&EPA
Office of Enforcement and Compliance
Office of Federal Activities
NEPA Compliance Division
March 2010
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Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Guidance for EPA Staff
Prepared by: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Federal Activities
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20460
EPA Publication No: 315-R-09-001
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Disclaimer
This guidance document does not impose or change any legal requirements. It provides only
non-binding policy and procedural guidance, as indicated by the use of non-mandatory language,
such as may, should, and can. This guidance is not intended to, and does not, create any legal
rights; impose legally binding requirements on EPA, any other federal agency, or the public
when applied in particular situations; or contravene any other legal requirements that may apply
to particular agency determinations or actions.
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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Preparers and Contributors
This document was prepared by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Office of
Federal Activities. Technical assistance was provided by Gannett Fleming, Inc. and Labat
Environmental, Inc. in fulfillment of EPA Contract EP-W-08-024, Task Order No. 0-0002.
Stacy Angel
U.S. EPA Climate Protection Partnership Division
Cheryl Bynum
U.S. EPA National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory/OAR
Leila Cook
U.S. EPA National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory/OAR
Sarah Froman
U.S. EPA, Office of Transportation and Air Quality
John Guy
U.S. EPA, Office of Transportation and Air Quality
Robert Hargrove
U.S. EPA, Office of Federal Activities
Rudolph Kapichak
U.S. EPA National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory/OAR
Marilyn Kuray
U.S. EPA, Office of General Council
Marthea Rountree
U.S. EPA, Office of Federal Activities
Claudia Tighe
U.S. EPA Climate Protection Partnership Division
Maria Vargas
U.S. EPA Climate Protection Partnership Division
Rebecca White
U.S. EPA, Office of Transportation and Air Quality
Susan Wickwire
U.S. EPA Climate Protection Partnership Division
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John Filippelli
U.S. EPA Region 2
Lingard Knutson
U.S. EPA Region 2
Julie Guenther
U.S. EPA Region 5
Sharon Osowski
U.S. EPA Region 6
Ann McPherson
U.S. EPA Region 9
Theodore Rockwell
U.S. EPA Region 10
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Table of Contents
Acronyms and Glossary xii
1. Introduction 1-1
1.1 Purpose and Intent of This Reference 1-1
1.2 Audience 1-3
1.3 Organization of this Reference 1-3
2. Incorporating Energy Efficiency in the NEPA Process 2-1
2.1 National Environmental Policy Act 2-1
2.2 CEQ Regulations Implementing NEPA, 40 CFR Part 1500 2-1
2.3 CEQ Guidance Regarding NEPA Regulations 2-1
2.4 Section 3 09 of the Clean Air Act 2-2
2.5 Energy Efficiency and the NEPA Process 2-3
Section 2 References 2-5
3. Relevant Federal Statutes, Regulations, Executive Orders, Directives and Guidance 3-1
3.1 Energy Policy Act of 2005 3-1
3.2 National Energy Conservation Policy Act of 1978 3-3
3.3 Criteria for Excluding Buildings from the Energy Performance Requirements
of Section 543 3-4
3.4 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 3-4
3.5 Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 3-5
3.6 Federal Acquisition Regulation 3-6
3.7 Federal Energy Management and Planning Programs, 10 CFR 436 3-6
3.8 Executive Order 13423, Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation
Management 3-7
3.9 Executive Order 13221, Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices 3-8
3.10 Executive Order 13211, Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect
Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use 3-9
3.11 Guidance for Electric Metering in Federal Buildings 3-9
3.12 Executive Order 13514, Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic
Performance 3-9
Section 3 References 3-12
4. Energy Efficiency Related Federal Programs 4-1
4.1 Federal Energy Management Program 4-1
4.2 EPA Programs 4-4
4.3 GSA Programs 4-7
4.4 Energy Audits/Surveys 4-9
4.5 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) programs 4-9
Section 4 References 4-10
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5. General Federal Energy Uses And Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-1
5.1 Appliances and Equipment 5-1
5.1.a Summary 5-1
5.1.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-5
5.1.c Review Considerations 5-11
Section 5.1 References 5-12
5.2 Facility Siting 5-13
5.2.a Summary 5-13
5.2.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-15
5.2.c Review Considerations 5-15
Section 5.2 References 5-17
5.3 Construction 5-18
5.3.a Summary 5-18
5.3.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-22
5.3.c Review Considerations 5-22
Section 5.3 References 5-24
5.4 Buildings 5-25
5.4.a Summary 5-25
5.4.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-38
5.4.c Review Considerations 5-42
Section 5.4 References 5-46
5.5 Federally Assisted Housing 5-50
5.5.a Summary 5-50
5.5.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-50
5.5.c Review Considerations 5-51
Section 5.5 References 5-53
5.6 Military Installations 5-54
5.6.a Summary 5-54
5.6.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-65
5.6.c Review Considerations 5-65
Section 5.6 References 5-67
5.7 Laboratories 5-69
5.7.a Summary 5-69
5.7.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-72
5.7.c Review Considerations 5-73
Section 5.7 References 5-75
5.8 Industrial Facilities (aluminum, chemical, forest products, glassmaking, metal casting, mining,
petroleum refining, steel) 5-76
5.8.a Summary 5-76
5.8.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-88
Section 5.8 References 5-96
5.9 Federal Vehicle Fleets 5-99
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5.9.a Summary 5-99
5.9.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-118
5.9.c Review considerations 5-122
Section 5.9 References 5-126
5.10 Transportation Facilities 5-131
5.10.a Summary 5-131
5.10.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-142
5.10.C Review Considerations 5-143
Section 5.10 References 5-144
5.11 Other Operations (R&D Program, Uranium Enrichment Facilities, Power Plants, Nuclear Power
Plants, Dredging, Water and Wastewater Infrastructure, Mining and Other Resource Extraction
Projects, Electricity Transmission and Distribution) 5-145
5.11.a Summary 5-145
5.11.b Related Federal Partnership Programs 5-145
5.11.C Review Considerations 5-146
Section 5.11 References 5-158
6. Renewable Energy Technologies 6-1
6.1 Solar Power 6-4
6.2 Wind Power 6-7
6.3 Geothermal Power 6-10
6.4 Biomass 6-12
6.5 Hydropower 6-15
6.6 Benefits and Limitations 6-19
Section 6 References 6-21
7. Energy Efficiency-Related Training Opportunities 7-1
Index 1-1
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List of Figures
Figure 1-1 -Federal energy consumption and cost statistics for Fiscal Year 2005 1-1
Figure 1-2 - Overall U.S. Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007 1-2
Figure 5-1 -Expected Emissions Reductions from the Energy Star program: 2003 to 2012 5-5
Figure 5-2 -U.S. Army On-Site Fuel Consumption 5-5
Figure 5-3 -U.S. Air Force Facility Fuel Consumption 5-62
Figure 5-4 - NAICS 311-339 All Manufacturing Industries Total Energy Input: 22825 Trillion
Btu, MECS2002 5-77
Figure 5-5 - NAICS 311-339 All Manufacturing Industries Total Energy Input: 22825 Trillion
Btu, MECS 2002 5-78
Figure 5-6 - NAICS 311-339 All Manufacturing Industries Total Energy Input: 22825 Trillion
Btu, MECS 2002 5-79
Figure 5-7 - Estimated Manufacturing and Mining Fuel Use, 2002 5-83
Figure 5-8 - Source: (DOE 2009) 5-89
Figure 5-9 - Source: (DOE 2009) 5-91
Figure 5-10-Source (FHWA) 5-137
Figure 6-1 -Projected U.S. Biofuel Sources 6-14
List of Tables
Table 5-1 - Commercial Energy Efficient Product Standards Set in the Energy Policy Act of
2005 5-2
Table 5-2 - Additional Commercial Energy Efficient Product Standards to be Set by DOE
Rulemaking 5-3
Table 5-3 - List of Environmental Criterial Required for Registration as an EPEAT Product... 5-8
Table 5-4 - Secondary Use Markets for Various Construction and Demolition Materials 5-19
Table 5-5 -Federal Agency LEED® Goals for Facility Design 5-28
Table 5.6 - Secondary Use Markets for Various Industrial Waste Products 5-79
Table 5-7-U.S. Biodiesel Production 5-101
Table 5-8 -U.S. Total Corn Grain Production and Corn Used for Fuel Ethanol 5-103
Table 5-9 - U.S. Total Production and Consumption of Fuel Ethanol 5-103
Table 6-1 - Electricity Net Generation from Renewable Energy by Energy Use Sector and
Energy Source, 2003-2007 6-2
Table 6-2 -Wind Turbine Market Segmentation 6-9
Table 6-3 - Renewable Energy 6-19
Table 7-1 - Energy Efficiency Training Opportunities 7-1
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Acronyms
ADA
APU
ARRA
ASHRAE
BEES
BLM
BRT
BTU
C&D
CAA
CAFE
CALIPER
CAP
CBECS
CCT
CEC
CEE
CEQ
CFR
ChemPEP
Tool
CHP
CMOP
CNG
CO
C02
COSTSAFR
CRER
CWSAT
DCA
DDC
DDKS
DEMP
DoD
DOE
EACC
EAPT
ECIP
ECRA
Acronyms and Glossary
Americans with Disabilities Act
Auxiliary Power Units
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009)
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-conditioning Engineers
Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability
Bureau of Land Management
Bus Rapid Transit
British Thermal Unit
Construction and Demolition debris
Clean Air Act
Corporate Average Fuel Economy
Commercially Available LED Product Evaluation and Reporting
Clean Airport Partnership
Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey
Correlated Color Temperature
California Energy Commission
Consortium for Energy Efficiency
Council on Environmental Quality
Code of Federal Regulations
Plant Energy Profiler for the Chemical Industry
Combined Heat and Power
Coalbed Methane Outreach Program
Compressed Natural Gas
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Dioxide
Conservation Optimization Standard for Savings in Federal Residences
Conservation and Renewable Energy Reserve
Chilled Water System Analysis Tool
Department of Community Affairs
Direct Digital Control
Diesel-Driven Heating System
Departmental Energy Management Program
Department of Defense
Department of Energy
Electric Aircraft Cargo Conveyor
Electric Aircraft PushBack Tractor
Energy Conservation Investment Program
Energy Conservation Reauthorization Act of 1998
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EER Energy Efficiency Ratio
EERE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
EGS Enhanced Geothermal Systems
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EISA Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
EMCS Energy Monitoring and Control System
EMS Environmental Management Systems
EO Executive Order
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPAct 1992 Energy Policy Act of 1992
EPAct 2005 Energy Policy Act of 2005
EPC Environmental Performance Criteria
EPEAT Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool
EPP Environmentally Preferable Purchasing
ESCO Energy Service Company
ESPC Energy Savings Performance Contracts
EV Electric Vehicle
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Esters
FAR Federal Acquisition Regulation
FAST Federal Automotive Statistical Tool
FEMP Federal Energy Management Program
FFV Flexible Fuel Vehicle
FLEET Freight Logistics and Energy Tracking
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FSAT Fan System Assessment Tool
FTC Federal Trade Commission
FY Fiscal Year
GAI Green Airport Initiative
GEC Green Electronics Council
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GHO Green Homes Office
GSA General Services Administration
GVWR Gross Vehicle Weight Rating
HC Hydrocarbons
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicles
HOT High Occupant Toll
HOV High Occupant Vehicle
HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
ICC International Code Council
IECC International Energy Conservation Code
Xlll
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IEEE
IBS
IESNA
INL
IRC
IRS
ISO
IIP
ITS
kW
Labs21
LBNL
LED
LEED®
LMOP
LNG
LPG
LSV
MEF
MOU
mpg
NASA
NAVFAC
NCDC
NCPV
NECPA
NEMA
NEPA
NGV
NHTSA
NHPA
NIBS
NICE
,3
NIST
NOX
NRC
NREL
NWCC
NxEAT
OFA
OLED
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Integrated Energy Systems
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
Idaho National Laboratory
International Residential Code
Internal Revenue Service
International Standards Organization
Industrial Technologies Program
Intelligent Transportation Systems
Kilowatts
Laboratories for the 21st Century
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Light-Emitting Diode
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
Landfill Methane Outreach Program
Liquefied Natural Gas
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Low-Speed Vehicle
Modified Energy Factor
Memorandum of Understanding
Miles Per Gallon
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Naval Facilities Engineering Command
National Clean Diesel Campaign
National Center for Photovoltaics
National Energy Conservation Policy Act
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
National Environmental Policy Act
Natural Gas Vehicles
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
National Historic Preservation Act
National Institute of Building Sciences
National Industrial Competitiveness Through Efficiency: Energy,
Environment
National Institute for Standards and Technology
Nitrogen Oxides
National Research Council
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
National Wind Coordinating Committee
NOx and Energy Assessment Tool
Office of Federal Activities
Organic Light-Emitting Diode
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ORNL
PAR
PEM
PHAST
PLED
PM
PNNL
ppm
PPV
PRV
PSAT
R&D
SBIC
SCx
SEL
SEP
SHGC
SOV
SRI
SSL
TAT
TDM
TEAM
TOD
U235
UESC
UF6
ULSD
USAGE
USGBC
VAV
VFD
WAP
WBDG
WIP
WPA
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Parabolic Aluminized Reflector
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
Process Heating Assessment and Survey Tool
Polymer Light-Emitting Diode
Paniculate Matter
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Parts Per Million
Public-Private Venture
Plant Replacement Value
Pumping System Assessment Tool
Research and Development
Sustainable Buildings Industry Council
Shading Coefficient
Spectrally Enhanced Lighting
State Energy Program
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
Single-Occupancy Vehicle Lanes
Solar Reflectance Index
Solid-State Lighting
Thermally Activated Technologies
Transportation Demand Management
Transformational Energy Action Management
Transit Oriented Development
Uranium-235
Utility Energy Services Contracts
Uranium Fluoride
Ultra-low Sulfur Diesel
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
United States Green Building Council
Variable Air Volume
Variable Frequency Drives
Weatherization Assistance Program
Whole Building Design Guide
Weatherization and Intergovernmental Program
Wind Powering America
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Glossary
This glossary is compilation of terms and definitions used throughout this guidance document.
Access management - Policies, design criteria, and facilities that minimize the number of
driveways and intersecting roads accessing a main thoroughfare; includes parallel service roads,
shared driveways, median barriers, and curb cut limitations.
Active solar technology -Used to convert solar energy into usable light, heat, cause air-
movement for ventilation or cooling, or store heat for future use. Active solar uses electrical or
mechanical equipment, such as pumps and fans, to increase the usable heat in a system.
Air barriers - Systems of materials used to control airflow in building enclosures.
Biodiesel - A domestically produced, clean-burning, renewable substitute for petroleum diesel.
Biodiesel is a liquid fuel made up of fatty acid alkyl esters, fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), or
long-chain mono alkyl esters. It is produced from renewable sources such as new and used
vegetable oils and animal fats and is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleum-based diesel
fuel.
Biofuel - Solid, liquid or gaseous fuel obtained from recently dead biological material and is
different from fossil fuels, which are derived from long dead biological material. Various plants
and plant-derived materials are also used for biofuel manufacturing.
Biomass - A renewable energy source that refers to living and recently dead biological material
that can be used as fuel or for industrial production. In this context, biomass refers to plant
matter grown or used to generate electricity or produce (for example: trash such as dead trees and
branches, yard clippings and wood chips), and it also includes plant or animal matter used for
production of fibers, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can
be burnt as fuel.
Bioswale - Vegetated buffers that slow water runoff and encourage infiltration.
Biorefineries - Facilities that integrate biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce
fuels, power, and value-added chemicals from biomass.
Brownfields - Real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be
complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or
contaminant.
Building commissioning - A project management practice that formalizes review of all project
expectations for facilities and their systems during planning, design, construction, and occupancy
phases. It is an umbrella process that seeks to improve energy efficiency and indoor air quality
by uncovering deficiencies in design or installation using peer review, inspection and functional
performance testing, and by delivering preventive maintenance plans, tailored operating
manuals, and training procedures.
Building envelope - Consists of all exterior components of a building.
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CAFE standards - The sales weighted average fuel economy, expressed in miles per gallon
(mpg), of a manufacturer's fleet of passenger cars or light trucks with a gross vehicle weight
rating (GVWR) of 8,500 Ibs. or less, manufactured for sale in the United States, for any given
model year.
Cleanrooms - Specially constructed enclosed areas that are environmentally controlled with
respect to airborne particulates, temperature, humidity, air flow patterns, air motion, and lighting.
They are sealed facilities with specialized air handling and filtration systems designed to
minimize static electricity or the concentrations of particles and other contaminants that may
interfere with scientific research, manufacturing, medical operations and other activities.
Cogeneration/Combined Heat and Power - As discussed in this reference, cogeneration is
defined as the use of a heat engine or a power station to simultaneously generate both electricity
and useful heat.
Compact fluorescent light (CFL) - A compact fluorescent light bulb is a fluorescent bulb that
has been compressed into the size of a standard-issue incandescent light bulb. Modern CFLs
typically last six times as long and use a quarter of the power of an equivalent incandescent bulb.
Concentrated solar power system - Systems that use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to
focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated light is then used as a heat
source for a conventional power plant or is concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces.
Concentrating solar power systems are divided into concentrating solar thermal (CST) and
concentrating photovoltaics (CPV).
Construction and Demolition debris (C&D) - Materials left over after a building, roadway, or
other piece of infrastructure is either constructed or demolished at end of life.
Daylighting - To light an area with daylight.
Direct geothermal heating - When hot water near the Earth's surface is piped directly into
facilities and used to heat buildings, grow plants in greenhouses, aquaculture, crop drying and a
variety of other tasks.
Distributed Generation - The use of small-scale power generation technologies located close to
the load being served and connected at the distribution level, rather than the transmission level of
the electric grid.
Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) - a system that evaluates
electronic products (mainly computers and computer products) based on 51 environmental
criteria.
Energy efficiency - Obtaining identical services or output with less energy input.
Energy intensity - A measure of the energy efficiency of a nation's economy. It is calculated as
units of energy per unit of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
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ENERGY STAR - a joint EPA/DOE program designed to identify and promote energy-efficient
products, including office equipment, major appliances, lighting, home electronics, new homes,
and commercial and industrial buildings.
Feedstock - Raw material required for an industrial process.
Geothermal heat pump system - A central heating and/or air conditioning system that actively
pumps heat to or from the shallow ground. It uses the earth as either a source of heat in the
winter or as a coolant in the summer.
Geothermal power - Power extracted from heat stored in the earth. Geothermal energy
originates from the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, and
from solar energy absorbed at the surface.
Green building - An outcome of a design which focuses on increasing the efficiency of
resource use — energy, water, and materials — while reducing building impacts on human
health and the environment during the building's lifecycle, through better design, construction,
operation, maintenance, and removal.
Green power - Electricity produced from a subset of renewable resources, such as solar, wind,
geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydropower.
Green roof- A vegetative layer grown on a rooftop. Green roofs provide shade and remove heat
from the air through evapotranspiration, reducing temperatures of the roof surface and the
surrounding air.
Heat island effect - The phenomenon in which air temperatures above an urban area are higher
than the surrounding rural areas.
Hot dry rock technology - A type of geothermal power production that uses the very high
temperatures found in rocks a few kilometers below the surface. By pumping high pressure water
down a borehole, the water travels through fractures in the rock and absorbs heat energy and is
subsequently forced out of a second borehole as very hot water. This water is then used to run a
turbine and generate electricity. The cooled water is injected back into the ground to heat up
again in a closed loop.
Hybrid electric vehicles - A type of vehicle that combines the internal combustion engine of a
conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle. The combination
offers low emissions, with the power, range, and convenient fueling of conventional (gasoline
and diesel) vehicles.
Hydroelectric power - Power that is derived from the force or energy of moving water, which
may be harnessed for useful purposes.
Hydrokinetic technologies - Technologies capable of generating electricity from the motion of
waves, tides, ocean and river currents.
Incident management systems- Technology and programs for detecting crashes, disabled
vehicles, or other incidents that impede travel and resolving or removing the obstructions.
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Integrated energy systems - A system design that brings together gas-fired and electrically
driven equipment to provide heating, cooling, dehumidification, and electrical service to
commercial and public buildings.
Intermediate Load Electricity - Power that is needed in addition to baseline power as a result
of increased demand - often this comes from natural gas, solar or wind.
Intelligent transportation systems - The use of technology to improve traffic flow with respect
to incident management and traveler information. The use of technology must include supporting
operations and maintenance of that technology.
Life cycle cost - The investigation and valuation of the environmental impacts of a given
product or service caused or necessitated by its existence.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) - An electronic light source.
Low speed vehicles - Alternative means of transportation that drastically reduce the amount of
petroleum used by a conventional vehicle fleet. Low-speed vehicles are commonly utility or
recreational vehicles and typically powered by electric, gasoline or propane.
Military installations - A base, camp, post, station, yard, center, homeport facility or ship, or
any other facility under the jurisdiction of a department, agency, or other instrument of the
Department of Defense, including a leased facility.
Modal choice - The ability for one mode of transportation to be selected over another given the
preferences and requirements of the commuter or goods. Mode choices are viable transportation
alternatives between the same origin and destination.
Nanomanufacturing - The purposeful engineering of matter at the nano-scale, which ranges
from 1 to 100 nanometers.
Passive solar technology - The technology of heating, cooling, and lighting a building naturally
with sunlight rather than with mechanical systems.
Photovoltaics - The field of technology and research related to the application of solar cells for
energy by converting sunlight directly into electricity. They are silicon-based devices that
convert light into electricity.
Post consumer content - A material that has served its intended use and instead of being
disposed of it is being reused in a different product.
Pre-consumer content - By-products generated after the manufacturing process is completed
and then reconstituted into pre-consumer recycled content.
R value - a measure of thermal resistance used in the building and construction industry.
e energy - Energy generated from natural resources—such as sunlight, wind, rain,
;eothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally replenished).
Renewable energy
tides and g
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Smart Grid - A shift from a centralized, producer-controlled electrical network to a less
centralized, more consumer-interactive grid.
Smart growth - An approach that enhances neighborhoods and involves local residents in
development decisions while creating vibrant places to live, work, and play. These approaches
develop strategies that preserve natural lands, protect water and air quality, and reuse already-
developed land.
Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)- A numerical measure of how well a window blocks heat
from sunlight. The SHGC is the fraction of the heat from the sun that enters through a window.
SHGC is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The lower a window's SHGC, the less solar
heat it transmits.
Solar power - Energy from sunlight that is converted it into heat, electricity or supplemental
lighting using photovoltaics (PV), concentrating solar power (CSP), or various experimental
technologies.
Solid state lighting - Utilizes light-emitting diodes, organic light-emitting diodes, or polymer
light-emitting diodes as sources of illumination rather than electrical filaments, plasma (used in
arc lamps such as fluorescent lamps), or gas. The term "solid state" refers to the fact that light in
an LED is emitted from a solid object—a block of semiconductor—rather than from a vacuum or
gas tube, as is the case in traditional incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent lamps.
Spectrally enhanced lighting (SEL) - A technology/lighting design technique that uses existing
products and technology to reduce energy use in commercial buildings. The concept behind SEL
is that a significant amount of energy can be saved by using lamps that have less light output, but
higher correlated color temperature.
Standby power - Refers to the electric power consumed by electronic appliances while they are
switched off or in a standby mode.
Thermally activated technologies - A diverse portfolio of equipment that transforms
wasted/discarded heat into useful purposes such as heating, cooling, humidity control, thermal
storage, and shaft/electrical power.
Thin-film technology - A microscopically thin layer of material that is deposited onto a metal,
ceramic, semiconductor or plastic base. Thin films of photovoltaic material using silicon,
cadmium telluride and other elements are used to make solar panels and solar roof shingles.
Tidal power - A form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other
useful forms of power.
Transit oriented development - The creation of compact, walkable communities centered
around high quality train systems, and collector support transit systems including trolleys,
streetcars, light rail, and buses.
Wave power - The transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the capture of that energy to
do useful work.
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Weatherization - The practice of protecting a building and its interior from the elements,
particularly from sunlight, precipitation, and wind, and of modifying a building to reduce energy
consumption and optimize energy efficiency.
Whole building design - A concept that forms the entire building stakeholder community into a
team at the beginning of a project. The team examines project objectives, building materials,
systems, and assemblies from various perspectives, and improves the final building product by
integrating the components into a more energy efficient system.
Wind power - the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind
machines and turbines.
Xeriscape - Refers to landscaping and gardening in ways that reduce or eliminate the need for
supplemental irrigation.
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1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose and Intent of This Reference
Energy efficiency—obtaining identical services or
output with less energy input—offers one of the lowest
cost means of reducing U.S. energy bills, preventing
pollution and addressing climate change. As one of the
largest energy consumers in the United States, the
federal government has taken on the responsibility to lead by example by promoting energy
efficiency. By more fully integrating energy efficiency considerations throughout the actions,
decisions and operations of the federal government, the U.S. could not only make substantial
1.1. Purpose and Intent of this
Reference
1.2. Audience
1.3. Organization of this Reference
Federal Energy Consumption -FY2005
(trillion BTUs)
Vehicles &
Equipment
65%
Federal Energy Cost - FY 2005
(billions)
Vehicles &
Equipment,
8.86
cmpt
Facilities,
0.42
Federal Energy Cost - FY 2005
(percentage of total)
Standard
•uildings,
29.5%
Energy
Intensive
Facilities,
61.3%
.Exempt
Facilities,
2.9%
6.4%
Figure 1-1.
Federal energy consumption and cost
statistics for Fiscal Year 2005 derived from
Annual Report to Congress on Federal
Government Energy Management and
Conservation Programs: Fiscal Year 2005,
U.S. Department of Energy, Assistant
Secretary, Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, Federal Energy
Management Program.
The U.S. government is the single largest
energy consumer in the nation. The energy
consumption of the Federal government
represents approximately 1.6% of the total
energy consumed in the United States.
In terms of major energy use, jet fuel and
electricity accounted for approximately
59.3% of total energy consumption and
approximately 71.1% of total energy costs.
Note: Standard buildings include typical
office and other administrative structures.
Energy intensive buildings include
industrial facilities, laboratories, and data
centers. Exempt facilities include those that
are deemed exempt from the provisions of
the Energy Act of 2005, generally including
leased buildings, privately-owned buildings
on federal lands, and limited energy-
consuming structures such as parking
garages.
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advances in reducing our dependence on foreign sources of energy, but could reduce many of the
environmental pollutants emitted in the production and utilization of that energy.
Primary Energy Use by Source, 2007,
Quadrillion Btu and Percent
Renewable
Energy
6.8 (7%)
Nuclear Electric
Power
8.4 (8%)
Source: Energy Information Administration,
Annual Energy Review 2007
Figure 1-2. Overall U.S. Energy
Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007
Primary Energy Use by Sector, 2007, Quadrillion Btu
Residential &
Commercial
10.6
40.6
20 30
Quadrillion Btu
Source: Energy Information Administration, Annnual Energy
Review. 2007
50
This reference document provides background information on federal energy efficiency
legislation, policies, guidance and programs, as well as current energy efficiency technologies,
standards, and products. These programs and documents have very specific requirements. For
this reason, federal agencies are well aware of energy efficiency requirements for their actions
and activities. 309 Reviewers should identify whether they are addressed in EISs. It is
understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
This reference is intended for reviewers within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
who review and comment on National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) documents, in
accordance with EPA's responsibilities for environmental review under §309 of the Clean Air
Act (CAA).
The goal of the reference is to provide information to assist EPA reviewers to:
1. Prepare scoping comments on environmental impact statements (EISs) that address energy
efficiency;
2. Consider energy efficiency issues most appropriate to a specific type of federal action
presented in an EIS;
3. Support the development of EPA's comments under CAA §309.
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1.2 Audience
The primary audience for this reference is EPA staff who: 1) review legislation, regulations, and
NEPA documentation to meet EPA's CAA §309 responsibilities; and 2) participate in
interagency coordination meetings, committees and task forces on a full range of EPA's
responsibilities and initiatives.
Other audiences include staff of federal agencies and private and public individuals and groups
whose environmental legislation, regulations, projects, documentation, or permit applications
come under EPA review, and international, state, or local governmental staffer officials and
private individuals and groups interested in energy efficiency. All audiences should consider this
document as background information, not as law, regulation, policy or guidelines.
1.3 Organization of this Reference
This introductory chapter is followed by a chapter that reviews the NEPA and §309 review
process and describes opportunities for including energy efficiency within the process. Chapter
3 summarizes the relevant federal legislation, policies, directives and guidance related to energy
efficiency. Chapter 4 examines energy efficiency related federal programs. Chapter 5
summarizes general federal energy uses, related federal partnership programs and review
considerations for each federal energy use by topic. The chapter is organized by the following
topics:
• appliances and equipment • laboratories
• facility siting • industrial facilities
• construction • federal vehicle fleets
• buildings • transportation facilities
• federally assisted housing • other federal government operations
• military installations
Chapter 6 describes renewable energy technologies and related federal programs, and Chapter 7
presents a list of training opportunities related to energy efficiency for 309 Reviewers, other
federal agency employees, and the public.
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2. Incorporating Energy Efficiency in the NEPA Process
2.1 National Environmental Policy Act x
2.1 National Environmental Policy
Act
2.2 CEQ Regulations Implementing
NEPA, 40-CFRPartl500
2.3 CEQ Guidance Regarding NEPA
Regulations
2.4 Section 309 of the Clean Air Act
2.5 Energy Efficiency and the NEPA
Process
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was
signed into law on January 1, 1970. NEPA, as
amended (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), requires all federal
agencies to, among other things, assess the
environmental impacts of major federal actions
significantly affecting the quality of the human
environment (e.g., issuing permits, spending federal
money, or taking actions on federal lands). When an
agency concludes that a proposed major federal
action has the potential for causing significant ^ '
environmental impacts, it is required to prepare a detailed statement, known as an environmental
impact statement (EIS). The purpose of the EIS is to inform the federal decision makers and the
public of the environmental impacts of the project and reasonable alternatives which would
avoid or minimize adverse impacts or enhance the quality of the human environment. In part,
NEPA states that all federal agencies shall "utilize a systematic, interdisciplinary approach which
will insure the integrated use of the natural and social sciences and the environmental design arts
in planning and in decision-making which may have an impact on man's environment" (42
U.S.C. 4332).
2.2 CEQ Regulations Implementing NEPA, 40 CFR Part 1500
The President's Council on Environmental Quality's (CEQ's) NEPA-implementing regulations,
at 40 CFR Parts 1500 - 1508, establish minimum general procedures that assure NEPA
compliance. These CEQ regulations establish a multistage process that describes how an agency
is to analyze and describe any significant environmental impacts that could result from carrying
out a proposed major federal action.
NEPA and the CEQ regulations require that, when a federal agency proposes legislation or
another major federal action significantly affecting the quality of the human environment, the
agency must prepare a detailed statement of the environmental effects and obtain comments from
any other federal agency having jurisdiction by law or special expertise with respect to any
environmental impact involved (42 USC 4332(C); 40 CFR 1503.1). In accordance with the CEQ
regulations, each federal agency has developed its own NEPA rules and/or agency procedures.
2.3 CEQ Guidance Regarding NEPA Regulations
Since NEPA was enacted, CEQ has issued many guidance documents to assist federal agencies
in complying with the CEQ regulations for implementing the Act, preparing high-quality NEPA
documents, and improving the NEPA process.
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One of the most widely referenced CEQ guidance documents is the 1981 memorandum to
federal agencies, Forty Most Asked Questions Concerning CEQ's National Environmental Policy
Act Regulations (CEQ 1981). This guidance provided clarification on topics including the range
of alternatives, implementing actions that are the subject of an ongoing NEPA review, public
involvement, cooperating agencies, and contents of specific EIS sections, among others.
Other CEQ guidance includes the following documents that are widely applicable or that may be
particularly relevant to reviewing EISs for energy efficiency projects:
• A Citizen's Guide to the NEPA: Having Your Voice Heard (CEQ 2007a)
• Reporting NEPA Status and Progress for Recovery Act Activities and Projects, April 3, 2009
(CEQ 2009)
• Aligning National Environmental Policy Act Processes with Environmental Management
Systems: A Guide for NEPA and EMS Practitioners, April 2007 (CEQ 2007b)
• Guidance on the Consideration of Past Actions in Cumulative Effects Analysis, June 24, 2005
(CEQ 2005)
• EnvironmentalJustice: Guidance Under the National Environmental Policy Act, December
10, 1997 (CEQ 1997a)
• Considering Cumulative Effects Under the National Environmental Policy Act, January 1997
(CEQ 1997c)
• Pollution Prevention and the National Environmental Policy Act, January 12, 1993 (CEQ
1993)
• Guidance Regarding NEPA Regulations, 1983 (CEQ 1983).
2.4 Section 309 of the Clean Air Act
Section 309 of the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1970 (42 U.S.C. 7609), directs EPA to review
and comment in writing on the environmental impacts of, among other things, "newly authorized
federal projects for construction and any major federal action (other than a project for
construction) of a federal agency to which 42 USC 4332(C). . . applies" and to make those
reviews available to the public. If EPA determines that any such action is environmentally
unsatisfactory, the action will be referred to CEQ.
Section 309 confers upon EPA review responsibilities for proposed major federal actions. The
EPA Administrator has delegated to the Office of Federal Activities (OFA) the authority to
review and comment on EISs that are multi-regional in scope and regulations proposed by other
federal agencies for which there are national policy implications. The Administrator has
delegated to the ten EPA Regional Administrators the authority to review and comment on
region-specific EISs. EPA has developed a set of criteria for rating draft EISs. The rating system
provides a consistent method for evaluating Draft EISs (EPA 2002). In the event EPA
determines that:
1) the agency's action involves adverse environmental impacts that are of sufficient
magnitude that EPA believes the proposed action should not proceed as proposed;
2) the draft EIS has been rated environmentally unsatisfactory;
3) the final EIS continues to be environmentally unsatisfactory;
4) and every effort has been made to resolve the environmental issues at the agency level;
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EPA will determine whether the action is unsatisfactory from the standpoint of public health,
welfare, or environmental quality, and, if so, refer the Final EIS to CEQ.
EPA (OFA and regional offices) reviews approximately 500 EISs and about 2,000 other actions
each year. OFA also develops guidance materials, provides NEPA and §309 training courses,
and promotes coordination between EPA offices and other federal agencies.
2.5 Energy Efficiency and the NEPA Process
Section 309 of the Clean Air Act directs the EPA to review and comment on major federal
actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment undertaken by other federal
agencies, and to make the results of those reviews available to the public. In its Section 309 role,
EPA ensures that federal agencies give due consideration to environmental factors and resource
issues in their individual decision-making processes. EPA conducts Section 309 reviews
consistent with its Policy and Procedures for the Review of Federal Actions Impacting the
Environment (EPA 1984) and the 2007 update (EPA 2007).
While NEPA does not specifically address the subject, the promotion of energy efficiency is
inherent in the overall goals of the statute which define the environmental stewardship policy of
the nation and include the concepts of:
• Responsibility for the future: Fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as trustee of the
environment for succeeding generations.
• Societal prosperity: Achieve a balance between population and resource use which will
permit high standards of living and a wide sharing of life's amenities.
• Sustainable practices: Enhance the quality of renewable resources and approach the
maximum attainable recycling of depletable resources.
Under the CEQ regulations for implementing NEPA, consideration of energy efficiency is
specifically required. Under Section 1502.16 (e) regarding the requirements for analyzing and
documenting environmental consequences, agencies are required to discuss "energy
requirements and conservation potential of various alternatives and mitigation measures."
Section 1502.16(f) requires agencies to consider the "natural or depletable resource requirements
and conservation potential of various alternatives and mitigation measures." Energy efficiency
and conservation concepts may also be interpreted as a necessary consideration in addressing the
relationship between short-term uses of man's environment and the maintenance and
enhancement of long-term productivity, and any irreversible or irretrievable commitments of
resources as required by the CEQ regulations (Section 1502.16).
Several executive orders and policies have been promulgated over the years that require or
promote the consideration of energy efficiency in federal actions, including the following:
• Executive Order 13423, Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy and Transportation
Management (EOF 2007)
• Executive Order 13221, Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices (EOF 2001 a)
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• Executive Order 13211, Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy
Supply, Distribution, or Use (EOF 200 Ib).
These executive orders are discussed in detail in Chapter 3 of this document.
The reviewer should keep in mind that questions and suggestions regarding energy efficiency
should be governed by tests of reasonableness and practicality. The earlier in the NEPA process
(e.g., during scoping) that suggestions are made and considered, the greater the likelihood of
incorporating energy efficiency in project design. This reference is provided to help the reviewer
recognize energy impacts and considerations that may be included in the NEPA process. The
best time to include questions or suggestions regarding energy efficiency is during the scoping
stage or, where EPA is a cooperating agency, during the preparation of the DEIS. The intent of
this document is to increase awareness and understanding of federal programs and information
regarding energy efficiency.
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Section 2 References
Links to external web sites provided in this document may be useful or interesting and are being provided consistent
with the intended purpose of this guidance document. EPA cannot attest to the accuracy of information provided by
any linked site. Providing links to a non-EPA web site does not constitute an endorsement by EPA or any of its
employees of the sponsors of the site or the information or products provided on the site. Also, be aware that the
privacy protection provided on the epa.gov domain (see Privacy and Security Notice) may not be available at the
external link.
40 CFR Part 6. Procedures for Implementing the National Environmental Policy Act and
Assessing the Environmental Effects Abroad of EPA Actions.
http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-search.html#page 1 Accessed March 2009.
40 CFR Parts 1500 - 1508. CEQ regulations for implementing NEPA.
http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-search.html#page 1 Accessed March 2009.
42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq. National Environmental Policy Act. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/usc.cgi?ACTION=BROWSE&TITLE=42USCC55 Accessed March 2009.
42 U.S.C. 7609. Clean Air Act. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/usc.cgi?ACTION=BROWSE&TITLE=42USCC85 Accessed March 2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1981. Forty Most Asked Questions Concerning CEQ's
National Environmental Policy Act Regulations
http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/regs/40/40p3.htm Accessed March 2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1983. Guidance Regarding NEPA Regulations, 1983.
http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/regs/1983/1983guid.htm Accessed March 2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1993. Pollution Prevention and the National Environmental
Policy Act, January 12, 1993. http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/regs/poll/ppguidnc.htm
Accessed March 2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1997a. EnvironmentalJustice: Guidance under the National
Environmental Policy Act. December 10, 1997.
http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/regs/ej/justice.pdfAccessed March 2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1997b. Guidance on NEPA Analysis for Transboundary
Impacts, July 1, 1997. http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/regs/transguide.html Accessed March
2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1997c. Considering Cumulative Effects Under the National
Environmental Policy Act, January 1997.
http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/ccenepa/ccenepa.htm Accessed March 2009.
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Council on Environmental Quality. 2005. Guidance on the Consideration of Past Actions in
Cumulative Effects Analysis., June 24, 2005.
http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/regs/Guidance_on_CE.pdf Accessed March 2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 2007a. A Citizen's Guide to the NEPA: Having your Voice
Heard, December 2007. http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/Citizens Guide Dec07.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 2007b. Aligning National Environmental Policy Act
Processes with Environmental Management Systems: A Guide for NEPA and EMS
Practitioners., April 2007.
http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/NEPA EMS Guide final Apr2007.pdf Accessed March
2009.
Council on Environmental Quality. 2009. Reporting NEPA Status and Progress for Recovery Act
Activities and Projects, March 11, 2009.
http://www.nepa.gov/nepa/regs/CEQ_1609_NEPA_Guidance_03-12.pdf Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 1994. Executive Order 12902—Energy Efficiency and Water
Conservation at Federal Facilities.59 Federal Register 47.
http ://frwebgate4. access, gpo. gov/cgi-
bin/TEXTgate.cgi?WAISdocro=759138393168+22+l+0&WAISaction=retrieve
Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 200 la. Executive Order 13221—Energy Efficient Standby
Power Devices. 66 Federal Register 149:40571. http://www.ofee.gov/eo/eol3221.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 2001b. Executive Order 13211—Actions Concerning
Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use. 66 Federal
Register 99:28355-28356. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001register&docid=01-13116-filed.pdf Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 2007. Executive Order 13423—Strengthening Federal
Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management.72 Federal Register 17:3919-
3923. http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2007/pdf/07-374.pdfAccessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1984. Policy and Procedures for the Review of Federal
Actions Impacting the Environment. October 3, 1984.
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/policies/nepa/nepa_policies_procedures.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. EPA's Section 309 Review: The Clean Air Act
and NEPA, Quick Reference Brochure. Office of Enforcement and Compliance
Assurance. May 2002.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2007. Memorandum: Errata for the Policy and
Procedures for the Review of Federal Actions Impacting the Environment. From Anne
Norton Miller, Director, OF A. Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. July
19, 2007.
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3. Relevant Federal Statutes, Regulations, Executive Orders,
Directives and Guidance
This section provides background information on
the laws, regulations, Presidential directives, and
guidance relating to energy efficiency. This is not
intended to be a comprehensive compilation of
such documents; rather it is intended to assist the
reviewer by providing background information. It
is important to note that EPA does not have
jurisdiction or authority to enforce these laws,
regulations and directives.
3.1 Energy Policy Act of 2005
The purpose of the Energy Policy Act of 2005
(P.L. 109-58), the first major piece of federal
energy legislation since 1992, is to "ensure jobs
for our future with secure, affordable, and reliable
energy." The Act contains provisions to promote
energy efficiency and conservation, encourage
alternative and renewable energy sources, reduce
dependence on foreign sources of energy, increase
domestic production, modernize the electricity
grid, and encourage the expansion of nuclear
energy.
Title I, Energy Efficiency, of the 18-title act
addresses energy efficiency as it relates to Federal
Programs (Subtitle A), Energy Assistance and
State Programs (Subtitle B), Energy Efficient
Products (Subtitle C), and Public Housing
(Subtitle D). Of particular relevance to NEPA
document review, Title I, Subtitle A, Federal
Programs, amends the National Energy
Conservation Policy Act (NECPA) of 1978 by
adding:
3.1 Energy Policy Act of 2005
3.2 National Energy Conservation
Policy Act of 1978
3.3 Criteria for Excluding Buildings
from the Energy Performance
Requirements of Section 543 of the
National Energy Conservation
Policy Act, as Amended by the
Energy Policy Act of 2005
3.4 Energy Independence and Security
Act of 2007
3.5 Housing and Community
Development Act of 1974
3.6 Federal Acquisition Regulation
3.7 Federal Energy Management and
Planning Programs, 10 CFR436
3.8 Executive Order 13423,
Strengthening Federal
Environmental, Energy and
Transportation Management
3.9 Executive Order 13221, Energy
Efficient Standby Power Devices
3.10 Executive Order 13211, Actions
Concerning Regulations That
Significantly Affect Energy Supply,
Distribution, or Use
3.11 Guidance for Electric Metering in
Federal Buildings
3.12 Executive Order 13514, Federal
Leadership in Environmental,
Energy, and Economic Performance
Requirements for energy and water savings measures in congressional buildings.
Requirements for annual two percent reductions in energy use at federal agency buildings
(including industrial and laboratory facilities) through fiscal year 2015, with DOE to
complete a review of the government's performance in response to this requirement by the
end of 2014 and recommend additional measures for fiscal years 2016 through 2025.
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• A requirement for agencies to monitor their electricity use in all federal buildings by October
1, 2012, using advanced meters or devices that provide data at least daily and that measure
consumption of electricity at least hourly.
• A requirement that, whenever an agency procures an energy-consuming product, they must
purchase an ENERGY STAR or Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)-designated
product, unless such products would not be cost-effective (including consideration of energy
savings) or not reasonably available. DOE published a final rule on March 13, 2009, stating
that ENERGY STAR and FEMP-designated products may be assumed to be life cycle cost-
effective, and identifying the applicability of NECPA Section 553 requirements related to
energy efficiency to specific procurement actions (74 Federal Register 10830-10835, March
13, 2009, to be codified as 10 CFR 436.40-436.43).
• Extension of the energy savings performance contracts provision in NECPA Section 801
through 2016.
• Voluntary agreements between industrial energy users and federal agencies to reduce energy
intensity (defined as "the primary energy consumed for each unit of physical output in an
industrial process" (42 USC 15811).
• A requirement for DOE to establish a university-led Advanced Building Efficiency Testbed
program to develop, test and demonstrate advanced engineering systems, components and
materials to enable innovations in building technologies, for which funds were appropriated
for fiscal years 2006-2008.
• Requirements for achieving greater use of recovered mineral component in cement or
concrete projects.
• Requirements that DOE establish regulations revising federal building energy performance
standards that require that new federal buildings (1) are designed to achieve energy
consumption levels that are at least 30 percent below levels established by the American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard or
the International Energy Conservation Code standards, (2) incorporate sustainable design
principles; and (3) apply water conservation technologies if water is used to achieve energy
efficiency.
• Increasing the length of daylight savings time.
• In managing public lands, incorporating the use of energy efficient technologies in public and
administrative buildings, and using energy-efficient motor vehicles to the extent practicable.
In Title II, Renewable Energy, Section 203 sets federal government renewable energy
consumption requirements, and prioritizes renewables that are produced on-site or on federal or
Indian lands. Section 204 promotes the establishment of a photovoltaic energy
commercialization program in federal buildings, including the installation of 20,000 solar energy
systems in federal buildings by 2010.
In addition to its goals for federal programs, the Energy Policy Act includes three major energy
efficiency provisions: (1) new minimum energy efficiency standards for specific residential and
commercial products (Title 1, Subtitle C, Energy Efficient Products); (2) research into energy
efficiency, the Next Generation Lighting Initiative, the National Building Performance Initiative,
building standards, a secondary electric vehicle battery use program, the Energy Efficiency
Science Initiative, and Advanced Energy Efficiency Technology Transfer Centers (Title IX,
"Research and Development," Subtitle A, "Energy Efficiency"); and (3) manufacturer and
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consumer tax incentives for advanced energy savings technologies and practices (Title XIII,
"Energy Policy Tax Incentives.")
The full text of the Act is available at
http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109 cong bills&docid=f:h6enr.txt.pdf
3.2 National Energy Conservation Policy Act of 1978
The purpose of the National Energy Conservation Policy Act of 1978 (NECPA) is "to provide
for the regulation of interstate commerce, to reduce the growth in demand for energy in the
United States, and to conserve nonrenewable energy resources produced in this Nation and
elsewhere, without inhibiting beneficial economic growth" (42 USC 820l(b)). On their website,
DOE states that NECPA "serves as the underlying authority for federal energy management
goals and requirements. . . NECPA is the foundation of most current energy requirements" (DOE
2009).
The NEPCA energy management requirements (Subchapter III, "Federal Energy Initiative," Part
B, "Federal Energy Management," 42 USC 8251-8262k) are particularly relevant to NEPA
analyses of agency actions. This part promotes the conservation and the efficient use of energy
and water, and the use of renewable energy sources by the federal government (42 USC 8252).
As currently amended, it provides for:
• Annual reductions in energy use at federal agency buildings (including industrial and
laboratory facilities) through fiscal year 2015, with DOE to complete a review of the
government's performance in response to this requirement by the end of 2014 and
recommend additional measures for fiscal years 2016 through 2025. Installation of energy
and water conservation measures in federally owned buildings.
• Metering energy use in federal buildings.
• Establishing and using life cycle cost methods and procedures.
• Authorizing agencies to offer and receive incentives for energy efficiency improvements.
• Implementing energy management programs in federal agencies, including
intergovernmental energy management planning and coordination, energy management
training, energy audit teams, energy cost accounting and management, procurement and
identification of energy efficient products, provisions specific to the Postal Service, and
government contract incentives.
The full text of the Act is available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/usc.cgi?ACTION=BROWSE&TITLE=42USCC91.
