Urban runoff and
combined sewer
overflow
Richard Field, Robert A. Dorival,
Joseph Janeczek, Jr., /
U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Edison, N. J.
The impact of urban runoff on water quality
is a problem of increasing significance in the
field of water quality management.1 With
provisions' for the control of municipal and in-
dustrial wastewater having been made by the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), in accordance with the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act of 1972 (PL 92-500},
there is increasing concern over the control of
nonpoint sources of pollution.
A report to Congress,2 which reviewed the
status and problems of an $8 billion project
aimed at controlling flooding and combined
sewer overflows (CSO) in Chicago, recom-
mended that Congress define the extent of
federal assistance available to urban areas for
programs of this type. Serious questions were
raised concerning the implementation and effi-
cient coordination of projects shared between
local, state, and federal agencies.
While PL .92-500 addressed the control of ,
wastewater pollution through the requirement
of a minimum of secondary treatment at mu-
nicipal wastewater facilities, no clear national
policy has ever been established requiring any
technology-based effluent limitation for CSO.3
EPA analyzed five legislative alternatives for
the control of CSO, recommending that fund-
ing of CSO pollution abatement projects be
June 1979 '1281
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Literature Review"
continued under the' existing provisions (Sec-
tion 201) of PL 92-500.* ' Continuation.of the
present program was -deemed the best alterna-
tive since it is a working program and could be
more rapidly, modified by administrative guide-,
lines than legislative action.
The concept of best management practices
(BMP) is currently the accepted approach for'
the abatement of nonpoint sources of pollution,
Minton et al.5 examined the relationship be^
tvveen BMP and receiving water quality stan-
dards, recommending /the use of standards as
a measure, of the effectiveness of BMP pro-
grams. MePberson6 noted that operation and
maintenance costs of BMP can be very sig-
nificant. Oberts 7 reviewed the water quality
effects resulting from potential BMP, recom-
mending with others,8 that nonpoint sources of
pollution be addressed before, secondary treat-
• ment plants are upgraded any further.
Spooner et al.3 reported on a framework
water resources planning model that was de-
veloped and tested for Washington, D, C. - A
comparison was made of six management
strategies for 1992, including secondary waste
treatment, advanced waste treatment, storm-
water treatment, water conservation, dry waste
collection, and indirect estuary reuse. The
water conservation strategy was shown to have
the greatest cost-effectiveness.
• According to Grigg,10 a comprehensive
framework coordinating federal, state, and
local government agency programs is needed
to effectively institute BMP for urban runoff
control. Hiller et al,11 discussed legislative
and judicial techniques for controlling runoff.
The magnitude of the problem necessitates
an expanded research effort to generate data
necessary to address the most basic questions.
EPA's urban runoff pollution control research
and development program has sponsored over
150 projects in this area, Carlsson and Svens-
son12 reported that 40% of geohydrological
research in Sweden is being focused on urban
runoff, i particularly, on ways that -runoff can
•be infiltrated back into ground water with
minimal treatment.
For die past 4 years, annual symposiums on
urban stormwater management have been held
at the University of Kentucky. The sym-
posiums have included the presentation of
technical papers ^as well as indepth mini-
courses that have been identified as the most
effective method of disseminating information
on stormwater management techniques.13
In England, an international conference ad-
dressed the problem of urban storm drainage
and resulted in the published proceedings of
over 50 papers.*4 .In the U. S., four technol-
ogy transfer seminars sponsored by EPA were
held on CSO abatement and control pro-
cedures,15 and the proceedings of workshops on
urban stormwater management and stormwater ,
sedimentation and flood control have been-'
published.19'17 Specific papers from the EPA
technology transfer seminars are incorporated
in this review. Wanielista 18 published a col-
lege text and solution manual on stormwater
management. The text material could be com-
pleted in 44 classroom hours and deals with
meteorology, hydrographs, routing, receiving
water quality, -and management practices for
urban as well as non-urban runoff.
CHARACTERISTICS 1
Discharges of stormwater alone can seriously
affect water quality, and Pirner and Harms 19
concluded that urban runoff was the major
contributor of pollutants to receiving waters
•from,a 70-km2 (27-sq mile) watershed studied
in So'uth Dakota. For a 1 875-km2 (724-sq
mile) area sampled in Dallas,20 a 12-hr storm
event contributed 75% of the biochemical oxy-
gen demand (BOD) pollutant loading and 99%
of the total suspended solids (TSS). In the
Milwaukee River, large dissolved oxygen (DO)
sags were observed downstream from storm
events.31 The cause was identified as CSO,
which had a scouring effect on the river's
benthic deposits on discharge. In Houston,
pathogenic concentrations in storm water var-
ied with peak flow rates for both urban and
rural areas.22
The concentration and loading of pollutants
in storm "water is important for proper evalua-
tion of management strategies. Mueller and
Anderson 2a discussed a mathematical model
for assessing the characteristics and magnitude
of CSO based on vvastewater treatment plant
monitoring records and mass and flow "'balance
equations. CharacHis et al,1* summarized
the findings' of a 3-year study of watersheds
near and in Houston, Tex., which established
relationships between land use and stormwater
quality and between rainfall intensity and
pollutant loading. In a Norwegian study,25
a correlation between the pollution concen-
tration and percent impervious surface was
identified. Combined sewers carried almost
twice the pollutant mass of separate sew-
ers, Tupper and Waller's 28 preliminary re-
sults revealed that the ratio of pervious to im-
pervious surfaces is not correlated with the
ratio of percent of runoff from storms.
