
Database management system (DBMS): A collection of computer programs that enables
users to store, modify, and extract information from a database. (Definition from
.)
Database server: Computer system that processes database queries.
Data mart. A subset of an archival database. In the case of The Living Everglades web site, the
data mart includes the SFWMD data that are accessible to the public.
Data transfer: Transmittal of data between one computer and another (e.g., between the web
server and the user's computer).
DBHYDRO: The SFWMD's archival database.
Dissolved oxygen: The oxygen freely available in water, which is vital to fish and other
aquatic life and for the prevention of odors. Dissolved oxygen levels are considered one of the
most important indicators of a water body's ability to support desirable aquatic life.
Secondary and advanced waste treatments are generally designed to ensure adequate dissolved
oxygen in waste-receiving waters.
Download: The process of copying a file (e.g., database query results) available through a
web site to a user's computer.
Drop-down list: A drop-down list is a box with an arrow that a user can click to view a
number of choices that can be selected.
Ecological monitoring: Monitoring of ecosystem characteristics that can impact wildlife
habitat and water quality.
Ecological restoration: Actions to restore ecological processes to their natural state, thereby
restoring wildlife habitat and water quality.
Ecosystem: All of the interacting organisms in a defined space in association with their inter-
related physical and chemical environment.
Entity relationship diagram: A diagram that shows a database structure.
Environmental reference documents: Documents that describe the ecological restoration
projects and goals of a particular agency or organization.
Fecal coliform bacteria: A bacteria found in the intestinal tracts of mammals. Their presence
in water or sludge is an indicator of pollution and possible contamination by pathogens.
Appendix F
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Firewall: An electronic system designed to prevent unauthorized Internet access to a private
computer network. (Definition from .)
Gateway: A node on a computer network that serves as an entrance to another network.
(Definition from .)
Geocoding: Computer-automated process that assigns coordinate values (e.g., latitude and
longitude) to maps.
Geographic Information System (GIS): Tools used to store, transform, manipulate, ana-
lyze, and produce geographical data. These data may exist as maps, three-dimensional virtual
models, tables, and/or lists. (Definition from .)
Graphical User Interface (GUI): The HTML links, icons, buttons, checkboxes, and drop-
down lists that allow a user to tell the web site to perform certain commands with a click or
two of a mouse button.
Hardware: Computer equipment, such as disks, disk drives, display screens, keyboards,
printers, boards, and chips. (Definition from .)
HTML (HyperText Markup Language): Computer programming language used for creat-
ing web pages.
Hotlink (Hyperlink): An element in an electronic document that links to another place in
the same document or to an entirely different document. Typically, users click on the hyper-
link to follow the link. Hyperlinks are the most essential ingredient of all hypertext systems,
including the World Wide Web. (Definition from .)
Icon: Icons are an integral part of any GUI. Icons are pictures that represent computer com-
mands. Users simply click on the picture to initiate the command rather than typing pro-
gramming code.
J2EE. Short for Java™ 2 Platform Enterprise Edition. J2EE is a platform-independent,
Java™-centric environment for developing, building, and deploying web-based enterprise
applications online. The J2EE platform consists of a set of services, APIs, and protocols that
provide the functionality for developing multi-tiered, web-based applications. (Definition
from .)
Java™: An object-oriented programming language that is often used to create web sites.
Java™ Server Pages (JSP). JSPs use scripts and work in tandem with HTML code, separat-
ing the page logic from the static elements, such as the actual design and display of the page.
Embedded in the HTML page, the Java™ source code and its extensions help make the
HTML more functional, for example, in dynamic database queries. JSPs are not restricted to
any specific operating environment or server.
Java™ Virtual Machine: Software that interprets Java™ code.
Glossary
-------
K
KavaChart: KavaChart is the charting software used by the SFWMD to help create The
Living Everglades web site. Visual Engineering, Inc. created KavaChart.
Library. In computer programming, a library is a collection of precompiled routines that a
program can use. The routines, sometimes called modules, are stored in object format.
Libraries are particularly useful for storing frequently used routines because programmers do
not need to explicitly link them to every program that uses them. A computer program can
automatically look in libraries for routines that it does not find elsewhere.