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3.3 Criteria for Excluding Buildings from the Energy Performance Requirements
of Section 543 of the National Energy Conservation Policy Act, as Amended by
the Energy Policy Act of 2005
Under Section 543 of NECPA, 42 USCA § 8353 federal agencies are required to demonstrate an
annual reduction in energy usage. A building may be excluded from this requirement for one
fiscal year if it meets all of the following criteria (DOE 2006a):
1. Impracticability due to energy intensiveness or national security function.
2. Completed energy management reports.
3. Compliance with all energy efficiency requirements.
4. Implementation of all cost-effective energy projects in the building.
Federal agencies are required to submit to DOE their aggregate annual costs for each fuel type
consumed in its excluded buildings as well as the aggregate gross square footage of the excluded
buildings. The full text of these criteria is available in paragraph (c) at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy. gov/femp/pdfs/exclusion_criteria.pdf.
3.4 Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) (P.L. 110-140) builds ontheEnergy
Policy Act of 2005 in creating a comprehensive energy strategy for the 21st century. EISA
promotes accelerated research and development of alternative energy resources, primarily
focusing on solar, geothermal, and marine energy technologies, along with carbon sequestration.
In addition to providing research funding, the Act directs DOE to conduct studies on integration
of alternative energy technologies into regional electric transmission grids, to offer grant
programs for alternative energy workforce training, and to initiate and fund demonstration
programs for alternative energy technologies.
The Act raises corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards to 35 miles per gallon (mpg)
by model year 2020. Prior to EISA, Congress had not raised the CAFE standard for passenger
cars since 1975.
EISA 2007 also revises the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) for transportation fuels, originally
created under the Energy Policy Act of 2005. The Act seeks to increase the supply of biofuel by
requiring fuel producers to use in the fuel mix a progressively increasing amount of biofuel,
culminating in at least 36 billion gallons of biofuel by 2022. This includes 15 billion gallons of
conventional biofuel such as corn ethanol, as well as 21 billion gallons of advanced biofuels.
Within advanced biofuels, new volume standards are created for cellulosic biofuel, biomass-
based diesel, and other advanced biofuel. EISA also includes new definitions and criteria for
both renewable fuels and the feedstocks used to produce them, including new lifecycle
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission thresholds for each type of renewable fuel mandated by the Act.
EISA requires a 50% reduction in lifecycle GHG emissions for fuels to be classified as biomass-
based diesel or advanced biofuel, and a 60% reduction in order to be classified as cellulosic
biofuel. EISA also provides some limited flexibility for EPA to adjust these GHG percentage
thresholds downward by up to 10 percent under certain circumstances. EPA issued a proposed
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rule on May 19, 2009 to implement these changes to the RFS program, and is now working on a
final rule. Additional details can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/renewablefuels/index.htm
The Act also authorizes EPA to define low GHG-emitting light-duty vehicles and medium-duty
passenger vehicles and prohibits federal agencies from acquiring light-duty vehicles and
medium-duty passenger vehicles that are not low GHG-emitting vehicles.
EISA sets the first federal mandatory efficiency standards for lighting and residential and
commercial appliance equipment, including 200 percent greater efficiency from light bulbs by
2020. The array of products and appliances for which energy efficiency standards are established
in the Act includes dishwashers, dehumidifiers, residential boilers, electric motors, incandescent
lamps, external power supplies, and walk-in coolers and freezers. EISA also directs DOE to
conduct new rulemakings on residential refrigerators and clothes washers, and on the standby
power use of currently regulated appliances, and to revise all standards and test procedures on a
regular basis.
The Act also establishes requirements for federal agency efficiency and renewable energy use.
Key provisions include:
• All general purpose lighting in federal buildings must use ENERGY STAR or FEMP-
designated products by 2013.
• All new federal buildings must be "carbon neutral" by 2030.
• New and renovated federal buildings must reduce fossil fuel use by 55 percent from 2003
levels by 2010, and 80 percent by 2020.
• The U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) will establish an Office of High-
Performance Green Buildings to promote green building technology implementation in
federal buildings.
The Act also permanently authorizes Energy Savings Performance Contracts, an innovative
financing tool for upgrading the energy efficiency of federal buildings. EISA authorizes DOE to
implement a new program, the Commercial Buildings Initiative, to be designed with input from
an industry consortium. This program will combine research, development, and deployment
activities designed to achieve the goal of making all new commercial buildings "zero energy" by
the year 2030. Zero energy means that, on a net basis, the facility produces as much energy as it
uses.
The full text of this Act is available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=110_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ 140.110.pdf.
3.5 Housing and Community Development Act of 1974
The purpose of the Housing and Community Development Act, as amended, is development of
viable urban communities, by providing decent housing and a suitable living environment and
expanding economic opportunities, principally for persons of low and moderate income (42 USC
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69(5301)(c)). More information on energy efficiency in federally assisted housing programs can
be found in Section 5.5 of this document.
The full text of the Act is available at
http://www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/communitydevelopment/rulesandregs/laws/index.cfm.
3.6 Federal Acquisition Regulation
Title 48 of the CFR contains the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), which codifies uniform
policies and procedures for federal agency acquisitions. FAR Subparts 23.200 through 23.206
prescribe procedures for acquiring products and services that are energy- and water-efficient and
products that use renewable energy technology. To meet FAR requirements, the GSA offers
products designated as energy efficient under the EPA ENERGY STAR program, U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) FEMP, and the Green Electronics Council's Electronic Product
Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT).
The FAR is contained in CFR Title 48, which is available at
http ://www. access, gpo. gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-search.html#page 1.
3.7 Federal Energy Management and Planning Programs, 10 CFR Part 436
10 CFR Part 436 "sets forth the rules for Federal energy management and planning programs to
reduce Federal energy consumption and to promote life cycle cost effective investments in
building energy systems, building water systems and energy and water conservation measures
for Federal buildings." 10 CFR 436.1.
Subpart A of the regulation "establishes a methodology and procedures for estimating and
comparing the life cycle costs of Federal buildings, for determining the life cycle cost
effectiveness of energy conservation measures and water conservation measures, and for rank
ordering life cycle cost effective measures in order to design a new Federal building or to retrofit
an existing federal building. It also establishes the method by which efficiency shall be
considered when entering into or renewing leases of federal building space" (10 CFR 436.10).
Subpart B "provide[s] procedures and methods which apply to Federal agencies with regard to
the award and administration of energy savings performance contracts awarded on or before
September 30, 2003." 10 CFR 436.30.
Subpart C "provides guidance to promote the procurement of energy efficient products by
Federal agencies and promote procurement practices which facilitate the procurement of energy
efficient products" 10 CFR 436.40.
Subpart F, Guidelines for General Operations Plans, "provide[s] guidelines for use by Federal
agencies in their development of overall 10-year energy management plans to establish energy
conservation goals, to reduce the rate of energy consumption, to promote the efficient use of
energy, to promote switching for petroleum-based fuels and natural gas to coal and other energy
sources, to provide a methodology for reporting their progress in meeting the goals of those
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plans, and to promote emergency energy conservation planning to assuage the impact of a
sudden disruption in the supply of oil-based fuels, natural gas or electricity. The plan is intended
to provide the cornerstone for a program to conserve energy in the general operations of an
agency" (10 CFR 436.100). Each federal agency must submit its plan or revision of a plan to
DOE. DOE is authorized to review federal agency energy management plans and to evaluate the
sufficiency of such plans. 10 CFR 436.107.
These regulations can be accessed online under CFR Title 10, Volume 3, Chapter II, Parts 200-
499 at http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-search.html#page 1.
3.8 Executive Order 13423, Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and
Transportation Management
Executive Order (EO) 13423, Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy and Transportation
Management (EOF 2007), consolidates and strengthens prior energy-efficiency related executive
orders by establishing new and updated goals, practices, and reporting requirements for
performance and accountability. Federal agency goals listed in EO 13423 include:
• Improve energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 3 percent annually by the
end of fiscal year 2015 or by 30 percent by the end of fiscal year 2015 (using 2003 as the
baseline). At least half of the statutorily-required renewable energy must come from new
renewable sources, which are defined as sources of renewable energy placed into service
after January 1, 1999. (Note: The federal government improved energy efficiency 29.6
percent between 1985 and 2005. The energy efficiency goal outlined in the EO seeks to
achieve in 8 years (2007 to 2015) the same level of improvement that federal agencies
achieved in the preceding 20 years, and is 50 percent more stringent than the goal in the
Energy Policy Act of 2005 (OFEE 2009)).
• Beginning in fiscal year 2008, reduce water consumption relative to the fiscal year 2007
baseline by two percent annually through the end of fiscal year 2015. (Note: Prior executive
orders related to energy efficiency did not include a water consumption goal).
• Procure green products and services (that is, environmentally sensitive, energy efficient,
water efficient, and recycled content, reduce use of toxic and hazardous chemicals and
materials). (Note: EO 13423 requires agencies to integrate four existing disparate purchasing
requirements into an integrated federal purchasing effort that applies to all types of
acquisitions of goods and services. Federal purchasing of energy efficient, recycled content,
bio-based, and environmentally preferable products should increase as a result).
• Construct or renovate buildings in accordance with the Guiding Principles for Federal
Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings set forth in the Federal
Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding
(MOU) (2006) (http://www.wbdg.org/pdfs/sustainable mou.pdf).
• If the agency operates a fleet of at least 20 motor vehicles, increase purchase of plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles when commercially available at a cost reasonably comparable,
reduce the fleet's total petroleum consumption by 2 percent annually through the end of
fiscal year 2015, and increase the use of alternative non-petroleum-based fuels by 10 percent
annually. (Note: The Energy Policy Act of 2005 also set a renewable energy goal but did not
require that any percentage come from new sources).
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• Ensure at least 95 percent of all purchased electronic products are Electronic Product
Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT)-registered; enable the ENERGY STAR feature on
all agency computers and monitors; establish and implement policies to extend the useful life
of agency electronic equipment; and use environmentally sound practices with regard to the
disposition of electronic equipment that has reached the end of its useful life. (Note: This
goal impacts approximately $60 billion that the federal government spends annually on
information technology-related purchases (OFEE 2009)).
In addition, the EO directs each agency head to:
• Designate a senior civilian officer to be responsible for EO implementation.
• Establish programs for environmental management training, environmental compliance
review and audit, and leadership awards to recognize outstanding environmental
performance.
• Implement environmental management systems (EMSs) within the agency to address
environmental aspects of internal agency operations and activities, including energy and
transportation functions. Use EMSs to establish agency objectives and targets for EO
implementation and measure performance. (Note: As a result of this directive, it is projected
that by approximately 2010, there will be at least 2,500 federal operations that implement
EMSs, up from about 1,000 today (OFEE 2009)).
• Establishes an Office of the Federal Environmental Executive to assist in implementation of
the EO.
EO 13423 revoked several previous EOs, as follows:
• EO 13101, Greening the Government through Waste Prevention, Recycling, and Federal
Acquisition.
• EO 13123, Greening the Government through Efficient Energy Management.
• EO 13134, Developing and Promoting Biobased Products and Bioenergy.
• EO 13148, Greening the Government through Leadership in Environmental Management.
• EO 13149, Greening the Government through Federal Fleet and Transportation Efficiency.
Because EO 13423 revokes the previous EOs, 309 Reviewers should reference EO 13423 when
offering energy efficiency recommendations on related topics. The full text of this EO can be
accessed at http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2007/pdf/07-374.pdf
3.9 Executive Order 13221, Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices
The EO requires that a federal agency, each time "it purchases commercially available, off-the-
shelf products that use external standby power devices, or that contain an internal standby power
function, shall purchase products that use no more than one watt in their standby power
consuming mode" (EOF 200la). If such products are unavailable, agencies are to purchase
products with the lowest standby power wattage while in their standby power consuming mode.
DOE, in consultation with the Department of Defense and the GSA, was directed to compile an
annual list of products subject to these requirements.
The full text of this EO is available at http ://www. ofee.gov/eo/eo 13221 .pdf.
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3.10 Executive Order 13211, Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly
Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use
When undertaking "significant energy action," (that is, an action by an agency normally
published in the Federal Register that promulgates or is expected to lead to the promulgation of a
final rule or regulation that (1) is a significant regulatory action under EO 12866 and is likely to
have a significant adverse effect on the supply, distribution or use of energy; or (2) is designated
by the Administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) within the
Office of Management and Budget, as a significant regulatory action), an agency must prepare,
to the extent permitted by law, a Statement of Energy Effects. The Statement consists of a
detailed statement relating to (1) any adverse effects of the regulatory action on energy supply,
distribution, or use; and (2) reasonable alternatives to the action and the expected effects of such
alternatives on energy supply, distribution and use (EOF 200Ib). The Statement is to be
submitted to the Administrator of OIRA and published in each related proposed rulemaking and
in any resulting final rule.
The full text of this EO is available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_register&docid=01-13116-filed.pdf
3.11 Guidance for Electric Metering in Federal Buildings
Section 103 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 amended section 543 of the National Energy
Conservation Policy Act (see section 3.3), 42 USC 8253, and requires agencies to measure
electricity use in all federal buildings by October 1, 2012, using advanced meters or devices that
provide data at least daily and that measure at least hourly consumption of electricity. Guidelines
for implementing this requirement, developed by DOE (2006b), clarified that the requirement
applies only to electric metering and that it applies to all electric metering at all federal buildings
based on cost-effectiveness and practicability. DOE required agencies to submit implementation
plans by August 3, 2006, and to begin reporting annually on their progress beginning with FY
2007. The statute requires agencies to install meters, to the maximum extent practicable, by
October 1, 2012. The guidance defines "Advanced Metering," describes the uses of metered
data, identifies metering approaches and technologies, discusses how to determine cost-
effectiveness of metering, presents methods for prioritizing buildings for metering applications,
discusses methods of financing metering equipment, provides a template for an agency metering
plan, and discusses performance measures and special considerations.
This guidance document can be accessed at
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/adv metering.pdf.
3.12 Executive Order 13514, Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and
Economic Performance
The EO was issued on October 5, 2009 to establish an integrated strategy towards sustainability
in the Federal Government and to make reduction of greenhouse gas emissions a priority for
Federal agencies. Its policy requires Federal agencies to increase energy efficiency; measure,
report, and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions from direct and indirect activities; conserve
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and protect water resources through efficiency, reuse, and stormwater management; eliminate
waste, recycle, and prevent pollution; leverage agency acquisitions to foster markets for
sustainable technologies and environmentally preferable materials, products, and services;
design, construct, maintain, and operate high performance sustainable buildings in sustainable
locations; strengthen the vitality and livability of the communities in which Federal facilities are
located; and inform Federal employees about and involve them in the achievement of these
goals.
Specific goals for each Federal agency include but are not limited to:
(a) Establish a percentage reduction target for agency-wide reductions of greenhouse gas
emissions in absolute terms by fiscal year 2020. In establishing the target, each agency shall
consider the following:
(i) reducing energy intensity in agency buildings;
(ii) increasing agency use of renewable energy and implementing renewable energy
generation projects on agency property; and
(iii) reducing the use of fossil fuels by:
(A) using low greenhouse gas emitting vehicles including alternative fuel vehicles;
(B) optimizing the number of vehicles in the agency fleet; and
(C) reducing, if the agency operates a fleet of at least 20 motor vehicles, the agency
fleet's total consumption of petroleum products by a minimum of 2 percent annually
through the end of fiscal year 2020, relative to a baseline of fiscal year 2005.
(b) Improve water use efficiency and management by:
(i) reducing potable water consumption intensity by 2 percent annually through fiscal
year 2020, or 26 percent by the end of fiscal year 2020, relative to a baseline of the
agency's water consumption in fiscal year 2007, by implementing water management
strategies including water-efficient and low-flow fixtures and efficient cooling towers;
(ii) reducing agency industrial, landscaping, and agricultural water consumption by 2
percent annually or 20 percent by the end of fiscal year 2020 relative to a baseline of the
agency's industrial, landscaping, and agricultural water consumption in fiscal year 2010;
(iii) consistent with State law, identifying, promoting, and implementing water reuse
strategies that reduce potable water consumption; and
(iv) implementing and achieving the objectives identified in the stormwater management
guidance referenced in section 14 of this order.
(c) Implement high performance sustainable Federal building design, construction, operation and
management, maintenance, and deconstruction including by:
(i) managing existing building systems to reduce the consumption of energy, water, and
materials, and identifying alternatives to renovation that reduce existing assets' deferred
maintenance costs;
(ii) when adding assets to the agency's real property inventory, identifying opportunities
to consolidate and dispose of existing assets, optimize the performance of the agency's
real-property portfolio, and reduce associated environmental impacts; and
(iii) ensuring that rehabilitation of federally owned historic buildings utilizes best
practices and technologies in retrofitting to promote long-term viability of the buildings.
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(d) Advance sustainable acquisition to ensure that 95 percent of new contract actions including
task and delivery orders, for products and services with the exception of acquisition of weapon
systems, are energy efficient (Energy Star or Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)
designated), water-efficient, biobased, environmentally preferable (e.g., Electronic Product
Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) certified), non-ozone depleting, contain recycled
content, or are non-toxic or less toxic alternatives, where such products and services meet agency
performance requirements.
(e) Promote electronics stewardship by:
(i) ensuring procurement preference for EPEAT-registered electronic products;
(ii) establishing and implementing policies to enable power management, duplex printing,
and other energy-efficient or environmentally preferable features on all eligible agency
electronic products;
(iii) employing environmentally sound practices with respect to the agency's disposition
of all agency excess or surplus electronic products;
(iv) ensuring the procurement of Energy Star and FEMP designated electronic
equipment; and
(v) implementing best management practices for energy-efficient management of servers
and Federal data centers.
The full text of this EO can be accessed at http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2009/pdf/E9-24518.pdf
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Section 3 References
Links to external web sites provided in this document may be useful or interesting and are being provided consistent
with the intended purpose of this guidance document. EPA cannot attest to the accuracy of information provided by
any linked site. Providing links to a non-EPA web site does not constitute an endorsement by EPA or any of its
employees of the sponsors of the site or the information or products provided on the site. Also, be aware that the
privacy protection provided on the epa.gov domain (see Privacy and Security Notice) may not be available at the
external link.
10 CFR Part 436. Federal Energy Management and Planning Programs.
http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-search.html#page 1. Accessed March 2009.
42 U.S.C. 69(5301)(c). Housing and Community Development Act of 1974, as amended.
http://www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/communitydevelopment/rulesandregs/laws/index.cfm
Accessed March 2009.
42 USC 91 (III)(B). National Energy Conservation Policy, http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/usc.cgi?ACTION=BROWSE&TITLE=42USCC91 Accessed March 2009.
48 CFR. Federal Acquisition Regulation, http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-
search.html#pagel Accessed March 2009.
Bush, G.W. 2005. Memorandum for the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies: Energy
and Fuel Conservation by Federal Agencies. September 26, 2005. http ://georgewbush-
whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/09/20050926-4.html Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 1994. Executive Order 12902—Energy Efficiency and Water
Conservation at Federal Facilities.59 Federal Register 47.
http ://frwebgate4. access, gpo. gov/cgi-
bin/TEXTgate.cgi?WAISdocro=759138393168+22+l+0&WAISaction=retrieve
Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 200 la. Executive Order 13221—Energy Efficient Standby
Power Devices. 66 Federal Register 149:40571. http://www.ofee.gov/eo/eol3221.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 2001b. Executive Order 13211—Actions Concerning
Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use. 66 Federal
Register 99:28355-28356. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_register&docid=01-13116-filed.pdf Accessed March 2009.
Executive Office of the President. 2007. Executive Order 13423—Strengthening Federal
Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management.72 Federal Register 17:3919-
3923. http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2007/pdf/07-374.pdfAccessed March 2009.
Office of the Federal Environmental Executive. FACT SFLEET: Executive Order
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Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management. Online.
http://www.fs.fed.us/sustainableoperations/documents/eo-factsheet.pdf Accessed
September 2009.
P.L. 109-58. Energy Policy Act of 2005. http://www.doi.gov/iepa/EnergyPolicvActof2005.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
P.L. 110-140. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.
http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-
bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=110 cong_public laws&docid=f:publ 140.110.pdf Accessed
March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2006a. Guidelines Establishing Criteria for Excluding Buildings
from the Energy Performance Requirements of Section 543 of the National Energy
Conservation Policy Act as Amended by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. January 27,
2006. http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/exclusion criteria.pdf Accessed March
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2006b. Guidance for Electric Metering in Federal Buildings.
DOE/EE0312. http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/adv metering.pdf Accessed
March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009: U.S. Department of Energy. 2009. National Energy
Conservation Policy Act web page.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/regulations/necpa.html Accessed March 2009.
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4. Energy Efficiency Related Federal Programs
The federal government has initiated a number of
programs to promote energy efficiency. This chapter
summarizes the maj or programs offered by DOE, EPA Management Program
and GSA, as well as 2009 American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act programs. 309 Reviewers may be able
to highlight energy efficiency opportunities provided by
these programs that may have been overlooked.
4.1 Federal Energy
4.2 EPA Programs
4.3 GSA Programs
4.4 Energy Audits/Surveys
4.5 American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act Programs
A summary of voluntary energy efficiency (and climate
change) related federal and state programs are provided on
EPA's website:
http://yosemite.epa.gov/gw/StatePolicyActions.nsf/VolProg?OpenView&count=1000. More
than 150 programs are listed.
4.1 Federal Energy Management Program
The DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) manages the Federal
Energy Management Program (FEMP), one often EERE programs dedicated to supporting
efficient and renewable energy technologies. FEMP concentrates the federal government's
influence as the largest energy consumer in the U.S. to promote energy efficiency and the use of
renewable energy resources at federal sites. The program has also published guidance for
agencies, with several documents available under each of the following topics; see DOE (2009a):
• General Guidance for Facilities
• Advanced Metering
• Energy-Efficient Products
• Fleet Management
• Sustainable Building Design and Operation
• Water Efficiency
• Renewable Energy Technologies
The program's services are broadly divided into project transaction services, applied technology
services, and decision support services, as described below. The following information on
program details is consolidated from the FEMP web site (DOE 2006a).
FEMP Project Transaction Services
FEMP supports federal agencies through coordinating financing assistance for energy efficiency
and renewable energy projects. Alternative financing tools include:
• Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPCs) ESPCs allow federal agencies to
accomplish energy savings projects without up-front capital costs and without special
Congressional appropriations. An ESPC is a partnership between a federal agency and an
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energy service company (ESCO). The ESCO conducts a comprehensive energy audit for the
federal facility and identifies improvements to save energy. In consultation with the agency,
the ESCO designs and constructs a project that meets the agency's needs and arranges the
necessary financing. The ESCO guarantees that the improvements will generate energy cost
savings sufficient to pay for the project over the term of the contract. After the contract ends,
all additional cost savings accrue to the agency. Contract terms up to 25 years are allowed.
• Utility Energy Services Contracts (UESCs) Federal agencies can enter into utility energy
service contracts (UESCs) to implement energy improvements at their facilities. With a
UESC, the utility typically arranges financing to cover the capital costs of the project. Then
the utility is repaid over the contract term from the cost savings generated by the energy
efficiency measures. Agencies can implement energy improvements with no initial capital
investment, the net cost to the agency is minimal, and the agency saves time and resources by
using the one-stop shopping provided by the utility. The Energy Policy Act of 1992
authorizes and encourages federal agencies to participate in utility energy efficiency
programs offered by utilities and by other program administrators (such as state agencies).
These programs range from equipment rebates (that is, utility incentives) to delivery of a
complete turnkey project.
• Energy Efficiency and Demand Response Programs Most states have energy incentive
programs that help offset energy costs while promoting energy efficiency and renewable
energy technologies. These programs include:
o Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Programs:
• Public purpose programs administered by utilities, state agencies, or other
third parties and paid for by utility ratepayers, typically through a non-
bypassable system benefits charge that is instituted as part of restructuring
legislation or rules. The term "non-bypassable" means that full responsibility
for a distribution fee cannot be bypassed by a customer switching fuels. A
system benefits charge is designed to fund certain "public benefits" that are
placed at risk in a more competitive industry. These benefits include
assistance for low-income consumers, renewable energy research and
development, and energy efficiency.
• Utility programs administered by the local utility and paid for by utility
ratepayers through their bundled rates.
• Programs sponsored by state agencies that are designed to promote energy
efficiency and renewable energy and that are usually funded out of general tax
revenues.
o Demand Response/Load Management Programs, which are programs that provide
incentives to curtail demand during peak energy usage periods in response to system
reliability or market conditions.
FEMP researches these programs on a state-by-state basis to help agencies meet their energy
management goals. FEMP has compiled data on the energy efficiency and renewable energy
funds and demand response programs available in each of the 50 states and the District of
Columbia; see DOE (2009b).
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With assistance from FEMP, the federal government's commitment to improving agency energy
efficiency has accelerated and grown in recent years. ESPCs under development are now in
excess of $1 billion dollars for the first time in the program's history. The current value of the
project pipeline is over three times the size that it was in February 2007, and continues to grow.
FEMP Applied Technology Services
FEMP lends considerable research and market experience to help federal agencies deploy
technology projects, including:
• High-Performance Building Design, Operation, and Maintenance FEMP helps agencies
create and implement sustainable design, operation, and maintenance practices that
incorporate energy efficiency, renewable energy, and water conservation technologies. These
practices span new construction, renovation, and commissioning projects. FEMP services in
this area include energy audits, operations and maintenance assessments, laboratory design
protocols, new technology reports, advanced metering, and guidance for purchasing energy-
efficient products and renewable energy technologies. One program example is FEMP's
Laboratories for the 21st Century (Labs21) partnership with the EPA, which reduces federal
laboratory energy use by $18 million annually.
• Renewable Energy Technology Deployment FEMP assists federal agencies in developing
and implementing solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal energy sources to meet energy
management regulations and goals.
• Energy-Efficient Product Procurement FEMP provides energy efficiency requirements,
guidance, and cost calculators that help agencies offset energy consumption costs through
energy-efficient product implementation. Federal buyers are required by the Energy Policy
Act of 2005 to purchase products that are ENERGY STAR®-qualified or FEMP-designated
for energy efficiency and low standby power. These products are in the upper 25% of energy
efficiency in their class.
• Managing Energy-Efficient/Alternative Fuel Vehicles FEMP provides guidance and
assistance on implementing and managing energy-efficient and alternative-fuel vehicle fleets.
This includes helping federal agencies meet new fleet management mandates, such as recent
requirements for agencies to reduce petroleum consumption by 2% per year through fiscal
year (FY) 2015 relative to a FY 2005 baseline and to increase alternative fuel use by 10% per
year relative to the previous year. EISA 2007 (Section 141) defined low GHG-emitting
vehicles as AFVs for the purposes of compliance with federal mandates.
FEMP Decision Support Services
FEMP assists federal agencies with guidance, outreach, and training programs that include:
• Energy Legislation and Regulation Compliance EO 13423 established energy efficiency
goals for federal agencies, including a 30% reduction in energy intensity, a significant
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increase in the use of new renewable energy resources, and a 16% reduction in water
consumption by fiscal year 2015. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
codified much of EO 13423 into statute (see Section 3.4). FEMP analyzes federal legislation
to help agencies comply with energy management requirements. This assistance is delivered
through interagency coordination, guidance documents, facility reporting requirements, and
fleet reporting requirements.
• Education and Training on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Federal agencies
learn to implement energy-saving strategies, gain recognition for outstanding achievements,
and keep current on the government's progress in meeting energy management goals through
FEMP training, services, and outreach activities. FEMP education, training, and outreach
programs include online news, ongoing training and events, awards, and outreach.
FEMP at DOE Facilities: Transformational Energy Action Management (TEAM)
At its own facilities, DOE uses the TEAM Initiative, which seeks to attain the following specific
goals (DOE 2009c):
1. Reduce energy consumption by 30% and water consumption by 16% in all DOE
facilities.
2. Acquire at least 7.5% of all energy from renewable sources.
3. Build alternative fueling stations on all sites by 2008, and replace all conventional fuel
vehicles in the DOE fleet with alternative fuel vehicles by 2010.
4. Attain a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Gold standard on all
new buildings and on all buildings that go through major renovations.
5. Attain a LEED® Gold standard on 15% of all current buildings by the end of fiscal year
2015.
6. Give preference to bio-based, environmentally-friendly sources of energy and water,
while reducing the use of hazardous and toxic chemicals and managing the production of
waste.
7. Develop best-practice models for the use of third-party financing for energy saving
projects.
8. Improve the energy efficiency of all data centers by 10% by 2011.
From 1978 through FY 2007, DOE used the Departmental Energy Management Program
(DEMP) to help rank retrofit projects, provide financial and technical support, offer counsel for
leveraging appropriated funds with private sector financing, and ensure compliance with
executive orders and legislation (DOE 2006b). As of FY 2008, energy management at DOE was
integrated with the FEMP.
4.2 EPA Programs
Combined Heat and Power Partnership
Combined heat and power (CHP) is a proven technology that utilizes indigenous heat in
buildings to generate electricity and heat either sequentially or simultaneously. In a single,
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integrated system, CHP utilizes one fuel source (such as natural gas, biomass, biogas, coal, waste
heat or oil) to produce both electricity and heat, thereby saving the energy that would have been
necessary to produce them separately. While a CHP system consists of a number of individual
components (such as heat engine, generator, heat recovery, and electrical interconnection), the
type of heat engine equipment that drives the overall system, known as the prime mover,
typically identifies the type of CHP system. Prime movers can include reciprocating engines,
combustion or gas turbines, steam turbines, micro-turbines, and fuel cells. They are capable of
burning numerous fuel types.
Utilizing CHP for at least a portion of the electric load avoids off-site power generation
and the resultant significant losses realized from the production, transmission and distribution of
traditional power sources. CHP provides reliable power that increases production, delivery and
usage efficiencies. Because electric generation in the US contributes significantly to the
emissions of air pollutants and GHG (responsible for 41% of the energy-related CO2 emissions),
heightened focus has been placed on improving fuel conversion efficiencies and reducing these
emissions (EIA 2009). CHP provides a unique opportunity to dramatically impact these
efficiencies (up to 80% efficiencies when compared to separate heat and electricity production).
The CHP Partnership (CHPP) was established in 2001 to promote the potential energy,
environmental and economic benefits of shifting traditional centralized, electric-only generation
to more distributed generation of both electricity and heat. CHPP is a voluntary program aimed
at heightening the awareness of the environmental, economic, and energy benefits associated
with the various applications of this technology. This awareness is raised by a cadre of outreach
and analytical activities including:
• Project Assistance including on-line qualification tools that assist facility owners/operators to
assess the potential for CHP at their site (CHP Emissions Calculator), up-to-date lists of state
and federal incentives for CHP, as well as information on state policies and favorable utility
rates for CHP projects;
• Technical Assistance— Level One Feasibility Studies determine preliminary technical and
economic compatibility such as system sizing based on anticipated thermal and electric
loads, and estimated turnkey costs associated with the system including equipment,
construction, utility interconnection, implementation, as well as operation and maintenance
costs;
• Technical Assistance— Level Two Feasibility Studies is an Investment Grade Feasibility
Study that produces detailed and verifiable analyses to determine technical and economic
viability, replacing assumptions made in Level One analyses with actual electrical,
mechanical and structural data as well as project economic analyses including utility rate
analyses, life-cycle costs analyses, and operation and maintenance pricing estimates. These
analyses produce verified data to identify optimal CHP system configuration and sizing,
appropriate thermal applications and economic operating strategies;
• Market Analyses to assess potential for CHP in a variety of market sectors and applications;
• Education and Outreach via website (www.epa.gov/chp), webinars, conferences and
meetings, fact sheets and other documentation, as well as partnership meetings; and
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• Public Recognition via the ENERGY STAR CHP Awards provided to CHPP Partners who
have achieved exemplary reductions in energy usage and emissions utilizing CHP
technology.
Partners represent a cross-section of the industry including CHP manufacturers, developers, end-
users, as well as non-profit and local government entities. For further information, visit:
www.epa.gov/chp (EPA 2008a).
Green Power Partnership
Green power is electricity produced from a subset of renewable resources, such as solar, wind,
geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydropower (EPA 2009a). EPA's Green Power
Partnership is a voluntary program that supports the organizational procurement of green power
by offering expert advice, technical support, tools, and resources. The program can help an
organization lower the transaction costs of buying green power, reduce its carbon footprint, and
communicate its leadership to key stakeholders. To join, an organization must submit a
Partnership Agreement and complete a qualifying green power purchase within six months of
joining the program. After joining, the organization is required to report their green power
purchase information on a yearly basis to EPA. For more information, visit
www. epa. gov/greenpower.
ENERGY STAR
ENERGY STAR (EPA 2009b) is a joint EPA/DOE program designed to identify and promote
energy-efficient products, including office equipment, major appliances, lighting, home
electronics, new homes, and commercial and industrial buildings. Together with the
complementary DOE-managed FEMP energy-efficient product designation, ENERGY STAR
guides federal agencies in procuring energy-efficient products and services (see Section 5.1,
Appliances and Equipment).
EPA also uses the ENERGY STAR program to support programs that improve energy use at
water utilities. Water efficiency and energy efficiency are closely linked, as water requires a
significant amount of energy input for treatment, pumping, heating, and process uses (EPA
2009c).
SmartWay Transport Partnership
The SmartWay Transport Partnership is an EPA program designed to reduce GHG emissions and
promote low carbon use and efficiency in the freight transportation system. SmartWay provides
metrics to identify more efficient transportation choices by mode and by individual
transportation provider. EPA also uses the SmartWay program to reduce CC>2, NOx, and PM
emissions from the transportation system. EPA also identifies the cleanest, most efficient
passenger vehicles and heavy commercial tractor-trailers, with its SmartWay designation (EPA
2009f).
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The SmartWay Transport Partnership is responsible for defining low GHG-emitting vehicles.
Annually, the SmartWay program assesses the overall model year fleet's GHG performance to
define low GHG-emitting vehicles. A list of vehicles by make and model that meet EPA's
definition is found on the Federal Vehicle Acquisition page of EPA's Green Vehicle Guide
found at www.epa.gov/greenvehicles.
National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency
Since 2005, EPA and DOE have sponsored the National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency. The
Action Plan's Leadership Group of more than 60 leading gas and electric utilities, state utility
regulators and energy offices, energy users, environmental groups, and others released five
consensus policy recommendations in 2005. The five key policy recommendations of the Action
Plan include recognizing energy efficiency as a high-priority energy resource, committing to the
implementation of cost-effective energy over the long-term, communicating efficiency benefits
and opportunities, providing sufficient and stable program funding, and modifying ratemaking
policies to align utility and customer incentives with investments in energy efficiency (EPA
2009d). Over 120 organizations have endorsed these recommendations and made commitments
to energy efficiency through the Action Plan.
National Action Plan Vision for 2025: A Framework for Change
The Plan was updated in 2008 with the National Action Plan Vision for 2025: A Framework for
Change (EPA 2008b), which outlined ten specific implementation goals to achieve the major
recommendations in the original action plan, as follows:
1. Establish cost-effective energy efficiency as a high-priority resource.
2. Develop processes to align utility and other program administrator incentives such that
efficiency and supply resources are on a level playing field.
3. Establish cost-effectiveness tests.
4. Establish evaluation, measurement, and verification mechanisms.
5. Establish effective energy efficiency delivery mechanisms.
6. Develop state policies to ensure robust energy efficiency practices.
7. Align customer pricing and incentives to encourage investment in energy efficiency.
8. Establish state of the art billing systems.
9. Implement state of the art efficiency information sharing and delivery systems.
10. Implement advanced technologies.
The Action Plan offers a comprenhensive suite of best practices-based guides, papers and tools.
In addition, EPA and DOE offer technical assistance to states working to advance the Action
Plan Vision.
4.3 GSA Programs
Energy Management Support and Services Department
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Through the General Services Administration's (GSA's) Facilities Maintenance and
Management multiple award schedule contracts, the Energy Management Support and Services
Department of GSA offers federal agencies access to services including (GSA 2009a):
• Energy management planning and strategies
• Training on energy management
• Metering services
• Energy program support services
• Building commissioning services
• Energy audit services ranging from cursory to comprehensive
• Resource efficiency management
• Innovations in energy
• Water conservation
Energy efficient buildings certification programs such as Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED®) (see Section 5.4) may be included in all these services.
GSA Energy Division
The GSA Energy Division offers information and programs to reduce federal utility costs and
increase energy efficiency (GSA 2009b). The Center provides:
• Web-based access to energy use data, to policy information, and to programs and contacts
for purchasing utilities/energy and energy-related services.
• The Public Utilities program, which develops contracting vehicles for agencies to procure
utility services at the lowest cost.
• The Natural Gas Acquisition program, a new program to provide federal facilities with
natural gas supply and supply management.
• The Energy and Water Management program, which is responsible for the utility use and
cost data in all GSA buildings nationwide.
More information on GSA's energy contract information and guidebooks can be found at their
website: www.gsa.gov/energy.
Office of Federal High-Performance Green Buildings
In 2008, GSA established an Office of Federal High-Performance Green Buildings to coordinate
green building information and activities within the federal government (GSA 2008). The office
works in conjunction with DOE, which has a similar responsibility for commercial buildings.
The duties of the office, as outlined in EISA 2007, are to establish a Federal Green Building
Advisory Committee; identify and develop technical standards for high-performance green
buildings; establish green practices for operations and maintenance of facilities; provide
information and disseminate research results; identify practices and tools to achieve high-
performance green buildings through budgeting and contracting; identify opportunities to
demonstrate innovative technologies and concepts; and, identify incentives to encourage high-
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performance green buildings and technologies. The website for the office is:
http://www.fedcenter.gov/programs/greenbuildings/.
4.4 Energy Audits/Surveys
As noted in Section 4.3, contractor-provided energy audit/survey services are available to federal
agencies through a GSA multiple award schedule. The goal of an energy audit is usually to
identify opportunities to conserve energy without affecting the building or system's intended
function and desired status. GSA states that "Energy audits may range from cursory to
comprehensive. At a minimum, audits shall include data collection, data analysis, benchmarking
with tools such as Energy Star, and written recommendations of suggested upgrades of electrical
and mechanical infrastructure, including their impact on energy consumption and pollution"
(GSA 2009c).
There are many resources and no standard protocols for energy audits. An example protocol for
industrial facilities was published by Bonneville Power Administration, whose Industrial Audit
Guidebook (BPA 2004) for performing walk-through energy audits. For homeowners, both DOE
and EPA provide information on do-it-yourself and professional energy audits on their websites
(DOE 2009d, EPA 2009e).
4.5 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) programs
The 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) provides substantial funding to
improve energy efficiency at federal government facilities and within vehicle fleets, as well as
research into energy efficiency technologies and improvements to the nation's energy
transmission, distribution and production systems. Much of the funding provided in the
legislation will be distributed through existing federal programs. For example, 20% of EPA's
Clean Water and Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (SRF) grants will be spent on energy
efficiency and other green projects. SRF grants provide low-cost financing to communities for
the construction, repair, and rehabilitation of drinking water systems and wastewater collection
and treatment facilities. SRF programs conduct an environmental review process with
similarities to the NEPA process. More information on the program can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwsrf/index.html.
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Section 4 References
Links to external web sites provided in this document may be useful or interesting and are being provided consistent
with the intended purpose of this guidance document. EPA cannot attest to the accuracy of information provided by
any linked site. Providing links to a non-EPA web site does not constitute an endorsement by EPA or any of its
employees of the sponsors of the site or the information or products provided on the site. Also, be aware that the
privacy protection provided on the epa.gov domain (see Privacy and Security Notice) may not be available at the
external link.
Bonneville Power Administration. 2004. Industrial Audit Guidebook: A Guidebook for
Performing Walk-Through Energy Audits of Industrial Facilities. Online.
http://www.bpa.gOv/energy/n/Projects/industrial/pdf/audit_guide.pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2006a. Federal Energy Management Program. Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Online, http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/femp/index.html
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2006b. Department of Energy Five Year Plan FY 2007-FY 201,
Volume I. Office of the Chief Financial Officer. Online.
http://www.cfo.doe.gov/cf20/doefypvol 1 .pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009a. Energy Management Guidance. Federal Energy Management
Program. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/regulations/guidance.htmltffm Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009b. Energy-Efficiency Funds and Demand Response Programs.
Federal Energy Management Program. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/femp/program/utilitv/utilityman energvmanage.html
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009c. Transformational Energy Action Management (TEAM)
Initiative. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/team/about.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009d. Energy Savers-Your Home: Energy Audits. Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Online.
http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/energy_audits/index.cfm/mytopic=11160
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2009. "Where Greenhouse Gases Come From." Online.
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov Accessed December 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008a. EPA's Combined Heat and Power Partnership.
Fact Sheet. Online. http://www.epa.gov/chp/documents/chppfactsheet.pdfAccessed April
2009.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008b. National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency,
Vision for 2025: A Framework for Change. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/documents/vision.pdfAccessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009a. Green Power Partnership. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/ Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009b. About ENERGY STAR. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=about.ab_index Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009c. ENERGY STAR for Wastewater Plants and
Drinking Water Systems. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=water.wastewater_drinking_water Accessed April
2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009d. National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency.
Online, http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-programs/napee/index.html Accessed
April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009e. Energy Star: Home Energy Audits. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=home_improvement.hm_improvement_audits
Accessed April 2009.
U.S Environmental Protection Agency. 2009f SmartWay Transport Partnership. Online.
www.epa.gov/smartway. Accessed August 2009.
U.S. General Services Administration. 2008. GSA Announces New Office of High-Performance
Green Buildings. Online.
http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/gsa/ep/content View.do?contentType=GSA_BASIC&contentId=
24167&noc=T Accessed April 2009.
U.S. General Services Administration. 2009a. Energy Management Support and Services.
Online, www.gsa.gov/energyservices Accessed April 2009.
U.S. General Services Administration. 2009b. Energy and Water Conservation Overview.
Online, www.gsa.gov/energy Accessed April 2009.
U.S. General Services Administration. 2009c. Schedule Summary. Energy Services: Energy
Audit Services 03FAC Facilities Maintenance and Management. Online.
http://www.gsaelibrary.gsa.gOv/ElibMain/scheduleList.do:j session! d=B084C5F9F231FF91
6EE827FA2C3FB7C7.nodel?catid=405&famid=34&sched=ves Accessed April 2009.
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5. General Federal Energy Uses And Related Federal Partnership
Programs
Chapter 5 summarizes general federal energy uses by
topic. Each subsection is divided into a summary of
the topic, related federal partnership programs, and
review considerations for 309 Reviewers.
Information on energy efficiency related federal
partnership programs is consolidated from EPA and
DOE websites.
5.1 Appliances and Equipment
5.2 Facility Siting
5.3 Construction
5.4 Buildings
5.5 Federally Assisted Housing
5.6 Military Installations
5.7 Laboratories
5.8 Industrial Facilities
5.9 Federal Vehicle Fleets
5.10 Transportation Facilities
5.11 Other Operations
5.1 Appliances and Equipment
5.1.a Summary
Appliance and equipment purchases can be a
significant source of energy savings for federal
agencies. Purchases of appliance and equipment are
guided by several pieces of federal legislation.
EPAct 2005 amended NECPA by requiring federal
agencies to procure ENERGY STAR-qualified or
FEMP-designated products, unless the head of the agency determines in writing that a statutory
exception applies, or the product is for combat or combat-related missions. NECPA was further
amended by EISA 2007 to clarify that the procurement requirement applies to the procurement
of a product in a category covered by the ENERGY STAR program or the FEMP program (see
Chapter 3).
ENERGY STAR is a joint EPA/DOE program designed to identify and promote energy-efficient
products, including office equipment, major appliances, lighting, home electronics, new homes,
and commercial and industrial buildings. FEMP is a complementary DOE program that provides
an energy-efficient product designation. Products designated under ENERGY STAR and FEMP
are in the upper 25% of energy efficiency in their class.
Further, each federal agency is required to incorporate into the specifications of all procurements
involving energy-consuming products and systems, and into the factors for evaluation of offers
received for such procurements, criteria for energy efficiency that is consistent with the criteria
used for rating ENERGY STAR qualified products and for rating FEMP designated products.
FAR Subpart 23.2 prescribes procedures for acquiring products and services that are energy- and
water-efficient and use renewable energy technology. To meet FAR requirements, the GSA
offers products designated as energy efficient under ENERGY STAR, FEMP and the Green
Electronics Council's Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT). These
three major programs guide federal government procurement of energy-efficient products and
services.
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EPAct 2005 also includes new federal minimum energy efficiency standards on 16 residential
and commercial products (Table 5-1).
Table 5-1 Commercial Energy Efficient Product Standards Set in the
Product
Energy Policy Act of 2005
Effective
Date*
Standard
Residential
Ceiling fan light kits
Dehumidifiers
Compact fluorescent
lamps
Torchiere lighting
fixtures
2007
Oct. 2007
2006
2006
Packaged with ENERGY STAR v2 screw-in CFLs
or meet ENERGY STAR Residential Light Fixture
v4 specification. Standard for specialized products
determined by DOE by 1/1/07.
ENERGY STAR vl specification
ENERGY STAR v2 specification
190 W maximum
Commercial
Air-conditioners and
heat pumps (unitary
equipment 24Q-760k
Btulhr)
Clothes washers
Distribution
transformers
(low voltage)
Exit signs
Fluorescent lamp
ballasts
(F34 and F96ES types)
Ice-makers (cube type,
50-
2,500 Ibs/day)
Mercury vapor lamp
ballasts
Pedestrian signals
Pre-rinse spray valves
Refrigerators and
freezers
(packaged)
2010
2007
2007
2006
2009
2010
2008
2006
2006
2010
Capacity Minimum EER (ACfflP)
65-134kBtuh 11.2/11.0
135-239 11.0/10.6
240-759 10.0/9.5
(EER 0.2 lower for units with integrated heating
that is not electric resistance)
For HP, also 3.2 COP@47°F except 3.3 for 65-
134k Btuh equipment.
MEF at least 1.26 and WF no more than 9.5
Meet NEMA standard TP-I-2002
ENERGY STAR v2 specification
Closes loophole in DOE regulations so that these
ballasts will be electronic, like other covered
ballasts.
California Energy Commission (CEC) standard,
which is almost identical to Consortium for
Energy
Efficiency (CEE) Tier 1 .
Bans sale of mercury vapor lamp ballasts
ENERGY STAR v. 1.1 specification
Maximum 1.6 gallon/minute
California Energy Commission (CEC) standard,
which is almost identical to ENERGY STAR
specification
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Product
Traffic signals
icrcial Energy Efficient Product St
Energy Policy Act of 200'
Effective
Date*
Standard
2006
ENERGY STAR v 1.1 specification
Unit heaters
Aug. 2008
Must be equipped with an intermittent ignition
device and have power venting or an automatic
flue damper
^Effective in January unless otherwise specified.
Product Rulemaking Completion Date
Ceiling fan light kits (niche products
candelabra base, halogen, etc.)
Battery chargers
External power supplies
Commercial refrigeration - ice-cream freezers,
packaged units without doors, remote
condensation equipment
Refrigerated beverage vending machines
Dehumidifiers (revised standard)
Commercial clothes washers (revised standards)
Commercial packaged refrigerators & freezers
(revised standards)
Ice-makers (revised standards)
1/1/2007
8/8/2008
8/8/2008
1/1/2009
8/8/2009
10/1/2009
1/1/2010 and 1/1/2015
1/1/2013 and 3 years after revised
standard takes effect
1/1/2015 and 5 years after revised
standard takes effect
EPAct 2005 required a DOE rulemaking to set standards for nine additional product categories
(Table 5-2). In April 2009, DOE published a final rule to promote federal procurement of
energy-efficient products. The final rule establishes guidelines for federal agencies in procuring
ENERGY STAR qualified and FEMP-designated products:
http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2009/E9-5459.htm.
The guidelines apply to general specifications, project specifications, and construction,
renovation and service contracts that involve the procurement of covered products. Agencies
should consider this requirement to apply to:
Design, design/build, renovation, retrofit and services contracts;
Facility maintenance and operations contracts;
Energy savings performance contracts and utility energy service contracts; and
If applicable, lease agreements for buildings or equipment, including build-to-lease
contracts, such as those used to implement the Military Housing Privatization Initiative.
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Agencies are also encouraged to use ENERGY STAR and FEMP designated products in new
service contracts and other existing service contracts as they are recompeted and should, to the
extent possible, incorporate such requirements and preferences into existing contracts as they are
modified or extended through the exercise of contract options.
