EPA/600/R-14/152 | January 2014 | www.epa.gov/research
Economic Impact of Surface Mining
on Drinking Water: Cost Analysis of
Contaminated Household Drinking
Water Supplies
Office of Research and Development
Water Supply and Water Resources Division
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Economic Impacts of Surface Mining on Household Drinking Water Supplies
Bryson B. Hawes
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475
Craig L. Patterson, P.E.
Water Supply and Water Resources Division
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Ben Stout, Ph.D. and
Wheeling Jesuit University
Wheeling, WV 26003
Alice Jones, Ph.D.
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475
Submitted to
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, OH 45268
June 12, 2014
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Notice
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, through its Office of Research and Development, funded
and managed, or partially funded and collaborated in, the research described herein. It has been subjected
to the Agency's peer and administrative review and has been approved for publication. Any opinions
expressed in this report are those of the author (s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Agency,
therefore, no official endorsement should be inferred. Any mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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Acknowledgements
EPA acknowledges the significant contributions from Bryson Hawes and Cory Hunter Cecil, students
at Eastern Kentucky University. Mr. Hawes efforts included participating in EPA meetings in Mingo County
and Charleston, WV and compiling the information (2012) used in the development of this report. Mr. Cecil
compiled preliminary information (2011) used in the development of this document. Dr. Steven Buchberger
provided summer student support under the University of Cincinnati Research Training Program. EPA also
acknowledges the efforts and contributions of Jonathan Holbert with the WV DEP Office of Abandoned
Mine Lands & Reclamation, Tracey Rowan with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Rural Development,
Todd Petty with West Virginia University and Kevin Thompson, Esq. with Thompson Barney PLLC. EPA
would like to thank the residents of Mingo County, WV, who found time to recount the economic impacts of
surface mining contaminants in their drinking water.
Dr. John Ireland served as Project Officer on EPA Contract No. EP-C-04-034 and Mr. Craig L.
Patterson P.E. served as the Work Assignment Manager for this research project. Mr. Ron Landy with EPA
Region 3 and Ms. Wendy Drake with EPA Region 5 provided technical reviews of the document. Mr. John
Olszewski was the EPA Quality Assurance Manager and was responsible for the quality assurance review of
the document.
m
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Abstract
This report provides information on the economic and social impacts of contaminated surface and
ground water supplies on residents and households near surface mining operations. The focus is on coal
slurry contamination of water supplies in Mingo County, West Virginia, and describes community health
problems and costs over time. According to public records, 1.4 billion gallons of toxic slurry were pumped
into underground mine shafts contaminating streams and well water of 769 residents in Rawl, Lick Creek,
Merrimac and Sprigg, WV in the mid-1980s. Additional information on household water treatment and
alternative sources of drinking water are provided to help communities solve drinking water contamination
problems near mining operations.
IV
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Table of Contents
Notice ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract iv
Acronyms and Abbreviations iv
1.0 Introduction 1-1
2.0 Summary of Impacts 2-1
3.0 Results and Discussion 3-1
3.1 Lawsuit Cost Estimates 3-1
3.1.1 Loss of Earnings 3-1
3.7.2 Medical Monitoring 3-1
3.1.3 Out-of-Pocket Expenses 3-2
3.1.4 Water Heaters 3-4
3.7.5 Diminution of Real Estate 3-4
3.1.6 City Water 3-4
3.2 Alternative Water Supplies 3-6
3.2.7 Residents Pick Up Water 3-6
3.2.2 Delivery of Water 3-8
3.2.3 Household Water Treatment 3-9
3.3 Loss of Well Water 3-12
4.0 Conclusions 4-1
5.0 References 5-1
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1- Impact of coal slurry impoundment contamination in Mingo County, WV 1-3
Figure 2.1 - Flow chart of the impacts of mining contaminants on drinking water 2-2
Figure 4.1 - Flow chart showing summary of cost estimates 4-2
List of Tables
Table 1.1 - Additional chemicals found in coal slurry 1-1
Table 1.2 - Threshold concentrations of AMD contaminants 1-2
Table 3.1 - Range of costs for appliances and fixtures requiring frequent replacement 3-3
Table 3.2 - USDA Rural Development - Mingo County Water Projects 3-5
Table 3.3 - Intended Use Plan Requests for Mingo County (2003-2012) 3-6
Table 3.4 - Cost estimates from residents and public records in Mingo County, WV 3-13
Table 3.5 - Cost estimates from internet searches for Mingo County, WV 3-14
VI
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
AMD
EPA
Esq.