1282 - Journal WPCF, Vol. 51, No.. 6
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Literature Review
Storm runoff sampling results from a catch-
ment of' Stevenag*, New Town, England,2'
showed that the behavior of suspended solids
(ss) and of heavy metals is very closely re- •
lated, with at least,90% of the heavy metals
being present in the participate phase, or being \
rapidly adsorbed on ss at the time of sampling.
Slimak and Harris 2S reported that stormwater
discharges collected for artificial .recharge of
ground waters appear to present the most sig-
nificant source of potentially toxic organic
residuals contaminating Long Island -aquifers.
In relation to PL 92-500, more emphasis
should be placed on the problems, effects, and
management practices associated with nonpoint
pollution sources.29 In response to this need,
McPherson 30 prepared a report to assist plan-
ners and agencies in dealing with long-range
planning of urban runoff control that would
also be helpful to the 208 planner. 'Many is-
sues that are commonly overlooked ,in the
planning process were cited, and a compilation
of papers dealing with urban runoff controls
was presented. 'Rimer and Nissen S1 reported
' on the major findings of, a 208 areawide waste-
water management plan and identified , and
evaluated the effects of nonpoint source runoff
as it is related to land use and water quality,
Novotny and Goodrich-Mahoney 3- did a simi-
lar study for the Great Lakes "area, and con-
cluded, by using a calibrated and verified h'y-
drologic transport model, that large amounts
of nonpoint source pollutants are washed into
surface waters. With the exception of devel-
oping urban areas, most of the nonpoint source
urban pollution originated from impervious.
areas. According to Judd and Carlson,33 the
major contributors of pollutants' to receiving
waters are agricultural- and urban runoff.
Studies 3* have shown that both agricultural
and urban runoff have high concentrations of
phosphorous, which is deposited in stream
sediments.
Fecal material from dogs is a significant
urban runoff pollutant. Dog wastes and fer-
tilizers contribute 23% and 22%, respectively,
of the nitrogen contained in San Francisco's
annual runoff,36 A study in England " esti-
mated that for a catchment area of 136 ha,
serviced by separate sewers, =20 tons of wet
dog fe'ces is annually added to the pollutant
load of the runoff,
Goettle M discussed the sources, characteris-
tics, and concentrations of pollutants entering
rain and storm water from the air, using two
equations. Randall et al,S7 reported that wash-
out of atmospheric contaminants occurred dur-
ing" the early stages of precipitation events.
Horkeby and Malmquist3B discussed the find-
ings of an investigation on a catchment in
Gotenburg, Sweden. Fallout of 17 heavy
metals, polychlorinated biphenyls,1 hexachlo-
robenzene, and polynuclear . aromatic hydro-
carbons was studied. Pope et. al.m discussed
the results of an investigation of oil, lead, hy-
drocarbons, ' metals, and solids in runoff from
roadways and the effect of these pollutants on
the environment. Malmquist and Svensson 40
reported on a model being researched to pre-
dict concentrations of pollutants' in storm
water. Preliminary results indicated a relation
between phosphorous levels and population
and between lead and traffic levels, ss and
chemical oxygen demand (COD) were related
to population and traffic.
In Australia,*1 .a study is being conducted to
identify the types of ,land disturbances and
their effects on the hydrological and sedimen-
tation characteristics of their catchments. Lack
of data has been an inhibitor to the successful
application of numerical models for simulating
rainfall-runoff-sediment processes. A study in
Virginia 42 monitored six representative sources
using automatic samplers and, flow measuring
devices in an attempt to define runoff charac-'
teristics on the basis of -land use, Mattraw
and Sherwood 43 monitored 106 runoff produc-
ing storms in a 19-ha residential area in Florida
which was, 61% lawns and 39% impervious
surfaces. Storm water was routed in grassy
swales and runoff was typically 5 to 10%
PLANNING AND DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
McPherson ** surveyed the technical issues
of importance for long range urban runoff con-
trol planning to assist, agencies participating
in the development of comprehensive areawide
plans and explored the mechanics of coordinat-
ing comprehensive plans. It was recom-
mended that such plans allow for continual,
development to remain long range. Murphy 45
discussed the considerations that should be
explored when-developing a CSO master plan.
The report outlined what should be included
in a facility planning study and enumerated
15 major areas to be considered for construc-
tion and evaluation of a framework for a CSO
system. Driscoll and Mancini *° provided
methods for estimating the benefits of con-
trolling CSO, discussed equations for receiv-
ing stream analyses, and outlined what should
be included in a 201 facilities plan for CSO.