A list of product categories, which contain ENERGY STAR qualified and FEMP designed
products, is located at: http://www.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/eep_productfactsheet.pdf(F£MP
Energy-Efficient, Water Conserving & Low Standby Power Product Types Product Fact Sheet).
To identify actual products that are ENERGY STAR rated, potential purchasers can go to the
ENERGY STAR website: http://www.energystar.gov/products. Currently, there is no companion
list of FEMP designated products, but the FEMP specifications for energy efficiency products
are located at: http://www.eere.energy.gov/femp/procurement/eep requirements.html. Life-
cycle cost calculators for many of the ENERGY STAR qualified and FEMP designated products
can be accessed at: http://www.eere.energy.gov/femp/procurement/eep eccalculators.html (DOE
2009).
EO 13514 (2009) establishes the goal that 95 percent of new contract actions including task and
delivery orders, for products and services with the exception of acquisition of weapon systems,
will be ENERGY STAR, FEMP, and/or EPEAT certified (as well as water-efficient, biobased,
non-ozone depleting, contain recycled content, or are non-toxic or less toxic alternatives), where
such products and services meet agency performance requirements. The EO also directs federal
agencies to: 1) establish and implement policies to enable power management, duplex printing,
and other energy-efficient or environmentally preferable features on all eligible agency
electronic products, 2) employ environmentally sound practices with respect to the agency's
disposition of all agency excess or surplus electronic products, and 3) implement best
management practices for energy-efficient management of servers and Federal data centers.
EO 13221 requires that federal agencies purchase products with low standby power (see Chapter
3). Standby power is electricity used by appliances and equipment while they are switched off or
not performing their primary function. Most products with an external power supply, remote
control, continuous display (including an LED), or charges batteries will draw power
continuously. Standby mode is different than "sleep" mode. All ENERGY STAR labeled
computers, monitors, copiers, printers, and fax machines will switch into a low-power "sleep"
mode after a specified period of non-use. When needed, these devices return automatically to the
active mode (displaying an image, copying, receiving a fax etc.) after a brief delay. Standby
mode is different because the user—not the machine itself—has switched off the device and
must manually turn it back on. Power use in the standby mode is usually much lower than in the
sleep mode.
EO 13221 directs agencies, when feasible and cost effective, to purchase products that use 1 watt
of power or less during standby mode. Both ENERGY STAR and FEMP have specifications for
products that meet this standby power guideline (FEMP 2002).
The 1997 Federal ENERGY STAR Buildings Program Partnership Memorandum of
Understanding between DOE, EPA, and DoD requires the military to survey energy-efficient
building upgrades, and implement them to the maximum extent practicable using the full range
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of commercially available building technologies.
http ://www. afcesa. af. mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070613-038. doc
5.1.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
ENERGY STAR
EPA introduced the ENERGY STAR program in 1992 as a way to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions through greater energy efficiency. Today, in partnership with DOE, the ENERGY
STAR program defines energy efficiency standards for a variety of products and services, and
qualifies specific products as meeting the ENERGY STAR standards (DOE 2009e). EPA
oversees the ENERGY STAR Program and manages ENERGY STAR efforts to make existing
homes, new homes and commercial and industrial buildings more energy efficient. The goals of
the program are to provide businesses and consumers with objective information and tools to
make informed decisions about equipment purchases; and to assist in reducing business
investment risks for implementing energy efficiency projects. The program also provides a
market-based mechanism to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
One of the best known energy efficiency federal programs, ENERGY STAR labeling is
recognized by more than 75% of the American public. Figure 5-1 shows the expected emissions
reductions from the ENERGY STAR program through 2012.
Figure 5-1
Expected Emissions Reductions From The Energy Star Program: 2003 to 2012
1
LU
I
50-
40-
Superior Energy Management
Product Labeling
Home Improvement
2003
Source: (DOE 2003).
The program was first introduced as a voluntary labeling program designed to identify and
promote energy-efficient computers to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The ENERGY STAR
label has since been expanded to cover more than 60 product categories, including appliances,
office equipment, lighting, heating and cooling equipment, home electronics, and new homes and
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commercial and industrial buildings (DOE 2009e). Together with the complementary DOE
Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) energy-efficient product designation, ENERGY
STAR guides federal government procurement of energy-efficient products and services.
ENERGY STAR products can be found on the ENERGY STAR website:
http ://www. energystar. gov. EPA routinely monitors the use of the label on products in the
market place to ensure that it is used to identify only qualified products. EPA also selectively
tests products to ensure that products said to qualify for the label do indeed qualify. The
performance specifications for ENERGY STAR are updated as market conditions change.
EPA's ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager is a national energy performance rating system for
buildings. It functions as an interactive energy management tool that can be used to track and
assess energy and water consumption. The types of buildings eligible to receive a rating include:
• Bank/Financial Institutions • Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants
• Courthouses • Offices
• Hospitals (acute care and children's) • Residence Halls/Dormitories
• Hotels • Retail Stores
• K-12 Schools • Supermarkets
• Medical Offices • Warehouses (refrigerated and non-refrigerated)
Statistically representative models are used to compare each building against buildings with
similar characteristics from a national survey conducted by DOE's Energy Information
Administration (EIA). This national survey, known as the Commercial Building Energy
Consumption Survey (CBECS), is conducted every four years, and gathers data on building
characteristics and energy use from thousands of buildings across the United States. A rating of
75 indicates that the building performs better than 75% of all similar buildings nationwide.
Buildings rating 75 or greater may qualify for the ENERGY STAR label. This rating can be
used in key market transactions such as the assessment of a building's asset value or the lease
price of building space.
For those buildings that are not eligible to receive a rating, EPA has created a list of reference
energy performance targets (EPA 2009b). These are based on average energy use calculated
across different types of buildings. These energy performance targets are not normalized for
climate nor adjusted for activities which may affect energy use. All targets are expressed in
energy use intensity and are derived from the Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption
Survey.
EPA also uses the ENERGY STAR program to support programs that improve energy use at
water utilities. Water efficiency and energy efficiency are closely linked, as water requires a
significant amount of energy input for treatment, pumping, heating and process uses. ENERGY
STAR recently added wastewater and drinking water treatment facilities to the suite of facilities
addressed under its Portfolio Manager. The Portfolio Manager can help a utility to set targets for
investment priorities, verify efficiency improvements, and calculate its carbon footprint.
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ENERGY STAR also offers tools and information for residential homeowners and new home
builders. Residential homeowners can get assistance in performing a home energy audit, and
retrofitting their property for greater energy efficiency. The Home Performance with Energy
Star Program offers a comprehensive, whole-house approach to improving energy efficiency,
ventilation, Indoor Air Quality and comfort at home
(http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm7cHiome improvement.hm improvement hpwes).
New home builders can have properties qualified with the ENERGY STAR label. ENERGY
STAR labeled new homes are at least 15% more energy efficient than homes built to the 2004
International Residential Code (IRC), and include additional energy-saving features that
typically make them 20-30% more efficient than standard homes. Approximately 12% of U.S.
new housing starts in 2007 were qualified as ENERGY STAR homes (EPA 2008). The U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (USAGE) builds all new Army homes as ENERGY STAR properties.
EPA also supports HUD in its integration of ENERGY STAR into home energy programs and
other affordable housing efforts (EPA 2003).
Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT)
The Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) is a system that evaluates
electronic products (mainly computers and computer products) based on 51 environmental
criteria related to the reduction/elimination of environmentally sensitive materials, materials
selection, design for and management of product end of life, product longevity/life cycle
extension, energy conservation, corporate performance and packaging. There are 23 required
criteria and 28 optional criteria. To qualify for registration as an EPEAT product, the product
must conform to all the required criteria. Table 5-3 lists the titles of each of the 51 criteria.
Detailed summaries of the each of the criteria can be found at:
http://www.epeat.net/Docs/Summarv%20of%20EPEAT%20Criteria.pdf.
EPEAT evaluates electronic products according to three tiers of environmental performance -
Bronze, Silver and Gold. To be EPEAT registered at the Bronze level, products must meet all the
51 required criteria. Products may then achieve a silver or gold level EPEAT rating by meeting
all required criteria plus at least 50% or 75%, respectively, of the optional criteria that apply to
the product type being registered.
EPEAT is managed and operated by staff from the Green Electronics Council (GEC). The GEC
is part of the 501(c)(3) non-profit International Sustainable Development Foundation. The
EPEAT system was originally developed in a two-year multi-stakeholder process that was
facilitated by the Zero Waste Alliance on a EPA grant. The criteria listed in EPEAT are
contained in environmental performance standard IEEE 1680. IEEE is an international
organization (originally an acronym for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.)
that provides technical and professional information. IEEE 1680 includes a criterion (4.5.1.1)
that requires that every EPEAT registered product meet the current version of the applicable
ENERGY STAR standard.
The EPEAT Registry web site: http://www.epeat.net/ lists products in conformance with EPEAT
criteria. On the website, purchasers can use the EPEAT database to search for EPEAT registered
products and review product-specific information, and can use the Electronics Environmental
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Benefits Calculator to measure the environmental benefits of purchasing EPEAT registered
products vs. conventional ones.
I Table 5-3: List of Environmental Criteria Required for Registration as an EPEAT
Product
\4.1 Reduction/elimination of environmentally sensitive materials
R 4.1.1.1 Compliance with provisions of European RoHS Directive upon its effective date
O 4.1.2.1 Elimination of intentionally added cadmium
R 4.1.3.1 Reporting on amount of mercury used in light sources (mg)
O 4.1.3.2 Low threshold for amount of mercury used in light sources
O 4.1.3.3 Elimination of intentionally added mercury used in light sources
O 4.1.4.1 Elimination of intentionally added lead in certain applications
O 4.1.5.1 Elimination of intentionally added hexavalent chromium
R 4.1.6.1 Elimination of intentionally added SCCP flame retardants and plasticizers in certain
applications
O 4.1.6.2 Large plastic parts free of certain flame retardants classified under European Council
Directive 67/548/EEC
O 4.1.7.1 Batteries free of lead, cadmium and mercury
O 4.1.8.1 Large plastic parts free of PVC
4.2 Materials selection
R 4.2.1.1 Declaration of postconsumer recycled plastic content (%)
O 4.2.1.2 Minimum content of postconsumer recycled plastic
O 4.2.1.3 Higher content of postconsumer recycled plastic
R 4.2.2.1 Declaration of renewable^io-based plastic materials content ('°-
O 4.2.2.2 Minimum content of renewable/bio-based plastic material
R 4.2.3.1 Declaration of product weight (Ibs)
4.3 (Design for end of life
R 4.3.1.1 Identification of materials with special handling needs
R 4.3.1.2 Elimination of paints or coatings that are not compatible with recycling or reuse
R 4.3.1.3 Easy disassembly of external enclosure
R 4.3.1.4 Marking of plastic components
R 4.3.1.5 Identification and removal of components containing hazardous materials
O 4.3.1.6 Reduced number of plastic material types
O 4.3.1.7 Molded/glued in metal eliminated or removable
R 4.3.1.8 Minimum 65 percent reusable/recyclable
O 4.3.1.9 Minimum 90 percent reusable/recyclable
O 4.3.2.1 Manual separation of plastics
O 4.3.2.2 Marking of plastics
4.4 Product longevity/life cycle extension
R 4.4.1.1 Availability of additional three year warranty or service agreement
R 4.4.2.1 Upgradeable with common tools
O 4.4.2.2 Modular design
O 4.4.3.1 Availability of replacement parts
Energy conservation
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Table 5-3: List of Environmental Criteria Required for Registration as an EPEAT
Product
R 4.5.1.1 ENERGY STAR®
O 4.5.1.2 Early adoption of new ENERGY STAR® specification
O 4.5.2.1 Renewable energy accessory available
O 4.5.2.2 Renewable energy accessory standard
4.6 lEnd of life management
R 4.6.1.1 Provision of product take-back service
O 4.6.1.2 Auditing of recycling vendors
R 4.6.2.1 Provision of rechargeable battery take-back service
4.7 Corporate performance
R 4.7.1.1 Demonstration of corporate environmental policy consistent with ISO 14001
R 4.7.2.1 Serf-certified environmental management system for design and manufacturing organizations
O 4.7.2.2 Third-party certified environmental management system for design and manufacturing
organizations
R 4.7.3.1 Corporate report consistent with Performance Track or GRI
O 4.7.3.2 Corporate report based on GRI
i4.8 Packaging
R 4.8.1.1 Reduction/elimination of intentionally added toxics in packaging
R 4.8.2.1 Separable packing materials
O 4.8.2.2 Packaging 90% recyclable and plastics labeled
R 4.8.3.1 Declaration of recycled content in packaging
O 4.8.3.2 Minimum postconsumer content guidelines
O 4.8.4.1 Provision of take-back program for packaging
O 4.8.5.1 Documentation of reusable packaging
FEMP Energy Efficiency Product designation
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DOE's FEMP helps federal purchasers identify products in the top 25 percentile of efficiency
for their class and that use minimal standby power in accordance with EO 13221. The FEMP
designation is useful for products that have yet to be assigned an ENERGY STAR certification.
The FEMP also provides model language for specifying efficient products in capital projects and
service contracts, and gives buyers advice on procurement decisions. FEMP publishes a series of
Purchasing Specifications for Energy-Efficient Products:
www.eere.energy.gov/femp/procurement/. For each product, FEMP identifies the efficiency
levels needed to meet the requirements for procurement of energy-efficient products. Whenever
there is a significant change in the market, FEMP revises the energy efficiency levels to a
market-leading threshold and updates the specifications. To assist federal buyers in identifying
qualifying products, the FEMP Procurement Web site provides links to lists of models that meet
the required efficiency levels. These lists identify efficient models by brand name and model
number (EPA 2009a).
Appliance and Commercial Equipment Standards Program (Equipment Standards and
Analysis)
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Over the past two decades, Congress, in various energy efficiency related legislation, set the
initial federal energy efficiency standards for many major appliances and established schedules
for DOE to review and revise these standards (DOE 2009a). The Appliance and Commercial
Equipment Standards Program (Equipment Standards and Analysis), which operates within the
Building Technologies Program (see Table 5-3), maintains and updates these standards and the
testing procedures for appliances and equipment referenced in federal legislation. DOE is
required to upgrade standards to the maximum level of energy efficiency that is technically
feasible and economically justified.
The program carries out activities in three areas: 1) maintaining federal mandatory energy
conservation standards to achieve national consistency; 2) outlining test procedures that
manufacturers must use to certify that their appliances meet the standards (test procedures are
typically maintained by industry associations and incorporated by reference into DOE rules); and
3) labeling commercial equipment, a shared responsibility with the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC).
EPA Sector Notebooks
The Sector Notebook series is a unique set of profiles containing information for specific
industries and governments. Unlike other resource materials, which are organized by air, water,
and land pollutants, the Notebooks provide a holistic approach by integrating processes,
applicable regulations and other relevant environmental information. There are 33 Industry
Sector Notebooks and 3 Government Series that provide government officials with information
they need to comply with the environmental regulations that apply to their activities. Many of
them may provide useful information for the NEPA reviewer. More information about the
Sector Notebooks can be found in the Sector Notebook Factsheet located at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/sector-
notebooks-factsheet.pdf. The notebooks can be accessed at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/.
State Energy Program
The DOE State Energy Program (SEP) funds states to carry out their own energy efficiency and
renewable energy programs. The states can tailor projects to meet individual needs, economic
conditions, climate, and renewable resources. DOE technical assistance helps states develop
projects and accelerate the adoption of energy efficiency technologies. DOE investment in SEP
is augmented by funding from state and local governments and the private sector. SEP also
directs funding from EERE technology programs to the states for specific projects to advance the
adoption of emerging energy technologies (DOE 2009c).
Rural Energy for America Program
The Rural Energy for America (REAP) program was created through the 2008 Farm Bill, and
provides financial assistance to agricultural producers and rural small businesses to purchase
renewable energy systems or make energy efficiency improvements (e.g., replacing equipment
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with more efficient units). The program is administered by USDA and more information can be
found at: http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/ND/documents/REAP-Final.pdf.
5.1.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
Reviewers should look for whether discussions that address federal agency actions related to
general specifications, project specifications, and construction, renovation and service contracts
that involve the procurement of energy-consuming products and systems are in compliance with
EPAct 2005, EISA 2007, EO 13423, EO 13514 and EO 13221:
• EPAct 2005 requires that, whenever an agency procures an energy-consuming product,
they must purchase an ENERGY STAR or Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)-
designated product, unless it would not be cost-effective (including consideration of energy
savings) or is not reasonably available.
• EISA 2007 sets federal mandatory efficiency standards for lighting and residential and
commercial appliance equipment, including dishwashers, dehumidifiers, residential boilers,
electric motors, incandescent lamps, external power supplies, walk-in coolers and freezers,
residential refrigerators and clothes washers.
• EO 13423 states that at least 95 percent of all purchased electronic products must meet
EPEAT standards; facilitates ENERGY STAR features on 100 percent of computers and
monitors; and requires that 100 percent of electronic products must be reused, donated,
sold, or recycled using environmentally sound management practices.
• EO 13514 sets the goal that 95 percent of new federal agency contract actions including
task and delivery orders, for products and services with the exception of acquisition of
weapon systems, will be ENERGY STAR, FEMP, and/or EPEAT certified.
• EO 13221 requires that a federal agency, each time "it purchases commercially available,
off-the-shelf products that use external standby power devices, or that contain an internal
standby power function, shall purchase products that use no more than one watt in their
standby power consuming mode." If unavailable, products with the lowest standby power
wattage while in their standby power consuming mode shall be purchased.
If a product to be purchased is not covered by an ENERGY STAR or FEMP rating, agencies
could seek to purchase products in the top 25% of efficiency for their class to maximize energy
efficiency. Military installations should be in compliance with the Federal ENERGY STAR
Buildings Program Partnership MOU (http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/DOD/UDG/fedstar.pdf).
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Section 5.1 References
Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool. Online, http://www.epeat.net/ Accessed
March 2009.
Federal Energy Management Program. October 2002. How to Buy Products with Low Standby
Power. Online, http://www.syncpower.com/datasheet/standby_power.pdf Accessed April
2009.
IIEE. Online, http://www.ieee.org/portal/site Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009a. Federal Energy Management Program. Online.
www.eere.energy.gov/femp/procurement/ Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009b. Laws and Regulations, Appliances and Commercial
Equipment Standards. Online.
Accessed
March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009c. State Energy Program. Online.
http://apps 1.eere.energy.gov/state_energy_program/ Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. May 2008. Federal Energy Management Program:
Energy-Efficient, Water Conserving and Low Standby Power Products. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/eep_productfactsheet.pdf Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009a. Energy Performance Targets. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/business/tools resources/new bldg design/2003 CBECSPer
formanceTargetsTable.pdf Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009b. ENERGY STAR. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=about.ab index Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008a. ENERGY STAR: 2007 Annual Report. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/publications/pubdocs/2007%20Annual%20Report%
20-%20Final%20-l l-10-08.pdf Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. ENERGY STAR: The Power to Protect the
Environment through Energy Efficiency. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/downloads/energy star report aug 2003.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
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5.2 Facility Siting
5.2.a Summary
Separating land uses, spreading development out, and providing little or no public transportation
or safe walking and biking routes foster greater reliance on motor vehicles. As development
grows more dispersed, employees and residents must drive further to reach their destinations,
leading to more and longer vehicle trips and greater energy expenditures. Smart Growth is an
effort to create development that minimizes air and water pollution, encourage brownfields
clean-up and reuse, and preserve natural lands. The EPA Smart Growth Network developed a
set often basic principles to describe smart growth:
• Create a range of housing opportunities and choices.
• Create walkable neighborhoods.
• Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place.
• Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas.
• Strengthen and direct development towards existing communities.
• Provide a variety of transportation choices.
• Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective.
• Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions (EPA
2009).
Brownfields are real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be
complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or
contaminant. Cleaning up and reinvesting in these properties takes development pressures off of
undeveloped, open land, and both improves and protects the environment. EPA provides
information on brownfield redevelopment at: http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/index.html.
Transit oriented development, closely related to smart growth, is creation of compact, walkable
communities centered around high quality train systems, and collector support transit systems
including trolleys, streetcars, light rail, and buses. Pedestrian/bicycle access and the use of mass
transportation have multiplier impacts on energy efficiency. Pedestrian/mass transit trips not
only conserve energy by reducing automobile use, but also reduce the heat island effect. The
heat island effect occurs when an area (i.e., city or industrial site) has consistently higher
temperatures than surrounding areas because of a greater retention of heat by buildings, concrete,
and asphalt. The heat island effect is worsened by additional paving for highway capacity
expansion, local facility access streets and large parking lots. The greater the heat island effect,
the more energy must be expended on cooling. In addition, increasing automobile capacity
through highway expansion or new alignment is itself a significant energy expenditure. EPA's
Smart Growth website provides information on transit oriented development:
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/index.htm.
The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED®) Green Building Rating System is a third-party certification program and a
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nationally accepted benchmark for the design, construction and operation of high performance
green buildings (see Section 5.4 for more information on LEED®). The LEED for
Neighborhood Development Rating System integrates the principles of smart growth, urbanism
and green building into the first national system for neighborhood design. LEED® certification
provides independent, third-party verification that a development's location and design meet
accepted high levels of environmentally responsible, sustainable development. LEED® for
Neighborhood Development is a collaboration among USGBC, the Congress for the New
Urbanism and the Natural Resources Defense Council. The pilot program began in the summer
of 2007.
In order to reduce the impacts of urban sprawl, or unplanned, uncontrolled spreading of urban
development into areas outside of the metropolitan region, and create more livable communities,
LEED® for Neighborhood Development communities are:
• Locations that are closer to existing town and city center;
• Areas with good transit access;
• Infill sites;
• Previously developed sites; and/or
• Sites adjacent to existing development (USGBC 2009)
The LEED Green Building Rating System for New Construction and Major Renovations
(http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1095) provides guidance on site selection,
brownfield redevelopment, community connectivity and transportation access. The rating
system covers six major topics:
• Sustainable Sites
• Water Efficiency
• Energy and Atmosphere
• Materials and Resources
• Indoor Environmental Quality
• Innovation and Design Process
Credits are received in each of the various areas. For example, sites would receive a credit as
sustainable in the area of development density for constructing or renovating a building on a
previously developed site and in a community with a minimum density of 60,000 square feet per
acre net. Net density is calculated by dividing the total number of dwelling units existing in a
community by the net area in acres.
In evaluating potential facility sites, distance to transmission lines and/or other energy sources
should be considered. It may be possible to construct renewable energy projects at certain
facility sites that have existing transmission capacity nearby, particularly brownfields, abandoned
mines, federal Superfund sites, non-Federal Superfund sites, or other disturbed areas where
previous energy use occurred and infrastructure may already exist. The EPA initiative, RE-
Powering America's Lands - Siting Renewable Energy on Current and Formerly Contaminated
Land and Mine Sites, contains a database of disturbed sites
(http://epa.gov/renewableenergyland/index.htm), including the renewable energy potential of
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these sites. In addition, EPA's Renewable Energy Interactive Mapping Tool
(http://epa.gov/renewableenergyland/mapping tool. htm) makes it possible to view EPA's
information about siting renewable energy on contaminated land and mining sites, alongside
other information contained in Google Earth. It enables the user to search by renewable energy
type or by contaminated land type. In addition to the site's location, it also provides: site name
and identification information; EPA Region and program managing the site; a link to the site's
cleanup status information; and specific acreage and renewable energy resource information.
After the site is selected, the form and orientation of the building should be considered for
natural energy efficient design. Climatic factors, including solar radiation and wind, impact the
optimal location of the facility on the site. Specific needs will vary depending on the region of
the U.S., but the basic concerns are to maximize shading and ventilation during the cooling
season and to maximize solar radiation and minimize wind exposure during the heating season.
The building orientation can be adjusted according the position of the sun or prevailing winds,
while the building form can be designed to incorporate overhangs or other horizontal or vertical
shading elements (LDNR 2009).
5.2.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
See Section 5.4 Buildings.
5.2.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
Reviewers may recommend that potential facility sites be evaluated on according to smart
growth principles, such as whether a site contains a mix of land uses, a walkable neighborhood,
fosters a sense of place, and preserves open space by directing development toward existing
communities. The site selection process should encourage community and stakeholder
collaboration in development decisions.
Reviewers may want to become familiar with the LEED for Neighborhood Development Rating
System and the LEED for New Construction and Major Renovations Rating System, during
their review of a federal facility's site selection. Both rating systems provide checklists of
criteria that include energy efficiency concerns. Reviewers may want to recommend that a
facility achieve LEED® certification (see Section 5.4, Buildings).
Reviewers should consider whether the alternatives analysis has included the consideration of
brownfield and/or infill development sites, where feasible and practicable. In addition to other
environmental benefits, both brownfield and infill development may be in closer proximity to
existing transportation infrastructure than undeveloped land, and will therefore reduce
transportation energy use when the site becomes operational. The adaptive reuse of existing
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structures (e.g., historic school buildings) should be considered to reduce the energy used to
create and transport new building materials, and demolish/dispose of old structures. 309
Reviewer suggestions related to historic properties should be consistent with the requirements of
the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), Section 106.
When evaluating potential facility sites, reviewers should consider whether the alternatives
analysis has included the consideration of sites with existing transmission capacity nearby,
including disturbed sites where previous energy use occurred and infrastructure may already
exist.
For each site considered, the alternatives analysis should discuss the availability of and distance
to public transportation for employees. Full consideration should be given to sites with bus, rail
and pedestrian routes within a 1/2 mile radius. Sites that have pedestrian/bicycle access will
conserve energy, e.g., school buildings located within the community will reduce the need for
buses. For industrial facilities, the distance to waste disposal should be considered.
The alternatives should include a discussion of how the facility orientation on the site, from a
geothermal, wind, solar heat and shading perspective, will maximize and minimize heat gain,
according to seasonal and regional needs.
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Section 5.2 References
Louisiana Department of Natural Resources. 2009. Solar Orientation. Online.
http://dnr.louisiana.gOv/sec/execdiv/techasmt/ecep/drafting/d/d.htm. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Online, http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/index.html.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Smart Growth. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/index.htm. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Green Building Council. 2009. LEED for Neighborhood Development. Online.
http://www.usgbc.org/DisplavPage.aspx?CMSPageID=148 Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Green Building Council. 2005. New Construction and Major Renovations. Online.
http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1095 Accessed March 2009.
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5.3 Construction
5.3.a Summary
Green construction seeks to minimize the impacts of construction activities on the environment.
This is achieved through using the principles of sustainable design and materials selection,
recycling and reuse, and energy efficiency (EPA 2009). The EPA report, Potential for Reducing
Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Construction Sector, describes opportunities for incorporating
green construction principles, and improving energy efficiency in construction (EPA 2009b).
Opportunities for improving energy efficiency include:
• Fuel efficiency/Equipment idling
• Electricity use
• Equipment maintenance
• Equipment selection
• Materials recycling
To achieve improvements in fuel efficiency, contractors can make changes ranging from
reducing equipment idling time and improving maintenance to replacing or repowering
equipment. Unnecessary idling occurs when trucks wait for extended periods of time to load or
unload, or when equipment that is not being used is left on, such as to maintain heating or
cooling for driver comfort. Reduced idling reduces fuel consumption. Regulations restricting
idling were in place in almost half the states as of July 2008. These regulations vary by state,
county, or city, but typically restrict idling to 3-10 minutes and do not distinguish between
gasoline or diesel vehicles. Most of these regulations are relatively new and many have
associated information campaigns to increase awareness (EPA 2009b).
Two examples of maintenance activities that can improve energy efficiency are:
• Forklift maintenance: A recent study of forklift maintenance estimated that 50% of forklifts
were not properly maintained, each of which could be wasting more than 400 gallons of
propane annually.
• Improperly inflated tires and poor wheel alignment, which can adversely affect fuel
efficiency of small trucks by 3-4%. Under-inflated tires increase the tires' rolling
resistance, and increased rolling resistance requires more fuel to move the vehicle (EPA
2009b).
Identifying the proper equipment for a task can also provide fuel savings. Truck engines too
large for an application burn more fuel by adding unnecessary weight. Longer term fuel saving
solutions involve replacing older, less fuel efficient equipment with newer models. Through
advances in engine technology, reduced equipment weight, and even some hybrid technologies,
equipment manufacturers are offering more fuel efficient new equipment (EPA 2009b).
Reducing delivery vehicle trips to the construction site also results in lower fuel consumption.
For large projects, creating a consolidated location for materials delivery may reduce energy use.
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Switching transportation methods may also reduce fuel consumption. EPA's Freight Logistics
and Energy Tracking (FLEET) Performance Model can help quantify the fuel use of various
shipment methods. Buying locally produced lumber and other materials can reduce fuel use in
transporting materials (EPA 2009b).
To improve energy efficiency, construction plans should include preserving existing vegetative
growth and replanting trees that must be removed with native species. This will reduce the heat
island effect (see Section 5.4, Buildings).
Wastes from new construction, renovation, and demolition projects generate about 25% of the
total U.S. solid waste volume (EPA 2009b). Debris can contain asphalt, concrete, wood, dry
wall gypsum, shingles, plastics, glass, and other materials. Data on reuse rates are very uncertain.
Rough estimates are that only about 15% of building construction and demolition debris (C&D)
is recycled, whereas up to 80% of roadway C&D (asphalt and concrete primarily) is
recycled/reused. However, states vary widely in terms of roadway C&D reuse rates. When
materials are reused or recycled, energy use is avoided. In addition, virgin resources are
conserved and virgin mining impacts are avoided.
Debris can be difficult to segregate into reusable components. Processing is often necessary, but
less often with roadway debris. Recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) is usually derived from the
demolition of degraded roadways and parking lots. This material can often be processed and
reused in new pavement. Both original asphalt binder and aggregate can be recycled. When just
the top pavement course layer of asphalt is removed for reclamation it is called "mining." When
both the pavement and base courses are reclaimed and reused in place, it is referred to as "full
depth reclamation." Construction materials such as cardboard, metal, glass gypsum board and
acoustical ceiling tile can be easily recycled. Some opportunities for materials recycling or reuse
in construction supplies are cited in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4
Secondary Use Markets for Various Construction and Demolition Materials
Generating
Material Activity Recycling Markets Percent Substitutes for:
Concrete
Asphalt
Pavement
Building
construction
Building
demolition
Infrastructure
demolition
Road, parking
lot and
driveway
maintenance
Road Base
Aggregate for new
asphalt hot-mixes
General Fill
Other
Aggregate for concrete
mix
Rip-rap
TOTAL
Aggregate for new
asphalt hot-mixes
Sub-Base for paved
roads
68%
9%
7%
7%
6%
3%
100%
66%
33%
Virgin aggregate
Virgin aggregate
Virgin aggregate
Virgin aggregate
Virgin aggregate
Virgin aggregate
Virgin aggregate
Virgin aggregate
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Material
fable 5-4
Markets for Various Construction and Demolition Material;
Generating
Activity Recycling Markets Percent Substitutes for:
Wood
and
reconstruction
Building
deconstruction
Building
construction
Building
demolition
Land clearing
TOTAL
Recovered lumber
remilled into flooring
Mulch and compost
Animal bedding
Feed stock for particle
board
Biomass fuel for
boilers
100%
Not
Available
Virgin lumber
Scrap wood from
sawmills, logging
debris
Gypsum
wallboard
Asphalt
shingles
Building
construction
Building
demolition
Building
construction
Building
renovation
Building
demolition
Gypsum wallboard
Portland cement
Land application in
agriculture
Asphalt mixes road
base
Cement kilns
Not
available
Not
available
Virgin gypsum
Virgin gypsum
Virgin gypsum
Virgin aggregate
Virgin bitumen
Virgin aggregate
Note: With the exception of concrete and asphalt debris, which have well-established
recycling markets, data are not well documented concerning the quantities of wood, wallboard,
and asphalt shingles used in various applications.
Source: U.S. EPA, Waste and Materials-Flow Benchmark Sector Report: Beneficial Use of
Secondary Materials - Construction and Demolition debris. Draft in progress
Construction projects should not only recycle materials, but make use of recycled materials as
well. Post-consumer material is defined as waste material generated by households or by
commercial, industrial and institutional facilities in their role as end-users of the product, which
can no longer be used for its intended purpose.
Pre-consumer material is defined as material diverted from the waste stream during the
manufacturing process (USGBC 2009). Examples of materials with high pre-consumer and
post-consumer content include: structural steel and decking, aluminum roof and wall panels,
acoustical ceiling tile, certain carpeting goods, gypsum board and some ceramic tiles.
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Scrap tires are another material that can be reused in construction projects. 300 million scrap
tires are disposed in the U.S. every year. Reuse saves the embodied energy and impacts of tires
and reduces the need for petroleum. It also saves dramatically on landfill space. Scrap tires can
be reprocessed into chips or granules (crumbs), which can be used as:
• Rubberized Chip Seal - A thin top-coat sealant composed of binder and a relatively fine
aggregate to rehabilitate a worn asphalt road.
• Rubberized Asphalt Concrete - A new asphalt layer on top of a worn pavement surface
placed to rehabilitate a worn road.
• Rubberized Asphalt Concrete - New asphalt road construction.
• "Open-Graded" Rubberized Asphalt - A different type of asphalt similar to pervious concrete
that promotes stormwater drainage to the side of the roadway and provides non-skid
properties.
• Tire Derived Aggregrate - Structural fill in embankments, behind retaining and sound walls,
in trenches; soil stabilization, including roadway collapse repair; and as vibration abatement
along train tracks or near roadways.
Benefits of recycled tire materials can include increased strength, quieter roadway surfaces,
vibration control, and increased water penetration control.
EPA offers several software tools that provide information on the recycled content of common
construction materials:
EPA Recycled Content Tool (ReCon):
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/calculators/ReCon home.html.
• EPA Waste Reduction Model (WaRM):
http://epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/waste/calculators/Warm home.html.
• National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) Building for Environmental and
Economic Sustainability (BEES): http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/software/bees/.
While these tools were designed to compare greenhouse gas impacts and overall environmental
performance, they are useful for determining energy efficiency as well. They attempt to provide
full life-cycle estimates of the material (acquisition, manufacture, transportation, installation,
use, and waste management).
The LEED® Green Building Rating System for New Construction and Major Renovations
(http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1095) contains energy efficiency related
criteria for new construction (see Section 5.4 for more information on LEED ). To score one
point under the LEED® system, projects must meet the following requirements. Additional
points are awarded for exceeding these requirements:
• Recycle and/or salvage at least 50% of non-hazardous construction and demolition debris.
Develop and implement a construction waste management plan that, at a minimum,
identifies the materials to be diverted from disposal and whether the materials will be
sorted on-site or co-mingled. Excavated soil and land-clearing debris do not contribute to
this credit.
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• Use salvaged, refurbished or reused materials such that the sum of these materials
constitutes at least 5%, based on cost, of the total value of materials on the project.
• Use materials with recycled content such that the sum of post-consumer recycled content
plus one-half of the pre-consumer content constitutes at least 10% (based on cost) of the
total value of the materials in the project. Recycled content shall be defined in accordance
with ISO 14021—Environmental labels and declarations—Self-declared environmental
claims (Type II environmental labeling). Reutilization of materials such as rework, regrind
or scrap generated in a process and capable of being reclaimed within the same process that
generated it is excluded.
• Use building materials or products that have been extracted, harvested or recovered, as well
as manufactured, within 500 miles of the project site for a minimum of 10% (based on cost)
of the total materials value. If only a fraction of a product or material is
extracted/harvested/recovered and manufactured locally, then only that percentage (by
weight) shall contribute to the regional value.
• Use rapidly renewable building materials and products (made from plants that are typically
harvested within a ten-year cycle or shorter) for 2.5% of the total value of all building
materials and products used in the project, based on cost (USGBC 2009).
5.3.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
Clean Construction USA
Clean Construction USA, part of the National Clean Diesel Campaign (NCDC), is an EPA
program designed to promote the reduction of diesel emissions from construction equipment and
vehicles. Many of the strategies for emissions reduction also improve energy efficiency.
Information can be found at: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/diesel/construction/index.htm.
See Section 5.4, Buildings, for additional construction-related programs.
5.3.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
To minimize/mitigate the energy impact of construction activities, Reviewers should encourage
federal agencies to adhere to energy efficient practices described above, including: 1) reducing
idling by training drivers to turn off equipment and providing fuel-efficient auxiliary power for
the heat or air conditioning; 2) using fuel efficient and size appropriate equipment that is
properly maintained; and 3) minimizing delivery vehicle trips.
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Reviewers may want to recommend that projects be certified using LEED for New
Construction and Major Renovations. Regardless of whether projects are LEED® certified,
construction plans should document waste reduction efforts, including using recycling
construction materials with significant post-consumer content, salvaged, refurbished or reused
materials, rapidly renewable materials, and locally produced or on-site materials (e.g., lumber)
when feasible. Reviewers may want to recommend using one of the recycled content software
tools described above for material selection.
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Section 5.3 References
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Sector Strategies Program: Construction. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/ispd/construction/index.html. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. February 2009b. Potential for Reducing Greenhouse
Gas Emissions in the Construction Sector. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/ispd/pdf/construction-sector-report.pdf. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Green Building Council. 2009. LEED® for New Construction and Major Renovations.
Online. http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=1095 Accessed March 2009.
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5.4 Buildings
5.4.a Summary
In the United States, the best performing buildings use 75 percent less energy than the worst
performing buildings. This difference cannot be accounted for by particular technologies,
climate, building size, or building age (EPA 2003). The opportunity exists to significantly
improve building energy efficiency by retrofitting existing buildings, and incorporating energy
efficient design into new construction.
The Federal government owns approximately 445,000 buildings with total floor space of over
3.0 billion square feet, in addition to leasing an additional 57,000 buildings comprising 374
million square feet of floor space (DOE 2006). These include a large variety of building types,
including offices, retail shops, hospitals, schools, housing, warehouse/storage, airports, highway
rest stops, visitor centers, border inspection facilities.
Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of
Understanding
In January 2006, 19 federal agencies signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) to commit
to federal leadership in the design, construction, and operation of high-performance and
sustainable buildings. The MOU directs agencies completing new construction to reduce the
energy cost budget by 30% compared to the baseline building performance rating per the
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., (ASHRAE)
and the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) Standard 90.1-2004,
Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential. For major renovations, agencies
should reduce the energy cost budget by 20 percent below pre-renovations 2003 baseline. The
five guiding principles of the MOU address:
• Employing integrated design;
• Optimizing energy performance;
• Protecting and conserving water;
• Enhancing indoor environmental quality; and
• Reducing the environmental impact of materials.
The MOU can be found at: http://www.energystar.gov/ia/business/Guiding Principles.pdf
EO 13423 made permanent the elements of the MOU, and as directed in the EO, the Interagency
Sustainability Working Group developed technical guidance in December 2008 to assist agencies
in meeting the EO goals and statutory requirements. The guidance (High Performance and
Sustainable Buildings Guidance} can be found at: http://www.wbdg.org/pdfs/hpsb_guidance.pdf
and frequently asked questions based on the comment resolution summary of the draft guidance
can be found at: http://www.wbdg.org/pdfs/hpsb_guidance_comment_sum.pdf
The Buildings and Thermal Systems Center at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
provides another information source on high performance buildings.
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Lessons Learned from Case Studies of Six High-Performance Buildings (2006)
The Center studied six buildings in detail over four years to understand best practices for design,
construction, operation, and evaluation of low energy commercial buildings. The case studies
are available at: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/37542.pdf
Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource Guide for
Federal Facility Managers and Designers (Second Edition)
DOE, in partnership with DoD, GSA, EPA and other federal agencies, authored a comprehensive
resource guide designed to increase energy and resource efficiency, cut waste, and improve the
performance of Federal buildings and facilities. The guide is intended primarily for Federal
facility managers, and is available at: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/29267.pdf.
Federal Building Codes and Standards
DOE works in partnership with the International Code Council (ICC), the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE), the Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America, and other code user groups to develop stringent and
easy-to-understand building energy codes (see Building Energy Codes program, Section 5.4.b).
Federal building codes and standards apply to buildings constructed or used by any Federal
agency that is not legally subject to state or local building codes. Different federal codes exist
for low rise residential buildings built before and after January 3, 2007, and for commercial and
multi-family high rise buildings.
The current Federal code for low-rise residential building energy efficiency for which design for
construction began on or after January 3, 2007 can be obtained in the Code of Federal
Regulations in Title 10, Part 435, subpart A, sections 435.1 through 435.8
(http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/retrieve.html). The new rule requires that new Federal residential
low-rise (3 stories or less above grade) buildings achieve an energy consumption level of at least
30% below those set by the 2004 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), if cost
effective. The Federal agencies procuring new housing are responsible for complying with this
code, including determining levels of energy efficiency that can be achieved cost effectively
(DOE 2009i).
The Federal code for energy efficiency in low-rise residential buildings for which design for
construction began before January 3, 2007 can be obtained at the same link as for the new rule
above but in sections 435.300 through 435.306 (Subpart C). The requirements in the old Federal
residential code are determined on a project-specific basis using software called COSTS APR
(Conservation Optimization Standard for Savings in Federal Residences). Federal staff must run
COSTS APR to generate a project-specific point system that accounts for factors such as local
fuel costs, climate, and construction costs for energy efficiency measures. The point system is
completed by the building designer and contains options for energy efficiency measures such as
insulation levels. The designer selects energy efficiency measures and obtains the points for
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these selections. The more points, the more energy efficient the design. A sufficient number of
points must be obtained to achieve compliance with the code (DOE 2009i).
The current Federal code for energy efficiency in new commercial and multi-family high-rise
residential buildings (10 CFR Part 434), can be obtained at:
http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx 05/1 Ocfr434 05.html. This code was issued on
January 1, 2002, and is based on ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989, and all addenda. It became
effective on October 8, 2001. Software to assist in complying with the envelope and lighting
portions of the Federal code can be downloaded at:
http://www.energycodes.gov/federal/exist fedcom.stm. Overall, the lighting requirements in the
new Federal code are more stringent than those in Standard 90.1-1989.
To implement the envelope requirements for the new Federal commercial building code,
individual Alternate Component Package (ACP) tables
(http://www.energycodes.gov/federal/acp_tables.stm) have been developed for 234 different
locations around the United States and abroad. The tables are given in terms of both shading
coefficient (SCx) and solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) and inch-pound (IP) and System
International (SI) units.
DOE also provides software through its Building Energy Code program to help practitioners
ensure code compliance for residential and commercial buildings: http://www.energycodes.gov/.
Building Energy Efficiency Rating Systems
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEEDR)
The GSA supports the use of the USGBC LEED® Green Building Rating System, a third-party
certification program for the design, construction and operation of high performance green
buildings. Within LEED®, there are rating systems for:
• New Construction
• Existing Buildings: Operations and Maintenance
• Commercial Interiors
• Core and Shell
• Laboratories
• Schools
• Retail
• Healthcare
• Homes
• Neighborhood Development (pilot)
LEED offers four levels of certification: Certified, Silver, Gold and Platinum. LEED Version
2.2 was replaced with Version 3.0 in April 2009. Version 3.0 improved on earlier versions by
aligning credit weighting and scoring between the different LEED rating systems, and basing
scoring on a 100-point scale. With revised credit weightings, LEED® now awards more points
for strategies that will have greater positive impacts on energy efficiency and CO2 reductions.
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The new version also awards points to projects for addressing regional environmental issues
(e.g., in urban Florida, decreased reliance on fossil fuels, reuse of existing building stock,
decreased reliance on insufficient municipal wastewater plants, and utilization of abundant local
sunshine). These regional issues were identified through USGBC's regional councils, chapters
and affiliates (USGBC 2009).
Notably, some Federal agencies have established specific energy efficiency and building
performance goals (in LEED®) for applicable projects (see Table 5-5).
Agency
LEED"
Goal
;5-5
Joals for Facility Design
Goal Notes
DOE
EPA
NASA
State
Defense - Army
Commerce - National
Weather Service
Agriculture - Forest
Service
USDA
GSA
Defense - Navy
Health & Human Services
Defense -Pentagon
Smithsonian
Defense -Air Force
Interior - National Park
Service
Gold
Gold
Silver
Silver
Silver
Silver
Silver
Silver
Certified
Certified
Certified
Certified
Certified
Certified
NA
Required for new construction and major
renovations > $5M; Gold preference for leases
Required for new construction > 20,000 sq.ft.
Silver is required, strive for Gold
Required by 2009 for major assets, new embassies
for next 10 yrs
Vertical construction required; LEED® for homes
adopted
"Shall strive for minimum of LEED Silver"
Required for offices, visitor centers, research
facilities >2500 sq. ft.
Design for LEED® Silver
Required for new construction/major renovation,
Silver recommended (some regions require)
Required now, potentially Silver in near future
LEED® or Green Globes for projects > $3M
Long-term goal of LEED® rating for entire
Pentagon
New construction/major renovation to aim for a
minimum of LEED certification
Required by FY '09, self-certified
Incorporating LEED® criteria for new construction
and existing buildings, not required
Source: (DOE 2008).
The EPA ENERGY STAR program also offers a certification for buildings. It functions as an
interactive energy management tool that can be used to track and assess energy and water
consumption (see Section 5.1, Appliances and Equipment). While buildings can be dual certified
using both LEED® and ENERGY STAR, the LEED® system references ENERGY STAR
requirements within its rating criteria.
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The Green Building Initiative's Green Globes program is another popular third party rating and
review system for sustainable design practice that contains energy efficiency related criteria. The
Green Globes rating system uses a 1000 point base total scoring system and has four levels of
certification with a 4 Globes rating being the highest level of certification. The Green Globes
system, which originated in Great Britain, is not as widely used in the United States as LEED .
Whole Building Design
The whole building design concept departs from the typical construction approach by forming
the entire building stakeholder community into a team at the beginning of a project. The team
examines project objectives, building materials, systems, and assemblies from various
perspectives, and improves the final building product by integrating the components into a more
energy efficient system. Lessons learned are compiled in reports and reference documents to be
used by other members of the construction industry (Prowler and Vierra 2008).
The Whole Building Design Guide (WBDG) is a web-based portal providing government and
industry practitioners with information on building-related guidance, criteria and technology
from a 'whole buildings' perspective. The WBDG web site is offered by the National Institute of
Building Sciences (NIBS) through funding support from the Department of Defense, Naval
Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) Engineering Innovation and Criteria Office,
USAGE, U.S. Air Force, GSA, Department of Veterans Affairs, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), and DOE, and the assistance of the Sustainable Buildings Industry
Council (SBIC).
The Whole Building Design Guide website (http://www.wbdg.org/design/buildingtypes.php)
provides extensive information on improving environmental performance for all building types.
Design guidance is available by building type or use, including:
• Ammunition & Explosive Magazines
• Archives
• Aviation
• Community Services
• Educational Facilities
• Federal Courthouse
• Health Care Facilities
• Land Port of Entry
• Libraries
• Office Building
• Parking Facilities
• Research Facilities
• Warehouse
Guidance includes energy-efficiency techniques, emerging issues, and a list of relevant codes
and standards. The Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers, available on the WBDG
website (http://www.wbdg.org/design/greenspec_msl.php?s=001000) is a guidance document
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that provides sample specification language to be inserted into project specifications as
appropriate to a federal agency's environmental goals.
Design Guidelines for Specific Building Types
EnergySmart, part of the DOE Building Technologies Program (see Section 5.3) offers design
guidelines specifically to improve energy efficiency at schools (AdvancedEnergy Design Guide
for K-12 School Buildings,
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energysmartschools/design.html) and hospitals
(Advanced Energy Design Guide for Hospitals,
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energysmarthospitals/). The ASHRAE-sponsored
Energy Design Guides provide information for improving energy at K-12 School Buildings,
Small Retail Buildings, Small Office Buildings, and Small Warehouses and Self-Storage
Buildings. The guides are available at: http://www.ashrae.org/publications/page/1604.
Building Commissioning
Building commissioning is a project management practice that formalizes review of all project
expectations for facilities and their systems during planning, design, construction, and occupancy
phases. It is an umbrella process that seeks to improve energy efficiency and indoor air quality
by uncovering deficiencies in design or installation using peer review, inspection and functional
performance testing, and by delivering preventive maintenance plans, tailored operating
manuals, and training procedures. ASHRAE defines commissioning as ".. .the process of
ensuring that systems are designed, installed, functionally tested, and capable of being operated
and maintained to perform in conformity with the design intent... Commissioning begins with
planning and includes design, construction, start-up, acceptance and training, and can be applied
throughout the life of the building (WBDG 2008)."