KY
KYDEP
MCL
NRMRL
NPDWR
NSDWR
N/A
OVEC
PLLC
ppm
PSD
PWS
QA
SDWA
SMCL
IDS
USDA
USDA WEP
WSWRD
WV
WVDEP
WVDHHR
Acid Mine Drainage
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Esquire
Kentucky
Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection
Maximum Contaminant Level
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
not applicable
Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition
Professional Limited Liability Company
parts per million
Public Service District
Public Water System
quality assurance
Safe Drinking Water Act
Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level
total dissolved solids
United States Department of Agriculture
Water and Environmental Program
Water Supply and Water Resources Division
West Virginia
West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection
West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources
Vll
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1.0 Introduction
In Mingo County, West Virginia (WV), chemicals used in coal slurry operations have
entered surface and ground water sources via surface impoundment injection wells. According
to public records, 1.4 billion gallons of coal slurry were pumped into underground mine shafts
contaminating streams and well water of 769 residents in Rawl, Lick Creek, Merrimac and
Sprigg, WV, beginning in the mid-1980s (Nyden 2010a).
Coal slurry is a waste stream produced during the washing of coal with water and
chemicals. Coal slurry generally consists of heavy metals including aluminum, arsenic, barium,
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, selenium, sodium and zinc.
Liver cells that are exposed to coal slurry contaminated water have a higher mortality rate than
liver cells that are exposed to clean drinking water (Bunnell 2008). Table 1.1 lists additional
organic compounds found in coal slurry.
Table 1.1 - Additional chemicals found in coal slurry (KY DEP 2007)
Aniline
Acenaphthene
Acryl amide
Anthracene
Benzidine
Benzo(a)anthracene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(ghi)perylene
B enzo(k)fluoroanthene
Benzyl alcohol
bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
bis(2-chloroethoxy)-methane
bis(2-chloroethyl)ether
bis(2- chloroisopropyl)ether
Butyl benzylphthalate
Chrysene
Dibenzo(a,h) anthracene
Dibenzofuran
Dibutyl phthalate
Di ethyl phthalate
Dimethyl phthalate
Dioctyl phthalate
Fluoranthene
Fluorene
Hexachloro- 1, 3
Hexachloroethane
Hexa - Cl-l,3-Cyclope
Indeno(l,2,3-c,d)pyrene
Isophorone
N-Nitrosodi -n-propyl ami ne
N-Nitrosodiphenylamine
Naphthaline
Naphthalene
Nitrobenzene
Phenanthrene
Pyrene
1 ,2,4-trichlorobenzen
1 ,2-Dichlorobenzene
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
1,4- Dichlorobenzene
2.4-Dinitrotoluene
2.6- Dinitrotoluene
2-Chloronaphtalene
2-Methylnapthalene
2-Nitroaniline
3-3'-Dichlorobenzidin
3-Nitroaniline
4-Bromophenyl
4-Chloroaniline
4-Chlorophenyl
4-Nitroaniline
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Acid mine drainage and naturally occurring contaminants found in local geologic
formations also contaminate well water. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is metal-rich acidic runoff
formed from chemical reactions between water and exposed rocks containing sulfur-bearing
pyrite and other minerals that frequently come from areas with metal ore or coal mining
activities. AMD often contaminates groundwater supplies near abandoned and active metal and
coal mines. Table 1.2 lists limits for parameters above which drinking water may be affected by
acid mine drainage.
Table 1.2 - Threshold concentrations of AMD contaminants
(McCament, Bowman et al. 2003)
Parameter
Iron
Manganese
Aluminum
Specific Conductance
Sulfate
Alkalinity
PH
Limit
0.5 mg/L
0.5 mg/L
0.3 mg/L
800 |iS/cm
74 mg/L
20 mg/L (upper limit)
pH 6 s.u. (upper limit)
Slurry that was not stored above ground was pumped, or "injected", into abandoned
underground mines. Once underground, it migrated into the groundwater contaminating local
well water, especially when blasting from surface mining occurred in the area (OVEC 2012).
Slurry injections in Mingo County are thought to have first begun in February of 1977 in
abandoned underground mines. As the roofs of these inactive mines subside, the rock strata
above are fractured allowing greater infiltration of ground water in the mines which recharge the
aquifer supplying wells located in the valleys. The water quality from abandoned mines can vary
greatly depending on which coal seam was mined (WV DEP 2002a). Figure 1.1 shows the
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location of coal slurry impoundments and the extent of elevated specific conductivity readings in
the waters of the Sprouse Creek Impoundment Study Area in Mingo County, WV.
Figure 1.1 - Impact of coal slurry impoundment contamination in Mingo County, WV
Sprouse Creek Impoundment Study Area
2005 - Specific Conductivity
0 0.250.5
Roads - Census
Hydrology - US National Hydrology Data
Valley Fills - VWDEP fsj
(based on permits and not complete)
1 M J leS Stream Conductivity -
Wheeling Jesuit University
Department of Biology
IN
A
Valley Fills
I Buffer of Sprouse Creek Impoundment (1 mile rings)
HCH1LDERSCET.WJIMLTRIA11129/OS
Specific Conductivity (mS/cm) - quantiles
* 0.524001 - 0.760000
o 0.000000-0.392000 » 0.760001 - 1.056500
o 0.392001-0524000 A 1.056501 - 6.801000
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The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established National Primary
Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs or primary standards) that set mandatory water quality
standards for drinking water contaminants. These enforceable standards protect the public
against consumption of drinking water contaminants that present a risk to human health. EPA
has also established National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary
standards) that set non-mandatory water quality standards for 15 contaminants. NSDWRs are
non-enforceable Federal guidelines regarding cosmetic effects (such as tooth or skin
discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color) of drinking water.