Jalal 47 provided a methodology for screen-
June 1979 , 1283
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Literature Review
ing urban development and runoff control
alternatives using results of the STORM model
to calculate a pollutant loading index. The
index formed a basis for comparison of alterna-
tives, and determinations of the optimum
storage-treatment combination were effected.
.A cost-effective comparison of management
strategies including separate storm and sani-
tary systems, conventional combined system,
and advanced combined system with varying
amounts of in-pipe and/or satellite storage and
controlled flow routing, was made in Elizabeth,
N. J.4S Alternatives for pollution abatement
from sewer overflows and stormwater dis-
charges were evaluated using the SWMM and
STORM models to characterize combined sew-
age and stormwater runoff in a 265-ha (655-
acre) drainage district of the city.
Good data are essential for developing and
evaluating a model, and Huber and Heaney *'J
gave a list of requirements including amount
of rainfall, runoff peak flow, and durations.
Some possible sources of acceptable data were
given. Alley50 presented guidelines for the
collection and use of urban stormwater data,
including an overview on modeling and a com-
prehensive examination of network planning
and design. Information concerning the in-
strumentation and coordination of a data col-
lecting program was included. Van den Berg 5l
described a data acquisition system based on
a programable desk calculator as controller.
The system allowed for continuous monitoring
of precipitation, storm drain discharge, sub-
surface drainage and groundwater level. Ver-
worn 52 discussed the apparatus and. results
from an integrated electronic data collecting
system. The system measured and recorded
both rainfall and discharges into the sewers.
By the use of 4 rain gauges, and 10 water level
gauges in an integrated system, the data are
transmitted to a central recording office. The
only conclusion that has been drawn is that the
lag time between rainfall and runoff is 3 min-
utes at most, which is less than documented
in many references. * .
Changon and HuffBS reported progress
through the first 2 years of the Chicago Hy-
drometeorological Area Project (CHAP) to-
wards its Phase II goals of developing a pre-
diction and monitoring system for specifying
rainfall quantity over the area. A methodol-
ogy for using precipitation data for hydrologic
models for the design of hydrologic systems is
also being developed. Monitoring facilities
include a dense drainage network of over 320
recording rain gauges and a 10-em weather
radar with state-of-the-art signal processing
and an attached computer that allows for rapid
digitization of rainfall data. Melanen s* de-
scribed the objectives and results of a 3-year
Finnish urban stormwater project now in its
second year. The project's objectives include
identification and quantification of the sources
and transport of pollutants and analysis of the
factors affecting stormwater' quantity and
quality.
Toyokuni and MasahiroC5 presented tech-
niques for catchment modeling and runoff
simulation for urban areas. Models used were
based on the kinematic wave method relating
to runoff. Sherman 56 discussed a kinematic
model for overland flow and showed all equa-
tions necessary for evaluating two cases, with
and without ground infiltration. Based on
data from 41 urban watersheds, empirical
equations were developed by Espey et al.51 to-
aid in'synthesis of 10-minute unit hydrographs.
Scaled nomographs of five descriptive param-
eters were given along with a sample 10-min-
ute unit hydrograph., Hossain et alss studied
linear and non-linear system models to deter-
mine the response of watersheds during dif-
ferent stages of urbanization. It was con-
cluded that an urban watershed is non-linear
and that the accuracy 'of the instantaneous unit
hydrographs (IUH) depends on the time in-
terval and digital filtering used in getting
. readings for the IUH, Jewell et o/.fi9 used the
SWMM model to illustrate a new approach'for
calibrating quality and quantity independently.
Verification revealed a need for improved
methods for predicting pollutant accumulation
rates,
Mays and Tung °° presented a sewer net-
, work flow-routing model based on a state
, variable approach to systems analysis and syn-
thesis. This lumped mathematical model is
capable of describing temporally and spatially
varied flow through sewer networks, Price and
Kidd81 described a design and simulation
method for storm sewers, similar to the TRRL
method, but using a surface runoff model that
treats paved and roof areas separately. The
pipe flow routing method used makes allow-
ance for upstream surcharging of a pipe.
. Arnell and Lyngfelt8- presented information
on a variation of the Preul and Papadakis
urban runoff model. The model divides the
runoff into five categories: (1) infiltration, (2)
' surface depression, (3) overland flow, (4) gut--
ter flow, and (5) sewer routing. The model
takes in data from hyetographs and produces
runoff hydrographs. 'This modified model was
1284 Journal WPCF, Vol. 51, No. 6
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Literature Review
- verified to be most accurate for single storm
events in small catchments with high percent-
ages of impervious surfaces.
Packman63 described a planning model
called FLOUT, which simulates flooding in
partly urbanized catchments. By using re-
corded data collected over a 16-year period,
the FLOUT model was compared to the actual
flow, curve and a simple unit hydrograph.
The results show the predicted hydrograph
superior to the simple hydrograph and very
similar to the actual flow; however, it tends
to over-predict the beginning and under-
predict the recession of the hydrograph. A
synoptic rainfall data analysis program (SY-
NOP) -was developed for use as a tool to
summarize important variables, of hourly rain-
fall recorded to determine seasonal trends.64
Hajas et oL65 described an assessment made -of
a 17 353-krn2 (6 700-sq mile) area in south-
western Pennsylvania, to predict the urban
runoff flows and loads. The STORM model
was selected and field data were obtained us-
ing automatic samplers and flow meters. Re-
sults were used to adjust computer input data
to obtain more accurate model simulation.