Building commissioning is commonly used for major building systems, including electrical
power and controls, HVAC, and building lighting and controls (and potentially for building
envelopes). Recent case studies conducted in private sector facilities have shown that the
building commissioning process can improve new building energy performance by 8% to 30%.
Currently, no building code requirements exist at a national level for building commissioning.
However, GSA, NAVFAC, and the USAGE have adopted formal requirements for
commissioning of their construction projects. Fundamental building commissioning is also a
prerequisite for obtaining certification using LEED® or Green Globes rating systems. LEED®
and Green Globes require a comprehensive fundamental commissioning plan to cover the major
building energy systems that must be developed by someone outside the design team prior to
construction. A follow-up report must be filed after construction and prior to building occupancy
noting corrective measures required. Many new facilities, such as clean rooms and data rooms
with unique design challenges, are utilizing the commissioning process to achieve higher energy
efficiency and indoor air quality (WBDG 2008).
The Whole Building Design guide recommends that projects employing the building
commissioning process follow the procedure outlined in ASFIRAE Guideline 0 - 2005
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(http://specs4.ihserc.com/Results.aspx?prod=SPECS4&sess=426719263). This guideline does
not focus on specific systems or assemblies, but presents a standard process that can be used to
commission any building system. DOE also provides a resource guide, Continuous
Commissioning Guidebook for Federal Energy Managers (2002), available at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy. gov/femp/operations_maintenance/om_ccguide.html.
Life cycle costing
When selecting materials and components for buildings, designers can employ life cycle costing
to maximize energy efficiency. The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES) model
(http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/software/bees/) uses the life-cycle assessment approach specified
in the ISO 14040 series of standards to measure the environmental performance of building
products. All stages in the life of a product are analyzed: raw material acquisition, manufacture,
transportation, installation, use, and recycling and waste management. Environmental and
economic performance are combined into an overall performance measure. BEES has been
supported in part by the U.S. EPA Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) Program. The
EPP program is charged with carrying out EO 13423 (See Chapter 3).
Building Envelope
The building envelope consists of all exterior components of a building. The building envelope
concept seeks to improve the energy efficiency and thermal performance of materials for
windows, doors, walls, roof and foundation materials, including how they work together as a
system. To improve energy efficiency, building designers/managers can control heat loss and
solar gain through windows and doors, provide better insulation and air barrier design. Air
barriers are systems of materials used to control airflow in building enclosures. They typically
completely enclose the air within a building. The physical properties which distinguish air
barriers from other materials are the ability to resist air flow and air pressure (Lstiburek 2004).
The National Institute for Standards and Technology provides recommendations to maximize the
energy efficiency of air barriers (http://www.nist.gov/index.html).
The International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) and ASHRAE 90.1 provide guidance on
energy efficient insulation levels, and door and window R values. Both of these codes govern
minimum building envelope standards for commercial buildings. The IECC also covers window
glazing sizes, configuration, and using glass with the proper attributes for optimum solar heat
gain coefficients (SHGC) suitable for the climate region. Building siting and window
placements can be tested and optimized by utilizing computerized energy modeling programs
that input building orientation, building envelope thermal insulation values, heating and cooling
energy loads, lighting and power loads for three or more seasons.
Indoor Air Quality
One potential risk associated with implementation of green building standards and energy
efficiency measures is unintended indoor air quality impacts. For example, if buildings are sealed
tightly, ventilation rates are reduced and re-circulated air is used, indoor pollutants coming from
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building materials, furnishings, and occupant activities may be retained. Reduced drying of
buildings can also result, which promotes moisture accumulation and mold growth problems.
Green building and energy conservation strategies can avoid these problems through proper
design. EPA's Indoor airPLUS is a comprehensive program that promotes professional best
practices for minimizing IAQ problems (http://www.epa.gov/indoorairplus/). Specific indoor air
quality measures for energy efficiency programs can include: a) radon testing and mitigation; b)
whole-building and local exhaust ventilation systems per ASHRAE Standard 62.2; c)
mold/moisture control measures; d) combustion safety and house pressure diagnostics; and e)
integrated pest management.
Lighting
Energy consumption for all lighting in the United States is estimated to be about 22% of the total
electricity generated in the country. More than half of the energy is consumed in the commercial
sector, where lighting coincides with peak electrical demand and contributes to a building's
internal heat generation, increasing air-conditioning load.
The conversion of electricity into useful light is one of the least efficient energy conversion
processes in buildings today. Lighting accounts for 35-45% of an office building's energy use,
and is a significant energy user in all types of buildings. Advanced lighting technologies can
significantly improve the energy efficiency of lighting and reduce building energy consumption
and costs (DOE 2009k).
High efficiency lighting alternatives exist for new construction and for retrofitting existing
lighting systems. The California Energy Commission offers the following recommendations for
increasing the energy efficiency of lighting systems:
• Advanced fluorescent lighting: In most interior spaces, facilities can replace or upgrade
existing fixtures to include high-efficiency fluorescent lamps, electronic ballasts, custom
designed reflectors, and appropriate lenses or louvers.
• High-intensity discharge lighting: In outdoor applications and in warehouses and indoor
areas with ceilings over 15 feet, facilities can replace highly inefficient incandescent or
mercury vapor lamps with metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps. High-intensity
discharge lamps generate high lighting output, use a fraction of the energy required for
incandescent or mercury vapor equivalents, and have substantially longer lamp life than
incandescents.
• Lighting controls: Simple controls can eliminate unnecessary lighting in the many facility
areas that do not require continuous lighting. Occupancy sensors detect the presence of
personnel within an area and turn lights on and off accordingly. Time switches that turn
lighting systems on and off are useful for outdoor signs, security lighting, and corridors.
Dimming systems take advantage of daylight to further reduce energy use and costs.
Photocell controls provide easy, effective on/off switching of outdoor lighting. In addition,
photocells can be combined with time switch controls for areas that don't require lighting
all night.
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• Maintenance: A program of regular cleaning, replacement, and maintenance of lamps and
luminaries can significantly save energy. A typical lamp, as it reaches 80% of its useful
life, produces 15-35% less light due to lamp degradation. Dust, dirt, and other materials on
lamps, reflectors, and lenses can decrease lighting output by 30% or more. Photocells used
to activate outdoor lights should also be cleaned regularly (CEC 2009).
The DOE Lighting Development and Research program provides information on high efficiency
lighting. Mandatory federal building codes require high efficiency lighting and lighting controls
in new construction. In addition, LEED® criteria include designing buildings with occupant
controls for lighting, (e.g., task lighting).
To maximize daylight in the building interior, building designers can select office systems
furniture with 54 inch panels or less that will allow natural daylight from the exterior walls to
permeate into the building core and reduce artificial light during daylight hours. Designing light
shelves and light colored or reflective surfaces near the building perimeter will also bounce the
light further into the building space. The WBDG contains specifications for office systems
furniture (including recycled material content):
http://www.wbdg.org/design/greenspec msl.php?s=125900.
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Underfloor HVAC Systems Traditional air conditioning uses overhead variable air volume
(VAV), which supplies air through metal ductwork to boxes in the ceiling. The VAV boxes
respond to space thermostats to provide cooling. Air is generally returned to the mechanical
room through the space above the ceiling. This traditional system has two inefficiencies. First,
because the air supply and return are located in the ceiling, some amount of air short cycles, or
returns without having done any cooling work in the room. Second is the high cost for
renovations after the building is occupied. With the cooling system located in the ceiling and
constructed from sheet metal, renovations routinely require the energy intensive removal of
ceiling systems and installation of new ductwork (Spinazzola 2005).
Underfloor HVAC systems supply air through floor air devices that are either manually adjusted
or controlled automatically by thermostats. Air is generally returned through the ceiling.
Underfloor HVAC is more efficient (no short cycling of air), provides more effective ventilation
by introducing supply at the floor and returning it at the ceiling, and results in easier and less
energy intensive renovations (Spinazzola 2005).
Integrated Energy Systems (IES) Integrated systems bring together gas-fired and electrically
driven equipment to provide heating, cooling, dehumidification, and electrical service to
commercial and public buildings. The three principal configurations are (1) hybrid chiller plants
incorporating gas-fired and electrically driven chillers, (2) desiccant dehumidifiers using waste
heat from combustion of natural gas to regenerate the desiccant, and (3) combined heating,
cooling, and power systems (cogeneration) that include on-site electrical power generation with
heating and cooling space conditioning and/or potable hot water production. System energy
efficiency is increased significantly in these applications when waste heat from one component
of the integrated system is used by a second component (e.g., waste heat from power generation
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used to provide hot water for laundry facilities or for space heating, heat from engine-driven
chiller used to regenerate desiccant in desiccant dehumidifier) (ORNL 2000).
Combined heat and power (CHP), also known as cogeneration, is the simultaneous production of
electricity and heat from a single fuel source, such as natural gas, biomass, biogas, coal, waste
heat, or oil. CHP is an IBS that can be modified depending upon the needs of the energy end
user. CHP requires less fuel to produce a given energy output, and avoids transmission and
distribution losses that occur when electricity travels over power lines. CHP can greatly increase
the facility's operational efficiency and decrease energy costs (EPA 2009a). On average, CHP
facilities improve energy efficiency by up to 80% when compared to both heat and electricity
generation. This dramatic energy savings potential significantly reduces carbon dioxide
emissions as well as decreases operating costs and improves economic viability (See Chapter 4
for additional information on EPA's CHP Partnership).
Thermally activated technologies (TAT) are another IES which would typically be designed for
smaller office buildings where packaged rather than custom designed units are better utilized.
These technologies vary depending on the system used and are still being tested for commercial
use (TAT: Integrated Energy Systems Brief.,
http://www.eere.energy.gov/de/pdfs/thermally_activated_ies_tech_brief.pdf). Current TAT
designs may supplement up to 40% of power needs for a particular facility under optimum
conditions.
Researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) evaluated various IES technologies, as
well as efficiency concepts, based on actual performance testing from the ORNL IES Laboratory
in a research paper: Evaluation of Difference Efficiency Concepts of an Integrated Energy
System., http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2001 /pres/121706.pdf. The paper concludes that
standard guidelines for efficiency calculations are needed for IES manufacturers and end users.
At a minimum, manufacturers and users should indicate and/or be aware of the basis for
efficiency calculations.
Other technologies that are less power dependent and re-emerging due to their energy efficiency
include absorption chillers and desiccant humidifiers. Absorption chillers provide cooling by
using a heat source (instead of mechanical energy) and converting the source into cooling.
Detailed information on absorption chillers can be found at:
http://www.newbuildings.org/downloads/guidelines/AbsorptionChillerGuideline.pdf
Desiccant dehumidifiers rely on absorption media to provide evaporative cooling and
dehumidification. Both absorption chillers and desiccant humidifiers are used occasionally when
indoor air quality issues are a major concern and both use less power than their conventional
counterparts.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory produced a report with detailed descriptions of various
integrated systems, Integrated Systems, DOE/EE 0234, available at:
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/femp/pdfs/FTA IntSys.pdf
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Passive Cooling.
The term "heat island" describes built up areas that are hotter than nearby rural areas. The annual
mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1.8-5.4°F (1-3°C) warmer
than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as 22°F (12°C). Heat islands
can affect communities by increasing summertime peak energy demand, air conditioning costs,
air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, heat-related illness and mortality, and water quality
(EPA 2009b). More information is available at: http://www.epa.gov/heatisland.
The heat island effect can be reduced using four main strategies: 1) increasing tree and
vegetative cover, 2) using cool pavements, 3) installing green roofs (also called "rooftop
gardens" or "eco-roofs"), and 4) installing cool—mainly reflective—roofs.
Using shading devices or tall native trees around the parking and other paved areas, as well as
using paving materials with a higher Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) (typically with an SRI at 30
and above) will reduce the heat island effect and subsequent need for additional energy use to
cool the facility. Open grid paving is another technique that allows grass or plants to help reduce
the heat island effect. More information on cool pavements can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/mitigation/pavements.htm.
A green roof, or rooftop garden, is a vegetative layer grown on a rooftop. Green roofs provide
shade and remove heat from the air through evapotranspiration, reducing temperatures of the
roof surface and the surrounding air. On hot summer days, the surface temperature of a green
roof can be cooler than the air temperature, whereas the surface of a conventional rooftop can be
up to 90°F (50°C) warmer.
Green roofs can be installed on a wide range of buildings, from industrial facilities to private
residences. They can be as simple as a 2-inch covering of hardy groundcover or as complex as a
fully accessible park complete with trees (EPA 2009). More information can be found at:
http: //www. epa.gov/heati si and/miti gati on/greenroofs. htm.
Energy-efficient cool roofing systems can reduce roof temperatures significantly during the
summer, and thus reduce the energy requirements for air conditioning. A Cool Roofing Materials
Database was compiled by the Berkeley Laboratory's Heat Island Project to assist with the
selection of roofing materials which reflect, or otherwise reject, the sun's radiant energy, before it
penetrates into the interior of the building. More information can be found at:
http://eetd.lbl.gov/CoolRoof/ and http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/mitigation/coolroofs.htm.
Stormwater management
EISA 2007, Title IV, Subtitle C, Sec. 438, states, "The sponsor of any development or
redevelopment project involving a federal facility with a footprint that exceeds 5,000 square feet
shall use site planning, design, construction, and maintenance strategies for the property to
maintain or restore, to the maximum extent technically feasible, the predevelopment hydrology
of the property with regard to the temperature, rate, volume, and duration of flow." This
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provision requires federal sites to achieve/maintain the predevelopment hydrology to the
"maximum extent technically feasible."
To reduce the amount of energy required to construct and maintain stormwater management
infrastructure, projects can manage water onsite by the use of site developed wetlands and
"bioswales," vegetated buffers that slow water runoff and encourage infiltration. To comply
with EISA 2007, projects larger than 5,000 square feet must retain a site's natural hydrology, but
smaller projects can improve efficiency by adopting this goal as well. Porous paving and
permeable pavements can also be used for paving where light traffic and automotive vehicles are
the main use vehicles. Infiltration can be encouraged on the building itself through the
construction of green roofs, vegetated planters and tree boxes. These and other approaches to
infiltrate, evapotranspire, capture and reuse stormwater to maintain or restore natural hydrologies
are collectively known as green infrastructure. Specific site practices can be found at:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program id=298 and in the EPA publication: Using Smart
Growth Techniques as Stormwater Best Management Practices
(http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/sg stormwater BMP.pdf).
Water Efficiency
EO 13514 sets goals for federal agencies to improve water use efficiency and management by:
• reducing potable water consumption intensity by 2 percent annually through fiscal year
2020, or 26 percent by the end of fiscal year 2020, relative to a baseline of the agency's
water consumption in fiscal year 2007, by implementing water management strategies
including water-efficient and low-flow fixtures and efficient cooling towers;
• reducing agency industrial, landscaping, and agricultural water consumption by 2 percent
annually or 20 percent by the end of fiscal year 2020 relative to a baseline of the agency's
industrial, landscaping, and agricultural water consumption in fiscal year 2010;
• consistent with State law, identifying, promoting, and implementing water reuse
strategies that reduce potable water consumption; and
• implementing and achieving the objectives identified in the stormwater management
guidance referenced in section 14 of this order.
A variety of water saving strategies exist for new construction and existing buildings. A major
source of water savings for most building projects is the design of water efficient landscaping.
Xeriscaping is landscaping where supplemental irrigation is not required. It includes the
reduction of lawn grass and planting of hardy native plant species.
Pressure management, or reducing excessive pressures in the distribution system, can save a
significant quantity of water. Reducing water pressure can decrease leakage, amount of flow
through open faucets, and stresses on pipes and joints which may result in leaks. Lower water
pressure may also decrease system deterioration, reducing the need for repairs and extending the
life of existing facilities. Furthermore, lower pressures can help reduce wear on end-use fixtures
and appliances. More information can be found in the EPA Water Conservation Plan
Guidelines, Appendix A: http://www.epa.gov/watersense/docs/app a508.pdf.
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Water recycling is reusing treated wastewater for beneficial purposes such as agricultural and
landscape irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and replenishing a ground water basin
(referred to as ground water recharge). Examples of water recycling opportunities include:
• Harvesting rainwater from the building roof (in appropriate climates) for use as graywater
in flushing toilets or to provide on site watering for landscaping.
• Using washing machine graywater for landscape irrigation.
• Installing toilets that have handwashing basin above toilet tank so used water flushes
toilet.
The EPA Region 9 website provides further detail on water recycling opportunities
(http://www.epa. gov/region09/water/recycling/) and the EPA Office of Water published the 2004
report, Guidelines on Water Reuse (www.epa. gov/ord/NRMRL/pubs/625r04108/625r04108.pdf)
(EPA 2004).
Other strategies to improve water efficiency include:
• Establish a monitoring system and maintenance program to replace leaking pipes as they
deteriorate.
• Install hot water on demand heaters to reduce potable water waste while waiting for hot
water.
• Install solar hot water heaters.
WaterSense, a partnership program sponsored by EPA, identifies and labels high efficiency
water-related products for consumers (http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense). The installation of high
efficiency "Water Sense" labeled plumbing fixtures, including automatic or self-closing faucets
reduces water use and wastewater volumes for all types of buildings. Examples of high
efficiency plumbing fixtures include: dual flush toilets, composting toilets, waterless or pint flush
urinals and gray water collected and filtered from sink and shower drains to flush toilets.
Currently there are multiple efficient plumbing fixtures available that have reduced volumes
below the 1.6 gal per flush mandated in the Energy Policy Act of 1995.
The WaterSense program also provides technical assistance for different groups of water
consumers, including:
• Guidelines and strategies for communities to implement water conservation plans
(http://www.epa.gov/watersense/pubs/guide.htm).
• Water Use Audits that provide water systems and their customers with information about
how water is used and how usage might be reduced through specific conservation
strategies (http://www.epa.gov/watersense/docs/app_a508.pdf).
• Assistance to utilities with new technologies for leak detection equipment and water loss
control (http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/docs/utilityconservation 508.pdf).
• Assistance to utilities with designing rebate programs for customers to replace older
fixtures (http://www.epa.gov/watersense/docs/app_a508.pdf).
• Assistance to utilities with designing water standards and regulations that maximize
conservation (http://www.epa.gov/watersense/docs/app_a508.pdf).
• Assistance to communities to achieve universal metering, or installing meters at
unmetered households, replacing meters, improving meters to help track and analyze
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community water use, and developing an accurate meter reading and system map
(http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/docs/utilityconservation 508.pdf).
• Model ordinances/building codes for allowing graywater reuse:
(www.oasisdesign.net/downloads/ModelGreywaterOrdinance.doc).
• Model ordinances/building codes for allowing rainwater catchment:
(www.cbs.state.or.us/bcd/programs/plumbing/alt methods/Rainwater Harvesting Potabl
e.pdf (potable).
www.cbs.state.or.us/bcd/programs/plumbing/alt methods/Rainwater HarvestingNon-
potable, pdf (non-potable)).
DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy sponsored research that resulted in a
technical report, Consumptive Water Use for U.S. Power Production
(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/33905.pdf). The 309 reviewer may use this report as a
reference to federal agencies for determining water efficiency in building cooling systems. The
report focuses on water consumption at power plants to provide the data needed to make accurate
comparisons between water uses of building cooling systems. While it does not answer the
question of which system consumes more water, it does provide the metric for determining the
amount of water used at the power plant when the amount of energy consumed at the site is
known. If used, the reviewer should be clear that a thorough understanding of local conditions is
necessary to properly interpret the data in the report.
The 2009 GovEnergy presentation, "EPA - A Leader in Water Conservation," details EPA's
internal strategies for reducing water use at their own facilities
(http://www.govenergy.com/pdfs/presentations/Water-Session05/Water-Session05-
Johnson_Sieber.pdf) (Green et al. 2009). The presentation provides ideas that may be useful for
other federal facilities in reducing water consumption.
5.4.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
Building Technologies Program
The DOE Building Technologies program, supported by DOE national laboratories, was
established to improve the efficiency of buildings and the equipment, components, and systems
within them through partnerships with the private sector, state and local governments, and
universities (DOE 2009e). The Building Technologies Program's strategic goal is to create
technologies and design approaches that lead to marketable zero energy homes by 2020 and zero
energy commercial buildings by 2025. A net-zero energy building is a residential or commercial
building with greatly reduced energy needs due to efficiency gains of greater than 60% to 70%
compared to conventional practice, with the balance of energy needs supplied by renewable
technologies.
The Building Technologies Program has three main focuses: researching building designs,
materials and construction techniques; applying them to residential and commercial buildings;
and helping to develop ways to encourage implementation of these improvements. The primary
research involves partnerships with industry to examine "whole building design" and "building
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envelope" concepts. The building envelope concept is part of whole building design, and
involves focused research into materials and thermal performance for windows, doors, walls,
roof and foundation materials, including how they work together as a system. Research focuses
on controlling heat loss and solar gain through windows and doors, insulation materials research,
or moisture control technologies. This section of the Building Technologies program is also
developing test methodologies to measure material properties. The program uses program
outreach, cooperative industry projects, and contributions to standards-setting organizations to
transfer technical information and expertise to the building materials industry, industry
associations, and federal/state agencies (DOE 2009d).
The Building Technologies Program applies these whole building and building envelope
concepts through two programs: "Building America" program for residential applications, and
the "High Performance Buildings" program (Commercial Buildings Integration) for commercial
applications (see following Energy Star section).
The Building Technologies Program website:
, provides information and resources on the
program. The program operates a database: http://eere.buildinggreen.com/, which collects data
on various factors that affect a building's performance (e.g., energy, materials, and land use)
from buildings around the world, ranging from homes and commercial interiors to large
buildings, campuses and neighborhoods (DOE 2009f).
Several other websites and reference materials provide useful information regarding whole
building design. The Whole Building Design Guide website:
is a portal run by the National Institute of Building Sciences and provides government and
industry practitioners with current building-related guidance, criteria and technology from a
whole building design perspective. The Whole-Building and Community Integration Group
website:
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• Integrated Building and Construction Solutions
• National Association of Home Builders Research Center
Residential building construction techniques are refined in this program, and are then published
in a six-volume set of Best Practices Handbooks (DOE 2009b). The first five volumes are
divided by climate zones and the sixth volume focuses on solar thermal and photovoltaic systems
for all climates. Each volume contains information and instructions in separate sections written
for seven specific stakeholders: homeowners, managers, marketers, site planners and developers,
designers, site supervisors, and trades and crafts.
The Building America Program and Best Practices handbooks are located at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/building america/about.html.
ENERGY STAR
See S.l.b for a description of EPA's ENERGY STAR program for commercial buildings,
including the online Portfolio Manager energy performance rating system. More information is
also available at: www.energystar.gov/buildings.
High Performance Commercial Buildings Program
The High Performance Commercial Buildings Program directly applies whole building design
research for commercial buildings (DOE 2009J). The program consists of government and
industry research partnerships and information dissemination. Government/industry partnerships
include the Retailer Energy Alliance, Commercial Real Estate Energy Alliance, and the
Institutional Energy Alliance (DOE 2009g). The technologies promoted within the program
have the potential to result in substantial energy savings as commercial buildings constitute 17%
of U.S. energy use.
The High Performance Buildings program disseminates information from its website, which
takes the form of energy simulation software:
links to
energy efficiency and solar power technologies:
, and research
reports: .
Building Energy Codes
Building energy codes directly impact energy efficiency by setting the lowest acceptable
building practice. To be effective, they are supported through education, implementation, and
enforcement. The Building Energy Codes program is an information resource on national model
energy codes. The program works with government agencies, state and local jurisdictions,
national code organizations, and industry to promote stronger building energy codes and help
states adopt, implement, and enforce those codes (DOE 2009c). The program also develops and
promulgates Federal energy codes for government residential and commercial buildings.
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Through its website: , the program provides resource materials,
training and education opportunities, and code compliance tools, such as residential and
commercial code checking software, and special climate-related prescriptive packages for
contractors to quickly build and renovate code-compliant structures. The program website
contains an extensive Building Energy Codes Glossary as a reference for practitioners and the
public.
Lighting Research and Development Program
The Lighting Research and Development Program, which operates within the DOE Building
Technologies Program, conducts and collaborates on research on energy efficient lighting
technologies and practices. The program focuses mainly on two areas: spectrally enhanced
lighting (SEL) and solid-state lighting (SSL). SEL is a simple strategy that uses existing
products and technology to reduce energy use in commercial buildings. The concept behind SEL
is that a significant amount of energy can be saved by using lamps that have less light output, but
higher correlated color temperature (CCT). Lamps with higher CCT appear brighter than those
with lower CCT, so the actual light output of higher CCT lamps can be decreased, while
maintaining equivalent perceived brightness and visual acuity. Unlike other energy efficiency
strategies, SEL is not a technology — it's a different way to quantify light that can be used with
any type of lighting design to improve energy performance. Energy savings are achieved by
using high performance and high CCT lamps coupled with lower ballast factor, extra efficient
electronic ballasts (DOE 20091).
SSL utilizes light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic light-emitting diodes (OLED), or polymer
light-emitting diodes (PLED) as sources of illumination rather than electrical filaments, plasma
(used in arc lamps such as fluorescent lamps), or gas. The term "solid state" refers to the fact
that light in an LED is emitted from a solid object—a block of semiconductor—rather than from
a vacuum or gas tube, as is the case in traditional incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent lamps.
The program's SSL research aims to accelerate market introduction of high efficiency, high-
performance SSL products. DOE's plan features two concurrent, interactive pathways. Core
technology research is conducted primarily by academia, national laboratories, and research
institutions. Product development is conducted primarily by industry on commercially viable
materials, devices, or systems. DOE and its SSL partners have developed a multi-year R&D
plan to ensure that DOE is funding the appropriate R&D topics. The R&D roadmap is updated
annually with input from industry partners and workshop attendees, and guides the development
of annual SSL R&D solicitations.
DOE supports various programs to encourage the latest SSL technology to successfully enter the
market, one of which is the Commercially Available LED Product Evaluation and Reporting
(CALIPER) program. CALIPER supports testing of a wide array of SSL products available for
general illumination. DOE allows its test results to be distributed in the public interest for
noncommercial, educational purposes. Over 120 products have been tested through the
CALIPER program to date (DOE 2009m). Test reports and benchmark reports comparing LED
products to conventional technology are available at the program website:
.
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The Lighting Research and Development Program can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/lighting.html. Information on LED basics, applications,
and measurement can be found at: .
EPA Sector Notebooks
The Sector Notebook series is a unique set of profiles containing information for specific
industries and governments. Unlike other resource materials, which are organized by air, water,
and land pollutants, the Notebooks provide a holistic approach by integrating processes,
applicable regulations and other relevant environmental information. There are 33 Industry
Sector Notebooks and 3 Government Series that provide government officials with information
they need to comply with the environmental regulations that apply to their activities. Many of
them may provide useful information for the NEPA reviewer. More information about the
Sector Notebooks can be found in the Sector Notebook Factsheet located at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/sector-
notebooks-factsheet.pdf. The notebooks can be accessed at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/.
EPA Combined Heat and Power Partnership
See Section 4.2.
EPA Green Power Partnership
See Section 4.2.
5.4.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
Reviewers should assess federal actions related to buildings and where appropriate encourage
compliance with requirements of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and EO 13423-Strengthening
Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management. The Act requires annual two
percent reductions in energy use at federal agency buildings (including industrial and laboratory
facilities) through 2015, with DOE to complete a review of the government's performance in
response to this requirement by the end of 2014 and recommend additional measures for 2016
through 2025. Agencies must apply water conservation technologies if water is used to achieve
energy efficiency. EO 13423 strengthens this requirement by 50% to compel the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions by three percent annually by 2015 or by 30 percent by the end of 2015
(using 2003 as the baseline). EO 13423 also requires an annual two percent reduction in water
consumption through 2015. Existing facilities should provide documentation of their annual
energy and water consumption reduction, and new facilities should include a plan for meeting
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the federal requirements. Facilities may be exempt from the energy reduction requirements if
they meet all of the following requirements:
• Impracticability due to energy intensiveness or national security function;
• Completed energy management reports;
• Compliance with all energy efficiency requirements; and
• Implementation of all cost-effective energy projects in the building.
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 also requires federal agencies to monitor electricity use in all
federal buildings by 2012, using advanced meters or devices that provide data at least daily.
DOE's Guidance for Electric Metering in Federal Buildings required implementation plans by
August 2006, and the meters must be installed, to the extent practicable, by October 1, 2012.
Reviewers should determine whether federal actions that involve existing buildings and new
construction have sufficiently addressed the electricity metering requirements of EPAct 2005 and
any implementing guidance.
Reviewers should determine whether any actions involving new construction meet EPAct 2005
requirements. This includes the requirement for new federal buildings to be designed 30 percent
below ASHRAE or International Energy Code standards and to incorporate sustainable design
principles. Reviewers could cite Greening Federal Facilities and the Federal Green
Construction Guide for Specifiers, among other resource guides, for sustainable and energy
efficient design. EO 13423 additionally requires that buildings be constructed or renovated in
accordance with the Guiding Principles for Federal Leadership in High Performance and
Sustainable Buildings set forth in the Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable
Buildings MOU.
Reviewers should, where appropriate, encourage compliance with requirements of EO 13514.
The EO sets goals for federal agencies, including:
• managing existing building systems to reduce the consumption of energy, water, and
materials, and identifying alternatives to renovation that reduce existing assets' deferred
maintenance costs;
• when adding assets to the agency's real property inventory, identifying opportunities to
consolidate and dispose of existing assets, optimize the performance of the agency's real-
property portfolio, and reduce associated environmental impacts; and
• ensuring that rehabilitation of federally owned historic buildings utilizes best practices
and technologies in retrofitting to promote long-term viability of the buildings.
Reviewers may want to recommend that buildings achieve LEED® and/or ENERGY STAR
certification. Both rating systems provide checklists of criteria that include energy efficiency
concerns. New federal construction should document the use of building commissioning (a
prerequisite for LEED® certification) and may want to frame the design and construction process
using the whole building design concept. Reviewers may want to recommend that projects make
use of specific building type energy and environmental design guidance offered by WBDG and
ASHRAE. More information on ASHRAE's initiatives to encourage energy efficiency in
existing buildings can be found in the 2009 GovEnergy presentation, "Sustaining our Future by
Rebuilding our Past: ASHRAE's Sustainability Goals: The Path Towards Net Zero Energy
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Buildings" (http://www.govenergy.com/pdfs/presentations/Sustainability-
Session05/Sustainability-Session05-Holness.pdf) (Holness 2009).
Federal buildings should comply with all federal building energy codes. Reviewers can suggest
the use of DOE Building Energy Codes software to determine compliance. Building envelope
(windows, doors, walls, roof and foundation materials) design should follow IECC and
ASHRAE 90.1 to maximize energy efficiency through appropriate insulation levels, window
glazing and optimized configuration.
Advanced HVAC technology, including Integrated Energy Systems should be considered for
new construction and retrofitting existing buildings. Buildings should also employ passive
cooling methods, including tree and vegetative cover, cool pavements, and green or cool roofs.
10 CFR Part 436, Subpart A of Federal Energy Management and Planning Programs promotes
the use of and establishes a methodology and procedures for life cycle costing. Reviewers may
want to recommend the NIST BEES model, which uses the life-cycle assessment approach to
measure the environmental performance of building products.
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 requires all general purpose lighting in
federal buildings must use ENERGY STAR or FEMP-designated products by 2013. In addition,
Reviewers can recommend the use of advanced fluorescent lighting, high intensity discharge
lighting, and LEDs where appropriate, and recommend occupancy sensors, time switches,
dimming systems and regular maintenance to retain lighting output over the life of the product.
Buildings should be designed to maximize interior daylighting.
Reviewers should, where appropriate, encourage compliance with the water efficiency-related
requirements of EO 13514. Reviewers can recommend that buildings develop a plan to manage
stormwater onsite, potentially recycle graywater for use within the building, use EPA
WaterSense labeled plumbing fixtures and xeriscape to reduce water use for landscaping. For
new multi-building facilities, Reviewers can recommend that the design minimize the energy
required for water supply by:
• Locating areas that will receive water close and downhill to the sources of water and
reclaimed water.
• Identify the end users of potable water and locate them near potable water sources.
• Locate wastewater treatment facilities near users of potable water.
• Locate sites to receive recycled wastewater near the wastewater treatment plant.
• Lay out pipes first, before the facilities, to eliminate the number of turns and bends
required because these increase the need for energy and pumping.
• Increase the size of pipes and select pipe material to reduce the amount of friction which
will reduce energy and pumping.
• Install solar hot water heaters.
Reviewers may recommend that indoor air quality be considered when implementing energy
efficiency measures. Additional potential indoor air quality-related safety measures include: a)
radon testing and mitigation; b) whole-building and local exhaust ventilation systems (ASHRAE
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Standard 62.2); c) mold/moisture control measures; d) combustion safety and house pressure
diagnostics; and e) integrated pest management.
Sections 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7 and 5.8 discuss energy efficiency at specialized building types,
including federally assisted housing, military installations, laboratories and industrial facilities.
For information on more specialized High-Performance Buildings for High-Tech Industries
(laboratories, cleanrooms, data centers), 309 Reviewers may want to encourage the use of
information provided by LBNL on High-Performance Buildings for High-Tech Industries. DOE
also has a website which addresses this subject. It is located at:
http: //hi ghtech. Ibl. gov/mi s si on. html.
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Section 5.4 References
ASHRAE. 2008. Advanced Energy Design Guides. Online.
http://www.ashrae.org/publications/page/1604 Accessed March 2009.
Berkeley Laboratory Environmental Energy Technologies Division. 2009. Cool Roof Materials
Database. Online. http://eetd.lbl.gov/CoolRoof/ Accessed March 2009.
California Energy Commission. 2009. Energy Smart Lighting. Online.
http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/lighting.pdf. Accessed March 2009.
Green, B., Johnson, D., and R Sieber. August 9-12, 2009. "EPA - A Leader in Water
Conservation." Powerpoint presentation. 2009 GovEnergy Conference: Charting a Course
to Energy Independence. http://www.govenergy.com/pdfs/presentations/Water-
SessionOS/Water-Session05-Johnson_Sieber.pdf Accessed October 2009.
Green Globes. 2009. The Practical Building Rating System. Online.
http://www.greenglobes.com/ Accessed March 2009.
Holness, Gordon. August 9-12, 2009. "Sustaining our Future by Rebuilding our Past:
ASHRAE's Sustainability Goals: The Path Towards Net Zero Energy Buildings."
Powerpoint presentation. 2009 GovEnergy Conference: Charting a Course to Energy
Independence. Online, http://www.govenergy.com/pdfs/presentations/Sustainability-
SessionOS/Sustainability-Session05-Holness.pdf Accessed October 2009.
Lstiburek, Joseph. 2004. "Air Barriers." Building Science Corporation Research Report 0403.
Online. http://www.airbarrier.org/library/index_e.php Accessed March 2009.
National Institute of Building Sciences. 2009. Whole Building Design Guide. Online.
Accessed March 2009.
New Buildings Institute. November 1998. Absorption Chillers. Online.
http://www.newbuildings.org/downloads/guidelines/AbsorptionChillerGuideline.pdf.
Accessed March 2009.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 2009. Whole-Building and Community Integration Group.
Online, Accessed March 2009.
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Spinazzola, Steven. November 2005. "HVAC: The Challenges and Benefits of Under Floor Air
Distribution Systems." Online. http://www.facilitiesnet.com/hvac/article/HVAC-The-
Challenges-and-Benefits-of-Under-Floor-Air-Distribution-Systems—3516 Accessed March
2009.
Torcellini, P., et al. June 2006. Lessons Learned from Case Studies of Six High-Performance
Buildings. Technical Report NREL/TP-550-37542. Online.
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/37542.pdfAccessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009a. Building America. Online.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009b. Building America Best Practices Series and Case Studies.
Online, .
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009c. Building Energy Codes Program. Online.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009d. Building Envelope R&D. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/envelope_materials.html Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009e. Building Technologies Program. Online.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009f Buildings Database. Online.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009g. Commercial Building Energy Alliances. Online.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009h. EnergySmart. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/deployment.html Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009L Federal Building Codes. Online.
http://www.energycodes.gov/federal/exist fedcom.stm. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009J. High Performance Buildings. Online.
. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009k. Lighting R&D. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/lighting.html. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 20091. Solid State Lighting: Market Based Programs. Online.
. Accessed March 2009.
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U.S. Department of Energy. 2009m. Solid State Lighting: Using Light-Emitting Diodes.
Online, Accessed March
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. June 3, 2008. High Performance and Sustainable Building: A federal
lay of the land. OFEE East Symposium. Online.
http://www.fedcenter.gov/_kd/Items/actions.cfm?action=Show&item_id=9741&destinatio
n=ShowItem Accessed May 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. January 25, 2006. Federal Leadership in High Performance and
Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/business/Guiding Principles.pdf Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2002. Continuous Commissioning Guidebook for Federal Energy
Managers. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/operations maintenance/om ccguide.html Accessed
March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. May 2001. Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental,
and Economic Resource Guide for Federal Facility Managers and Designers (Second
Edition). Online. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/29267.pdfAccessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009a. Combined Heat and Power Partnership. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/chp/basic/index.html Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009b. Heat Island. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009c. Water Sense. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense). Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December 2005. Using Smart Growth Techniques as
Stormwater Best Management Practices. Publication No. EPA 23 l-B-05-002. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/pdf/sg stormwater BMP.pdf Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September 2004. Guidelines for Water Reuse.
Publication No. EPA/625/R-04/108. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/ord/NTAMRL/pubs/625r04108/625r04108.pdf. Accessed November
2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. Energy Star: The Power to Protect the
Environment through Energy Efficiency. Online.
http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/downloads/energy_star_report_aug_2003.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
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U.S. Envrionmental Protection Agency. 1998. Water Conservation Plan Guidelines. Online.
http://epa.gov/watersense/docs/app a508.pdf Accessed November 2009.
U.S. Green Building Council. 2009. LEED® Version 3.0. Online.
http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=1970 Accessed March 2009.
Whole Building Design Guide. October 2, 2008. Building Commissioning. Online.
http://www.wbdg.org/proiect/buildingcomm.php Accessed March 2009.
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5.5 Federally Assisted Housing
5.5.a Summary
As early as 1974, the Housing and Community Development Act cited energy efficiency as a
specific objective in the development of affordable housing. Today, the U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development's (HUD) Office of Environment and Energy oversees HUD
energy initiatives and policies. The 2002 HUD Energy Action Plan outlines HUD energy
initiatives, including promotion of ENERGY STAR products, improved monitoring of energy
efficiency in public and assisted housing, weatherization and other programs to improve
residential energy efficiency, internal training and technical assistance, and strengthening of
incentive programs for ESPCs (http://www.hud.gov/energv/energyactionplan.pdf). An ESPC is
an agreement with a utility company which, after performing an energy audit, provides financing
for recommended energy efficiency measures, oversees the installation of these measures, and
provides long-term services such as monitoring of energy use, training of maintenance staff, and
energy education of residents (see Section 4.1).
The HUD Energy Action Plan also calls for increasing partnership efforts with EPA and DOE to
develop programs such as the CHP Screening Tool (which evaluates combined cooling, heating
and power in multi-family housing). The 2006 HUD report to Congress, Promoting Energy
Efficiency at HUD in a Time of Change, summarizes HUD's continuing efforts to implement the
Energy Action Plan (http://www.huduser.org/publications/destech/energvefficiencv.html).
HUD would prepare EISs for projects that meet the following criteria (24 CFR 58.37):
• The project would provide a site or sites for, or result in the construction of, hospitals or
nursing homes containing a total of 2,500 or more beds.
• The project would remove, demolish, convert or substantially rehabilitate 2,500 or more
existing housing units (but not including rehabilitation projects categorically excluded
under § 58.35), or would result in the construction or installation of 2,500 or more housing
units, or would provide sites for 2,500 or more housing units.
• The project would provide enough additional water and sewer capacity to support 2,500 or
more additional housing units. The project does not have to be specifically intended for
residential use nor does it have to be totally new construction. If the project is designed to
provide upgraded service to existing development as well as to serve new development,
only that portion of the increased capacity which is intended to serve new development
should be counted.
5.5.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
Weatherization Assistance Program
The Weatherization Assistance Program (WAP), managed by the DOE Weatherization and
Intergovernmental Program (WIP), assists low-income families to permanently reduce their
energy bills by making their homes more energy efficient. The WIP awards annual grants to
state weatherization programs and works in partnership with states and more than 900 local
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agencies to provide weatherization services. DOE provides approximately 40% of
weatherization funding, while states, the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services Low-
Income Home Energy Assistance Program, and utilities contribute the remaining funds.
During the last 30 years, the Weatherization Assistance Program has provided weatherization
services to more than 5.6 million low-income families. On average, weatherization reduces
heating bills by 32% and overall energy bills by $358 per year at 2008 prices. Cost-effective
measures to increase energy efficiency are tailored to the specific home and climate. Reducing
spending on energy bills can have positive secondary effects on low-income communities by
freeing up funds for other pressing needs (DOE 2009). Weatherization not only helps low-
income families save money, but it also lowers energy consumption as a whole.
The program is supported by the Weatherization Assistance Program Technical Assistance
Center website, http://www.waptac.org/, run by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. This site
provides weatherization practitioners and other energy conservation professionals with program-
related information. The Center offers the Weatherization Assistant software, an energy audit
software tool developed for the WAP, containing the National Energy Audit Tool for site-built
single-family houses and the Manufactured Home Energy Audit for mobile homes.
The WIP program has begun providing grants under the Energy Efficiency and Conservation
Block Grant (EECBG) Program, funded for the first time under the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act of 2009. This Program, authorized in Title V, Subtitle E of EISA 2007,
provides funds to units of local and state government, Indian tribes, and territories to develop and
implement projects to improve energy efficiency and reduce energy use and fossil fuel emissions
in their communities. More information can be found at: http://www.eecbg.energy.gov/.
EPA Sector Notebooks
The Sector Notebook series is a unique set of profiles containing information for specific
industries and governments. Unlike other resource materials, which are organized by air, water,
and land pollutants, the Notebooks provide a holistic approach by integrating processes,
applicable regulations and other relevant environmental information. There are 33 Industry
Sector Notebooks and 3 Government Series that provide government officials with information
they need to comply with the environmental regulations that apply to their activities. Many of
them may provide useful information for the NEPA reviewer. More information about the
Sector Notebooks can be found in the Sector Notebook Factsheet located at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/sector-
notebooks-factsheet.pdf. The notebooks can be accessed at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/.
5.5.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
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documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
Many of HUD's programs that support energy efficiency, such as subsidizing utility expenses in
assisted housing or energy assistance for low-income households, are not likely to be the subject
of assessment in EISs reviewed by EPA. However, community redevelopment and similar
projects are often partially or fully funded by HUD, requiring NEPA compliance. EPA has
reviewed EISs for eight projects proposed, or proposed to be funded, by HUD that met these
criteria in the period January 2004 through March 2009. On one of these EISs (LMDC 2004),
energy efficiency-related comments by EPA and other commenters included requests for
clarification, revision, additional contingency planning, or mitigation related to the following
issues, which serve as a useful checklist for reviewing future EISs:
• Water use in fountains and planning for drought emergencies.
• Total demand on the electrical supply grid.
• Means to reduce power use burdens on environmental justice communities.
• Potential to add onsite energy generation.
• Water conservation.
• Commitment to sustainable design guidelines.
• Stormwater capture and reuse.
• Use of electric-powered construction equipment.
In addition to these issues, EPA reviewers may request that HUD EISs consider reporting the
results of a screening assessment as to the feasibility of incorporating cogeneration (CHP) into
the project (EPA 2008). Promoting CHP in public or assisted housing is one of the action items
in HUD's Energy Action Plan (HUD 2003).
The increase in the per facility allocation available under the new ARRA funding allows for
additional treatments beyond the traditional weatherization program energy efficiency measures.
The convergence of available monies with the emergence of new micro CHP technologies, could
proffer additional opportunities to improve economic, energy and environmental benefits. This
opportunity is particularly acute in the multifamily sector, which serves a significant portion of
public or assisted housing.
The following elements that would support the attainment of energy conservation could be
considered by HUD for incorporation into its proposed actions and alternatives, particularly the
actions related to public and assisted housing. These items are drawn from the department's
Energy Action Plan (HUD 2003):
• Take advantage of opportunities for weatherization in multifamily housing.
• Improve monitoring and maintenance of existing equipment through energy efficiency
training for multifamily housing managers and maintenance staff.
• Incorporate use of ESPCs.
• Procure ENERGY STAR-rated equipment.
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Section 5.5 References
Links to external web sites provided in this document may be useful or interesting and are being provided consistent
with the intended purpose of this guidance document. EPA cannot attest to the accuracy of information provided by
any linked site. Providing links to a non-EPA web site does not constitute an endorsement by EPA or any of its
employees of the sponsors of the site or the information or products provided on the site. Also, be aware that the
privacy protection provided on the epa.gov domain (see Privacy and Security Notice) may not be available at the
external link.
24 CFR 58.37. Environmental impact statement determinations. U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development. Online, http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-
search.html#pagel Accessed April 2009.
Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. 2004. The World Trade Center Memorial and
Redevelopment Plan Final Generic Environmental Impact Statement. Chapter 27:
Reponses to Comments on the DGEIS. Online.
http://www.renewnyc.com/content/pdfs/eis/04-12-
2004/vol l/27%20Response%20to%20Comments.pdf Accessed April 2009.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 2009. Weatherization Assistance Program Technical Assistance
Center. Online, http://www.waptac.org/ Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009. Weatherization Assistance Program. Online.
http://apps 1.eere.energy.gov/weatherization/ Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 2003. Energy Action Plan. Online.
http://www.hud.gov/energv/energyactionplan.pdfAccessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. Is My Facility a Good Candidate for CHP?
Combined Heat and Power Partnership. Online, http://www.epa.gov/chp/project-
development/qualifier form.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Search Environmental Impact Statements (EISs)
Since January, 2004. Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. Online.
http://vosemite.epa.gov/oeca/webeis.nsf/AdvSearch7OpenForm Accessed April 2009.
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5.6 Military Installations
5.6.a Summary
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), including the military branches of the U.S. Army
(Army), U.S. Navy (Navy), U.S. Marine Corps (Marines) and U.S. Air Force (Air Force),
occupy and operate more than 5,400 sites comprising over 316,200 individual buildings and
229,400 other structures in the U.S. and abroad (valued at more than $455 billion dollars). These
facilities cover approximately 29.8 million acres, with more than 98% located within the United
States and its territories (DoD 2008). The DoD operates from over 2.2 million square feet of
building space. Buildings and facilities account for approximately 25% of total DoD energy use.
In FY 2008, the DoD spent $3.95 billion on facility energy, and an additional $16 billion on fuel
for non-fleet and fleet vehicles, including automotive gasoline, LPG-propane, aviation gasoline,
jet fuel, diesel-distillate, and other Navy-specific fuel. Accordingly, the DoD is the largest single
energy consumer in the country, representing approximately 78% of the entire energy consumed
by the federal government (DoD 2009a). Within DoD, the Air Force is the largest energy
consumer, accounting for 64% of total DoD energy use with aviation fuel the major component.
The Navy/Marines and Army account for 19% and 17%, respectively, of DoD energy
consumption.
The term 'military installation' means a base, camp, post, station, shipyard, center, homeport
facility, or any other activity under the jurisdiction of a department, agency, or other instrument
of the Department of Defense, including a leased facility (GlobalSecurity.Org 2005). The term
military installation does not include facilities used primarily for civil works, rivers and harbor
projects, or flood control projects (i.e. those activities commonly under the management of the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers).