A study completed in Mingo County in 2004 (Stout 2004) focused on 7 regulated
NPDWR metals and 5 unregulated NSDWR metals. Primary standards for the 7 regulated metals
tested were exceeded 13 times in samples collected from 15 different wells. Maximum
Contaminant Levels (MCLs) were exceeded for lead (8), arsenic (2), barium (1), beryllium (1),
and selenium (1), but not for cadmium or chromium. An MCL is the maximum permissible
level of a contaminant in water delivered to any user of a public water system. Secondary
standards for the 5 metals tested were exceeded 36 times in samples collected from 15 different
wells. Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (SMCLs) were exceeded for iron (17),
manganese (17), aluminum (1), and zinc (1), but not for copper. Information on metal
contaminants and their health effects in drinking water is available in U.S. EPA's National
Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (US EPA 2012).
The West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection (WV DEP), Office of
Abandoned Mine Lands and Reclamation found similar levels of contamination in Mingo
County drinking water wells. Primary standards were exceeded in 16 of 133 samples, while one
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or more secondary standards (primarily iron and manganese) were exceeded in 111 of 133
samples (83%) (WV DEP 2002a).
Contaminant concentrations found in Mingo County exceeded Safe Drinking Water Act
limits for aluminum, arsenic, barium, beryllium, iron, lead, manganese, selenium, sodium and
zinc. Consumer Confidence Reports indicate that Mingo County Public Service District (PSD)
Naugatuck and the Williamson Utility Board rank 39th out of 39 in the state of WV and 2,366th
out of 2,379 for water quality nationally (Water Delivery 2012). The main risks from ingestion
and exposure based on contaminants found in Mingo County are liver damage, cancer, kidney
problems, blood issues, reproductive disorders and problems with the nervous system.
This paper evaluates the impacts of surface mining activities on both public and private
drinking water systems and evaluates the costs associated with all aspects of drinking water
treatment and distribution before and after the loss of clean and safe drinking water sources. A
public water system (PWS) is a system for the provision of water to the public for human
consumption through pipes or other constructed conveyances, if such system has at least fifteen
service connections or regularly serves at least twenty-five individuals. Private drinking water
wells for individual households are not regulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Public information and cost estimates were obtained from Mingo County Coal Slurry
litigation, Mingo County residents, water treatment utilities and vendors, government agencies
and water quality studies. The study summarizes and compares costs associated with alternative
water supply decisions to provide options for communities facing contamination of their drinking
water sources.
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2.0 Summary of Impacts
The flow chart in Figure 2.1 describes the impact of surface mining on clean and safe
drinking water. Temporary and permanent "alternative water supplies" are included as well as a
description of the impacts associated with resident exposure to mining contaminants in drinking
water, if no corrective action is taken. Historic information on access to city water was
compiled to document recent plans for municipal water plant upgrades and water extensions in
Mingo County, WV. Many of the out-of-pocket costs and costs for delivery and pickup of water
were obtained during meetings and phone conversations with Mingo County employees and
residents. To provide a range of costs for appliance replacement and household water treatment
systems, three prices were obtained for basic models of appliances and water treatment systems
using internet searches. The appliance cost estimates do not include more expensive energy and
water saving appliances or high-cost kitchen and bath products (e.g., hot tubs). Applicable water
treatment systems were selected based on their ability to remove typical contaminants found in
coal slurry. Lawsuit cost estimates were compiled by Thompson Barney, PLLC, of Williamson,
WV (Thompson 2012). Costs associated with the loss of well water and alternative water
sources, out-of-pocket expenses and lawsuit cost estimates are discussed in more detail in the
following section.
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Figure 2.1 - Flow chart of the impacts of mining contaminants on drinking water
Build New
Water Plant
Extend Water
Lines,
if Necessary
I'pgradt Water
Plant
Existing Water
Plant OK
System
Maintenance
(Frequently)
\V huh' I lo
Water
I nit nt
Household Water
Treatment
Kitchen Sink
Water
Trt'Hlment
Alternative
Water
Supply
B> Church MemhervFamily/Friends
(I gallon containers)
In Hmist'huld Water Mnirm (MI-MI "allon
In Wats BmTalos (HHMJKm ntlan
Transpor
Vehicle Expenses)
hrom Stores (Biiv I2i>/. to 2.5 "al cuntamers]
Relencd into
Surface and
i round
Residents
Pickup
Water
hrom Local Springs (1 yalkm
From Donation Centers (I gallon containers)
With Pickup Truck Tanks (2|}ft-30n gallons)
Trips to Laundromats, Buy Stain Removers,
Bkacli, and New Clothes Due n> Discoloration
\\uter Eleuters unij
];:::!;' !!'I I |i.'!H ^
Vpphatice Kepmcfinent
I riiiis|ioM;Hi(ni. Delivery,
at ion. and Disposal Costs)
ill NII< orrvctive
'in)
Buy Fvtra rh^rniaceutical and
Personal C"are Products
med "I iins, 1 HIMv
and Sinks
^ x
2-2
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3.0 Results and Discussion
3.1 Lawsuit Cost Estimates
3.1.1 Loss of Earnings
In areas near the coal slurry injection wells in Mingo County, residents developed health
issues from ingestion and exposure to contaminated water. Loss of earnings had the largest
impact on Mingo County residents. A cost estimate for total loss of earnings for the 769
residents was $60,612,448 (Thompson 2012).