Wu and Ahlert60 reviewed state-of-the-art
methods for predicting storm runoff pollutant
loads. Predictive approaches required efficient
samplings and technically sounder methods of
data analysis. Application of a particular ap-
proach was found to depend on (the purposes of
prediction and availability of resources.
Tucker and Mortimer ST discussed the equa-
tions and results of a solids model based on
first flush and subsequent solids behavior, a
flow model using both Vessman hydrographs
and Watkins time area method, and a solids
pollution generation model. Price and Mance e8
described a mathematical model to predict the
amounts of ss in runoff from an urban water
catchment, This model was tested against ob-
served events and shown to be more "realistic"
'than the conventional SWMM and STORM
models.
Boggs et ai69 discussed the use of the
STORM model along with mathematical equa-
tions for the prediction of flow and loads of
storm water in an areawide 208 program. This
information was then used in a design storm
and receiving water models that included costs
and treatment processes. Quick and Pipes70
gave an outline description of a hydrologic
model used on the University of British Co-
lumbia watershed that calculates snowmelt and
rain runoff from meteorological data for moun-
tainous watersheds. A .revised temperature
index for calculation of snowmelt and a param-
eter for describing enhanced watershed re-
sponse from high intensity rainfall were
presented.
Torno71 reported on presentations of the
U. S. and Canadian SWMM Users Group
meeting of November 1977, A new version
of SWMM was presented, along with various
other pertinent papers. Perks T2 and others TS
discussed a Canadian SWMM user's manual
that expanded die capabilities of the original
SWMM by integrating snowmelt quantity and'
quality models with it, A method of inter-
facing the STORM -and SWMM models for
application in Canada was discussed. A re-
port by the Ministry of the EnvironmentI4
described the second Canadian SWMM work-
shop that provided some background into the
technology of urban stormwater modeling. In-
structions were presented for setting up and
conducting simulations for specific problem
areas using the Canadian SWMM, and simu-
lation results were discussed. Diniz7S dis-
cussed modifications that -were made to the
EPA SWMM so the model could be used for
an urban community using innovative drainage
methods in a naturally drained area. The
changes involved modification in the computa-
tion of infiltration and three subroutines which
allowed for calculating normalized area dis-
charge curves for natural channel sections,
modeling of base flow conditions, and porous
pavement. The transport part of SWMM was
altered to contain a subroutine that computed
discharge curves for flow routing of drainage
systems. 'To improve the model estimates of
total pollutant mass flow, direct user input
data were necessary since a new methodology
was "beyond the.scope of the current project"
presented. The predicted and 'actual results
from this modified model were well correlated.
Price and Howard 70 evaluated two model
, storm profiles used in the design of pipe di-
ameters and sewer systems in -the United
Kingdom. The RN~35 (Road Note 35) and
the FSR (Mere Flood Studies Report) were
compared; RN 35 used return period and loca-
tion as the only variables, while FSR also used
duration and peakedness. The FSR proved to
give better predictions. Svensson 7~ described
a study of a catchment in Gothenburg, Sweden,
• which evaluated the SWMM model. Results
showed the actual and simulated hydrographs
were veiy close in one instance and not close
in -two others.
McPherson 7S examined current analysis pro-
cedures for storm drainage system designs and
June 1979 1285
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Literature Review
concluded that the analysis of actual rainfall
histories is of greater reliability for use by
local officials than the use of a synthetic storm.
especially where detention storage may he part
of the system, Marsalek '9 described the use'
of synthesized'and historical storms for cal-
culating the peak flow and for urban drainage
design. Results were compared with those of
two actual events with the same return periods.
Pennine and PerkinsBtt discussed the hydraulic
design of a diversion-retention facility in Bich-
mond, Va., which was evaluated and refined
using a 1:18 scale model.
SOURCE CONTROLS
Day and Crafton 8l presented various tech-
niques for decreasing flood potential and run-
off quantity. Basic site and community de-
sign guidelines for managing urban storm
water were discussed within a conceptual
framework that stressed the importance of
land use in maintaining water quality.
Pitt **• *- reported on the sources, types, con-
centrations, and costs of removal of pollutants
from streets using various street cleaning prac-
tices. The location of the pollutants in the
streets was discussed as well as the equipment'
used and effectiveness (pollutant removal).
Malmquist,88 reported that street sweeping re-
moved 57%'of the ss and up to 65% of the
heavy metals found on the street.-
McBride et al.si described a rational method
for determining the economic impacts of snow
and ice control runoff on the surrounding en-
vironment and in controlling the amount of
saline runoff from highways 'and stockpiles.