Conserving energy and investing in energy reduction measures makes good business sense and
allows limited resources to be applied to readiness and modernization. The DoD has already
reduced its installation energy consumption significantly; by FY 2005 the DoD achieved a
reduction in energy consumption by 28.3 percent as compared to a FY 1985 baseline. The
Energy Policy Act of 2005 changed the baseline to FY 2003. DoD achieved a 10.1% reduction in
goal facilities energy intensity for FY 2007. Despite this success, the DoD must make greater
strides in energy efficiency and consumption reduction in order to meet the vision of providing
reliable and cost effective utility services to the warfighter. Dramatic fluctuations in the cost of
energy significantly impact already constrained operating budgets, providing even greater
incentives to conserve and seek ways to lower energy consumption. These include investments in
cost-effective renewable energy sources, energy efficient construction designs, and aggregating
bargaining power among regions and services to procure the most favorable energy contracts
(DoD 2009b).
U.S. Army
The U.S. Army is comprised of almost 1.3 million personnel, including active, guard, reserve
and civilian employees, at over 2,200 locations worldwide. The Army operates from over
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143,000 buildings covering 955 million square feet, and is also responsible for 71,315 other
structures. The Army manages approximately 52% of DoD lands, over 15.4 million acres (DoD
2008).
Energy consumption in Army facilities consists of approximately 1/3 electrical energy, with the
remainder being thermal energy supplied primarily by natural gas and increasingly less fuel oil
(Figure 5-2).
Figure 5-2
U.S. Army On-site Fuel
Consumption
Source: U.S. Army Energy and Water Campaign Plan
for Installations, December 2007
Renewable
1% Nuclear
0%
Energy Strategy
The U.S. Army developed the "Army Energy Security Implementation Strategy" to address
energy use and efficiency efforts across the Army enterprise. This document presents the Army's
overall energy security vision, mission, and goals, with direction on the development of
objectives and metrics to gauge progress toward such goals. The Army's energy security mission
is to make energy a consideration in all Army activities in an effort to reduce demand, increase
efficiency, seek alternative sources, and create a culture of energy accountability, while
sustaining or enhancing operational capabilities.
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Army Energy Security Implementation Strategy
Surety, Survivability, Supply, Sufficiency, Sustainability - these are the core characteristics
defining the energy security necessary for the full range of Army missions. Energy security for
the Army means preventing loss of access to power and fuel sources (surety), ensuring resilience
in energy systems (survivability), accessing alternative and renewable energy sources available
on installations (supply), providing adequate power for critical missions (sufficiency), and
promoting support for the Army's mission, its community, and the environment (sustainability).
The strategy outlines the five Strategic Energy Security Goals to improve the Army's overall
energy security posture and assure access to critical power across the full spectrum of Army
missions:
• Reduced Energy Consumption: Reduce the amounts of power and fuel consumed by the
Army at home and in theatre. This goal will assist in minimizing the logistical fuel tail in
tactical situations by improving fuel inventory management and focusing installation
consumption on critical functions.
• Increased Energy Efficiency Across Platforms and Facilities: Raise the energy efficiency
for generation, distribution, storage and end-use of electricity and fuel for system
platforms, facilities, units and individual Soldiers and Civilians. This goal also relates to
the productivity of a system based on energy requirements and supports the ability to
make informed trade-offs in development, engineering and deployment of weapon
systems.
• Increased Use of Renewable / Alternative Energy: Raise the share of
renewable/alternative resources for power and fuel use, which can provide a decreased
dependence upon conventional fuel sources. This goal also supports national goals
related to renewable/alternative energy.
• Assured Access to Sufficient Energy Supplies: Improve and maintain the Army's access
to sufficient power and fuel supplies when and where needed. Energy is a critical
resource in conducting Army missions. Vulnerabilities to external disruption of power
and fuel sources should be minimized and the potential for industry partnerships to
enhance energy security and generate net revenues for the Army should be considered.
• Reduced Adverse Impacts on the Environment: Reduce harmful emissions and discharges
from energy and fuel use. Conduct energy security activities in a manner consistent with
Army environmental and sustainability policies.
Army Energy and Water Campaign Plan for Installations
As a major component of the U.S. Army's energy posture, the "Army Energy and Water
Campaign Plan for Installations" specifically addresses energy efficiency and water use at Army
installations. The goal of this plan is to assist the Army in providing safe, secure, reliable,
environmentally compliant, and cost-effective energy and water services to soldiers, families,
civilians, and contractors on Army installations. The plan sets the general direction for Army
installations with five major initiatives:
• Eliminate energy waste in existing facilities.
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• Increase energy efficiency in new construction and renovations.
• Reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
• Conserve water resources.
• Improve energy security.
Since energy demand is predicted to increase based on on-going and potential military operations
globally, energy efficiency and increased use of renewable resources are the critical to meeting
future Army energy needs.
Eliminate Energy Waste
Major actions associated with this initiative include:
• A centralized review of Army energy operations.
• Development of long range energy management plans for installations.
• Improving training for energy managers, creation of energy management decisions and
accountability standards.
• Implement data management systems including enhanced utility metering.
• Expand knowledge through awareness initiatives, energy management guide, and awards
program.
• Development of a dedicated funding stream for energy projects.
• Improve effectiveness of utility contracting.
• Expand procurement of energy-efficient equipment and products.
Increase Energy Efficiency in New Construction
Major actions associated with this initiative include:
• Develop facility energy performance requirements for specific climate zones.
• Develop energy design standards which meet or exceed federal energy performance
requirements, including standards for use of Energy Star products, HVAC systems, and
lighting.
• Create LEED® certification standards for all new and major construction activities:
LEED® Silver by FY08, LEED® Gold byFY15, and LEED® Platinum by FY20.
• Expand training in building design and renovations with energy efficiency technologies.
• Use of advanced, automated and remote metering technology for data collection and
accountability monitoring.
• Reduce effects of energy price volatility through maximization of fuel flexible
technologies, use of high-efficiency electric components, and increased use and on-site
generation of renewable fuels.
• Development of utility source evaluation program to maximize use of alternative energy
sources.
• Allow installations to control funds saved through utility savings via efficiency
improvements.
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• Increase performance validation of the use of alternative financing and contracting
agreements.
Reduce Dependence on Fossil Fuels
Major actions associated with this initiative include:
• Increase purchase of renewable resource generated electricity.
• Develop cost-effective on-site renewable energy generation and create a Zero Energy
initiative program which benefits installations which produce more energy than they
consume.
• Modernize central energy systems to reduce fossil fuel consumption.
• Reduce use of fossil fuel oil for building space heating and domestic hot water.
• Increase the use of Alternative Fuel Vehicles for non-tactical purposes.
Conserve Water Resources
Major actions associated with this initiative include:
• Prioritize sites for water conservation opportunities through use/cost/availability
assessments.
• Improve water storage and distribution system integrity.
• Increase efficiency of plumbing fixtures, using Energy Star criteria and promoting low-
flow and no-flow water-using appliances and fixtures.
• Limit use of potable water for irrigation and increase use of native plants in landscapes.
• Increase efficiency and reduce losses in process water use (cooling towers, steam
systems, vehicle wash stations).
• Use water audits to prioritize project and implementation strategies.
• Develop new technical standards and training for design guides, LEED® implementation
and technical assistance/design review.
• Identify availability of water resources to meet mission critical future demands.
Improve Energy Security
Major actions associated with this initiative include:
• Conduct energy security vulnerability assessments and response plans.
• Implement energy security plans and necessary remedial actions.
• Use current and projected energy sources with greatest potential for availability and
economy, based on periodic review of energy supply trends.
Army specifications for implementing energy efficiency are found in Army Regulation 420-1,
Army Facilities Management http://www.army.mil/US APA/epubs/pdf/r420_l.pdf. These
regulations apply to the management of Army installations, specifically providing guidance on
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construction, master planning, utilities services and energy management, and fire and emergency
services.
Guidance on the use of energy savings performance contracting (ESPC) for Army installations
are provided in Department of the Army Policy Guidance for Implementation of an Energy
Savings Performance Contract, Version 3, November 2008 http://army-
energy. hqda.pentagon.mil/docs/ESPC_policy_hdbk_v3_l 108.pdf Use of ESPC and these
guidelines are intended to help Army installation mangers save energy and reduce costs, help
meet environmental requirements, reduce equipment breakdowns and emergency repair requests,
provide more productive living and working conditions, and enhance energy security.
U.S. Navy/U.S. Marine Corps
For FY2005, the Navy and Marine Corps were supported by a combined personnel group of
approximately 860,000, with about 544,000 active personnel, 123,000 reserve personnel, and
193,000 civilian employees. These services collectively manage over 91,000 buildings
comprising over 600 million square feet and 88,700 other structures. The services manage over
4.5 million acres of land.
U.S. Marine Corps Energy Strategy
The Marine Corps Facilities Energy and Water Management Program authored the energy
strategy campaign plan, "Ten x 10: Top 10 Things To Do by 2010 to Reduce USMC Energy
Risks." The plan focuses on three long-term energy goals:
• Reduce energy intensity 30% by 2015 relative to 2003 baseline.
• Reduce water consumption intensity 16% by 2015 relative to 2007 baseline.
• Increase the percentage of renewable electrical energy consumed to 25% by FY 2025.
The plan also lists ten strategies for achieiving these long term goals:
• Create an organizational structure that maintains a command committed to the efficient
use of energy and water resources.
• Provide management and resources for the execution of facilities energy and water
management programs.
• Use an integrated approach to optimize energy performance to meet Federal building
performance requirements and achieve a Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design
(LEED) rating of Silver for new construction and major renovation projects.
• Demonstrate leadership in implementing cost-effective technology and management
practices.
• Procure energy-efficient equipment and products.
• Phase out use of incandescent bulbs.
• Evaluate viability of power purchase and leasing agreements to implement large-scale
renewable energy projects and develop geothermal energy resources in a manner that
protects the operational mission.
• Manage utility costs through demand-shedding and peak-shaving strategies.
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• Use Geospatial Information System (GIS) capabilities to manage metered data.
• Implement training and awareness programs to emphasize user-controlled reductions.
The plan can be found at:
http://www.marines.mil/units/hqmc/logistics/Documents/Conferences/USMCEnergySummit/US
MC Energy Water C ampai gn PI an. pdf.
Department of the Navy Energy Strategy
While the Navy does not currently have a specific energy management or energy efficiency
strategy for installation management, a number of policies and instructions relate specifically to
energy-related considerations in the renovation and construction of Navy facilities.
The operational impacts of a volatile energy market resulted in the Chief of Naval Operations
(CNO) establishing Task Force Energy (TFE) to transform the disparate and decentralized Navy
energy programs through top-down commitment and centralized governance, and emphasizing a
need for further energy efficiency as a strategic imperative in the CNO 2009 guidance.
The TFE is developing a Navy Energy Strategy to formulate an overarching governance to
reduce demand, increase alternative/renewable power generation, and provide secure energy for
critical infrastructure and operations. It establishes the shore and tactical community pillars with
functional platforms to optimize energy security, investments and policy/doctrine. Upon full
implementation, the Navy strategy will: enable a culture where energy is valued as a strategic
resource; be a leader in environmental stewardship; make energy an operational advantage; and
minimize the impacts of energy market volatility.
Department of the Navy Environmental Strategy
The Department of the Navy Environmental Strategy empowers every sailor, marine and civilian
employee to take a proactive role in protecting the environment, helping the Navy to meet
mission requirements, protect and enhance the environment, build equity with internal and
external stakeholders, manage and reduce costs, and enhance the commitment to environmental
stewardship. A goal of the strategy related to energy efficiency states "Personnel shall
incorporate pollution prevention principles, adopt a "green procurement" philosophy, and
employ technology to meet DoD environmental stewardship objectives where efficiency and
economics warrant with an overall objective of reducing the department's environmental
footprint. Energy efficiency, use of alternative energy sources including sustainable energy
sources, and energy conservation initiatives shall be considered in every acquisition program
consistent with warfighting requirements."
Secretary of the Navy Instruction 4100.9A, Department of the Navy Shore Energy
Management, October 2001
Navy shore energy will be managed to minimize consumption, minimize costs, utilize renewable
energy resources, and use environmentally friendly technologies whenever feasible.
Accordingly, the Navy shall:
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• Promote programs in energy conservation awareness that stress the importance of energy
conservation and educate all personnel in prudent and appropriate energy conservation
techniques.
• Utilize government funds and financing tools to attain Navy shore energy goals
established by the National Environmental Policy Act, Executive Order 13123, and DoD
Instruction 5126.47, DoD Energy Policy Council. Government fund sources include
Federal Energy Management Program, Navy (FEMP), Energy Conservation Investment
Program (ECIP), geothermal revenues and other appropriated funding sources. Financing
tools include Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPC), Public-Private Venture
(PPV) Capital Contracts, and Utility Energy-Efficiency Service Contracts (UESC).
• Aggressively develop energy-related natural resources in a manner that protects the
military mission of shore activities and provides cost savings or other benefits to the
Navy.
• Fund energy efforts from savings and revenue generated from the development of
energy-related natural resources whenever feasible.
• Participate with other (DoD) agencies in the acquisition of natural gas, water, electricity
and other energy commodities, when appropriate and cost effective.
Navy Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) Instruction 9830.1, Sustainable
Development Policy, June 2003
The purpose of this policy is to reduce the total cost of ownership of shore facilities by
implementing sustainable development concepts and principles. Major components of the policy
are:
• Reduce the life-cycle cost of shore facilities by incorporating sustainable development
concepts and principles in the planning, programming, design, construction, operation
and maintenance, sustainment, restoration, and modernization of all facilities and
infrastructure projects to the fullest extent possible, consistent with mission, budget, and
client requirements.
• NAVFAC shall use the LEED Green Building Rating System as a tool in applying
sustainable development principles and as a metric to measure the sustainability achieved
through the planning, design, and construction process.
NA VFAC Engineering and Construction Bulletin 2008-01, Energy Policy Act of 2005
Implementation and USGBCLEED* Certification, December 2007
This bulletin establishes policy related to meeting the requirements of the Energy Policy Act of
2005 and Executive Order 13423. All projects for new buildings and major renovations where
the work exceeds 50 percent of the building's plant replacement value (PRV) must comply with
EPAct 2005 requirements as codified under US Code 10 CFR 433 & 435, regardless of fund
source, building size, location or temporary nature. Projects must also comply with the Executive
Order 13423. All projects must be registered with USGBC and have the required LEED®
submittal documentation certified by USGBC to meet the required LEED® Silver-level rating.
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U.S. Air Force
The U.S. Air Force operates throughout the world at 84 major and 82 minor installations, on over
9.8 million acres. The service is supported by an estimated 700,000 employees, including active
military, civilian, guard and reserve personnel. The Air Force operates from 81,900 buildings
covering 655 million square feet. The service is also responsible for over 56,000 structures.
The Air Force is the largest energy consumer in the federal government. Aviation is the largest
energy user, accounting for 81% of the total energy consumption of the Air Force. Facilities and
installations account for approximately 15% of energy use, with vehicles and other ground
equipment consuming about 4%. In FY 2007, the Air Force spent over $7 billion in energy costs
(Figure 5-3).
Figure 5-3
U.S. Air Force Facility
Fuel Consumption (not including aviation)
Source: U.S. Air Force 2008 Infrastructure Energy
Strategic Plan Other
1% LPG/Propane
.0%
Purchased
steam
1%
Energy Strategy
To address energy sustainability concerns, the Air Force has developed a strategic vision to
provide leadership in utilizing new energy options that include secure and reliable energy
alternatives and increased energy-use efficiency. The three major strategies are:
• Reduce demand: The Air Force is committed to increasing energy efficiency and
awareness of the need to reduce energy consumption. This has led to a more than 16%
reduction in facility energy usage in FY 2008 compared to FY 2003, equating to a
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savings of 6 trillion BTUs and $90 million in savings —making the Air Force one of the
biggest energy savers in the country.
• Increase supply: The Air Force is committed to research, testing, and certifying new
technologies, as well as renewable and sustainable resources in order to create new
domestic sources of supply. This includes leveraging advances in renewable energy
sources such as geo-thermal, wind, biomass and solar power and alternative synthetic
fuels derived from coal, natural gas, and biomass.
• Culture change: The Air Force is seeking to increase awareness of energy concerns,
creating a culture where personnel make energy a consideration in every action and
decision. By focusing on leadership efforts, training, curricula, and communication, the
Air Force is building the foundation for a culture that will continuously reduce energy
consumption. This strategy seeks to create a cultural change similar to previous
awareness and behavioral changes created by safety and environmental programs.
In concert with these broad strategies, the Air Force has identified the following major statutory
and policy goals to achieve a more secure and reliable energy portfolio:
• Reduce facility energy intensity 3% annually.
• Reduce base water use 2% annually.
• Increase use of renewable energy at annual targets, culminating in 25% goal by 2025.
• Reduce ground vehicle fossil fuel use 2% annually.
• Increase alternative fuel use 10% annually.
• Obtain 50% of domestic aviation fuel blend from "green sources" by 2016.
Air Force Installations and Infrastructure
In order to implement the components and meet the goals of the Air Force energy strategy,
installation programs and actions are focused in four major areas: improving current
infrastructure; improving future infrastructure; expanding use of renewable energy; and
managing costs.
Improving Current Infrastructure
Efforts in this area focus on increasing energy efficiency in current facilities, vehicles, and
equipment, and actively conserving water through actions such as improving building envelope
thermal resistance; installing energy efficient lighting; recommissioning building systems;
maximizing space utilization; rightsizing vehicle fleet; and replacing inefficient system
machinery with high-efficiency components.
Some of the major actions to improve current infrastructure include:
• Develop policy/guidance for considering life-cycle costs for purchases of replacement
machinery and parts related to energy and water consumption.
• Develop a strategic consolidation and demolition plan that considers requirements, utility
savings, and financial savings targeted toward facilities with poor energy performance.
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• Increase use of water meters to document use and expand use of water distribution
system leak detection and repair.
• Actively seek to improve overall fleet average miles per gallon while achieving 2%
annual reduction in fossil fuel consumption.
• Increase awareness and consideration of low-speed vehicles for replacing medium-to-
heavy duty vehicles, such as utility pickup trucks, vans and maintenance vehicles.
• Continue testing hydrogen vehicles and infrastructure at select installations.
Improve Future Infrastructure
Air Force actions for better future infrastructure involve improving processes and applying
sustainable energy-efficiency standards to accelerate the delivery of high-performance buildings,
alternative-fuel vehicles, and supporting infrastructure.
Some of the major actions to improve future infrastructure include:
• Starting in FY 2009, ensure that 100% of new construction is capable of achieving
LEED® Silver certification, 5% is certified LEED® Silver, and 10% is certified LEED®
Silver in FY 2010 and beyond.
• Develop metrics and measurement capabilities to track energy performance.
• Convert 30% of fleet to low-speed vehicles.
• Procure/construct/sustain alternate fuel stations, including installation of at least 1
renewable fuel pump at each refueling center handling more than 100,000 gallons of fuel
annually (Department of the Air Force 2008).
Expand Renewables
By promoting the development of renewable and alternative energy of use in facilities and
ground vehicles and equipment, the Air Force seeks to have 25% of base energy consumption in
FY 2025 be derived from on-base renewable generation. These efforts will increase energy
supply, decrease stress on the national electrical grid, and provide security benefits to ensure the
sustainability of military operations.
Some of the major actions to expand the use of renewable energy include:
• Construct on-base renewable energy production to achieve 1% of total Air Force
consumption by FY 2012.
• Expand testing and deployment of hydrogen vehicles and fuel infrastructure where cost-
effective.
Manage Costs
As the major energy user in the DoD, measures to reduce Air Force costs through utility terms,
service and contract are of utmost importance. Cost planning, negotiation and litigation of utility
rates, accounting management, timely bill payment, and cost-avoidance education are each
important components of the Air Force cost management strategy.
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Some of the major actions to address energy cost efficiency include:
• Perform utility acquisition evaluations at 10 bases annually to determine the best rate
schedule and most favorable contract terms.
• Develop and implement a utility contract training program.
• Partner with DoD to advertise current rebates, incentives and credits for utilities and
renewable energy to maximize use on Air Force installations.
Air Force Aviation
Efforts to improve the energy efficiency of Air Force aviation operations involve actions to meet
the three major energy strategy components of reducing demand, increasing supply and changing
culture.
Reducing Demand
To reduce demand, Air Force efforts are concentrated on improving aircraft design and
operations. Optimized aerodynamic research into new aircraft wing and body configurations seek
to reduce drag and associated fuel demand. The use of lighter and stronger alloy and composite
materials in aircraft construction can reduce structural weight and improve fuel efficiency.
Advancements in propulsion and engine technologies can result in improvements in the amount
of thrust derived from each gallon of fuel, thereby improving fuel economy. Improvements in
mission and route planning can reduce unnecessary flight time and fuel use. Increased use of
flight simulators for training programs directly reduces fuel consumption while reducing the
stress and maintenance fleet costs. Finally, the Air Force is seeking to maximize the use of
advanced avionics and stealth unmanned aerial systems to accomplish missions with greater
success at reduced energy consumption.
Increasing Supply
This component is mainly focused on developing implementation of alternative fuel sources.
Currently, the Air Force has certified its entire B-52 fleet to operate on a 50/50 blend of synthetic
fuel and JP-8 aviation fuel. This synthetic fuel is derived from coal, natural gas or biomass
feedstocks. Testing with other Air Force aircraft is underway to evaluate the performance of this
blend for wider use. This synthetic blend burns cleaner than conventional petroleum products
and produces fewer particulates and no sulfur dioxide.
5.6.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
See Section 5.4, Buildings.
5.6.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
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most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
In reviewing DoD and service installation projects, Section 309 reviewers should consider
highlighting energy efficiency commitments and project components against applicable DoD and
service policies and guidance.
As installations routinely involve a variety of buildings and equipment, reviewers should consult
other sections of this reference document specific to the components of the proposed action.
Specific considerations to determine compliance with EPAct 2005 and EO 13423 include:
• Confirming applicable LEED design and certification.
• Evaluation of results of energy audits, as applicable.
• Review of alternative fuel vehicle commitments. A good source of information is the
annual AFV reports produced by each service found at:
https://www.denix.osd.mil/portal/page/portal/denix/environment/AFV.
• Commitments to use of alternative and/or renewable sources of energy either generated
on-site or procured from an outside energy provider.
• For an assessment of compliance with applicable building standards, reviewers should
consult the DoD Unified Facilities Criteria program at
http://www.wbdg.org/references/pa DoD.php.
Under EISA 2007, agencies must identify all "covered facilities" that constitute at least 75% of
the agency's facility energy use. A covered facility may be defined as "a group of facilities at a
single location or multiple locations managed as an integrated operation." Section 431 of EISA
requires that total energy use in federal buildings, relative to the 2005 level, be reduced 30% by
2015. DoD has identified "covered facilities" relative to EISA. Projects involving these facilities
should receive additional scrutiny in terms of documentation of energy reduction and efficiency
components. A list of EISA facilities is provided in the DoD Annual Energy Report at
http://www.acq.osd.mil/ie/energv/energymgmt report/main.shtml.
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Section 5.6 References
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense. 2008. Base
Structure Report Fiscal Year 2008 Baseline.
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, Installations and
Environment. 2009a. Annual Energy Management Report, Fiscal Year 2008.
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, Installations and
Environment, Facility Energy Directorate. 2009b. Directorate Online Homepage.
http://www.acq.osd.mil/ie/energy/index.shtml. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Marine Corps. "Ten x 10: Top 10 Things To Do by 2010 to Reduce USMC Energy Risks."
Online.
http://www.marines.mil/units/hqmc/logistics/Documents/Conferences/USMCEnergySumm
it/USMC Energy Water Campaign Plan.pdf Accessed October 2009.
Global Security. Org. August, 21, 2005. Introduction to US Military Facilities. Online.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/intro.htm. Accessed April 2009.
Department of the Army, Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Installations and
Environment. 2009. 2009-2015 Strategic Plan - Installations as Flagships of Readiness.
http://www.asaie.army.mil/Public/IE/StratPlan/strategicplan.html Accessed March 2009.
Department of the Army, Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Installations and
Environment. 2009. Army Energy Security Implementation Strategy.
http://www.asaie.army.mil/Public/IE/default.html Accessed March 2009.
Department of the Army. 2007. Army Energy and Water Campaign Plan for Installations - The
Army's 25 Year Plan in Support ofPOMFY2010 - 2015.
Department of the Army, Facilities Engineering. 2008. Army Facilities Management, Army
Regulation 420-1.
Department of the Navy, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Installations and Environment. 2008.
Department of the Navy Comprehensive Environmental Strategy,
Department of the Navy, Office of the Secretary. 2001. Department of the Navy Shore Energy
Management, SECNAVINST 4100.9A.
Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command. 2007. Energy Policy Act of
2005 Implementation and USGBC LEED® Certification, Engineering & Construction
Bulletin Issue No. 2008-01.
Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command. 2003. Sustainable
Development Policy, NAVFACINST 9830.1.
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Department of the Air Force, Office of the Air Force Civil Engineer. 2008. United States Air
Force 2008 Infrastructure Energy Strategic Plan.
Department of the Air Force, 2008. Aviation Operations: Energy Leadership in Action, AFD-
080514-068.
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5.7 Laboratories
5.7.a Summary
Laboratories can be defined as buildings that contain areas where isolated operations are
performed with hazardous/toxic or precious/delicate materials. This isolation is accomplished
through the air balance/pressure relationship to adjacent areas. The pressure relationship is either
negative for hazardous isolation for handling hazardous/toxic operations, or positive for
protective isolation for handling precious/ delicate operations. Characteristics of the laboratory
environment that are coupled tightly with energy use include ventilation rates, temperature
requirements, humidity requirements, filtration efficiency, and fume hoods (LBNL 1996).
Cleanrooms are specially constructed enclosed areas that are environmentally controlled with
respect to airborne particulates, temperature, humidity, air flow patterns, air motion, and lighting.
They are sealed facilities with specialized air handling and filtration systems designed to
minimize static electricity or the concentrations of particles and other contaminants that may
interfere with scientific research, manufacturing, medical operations and other activities. (LBNL
1996).
Laboratories are sophisticated and complex environments that are designed to meet the special
demands of experimental study, testing, and analysis and to provide safe environments for
workers. This double mission means that laboratories must provide levels of safety, space
conditioning, and indoor air quality not usually maintained in conventional office buildings. To
this end, designs of research laboratories typically use far more energy and water per square foot
than an office building (EPA 2009a). A study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
(LBNL) noted that energy intensities are four to five times higher than those found in ordinary
buildings in California. In the case of cleanrooms, intensities are 10-100 times higher,
depending on the cleanliness classification (LBNL 1996).
Laboratories intended for research and those intended for production differ from an energy
standpoint. Research laboratories (especially those located in university settings) have very
irregular operating patterns, seasonally as well as diurnally. Because of this, the diversity of
loads is of critical importance in design of HVAC systems. Energy management strategies based
on control (of lighting, ventilation, etc.) offer particular promise in research laboratories where
occupancy varies or the need for certain processes is sporadic (LBNL 1996).
Production laboratories, on the other hand, tend to be used very intensively. As a result, loads are
relatively level. Around-the-clock operation is not uncommon, especially for cleanrooms where
the importance of maintaining high-quality environmental conditions means that the ventilation
is turned off only when absolutely necessary (even if there is a pause in the production process).
Interruptions of production for the sake of energy-management interventions are far less
acceptable in a (commercial) production laboratory where downtime is extremely costly. Lastly,
in production laboratories energy costs are very small in proportion to the value of production,
while in research laboratories they can represent a relatively high share of total costs (LBNL
1996).
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DOE's National Laboratories and other facilities represent major laboratory-type facilities in
many parts of the country, and represent the full range of laboratory functions. Energy data for
the National Laboratories is compiled by DOE, and is reported annually according to FEMP
requirements.
Recognition of load diversity is a key factor in energy-efficient laboratory design. Each
laboratory facility will be operated in a unique manner commonly referred to as the "Profile of
Use." Laboratory designers/operators must determine the potential variation of energy loads on
hourly, daily, annual, and life-cycle bases and take steps to minimize these loads. The main
energy loads that need to be minimized are:
• Thermal (sensible), e.g., heating and cooling;
• Latent, e.g., humidification or de-humidification;
Air movement, e.g., fans and motors/drives;
Circulation, e.g., pumps and motors/drives; and
• Miscellaneous support and peripheral equipment.
LBNL offers a list of barriers to energy efficient design. Barriers include:
• Using standard design practices that are based on old technologies or inaccurate
assumptions.
Conservative facility building culture, short supply of designers who are familiar with
energy-efficiency concerns in laboratory facilities, and a risk of legal consequences if the
laboratory's operation does not meet design specifications/design basis documents.
. Emphasizing initial cost of systems, instead of life-cycle costing.
Lack of benchmarking of energy costs.
Size limitations for code requirements that may adversely affect environmental
conditioning system designs.
• Inadequate space may be available for energy-efficient equipment. Currently, the architect
often designs the facility and then tells the engineers how much space they have. Early
cooperation between the design team members is necessary to devise optimum
configurations.
. Performance envelope specifications may limit possibilities for energy efficiency. When
the performance envelope, i.e. operating range of the facility, can be expanded—for
example, increasing the allowable relative humidity—lower initial costs and operational
energy costs may result.
LBNL authored^ Design Guide for Energy-Efficient Research Laboratories
(http://ateam.lbl.gov/Design-Guide/). which uses a comprehensive systems design approach to
improving energy efficiency. The guide emphasizes "right sizing," choosing the most efficient
and cost effective combinations of equipment and equipment sizes as well as managing the
laboratory load, to reduce energy consumption and operating costs. The guide also recommends
building commissioning (see Section 5.4, Buildings) to maximize efficiency.
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The guide also recommends:
An energy monitoring and control system (EMCS) that incorporates direct digital control
(DDC).
• Variable Frequency Drives (VFD). The VFD's lower air velocity reduces pressure loss and
increases operating efficiency of a heat recovery device. When the laboratory is
unoccupied, the air flow rate could be reduced by 50%, decreasing the energy consumption
of the entire air handling system to less than 25% of that required for a conventional
system.
Modularized Plant Devices. Conditioning equipment can be designed in modules that can
operate singly or together to meet part or full loads. Modules include multiple boilers and
chillers that can have their operation staged to meet the load. Devices whose operation can
be modulated include: variable air volume (VAV) supply and fume hood exhaust systems
and variable frequency drives (VFDs) on fans and pumps.
Segregating Tasks with Mini-Environments. Laboratory temperature and humidity design
conditions are typically specified to satisfy both process and human comfort needs.
Segregating critical areas with narrow environmental tolerances from other non-critical
areas saves energy. One method is to subdivide systems and zones into mini-environments.
Indirect-Direct Evaporative Cooling. The higher the allowable humidity, the greater the
energy savings. As the allowable humidity range increases, the use of energy-efficient
indirect-direct evaporative cooling becomes more appropriate. Laboratories in warmer
climates benefit from raising the allowable relative humidity; laboratories in colder
climates benefit most from lower minimum relative humidity specifications, as well as a
wider range.
. Efficient Lighting. Lighting should be designed to incorporate both dedicated task
illumination and general ambient lighting. High-efficiency lighting components, such as
fluorescent lamps and solid state lighting, should be used. Lighting energy consumption
can also be reduced by control systems that turn off lights based on occupancy or adjusts
lighting in response to available natural light. In some laboratories, a remote lighting
system provides the benefit of isolating a large portion of the lighting system from the
laboratory space.
. Efficient Duct Systems. Small ductwork in laboratories is often routed circuitously,
resulting in significant energy waste. The design of an energy-efficient air distribution
system should be an iterative process which incorporates life-cycle cost. A key to saving
energy is to reduce the friction loss of the air distribution system by using large-diameter,
round ductwork, efficient fittings, lower coil and filter face velocities, and energy-efficient
noise attenuators.
Heat Recovery Ventilation. Energy recovery systems typically incorporate heat exchange
equipment to reduce energy costs by extracting heat from the facility's exhaust air stream
before it is vented outside. Energy recovery from the laboratory's exhaust should be
considered when significant portions of operating hours are at ambient temperature of 50°F
(10°C) and below. Another recoverable energy source is provided by chiller/DX
condensers. Water cooled condensers can be piped to reject waste back into the lab's
HVAC system to provide reheat capacity, to augment run-around coil systems, and to dry
regenerative heat wheels. The four major energy recovery systems include run-around coil
systems, regenerative heat wheels, heat pipes, and fixed-plate exchangers.
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• Economizer Cooling. Laboratories, research facilities, clean rooms, and hospitals require
large amounts of outside make-up air. These facilities can only benefit from economizers
when the facility does not require 100 percent outside make-up air. Exhaust air from the
facility may be added into this outside make-up air stream with an economizer to save
energy. Inadequate mixing of the make-up air stream and the exhaust (return) air will
defeat the function of economizer. Consequently, errors made by the mixed-air temperature
sensor can increase annual energy consumption by as much as 30 to 50 percent. To
maximize the savings from economizer system, proper blending and sensing of the air
streams must occur.
• Demand-controlled ventilation. During periods of non-occupancy or low level of process
activity in research laboratory or cleanroom facilities, recirculation ventilation rates can be
reduced. Sensors can monitor and control ventilation rates, meeting occupant safety and
process requirements and minimizing energy consumption. A great amount of "free"
cooling can be realized by using a demand-controlled ventilation scheme the takes
advantage of cooler evening temperatures.
Another reference for laboratories is the 2002 Los Alamos National Laboratory Sustainable
Design Guide
(http://appsl.eere. energy. gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/commercial_initiative/sustainable_guid
e chl.pdf), which focuses on issues and design processes for energy efficient buildings at
LANL, and how these processes can be used for other laboratories.
5.7.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
Labs21
Laboratories for the 21st Century (Labs21) is a voluntary partnership program co-sponsored by
EPA and DOE to improve the environmental performance of U.S. laboratories. It is open to all
U.S. public and private sector laboratories, and provides training and technical assistance,
including the Design Guide for Energy Efficient Research Labs, Best Practice Guides and
Technical Bulletins on design, construction, and operation of specific energy efficiency and
sustainable technologies for laboratories. The primary guiding principle of the Labs21
approach is that improving the energy efficiency and environmental performance requires
examining the entire facility from a whole building perspective.
The program also offers a web-based Energy Benchmarking Tool (http://labs21 .lbl.gov/) that
allows laboratory owners to compare the performance of their laboratories to similar facilities
and help identify potential energy cost savings opportunities.
The Labs21 Design Intent Tool (http://www.labs21century.gov/toolkit/intent tool.htm) is a
database that records design decisions that impact a lab's energy efficiency. Designers can plan,
monitor, and verify that a facility's design intent is being met during each stage of the design
process. Additionally, the tool gives commissioning agents, facility operators, and future
renovators an understanding of how the building, and its subsystems, were, and are, intended to
operate. Thus, tracking and benchmarking energy efficiency performance is enhanced.
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The Labs21 Design Process Manual
(http ://www.labs21 century, gov/toolkit/process manual .htm) is a web-based tool that provides
step-by-step guidance of the design process for a high-performance laboratory, leveraging all of
the other Labs21 tools. Highlights include a checklist of action items for each stage of the
building design and delivery process, with links to relevant Labs21 tools, and a quick-reference
list of sustainable design strategies, with links to Labs21 EPC credits, Best Practice Guides,
Design Guide, and case studies.
The Labs21 Environmental Performance Criteria (EPC) is a rating system specifically designed
for laboratory facilities. It builds on the LEED® Green Building Rating System. The EPC was
produced by a series of working groups that included architects, engineers, facility managers,
and health and safety professionals. The EPC has been recently updated to version 2.2 and is
available at: http://www.labs21century.gov/toolkit/epc.htm.
EPA Sector Notebooks
The Sector Notebook series is a unique set of profiles containing information for specific
industries and governments. Unlike other resource materials, which are organized by air, water,
and land pollutants, the Notebooks provide a holistic approach by integrating processes,
applicable regulations and other relevant environmental information. There are 33 Industry
Sector Notebooks and 3 Government Series that provide government officials with information
they need to comply with the environmental regulations that apply to their activities. Many of
them may provide useful information for the NEPA reviewer. More information about the
Sector Notebooks can be found in the Sector Notebook Factsheet located at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/sector-
notebooks-factsheet.pdf. The notebooks can be accessed at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/.
5.7.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
See Section 5.4, Buildings for Review Considerations for new construction and retrofitting of
federal buildings.
The first step for reviewers will be to understand the purpose of the proposed laboratory or
proposed changes to an existing laboratory. Reviewers should be aware of the different energy
needs/issues related to research and production laboratories. Research laboratories will need to
account for irregular operating patterns in planning to minimize energy use, while production
laboratories will have an intensive, and more constant energy load.
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Reviewers may want to suggest that laboratories achieve certification under LEED® for
Laboratories, and/or complete the checklist for the related Labs21 Environmental Performance
Criteria (EPC) rating system.
Reviewers should review the LBNL list of barriers to energy efficiency at laboratories listed
above, and identify any barriers present in the proposed project. The LBNL Labs 21 Design
Guide for Energy-Efficient Research Laboratories (http://ateam.lbl.gov/Design-Guide/)(as well
as Best Practice Guides and Technical Bulletins) offer comprehensive, specific recommendations
for reviewing proposed projects from an energy efficiency standpoint.
The Labs21 federal partnership program also offers a number of tools that Reviewers can
recommend, including the Energy Benchmarking Tool, Design Intent Tool, and Design Process
Manual.
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Section 5.7 References
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. A Design Guide for Energy-Efficient Research
Laboratories. Online. http://ateam.lbl.gov/Design-Guide/. Accessed October 2009.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 1996. Energy Efficiency in California Laboratory
Type Facilities. Online, http://eetd.lbl.gov/EMills/PUBS/LabEnergy/LabEnergy.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2002. Los Alamos National Laboratory Sustainable Design
Guide. Online.
http://appsl.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/commercial initiative/sustainabl
e_guide_chl .pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009a. Laboratories for the 21st Century. Online.
http://www.labs21century.gov/about/index.htm Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009b. Labs21 UK. Online.
http://www.labs21.org.uk/DGHTM/DGHtm/specialenvironments.htm
Accessed March 2009.
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5.8 Industrial Facilities
5.8.a Summary
Industry is a large and diverse energy-consuming sector in the United States. As of 2007,
industry was responsible for more than one-fifth of U.S. energy consumption (see Figure 1-2)
(EIA 2007, DOE 2003). Approximately 8 percent of this energy is lost during power generation
and transmission before electricity arrives at industrial plants. Natural gas, petroleum products,
and electricity comprise the major energy sources used to heat and power U.S. factories, farms,
mining, and construction operations. In addition to heat and power, industry uses fossil fuels as
feedstock to produce industrial materials and products such as chemicals and plastics (DOE
2003).
Unlike other sectors, energy use in industry is often determined by the specific industrial process
in use. These inherent variations inhibit a "one-size-fits-all" approach to energy efficiency.
However, some important energy applications are common across industry. As a result,
industrial energy efficiency opportunities exist in both process-specific and crosscutting energy
systems (DOE 2003).
As part of its Industrial Technologies Program (see 5.8.b Related Federal Partnership Programs),
DOE creates energy footprints that map the flow of energy supply, demand, and losses in U.S.
manufacturing industries. Identifying the sources and end uses of energy helps to pinpoint areas
of energy-saving opportunities, and provides a baseline to calculate the benefits of improving
energy efficiency. Each footprint represents an average picture of energy use for each industry
and illustrates:
• The portion of energy that is purchased from utilities, generated onsite, and transported to
the local grid.
• Where and how energy is used within a typical plant.
• Where energy is lost due to inefficiencies, both inside and outside the plant.
Energy losses shown on the footprints indicate immediate opportunities to improve efficiency
and lower energy consumption by implementing best energy management practices, improved
energy systems, and new technology (DOE 2009m). Figures 5-4 through 5-6 show the energy
footprints in three levels of detail for the manufacturing sector as a whole. Footprints are also
available for specific industries at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/program areas/footprints.html.
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Figure 5-4
NAICS 311-339 All Manufacturing Industries Total Energy Input: 22825 Trillion Btu, MECS 2002
403
Fossil
Energy
Supply
13445
Energy
I Supply
16362
Utility/
Power
Plant
2917
6059
Energy
Export
86
Facilities/HVAC/Lighting 1410
upply Solar/Geo- A
3445 thermal/Wind ^
* Tl if II
Energy Recycle
Process Energy Systems
Central
Energy
Generation/
Utilities
16362
Energy
Distribution
15136
Energy
Conversion
12463
Process
Energy
Use
9625
Energy
Losses 1177
_ •« »oz;
M M J
£ -V Energy f
177 2838 Losses
1226
Inside Plant Boundary
Plant Boundary
Plant Operation/System
Process Energy System
Source: (DOE 2009m).
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Figure 5-5
Distribution
losses 403
NAICS 311-339 All Manufacturing Industries Total Energy Input: 22825 Trillion Btu, MEGS 2002
Energy Export 86
Fossil
Energy
Supply
13445
*
Energy
Supply
16362
•Fuels
•Purchased
Electricity
and Steam
t
Utility/
Power
Plant
2917
Facilities/HVAC/Lighting 1410 A
Recycle Energy ^ ^
^^^^^•^^^^•^•^^H •
Solar/Geo-
thermal/Wind
Energy 8
1
\ \ V
V T T
Central Energy Energy
Generation/ Distribution
•^ Utilities 16362^ 15136
• Steam Plant
(4252) • Steam Piping
• Power Generation • Fuel Piping
(45S) • Transmission Line
• Direet Fuel Supply
(7510)
Klcclriejlv (2917)
j r
• Fn^rnv I nsspsA.
i
Process Energy Systems
^L Recycle Energy
St 'ami By-product fuels and
heal I ^BT feedstocks, heal
Energy Conversion Process
12463 Energy Use
• Process Healing (9594) 9625
(heat exchangers, condensers, fired Separations
^^^ healers, heal pumps) ^^^ Furnaces
^ • Process Cooling; r
Refrigeration (294) El^tic Mb ™
• Floetrutliemieal (28G) Drying
• Machine Drives (1944) NtamB-Unndirg
s (pumps, coinprcasars, fans, blowers.
convevycs, ni txers)
Energy Storage
' ()lllcr (1fiS) Waste HandJ ing
* Onsrte 'Iraiisportatioii (106) «
j £
Electricity
generation and
transmission
losses 6059
Losses in boilers and
electricity generation
losses 1226
Losses in pipes, valves,
traps, electrical
transmission lines 1177
Losses due to equipment
inefficiency (motors,
mechanical drive, waste
lieu!) 2838
Energy Losses
Losses from waste
heat, flared gnses. by-
products TB1>
Industrial Plant Boundary
5-78
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Figure 5-6
NAICS 311-339 All Manufacturing Industries Total Energy Input: 22825 Trillion Btu, MECS 2002
Central Energy Plant Energy Distribution
Energy Conversion
Process Energy
Losses
403
Distribution Losses 1177
Purchased
Fuels
13445
Purchased
Electricity
2917
Losses
6059
Facilities 1410
867
Central
Boilers
I
Combined
Heat/Power
Onsite Transport 106
(4 Electric)
Fired Heaters 6169
(355 Electnc)
Other 168 (18 Electric)
Steam 3424 (23 Electric)
Equipment
Losses 1581
458
424
Electricity1
Electricity •"
Facilities
643
Plant Boundary
Electricity
to
Accesses
2624
Process Cooling 294
(213 Electric)
Electrochemical 286
O
iti
Energy Export 86
Motor-Driven 1944
01
Z3
u_
eo
to
M
Q
"o
(U
LU
O5
tD
Pumps 505
Fans 231
Compressed Air 538
Refrigeration 152
Materials Handling 25
Materials Processing 461
Other 31
W"
System Losses
<
<
i
1
c
107
1150
Many industrial waste products can be recycled. When materials are reused or recycled, energy
use is avoided. In addition, virgin resources are conserved and virgin mining impacts are
avoided. Table 5-6 lists secondary use markets for common industrial waste products.
Table 5.6 Secondary Use Markets for Various Industrial Waste Products
REUSE / RECYCLED BENEFICIAL USE
MATERIAL D™,I,,,.+ /17....,.+:,,.. i,,i',-..^<.....*....,,
Coal Fly Ash
Mostly inorganic material left after
combustion of coal to produce
electricity. 75 million tons are
produced per year. About 45% is
reused.
Exhibits pozzolanic properties and
can serve as supplementary
cementitious material (SCM).
Particles are fine and spherical
which modifies the handling
Product / Function
SCM Binder
Substitute for some Portland
cement binder. Reduces CO2
footprint of PC calcination;
conserves resources and reduces
impacts of mining limestone
(CaCo3)
Benefits can include increased
strength, resistance to
deterioration, higher durability,
less water use, greater water
Infrastructure
Application
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
Pavement
Cement-stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Flowable Fill
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Table 5.6 Secondary Use Markets for Various Industrial Waste Products
REUSE / RECYCLED BENEFICIAL USW
MATERIAL
properties of products in which it is
contained.
Air scrubbing byproducts, such as
gypsum from flue gas
desulphurization, are produced by
coal plants independently of and in
addition to fly ash. About 40 million
tons of scrubber byproducts are
produced in the U.S. each year.
Product / Functio,
impermeability, better
plasticity/handling, and lower
cost.
Encapsulated Aggregate
The bulk, graded material held
together by binder in concrete.
Conserves virgin resources
and reduces virgin mining impacts
Unencapsulated Aggregate or
Fill
Unbound earthen material used to
fill, support, stabilize, or condition
soils. Reuse conserves virgin
resources and reduces virgin
mining impacts
•astructure
Application
PCC Pavement
Cement stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Flowable Fill
Roadway Base or Subbase
Flowable fill
Structural fill
Soil stabilization
Landscaping
Iron Blast Furnace or
Steel Slag
The inorganic material removed
when iron ore is purified to iron
metal. Involves calcinations of
calcium carbonate. Exhibits
pozzolanic properties and can serve
as a supplementary cementitious
material (SCM)
Almost all slag is reused (95%) in
the U.S.
SCM Binder
Substitute for some Portland
cement binder. Reduces CO2
footprint of PC calcination;
conserves resources and reduces
impacts of mining limestone
(CaCo3)
Benefits can include increased
strength, resistance to
deterioration, higher durability,
less water use, and lower cost.
Only the quick-quench, or
water-cooled form of slag has
SCM properties, once ground and
granulated. It has a highly
spherical shape. Air cooled slag
does not have these qualities.
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
Pavement
Cement-stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Flowable Fill
Encapsulated Aggregate
The bulk, graded material held
together by binder in concrete.
Conserves virgin resources
and reduces virgin mining impacts
The slag for this purpose is
generally aircooled, and angular
in shape.
PCC Pavement
Cement stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Flowable Fill
Unencapsulated Aggregate or
Fill
Unbound earthen material used to
fill, support, stabilize, or
condition. Reuse conserves virgin
resources and reduces virgin
Roadway Base or Subbase
Flowable fill
Structural fill in embankments, behind
walls, in trenches, etc.
Soil stabilization
Landscaping
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Table 5.6 Secondary Use Markets for Various Industrial Waste Products
REUSE / RECYCLED BENEFICIAL USW
MATERIAL
Product / Functio,
mining impacts.
The slag for this purpose is
generally aircooled, and angular
in shape.
•astructure
Application
Anti-Skid Surfaces
Silica Fume
A very finely powdered material
produced by condensing smoke
generated by electric arc furnaces
in the metallurgical industry.
Exhibits pozzolanic properties and
can serve as a supplementary
cementitious material (SCM)
SCM Binder
Substitute for some Portland
cement binder. Reduces CO2
footprint of PC calcination;
conserves resources and reduces
impacts of mining limestone
(CaCo3)
Benefits can include increased
strength, resistance to
deterioration, higher durability,
less water use, and lower cost.
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
Pavement
Cement-stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Flowable Fill
Foundry Casting Sand
Foundries cast metal parts by
pouring molten metal into casting
molds composed of sands that are
held together with binders such as
clay+ coal or isocyanate. They can
be reused for up to 100 casts, but
then loose critical properties. The
sands have very uniform grain size.
About 10 million tons of foundry
spent casting sands are generated
in the U.S. each year. About 30%
are reused.