3.1.2 Medical Monitoring
The main medical issues for the 769 Mingo County residents were recurring kidney
stones, diarrhea, boils, cysts, skin rashes, and in some cases, various cancers. Residents
experienced mouth and dental issues, liver and gall bladder disorders, kidney and urinary tract
disorders, digestive disorders, cancers, skin disorders, eye disorders, and children's health issues
(Thompson 2012).
A major medical cost associated with contaminated drinking water is medical monitoring.
In 2007, economist Dr. Harvey S. Rosen estimated future medical monitoring costs to be
approximately $11,052,487 for residents of Rawl, WV located below the coal slurry injection
wells (Rosen 2007a). This cost estimate was based on 286 residents over a 30-year period or
average life expectancy. The cost estimate is based on medical, professional, testing and
psychiatric services. There are other factors like mouth and dental issues that were not included
in this cost estimate. However, dentists in WV report mouth and dental issues are prevalent in
areas with contaminated drinking water (Hendryx, Ducatman et al. 2012). Cancer screening was
estimated to be $70,114. One resident itemized medical monitoring costs of $41,332 from 1984
to 2009 (Thompson 2012).
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To take care of their health issues, residents drove to a clinic in Williamson, WV for
treatment. Ointments and other prescribed medicines were purchased to remedy resident
ailments. However, when the ingredients found in some treatment products such as ointments or
antibiotics were mixed with the contaminated drinking water, the effectiveness of medications
was neutralized, and in some cases, caused health issues to worsen (Blankenship 2012).
Residents reported that hand washing and bathing caused cysts, rashes and other skin
disorders that were resistant to treatment with medications (Blankenship 2012, Brown and
Brown 2012). Hair color and make-up were purchased to hide cosmetic stains and damage to
hair and skin caused by corrosive well water. Extra money was spent on cosmetologist visits to
cover up discoloration and skin disorders from bathing or showering in contaminated well water
(Jones 2011).
3.1.3 Out-of-Pocket Expenses
Residents in rural areas of Mingo County without municipal drinking water service
reported a multitude of compounding problems and household costs associated with coal slurry
contamination of their drinking water source. Any product that water flowed through, especially
water heaters, dishwashers, washing machines, coffee makers, toilets and sinks were purchased
and replaced on a more frequent basis resulting in out-of-pocket expenses. One household
reported out-of-pocket costs of $44,780 that included $12,200 in water treatment and transport
costs from 1984 to 2009. One resident replaced five water pumps ($1,000), five water heaters
($350 each), four washing machines ($300 each), new pressure tanks every three years ($200
each), bathtubs, toilets and sinks ($1260), toilet parts ($15 each) and three faucet traps ($20 each)
after coal slurry contamination of their well water. The lawsuit cost estimate for out-of-pocket
expenses for the 769 residents in Mingo County was $1,336,061 (Thompson 2012).
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For households with drinking water wells closest to coal slurry contamination,
homeowners had out-of-pocket expenses associated with corrosive indoor air quality. One
household had high levels of hydrogen sulfide gas in their well water that caused permanent
sinus problems (Brown and Brown 2012).
Because of the contaminated and corrosive quality of their well water, appliances and
products were destroyed or "wore out" at an accelerated rate (Blankenship 2012, Brown and
Brown 2012). The great distances between the mining communities in Mingo County and stores
resulted in lost time and travel expenses for purchase of replacement appliances, products and
parts. The range of costs for basic models of appliances and fixtures that required frequent
replacement is listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 - Range of costs for appliances and fixtures requiring frequent replacement
Appliance
Electric water heaters
Gas water heaters
Dishwashers
Washing machines
Bathtubs
Toilets
Sinks
Faucets
Range of Costs*
$269-$297
$389-$558
$289-$370
$399-$450
$149-$349
$100-$130
$30-$58
$16-$18
*On-line costs at (Lowes Sears and Home Depot 2012)
Because of the potency and rust in the water and the deterioration of washing machines, families
replaced ruined clothing frequently. Residents chose to wash clothes at laundromats ($3/load)
with city water compared to using their home washer ($I/load) because their well water quality
was contaminated (Simple Dollar 2011). Stain removers and bleach were purchased to remove
discoloration. Iron removal products were used with every load of wash. Cologne and perfume
were used to mask the smell of contaminated clothing (Brown and Brown 2012).