An economic model, developed and verified on
a small scale, was presented in a user's- man-
ual.85 Krukar and Cook 8e reported on field
testing and laboratory optimization of several
hydrophobic coatings to reduce the adhesion
of ice and snow to pavements; thereby reduc-
ing the use of salts. Some factors. considered
were pavement types, wear, .environment, and
toxicity . Preliminary results showed combina^
tions of modified- traffic paint and room tern-
'perature-curing silicon rubber to be the most
effective formulas. Substances were optimized
towards specified objectives, including cost
effectiveness, minimum environmental pollu-
tion, and use of standard materials and equip-
ment. Numerous formulations were laboratory
and field tested and the substances were
ranked on change in skid resistance, water
beading, and snow/ice removal.87
North Carolina created a commission and a
26-member inspection force to implement its
sedimentation pollution control act of 1973.8S
State construction sites received top priority
consideration, and a self-funding program was
initiated to educate- construction contractors
about the act.
Barfield et al.w discussed the Universal Soil
Loss Equation and presented a new model for
rational design of sediment detention reser-
voirs. Methods of stabilizing soil and prevent-
ing sediment -from entering sewers and water-
ways were discussed. The amount of sediment
and pollutants normally transported' from ur-
ban areas to receiving waters can be greatly
reduced by good land use planning resulting
in storm drainage systems that use ' natural
drainage and one-site stormwater detention
storage. •
According to Field,90 flood, erosion, and
pollution control technologies must be inte-
grated so that retention and drainage facilities
are simultaneously designed'for pollution con-
trol. Additionally, land management and non-
structural techniques must be integrated and
maximized to reduce the expenses of extract-
ing pollutants at potentially more costly down-
stream plants.
Guy 91 emphasized good planning combined
with surface stabilization and detention storage
as the most practical means of sediment man-
agement and listed principles useful in ac-
complishing good planning and on-site storage.
TsuchiyaD3 reported that, in Japan, detention
ponds are required for any large-scale land
, development to prevent flooding. Methods
for calculating peak flow and discharge, were
explained.
Successful low-cost, dual-purpose variations
of detention are ponding on parking lots,
plazas, recreation and park area, and on roof-
tops.88
Thelen and Howe M discussed the composi-
tion of porous pavement, its properties, main-
tenance requirements, and the advantage of its
use. A step-by-step method of evalauating the
applicability of porous pavement for a site and
for performing a site analysis were given.
Proctor and Redfem 94 assessed both on-site
and downstream stormwater detention facilities
in Canada and reported that rooftop storage
is practical in most commercial and industrial
areas. Detention facilities were indicated as
being effective in reducing peak stormwater
flow, while lowering overall drainage costs.
Theil and Candaras Oli reported on the Hydro-
brake, a device that can be used in combina-
tion with detention tanks for limiting the vol-
ume of runoff that enters the sewer system.
1286 Journal WPCF, Vol. 51, No. 6
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Literature Review
Studies in flood hazard areas showed -the
device to be effective.
Wanielista et al.s& reported on research be-
ing conducted on the potential of. aerobic and
anaerobic shallow-water ditches along high-
ways for hydrocarbon degration and deposi-
tion of heavy metals and petroleum products
from automobiles. High metal concentrations
in the soil, plants, and animal life near the
roadway's edge decreased with distance from
roadway. Wanielista and Yousef 9J discussed
the possibilities of using retention basins as
filtering percolation basins for storm waters"
first flush. Laboratory and field data and
equations used for determining dimensions and
feasibility for a basin were given, Cederwall
and Holstrad 98 discussed Swedish research on
hydrological and geohydrological conditions re-
lating to the use of' stormwater percolation
basins for recharge of groundwater supplies.
The basins ranged from gravel filled trenches
between houses to large, 0,81-ha (2-acre)
basins under parking Jots. Two full-scale
projects have been set up. The basins are
expected to recharge the aquifers as well as
cut down on costs by reducing the amount of
piping and decreasing volume of storm water
routed to the treatment plant,
COLLECTION SYSTEM CONTROL
Giordano "" reported observations of the ef-
fects,of sewer separation on wastewater quan-
tity and quality in an aluminum storm sewer
system in .LaSaQe, 111. The suitability of
aluminum as construction material for the
system is being technically evaluated over a
10-year post-construction period. Svenssoii
and Malmquist 10° studied the quality, and
quantity of sewage flow for a separate sewer
• system in a suburban area iri Sweden and
reported that sanitary sewers take up to 30%
of the total runoff volume. Sullivan et al,vn
discussed infiltration/inflow (I/I) as it relates
to sewer system evaluation, rehabilitation, and
design. Procedures for sewer system analysis
and evaluation studies were provided, as well
as a discussion on maintenance techniques, in-
filtration limits, and methods of testing for
infiltration in new construction.
According to Good,102 the benefit of using
computers in sewer investigations, including
flow monitoring, data analyses, sewer model-
ing, and economic analyses, is dependent on
the type of system investigated and the ac-
curacy of the information desired. Bettess
et cL1"3 gave an interim report on research on
a simulation unrestrictive surcharging model,
including the equations involved in'partially
filled and" surcharged pipes. The final model
will handle any number of surcharged pipes
in any configuration, Trotta et a/.104 evaluated
several on-line automatic strategies that re-
routed storm water within a sub-basin area to
minimize receiving water impacts. Weather
forecasting proved to be the most important
single factor in controlling overflows arid was
critical to the accuracy of the system. Re-
sponse time and efficiency were optimized by
computer control.