Encapsulated Aggregate
The bulk, graded material held
together by binder in concrete.
Conserves virgin resources
and reduces virgin mining impacts
PCC Pavement
Cement stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Flowable Fill
Unencapsulated Aggregate and
Fill
Unbound earthen material used to
fill, support, stabilize, or
condition. Reuse conserves virgin
resources and reduces virgin
mining impacts.
Roadway Base or Subbase
Flowable Fill
Structural fill
Soil stabilization
Landscaping
Glass
Some data suggests that very finely
pulverized colored waste glass may
possess pozzolanic properties so
that it can be used as a
supplementary cementitious
material.
It may be usable as an aggregate,
as well. There is some question as
to whether this is its highest and
best use, however.
SCM Binder (Potential)
Only very finely pulverized glass
with good quality control can
potentially be used for this
purpose.
Substitute for some Portland
cement binder. Reduces CO2
footprint of PC calcination;
conserves resources and reduces
impacts of mining limestone
(CaCo3)
Benefits can include increased
strength, resistance to
deterioration, higher durability,
less water use, greater water
impermeability, better
plasticity/handling, and lower
cost.
Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)
Pavement
Cement-stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Flowable Fill
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Table 5.6 Secondary Use Markets for Various Industrial Waste Products
REUSE / RECYCLED BENEFICIAL USW
MATERIAL
Product / Functio,
Encapsulated Aggregate
The bulk, graded material held
together by binder in concrete.
Conserves virgin resources
and reduces virgin mining impacts
Unencapsulated Aggregate or
Fill
Unbound earthen material used to
fill, support, stabilize, or condition
soils. Reuse conserves virgin
resources and reduces virgin
mining impacts.
•astructure
Application
PCC Pavement
Cement stabilized Road Base
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Highway Support Structures &
Bridges
Asphalt Concrete Pavemen
Flowable Fill
Roadway Base or Subbase
Flowable fill
Structural fill
Soil stabilization
Landscaping
Within manufacturing, 8 of the 21 major U.S. industries (including mining) account for more
than 85% of all energy use. These industries also tend to be energy-intensive, using large
amounts of energy per dollar of product output. Energy intensity is the single most important
indicator of energy efficiency in industry. The DOE Policy Office determined that more
efficient manufacturing delivered the largest component of total U.S. energy savings from 1970
to 1988 (Figure 5-7) (DOE 2003).
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Figure 5-7
Estimated Manufacturing and Mining Fuel Use, 2002*
Aluminum
2%
Chemicals
19%
Petroleum
17%
Forest Products
16%
Metal Casting
1%
8%
* Includes 2 quads of renewable energy used mainly in the
forest products industry.
Sources: EERE, EIA AEO 2003, EIAMER 2003.
0
O
vo
1
*f5
-C
OJ
a.
3
£
-a
tr
IT3
3
0
Industry Energy Use per Dollar
of Industrial GDP
20
19
18
17
16
15
14-
x\
' \
^-\
\
\
\
1 I 1 1 1 I I I III
1990 1995 2000
Source: EIA MER 2003, Bureau of Economic Analysis
A brief overview of the eight major energy intensive U.S. industries follows, with links to
current industry-specific energy efficiency research and development.
Aluminum
The aluminum industry is responsible for approximately 2.8 percent of the total manufacturing
energy consumed in the United States and 1.6 percent of all U.S. electricity consumption.
Energy-intensive operations consist of the primary aluminum production from ore, secondary
aluminum production from scrap, shape casting, rolling, and extrusion (DOE 2005a). The
melting and thermal operations used in primary and secondary metal production provide large
opportunities for energy efficiency improvement. More information on the aluminum
industry's energy efficiency vision, roadmap, and current energy efficiency research and
development projects can be found at: http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/aluminum/.
Chemicals
The U.S. chemical industry is the largest in the world. It converts raw materials (oil, natural
gas, air, water, metals, and minerals) into more than 70,000 different products. Chemicals are
used to make a wide variety of consumer goods, as well as thousands of inputs to agriculture,
manufacturing, construction, and service industries. Major industrial customers include rubber
and plastic products, textiles, apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals
(EIA 2009a).
While the U.S. chemical industry has significantly reduced energy consumption in the past
several decades, it still consumes close to 25 percent of all manufacturing energy use (EIA
2009a). The chemicals industry is energy intensive because processes involve a series of
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reactions, followed by the separation of the desired product. Currently, most industrial
chemical reactions have low conversion and selectivities - and thus low product output. Higher
quantities of product require more reactions, which makes processes very energy- and capital-
intensive. Current R&D strategy in the chemical industry focuses heavily on improving
reaction conversion and selectivities, and investigating ways to improve the efficiency of
separation processes.
In 1996, chemical industry leaders articulated a long-term vision for the industry in the
Technology Vision 2020—The U.S. Chemical Industry. This vision, along with the DOE
Industrial Technologies Program (ITP) roadmap, is used to guide energy efficiency research
(DOE 2009c). More information can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy, gov/industry/chemicals/index. html.
Forest Products
In the forest products industry, transforming whole trees into lumber and wood products or into
pulp and paper products requires physical and chemical processes that are often highly energy-
intensive. Pulp and paper mills account for the largest share of energy use in the industry,
mainly due to the amount of energy required to evaporate the large quantities of water used to
form the pulp slurry and the paper web. Although the industry self-generated close to 40% of
its energy needs by 1998, it is still the third largest user of fossil energy in the U.S.
manufacturing sector (DOE 2009g).
The forest products industry roadmap states that the industry will use emerging technologies,
such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, as well as advances in manufacturing process
technologies improve efficiency. The industry has focused research efforts into converting
existing mills into "biorefmeries" that are energy self-sufficient and produce biomass-derived
products—including traditional wood and paper products, wholesale electricity, fuels, and
chemicals—using manufacturing by-products, forest residues, and/or agriculture residues as
feedstock (DOE 2006). More information on energy efficiency research and development in
the forest products industry can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/forest/index.html.
Glassmaking
Glass products are used in food and beverage packaging, lighting, communications,
transportation, and building construction. The four sectors of the glass industry - container, flat,
specialty, and fiberglass - produce over 20 million tons of glass annually. Glassmaking is a
relatively energy-intensive industry, primarily due to the large amount of energy required to melt
and refine glass. ITP is currently sponsoring cost-shared research and development of alternative
methods for melting and refining glass. In addition, some air emissions from glassmaking
processes are hazardous or toxic and must be controlled through energy-intensive incineration.
In January 1996, the glass industry published Glass: A Clear Vision for a Bright Future, which
articulated the industry's future vision, and in 2002 the industry and ITP published the Glass
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Industry Technology Roadmap. More information can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/glass/index.html.
Metal Casting
More than 90 percent of all manufactured goods and capital equipment use metal castings as
engineered components or rely on castings for their manufacture. The metal casting industry
produces both simple and complex components of numerous varieties. In addition to producing
components of larger products, foundries may also do machining, assembling, and coating of
the castings. As of 2009, there were nearly 3,000 metal casting foundries operating in all 50
states (EIA 2009b). Major end-use applications for castings include power generation
equipment, defense systems and machinery, motor vehicles, transportation equipment, oil field
machinery, pipelines, industrial machinery, construction materials, and other products (DOE
2005c).
The basic metal casting process consists of pouring or injecting molten metal into a mold or die
containing a cavity of the desired shape. The most commonly used method for small- and
medium-sized castings is green sand molding, accounting for approximately 60 percent of
castings produced. Other methods include die casting, shell molding, permanent molding,
investment casting, lost foam casting, and squeeze casting (DOE 2005c). The major energy-
consuming processes in the metal casting industry include melting of metal, coremaking,
moldmaking, heat treatment, and post-cast activities (DOE 2009J).
DOE and the metal casting industry have grouped energy efficiency research into three
categories:
Advanced Melting: Research that establishes new melting practices, and/or new design
methodologies to significantly improve the energy efficiency of melting and save costs for
metal casters. Research in this area will improve melt efficiency, reduce metal transfer heat
loss, reduce scrap/revert, and improve mold yield.
. Innovative Casting: Research that advances energy-efficient casting processes and practices
that will increase yield and reduce scrap. Research in this area is developing accurate
simulation tools, the ability to produce thin-wall, high-performance castings, real-time
sensors and controls, improvements in rapid prototyping, and expanding the knowledge
base of various material properties and performances.
R&D Integration and System Analysis: Integration of applicable ITP technologies for
improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions in metal casting practices. This
includes other ITP portfolios and ITP's Best Practices program for energy demand
management (DOE 2005c).
The metal casting industry vision and roadmap, along with analysis of energy use in the
industry, can be found at: http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/metalcasting/index.html.
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Mining
Materials mined in the U.S. mining industry include:
• Coal: defined as a combustible rock containing more than 50 percent by weight and more
than 70 percent by value of carbon materials, including inherent moisture.
• Metals: defined as opaque lustrous elemental substances that are good conductors of heat
and electricity. Metals are also malleable and ductile, have high melting and boiling points,
and tend to form positive ions and chemical compounds.
• Industrial Minerals: defined as rocks and minerals not produced as sources of metals.
Industrial minerals include stone, sand and gravel (DOE 2005d).
Surface and underground mining are the two extraction methods used by the mining industry.
The method selected depends on a variety of factors, including the nature and location of the
deposit, as well as the size, depth and grade of the minerals. Both surface and underground
mining are used widely in the extraction of coal. Most of the industrial minerals in the United
States are extracted by surface mining.
Energy-intensive processes in the mining industry include materials handling, ore crushing and
separation, processing, and extraction. Energy requirements include electricity for ventilation
systems, water pumping, and crushing and grinding operations. Diesel fuel is used for hauling
and other transportation needs.
Several analytical studies provide the basis for energy efficiency research and development
decision making in the mining industry's partnership with DOE, including the 1999
Crosscutting Technologies Roadmap, the 2000 Mineral Processing Technologies Roadmap,
and the 2002 Exploration and Mining Technologies Roadmap. In addition, the DOE Industry
of the Future vision, Energy and Environmental Profile, Bandwidth and Energy Footprint
studies have focused R&D efforts. These studies were developed using both government and
industry data and information, and are available at the DOE website:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/mining/index.html.
In 2003, a mining industry energy analysis was completed in partnership with DOE. This
analysis demonstrated that the largest opportunities for energy savings in mining were materials
handling, beneficiation and processing, and extraction. Diesel technologies consumed the
highest amount of energy in materials handling, accounting for 87 percent of the energy used.
Comminution activities - or crushing and grinding - were the largest energy consumers in
beneficiation and processing, accounting for 75 percent of the energy used. Finally, pumping
consumed the most energy in extraction, accounting for 41 percent. Although materials
handling, and beneficiation and processing consume the largest amount of energy,
improvements in extraction could reduce downstream materials handling and processing,
reducing energy needs (DOE 2005d). More information on the energy analysis can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy, gov/industry/mining/analysis. html.
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Petroleum Refining
Petroleum refining is the largest industrial user of energy in the United States. It is both the
country's single largest source of energy products, supplying 39% of total U.S. energy demand
and 97% of transportation fuels, and the largest industrial consumer, representing about 7.5
percent of total U.S. energy consumption (DOE 20091). The U.S. uses two times more
petroleum than either coal or natural gas and four times more than nuclear power or renewable
energy sources.
Before petroleum can be used, it is sent to a refinery where it is physically, thermally, and
chemically separated into fractions and then converted into finished products. About 90 percent
of these products are fuels such as gasoline, aviation fuels, distillate and residual oil, liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), coke, and kerosene. Refineries also produce non-fuel products, including
petrochemicals, asphalt, road oil, lubricants, solvents, and wax. Petrochemicals (ethylene,
propylene, benzene, and others) are shipped to chemical plants, where they are used to
manufacture chemicals and plastics (EIA 2009c). The United States has nearly 150 refineries
that can process anywhere between 5,000 and 500,000 barrels of oil per day.
Although the industry relies heavily on refining process by-products as energy sources, energy
expenditures still represent a significant portion of manufacturing costs for petroleum refiners.
The DOE Petroleum Refining Industries of the Future program is currently not funding any
active projects and has no solicitations planned for the near future. ITP funding has been
redirected to areas that are less inclined to attract private investment without federal leadership.
However, as a former participant in the program, the U.S. petroleum refining industry set a
vision and roadmap to define its R&D priorities, and developed a portfolio of energy efficiency
related projects. Currently, the petroleum refining industry is pursuing its own R&D portfolio.
Many of the collaborative R&D projects completed through its Industry of the Future
partnership continue to yield benefits to the industry. In addition, many of the publications, tip
sheets, software tools, and other resources developed through the partnership are in active use at
U.S. refineries (DOE 20091). More information can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy. gov/industry/petroleum_refming/index. html.
Steel
The steel industry accounts for 2-3% of total U.S. energy consumption. Steel is produced via
two different routes, both of which are energy-intensive: using blast furnaces or electric arc
furnaces. Integrated or blast furnace facilities are ore-based, and electric arc furnace facilities
are primarily scrap-based. Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Michigan have the highest
concentration of steel industry facilities (EIA 2009d). About half of steel industry facilities
currently conduct energy-management activities (DOE 2009n).
The U.S. iron and steel industry relies heavily on coal and natural gas for fuel. In 1998 the
industry used approximately 7% of all U.S. manufacturing energy use and 2% of domestic
energy use. The industry has made significant improvements in energy efficiency, reducing
energy use per unit of output by over 45% since 1975. Additionally, steel is now the most
recycled material in North America, with an overall recycling rate of 67% (DOE 2009n).
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The steel industry has created a vision and roadmap for energy efficiency research and
development, in partnership with DOE. Technologies that improve the efficiency of furnaces
and other process heating systems have significant potential to reduce overall steel industry
energy use. The three major R&D focus areas are:
• Cokeless Ironmaking
• Next Generation Steelmaking
• Advanced Process Development
More information on these research areas, as well as the steel industry's energy analysis and
related publications, can be found at: http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/steel/index.html.
5.8.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
Industrial Technologies Program (ITP)
The DOE Industrial Technologies Program (ITP) supports public/private partnerships to
improve industrial energy efficiency and environmental performance. The program has four
major elements: Energy Intensive Industries R&D, Crosscutting Technologies R&D, Best
Practices, and Industrial Assessment Centers.
Energy Intensive Industries
Energy Intensive Industries supports research partnerships to reduce energy consumption for
the country's most energy-intensive industries: aluminum, chemicals, forest products, glass,
metal casting, mining, petroleum refining, and steel. These industries participate in the DOE
Industries of the Future process, which helps an entire industry articulate its long-term goals
and publish them in a unified vision for the future. To achieve that vision, industry leaders
jointly define detailed R&D agendas known as roadmaps. Roadmaps are used to identify
opportunities for industry collaboration and to guide Federal R&D spending. ITP relies on
roadmap-defmed priorities to target cost-shared solicitations and guide development of an R&D
portfolio that yields results in the near-, mid-, and long-term.
As part of the Energy Intensive Industries area, ITP regularly conducts energy analyses for each
of the eight Industries of the Future to identify energy savings opportunities. These analyses
include Energy and Environmental Profiles, as well as Energy Footprints, for each industry.
Energy Footprints map the flow of energy supply, demand, and losses in U.S. manufacturing
industries. Identifying the sources and end uses of energy helps to pinpoint areas of energy-
saving opportunities, and provides a baseline to calculate the benefits of improving energy
efficiency. Although actual energy use in a plant will vary, each footprint represents an average
picture of energy use for each industry and illustrates:
• The portion of energy that is purchased from utilities, generated onsite, and transported to
the local grid.
Where and how energy is used within a typical plant.
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• Where energy is lost due to inefficiencies, both inside and outside the plant. Energy losses
shown on the footprints indicate immediate opportunities to improve efficiency and lower
energy consumption by implementing best energy management practices, improved energy
systems, and new technology. Links to the energy analyses pages for each industry are:
o Aluminum: http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/aluminum/analysis.html
o Chemicals: http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industrv/chemicals/analysis.html
o Forest products: http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/forest/analysis.html
o Glass: http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/glass/analvsis.html
o Metal Casting:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industrv/metalcasting/analysis.html
o Mining: http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/mining/analysis.html
o Petroleum Refining:
http://wwwl.eere. energy. gov/industry/petroleum_refming/analysis. html
o Steel: http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/steel/analvsis.html.
Crosscutting Technologies
IIP conducts R&D to improve efficiency of technologies that are common to many industrial
processes and can benefit multiple industries. Because of the widespread application of these
crosscutting systems, even small improvements in their efficiency can yield large energy savings.
In addition to research, ITP provides cost-shared funding for related projects identified as
priorities by specific industries. DOE is currently conducting research on the following
crosscutting technologies:
Combustion. U.S. industries rely on combustion systems for heat and steam generation.
Combustion systems account for nearly three-quarters of all energy used in U.S. manufacturing.
Combustion components and systems offer opportunities for significant energy and emissions
savings in almost every industry (Figure 5-8) (DOE 2009d).
Figure 5-8
Mining
Aluminum
Metal Casting
Glass
Chemical
Steel
Forest Products
Petroleum Refining
Combustion as % of Total Energy Used
• Steam BHeat
Source: (DOE 2009).
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Manufacturers and users of burners, boilers, furnaces, and other process heating equipment
partnered with DOE to create a vision and roadmap for improving the energy efficiency of
combustion technology, and many subsequent demonstration projects have achieved substantial
energy savings. More information on these projects can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy. gov/industry/combusti on/index.html.
Distributed Energy
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) involves the sequential process of producing and utilizing
electricity and thermal energy from a single fuel. CHP is widely recognized to save energy and
costs, while reducing carbon dioxide and other pollutants. CHP is a realistic, near-term option for
large energy efficiency improvements and significant CC>2 reductions.
While CHP is a well-established practice in large industrial processes with sizable electricity and
thermal loads, DOE analyses indicate a largely untapped potential exists for applications less
than 50 megawatts in electrical demand. Increased CHP deployment could help contribute to a
25% reduction in U.S. industrial energy intensity by 2017 and an 18% reduction in U.S. carbon
intensity by 2012 (DOE 2009e).
CHP technology uses several distinct names (e.g., cogeneration, Combined Cooling, Heating and
Power (CCHP), Building Combined Heat and Power (BCHP), Distributed Energy Resources
(DER), and Integrated Energy Systems (IES)). CHP and cogeneration are basically the same
thing, although cogeneration has been identified with district heating and large utility owned
power plants or industrial power production and plant operation. CHP is generally a smaller
scale, privately owned operation. CCHP stresses that combined cooling, heating, and power
production occur, whereas combined heating and power in CHP may or may not use the
recovered heat for cooling purposes. BCHP is just CHP applied to a building as opposed to a
district heating system or industrial process. DER is distributed energy resources, the use of
small generating facilities distributed close to the consumers either with or without heat
recovery. IES is an integrated energy system that recovers waste heat from on-site or near-site
power generation to provide hot water, steam, heating, cooling, or dehumidifying air for
buildings (DOE 2009e).
DOE provides support for conducting CHP market assessments, including market analyses of
CHP potential in supermarkets, restaurants, health care facilities, industrial sites, hotels and
motels, and new commercial and institutional buildings and facilities used for infrastructure
resiliency. Many of these assessments have led to the installation of CHP components and
systems in hospitals, schools, university campuses, commercial and industrial sites, and at
military installations, wastewater treatment facilities, office buildings, and farms.
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2008 report on CHP, Combined Heat and Power: Effective
Energy Solutions for a Sustainable Future, summarizes the latest technological advances. The
report and more information on CHP can be found at:
http: //www 1. eere. energy. gov/industry/di stributedenergy/index. html.
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Energy Intensive Processes
This crosscutting research area focuses on the four top energy consuming technology platforms:
industrial reactions and separation, high-temperature processing, waste heat minimization and
recovery, and sustainable manufacturing. Figure 5-9 shows the four technology platforms and
their relationship with all industrial sectors (ranked by fuel and electricity use) (DOE 2009f).
Figure 5-9
-a
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i i
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Focus areas for industrial reactions and separations include advanced water removal, gas
separations, hybrid distillation, and energy-intensive conversions. High-temperature processing
focuses on the development of new materials, material processing, and process monitoring
technologies that increase energy efficiency during high-temperature processing. Waste heat
minimization and recovery reduces fuel demands of steam boilers and furnaces by utilizing
waste heat recovery. Sustainable manufacturing advances materials and technologies to improve
yields per unit energy cost for multiple elements of the manufacturing chain. More information
on these platforms can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy, gov/industry/intensiveprocesses/profile.html.
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Fuel and Feedstock Flexibility
U.S. industry is principally dependent on natural gas as a single major source of fuel or
feedstock. ITP's Fuel and Feedstock Flexibility subprogram focuses on various methods to
reduce natural gas use in industrial applications, including research to develop fuel flexible
hardware, and demonstration of fuel flexible technologies. IIP aims to accelerate the market
adoption of emerging technology options for industry, such as the utilization of gasified fuels,
landfill gas, and electro-technologies (DOE 2009h). More information can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/fuelflexibility/index.html.
Industrial Materials for the Future
New and advanced materials are key crosscutting technologies necessary for efficiency
improvements in processes using furnaces, boilers, gasifiers, steam systems, recuperators and
heat exchangers. This IIP activity conducts R&D to develop and test new advanced industrial
materials and material processing methods.
Material properties play a central role in determining the operating parameters and efficiencies of
almost all industrial processes. However, materials also cause many planned and unplanned
process interruptions in which productivity and energy are lost, and safety is compromised.
Operating efficiency is also lost as materials corrode, wear, foul or otherwise degrade. Improved
materials that perform better under corrosive, high-temperature and high-pressure conditions will
enable new technologies to save more energy. In addition, longer lifetime saves the energy and
raw materials needed to produce and install replacement materials (DOE 2005b). Detailed
information on technological developments in industrial materials can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy, gov/industry/imf/index. html.
Nanomanufacturing
Nanotechnology is the purposeful engineering of matter at the nano-scale, which ranges from 1
to 100 nanometers. A typical human hair is around 80,000 nanometers wide (DOE 2008).
Nanomanufacturing is the cost-competitive, large-scale production of uniform nanomaterials and
the integration of these nanomaterials in intermediate and finished products while maintaining
their unique properties. Nanotechnology can improve the energy efficiency and specificity of
chemical reactions, thereby increasing productivity. It can produce new and improved materials
(e.g., lighter, stronger, harder, more ductile, and high-temperature resistant) that provide superior
life-cycle benefits. Initial R&D efforts are focusing on:
Nanocoatings and thin-films for heat, wear, corrosion, and scratch resistance;
• Nanocatalysts for applications in chemical, petroleum, pulp and paper, and energy
production;
Membranes and sorbents for more energy-efficient industrial separations; and
Nanocomposites for industrial and automotive applications (DOE 2009k).
More information on nanomanufacturing can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industrv/nanomanufacturing/index.html.
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Sensors and automation
Sensor and automation technologies are vital, yet often unseen, components of virtually every
industrial process. Acting as part of a plant's "nervous system," these technologies - along with
next generation controls, information processing, robotics, and wireless technology - improve
process efficiency. IIP is working with industry to develop advanced sensor and automation
technologies that can be applied across industries. Industry specific information on
commercialized and emerging technologies can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/sensors automation/index.html.
Best Practices
The Best Practices program area implements and disseminates best practices in energy
management. The program provides technical assistance to help industries identify energy
savings opportunities in manufacturing plants. Best Practices offers a range of software tools
and databases for plant self-assessment of steam, compressed air, motor, and process heating
systems. The Quick Energy Profiler is an online software tool that helps industrial plant
personnel quickly diagnose how energy is being used at their plant and find the largest
opportunities to save energy and money. The Integrated Tool Suite is another software tool to
help plants find the best opportunities to reduce energy use in major energy-consuming systems
(DOE 2009b). Other software tools offered by Best Practices include:
AIRMaster+ LogTool
. AIRMaster+ Version
Chilled Water System Analysis Tool (CWSAT)
Combined Heat and Power Application Tool (CHP)
• Fan System Assessment Tool (FSAT)
• MotorMaster+
• MotorMaster+ International
• NOx and Energy Assessment Tool (NxEAT)
• Plant Energy Profiler for the Chemical Industry (ChemPEP Tool)
(http://www.fedcenter.gov/Bookmarks/index.cfm?id=1885&pge_prg_id=8595&pge_id=18
57)
. Process Heating Assessment and Survey Tool (PHAST) Version 2.0
Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT) 2008
• Steam System Tool Suite
Links to these tools can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html. The program also provides a
library of publications covering the various aspects of energy management across the eight
Industries of the Future.
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Industrial Assessment Centers
The Industrial Assessment Centers program enables eligible small and medium-sized
manufacturers to have comprehensive industrial assessments performed at no cost to the
manufacturer. These assessments examine an industrial plant's site, its facilities, services and
manufacturing operations to identify energy efficiency improvements, waste minimization and
pollution prevention, and productivity improvement. Assessments are performed by local teams
of engineering faculty and students from the centers, which are located at 26 universities around
the country (DOE 2009i). More information can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy, gov/industry/bestpractices/iacs.html.
EPA Sector Notebooks
The Sector Notebook series is a unique set of profiles containing information for specific
industries and governments. Unlike other resource materials, which are organized by air, water,
and land pollutants, the Notebooks provide a holistic approach by integrating processes,
applicable regulations and other relevant environmental information. There are 33 Industry
Sector Notebooks and 3 Government Series that provide government officials with information
they need to comply with the environmental regulations that apply to their activities. Many of
them may provide useful information for the NEPA reviewer. More information about the
Sector Notebooks can be found in the Sector Notebook Factsheet located at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/sector-
notebooks-factsheet.pdf. The notebooks can be accessed at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/.
5.8.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
For federal actions related to industrial facilities, Reviewers should encourage federal agencies to
comply with Energy Policy Act of 2005 and E.O. 13423-Strengthening Federal Environmental,
Energy, and Transportation Management as appropriate. The Act requires annual two percent
reductions in energy use at federal agency buildings (including industrial and laboratory
facilities) through 2015, with DOE to complete a review of the government's performance in
response to this requirement by the end of 2014 and recommend additional measures for 2016
through 2025. E.O. 13423 strengthens this requirement by 50% to compel the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions by three percent annually by 2015 or by 30 percent by the end of 2015
(using 2003 as the baseline). Existing facilities should provide documentation of their annual
energy reduction, and new facilities should include a plan for meeting the federal requirement.
The Act also promotes the use of voluntary agreements between industrial energy users and
federal agencies to reduce energy intensity (defined as "the primary energy consumed for each
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unit of physical output in an industrial process" (P.L. 109-58, Sec. 106(a)). The agreements are
to have as a goal the reduction of energy intensity by at least 2.5 percent each year from 2007
through 2016. Existing and new facilities should consider entering a voluntary agreement to
reduce energy efficiency, which includes eligibility for grants and technical assistance.
For new industrial facilities, energy efficient facility siting, construction, and building design
should be documented within the EIS. These topics are covered in Sections 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4,
including federal energy efficiency requirements for buildings. Section 5.4 also discusses energy
efficiency associated with water use, often a substantial factor in an industrial facility's energy
use. Section 5.9, Federal Vehicle Fleets, may also have relevant information for industrial
facilities that transport raw materials into, and dispose of waste outside the facility. Minimizing
transportation energy use is another significant factor in an industrial facility's overall energy
use.
For operation of industrial facilities, opportunities exist to reduce energy use in both process-
specific operations and cross-cutting energy systems. As discussed above, DOE provides
extensive information on improving energy efficiency for the eight most energy-intensive U.S.
industries: aluminum, chemicals, forest products, glass, metal casting, mining, petroleum
refining, and steel. Many of the technological advances in the links provided above are market
ready and/or already in use. Reviewers should encourage facilities to incorporate industry-
specific advanced technology as feasible and practicable.
In addition, the DOE ITP has identified combustion, distributed energy, energy intensive
processes, fuel and feedstock flexibility, industrial materials of the future, nanomanufacturing,
sensors and automation as cross-cutting technologies that improve energy efficiency across
industries. Reviewers may want to ask whether the industrial facility has utilized appropriate
ITP software tools described above to identify energy savings opportunities.
Reviewers may want to become familiar with the Bonneville Power Administration's Industrial
Audit Guidebook: http://www.bpa.gOv/energy/n/Projects/industrial/pdf/audit guide.pdf The
guidebook was created for performing walk through energy audits of industrial facilities. Its
purpose is to introduce the user, both technical and non-technical, to common opportunities that
may be found in an industrial facility to reduce electrical energy consumption. Topics include:
Lighting Systems • Material Handling Systems
Motors, Belts and Drives • Hydraulic Systems
Fans and Pumps • Injection Molding or Extrusion
Compressed Air systems • Veneer Dryers
Steam Systems • Kiln Drying
Refrigeration Systems • Energy Management
Each topic has a series of questions about the efficiency level of the specific system, as well as
general notes and useful tips on each topic.
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Section 5.8 References
Bonneville Power Administration. Industrial Audit Guidebook. Online.
http://www.bpa.gOv/energv/n/Projects/industrial/pdf/audit guide.pdf. Accessed March
2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2009a. Chemical Industry Analysis Brief. Online.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/iab98/chemicals/index.html. Accessed March 2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2009b. Metalcasting Industry Analysis Brief. Online.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/iab/metalcasting/ Accessed March 2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2009c. Petroleum Refining Industry Analysis Brief.
Online, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/iab/petroleum/index.html Accessed March
2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2009d. Steel Industry Analysis Brief. Online.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/mecs/iab98/steel/ Accessed March 2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2007. What are the major sources and users of energy in the
United States? Online.
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/energy in brief/major energy sources and users.cfm Accessed
November 2009.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. December 1, 2008. Combined Heat and Power: Effective
Energy Solutions for a Sustainable Future. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/distributedenergy/pdfs/chp_report_12-08.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009a. Aluminum Industry of the Future. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/aluminum/ Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009b. Best Practices Software Tools. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/bestpractices/software.html. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009c. Chemicals Industry of the Future. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/chemicals/index.html
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009d. Combustion. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/combustion/index.html. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009e. Distributed Energy. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industrv/distributedenergv/index.html. Accessed March 2009.
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U.S Department of Energy. 2009f. Energy Intensive Processes. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/intensiveprocesses/profile.html. Accessed March
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009g. Forest Products Industry of the Future. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/forest/index.html Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009h. Fuel and Feedstock Flexibility. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/fuelflexibility/index.html. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009L Industrial Assessment Centers. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/iacs.html. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009J. Metal Casting Industry of the Future. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/metalcasting/index.html Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009k. Nanotechnology. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/nanomanufacturing/index.html. Accessed March
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 20091. Petroleum Refining Industry Profile. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/petroleum refining/profile.html. Accessed March
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009m. Program Areas of the Industrial Technologies Program:
Energy Loss and Use Footprints. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/program_areas/footprints.html Accessed December
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009n. Steel Industry Profile. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/steel/profile.html. Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2008. Ncmomanufacturing. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/nanomanufacturing/pdfs/nano 4pager_10-08.pdf.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. July 2006. Forest Products Industry Technology Roadmap. Online.
http://www.agenda2020.org/PDF/FPI Roadmap%20Final Aug2006.pdf. Accessed March
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. February 2005a. Aluminum: Industry of the Future. FY2004 Annual
Report. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/aluminum/pdfs/aluminum_fy2004.pdf Accessed
March 2009.
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U.S. Department of Energy. 2005b. Industrial Materials For the Future: 2004 Fiscal Year
Annual Report. Online, http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/imf/pdfs/imf fy2004.pdf.
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2005c. Metal Casting Industry of the Future: FY 2004 Annual
Report. Online, http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/about/pdfs/metalcasting fy2004.pdf
Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2005d. Mining Industry of the Future: FY 2004 Annual Report.
Online, http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/mining/pdfs/mining fy2004.pdf Accessed
March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. August 2003. Strategic Plan: Industrial Technologies Program.
Online. http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/about/pdfs/strategic_plan.pdf Accessed
March 2009.
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5.9 Federal Vehicle Fleets
5.9.a Summary
The federal vehicle fleet consists of more than 650,000 vehicles, approximately 20 percent of
which are alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) (FEMP 2009). Technological advances in
transportation equipment, vehicle design, and alternative fuels offer significant energy efficiency
improvements that can be applied to federal vehicle fleets.
Vehicles are categorized and regulated based on weight. Federal agencies acquire light-duty
vehicles, medium-duty vehicles and heavy-duty vehicles. Typically medium-duty vehicles are a
subset of heavy-duty vehicles. Federal agencies are subject to vehicle acquisition requirements
that define the light-duty vehicles and medium-duty passenger vehicles they can acquire, and
fuel use requirements.
EPAct 1992, as amended by EISA, requires that federal agencies acquire low GHG-emitting
light-duty and medium duty passenger vehicles and alternative fuel vehicles as 75% of their
light-duty vehicle acquisitions. The requirement to purchase only low GHG-emitting vehicles
applies to all vehicle acquisitions. The AFV requirement applies to fleets. The Energy Policy
Act of 2005 requires that AFVs only be operated with alternative fuel. Agencies must receive a
fuel waiver from DOE to operate an AFV with gasoline. Executive Order 13423 and section 142
of EPAct 1992 require that federal agencies increase their alternative fuel consumption 10%
from the previous year, reduce their petroleum consumption 2% per year, and acquire plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles when commercially available. Section 246 of EISA, requires that federal
agencies install renewable fuel pumps at all fleet refueling centers.
Under EISA 2007 section 141, EPA is required to provide guidance to federal fleets for the
acquisition of low GHG-emitting vehicles. EPA's definition of a low GHG-emitting vehicle is
technology and fuel neutral. All vehicles are weighted equally. EPA believes the acquisition of
low GHG-emitting vehicles will expedite achievement of an agency's petroleum consumption
reduction requirement and reduce an agency's GHG emissions.
EO 13514 establishes a percentage reduction target for agency-wide reductions of GHG
emissions in absolute terms by fiscal year 2020. In establishing the target, each agency shall
consider reducing the use of fossil fuels by:
• using low greenhouse gas emitting vehicles including alternative fuel vehicles;
• optimizing the number of vehicles in the agency fleet; and
• reducing, if the agency operates a fleet of at least 20 motor vehicles, the agency fleet's
total consumption of petroleum products by a minimum of 2 percent annually through the
end of fiscal year 2020, relative to a baseline of fiscal year 2005.
In fiscal year 2005, U.S. government spent approximately $708.2 million for gasoline, $377.2
million for diesel fuel, and $0.6 million for propane to operate governmental surface vehicles.
Utilizing advanced fuel and vehicle technology to gradually improve the energy efficiency of
federal fleets can reduce energy consumption and costs for fuels.
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Light duty vehicles (passenger cars, sport utility vehicles, vans and pick-up trucks with a gross
vehicle weight of less than 8,500 pounds) consume approximately 40% of all U.S. oil
consumption. These same vehicles account for approximately 20% of total U.S. emissions of
carbon dioxide (US EPA 2008).
Since 1975, nationwide fuel efficiency has seen four basic trends: a rapid increase from 1975
through the early 1980s as a reaction to the oil shortages of the 1970s; a slower increase until
reaching peak fuel efficiency in 1987; a gradual decline from 1987 to 2004 (the year in which the
U.S. had the lowest fuel economy standard since 1980), and a steady increase beginning in 2005
(US EPA 2008).
For model year 2008, passenger cars are projected to average 24.1 mpg and light trucks are
estimated to average 18.1 mpg - representing a fleet wide light-duty fuel economy adjusted
average of 20.8 mpg. Since 2004, light truck fuel economy has increased 1.4 mpg, while car fuel
economy has increased by 1.0 mpg. Overall fuel efficiency has increased approximately 1.8%
since 2004, from 19.3 mpg to 20.8 mpg. Changes in vehicle weight and advanced transmission
and engine design, along with increases in use of front-wheel drive, variable valve timing and
cylinder deactivation, have all contributed to a general increase in fuel efficiency since 2004 (US
EPA 2008).
Fleet-wide fuel economy standards are required under the Energy Policy Act of 1975. The
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), in cooperation with EPA,
promulgates such standards and implements the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
program. CAFE is the sales weighted average fuel economy, expressed in miles per gallon
(mpg), of a manufacturer's fleet of passenger cars or light trucks with a gross vehicle weight
rating (GVWR) of 8,500 Ibs. or less, manufactured for sale in the United States, for any given
model year. A passenger car CAFE standard of 27.5 mpg has been in effect since model year
1990. Light-duty truck CAFE standards have recently evolved from a standard of 21.0 mpg for
model year 2005, to 21.6 mpg for model year 2006, to 22.2 mpg for model year 2007, and to
22.5 mpg for model year 2008 (US EPA 2008).
EPA and DOT are working together on light-duty vehicle GHG/fuel economy standards that will
increase average fuel economy and establish, for the first time, a GHG-emission standard for
passenger vehicles. Under EISA 2007, a CAFE goal has been set of 35 mpg for 2020 - a fuel
economy increase of 40%. To reach this goal, manufacture of fuel-efficient vehicles will need to
increase substantially.
Alternative Fuels
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a clean-burning, renewable substitute for petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is a liquid fuel
made up of fatty acid alkyl esters, fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), or long-chain mono alkyl
esters. It is produced from renewable sources such as new and used vegetable oils and animal
fats and is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleum-based diesel fuel. It is nontoxic and
biodegradable. Biodiesel can be produced domestically and used in conventional diesel engines,
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directly substituting for or extending supplies of traditional petroleum diesel. It also has an
excellent energy balance: biodiesel contains 3.2 times the amount of energy it takes to produce it
(DOE 2009a). Compared with using petroleum diesel, using biodiesel in a conventional diesel
engine substantially reduces emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO),
sulfates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and
particulate matter (PM). The reductions increase as the amount of biodiesel blended into diesel
fuel increases. Using biodiesel also reduces greenhouse gas emissions because carbon dioxide
released from biodiesel combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide sequestered while growing
the soybeans or other feedstock. Biodiesel is nontoxic, so it causes far less damage than
petroleum diesel if spilled or otherwise released to the environment. It is also safer than
petroleum diesel because it is less combustible (DOE 2009a). There are uncertainties over the
average effect the use of biodiesel has on NOx emissions. Some studies have shown an increase
in NOx emissions with biodiesel use, but insufficient data exists for a definite conclusion (NREL
2005).
Biodiesel production in the U.S. has risen dramatically since 2001 (Table 5-6). Concurrently, the
number of biodiesel fueling stations has risen from 16 in year 2001 to approximately 645 in
2008. As a direct replacement for conventional petroleum based diesel, biodiesel has the
potential to have a dramatic impact on a reduction in the dependency on foreign oil sources, as
well as some environmental benefits (DOE 2009a).
Year
Table 5-7
J.S. Biodiesel Productioi
Thousand
Gallons
Thousand
GGEs
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
8,568
10,500
18,060
27,972
90,804
250,000
491,000
8,823
10,813
18,598
28,806
93,510
257,451
505,634
GGE = gallon of gasoline equivalent
Source: (EIA 2008).
Electricity
Electricity can be used to power electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (EVs). EVs store
electricity in an energy storage device, such as a battery. The electricity powers the vehicle's
wheels via an electric motor. The only emissions that can be attributed to electricity as a vehicle
fuel are those generated in the electricity production process. Home recharging of EVs is as
simple as plugging them into an electric outlet. Electricity fueling costs for electric vehicles are
reasonable compared to gasoline, especially if consumers take advantage of off-peak rates.
However, electricity costs vary across the U.S. depending on location, type of generation, and
time of use. Additionally, EVs have limited energy storage capacity, which must be replenished
by plugging into an electrical source (DOE 2009b).
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Use of electricity as a transportation fuel has some environmental and operation drawbacks.
While electric vehicles themselves may not produce carbon-based emissions, increased electric
generation and its inherent emissions would be needed to supply the fuel. Electric batteries used
to store energy in a vehicle must be manufactured and will ultimately need to be disposed, and
these batteries often contain high levels of toxic materials which poses a disposal issue. When a
federal agency is acquiring electric vehicles, it should consider two key factors: the Ev's rate of
energy consumption, typically measured in kWh/mi, and the emissions from the generation of
the electricity that is used to charge the Ev's batteries.
Use of electricity as a transportation fuel has increased from approximately 1 million gasoline
gallon equivalents in 1997 to about 5.1 million gasoline gallon equivalents, with a peak usage of
7.3 million gasoline gallon equivalents in 2002. Electric fueling stations have increased from 188
in 1995 to around 430 today. While this is a reduction in available stations since the early 2000s,
much of this reduction is due to an increase in travel range from technological advancements in
battery performance (DOE 2009b).
Ethcmol
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, is a clear, colorless liquid that can be
produced from various plant materials, which collectively are called "biomass." Today, nearly
half of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol in a low-level blend to oxygenate the fuel and reduce air
pollution. E85, which is typically 83% ethanol, is increasingly becoming available and is an
alternative fuel that can be used in "flexible fuel" vehicles. Studies have estimated that ethanol
and other biofuels could replace 30% or more of U.S. gasoline demand by 2030. Biomass for
ethanol production can be generated from starch and sugar based plants (such as corn or sugar
cane) or from cellulosic feedstocks which include certain types of grass or woody plants or crop
or wood residues. Ethanol is derived from feedstocks primarily via fermentation. Cellulosic
feedstocks are also increasingly being converted to ethanol using heat and chemicals in a process
called thermochemical conversion. Today, most ethanol in the U.S. is derived from corn grain,
which has experienced increased production and substantial use in ethanol over the last several
years (DOE 2009c).
Ethanol is a high-octane fuel, which increases engine performance. Low-level blends of ethanol,
such as E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline), generally have a higher octane rating than unleaded
gasoline. Low-octane gasoline can be blended with 10% ethanol to attain the standard 87 octane
requirement. Ethanol is the main component in E85, a high-level blend of 83% ethanol and
gasoline. Ethanol is a renewable, largely domestic transportation fuel which helps reduce
imported oil dependence and greenhouse gas emissions. The carbon dioxide released when
ethanol is burned is balanced by the carbon dioxide captured when the crops are grown to make
ethanol. According to Argonne National Laboratory, on a life-cycle analysis basis, corn-based
ethanol production and use reduces greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) by up to 52% compared to
gasoline production and use (DOE 2009c).
Ethanol use and availability has increased significantly since around 2004 (Table 5-7 and 5-8).
Domestic consumption of ethanol has increased 445% between 1997 and 2007. In 1997, E85
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ethanol fuel was available at 71 fueling stations in the U.S. mostly confined to the midwest. In
2008, E85 fuel was available at 1,644 stations across the country (DOE 2009c).
Table 5-8
Production and Corn
[million bushels)
Production
Used for Ethanol
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
10,051
7,400
9,233
9,207
9,759
9,431
9,915
9,503
8,967
10,089
11,807
11,114
10,535
13,074
533
396
429
481
526
566
628
706
996
1,168
1,323
1,603
2,117
3,200
Source: Corn Production: USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service.
Corn Used for Ethanol: USDA Economic Research Service
Table 5-9
>. Total Production and Consumption of Fuel Ethanol (million galloi
Net Increase through
Imports and Stock
Year Production Change '*' Consumption
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
1,289
1,358
973
1,288
1,405
1,465
1,622
1,765
2,140
2,804
3,404
3,904
4,884
6,485
0
25
18
-33
-17
-22
31
-24
-67
22
148
154
597
361
1,289
1,383
992
1,256
1,388
1,443
1,653
1,741
2,073
2,826
3,552
4,059
5,481
6,846
Source: EIA Annual Energy Review, Table 10.3 (http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/renew.html)
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Notes:
[1] Negative numbers indicate decrease, assumed to be zero for years where values not given.
2007 numbers are preliminary.
Ethanol consumption values are close to, but sometimes less than the EIA aggregates of
ethanol used in blends + ethanol used in E85.
Environmental issues with ethanol center around several potential problems. First, pure ethanol
has less energy by volume, about 34% less energy, than conventional gasoline, meaning that
overall more ethanol is needed than conventional gasoline. Secondly, increased use of cropland
to support ethanol production would increase water consumption for irrigation, decrease land
available for food stocks and potentially raise food production costs worldwide. Finally,
increased ethanol production has resulted in increased conversion of rainforest to agriculture.
Therefore, much effort and research is being devoted to use of cellulosic feedstocks (DOE
2009c).
Hydrogen
The interest in hydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel stems from its clean-burning
qualities, its potential for domestic production, and the fuel cell vehicle's potential for high
efficiency (two to three times more efficient than gasoline vehicles). Currently, steam reforming
of methane (natural gas) accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States.
Hydrogen can be produced domestically from resources such as natural gas, coal, solar energy,
wind, biomass, and nuclear energy, with the potential for near-zero greenhouse gas emissions.
Because the transportation sector accounts for about one third of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions,
which contribute to climate change, using these sources to produce hydrogen for transportation
can slash greenhouse gas emissions. Once produced, hydrogen generates power without exhaust
emissions in fuel cells. It holds promise for economic growth in both the stationary and
transportation energy sectors (DOE 2009d).
Utilization of hydrogen in alternative fuel vehicles has increased from essentially zero to 41,000
gasoline gallon equivalents in 2006 (DOE 2009d). According to the National Hydrogen
Association, hydrogen fuel is currently available at 61 fuel stations in the U.S., with
approximately 45% of those sites in California (NHA 2009). A national network of 284
hydrogen refueling stations is proposed to be in place by 2018 when hydrogen vehicles are
projected to be commercially available in the U.S. in substantial numbers (NREL 2006).
Natural Gas
Natural gas is a domestically available, inherently clean-burning fuel, mostly extracted from gas
and oil wells. Natural gas has a high octane rating and excellent properties for spark-ignited
internal combustion engines. It is non-toxic, non-corrosive, and non-carcinogenic. It generally
presents a reduced threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater in comparison to traditional fuel
sources, although methane emissions from gas drilling have been associated with contaminated
groundwater, drinking water and methane releases inside buildings and homes. Natural gas
accounts for approximately one quarter of the energy used in the United States. Of this, about
one third goes to residential and commercial uses, one third to industrial uses, and one third to
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electric power production. Only about one tenth of one percent is currently used for
transportation fuel (DOE 2009e).
Natural gas vehicle and infrastructure development can facilitate the transition to hydrogen-fuel
cell technology. With the highest hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of any energy source, natural gas is
an efficient source of hydrogen—in fact, it is the number one source of commercial hydrogen
used in the United States. The vast U.S. network of natural gas transmission lines offers the
potential for convenient transportation of natural gas to future refueling stations that reform
hydrogen from the gas (DOE 2009e).
Natural gas, as either compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) is the second
most utilized alternative fuel today, behind only liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Together, CNG
and LNG have increased in utilization by 1,000 %, from 17,575,000 gasoline gallon equivalents
in 1992 to 195,485,000 gasoline gallon equivalents in 2006. CNG is the most popular form of
natural gas fuel, available at over 750 fueling stations across the country (DOE 2009e).
Historically, LNG has been less utilized in the United States; between 1% and 3% of U.S.
demand for natural gas was met by LNG from 2004-2009. However, U.S. LNG import capacity
is expanding and is expected to be more than six times greater in 2009 than it was at the
beginning of the decade. Growth in LNG imports remains uneven, due to a high sensitivity to
the volatile prices of the natural gas market (EIA 2009).
Propane
Propane, or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is the most prevalent alternative transportation fuel
in use today. Propane is produced as a by-product of natural gas processing and crude oil
refining and accounts for about 2% of the energy used in the United States. Propane vehicle
technology is well established, and propane fueling stations are widely distributed with more
than 2,000 locations in the U.S. Propane has one of the highest energy densities of all alternative
fuels, so propane vehicles go farther on a tank of fuel in comparison to gasoline vehicles. It is
also an exceptionally safe fuel, as propane tanks are 20 times more puncture resistant than
gasoline tanks, and propane has the lowest flammability range of all alternative fuels. LPG's
generally have cleaner combustion properties. Propane engines can be calibrated to chose
between pollutants, making the engine additionally useful in achieving pollution-reduction
targets. A rich calibration reduces NOX at the expense of increasing CO and non-methane
hydrocarbons and a lean calibration does just the opposite (DOE 2009f).