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Sinks, toilets and bathtub fixtures deteriorated every 1 to 2 years due to rust stains and
precipitation of iron in the well water. For comparison with a household with clean drinking
water, toilets should last a lifetime except for replacement of small parts (Keating 2011,
Tonearely 2011, Love to Know Corporation 2012).
3.1.4 Water Heaters
The water heater replacement frequencies in Mingo County were much higher than
manufacturer expectations. Gas water heaters are designed to last at least 11 years, and electric
water heaters are designed to last at least 13 years (Demesne 2010, Mr Appliance 2010,
Apartment Therapy 2012). In Mingo County, heating elements for hot water heaters were
replaced twice a year, while hot water heaters were replaced every other year. The lawsuit cost
estimate for replacement of 115 water heaters was $500 per water heater per household
(Thompson 2012).
3.1.5 Diminution of Real Estate
The estimated total cost for diminution of real estate in Rawl, WV, was $1,174,343 for
769 residents (Thompson 2012). In Mingo County, one homeowner claimed real estate losses of
over $150,000. After spending over $10,000 in repairs related to contamination, a second
homeowner was forced to abandon his house by the local health department resulting in a real
estate loss of $45,000 (Sammons 2012).
3.1.6 City Water
Because of their contaminated private well water supplies, rural homeowners lobbied for
municipal drinking water. If a water utility does not have enough capacity to service additional
residents, existing water plants may need to be retrofitted or new water plants may need to be
designed, constructed and built to meet the water demands of new customers. For instance,
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Mingo County PSD currently has about 2,000 customers including 1,200 customers that were
added in the last 3 to 4 years (Heflin 2012). The costs for procuring city water over a 30 year
period from 2007 to 2037 were estimated to be $14,963 per household in Mingo County (Rosen
2007b). United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) funding for loans and grants for
Mingo County water projects are listed in Table 3.2. USDA's Water and Environmental
Program (WEP) provides loans, grants and loan guarantees for drinking water facilities in rural
areas and cities and towns of 10,000 or less.
Table 3.2 - USDA Rural Development - Mingo County Water Projects (Rowan 2012)
Applicant
Mingo County PSD
Gilbert, Town of
Gilbert, Town of
Mingo County PSD
Gilbert, Town of
Mingo County PSD
Mingo County PSD
Gilbert, Town of
Mingo County PSD
Mingo County PSD
Mingo County PSD
Gilbert, Town of
Total Project Costs
Date of
Obligation
8/10/2004
4/19/2007
8/13/2008
12/30/2008
7/22/2009
8/20/2009
9/30/2009
5/8/2009
12/2/2009
2/11/2010
3/31/2010
7/13/2012
Loan
Amount
$0
$472,000
$1,200,000
$1,450,000
$0
$222,000
$1,986,000
$662,000
$0
$1,429,000
$763,000
$0
$8,184,000
Grant
Amount
$550,000
$328,000
$476,000
$1,167,500
$589,478
$0
$0
$824,000
$1,168,000
$2,926,000
$900,000
$350,000
$9,278,978
Number of
Users
2,540
172
229
456
N/A*
2,982
96
170
450
148
86
N/A*
7,329
* Subsequent funding - users already counted
West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources (WV DHHR) provided
requests for water extensions and water facilities in Mingo County, WV between 2003 and 2012
as shown in Table 3.3. Based on an average of 7 waterline extension project requests, an
estimate of $3 million was needed to extend water to an average of 212 new customers with an
average rate increase of $30.74/month. An estimate of $5 million was needed to upgrade a
treatment plant for 286 new customers with a rate increase of 31.82/month. The cost estimate to
3-5
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design and build a new water treatment plant for 2318 new customers was $20 million with a
rate increase of $24/month. However, no Intended Use Plan project requests in Mingo County
were selected for funding between 2003 and 2012.
Table 3.3 - Intended Use Plan Requests for Mingo County (2003-2012) (WV DHHR 2012)
System /Project
(Plan Year 2003 -200 12)
Water Extensions
(Average of 7 Projects)
Gilbert Water System
(Plant Upgrade)
New R.D. Bailey Regional WTP -
Gilbert (New Plant)
Potential
DWTRF
Total
$924,053
$2,292,000
$1,000,000
Total
Project Cost
$3,014,617
$5,225,000
$20,000,000
New
Customers
212
286
2318
Proposed
Rates/Month
$30.74
$31.82
$24.00
3.2 Alternative Water Supplies
Mingo County residents found ways to reduce their exposure to mining contaminants in
their drinking water by locating alternative sources of water for drinking and household use.
Families collected and acquired drinking water from local springs (Blankenship 2012), water
utility pay stations (Heflin 2012), donation centers and stores (Brown 2012). Many installed
whole house water treatment systems (Brown and Brown 2012, Sammons 2012). In rare cases,
residents paid to have water delivered (Brown and Brown 2012).