Stilley 105 presented a simulated Afield study
for I/I analysis of a municipal sewer system,
outlining the major considerations necessary
for such a study. Goulart and Kovacs10S
summarized the results of an I/I analysis
undertaken at Warren, R. I. A sewer system
evaluation survey and economic analysis
showed that reduction of inflow by 83% and
removal of 80% of infiltration would be the
most cost-effective alternative for upgrading
wastewater treatment facilities. Sullivan et
ai.107 surveyed local authorities to determine
the "extent and effect of tree roots in sewers.
Backwater flow intrusion control was analyzed
and' guidelines for economic analysis of I/I
control were outlined.
In Scotland,103 a committee investigating
the control and discharge of pollutants from.
storm overflows into receiving waters, studied
the use of storage and setting tanks to detain
CSO for treatment. The benefits of separate
versus combined sewer systems were also stud-
ied. Systems were studied in which runoff
from an area of concentrated pollutants (for
example, a chemical loading dock area) would
be diverted into the sanitary sewer system for
treatment, while areas of low poEutant con-
centration would receive minimal treatment.
Polymers can be used to reduce^ turbulent
flow and liquid friction in sewers, thereby in-
creasing velocity, Polymer injection increased
pumping station capacity 20% beyond design
capacity in Bergen County, N. J.109 Polymer
injection was found to be a Valuable alterna-
tive to the construction of parallel sewers in
situations requiring expanded sewer flow ca-
pacity on rare, but predictable occasions,
Peroxide, added to sewer lines in Corpus
Christi, Tex., reduced ,odors and prevented
further corrosion of concrete pipe.110 Hydo-
gen sulflde in sewer lines was completely
oxidized by the peroxide into harmless by-
products. Test programs showed that hy-
drogen peroxide could be used economically
June 1979 1287
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Literature Review
and effectively by replacing prechlorinatkm at
lift stations.
Kuntzel11 reported on an examintaion of
the entire drainage system in Hamburg, Ger-
many. A flow control system was developed
that necessitated the expansion of the col-
lecting sewer capacity and treatment plant
capacity,
Beetschen and Henryl13 described and
evaluated the installation of trenchless sewers
using the Badger Minor method of plowing in
solvent welded polyvinyl chloride pipe on a
grade established by using a laser-controlled
unit. The trenchless method was reported
safer than conventional methods and showed
significantly less potential for infiltration, The
trenchless method represented an improvement
over conventional installation methods in both
sediment control and noise reduction.
Sonnen lt3 described alternative methods for
alleviating "first flush" pollution during high-
flow, wet-weather periods and' determined the
feasibility of mathematically simulating the
improvements afforded by'these methods. Pro-
cedures for the modeling of deposition, scour,
and transport processes and estimating the
costs of the simulated facilities have been
reported.48-114
STORAGE
Storage of urban storm water with subse-
quent treatment, is an effective tool for re due- •'
ing pollution from CSOs and is being incor-
porated into the stormwater management plans
of many urban areas. The Chicago Tunnel
and Reservoir Plan represents an application
of the storage concept on a monumental scale.
Phase I of the project, which is nearly half
completed, consists of underground tunnels,
linked to the surface drainage system at stra-
tegic intervals. The tunnels are designed to
intercept and .store combined sewer overflows,
allow for instrearn aeration, and convey the
storm water to detention reservoirs.1"
Heaney et at113 discussed a generalized
method for evaluating the optimal mix of stor-
age and treatment for various levels of BOD
control and estimated that the initial capital
investments necessary for controlling urban
runoff pollution nationally will be significantly
lower than previously reported.
TREATMENT
Kerri et al.1" examined the workings, appli-
cations-, and design criteria of the Teacup
Solids Separator. Pilot tests proved the Tea-
cup to be more, efficient than expected with
up to 100% removal of settleable solids and
floatables, 90% removal of ss and 40% removal
of BOD. Field and Traver118 discussed the
development of three swirl devices (regulator/
concentrator, primary separator, and degritter)
being researched and used in the U. S. In- '
formation and data were given on five differ-
ent cities that used swirl devices. Pilot studies
and technical data on a swirl primary separator
in Toronto were reported by Sullivan.110 Re-
sults showed the swirl to be as effective as a
settling tank, while operating at increased iow
rates of two to three times that of conventional
units and shorter time periods compared with
those of settling tanks. Murphy et al,iM evalu-
ated a single unit process for the removal of ss,
phosphorus, and nitrogen from CSOs. A
bench-scale study demonstrated the feasibility
of the dual use of a high-rate, physical-chemical •
process during wet- and dry-weather, respec-
tively. Treatment unit costs were developed
in a demonstration scale study.
Hickok et al.121 demonstrated the effective-
ness of a non-structural method to improve the
quality of urban stormwater runoff using nat-
ural wetlands. Non-structural methods used
physical, biological, and chemical mechanisms
to remove nutrients.