M
Map coverage: In GIS, a map that only displays one type of feature; for example, all canals
or all watersheds in South Florida. By overlaying different map coverages in GIS, users can
query the GIS system to complete analyses of the relationships between the features in the
different map coverages.
MapXtreme® for Java™: Mapping software used by the SFWMD to create The Living
Everglades web site. Maplnfo® created MapXtreme® for Java™.
Mercury (Hg): A heavy metal that can accumulate in the environment and is highly toxic if
breathed or swallowed. Heavy metals are metallic elements with high atomic weights (other
examples are mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and lead) that can damage living things
at low concentrations and tend to accumulate in the food chain.
Microsoft® Access: A database management system produced by the computer company
Microsoft®.
Middle tier: The part of a three-tier client/server architecture that holds applications and the
web server.
Monitoring station: Measuring devices at a particular geographical location used to collect
environmental data.
MVC (Model-View-Controller) Architecture: MVC separates three distinct forms of func-
tionality within an application. The Model represents the structure of the data in the applica-
tion as well as application-specific operations on those data. A View (of which there may be
many) presents data in some form to a user, in the context of an application function. A
Controller translates user actions (mouse motions, keystrokes, etc.) and user input into appli-
cation function calls on the Model, and selects the appropriate View based on user prefer-
ences and Model state. (Definition from CostXpress at
)
N
Network: At least two computer systems linked together to perform a function.
Nitrate: A compound containing nitrogen that can exist in the atmosphere or as a dissolved
gas in water and can have harmful effects on humans and animals. Nitrates in water can
cause severe illness in infants and domestic animals. A plant nutrient and inorganic fertilizer,
Appendix F
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nitrate is found in septic systems, animal feed lots, agricultural fertilizers, manure, industrial
waste waters, sanitary landfills, and garbage dumps.
Object-oriented programming: A type of programming in which programmers define not
only the data type for a database structure, but also the types of operations (functions) that
can be applied to the data structure. In this way, the database structure becomes an object
that includes both data and functions. In addition, programmers can create relationships
between one object and another. For example, objects can inherit characteristics from other
objects. One of the principal advantages of object-oriented programming techniques over
procedural programming techniques is that they enable programmers to create modules that
do not need to be changed when a new type of object is added. A programmer can simply
create a new object that inherits many of its features from existing objects. This makes
object-oriented programs easier to modify. To perform this type of programming, one needs
an object-oriented programming language such as Java™. (Definition from .)
Object relational database: A relational database that can handle all types of data, including
audio, video, and user-defined data types, and not only numerical data.
Operating environment (also called the platform): The state of a computer, usually deter-
mined by which programs are running and basic hardware and software characteristics. For
example, when one speaks of running a program in a UNIX environment, it means running
a program on a computer that has the UNIX operating system. (Definition from
.)
Oracle: Computer company that primarily creates database products.
Oracle® interMedia: Data module in the Oracle® 8i database server that can hold audio
and video files.
Oracle® Spatial: Data module in the Oracle® 8i database that can hold GIS data.
Oracle® Time Series: Data module in the Oracle® 8i database that can hold most types of
environmental measurement data.
Pesticides: Substances or mixtures intended to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate any pest,
or used as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.
pH: The pH level of a body of water is an expression of the intensity of its basic or acid con-
dition. A body of water's pH level may range from 0 to 14, where 0 is the most acid, 7 is
neutral, and 14 is most basic. Natural waters usually have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5-
Phosphorus: An essential chemical food element that can contribute to the eutrophication
of lakes and other water bodies. Increased phosphorus levels result from discharge of phos-
phorus-containing materials into surface waters.
PHP: PHP Hypertext Preprocessor is a server-side, HTML embedded scripting language
used to create dynamic web pages. Because PHP is embedded within tags, the author can
jump between HTML and PHP (similar to Active Server Pages and ColdFusion) instead of
having to rely on heavy amounts of code to output HTML. And, because PHP is executed
Glossary
-------
on the server, the client cannot view the PHP code. Its strength lies in its compatibility with
many types of databases. Also, PHP can talk across networks. (Definition from .)
Plug-in: A hardware or software module that adds a specific feature or service to a larger sys-
tem. For example, a number of plug-ins exist for Internet browsers to enable the display of
different types of audio or video files. (Definition from .)