3.2.1 Residents Pick Up Water
Mingo County residents picked up drinking water for their own households and for others
(Brown 2012). Due to a court injunction in 2006 (Nyden 2010b), residents received six one-
gallon containers (case) of drinking water per person per week for several years. Many of the
residents impacted by the court order retrieved their water from distribution centers (e.g., church
outbuildings/stores). Truck loads (150 to 200 cases) of drinking water ($4.19/case in 2006) were
distributed to residents identified in the court injunction. As many as 400 people per month
3-6
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retrieved drinking water from the food pantry at a local church. Church members, family
members and friends delivered water to residents with no means of transportation. There were
no dedicated water delivery trucks available in sparsely populated Mingo County. As a result,
volunteers in the community used their own vehicles to transport drinking water to distribution
centers and to families with no means of transportation on a regular basis. The constant delivery
of drinking water by volunteers resulted in vehicle maintenance and fuel costs (Brown 2012).
Water tanks were purchased to retrieve drinking water from municipal and commercial
locations. Water tanks for pickup trucks cost from $300 to $400, depending on the size and store
of purchase (Rural King 2012, Tank Depot 2012a, Tractor Supply Co 2012a). The pickup truck
tanks generally hold 200 to 300 gallons of water. To provide water for his family, a homeowner
retrieved 750 gallons of treated water from Williamson, WV, using a pickup truck with a trailer
and storage tank from 2004 to 2007. This resulted in an estimated cost of $35 to $40 per month
(Sammons 2012). However, this cost estimate does not include costs for vehicle maintenance
and the lost time required to fill, transport and deliver the drinking water.
Similarly, the purchase and transport of drinking water from stores resulted in vehicle
costs for transport and lost time. In Mingo County, stores selling bottled drinking water are
typically a substantial distance from people's homes. The small volume of drinking water sold at
stores, $1 to $3 for 12 ounce bottles to 2.5 gallon containers, required frequent trips and out-of-
pocket costs for residents each month.
Bottled water is considered a "long shelf life" item because the water will not sell as
quickly as other products with expiration dates. As a result, water tends to stay on the shelf
longer than other items resulting in less space reserved for drinking water within stores. When
the demand for water is high in areas with contaminated drinking water, more space is required
3-7
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for drinking water products (Jones 2011).
Residents continue to purchase drinking water at the store, while using the public water
for other needs such as bathing and washing clothes. As a result of the legacy of contaminated
water in Mingo County, there is still concern over the safety and risk associated with the city tap
water (Brown 2012).
Many residents bought bottled drinking water from local stores, while others filled water
tanks (water buffalos) for storage and use (Brown and Brown 2012). The cost per load of city
water at the Mingo County PSD was $1.75 for 500 gallons of water (Heflin 2012). Many
residents also drove to Williamson, WV to retrieve municipal drinking water. There were also
charitable donations of drinking water from stores like Walmart that provided free gallon
containers of drinking water to the community. Buying water was an economic burden. The
added household costs took money away from other necessities such as food, clothing, and
ordinary monthly bills (Brown 2012).
3.2.2 Delivery of Water
In counties with commercial water delivery services, vendors typically transport and
deliver water to households in trucks and charge by the gallon. Dispenser bottles (3 and 5 gallon
containers) for water coolers range in price from $3 to $5 for bottle deliveries of five bottles
(Dean's Water Service 2013, Jemika Bottled Spring Water 2013). Bulk delivery of drinking
water in WV costs from $70 to $150 for 1000 gallons depending on the distance from the water
supply (Dean's Water Service 2013, Mark's Water Hauling 2013, Puddle Maker 2013).
Residents can purchase and use water drums, tanks and cisterns for water collection and storage
of the delivered water. Household drinking water collection and storage tank options include 30
to 55 gallon drums that cost $50 to $80 per drum (Bayte Containers 2012, Be Prepared 2012,
3-8
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Simpler Life 2012) and larger water tanks (water buffalos) that range in size from 500 to 1,000
gallons and cost $350 to $1,500 (Go-To Tanks 2012, National Tank Outlet 2012, Tank Depot
2012b). Rain barrels (Hayneedle 2013) range in size from 40 to 300 gallons and cost $70 to
$700 and can also be used to collect rainwater from the roof of the home to supplement the
household water supply. Large water cisterns constructed of plastic, concrete and steel are
another option that are generally priced based on the gallons of water that the cistern can hold.
For instance, concrete cisterns cost $1.66 per gallon, plastic cisterns cost $1.43 per gallon, and
steel cisterns cost around $2.51 per gallon (Sarasota County Florida 2012). Cisterns used in
residential areas typically hold anywhere from 1,000 gallons to 10,000 gallons. Small cisterns
are typically prefabricated and delivered by truck while large cisterns are typically constructed
on-site.
Collection and transport of drinking water from a potable water source is a temporary
alternative. The cost of constructing numerous water tanks and the labor-intensive delivery costs
are not economically feasible as a long-term solution (WV DEP 2002b).