Huibregtse "2 assessed the impacts that
would result from fullscale treatment of CSO.
It was estimated that an average yearly sludge
volume of 156 X 10s m3 (41.5 X 1Q8 gal)
could be expected natiomvide from such treat-
ment Characteristics and volumes of sludge
were found to vary widely, depending on the
type of treatment process used-. ' Osantowski
,et al.123 reported that the dewatering of CSO
sludges appears feasible when the sludges are
first degritted, when required, and thickened
prior to centrifugation, CSO and dry-weather
sludges were both dewarered to cakes and the
dewatering characteristics of wet/dry-weather
sludge mixtures were similar to those for CSO
alone.
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' 103, 1443 (1977).
105, .Stilley, S, H., "Simulated Field Study for I/I
Analysis." Pub. Works, 198, 1, 50 (1977),
106. Goulart, A. I, and Kovacs, R. C., "Infiltra-
tion/Inflow Studies at Warren, Rhode Is-
land." Boston Society of Civil Engineers
Section, Amer: Soc. Civil Eng. Joar,, re-
printed by Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Boston,
1' MA (1978),
107, Sullivan, et al., "Economic Analysis, Root
Control and Backwater Flow Control As
Related to Infiltration/Inflow Control."
USEPA Report No. EPA-600/2-77-Q17a,
NTIS No, PB 280 738, Cincinnati, OH
(1977). , _ '
108. "Storm Sewage: Separation and , Disposal."
Scottish Development Department, Report
of the" Working Party on Storm Sewage,
Scotland (1977).'
109, Hull, P., "Polymer Helps 'Overflows' Go
Down the Drain." Water & Wastes Eng.,
15,5,55(1978).
110. Matthews, D., "Hydrogen Peroxide Controls
Odors, Corrosion in Collection Systems,"
Water 6 Sew. Works, 124, '6, 52 (1977).,
111. Kuntze, E,, et al,, "Improvement,and Expan-
sion of the Drainage System of Hamburg,"
/our. Water Pott. Control Fed., 49, 499
(1977). .
112, Beetsehen, L. J., and Henry, W. C,, "Evalua-
1 tion of Trenchless >Sewer Construction at
South Bethany Beach, Delaware." USEPA
Report No, EPA-600/2-78-022, NTIS No.
PB 278 776, Cincinnati, OH (1978),
113, Sonnen, Mi, "Abatement of Deposition and
Scour in Sewers," USEPA Report No.
EPA-600/2-77-212, NTIS No, PB 278 585,
Cincinnati, OH (1977).
114, Sonnen, M., "Abate Deposition and Scour in
Sewers," Water ir Wastes Eng., 15, 11, 77 .
(1978).- , '
115. "Chicago Pioneers in Correcting Water Pol-
lution Controlling Floods." Civil Eng.,
Amer. Soc. CMl Eng., 48, 58 (1978).
116, Heaney, J, P., et al, "Nationwide Cost of
Controlling Combined Sewer Overflows and
Urban Stormwater Discharges." Paper
presented at the Water Poll. Control Fed.
Conference,'Philadelphia, PA (1977).
117. Kerri, K., et al., "Design of Teacup Solids
Separators for. Treatment of Sewer Over-
flows." •' Progf, Water Technol. (C. B.),
1 10,5/6,811 (1978).
118. Field, R'., and Traver, R, P., "Development
of and Application of the Swirl and Helical
Bend Devices for CSO Abatement and
Runoff Control" Presented at the USEPA
Technology Transfer Seminar on Combined
Sewer Overflow Assessment and Control
Procedures, Windsor Locks, GT, May 17-
19, 1978; Seattle, WA, June 28-30, 1978;
Chicago, IL, July'26-28, 1978; Philadel-
phia, PA, November 1-2, 1978,
119. Sullivan, R., et at, "The Swirl Primary Sep-
arator: Development and Pilot Demonstra-
tion." USEPA Report No. EPA-600/2-78-
' 122,' NTIS No. Pending, Cincinnati, OH
(1978).
120, Murphy, C,, et al., "High Rate Nutrient Re-
moval for Combined" Sewer Overflows-
Bench Scale and Demonstration Scale
Studies." USEPA Report No". EPA-600/2-
78-056, NTIS No, PB 285 473, Cincinnati,
_ OH (1978),
121. Hickok, E- A., et al., "Urban Runoff Treat-
ment Methods—Volume I; Non-Structural
Wetland Treatment." USEPA Report No.
EPA-600/2-77-217, NTlS^o. PB 278 172,
Cincinnati, OH (1977).
122^ Huibregtse, K," R., "Handling and Disposal
of Sludges from Combined Sewer Overflow
Treatment—Phase II: Impact Assessment."
USEPA Report No. EPA-600/2-77-053b>
NTIS' No, PB 280 309, Cincinnati, OH
(1977).
123, Osantovvski, H., et al., "Handling and Dis-
posal of Sludges From Combined Sewer
, Overflow Treatment—Phase III: Treatabil-
ity Studies," USEPA Report No. EPA-
600/2-77-053c, NTIS No. 281 006,,Cin-
cinnati, OH (1977),
\.