Ultra-low sulfur diesel
Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is classified as diesel fuel containing 15 parts per million (ppm)
or less in sulfur content. Most highway diesel fuel meets this requirement and it is mandated for
all diesel sold in the U.S. by 2010. Previously, typical highway diesel fuel contained up to 500
ppm of sulfur. Use of ULSD in light-heavy duty vehicles enables the use of catalytic converters
and paniculate traps routinely used in gasoline vehicles. These components help to reduce
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and particulate matter (PM), issues which were particularly
troublesome with previous diesel engine applications using standard diesel fuel. Additionally,
since diesel engines are typically 20-40% more efficient than comparable gasoline engines,
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increased use of ULSD (especially sources produced from non-petroleum and renewable
resources) will reduce dependence on foreign petroleum sources and may reduce emission of
greenhouse gases (DOE 2009g).
Passenger Vehicles
For all types of passenger vehicles, energy efficiency can be improved through proper
maintenance. Improperly inflated tires and poor wheel alignment adversely affect fuel
efficiency. Under-inflated tires increase the tires' rolling resistance, and increased rolling
resistance requires more fuel to move the vehicle.
As the U.S. moves toward the increased use of alternative fuels, vehicle applications continue to
mature. Since 1995, alternative fuel vehicles (not counting hybrid vehicles) in use in the U.S
have increased from 246,855 to 634,559 in year 2006. In fiscal year 2008, federal agencies
acquired 27,925 alternative fuel vehicles. Greater than 99% of these acquisitions were flexible
fuel vehicles capable of operating with E85. Electric/battery powered vehicles use the energy
stored in a battery (or series of batteries) for vehicle propulsion, resulting in vehicles with fast
acceleration but limited distance before recharge. Combustion-based and electrochemical
hydrogen vehicles are emerging along with compressed natural gas; both becoming viable fuel
energy alternatives. Vehicle technology is quickly emerging, and will be highly impacted by
consumer preferences, costs, and the availability of support infrastructure.
Electric
In an electric vehicle (EV), a battery or other energy storage device is used to store the electricity
that powers the motor. EV batteries must be replenished by plugging in the vehicle to a power
source. Some electric vehicles have onboard chargers; others plug into a charger located outside
the vehicle. Both types, however, use electricity that comes from the power grid. Although
electricity production may contribute to air pollution, EVs are considered zero-emission vehicles
because their motors produce no exhaust or emissions. No purely electric vehicles are currently
available from the major automotive manufactures (DOE 2009h).
Natural Gas
Dedicated natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are designed to run only on natural gas; some NGVs
have two separate fueling systems that enable the vehicle to use either natural gas or a
conventional fuel (gasoline or diesel). In general, dedicated NGVs demonstrate better
performance and have lower emissions than bi-fuel vehicles because their engines are optimized
to run on natural gas. In addition, the vehicle does not have to carry two types of fuel, thereby
increasing cargo capacity and reducing weight. For model year 2008, the only commercially
available natural gas light-duty vehicle is the Honda Civic GX. Prior to model year 2006, CNG
technology vehicles were also commercially available from GM and Ford, mainly large trucks
and vans (DOE 2009i).
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Propane
Today, most propane vehicles are conversions from gasoline vehicles. Dedicated propane
vehicles are designed to run only on propane; bi-fuel propane vehicles have two separate fueling
systems that enable the vehicle to use either propane or gasoline. No light-duty propane vehicles
are currently for sale in the U.S. Conversions are more popular in medium and heavy-duty
vehicle applications, especially for school buses (DOE 2009J).
Flex Fuel
Flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) are capable of operating on gasoline, E85 , or a mixture of both.
Flexible fuel vehicles contain one fueling system, which is made up of ethanol compatible
components and is set to accommodate the higher oxygen content of E85. Other than fueling
capability and ethanol compatible components, FFVs are similar to their conventional gasoline
counterparts. Their power, acceleration, payload, and cruise speed are comparable whether
running on ethanol or gasoline. The only noticeable difference: fuel economy is lower when
FFVs run on ethanol. Flex fuel vehicles are available from each of the major automotive
producers, but the technology is mostly used in larger passenger automobiles, SUVs and pick-up
trucks (DOE 2009k).
Hybrid
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) typically combine the internal combustion engine of a
conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle. The combination
offers low emissions, with the power, range, and convenient fueling of conventional (gasoline
and diesel) vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles have the potential to be two to three times more
fuel-efficient than conventional vehicles. For model year 2009, there are 28 vehicle types
available for sale which utilize hybrid technology. By model year 2010, there are plans for at
least two commercially available plug-in hybrid vehicles - the Chevrolet Volt and the Toyota
Prius - which have the potential to provide even greater fuel efficiency than current hybrid
vehicles (DOE 20091).
International surveys have shown that battery electric cars can meet the mobility needs of many
urban households, but they usually do not meet consumer expectations. There is a growing focus
on the role electric vehicles can play in sustainable transportation. There is a Hybrid and Electric
Vehicles Implementing Agreement (HEVIA) which outlines the following objectives:
• provide governments, local authorities, large users and industries with objective
information on electric and hybrid vehicles and their effects on energy efficiency and the
environment;
• collaborate on pre-competitive research projects and related topics and to investigate the
need for further research in promising areas; and
• collaborate with other transport-related Implementing Agreements and to collaborate with
specific groups or committees with an interest in transportation, vehicles, and fuels (IEA
2009).
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Fuel Cell
Fuel cell vehicles use a completely different propulsion system than conventional vehicles,
which can be two to three times more efficient. Unlike conventional vehicles, they produce no
harmful exhaust emissions—their only emission is water. Fuel cell vehicles are fueled with
hydrogen, which is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Like
electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles use electricity to power motors located near the vehicle's
wheels. In contrast to electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles produce their primary electricity using a
fuel cell. The fuel cell is powered by filling the fuel tank with hydrogen. Fuel cell vehicles can be
fueled with pure hydrogen gas stored directly on the vehicle or extracted from a secondary
fuel—such as methanol, ethanol, or natural gas—that carries hydrogen. These secondary fuels
must first be converted into hydrogen gas by an onboard device called a reformer. Fuel cell
vehicles fueled with pure hydrogen emit no pollutants, only water and heat. Vehicles that use
secondary fuels and a reformer produce only small amounts of air pollutants.
No fuel cell vehicles are commercially available to consumers today. They generally are only
available in limited numbers to select organizations with access to hydrogen refueling stations.
(DOE 2009m). Fuel cell vehicles will be listed in the DOE Alternative Fuels and Advanced
Vehicles Data Center (AFDC) Vehicle Make and Model Search when they become
commercially available (http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/progs/vehicles search.php).
Light Duty Ultra-low Sulfur Diesel
Light-duty diesel vehicles (passenger cars, light trucks and SUVs) are already available in the
U.S. with demand expected to double over the next 10 years. Vehicles using ULSD must meet
the same CAFE standards as gasoline-powered vehicles, but generally are more fuel efficient and
less polluting. Passenger car models from Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz and Volkswagen are
currently available, as are truck and SUV models from BMW, Chevrolet, Dodge, Ford, GMC,
Jeep, and Mercedes Benz (DOE 2009n).
Other Vehicles
There are a variety of strategies that EPA is promoting which addresses the sectors of freight,
construction, agriculture, ports, and school buses vehicles. The programs include switching to
cleaner fuels, retrofitting, repairing, re-powering, replacing equipment, and reducing idling. EPA
has promoted these changes by fostering partnerships, supporting innovative technologies, and
providing grants to accelerate clean diesel technologies.
Low-speed Vehicles
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) defines a low-speed vehicle
(LSV) as ".. .a 4-wheeled motor vehicle, other than a truck, whose speed attainable in 1.6 km (1
mile) is more than 32 kilometers per hour (20 miles per hour) and not more than 40 kilometers
per hour (25 miles per hour) on a paved level surface.
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LSVs (low speed vehicles) are alternative means of transportation that drastically reduce the
amount of petroleum used by a conventional vehicle fleet. LSVs are suitable on roads with speed
limits of less than 35 mph, which makes them an excellent application for on-site use. LSVs are
prohibited for use on federal highways and their use may also be restricted by state and local
laws.
Low-speed vehicles are commonly utility or recreational vehicles and typically powered by
electric, gasoline or propane. Examples include airport baggage vehicles, small passenger
vehicles, golf carts, and small utility trucks. These vehicles are increasingly becoming more
important components of federal fleets, in response to fleet rightsizing requirements of EO
13423, energy savings, and the flexibility these vehicles provide. With an annual requirement of
a 2 percent reduction in petroleum fuel use for federal agencies, the impact of expanded use of
low speed vehicles is a key strategic component for compliance.
As an example, the Air Force has completed an assessment of plug-in electric pick-up trucks.
These vehicles were compared to the performance of a conventional pick-up truck and evaluated
for doing various types of work. Advantages of using a plug-in electric vehicle truck include:
• Excellent for tasks that require short, moderately light load hauling.
• Serve well as personnel taxi vehicles and enable access to tight, closed-in areas.
• Batteries prove to hold their charge for an adequate time before needing to be recharged.
Disadvantages include:
• Not multi-passenger pick-ups.
• Limited off-road use.
• Does not accommodate heavy loads.
• Not suitable for 24 hour continual use due to battery recharging.
Medium -to-Heavy-duty Trucks
Medium-duty diesel vehicles serve a wide array of applications. With gross vehicle weight
ratings (GVWR) of about 8,500 to 26,000 pounds, they include everything from large pick-up
trucks and SUVs, to small school and transit buses, to cargo vans and "short-haul" trucks. They
are the backbone of many fleets and consume large quantities of fuel because of intensive use.
Heavy-duty diesel vehicles include long-haul trucks, large buses, and other vehicles that are
heavier than 26,000 Ib GVWR.
Currently as much as 80% of U.S. goods by value of shipment are transported by trucks;
therefore, it is critical to improve truck transport energy efficiency in the movement of goods and
for services. Within the U.S. transportation sector, truck energy use has been increasing at a
faster rate than that of automobiles. Since 1973, all of the increase in highway transportation fuel
use has been due to trucks, mainly because of their extensive use in trade and commerce. Heavy
truck fuel efficiency is influenced by several factors, including basic vehicle design, zone of
operation, driver technique, and weather factors. Engine power losses and road losses
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(aerodynamic, tire-rolling resistence, drive train friction, auxiliaries) account for approximately
94% of the energy used to sustain vehicle speed at 65 mph (DOE 2006).
Truck design and performance
The 21st Century Partnership Truck Partnership is a collaborative effort of the DOE, DOT, DoD,
EPA and fifteen industrial partners supporting the development and implementation of
commercially viable technologies to reduce dependence on imported oil and improve air quality.
Through this program, the federal government and the trucking industry are working together to
develop prototype production heavy-duty trucks and buses with improved fuel efficiency,
reduced emissions, enhanced safety and performance, and lower operating costs. More
information can be found in The 21st Century Truck Partnership Roadmap and Technical White
Papers (http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/program/21 ctp_roadmap_2007.pdf).
Focus areas of research and testing include:
• Diesel engine efficiency.
• Advanced cylinder combustion, emission recirculation, and emission after-treatment.
• Non-petroleum based diesel fuels.
• Lightweight materials with required strength and stability.
• Advanced heavy duty hybrid propulsion systems.
• Aerodynamic improvements.
• Auxiliary power management using electric, fuel cells, and waste heat recovery.
• Input into idle reduction technologies and policies.
• Advances in vehicle safety using video, improved crashworthiness, and improved braking,
stability, and collision-avoidance technologies.
Another area of research into truck design is the potential use of hydraulic transmissions for
heavy-duty highway trucks. Hydraulic transmissions are routinely used for low-speed, heavy
duty applications such as off-road earth moving equipment, but have not been used for highway
use applications. New technology development allows the use of SuperDrive hydraulic
transmissions for highway use which uncouple the transmission from engine speed and then use
an electronic control module to seek the lowest engine rpm for needed torque. Use of this
technology is anticipated to result in a 20-25% increase in fuel economy for heavy-duty trucks
and a 50-55% efficiency increase for light-to-medium duty vehicles. More information can be
found in An Innovative Approach to Improved Fuel Economy in Heavy-Duty Trucks, Project
Fact Sheet (http://www.e3energy.org/fleming.pdf).
EPA established the National Clean Diesel Campaign (NCDC) to promote diesel emission
reduction strategies. NCDC includes regulatory programs to address new diesel engines as well
as voluntary programs.
NCDC regulatory programs for new diesel engines include the following:
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• 2007 Heavy-Duty Highway Engine Rule: This rule will cut harmful pollutants from
highway engines by more than 90 percent, resulting in an annual reduction of 2.6 million
tons of NOX and 110,000 tons of PM when fully implemented.
• The Clean Air Non-road Diesel Rule: This rule will cut emissions from new construction
and agricultural and industrial engines by more than 90 percent.
Anti-idling measures
Historically, most idling activity occurs at truck stops, rail yards, and with government fleet
vehicles. Efforts to reduce idling have many benefits including:
• Reduction in the emission of harmful air pollutants.
• Reductions in fuel consumption, decreased maintenance costs, and longer engine life which
results in cost savings.
• Reductions in noise levels.
• Decreased dependency on fuel import.
Idling longer than ten seconds uses more fuel and produces more CO2 compared to restarting the
engine. Unnecessary idling wastes money and fuel and produces greenhouse gases that
contribute to climate change.
The GSA's Federal Acquisition Service offers the following facts and tips to help reduce fuel
consumption and idling.
• Idling an engine for more than 30 seconds uses 2/10 of a gallon of fuel.
• Idling a diesel engine does not warm it up.
• A diesel engine retains more heat longer when it is shut off instead of idling.
• Driving the vehicle is the only way to properly warm it up.
• Idling will cause a diesel to go into regeneration more frequently.
• Implementing and enforcing anti-idling policies can cut your fuel consumption by 8% or
more.
• Frequently restarting of your engine increases wear by $10 per year.
• Anti-Idle timers have been standard on GSA buses since 2006.
• Diesel engines with High Horsepower improve fuel economy.
• Automated manual transmissions can improve fuel economy by 19%.
• Alternative lighting saves fuel, reduces down time, and improves safety.
Unnecessary idling occurs when trucks wait for extended periods of time to load or unload, or
when equipment that is not being used is left on. Long haul truck drivers idle their engines
during their rest periods to provide heat or air conditioning for the sleeper compartment, keep the
engine warm during cold weather, and to maintain adequate battery voltage while using electrical
appliances such as a microwave oven or television set. Other reasons cited by truck drivers for
idling include safety (i.e., keeping the windows closed, thereby needing cooling or heating) and
habit (i.e., protecting the engine by not turning it off). The EPA report, Study of Exhaust
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Emissions from Idling Heavy-Duty Diesel Trucks and Commercially Available Idle-Reducing
Devices provides more information: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofit/documents/r02025.pdf.
Reduced idling reduces fuel consumption. Regulations restricting idling were in place in almost
half the states as of July 2008. These regulations vary by state, county, or city, but typically
restrict idling to 3-10 minutes and do not distinguish between gasoline or diesel vehicles. Most
of these regulations are relatively new and many have associated information campaigns to
increase awareness.
In May 2001, President Bush issued the National Energy Policy directing EPA and DOT to work
with the trucking industry to establish a program to reduce emissions and fuel consumption from
long-haul trucks. Responding to this directive, EPA initiated a comprehensive program aimed at
reducing idling. This includes organizing workshops, issuing grants, implementing
demonstration projects, and most importantly, closely examining idling fuel consumption and
exhaust emissions. The EPA SmartWay program (see Section 5.9.b) published a model "state
idling law" and EPA issued guidance on how states can incorporate projects to reduce long-
duration truck and locomotive idling into their air quality plans.
Several types of technologies exist that will effectively reduce long-duration idling. EPA
maintains a list of idle reduction technologies that can be accessed at the following website:
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofit/.
Over the past seven years, EPA has evaluated idle reduction technologies as part of grants,
cooperative agreements, emissions testing, engineering analysis, modeling, and external peer
reviewed reports. More information can be found at: http://epa.gov/diesel/idle-ncdc.htm. To
date, EPA has verified the following idle reduction technology categories:
• Electrified Parking Spaces (truck stop electrification)
• Shore Connection Systems and Alternative Maritime Power
• Auxiliary Power Units and Generator Sets
• Fuel Operated Heaters
• Battery Air Conditioning Systems
• Thermal Storage Systems
EPA, in collaboration with FHWA, developed the DrayFLEET model and four supporting case
studies, to assess truck emissions, and various technical and management options for reducing
emissions and fuel consumption from truck drayage activity
(http://www.epa.gov/otaq/smartway/transport/partner-resources/resources-drayage.htm). To
reduce truck queuing at terminal gates and associated vehicle emissions, operations tactics such
as gate time expansion and gate appointment systems can be used (A Glance at Clean Freight
Strategies: Terminal Appointment Systems for Drayage,
http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/documents/drayage/420f06005.pdf). Gate time
expansion allows trucks to access port and freight facilities for a longer period of the day (up to
24 hour access) to reduce peak hour demand. The use of computerized inventorying, automated
gate controls and security devices, and other intelligent freight handling methods provides
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efficient freight handling with reduced personnel needs. Gate appointment systems rely on
improved logistics whereby carriers are provided numerous reserved time slots during gate hours
when they can be assured of being handled efficiently. Both of these options allow the peak truck
demand periods at terminals to be spread out over longer periods and help reduce air quality
concerns due to less truck idle time.
Boats and Vessels
Green Vessel Design
Green vessel design is a growing area of interest in the marine sector, driven by rising fuel
prices. In addition to environmental benefits, maximizing the application of recycled and
renewable materials and minimizing discharges to water can help to increase efficiency. Duel-
fuel engines, which can use either diesel or liquefied natural gas, have been common on large
vessels for many years and are now being increasingly used in other higher speed vessels (DHS
2008). More information can be found in Green Vessel Design: Environmental Best Practices,
http://www.uscg.mi1/proceedings/articles/7 _King.%20Payne.%20Roberts.%20Villiott_Green%2
OVessel%20Design.pdf.
An area of interest in vessel design is the development of new materials which are lightweight
but provide the stability needed for use in marine environments. Advances in fiberglass
technology is a promising area which may have many applications for ship design and
manufacturing (DOE Glass Project Fact Sheet: Low Energy Alternative to Commerical Silica-
based Glass Fibershttp ://wwwl .eere. energy, gov/inventions/pdfs/mosci .pdf).
Vessel Building and Repair
Improvements in energy efficiency related to ship building and ship repair are mainly focused on
implementation of energy efficient compressed air systems, HVAC systems, lighting and motors
(EPA 2007).
Marine Remanufacture Program
EPA has adopted a new emission control program for marine diesel engines that includes
emission standards for certain engines already in operation. The program is called the Marine
Remanufacture Program. Marine diesel engines are significant contributors to ambient levels of
ozone and particulate matter (PM) pollution in our nation's ports and along our rivers and
coastal waterways. EPA's latest emission standards for new engines will result in substantial
reductions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and PM emissions from marine vessels. More information
can be found at EPA's website for frequently asked questions about the program:
http://www.epa.gov/OMS/regs/nonroad/marine/ci/420f09003.htm.
Engines built before the new-engine standards take effect, however, will continue operating
with higher emissions for a long time. The service life of many marine engines can be 30 years
or more. The Marine Remanufacture Program will provide early air quality benefits by reducing
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PM emissions from this legacy fleet sooner than would be the case through the normal turnover
of the fleet to vessels with new engines.
A marine diesel engine is covered by the Marine Remanufacture Program if it meets all of the
following criteria:
• It is a commercial marine diesel engine.
• It was manufactured between 1973 and the last Tier 2 model year.
• It has power at or above 600 kilowatts (kW).
• It has a displacement of less than 30 liters per cylinder.
• It is installed on a vessel that is flagged or registered in the United States.
EPA is promoting a remanufacture system, commonly referred to as a "remanufacture kit,"
which is a process for making an engine meet certain emission criteria - in this case, a 25 percent
reduction in PM emissions. The kit consists of instructions, specifications, limitations and/or
engine components. In most cases, a kit is expected to consist of "better" versions of parts
normally replaced or rebuilt and should not adversely affect engine reliability, durability, or
power.
Clean Ports USA
Clean Ports USA is an incentive-based, innovative program designed to reduce emissions from
existing diesel engines and non-road equipment at ports. The program is for ports and fleet
owners who voluntarily engage in emission reduction strategies, including improvements in
cargo handling equipment, trucks, vessels, and other support machinery. The focus of the
program is promoting the implementation of clean fuels; retrofit, repair and rebuild of existing
equipment; changes to and replacement of equipment to utilize more efficient and less
petroleum-based power sources; and operational strategies. Operational strategies include truck
idling measures and improved management of intermodal containers. More information can be
found at EPA's Clean Ports USA website: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/diesel/ports/basicinfo.htm.
Passenger Buses
Bus technology has, for several years, used compressed natural gas and liquefied natural gas to
power large passenger vehicles. Transit agencies, schools, airports, and large parks are a few of
the users who have implemented the use of alternative fuel buses in the U.S. Today, all plug-in
electric hybrids and all electric buses are commercially available and are beginning to be put into
use.
Fuel Cell Bus Benefits
The benefits of fuel cell buses includes being more efficient, clean, quiet, low emissions, less
maintenance, and they reduce dependence on imported oil. Transit buses are good candidates for
fuel cell technology for the following reasons:
• Their weight and volume constraints are compatible for fuel cells.
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• Central fueling stations minimize fuel logistic issues, which would apply to a bus system.
• Fuel cell power requires no operational concessions.
• Buses provide immediate environmental benefits to urban air quality if they reduce their
emissions.
• They allow the public an opportunity to learn, first-hand, about fuel cell technology.
Generation I and Generation II Fuel Cell Buses have been developed with plans for Generation
III fuel cell buses that will provide quick first start capabilities. The Generation III bus will be a
non-hybrid fuel cell power system that will operate on methanol, and it will be built upon a 40-ft
low floor bus platform for Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) compliance, and have a low
curb weight.
Plug-In Hybrid-Electric School Buses
Another example of a bus using alternative energies is being followed in North Carolina's Wake
and Mecklenburg County school system, which is piloting plug-in hybrid electric school buses.
They cost two to three times more than a regular bus yet are expected to pay for themselves
through fuel efficiency within six years. They are expected to reduce fuel consumption by 40-
50% and reduce emissions by 90%. More information can be found at the DOE website:
http ://apps 1 .eere.energy. gov/state_energy_program/proj ect_brief_detail. cfm/pb_id=l 23 0.
Electric Drive Lightweight Buses
Advances in electric battery technology and use of state of the art steel materials have been used
to develop a commercially-adaptable all electric bus. While originally designed using battery
technology, the vehicle could be alerted to eventually utilize a plug-in hybrid system using a
small diesel generator. More information can be found at the DOE website:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/success/lightweight buses.pdf
Hydrogen Buses
The state of Florida established a "hydrogen highway" for hydrogen powered buses. The Florida
Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) launched a "H2 Florida" statewide initiative to
accelerate the commercialization of hydrogen technologies and stimulate consumer interest.
More information can be found at the DOE website:
http://appsl.eere.energy.gov/news/news detail.cfm/news id=8782.
Clean School Bus USA
The goals of Clean School Bus USA are to reduce children's exposure to diesel exhaust and the
amount of air pollution created by diesel school buses. Clean School Bus USA brings together
partners from business, education, transportation, and public-health organizations to work
towards the following goals:
• Encouraging policies and practices to eliminate unnecessary public school bus idling.
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• Upgrading ("retrofitting") buses that will remain in the fleet with better emission-control
technologies and/or fueling them with cleaner fuels.
• Replacing the oldest buses in the fleet with new, less-polluting buses.
More information can be found at the DOE website:
http://apps 1.eere.energy.gov/state energv_program/project brief detail.cfm/pbid=852.
Locomotives
During normal railroad operations, locomotives sometimes must wait for freight cars to be
switched and/or picked up, for another train to clear track on which the locomotive is to proceed,
or for mechanical service. Historically, locomotives have been left idling while they are waiting.
In some cases, there are practical or safety reasons why locomotives need to be left idling. In
other cases, locomotive operators might simply idle the engines due to custom, habit, or
misunderstandings about diesel engines (EPA 2008b).
The reasons why current locomotives may need to be left idling can be technological or related
to worker and passenger needs. First, diesel engines can be difficult to start in extremely cold
temperatures, especially larger diesel engines such as those used in locomotives. Also,
locomotive engines are typically designed to use water without antifreeze because water is more
efficient at cooling the engine. However, the water can freeze in cold weather and crack the
engine block. As a result, shutting locomotives off in cold weather has historically been avoided
as much as possible (EPA 2008b).
Locomotive engines may also need to idle in order to maintain critical functions such as air
pressure for the braking and starting systems and battery charge. Maintaining air pressure for
braking is especially important since it can directly affect safety. Finally, in some cases,
locomotives will idle to supply air-conditioning or heat to its crew and/or passengers, in part to
comply with regulations and contractual requirements related to working conditions for the crew
(EPA 2008b).
EPA's regulatory efforts to reduce emissions from idling locomotives focus on requiring the
application of automatic idle reduction technologies to the locomotives themselves rather than
directly regulating when railroads may allow locomotives to idle. EPA issued emission
standards for locomotives in 1998, and updated these standards with a 2008 rulemaking. The
2008 rulemaking requires technology that reduces the amount of time a locomotive spends idling
(as well as applying tighter emission standards to new locomotives generally). EPA is requiring
that all newly manufactured and nearly all remanufactured locomotives be equipped with idle
reduction technology that will automatically shut locomotives down if they are left idling
unnecessarily (EPA 2008b).
Several other technological developments that improve locomotive energy efficiency are
summarized below.
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Gen Set Locomotives
A Gen Set Locomotive has three separate smaller engines instead of the one large engine found
in a conventional locomotive. The three smaller engines can provide horsepower on demand,
which is the ability to tailor horsepower output to the train weight and the territory the train will
travel over. A Gen Set Locomotive is 25 percent more fuel efficient than a conventional
locomotive.
Advanced Fuel Saving Control System for Freight Locomotives
General Electric is now commercializing the first planned advanced control system called
"Consist Manager". The device can be installed new or retrofit on GE Dash9 and AC-4400 class
locomotives. Two Class 1 US railroads are in the process of field evaluation. The product can
achieve fuel savings of 1-2%. The product also lends itself to quiet operation of a lead unit at
part power operation.
Energy Efficient Coal Mining Locomotives
Battery vehicles have been introduced in coal mining locomotives to help overcome mobility
limitations of tethered vehicles. A fuel cell vehicle provides mobility and energy capacity of a
diesel unit and provides environmental benefits of electric vehicles.
Shore power plug-in unit
Plug-in units are relatively inexpensive and heat and circulate water and oil. They have an
optional battery charger. Minimal equipment is required and they are ideal for commuter trains.
They can also be used for yard units. A locomotive must be at an equipped location. There are
no local impacts. They are quiet and pollution-free.
Hybrid switching locomotives
Hybrid locomotives are in the demonstration stage. They can replace a 2000 hp switcher. They
use 125 hp diesel and 60,000 Ib of sealed Pb-acid batteries. Small diesel charges batteries and it
runs when the switcher is in use. The batteries are expected to last 10-15 years, yet the lifetime
is unproved at this point in time. A hybrid switcher costs much more than add-ons.
Aircraft
Aircraft design
Blended wing design is an alternative airframe design which incorporates features from both a
traditional fuselage and wing design and flying wing design. This design provides improved lift
and weight savings, resulting in better fuel utilization. NASA and the Air Force are currently
developing and testing prototype planes for potential future application in military and
commercial aviation. More information can be found at the NASA website:
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/aeronautics/features/bwb main.html.
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Alternative propulsion planes
In April of 2008, Boeing completed the world's first manned flight using hydrogen fuel cells.
Similar fuel cell technology potentially could power small manned and unmanned air vehicles.
Over the longer term, solid oxide fuel cells could be applied to secondary power-generating
systems, such as auxiliary power units for large commercial airplanes. Small, single-person
planes have also been developed using electric battery and solar power. As with fuel cells, it is
unlikely that these technologies would have major impact on commercial aviation, but could
serve as auxiliary power sources in the future.
Biofuels
The Air Force has certified, or is in the process of certifying, much of its fleet to operate on a
50/50 blend of synthetic fuel (derived from coal and biomass feedstocks) and JP-8 aviation fuel.
Commercial airlines are experimenting with synthetics, but they are currently unproven and not
available in adequate quantity to support commercial operations.
Transport and assisting equipment
The following are various assisting transportation equipment and devices that have been noted
through research, which can assist with creating more energy efficient transport.
• Electric Aircraft PushBack Tractor (EAPT) - a propulsion and energy management system
for a battery-powered, electric aircraft pushback tractor.
• Electric Aircraft Cargo Conveyor (EACC) - a battery-powered, self propelled belt
conveyor for handling baggage and cargo at aircraft bulk cargo holds.
• Limiting use of escalators and elevators - Limiting use times and not running escalators,
elevators and moving walks when volumes are low.
• Tractors and Trailers - EPA has certified SmartWay tractors and trailers. These tractors
and trailers are outfitted with equipment that significantly reduces fuel use and emissions.
There are criteria for carriers to earn the privilege to label their vehicles with the SmartWay
brand.
• Monitoring GPS Devices - Onboard wireless location and performance monitoring GPS
devices can help reduce idling and fuel costs. The device identifies if the vehicle is
consuming fuel as efficiently and cleanly as possible and identifies engines requiring
maintenance.
• Cabin video/audio Monitoring Devices - A cabin video/audio monitoring devices records
and identifies when a vehicle exceeds a specific level. They help identify and limit
aggressive behavior.
5.9.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
SmartWay Transport Partnership
EPA introduced SmartWay in 2004 to reduce greenhouse gases from the transportation sector.
Information on SmartWay can be found at http://www.epa.gov/smartway. SmartWay identifies
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passenger vehicles with low greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions (vehicles which are also
more efficient) for both consumers and for federal agencies. Light duty vehicles certified as
SmartWay can be found at: http://epa.gov/smartway/vehicles/smartway-certified.htm or through
EPA's Green Vehicle Guide:
http://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/Aboutratings.dotfaboutsmartway. SmartWay's "green leaf
mark allows consumers to easily identify environmentally friendly vehicles in the Green Vehicle
Guide. Trucking companies can also search for the most fuel efficient commercial vehicles for
purchase using the SmartWay certification for heavy duty vehicles:
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/smartway/transport/what-smartway/tractor-trailer.htm.
SmartWay designates a federal partnership - The SmartWay Transport Partnership. This is a
voluntary collaboration between EPA and the goods movement industry, designed to increase
energy efficiency while significantly reducing greenhouse gases and air pollution in the ground
freight transportation sector. The program promotes innovative financing mechanisms for
energy efficiency upgrades, as well as the deployment of idle reduction technology, low-rolling
resistance tires, fairings (products to reduce aerodynamic drag) and other strategies.
The partnership currently includes over 2,200 participating transportation providers that supply
efficiency and emissions performance data to EPA through SmartWay emission models. EPA
uses individual company emissions and efficiency data to identify more efficient transportation
providers to purchasers of freight services. SmartWay assesses the freight practices of shipping
and logistics companies, based in part upon the environmental performance of the freight carriers
they use, to determine if these shippers can earn the SmartWay mark. SmartWay Partners -
carriers and shippers — with low greenhouse gas and high efficiencies are recognized with the
use of the SmartWay logo, an established mark of clean transportation.
Although initially targeted for commercial fleets, government agencies employing any freight
transportation services can utilize SmartWay to determine their freight related CC>2, NOX, and
PM emissions and energy use for both inventories and efficiencies. Using SmartWay will allow
Federal agencies to track and improve their freight transportation energy efficiency over time,
and will contribute toward providing market pressure on the industry to improve its efficiency.
Federal green purchasing programs have included a provision that federal agencies should seek
out freight providers that belong to the SmartWay partnership, which is focused on reducing
greenhouse gas and other emissions from goods movement including delivery of products to and
from federal buildings. Federal fleets can also join SmartWay.
To assist trucking companies in reducing their emissions and improving efficiency, SmartWay
has identified a group of fuel saving technologies and has bundled them into a package known as
an "Upgrade Kit". They are highly fuel-efficient technologies with emission control devices to
reduce fuel consumption, idling, and emissions of greenhouse gases. Companies should
experience a full payback within one to three years. More information can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/smartwav/transport/what-smartway/upgrade-kits.htm.
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Vehicle Technologies Program
The DOE Vehicle Technologies Program
(http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/index.html) works with industry to develop and
deploy advanced transportation technologies that can improve vehicle fuel efficiency and
increase the use of alternative fuels. The program has two major components:
FreedomCAR and Fuel Partnership. These subprograms seek to develop emission- and
petroleum-free cars and light trucks and the infrastructure to support them. The Partnership
focuses on the research needed to develop the necessary technologies, such as fuel cells and
advanced hybrid propulsion systems.
21st Century Truck Partnership. This program is a large public-private R&D partnership with
multiple federal partners including EPA, DOT, Commerce and DOE, along with several federal
laboratories, and private industry. The program addresses the research needs of commercial
vehicles (trucks and buses) with the aim to reduce pollution and dependence on fossil fuels. The
technical goals of the program include developing more efficient engine systems and heavy-duty
hybrids, reducing parasitic losses that use up fuel (e.g., aerodynamic drag resistance, rolling
resistance, drivetrain losses, and auxiliary load losses), reducing idle time and improving safety.
The Vehicle Technologies Program also supports implementation programs that help to
transition alternative fuels and vehicles into the marketplace through its Clean Cities
subprogram.
Clean Cities Program
The DOE Clean Cities program (http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/) is a government-
industry partnership designed to reduce petroleum consumption in the transportation sector by
advancing the use of alternative fuels and vehicles, idle reduction technologies, hybrid electric
vehicles, fuel blends, and fuel economy measures. Clean Cities has a network of 90 or more
volunteer coalitions, which develop public-private partnerships to promote petroleum reduction.
Clean Cities provides equipment manufacturers, trade associations and other federal agencies
with access to strategies and resources, and DOE incentives to fund petroleum reduction
projects.
Clean Cities sponsors the Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center (AFDC), which
provides online technical data about fuels, vehicles, fueling station and truck-stop electrification
locations, infrastructure development, state and federal incentives and laws, technical and
outreach. AFDC tools include the Petroleum Reduction Planning Tool
(https://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/prep/index.php), which calculates petroleum reductions by
choosing one or a combination of the following methods:
• Alternative Fuels • Vehicle Miles Traveled Reduction
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles • Truck Stop Electrification
• Biodiesel Blends • Idling Time Reduction
• Fuel Economy • Onboard Idle Reduction
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Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program
The DOE Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program
(http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/about.html) works in partnership with
industry, academia, and national laboratories to research hydrogen production, delivery, and
storage technologies, as well as fuel cell technologies for transportation, distributed stationary
power, and portable power applications. The program focuses on addressing safety issues and
facilitating the development of model codes and standards, as well as demonstrating hydrogen
and fuel cell technology in real-world conditions.
Delivery technology for hydrogen infrastructure is currently available commercially, and several
U.S. companies deliver bulk hydrogen. Some infrastructure is already in place because hydrogen
has long been used in industrial applications, but is not sufficient to support widespread
consumer use. There are very few hydrogen filling stations, and a limited number of hydrogen
pipelines throughout the country. The program promotes the construction of more filling stations
and seeks other methods for hydrogen distribution, such as converting to hybrid natural
gas/hydrogen pipelines and using trucks, railcars, ships and barges (DOE 2009).
On-board hydrogen storage for transportation applications continues to be one of the most
technically challenging barriers to the widespread commercialization of hydrogen-fueled
vehicles. Although hydrogen has nearly three times the energy content of gasoline by weight, it
has four times less energy content by volume. The program's research and development is
working on compression technologies to make widespread commercial hydrogen use more
feasible (DOE 2009).
Fuel cell research and development is aimed at reducing fuel cell system cost and size and
improving the performance and durability of fuel cell systems for transportation and for small
stationary and portable applications. Most of this research focuses on advancing polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell systems.
EPA Sector Notebooks
The Sector Notebook series is a unique set of profiles containing information for specific
industries and governments. Unlike other resource materials, which are organized by air, water,
and land pollutants, the Notebooks provide a holistic approach by integrating processes,
applicable regulations and other relevant environmental information. There are 33 Industry
Sector Notebooks and 3 Government Series that provide government officials with information
they need to comply with the environmental regulations that apply to their activities. Many of
them may provide useful information for the NEPA reviewer. More information about the
Sector Notebooks can be found in the Sector Notebook Factsheet located at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/sector-
notebooks-factsheet.pdf. The notebooks can be accessed at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/.
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5.9.c Review considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
309 Reviewers should encourage agencies with federal actions involving federal vehicle fleets to
incorporate federal policies that include petroleum reduction and energy efficiency. The Energy
Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct 1992), as amended by EISA, prohibits federal agencies from
acquiring light-duty vehicles and medium-duty passenger vehicles that are not low GHG-
emitting vehicles with exceptions, and further requires that 75% of all covered light-duty
vehicles acquired for Federal fleets must be AFVs (where the fleets have 20 or more vehicles,
are capable of being centrally fueled, and are operated in a metropolitan statistical area with a
population of more than 250,000 based on the 1980 census). In FY 2005, 58% of Federal vehicle
purchases were considered exempt from EPAct 1992 requirements. Exemptions were granted
for fleet size, geographic location and use for emergency, law enforcement and national defense.
EPAct 1992 also set a goal of using replacement fuels to displace at least 30 percent of the
projected consumption of motor fuel in the United States annually by the year 2010. The Energy
Conservation Reauthorization Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-388) (ECRA) amended EPAct 1992 to
allow one AFV acquisition credit for every 450 gallons of pure biodiesel fuel consumed in
vehicles over 8,500 pounds gross vehicle weight rating. "Biodiesel credits" may fulfill up to 50
percent of an agency's EPAct 1992 requirements. The head of each Federal agency must also
prepare and submit a report to Congress outlining the agency's AFV acquisitions and future
plans by February 15th each year.
E.O. 13149, Greening the Government through Federal Fleet and Transportation Efficiency,
amended EPAct 1992 to direct Federal agencies operating a fleet of 20 or more vehicles within
the United States to reduce their annual petroleum consumption by at least 20 percent by the end
of FY 2006 (compared to FY 1999 levels) by using alternative fuels in AFVs more than 50
percent of the time, improving the average fuel economy of new light-duty petroleum-fueled
vehicle acquisitions by one mpg by FY 2002, and 3 mpg by FY 2006, and using other fleet
efficiency measures. E.O. 13149 was supplanted in 2007 by E.O. 13423, which requires Federal
agencies to decrease their fleets' petroleum consumption by two percent annually and increase
non-petroleum consumption by 10 percent annually by 2015, using FY 2005 as a baseline.
Every federal agency is required to develop and implement a plan to meet this requirement.
Also, by 2010 each agency is to install at least one renewable fuel pump at each federal fleet
fueling center. Agencies must purchase plug-in hybrids when they are commercially available at
a reasonable cost.
EO 13514 expands the requirements of EO 13423 to establish a percentage reduction target for
agency-wide reductions of GHG emissions in absolute terms by fiscal year 2020. In establishing
the target, each agency shall consider reducing the use of fossil fuels by:
• using low greenhouse gas emitting vehicles including alternative fuel vehicles;
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• optimizing the number of vehicles in the agency fleet; and
• reducing, if the agency operates a fleet of at least 20 motor vehicles, the agency fleet's
total consumption of petroleum products by a minimum of 2 percent annually through the
end of fiscal year 2020, relative to a baseline of fiscal year 2005.
Section 701 of EPACT 2005 amends EPAct 1992 to require Federal agencies to use alternative
fuels in fleet dual-fuel vehicles (flexible or bi-fuel) if the fuel is available within five miles or 15
minutes and does not cost more than gasoline on a per-gallon basis (FEMP 2008).
EISA 2007 created new and enhanced conservation requirements for federal vehicle fleets. The
Act raises corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards to 35 miles per gallon (mpg) by
2020. EISA also sets a renewable fuels standard for gasoline. The Act seeks to increase the
supply of biofuel by requiring fuel producers to use in the fuel mix a progressively increasing
amount of biofuel, culminating in at least 36 billion gallons of biofuel by 2022. EISA
differentiates between "conventional biofuel" (corn-based ethanol) and "advanced biofuel."
Advanced biofuel is renewable fuel, other than corn-based ethanol, with lifecycle greenhouse gas
emissions that are at least 50 percent less than greenhouse gas emissions produced by gasoline or
diesel. Beginning in 2016, a progressively increasing portion of renewable fuels must be
advanced biofuels, such as cellulosic ethanol. Under EISA, EPA is required to revise its
regulations to ensure that transportation fuel sold in or imported into the U.S. contains at least the
applicable quantity of renewable fuels.
Section 2862 of the National Defense Authorization Act of 2008 amends EPAct92 by expanding
the definition of a qualifying AFV for Federal fleets. Newly defined alternative fueled vehicles
include the following four types of vehicles:
• a new qualified fuel cell motor vehicle (as defined in section 30B(b)(3) of the Internal
Revenue Code of 1986);
• a new advanced lean burn technology motor vehicle (as defined in section 30B(c)(3) of that
Code);
• a new qualified hybrid motor vehicle (as defined in section 30B(d)(3) of that Code); and
• any other type of vehicle that the Administrator of EPA demonstrates to the Secretary of
Energy would achieve a significant reduction in petroleum consumption.
Section 30.B of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Code (U.S. Code Title 26, Subtitle A,
Chapter 1, Subchapter A, Part IV, Subpart B, Section 30.B) provides definitions of new qualified
fuel cell motor vehicle, new advanced lean burn technology motor vehicle and new qualified
hybrid motor vehicle. (DOE 2008f). In a December 21, 2008 letter to DOE, EPA demonstrated
that operating a low GHG-emitting vehicle, as defined by EPA, would achieve a significant
reduction in petroleum consumption consistent with NDAA2008 section 2862 qualifying low
GHG-emitting vehicles as AFVs.
To help record progress in meeting the federal legislative requirements, the Office of
Management and Budget issues "Transportation Scorecards" for Federal agencies to document
status and progress for each agency in the areas of energy, transportation, and environment.
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January 2009 scorecards for each agency are available at:
http://www.fedcenter.gov/Documents/index.cfm?id=11768&pge id=1854.
Through its Federal Acquisition Service and Federal Vehicle Standards program, GSA offers
services for fleet managers looking to improve energy efficiency. GSA's website
(http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/gsa/ep/program View.do?pageTvpeId=17110&ooid=8060&programP
age=%2Fep%2Fprogram%2FgsaDocument.jsp&programId=15263&channelId=-24545) contains
Alternative Fuel Vehicles and Biodiesel Product Guides & Manuals that have pricing and
technical information to assist managers in selecting efficient vehicles and fuels.
EPA provides the Green Vehicle Guide, an interactive tool to compare the environmental
performance of vehicles (http://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/Index.do). The tool also includes an
EISA 141 low GHG federal fleet calculator. The EPA/DOE fuel economy website,
http://www.fueleconomy.gov/ provides a tool for fleets to use for comparing the fuel economy of
various vehicles including hybrids, AFVs, and conventional vehicles. FEMP and GSA also offer
the Federal Automotive Statistical Tool (FAST), a Web-based tracking tool that allows agencies
to input fleet data for many data collection requirements
(http://www.gsa. gov/Portal/gsa/ep/contentView. do?contentTvpe=GS A B ASIC&contentId=23 3 0
2&noc=T).
FEMP assists federal agencies with implementing the vehicle fleet mandates. A few strategies
and resources discussed in the Winter 2009 FEMP Focus newsletter include:
Acquire the right number and type of AFVs in the correct location. Placing AFVs where
alternative fuel is not available will not reduce petroleum consumption, and may make it more
difficult to reduce agencies' petroleum use if the AFV uses petroleum and gets fewer miles per
gallon than the non-AFV equivalent. Acquisition of AFVs should be part of an integrated plan
for petroleum reduction that takes advantage of available alternative fuel infrastructure, and uses
other types of vehicles where alternative fuel infrastructure is not available. In geographical areas
where there is alternative fuel available, AFVs should be acquired, and fleet managers should
ensure alternative fuel is used in those AFVs to the greatest extent practicable. If a subfleet has
access to alternative fuel, an agency might consider composing the entire fleet of AFVs.
Biodiesel. Using biodiesel in diesel vehicles is another important option for fleets that have
limited access to alternative fuels for light-duty vehicles. Agencies can use B20 (a mixture of 20
percent biodiesel and 80 percent diesel fuel) to meet up to half of their AFV acquisition
requirements.
Develop an alternative fuel infrastructure. Public refueling stations are often willing to install
E85 pumps at no cost in areas with high concentrations of Federal vehicles. A publicly
accessible list of Federal fleet E85-fueled AFVs without access to E85 is available at:
www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/fleets.html.
Update agency-specific polices and procedures. Agencies must develop and encourage policies
that ensure AFVs use alternative fuel to the greatest extent possible. Agencies may consider fleet
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site visits or internal audits. Some agencies have instituted a key card system that allows E85-
fueled vehicles to only refuel with E85 when refueling on site at an agency (FEMP 2009b).
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Section 5.9 References
Energy Information Administration. 2009. What role does liquefied natural gas (LNG) play as an
energy source for the United States? Online.
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/energy_in_brief/liquefied_natural_gas_lng.cfm Accessed
November 2009.
Energy Information Administration. June 2008. Annual Energy Review 2007, Report No.
DOE/EIA-0384. Online, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/contents.html Accessed April
2009.
Federal Energy Management Program. January 2009a. FEMP's Federal Fleets. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/about/fleet_requirements.html Accessed April 2009.
Federal Energy Management Program. Winter 2009b. Reducing Federal Petroleum Use:
Mandates and Strategies. FEMP Focus. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/fempfocus_winter_2009.pdf Accessed April 2009.
Federal Energy Management Program. May 2008. Federal Fleet Requirements Fact Sheet.
Online, http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/femp/pdfs/43500.pdf. Accessed April 2009.
GovEnergy. 2008. Federal Acquisition Services, Center for Automotive Acquisition. Online.
http://www.govenergy.com/2008/pdfs/transportation/BumbrayLoSchiavoTransportl.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
International Energy Agency, 2009. Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Implementing Agreement.
Online, http://www.ieahev.org/index.html Accessed April 2009.
National Hydrogen Association 2009. Hydrogen Fueling Station Database. Online.
http://www.hydrogenassociation.org/general/fuelingSearch.asp Accessed April 2009.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. January 2006. Hydrogen Infrastructure Transition
Analysis, M. Melendez and A. Milbrandt. Milestone Report NREL/TP-540-38351. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/hydrogen infrastructure.pdf. Accessed April 2009.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. June 2005. Effects of Biodiesel on NOx Emissions.
McCormick, Bob. Power Point Presentation. Online.
http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/38296.pdf. Accessed August 2009.
Sacramento International Airport Air Quality Improvement Programs. 2005. Green Airport
Initiative Presentation. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/airinnovations/2005conference/Wed4/5-GregRowe.pdf Accessed
April 2009.
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U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009a.
Alternative and Advanced Fuels - Biodiesel. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/biodiesel_basics.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009b.
Alternative and Advanced Fuels - Electricity. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/electricity.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009c.
Alternative and Advanced Fuels - Ethanol. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/ethanol/index.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009d.
Alternative and Advanced Fuels - Hydrogen. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/hydrogen.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009e.
Alternative and Advanced Fuels - Natural Gas.
Online.http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/natural_gas.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009f
Alternative and Advanced Fuels - Propane.
Online.http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/propane.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009g.
Alternative and Advanced Fuels - Ultra-low Sulfur Diesel. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/emerging_sulfur_diesel.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009h.
Alternative and Advanced Vehicles - Electric Vehicles.
Online.http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/electric.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009L
Alternative and Advanced Vehicles - Natural Gas Vehicles. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/natural_gas.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009J.
Alternative and Advanced Vehicles - Propane Vehicles. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/propane.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009k.