3.2.3 Household Water Treatment
In Mingo County, homeowners installed water softening and filtration systems to treat
their contaminated well water. One homeowner estimated the cost of water tanks, filter housings
and replacement filters to be $12,200 over a 29-year period (Thompson 2012). Household water
treatment systems are capable of removing a wide variety of surface mining and naturally
occurring contaminants
Many residents hired water service companies to avoid high purchase and maintenance
costs that included the replacement of fouled media, filters and bags of salt on a regular basis
(e.g., weekly or bi-weekly). Monthly expenses for water softening and filtration systems cost
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households between $7 and $100 per month, with an average of $51 (WV DEP 2002b). In
Mingo County, local water service company agreements became too costly for providers and
residents. Constant damage to the household systems from contaminated water required
maintenance every few days (Brown and Brown 2012). Whole house water softeners were
purchased to remove iron and manganese to improve the taste and remove odors from well water
contaminated with mine wastes. When operated and maintained properly, water softening
systems reduce stains on kitchen and bathroom fixtures and prevent discoloration during clothes
washing. Water softening systems also improve household water flow due to less buildup of
mineral deposits and corrosion in plumbing and water heaters.
In a household close to the coal slurry injection wells, water softener media was replaced
once a year ($60). However, to prevent clogging, the homeowner disassembled the water
softener one to two times per month to remove particles and disinfect media with bleach to
reduce the frequency of media replacement (Brown and Brown 2012).
According to the 2010 U.S. Census, Mingo County had an average household population
of 2.45 people (US Census Bureau 2012). The United States Geological Service (USGS)
estimates household water usage of 80-100 gallons per person per day (USGS 2012). Therefore,
the average Mingo County household uses 196-245 gallons of water per day. A 30,000- or
40,000- grain water softener is needed for families of 4 ($400) to 6 ($500) people (Budget Water
2012). The replacement cost for water softening media varies from $90 to $200 depending on
the water quality (Water Value 2012a). An appropriately sized (15 gallons per minute) water
softening system costs between $1,198 and $1,616 (Clean Water Systems Inc 2012, Rain Dance
Water Systems 2012b, Water Value 2012b) with media replacements every 5-15 years (Clean
Water Systems Inc 2012).
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At a second household close to the coal slurry injection wells, a water treatment system
was purchased that included a 1500 gallon storage tank, pumps, pressure tanks, and 11-inch
cartridge filters ($50 each) for particulate removal. Twelve submersible well pumps were
purchased to replace existing pumps due to the corrosive water quality (Sammons 2012).
For kitchen sink systems, adsorptive filters or reverse osmosis systems can remove
mining contaminants from tap water. Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a membrane separation process
in which feed water flows along the membrane surface under pressure. Purified water permeates
the membrane and is collected, while the concentrated water, containing dissolved and un-
dissolved material that does not flow through the membrane, is discharged to the drain (Applied
Membranes Inc 2010). With adequate pretreatment, RO systems remove a wide variety of
contaminants. However, many homeowners have issues with the low flow rates produced by the
RO system and maintenance that includes replacing multiple cartridges and sterilizing and
replacing tubing annually (Patterson, Smith et al. 2012). Multi-stage RO kitchen sink systems
normally range in price between $283 and $750, depending on the gallons of water produced per
day and their treatment capabilities (Excel Water Technologies Inc 2012, Patterson, Smith et al.
2012, Rain Dance Water Systems 2012a). RO systems are capable of removing 90% of total
dissolved solids, 99% of all organics and 99% of all bacteria (Excel Water Technologies Inc
2012). However, RO systems are designed to treat water with less than 1,500 ppm dissolved
solids, 0.3 ppm iron and 0.5 ppm manganese. Based on the contaminated well water quality in
Mingo County, pretreatment systems were required to make RO systems technically feasible.
The main contaminants that are reduced/treated by RO are arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium
III & VI, copper, lead, nitrate, nitrite, selenium, radium 226 and 228, fluoride, turbidity, cysts,
and total dissolved solids (TDS). Multi-stage filter replacement normally costs between $50 and
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$150 per year, while membrane replacement typically costs about $150 every 2-5 years (Rain
Dance Water Systems 2012a).
3.3 Loss of Well Water
Blasting and subsidence during surface mining operations can disrupt drinking water
aquifers resulting in the loss of resident well water (Petty 2011). Many homeowners chose to re-
drill their existing well ($900) or drill new wells ($1,800 to $3,000) in search of reliable or clean
sources of well water (Thompson 2012).
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3.4 Summary of Cost Estimates
Based on the above discussion, estimated costs from residents and public records in
Mingo County, WV are summarized in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 - Cost estimates from residents and public records in Mingo County, WV
I. Water Supply Costs
Drinking Water Alternatives
A. Existing Well with Household
Water Treatment
B. Water Transport
(Lost Time and Vehicle
Expenses Not Included)
C. Loss of Existing Well Water
D. City Water
Item
(1) Water Service ($5 I/month Avg.)
Range of Costs
$ 7
$ 100
(1) Residents Pick up Water
a. Natural Springs
b. Donation Centers ($/6 gal)
c. Water Plant Pickup ($71000 gal)
$
$ 4
$ 3.50
(2) Water Delivery (Lost Time/Vehicle Expenses Not Included)
a. Charitable Deliveries
(1) Re-drill Existing Well
(2) Drill New Well ($2400 Avg.)