Portal product: Ready-made software that provides a central, browser-accessible resource of
an organization's data via an Intranet or through the Internet.
Presentation layer: The presentation layer is everything that appears on the web site and can
be thought of as the user interface as well.
Q
Query: A user's request for information from the environmental database.
Real-time data: Data that represent current conditions.
Relational database: A database management system that stores data in the form of related
tables. Relational databases are powerful because they require few assumptions about how
data are related or how it will be extracted from the database. As a result, the same database
can be viewed in many different ways. (Definition from .)
Restoration: Refers to ecological restoration. Actions to restore ecological processes to their
natural state, thereby restoring wildlife habitat and water quality.
s
Salinity: The percentage of salt in water.
Scalability: Ability of software and hardware to adapt to increased demands, such as the
number of simultaneous users and the amount of data uploaded or downloaded per day.
Schema: The database structure. Usually represented by an entity relationship diagram.
Scripts: Commands that can be executed without user interaction. For The Living Everglades
web site, the SFWMD uses scripts to update the data mart with data from DBHYDRO.
Server: A computer or device on a network that manages network resources. For example, a
database server is a computer system that processes database queries. (Definition from
.)
Servlet container: Software that handles servlets. Servlets are programs designed to be exe-
cuted from within another application and are housed on the server.
Site map: On a web site, an index that lists all of the categories of information available on
the site, how they are organized, and how they are related to each other.
Software: Computer instructions or data that perform certain functions for users.
Spatially relevant data: Data referenced to a specific geographic location.
Appendix F
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Structured Query Language (SQL): A standardized query language for requesting informa-
tion from a database. (Definition from .)
Temporally relevant data: Data from recent enough observations to allow for analysis of the
current state of an ecosystem.
Three-tiered client/server architecture: A special type of client/server architecture consist-
ing of three well-defined and separate processes, each running on a different platform: the
user interface, which runs on the user's computer (the client); and the functional modules
that actually process data. This middle tier runs on a server and is often called the applica-
tion server. It is a database management system that stores the data required by the middle
tier. This tier runs on a second server called the database server. (Definition from
.)
Time-series chart: Chart indicating the time or date for each data observation.
Two-tiered client/server architecture: Refers to client/server architectures in which the user
interface runs on the client and the database is stored on the server. The actual application
can run on either the client or the server. (Definition from .)
u
UNIX: A type of operating environment.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator): The global address of documents and other resources on
the World Wide Web. (Definition from .)
User: Anyone using a computer.
User-friendly: Refers to anything that makes using a computer easier for novices.
(Definition from .)
User interface: Method by which a user interacts with a computer program.
w
Web browser: A software application used to locate and display web pages. The two most
popular browsers are Netscape ® Navigator™ and Microsoft ® Internet Explorer™.
(Definition from .)
Web server: A computer that delivers (serves up) web pages. Every web server has an IP
address and possibly a domain name. Any computer can be turned into a web server by
installing server software and connecting the machine to the Internet. (Definition from
.)
Glossary
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Appendix G: Technical Contacts
For more information about the software products used by the SFWMD to construct The
Living Everglades web site, contact the following vendors and technical specialists:
• MapXtreme® for Java™. Created and distributed by Maplnfo®. Contact Paul Culligan,
public sector accounts, at 518 285-7220. Web site: www.mapinfo.com.
• Oracle® Corporation. Call 1-800-ORACLE-l or contact headquarters at: Corporate
Headquarters, 500 Oracle Parkway, Redwood Shores, CA 94065, phone: 605 506-7000.
Web site: www.oracle.com.
• KavaChart. Created and distributed by Visual Engineering, Inc. Phone: 650 949-5410 or
e-mail: info@ve.com. Address: 164 Main Street, 2nd Floor, Los Altos, CA 94022. Web
site: www.ve.com/index.html.
88 AppendixG
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SEFA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Please make all necessary changes on the below label,
detach or copy, and return to the address in the upper
left-hand corner.
If you do not wish to receive these reports CHECK HERE D:
detach, or copy this cover, and return to the address in the
upper left-hand corner.
PRESORTED STANDARD
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
EPA
PERM IT No. G-35
National Risk Management
Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300
EPA-625-R-02-020
January 2003
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