ADDITIONAL REFE1ENCES
Benjes, H,,, and Field, R., "Estimate Sewer Over-
flow Facility Costs." Water if Wastes
Engr., Sept., 56-(1978).
Cole, J,( and 'Evans, G., "Potential for Using Storm
Runoff Warnings in The Operation of
Pumped Sewers in Coastal Towns." Proc.
Intl. Conf. on Urban Storm Drainage, April
11-14, 1978, Univ. of. Southampton, South-
ampton, G. B, (1978),
Ketchum, L., "Dissolved Oxygen Measurements in
Indiana Streams During Urban Runoff,"
USEPA Report No. EPA-800/2-78-135,
NTIS No. PB 284 871, Cincinnati, Ohio
(1978).
Molzahn, R., "A Control Strategy for Urban, Run-
off." Paper presented at Amer. Soc. Civil
June 1979 1293
-------
Literature Review
Eng. Convention and Exposition, October
16-20, 1978, Chicago,'111. (1978).
Pisano, W., "Useful ^Technological Information on
Sewer ' Flushing." Paper presented • at
USEPA Technology Transfer Seminar on
Combined Sewer Overflow Abatement and
Control Procedures', Windsor Locks, Conn.,
'May 17-19; Seattle/ Wash., June 28-30,
1978.
T-afuri, A., and -Huibregtse, K., "Handling, Treat-
ment and Disposal of Combined Sewer
Overflow Sludges." Paper presented at the
51st Annual Conference of the Water Poll.
Control Fed., Anaheim, Calif. (1978),
Tafuri, A., "Sludges Generated From Combined
Sewer Overflow Control Devices." Paper
Presented at USEPA Technology Transfer
Seminar on Combined Sewer Overflow
Abatement and Control Procedures, Wind.'
sor Locks, Conn,, May 17-19, 1978; Seattle,
Wash., June 28-30, 1978; Chicago, III,
July 26-28, 1978; Philadelphia, Pa., No-
vember 1-2, 1978.
Thompson, ]., and Lupton, A., "A Method of As-
sessment of 'Piped Drainage Systems Taking
Account of Surcharge and Overground
Flooding." Proc. Intl. Conf, on Urban
Storm Drainage, April 11-14, 1978, Univ.
of Southampton, Southampton, G. B,
(1978).'
Torno, H,, "Proceedings, Stormwafer Management
Model (S-WM'M) Users Group Meeting 4-5
May 1978." USEPA Report No. E-PA-600/
9-78-019, NT1S No. Pending, Washington,-
D.'C. (1978).
Van den Berg, J., "Quick and 'Slow Response to
Rainfall by an Urban Area." Proc, Intl.
Conf. oil Urban Storm Drainage, April 11-
14, 1978, Univ. of Southampton, South-
ampton, G. B, (1978).
Yen, B., and Chow,. V., "Feasibility Study on Re-
search of Local Design -Storms." Federal
Highway - Administration Report No,
* FHWA-RD-78-65 (1977).
129'4 Journal WPCF, Vol. 51, Ntx 6
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
fPlease read Instructions on the reverse before comp
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/J-79-Q66
JOURNAL ARTICLE
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
URBAN RUNOFF AND COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW
7. AUTHOR(S)
Richard Field, Robert A. Dorival, Joseph Janeczek, Jr.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME Af
Storm and Combined Sewer Si
Wastewater Research Divisi
Municipal Environmental Re
Edison, New Jersey 08817
JD ADDRESS
sction
on
search Laboratory (Cincinnati
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory— Cin,, OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
This literature review has
atfon refer to Vol.51, No
^ ,. ^
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO, :
\ . - ' ~'*
5. REPORT DATE
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
been published in the Journal Water Pollution Control Feder
.6.{j>ages 1281 - 1294 June 1979
: ~"\
16. ABSTRACT
XA .'•..- . • .- -
A general discussion of urban runoff. pollution-including.* the impact-of urban- •—
runoff on water quality, and the control and handling of non-point source -pollutants
is presented. The importance of various planning and design considerations are
stressed, long range control planning, management strategies, runoff simulation.
and various computer models such as SWMM and STORM are discussed. The benefits of
source and collection system controls are presented on a cost-effective basis, and
a review is made of innovative physical /chemical treatment processes. The
v information is presented in the form of a literature review. -^^-^^^
17.
a. DESCRIPTORS
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
b.lOENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
Water quality, Runoff, Sewers, Sewage, Best management practices
Mathematical models, Surface water runoff, Street cleaning practices
Water pollution, Contaminants, Storage Computer models, Water
tanks, Storm sewers, Combined sewers, quality control, Storm
Overflow sewers, Waste treatment, .Drainage runoff, Source control,
Cost-effectiveness Combined sewer overflow,
Water pollution sources,
Physical -chemical treatme
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report}
UNCLASSIFIED
20, SECURITY CLASS (This page}
] UNCLASSIFIED
c. COSATI Field/Gioap
13B
It '•
21. NO. OF PAGES
22. PRJCE
EPA Fot.-n 2220-1 (Re». 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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