(1) Existing Plant OK
(2) Waterline Extensions (Avg. of 7)
(3) Upgrade Plant
(4) New Plant
$ 900
$ 1,800
$ 3,000,000
$ 5,000,000
$ 20,000,000
$ 3,000
II. Lawsuit Cost Estimates
Lawsuit Cost Basis
A. Based on 769 Residents
B. Based on 1 15 Instances
C. Based on 2 Instances
Item
(1) Loss of Earnings
(2) Medical Monitoring
(3) Out of Pocket Expenses
(4) Diminution of Real Estate
(1) City Water per Household
(2) Water Heaters per Household
(1) Purchase of Homes
Range of Costs
$ 61,000,000
$ 70,000
$ 1,300,000
$ 1,100,000
$ 15,000
$ 500
$ 45,000
$ 150,000
Estimated costs from internet searches are summarized in Table 3.5. Vendors were contacted in
the West Virginia, Ohio and Kentucky area to obtain representative costs for Mingo County
residents. However, shipping costs were not included in the cost estimates found on the internet.
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Table 3.5 - Cost estimates from internet searches for Mingo County, WV
I. Water Supply Costs
Drinking Water Alternatives
A. Existing Well with
Household Water Treatment
B. Water Transport
(Lost Time and Vehicle
Expenses Not Included)
Item
Range of Costs
(1) Cost to Purchase Water System
a. Rain Barrels (40-300 gal)
b. Kitchen Sink Treatment (RO)
c. Whole House Treatment (Water Softener)
$ 70
$ 283
$ 1,198
$ 700
$ 750
$ 1,616
(2) Cost of System Maintenance ($150/Year)
(1) Residents Pickup Water
a. Stores (12 ounce-2.5 gal)
b. Pickup Truck Tanks (200-300 gal)
$ 1
$ 300
$ 3
$ 400
(2) Water Delivery (Lost Time & Vehicle Expenses Not Included)
a. Actual Delivery Cost/ 1000 gallons
$ 70
$ 150
b. Cost to Purchase Containers
1. Water Drums (30-60 gal)
2. Water Buffalos (500-1,000 gal)
3. Cisterns (1,000-10,000 gal)
$ 50
$ 350
$ 1,700
$ 80
$ 1,500
$ 26,000
III. Out of Pocket Expenses
Expenses
A. Clothes Washing
B. Appliance Replacement
(Time, Transportation,
Delivery, Installation, and
Disposal Costs Not Included)
C. Personal Care Services and
Products
Item
(1) Trips to Laundromat ($/load)
(2) Fabric Care ($/product)
(3) New Clothes ($/item)
(1) Washers
(2) Water Heaters
(3) Bathtubs
(4) Toilets
(5) Sinks
(6) Dishwashers
(7) Plumbing Fixtures
(1) Cosmetologists /Visit
(2) Personal Care Products/Item
Range of Costs
$ 3
$ 1
$ 10
$ 399
$ 269
$ 149
$ 100
$ 30
$ 290
$ 16
$ 20
$ 1
$ 10
$ 200
$ 450
$ 558
$ 349
$ 130
$ 58
$ 370
$ 18
$ 150
$ 100
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4.0 Conclusions
This study was designed and implemented to review and document the options and
alternatives available in remote communities impacted by contamination from surface mining
operations. Contaminated water from coal slurry, abandoned mine drainage, and natural
occurring contaminants can incur a huge economic burden to residents without city water.
Water-related costs include medical monitoring, loss in real estate values, well installation and
maintenance fees, replacement of appliances, water collection and storage costs, water delivery
fees, water treatment service fees, household water treatment system costs, municipal water bills
and bottled water purchases. The flow diagram in Figure 4.1 documents the costs associated
with these alternatives and provides options for communities facing similar contamination of
their drinking water sources.
-------
Figure 4.1 - Flow chart showing summary of cost estimates
New Planl
$20 Million
Whole House
SI 400
I wbotdWalo
Truatmenl
Maintenance
SISO/Year
Drill/RfflWR
well $900
to $2400
Delivery iifWnLL-r
$70 tO SISO/
1000 gallons
tO S80
^^^
liulTaU.sS350 to Sl,500
tiSi«,,sS1.700toS26,000
I ruu^Km wal
(Losi Time &
Remdaili
Pitkun Wnlcr
Pickup Tanks $300 t(> S41KI
Trips lol-aundroinai $3/Loafl
FabritrCarf $1 tO SlO/ProduCt
NcwflortiaSlO tO $200
545,000 to
$150,000
III no Corrective
VM..IH
Appliance Replaecmenl
Delivery,
Installalion. and Dispowil Costs)
Wtta I leali;rs
$300 tO $500
washers
$400 to $450
l 0;ire Products;
SI loSHHI/lti-m
S20tu$ ISO/Visit
Tubs Toilets Hnd Sinks
S30 to $350
Clumhmg F-'
$15toS20
WaletHaurs
$500/
$15,0007
Househiild
4-2
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