Alternative and Advanced Vehicles - Flexible Fuel Vehicles. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/flexible_fuel.html Accessed April 2009.
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U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 20091.
Alternative and Advanced Vehicles - Hybrid Electric Vehicles. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/hybrid_electric.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009m.
Alternative and Advanced Vehicles - Fuel Cell Vehicles. Online.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/fuel_cell.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, 2009n.
Alternative and Advanced Vehicles - Light Duty Ultra-low Sulfur Diesel Vehicles.
Online, http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/diesel.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009o. Clean Cities Program. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/ Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009p. Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies
Program. Online, http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/about.html Accessed
April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009q. Vehicle Technologies Program. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/index.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. November 2008a. Annual Report to Congress on Federal
Government Energy Management and Conservation Programs Fiscal Year 2006. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/annrep06.pdf. Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. April 2008b. Boeing Flies First Fuel celled Powered Manned
Aircraft, EERE Network News. Online.
http://appsl.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=l 1711 Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. June 2008c. eGSE America: Electric Aircraft Pushback Tractor
Technical Specifications. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/avta/pdfs/heavy/eapt_tech_specs-revl.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2008d. Federal Fleet Compliance with EPACT and E.O. 13423
Fiscal Year 2007. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/fed fleet report 2007.pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. June 2008e. Guidance: Documentation Requirements for Waiver
Requests under EPACT 2005 Section 701. Online.
http://www 1 .eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/701 guidance.pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. September 2008f. Guidance for Federal Agencies: New Alternative
Fuel Vehicle Definitions under Section 2862 of the National Defense Authorization Act of
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2008. Online, http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs7ndaa_guidance.pdf Accessed April
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. November 2007a. Flight Pioneer Unveils Design for a Solar
Powered Aircraft, EERE News. Online.
http://appsl.eere.energy.gov/news/news detail.cfm/news id=l 141 l?print Accessed April
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. March 2007b. Instructions for Implementing Executive Order
13423, Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management.
Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/epact/pdfs/instructions eol3423.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. December 2006. 21st Century Truck Partnership: Roadmap and
Technical White Papers. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/program/21 ctp_roadmap_2007.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. June 2005a. DOE-Funded Research Leads to Quick
Commercialization of Advanced Fuel Saving Control System for Freight Locomotives.
Online, http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/success/consist mgr loco.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. August 2005b. eGSE America: Electric Aircraft Cargo Conveyer
(EACC) Technical Specifications. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/avta/pdfs/heavy/eacc_tech_specs.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. August 2004. Engine Maturity, Efficiency, and Potential
Improvements (presentation), Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/deer 2004/sessionl/2004 deer fairban
ks.pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. June 2001. Advanced Power and Control for Fuel Cell Mining
Vehicles. Online. http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/industry/mining/pdfs/phase2.pdfAccessed
April 2009.
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Winter 2008-09. Environmental Protection In the Air,
On Land, On the Surface, Beneath the Waves. King, B., Roberts, R., Payne, J. and Villiott,
C. Green Vessel Design: Environmental Best Practices. The Coast Guard Journal of Safety
and Security at Sea: Proceedings of the Marine Safety and Security Council. Online.
http://www.passengervessel.com/green/downloads/USCG-Proceedings-08-09.pdf Accessed
October 2009.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. February 2009a. Federal Excise Tax Exemption. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/smartwav/transport/what-smartway/idling-reduction-fet.htm Accessed
April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009b. Green Vehicle Guide. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/Index.do Accessed August 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009c. Frequently asked questions from Marine Engine
Owners and Rebuilders from EPAs Marine Remanufacture Program. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/nonroad/marine/ci/420f09003.htm Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. January 2009d. What Smartway Can Do For You: Idle
Reduction. Online, http://www.epa.gov/smartway/transport/what-smartway/idling-
reduction.htm. Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, September
2008a. Light-Duty Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through
2008, EPA420-R-08-015. Online, http://www.epa.gov/oms/fetrends.htm Accessed April
2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. March 2008b. Locomotives: Control of Emissions from
Idling Locomotives. EPA420-F-08-014. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/nonroad/locomotv/420f08014.htm Accessed August 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August 2008c. What Smartway Can Do For You:
Upgrade Kits. Online, http://www.epa.gov/smartwav/transport/what-smartway/upgrade-
kits.htm Accessed April 2009.
U.S Environmental Protection Agency. March 2007. Energy Trends in Selected Manufacturing
Sectors: Opportunities and Challenges for Environmentally Preferable Energy Outcomes.
Online. http://www.epa.gov/ispd/pdf/energy/ch3-12.pdfAccessed October 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. Port Programs Related to Air Quality
Improvement. Online. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/airinnovations/2005conference/Thurs3/l-
BobKanter.pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. January 2004. Guidance for Quantifying and Using
Long Duration Switch Yard Locomotive Idling Emission Reductions in State
Implementation Plans. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/oarpg/tl/memoranda/rie quldsyl tg.pdf. Accessed April 2009.
U.S. General Services Administration. 2009. FAST Data Center. Online.
(http://www.gsa.gov/Portal/gsa/ep/content View.do?contentType=GSA_BASIC&contentId
=23302&noc=T Accessed April 2009.
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5.10 Transportation Facilities
5.10.a Summary
A complete transportation system includes a variety of modes that seamlessly transport goods
and people. As a system, each mode is used to its maximum advantage and beneficial choices are
made with respect to the best movement of people and goods. Transportation mode choices
should maximize energy efficiency and effectiveness and form the core of a complete
transportation system. This system may include (but is not limited to) the following modes:
• Aviation
• Highway
Rail
• Water-based transportation
• Public transit
• Bicycle/Pedestrian
Modal choice
Modal choice is the ability for one mode of transportation to be selected over another given the
preferences and requirements of the commuter or goods. Mode choices are viable transportation
alternatives between the same origin and destination. Differences in energy efficiency between
various transportation modes should be a consideration when planners are designing, maintaining
and upgrading transportation facilities.
The SmartWay Transport Partnership has tools and information to assist shippers and carriers
better understand the environmental and fuel consumption impacts of different modal choices
and other operational strategies for freight goods movement (www.epa.gov/smartway).
Intermodal Connectivity
The various modes are only one measure of a complete transportation system. A more important
measure is how the modes interact and ultimately perform with regard to the movement of
people and goods. Each mode has unique considerations that must be addressed to ensure a
seamless transfer of goods and people between modes.
When transportation improvements are contemplated, the following are design considerations for
each mode:
Highway
Highways typically form the spine, or backbone, of any community's transportation system.
Highways can provide both the accessibility of a local street to a specific destination, to the
mobility provided by an interstate highway. From a freight perspective, shippers and receivers
who use highway modes of transportation rely on the just-in-time delivery and door-to-door
convenience that motor carrier modes can offer.
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There are a number of design considerations to be made when evaluating the energy efficiency
of a proposed highway or improvements to an existing facility, including the ones bulleted
below:
• High Occupant Vehicle (HOV) lanes - HOV lanes are dedicated to vehicles containing
two or more passengers. Implementation of HOV can increase the overall throughput and
efficiency of the highway facility by incentivizing carpooling and ridesharing.
• High Occupant Toll (HOT) lanes - This is a form of road pricing where drivers of single-
occupant vehicles must pay a toll for use of lanes or roadways that have been designated
for use of high occupancy vehicles. While HOT lanes may not reduce overall demand, they
do affect the redistribution of demand, allowing for the roadway to operate more
efficiently.
• Truck-only lanes - These lanes improve the operating efficiency of the roadway by
removing slower-moving vehicles such as trucks from the mixed-flow of the overall
vehicle stream. This contributes to the stabilization of traffic flow, and reduces congestion.
• Design speeds - A roadway may be designed for a higher speed, but posted at a lower one
to improve fuel efficiency as well as safety.
• Grades - Grade considerations are particularly important for trucks, as lower gradients
result in improved operation and greater fuel efficiency.
• Energy efficient lighting-Older style mercury vapor lamps are inefficient. Converting
from mercury vapor lamps to more efficient options, such as metal halide, can reduce
energy consumption.
• Upgrades to LED signals - LED signals (light emitting diode) can provide electricity
savings of up to 90 percent over incandescent lamps and can last up to six times longer.
While somewhat expensive to install, the energy cost savings can quickly eclipse the costs
of installation. LED signals improve signal visibility and safety while reducing energy
costs. They also produce more light per watt than the traditional incandescent bulb.
• Signal interconnection and coordination -Interconnection and coordination can allow a
platoon of traffic to "pulse" through a corridor, producing a short term reduction in
congestion and decreasing the fuel use caused by wasted "green time," or unnecessary
idling of vehicles.
• Transit-friendly features (bus pulloffs, signal pre-emption, etc.) - these features should
be considered during the design of a roadway. Accommodating larger transit vehicles can
remove them from the cartway. Signal pre-emption also reduces wasted green time and
unnecessary vehicle idling.
• Smart Toll Collection - For toll facilities, advances in technology now make it possible to
collect tolls more efficiently than through traditional toll booths. A variety of electronic
systems and devices such as transponders and "Smart Cards" make the collection of tolls
technically feasible and more efficient.
Parking Facilities
Every vehicular trip begins and ends in a parking place. Some studies have suggested that there
are four parking spaces for every car in the U.S. (Shoup 2005). Municipal zoning ordinances
typically establish off-street parking requirements to accommodate the busiest of shopping days,
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leaving an overcapacity of parking spaces throughout the rest of the year. This contributes to the
urban heat island effect, among other undesirable conditions. A secondary issue involves the cost
of parking itself. With the exception on urban on-street parking and parking structures, a
majority of parking facilities are either free or underpriced. This incentivizes single occupant
vehicle travel and its resultant energy use. On-street parking that is underpriced also contributes
to a process known as "cruising," where motorists searching for parking must mix with other
traffic, creating congestion and delay. Constructing an appropriate inventory of parking spaces,
coupled with proper pricing, would encourage the use of more efficient modes of transportation,
such as bicycle/pedestrian, or public transportation.
Public Transportation
Transit can help communities operate more energy efficiently by reducing the need for single
occupancy vehicle roadway and parking investments. Transit can operate most effectively when
it is operated with complementary facilities such as the ones bulleted below:
• Transit Oriented Development (TOD) - Orienting development or higher density,
mixed-use developments around key transit nodes and activity centers can help make
transit operate more efficiently. Pedestrian/bicycle access and the use of public
transportation have multiplier impacts on energy efficiency. Pedestrian/public
transportation trips not only conserve energy by reducing automobile use, but also reduce
the heat island effect. Higher development densities, complementary land uses, and
pedestrian-oriented design all help to promote transit. EPA's Smart Growth website
provides information on transit oriented development:
http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/index.htm.
• Park and Ride facilities - These complementary facilities can expand the catchment area
of a transit operator. Park and rides should be located at areas within a defined travel shed
(between major origins and activity centers) and should include parking for both vehicles
and bicycles.
• Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and/or Bus-only lanes - This service attempts to match the
service quality of passenger rail while still realizing the fuel efficiency savings of bus
transit. Since it is segregated from other roadway lanes, it provides a higher level of
operating efficiency, even though additional right-of-way may initially need to be acquired
for its construction.
• Bike racks on buses - The availability of bicycle racks on buses also expands the potential
service area of the transit operator and can lessen demand for other, less energy efficient
forms of transportation such as the single occupant vehicle.
Passenger Rail
Passenger rail service can relieve congestion (and reduce fuel consumption) at a fraction of the
cost of building extra highway capacity. The availability of other intermodal facilities and
services such as park and ride lots and provisions for bicycles on trains can increase the capture
rate of passenger rail. Passenger rail stations should be located within the center of the
community where they can be easily accessed by multiple modes (i.e., bicycle, pedestrian, inter-
and intra-city bus, etc.) and provide easy access to destinations such as employment,
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entertainment, and shopping. Transit oriented development around stations makes rail more
accessible as an energy efficient mode of travel.
Rail Freight
Rail freight has been an important element of the U.S. transportation system for over 150 years.
Because they are not as flexible as highway/motor carrier modes, freight railroads have
historically been dominated by lower value bulk shipments with flexible shipment timetables
(e.g., coal), . and have been most effective in delivering goods in excess of 300 miles. With
major growth occurring in intermodal shipping, and advent of double stack trains, rail now has
increased ability to facilitate the movement of relatively high value materials, including materials
shipped in ocean containers, trailers, and automobile rail car carriers. Inbound containers are
often higher value finished products (e.g., retail goods for Wal-Mart.) In addition, short line rail
roads can serve as feeders for larger rail lines in moving freight to distribution centers.
Rail freight should be evaluated as an energy-efficient means of transporting goods, depending
on the type (value) of product being shipped, and the distance involved. A typical rail car can
remove as many as four trucks from the highway. Removing trucks from state highways and
local roadways around ports and congested communities heightens rail freight's environmental
benefits. A few methods to consider in planning for the effectiveness of rail freight modes
include:
• Train make-up/block management - More than any other train type, intermodal trains
suffer from their equipment design and loading pattern. Large gaps between the cars
directly affect the aerodynamic drag of the train. Matching intermodal loads with cars of an
appropriate length reduces the gap length between loads and improves air flow. Filling
empty slots with empty containers or trailers also reduces aerodynamic resistance and
improves energy efficiency, despite the additional weight penalty and rolling resistance.
Depending on particular train configuration, train resistance can be lowered by as much as
27 percent and fuel savings by 1 gal/mi per train (TRB 2005). These techniques can be
applied to manifest trains (trains which carry almost any kind of freight) as well.
• Electrification of lines - Electrification has a significant initial cost, but can provide long-
term energy savings over diesel engines, particularly on high-volume lines.
• Double stack container accommodation - Moving freight via double-stacked rail freight
containers can significantly reduce the amount of locomotive power needed to move the
same freight under more conventional methods. The application and accommodation of
double-stack rail facilities (e.g., raising bridges and lowering tunnels, etc.) has a significant
initial cost, but can improve the fuel efficiency of the rail freight operator.
• Sealed corridors - One of the most significant concerns for railroads involves right of way
crossings. Grade separation at crossings or elimination of crossings improves train speeds,
and saves energy by precluding vehicles idling at crossings.
• Lighter vehicles - Use of composites and other materials that would reduce car weight and
efforts to reduce friction/rolling resistance would require less energy and improve overall
system performance.
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• Improve rail logistics - Adding rail capacity (e.g., double-tracking, etc.) can improve train
scheduling and tracking and lessen dwell times in rail sidings. It also reduces total hours of
service (and energy consumption) by increasing throughput.
• Train yards and facilities - energy efficiency review may be undertaken at train yards and
facilities, many of which have been in operation for decades. Recommendations on
insulation, HVAC, lighting, etc. and the resultant energy savings should be examined. See
Section 5.4 for recommendations on improving energy efficiency for buildings and
lighting. Reduction of truck and locomotive idling can also improve energy efficiency at
rail facilities (see Section 5.9.b Federal Vehicle Fleets for a discussion of idle reduction
strategies).
Airports
Airports transport both people and freight. In the case of the former, the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) reports that passenger traffic has tripled since 1970 and is expected to
double again by 2025. In the case of the latter, aviation is used to transport a mix of high and low
value products. The schedule flexibility of air travel permits time sensitive product delivery, an
increasingly important aspect for manufacturers seeking to optimize the efficiency of their
supply chains. However, airports can also be voracious energy consumers, and the opportunity
exists for substantial energy efficiency improvements.
The Clean Airport Partnership (CAP), a U.S. non-profit corporation, works to improve
environmental quality and energy efficiency at airports. Recently, CAP's primary focus has been
implementation of the Green Airport Initiative (GAI), which is a comprehensive, streamlined
approach for helping airports shrink their environmental footprint while creating a blueprint for
sustainable development. The GAI was designed and implemented with financial support from
DOE, EPA, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the U.S. Congress. More information on the GAI
can be found at: http://www.cleanairports.com/.
Airport systems that are among the largest electricity consumers include:
• Lighting systems
• Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
• Motors and machine drives
• Office equipment like computers, copiers, and printers
• Tenant facilities like concessionaire kitchens (Sea-Tac 2007)
Many of the strategies listed in Section 5.4 Buildings, can be applied to airports. In addition the
airport building(s) itself, there are a variety of ways in which airport operations can improve
energy efficiency, such as those outlined below:
• Intermodal Approaches - Provide intermodal connections for employees and travelers to
access the airport while using other modes, such as public transportation, passenger rail or
ride-sharing. Employees can be provided with transit vouchers or similar benefit to
encourage commuting by these energy-saving modes.
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• Signing - an effective signing program can help travelers find available parking and airline
check-in facilities more quickly, thus reducing the amount of time and fuel visitors spend in
re-circulating through airport facilities.
• Congestion pricing - Charging commercial vehicles for each time they enter the airport
can promote energy conservation by discouraging needless travel and reducing the total
number of trips made. These systems can reduce shuttle trips by 25-40% (Sea-Tac 2007).
• Reduced vehicle idling - Airports can mandate the length of time that authority vehicles
idle, thus saving on energy costs. Some airports such as the Port of Seattle have constructed
cell phone lots to discourage drivers who are awaiting passengers from re-circulating
through the airport or from idling their vehicles on adjacent access roads.
• Pay on Foot Parking - Pay-on-Foot parking speeds egress from parking garages (and
reduces idling) by enabling motorists to pay their fees in the terminal and to submit their
receipt through an automated system upon exiting.
• Escalators - Most escalators consume full power constantly. Turn off escalators when not
in use and retrofit escalators with energy efficiency kits (e.g., Ecostart, which allocates
power "in direct proportion to the required workload, eliminating wasted energy") (Sea-
Tac 2007).
• Rental facilities - Airports can locate all rental car facilities at one location. This reduces
number of shuttle buses that operate to move passengers between terminals and the rental
car facility.
Energy efficiency strategies that can be applied to aircraft and ground support equipment can be
found in Section 5.9, Federal Vehicle Fleets.
Water-based transportation
The emergence of containerization over the past 50-60 years has allowed for the transport of
virtually any type of consumer product. Water-based transportation specializes in containerized,
bulk and breakbulk cargo and can carry commodities over long distances. With water-based
transportation, goods must be transferred unless a shipper or receiver is located along a
waterway. This makes the efficiency of intermodal transfer to highway and rail vitally important
for energy efficiency. Some considerations for improving the energy efficiency of water ports
include:
• Draft Depth - In taking advantage of economies of scale, vessel size has been continually
increasing through the years for improved cost effectiveness and overall energy efficiency.
As such, adequate channel depth and wider locks are needed to accommodate larger vessels
and facilitate efficient movement between terminals. Vessels that cannot be accommodated
at smaller ports must offload a portion or all of their cargo to other modes of transportation
in shipping to a final destination. The land bridge portion of the intermodal move may
often be more energy intensive than water-based transport. Where possible, increasing
channel depth and lock width to accommodate larger vessels can facilitate increases in
efficiency.
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• Port facilities - water ports that have rail freight sidings with direct access to terminals and
docks minimize the amount of drayage involved in moving cargo from the ship to its final
destination.
Considerations for congestion mitigation
The broad area of congestion mitigation can be important to the efficient use of energy on the
highway system. Efforts to reduce congestion and improve traffic flow can reduce fuel
consumption for all transportation modes at least in the short term. Long-term strategies for
improving energy efficiency may require a more comprehensive evaluation of the transportation
system.The range of possible mitigation strategies should be applied to address specific corridor
needs. These potential strategies generally fall into three categories:
1. Additional capacity
2. Operational improvements
3. Demand management
FHWA has identified numerous mitigation techniques associated with each category. In reality,
the most successful approach may be to implement a combination of appropriate strategies from
all three categories.
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Figure 5-10
KEY
Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL)
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
High-Occupany Toll Lane (HOT)
High-Occupany Vehicle (HOV)
Track Only Toll (TOT)
Transportation Management Associations (TMAs)
New freeways/arterials
Widen freeways/arterials
Street connectivity
New toll roads/toll lanes
Grade separations
HOV/managed lanes
MuItimodal corridors
New rail lines
New bus routes
New busways/BRT
Additional service on existing lines/routes
Neighborhood/activity center circulator routes
Park/ride lots
Truck only lanes
Rail improvements
Road weather information systems
Geometric improvements
Intersection improvemente
One-way streets
Access management
Advanced signal systems
Signal retiming/optimization
Changeable lane assignments
HOV ramp bypass
Incident management
Event management
Real-time traveler information
Parking restrictions
Transportation Management Center Operations
Incident management
Event management
Ramp metering
Lane controls
Managed lanes
Real-time traveler information
Electronic toll collection
Work zone management
Road weather information systems
Variable speed limits
Ramp closures
Bottleneck removal
Vehicle tracking (AVL)
Advanced scheduling/run cutting
Signal priority for buses
Bus ramp bypass
Real-time transit information
Express bus service
Demand responsive bus service
Fare strategies
Vehicle tracking (AVL)
Real-time freight information
Roadside electronic screening/clearance programs
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Figure 5-10
Demand
Management
Travel Alternatives
Land Use
Pricing
HOV
Transit
Freight
Alternate hours of travel
Alternative work schedules
Telecommuting
Pedestrian/bicycle facilities
Alternative fare strategies
Public education campaign on driving
"Smart Growth" policies
Pedestrian/bicycle connections
Transit stop/station design
Transit-oriented design
Parking strategies
High occupancy toll lanes (HOT)
Time-of-cfay pricing
Activity center pricing
Parking pricing
Rideshare matching
Transportation Management Associations (TMAs)
VanpooSs
Priority parking for HOVs
Parking cashout
Guaranteed ride home program
Instant ridesharing
Subsidized fares
Transit-oriented design
Enhanced transit stops/stations
Trip itinerary planning
Transportation Management Associations (TMAs)
Transit security systems
Truck only toll lanes (TOT)
Lane restrictions
Delivery restrictions
Note: Improvements in italics are those enabled by Intelligent Transportation Systems technology.
Source: FHWA - http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion report/congestion report 05.pdf.
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A situation-appropriate selection of FHWA's suggested mitigation techniques can be
implemented through consideration of this framework for responding to congestion and
identifying potential solutions. While it is appropriate to segregate improvements by Capacity
Enhancement, Operational Improvements and Demand Management, it may be also be
beneficial to segregate Modal Options into their own classification.
Capacity Enhancements can include new roadways and roadway widening for additional single-
occupancy vehicle lanes (SOV), but may also include minor geometric enhancements and the
elimination of bottlenecks. Large-scale capacity enhancements are typically the last measures
transportation professionals consider, because they are often the most expensive and can have
adverse environmental impacts, such as environmental and right-of-way impacts. Large-scale
capacity enhancements can also have the effect of inducing additional travel, which may result in
the roadway becoming congested again in the future; however, strategic capacity enhancements
can alleviate existing congestion and may accommodate some future growth if properly
considered. Capacity enhancements that can be considered include:
• New SOV Facilities - new roadways, interchanges, or ramps that increase single-
occupancy vehicle lane-mileage on the transportation network.
• Lane Additions - new travel lanes on an existing roadway designed to increase the capacity
of the facility; does not including turning lanes, acceleration/deceleration lanes, climbing
lanes, or specialized lanes for use by modes other than single-occupancy vehicles.
• Elimination of Bottlenecks - removal of a physical constriction which delays travel, such
as widening an underpass, providing lane continuity (i.e. replacing a two-lane bridge that
connects pieces of four-lane roadway), or eliminating a sight barrier. FHWA's publication,
Traffic Bottlenecks: A Primer Focus on Low-Cost Operational Improvements
(http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/bnprimer/index.htm) provides low-cost strategies for
the elimination of bottlenecks.
• Intersection/Geometric Improvements - addition or reconfiguration of turning lanes, lane
widening, realignment of intersecting streets, improved acceleration or deceleration lanes at
interchange ramps.
Operational Improvements are geared toward improving the "supply side" of the transportation
system. These efforts are intended to enhance the operation of the transportation system and
make it as efficient as possible. Operational improvements include things such as intersection
upgrades, access management, reversible lanes, traffic signal improvements, and Intelligent
Transportation Systems.
Operations represent technologies and institutional arrangements that allow transportation
systems to operate more closely to their maximum design intent. Operational improvement
include:
• Traffic Signal Improvements - signal hardware upgrades, signal software upgrades, signal
timing, multi-jurisdictional signal coordination, or (in conjunction with intersection
improvements) channelization of turning movements.
• One-way Streets/Circulation Adjustments - establishing, or removing, pairs of one-way
streets in place of a standard two-way street.
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• Incident Management Systems - technology and programs for detecting crashes, disabled
vehicles, or other incidents that impede travel and resolving or removing the obstructions.
• Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) - the use of technology (Closed Circuit Television
(CCTV), Dynamic Message Sign (DMS), Highway Advisory Radio (HAR), etc.) to
improve traffic flow with respect to incident management and traveler information. The use
of technology must include supporting operations and maintenance of that technology.
• Institutional Programs and Procedures - establishing institutional relationships to address
congestion, especially non-recurring congestion. These relationships may include special
events management, incident management and traveler information as well as traffic signal
operations. The partnerships can be used to develop inter-agency procedures to address
certain congestion issues.
• Special Events Management - establishing coordinated management of special events.
Demand Management programs attempt to address congestion at the root of the problem by
reducing the number of vehicles on the road. These initiatives work to modify driver behavior by
encouraging people to make fewer single-occupancy trips, travel in off-peak hours when
possible, and support land use policies that reduce the demand for automobile transportation.
Examples include:
• Growth Management - public policies to manage the location and nature of development in
a way that optimizes transportation efficiency. These include "Smart Growth" initiatives.
• Access Management - policies, design criteria, and facilities that minimize the number of
driveways and intersecting roads accessing a main thoroughfare; includes parallel service
roads, shared driveways, median barriers, and curb cut limitations. While many consider
access management an operational improvement, the policies associated with them lend
themselves to demand reduction on arterials and some collectors.
• Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Policies - public policies that encourage
concentrated development adjacent to transit stops or stations and easy access to these
transit facilities.
• Employer-Based Programs - encouraging telecommuting, flexible or staggered work
schedules, company-run carpool/vanpool programs, promotion of transit usage, and
parking management at the job site.
• Public Relations & Education for TDM - education and publicity that discourages single-
occupancy vehicle travel during peak hours and provides information on alternate modes of
travel and ways to minimize travel.
• Public Relations & Education for Transportation-Supportive Development - educational
programs for policy makers and the general public about the impact of development
decisions on transportation systems in order to promote informed decision-making.
Modal Options include techniques to give people transportation choices beyond just driving
alone in their cars. These include initiatives to encourage carpooling, vanpooling, transit, bicycle
and pedestrian modes of travel.
• Improved Transit Service - new routes and/or expanded schedules, but not including new
facilities. Where possible, coordination should take place such that planning and transit
activities are coordinated to support existing and future service needs.
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• Transit Capital Improvements - new transit facilities such as busways, dedicated bus lanes,
and bus pull-off to increase transit accessibility and usage.
• Park-n-Ride & Other Intermodal Facilities - outlying parking lots that encourage transit
use, carpooling and vanpooling or other facilities that facilitate transfer from one mode of
travel to another.
• Rideshare Programs - programs to facilitate carpooling and vanpooling.
• Pedestrian Facilities & Information - sidewalks, crosswalks, paths, pedestrian signals,
pedestrian bridges, maps and signage to promote walking as a viable mode of
transportation.
• Bicycle Facilities & Information - bike lanes, paths, signals, lockers, maps and signage to
promote bicycling as a viable mode of transportation.
During the preliminary screening process, congestion strategies can be subjectively evaluated for
suitability and potential benefit. The rating of suitability and potential benefit can result in a
matrix that helps determine which strategies should be high, medium and low priorities. The
preliminary screening provides some context as to the range and magnitude of possible
mitigation techniques. Ultimately, it is likely that additional detailed evaluation may be required.
Additional guidance and strategies from FHWA include:
• FHWA Congestion Reduction Toolbox:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion/toolbox/index.htmFacilities & Information
• FHWA Traffic Congestion and Reliability: Trends and Advanced Strategies for Congestion
Mitigation, Final Report
http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion_report/congestion_report_05.pdf
In July 2009, the Urban Land Institute published the report, Moving Cooler: An Analysis of
Transportation Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions. The report was prepared for
a steering committee that included FHWA, FT A and EPA. A broad variety of transportation
strategies are evaluated. Strategies relevant to improving energy efficiency included:
• Travel Activity—Reducing the number of miles traveled by transportation vehicles, or
shifting those miles to more efficient modes of transportation.
• Vehicle and System Operations—Improving the efficiency of the transportation network so
that a larger share of vehicle operations occur in favorable conditions, with respect to speed
and smoothness of traffic flow, resulting in more fuel efficient vehicle operations.
The report advocates for an integrated multi-strategy approach, and emphasizes that measures
that reinforce efficient driving — either through regulation (speed limit reductions) or education
(eco-driving) are especially effective. Integrated land use strategies and transit capital
investments, such as urban transit expansion and intercity and high-speed rail, were also found to
reduce fuel consumption. More information can be found at: http://movingcooler.info/.
5.10.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
See Section 5.9, Federal Vehicle Fleets.
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5.10.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
When considering energy efficiency within transportation facility related EISs, 309 Reviewers
will need to consider the individual purpose and need for each project. The purpose and need
should clearly state the transportation needs that exist, and the alternatives analysis should
thoroughly document the reasons for the selected modal choice.
In terms of operation, proposed capacity improvements projects should document the changes in
energy use or efficiency. Capacity improvements could have differing impacts on proposed
energy use depending upon the mode and the nature of the planning improvements. An EIS
should also quantitatively document the congestion mitigation benefits of the proposed action,
via analysis such as changes in delay, level of service, vehicle miles traveled, vehicles hours
traveled, travel time savings, etc. To fully appreciate the benefits of congestion mitigation, EIS
reviewers could suggest that the agency relate congestion mitigation to energy savings via
improved travel efficiency, reduction of idling, etc.
The construction of new transportation facilities, or upgrades of existing facilities, should
consider the energy efficiency of construction methods and materials. Mitigation commitments
documented in the EIS should include efforts to improve energy efficiency of construction. See
Section 5.4, Buildings, for recommendations on reducing energy use in construction. For
highway construction, reviewers can consult the EPA Green Highways Partnership website
http://www.greenhighways.org/index.cfm for additional recommendations on applicable energy
efficiency strategies (click on Resources for green highways technologies and case studies). For
other suggestions on construction techniques, the Low Impact Development Center
http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/ provides innovative approaches to "green" construction
techniques.
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Section 5.10 References
Clean Airport Partnership, Inc. 2009. Green Airport Initiative. Online.
http://www.cleanairports.com/ Accessed April 2009.
Federal Highway Administration. September 2005. Traffic Congestion and Reliability: Trends
and Advanced Strategies for Congestion Mitigation, Final Report. Online.
http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion report/congestion report 05.pdf Accessed April
2009.
Federal Highway Administration. 2009. Congestion Reduction Toolbox. Online.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion/toolbox/index.htm Accessed April 2009.
Seattle Tacoma International Airport. August 2007. "Managing a Green Airport." Online.
http://www.portseattle.org/downloads/community/environment/greenairport.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
Shoup, Donald. 2005. "Cruising for Parking". Online. http://shoup.bol.ucla.edu/Cruising.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
Transportation Research Board. 2005. "Options for Improving the Energy Efficiency of
Intermodal Freight Trains." Yung-Cheng Lai and Christopher P.L. Barkan. Report No.
1916, Railroads: Intercity Rail Passenger; Track Design and Maintenance; and Other
Topics.
Urban Land Institute. July 2009. Moving Cooler: An Analysis of Transportation Strategies for
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Online, http://movingcooler.info/ Accessed August
2009.
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5.11 Other Operations
5.11.a Summary
Energy efficiency can be evaluated as an issue in EISs for other operations, including research
and development (R&D) programs, operation of uranium enrichment facilities and power plants,
nuclear power plants, dredging, development of water and wastewater infrastructure, mining and
other resource extraction projects, and electricity transmission and distribution.
5.11.b Related Federal Partnership Programs
Federal agencies, particularly DOE and EPA, offer a range of programs to support energy
efficiency improvements. They include the following:
• Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Reserve (CRER): As an incentive to conserve
energy and to use renewable energy resources (such as biomass, solar, geothermal, or
wind), the Energy Reserve (58 FR 3618-3701) was established as part of the Acid Rain
Program. CRER has a pool of 300,000 air emission allowances. Utilities that meet
standards by implementing demand-side conservation measures or by using renewable
energy resources will be awarded the allowances by the CRER. These allowances can be
banked for future use as part of a compliance plan or sold.
• Coalbed Methane Outreach Program (CMOP): CMOP is an EPA program with the goal of
reducing methane emissions from coal mining. CMOP promotes the profitable recovery
and use of coal mine methane, a greenhouse gas (EPA 2009a).
• The Coal Combustion Products Partnership (C2P2): The C2P2 program is a cooperative
effort between EPA and the American Coal Ash Association (ACAA), Utility Solid Waste
Activities Group (USWAG), DOE, FHWA, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) to promote the beneficial use of coal
combustion products (CCPs) (EPA 2009f).
• Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP): LMOP is an EPA program to promote use of
landfill gas as a renewable, green energy source. Landfill gas (mainly carbon dioxide and
methane) is the natural by-product of the decomposition of solid waste in landfills. Landfill
gas energy projects also provide the benefit of preventing emissions of methane (a
powerful greenhouse gas) (EPA 2009b).
• AgStar: This joint effort of EPA, USDA, and DOE "encourages the use of methane
recovery (biogas) technologies at the confined animal feeding operations that manage
manure as liquids or slurries. These technologies reduce methane emissions while
achieving other environmental benefits" (EPA 2009c).
• Methane to Markets Partnership: An international initiative that advances cost-effective,
near-term methane recovery and use as a clean energy source. The Partnership acts as a
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mechanism to bring together interested parties from governments and the private sector to
facilitate methane project development and implementation around the world (EPA 2009d).
• Natural Gas Star: EPA partners with oil and natural gas companies to adopt proven, cost-
effective technologies and practices that improve operational efficiency and reduce
methane emissions (EPA 2009e).
• National Industrial Competitiveness Through Efficiency: Energy, Environment and
Economics (NICE3): DOE's Office of Industrial Technology's NICE3 program "provides
grants to state and private sector partnerships to demonstrate emerging, energy efficient
technologies that will benefit the Industries of the Future. The program provides up to
$525,000 (50% cost sharing is required) for the first commercial demonstration of
innovative industrial technologies that reduce energy consumption, waste generation, and
operating costs. Applications must be submitted by an authorized state agency with an
appropriate industrial partner" (DOE 2001).
• Power Marketing Administrations: DOE's Power Marketing Administrations market and
deliver through transmission systems the power produced at federal water projects in
excess of project needs in such a manner as to encourage its most widespread use at the
lowest possible rates to consumers consistent with sound business principles. The four
regional Power Marketing Administrations are Western Area, Bonneville, Southeastern,
and Southern (DOE 2009a).
• EPA Sector Notebooks: The Sector Notebook series is a unique set of profiles containing
information for specific industries and governments. Unlike other resource materials,
which are organized by air, water, and land pollutants, the Notebooks provide a holistic
approach by integrating processes, applicable regulations and other relevant environmental
information. There are 33 Industry Sector Notebooks and 3 Government Series that provide
government officials with information they need to comply with the environmental
regulations that apply to their activities. Many of them may provide useful information for
the NEPA reviewer. More information about the Sector Notebooks can be found in the
Sector Notebook Factsheet located at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/sector
-notebooks-factsheet.pdf. The notebooks can be accessed at:
http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/.
5.11.c Review Considerations
309 Reviewers should identify whether energy efficiency requirements are addressed in EISs. It
is understood that rather than repeating a lengthy discussion on these requirements, the EISs will
most likely incorporate them by reference by citing the appropriate document. Many times these
documents are made available via a link to a web site in the EIS. In most cases, this should
suffice.
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Research and Development Programs
The possibilities for introducing energy efficiency into R&D programs range as wide as the
subjects of the R&D activities themselves. Many review considerations identified in other
sections of this document could be relevant, depending on the details of the proposed action,
including the following:
• Procurement of appliances and equipment (Section 5.1)
• Facility siting (Section 5.2)
• Construction and buildings (Sections 5.3 and 5.4)
• Laboratories (Section 5.7)
Other activities that could present opportunities for energy efficiency include water conservation
measures in agricultural R&D projects, and teleconferencing, videoconferencing, online
reporting, and use of electronic data in management activities for large research programs.
Uranium Enrichment Facilities
Nuclear reactor fuel requires a higher concentration of the uranium-23 5 (U235) isotope than
exists in natural uranium ore. Normally, the amount of U235 is enriched from 0.7% of the
uranium mass to about 5%. Gaseous diffusion is the only process currently used in the U.S. to
enrich uranium for use as nuclear reactor fuel (NRC 2008). Gaseous diffusion involves heating
the solid form of uranium fluoride (UFe) that was received by the facility until its gaseous form
9^4 9^ S 9^R
is reached. In gaseous form, lighter U and U atoms are separated from the heavier U
though diffusion barriers. The resulting UFe gas, enriched with the U235 isotope, is condensed
into a liquid, solidified, and transported to a fuel fabrication facility where it can be
manufactured into reactor fuel (NRC 2007).
NRC has issued licenses for facilities to enrich uranium in the U.S. via gas centrifuge
processing, and two such facilities are currently under construction (NRC 2008). In this
process, centrifugal force generated in a rotating cylinder containing UFe gas separates the
lighter from the heavier uranium isotopes. A series (or "cascade") of centrifuges repeatedly
spins the products of the previous step, resulting in a progressively greater concentration of U235
(NRC 2008).
Laser enrichment is another technology that can be used to enrich uranium for use as nuclear
fuel, but it is a more difficult process, though more efficient. This technology is still in
development, and it may be available in the future in the U.S. (NRC 2008).
The NRC is a regulatory agency and does not build or operate uranium enrichment facilities.
The NRC issues licenses for these facilities. The NRC's regulatory authority under the Atomic
Energy Act does not extend to the energy efficiency of the facility. The NRC's implementing
regulations for NEPA are found in 10 CFR Part 51. If a license from NRC is requested to build a
new uranium enrichment facility, an appropriate NEPA assessment would be prepared, including
an EIS subject to EPA review and comment. Since the industrial processes described above have
high energy demands, both the construction and operation of the facility would present numerous
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opportunities to incorporate energy efficiency principles into the proposed action. Many review
considerations identified in other sections of this document could be relevant, including the
following:
• Procurement of appliances and equipment (Section 5.1)
• Facility siting (Section 5.2)
• Construction and buildings (Sections 5.3 and 5.4)
• Laboratories (Section 5.7)
• Industrial facilities (Section 5.8)
Power Plants
Thousands of generators in the U.S. produce electrical power for public consumption using
sources that include coal, petroleum, natural gas, other gases, nuclear, conventional
hydroelectric, wind, solar thermal and photovoltaic, wood and wood-derived fuels, geothermal,
other biomass, pumped storage, and other sources (such as batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch,
purchased steam, sulfur, tire-derived fuels, and miscellaneous technologies). New sources are
added frequently, while others are retired. EISs may be prepared when a federal agency is
involved in funding or licensing a power plant.
Many review considerations identified in other sections of this document could be relevant,
depending on the details of the proposed action, including the following:
• Procurement of appliances and equipment (Section 5.1)
• Facility siting (Section 5.2)
• Construction and buildings (Sections 5.3 and 5.4)
• Laboratories (Section 5.7)
• Industrial facilities (Section 5.8)
In addition, power plant and supporting operations design presents many opportunities to
conserve water resources and increase energy efficiency. Cooling systems for thermal
(conventional and nuclear) power plants, in particular, can have large water requirements,
amenable to implementation of water conservation measures. EPA reviewers identify language
indicating that water consumption has been quantified, and whether inclusion of conservation
measures has been considered.
For coal powered plants, the beneficial reuse of fly-ash and other coal combustion products can
improve energy efficiency. See 5.11 .b for information on the EPA/DOE/USDA Coal
Combustion Products Partnership.
Several states also require that the energy resource planning used to determine the need for a new
power plant fully integrate cost-effective energy efficiency. By integrating energy efficiency
resources, the need for a power plant may be deferred.
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Nuclear Power Plants
The NRC is a regulatory agency and does not build or operate nuclear power plants. The NRC
issues permits and licenses for these facilities. The NRC's regulatory authority under the Atomic
Energy Act does not extend to the energy efficiency of the facility. The Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) has specific guidance (NUREG-1555, http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-
collections/nuregs/staff/srl555/srl555.pdf) for its staff regarding energy reviews for EISs.
NUREG-1555 contains environmental standard review plans comprised of a series of
instructions developed for NRC staff to use when conducting environmental reviews of
applications related to nuclear power plants. The efficiency, conservation and demand side
management discussed in the ESRP refers to the service area to which the applicant will be
supplying electricity. It does not refer to the efficiency of the nuclear power plant or the
buildings associated with the nuclear power plant.
Chapter 8, Need for Power, Sections 8.2.1- "Power and Energy Requirements" and 8.2.2-
"Factors Affecting Growth of Demand" specifically addresses energy efficiency. They direct the
staff to analyze and evaluate the historic (15 years preceding the date of the application) and
projected (3rd year of commercial operation of proposed units) electricity consumption and
peakload demands in the relevant service area or market. In performing the review, NRC may
rely on the analysis in the applicant's environmental report and/or State or regional authorities'
or Independent System Operators' analyses concerning the need for power and energy supply
alternatives after ensuring that the analysis of the need for power and alternatives is reasonable
and meets high quality standards. Many of the applicants for a license for a nuclear power plant
are regulated utilities and as such their State public service commission may have required the
utility to implement conservation, efficiency measures and demand side management. The NRC
considers these measures in its analysis of the "need for power" in the EIS.
According to this guidance, a qualitative assessment as to the effectiveness of energy efficiency
improvements in the last several years given industry restructuring, price changes, recession, and
weather should be included. Successful efforts undertaken within the relevant region to promote
energy efficiency on the part of customers and with respect to internal use of power transmission
and distribution efficiency and demand side management should also be included.
The guidance states that the EIS should include the following:
1. public disclosure of the applicant's forecasts of peakload and electrical energy demand
and
2. presentation of the staffs evaluation regarding the completeness and adequacy of these
forecasts.
Chapter 9, "Alternatives to the Proposed Action", Section 9.2.1 "Alternatives Not Requiring
New Generating Capacity" also includes a brief discussion on energy efficiency. The discussion
is in terms of an analysis of conservation as an alternative to construction of the proposed plant.
This discussion indicates that the EIS should include the bases for rejecting or accepting the
alternative and supporting data such as:
1. the amount of (or lack of) excess generating capacity available for purchase,
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2. the plants within the regional system, if any, available for reactivation or extended
service life and their operating costs and availability factors, and
3. the effects of conservation on reducing the need for electrical generating capacity.
Dredging
Options for improving the energy efficiency of dredging are not well-documented. One option
that was identified, however, is to reduce the water content of the dredged material, which
reduces the amount of dredge waste. This reduces the amount of energy needed to process
dredged material, improving the energy efficiency of the dredge removal process (Black Sea
Coast Association 2001).
Equipment choices, such as newer dredge pump designs, can also improve the energy efficiency
of dredging.
Water and Wastewater Infrastructure
Energy efficiency and water conservation can be increased by improvements in several aspects
of water and wastewater systems (Alliance to Save Energy (2007), as follows:
• Pumps: efficient pumps of the right size (trim impellers when pumps already in place are
too large), variable speed drives, maintenance, re-wind pump motors when insufficient
funds to replace them.
• Leaks: detect and repair, manage network pressure, measure minimum night flow to gauge
leakiness of system.
• System automation.
• Metering and monitoring: process for regular system monitoring, water meters,
performance metrics, monitor the pump system (such as valves, flow, pressure, rotating
speed, energy used, volume pumped, and velocity in the main headers).
EPA (2008a) stated that the water sector's energy efficiency can be supported by the Agency by
"promoting benchmarking by utilities so that they better understand how their actions yield
results; promoting use of energy efficient products/practices; and evaluating the life cycle energy
costs associated with proposed projects so that alternatives can be appropriately considered."
Examples include:
• Designing and implementing an environmental management system (EMS). An EMS is a
set of processes and practices that enable an organization to reduce its environmental
impacts and increase its operating efficiency. More information can be found on the EPA
website: http://www.epa.gov/ems/.
• Use of the ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager tool to track and assess energy and water
consumption; this tool includes drinking water and wastewater treatment facilities in its
suite of facilities.
• Performing an energy audit. Information and examples can be found at the EPA Region 9
website: http://www.epa.gov/region09/waterinfrastructure/audit.html. Links to energy
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efficient technologies for water and wastewater infrastructure can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/region09/waterinfrastructure/technology.html.
• Use of CHP systems in waste water treatment facilities that have anaerobic digesters.
Biogas flow from these digesters can be used in a CHP system as "free" fuel to generate
reliable electricity and power for the facility (EPA 2008b).
• Use of alternative energy sources for utility operations, including solar cells, fuel cells, and
wind turbines.
• Use of EPA technical assistance in asset management
(http://www.epa.gov/OWM/assetmanage/index.htm). Asset management can be defined as
managing infrastructure capital assets to minimize the total cost of owning and operating
them, while delivering the service levels customer's desire. It is successfully practiced in
urban centers and large and small sewer collection systems to improve operational,
environmental, and financial performance (includes such measures as modified flow and
energy demand programs and software).
For new facilities and upgrades to existing facilities, design concepts to improve energy
efficiency include:
• Lay out the pipes first within the treatment facility so water is moved the shortest and
most direct distances with the least amount of turns and bends.
• Reduce friction by using large diameter pipe.
• Remove solids at the beginning of treatment to reduce the need for extra energy to move
the solids within the facility.
• Incorporate a drying process with the solids removal process to reduce extra energy
needed to move the extra moisture content in the solids.
• Increase residence time for additional treatment instead of adding more aeration.
• Reduce hydraulic head to reduce pumping capacity.
• Codigest biosolids and biowaste to reduce the volume of sludge trucked to a landfill.
• Consider using a high-density diffuser as opposed to an aeration system, which uses more
energy. The energy savings from the diffuser can offset the greater capital cost within 3
to 5 years.
• Use more efficient single stage blowers that save power and require less space, saving
building and operating costs.
• Use variable speed pumps and motors to match capacity with variable demand.
• Do not use materials that corrode and keep materials and structures such as ceilings,
roofs, and walls away from treatment processes that emit vapors that are corrosive.
• Design system in multiple units that can be added or deleted to expand or contract
treatment facility without the need to replace an entire component.
• Reduce the amount of chemicals required to treat and maintain treatment facilities by
using biological or physical processes.
• Design systems and equipment so less items are needed, so there are fewer replacement
parts.
• Design systems to reduce building height and amount of covers to save on materials,
lighting, heating.
• Establish pumping frequencies and software management programs.
• Regrade site as appropriate to reduce height of walls and pumping grades.
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• Use codigestion of biosolid wastes (e.g., sludge, fats, oils, grease, food waste, manure)
onsite anaerobically to generate biogas and add it to cogeneration equipment to create
electricity and heat for use onsite or to sell to the power company.
• Compost sludge and sell it.
• Sell excess recycled water to local farmers or businesses or use it to grow canola seeds to
create biodiesel or food.
• Enter into purchase power agreement to construct solar photovoltaic energy and utilize
net metering programs. Install emergency generators to provide alternative energy source
during periods of peak demand and high cost.
In 2008, EPA (2008c) published Ensuring a Sustainable Future: An Energy Management
Guidebook for Wastewater and Water Utilities. The introduction states that "If drinking water
and wastewater systems reduce energy use by just 10% through cost-effective investments,
collectively they could save approximately $400 million and 5 billion kWh annually." This 113-
page guide offers tools, links, technology suggestions, and management strategies to assist
utilities at all points on the energy efficiency spectrum make improvements, using a "Plan-Do-
Check-Act" approach that is cross-referenced to other programs including ENERGY STAR,
asset management, ISO 14001 environmental management systems, and the American National
Standards Institute's Management System for Energy. The guide sets out the steps that a facility
would take to understand their energy use and set reduction goals, take actions, and make
progress on achieving energy reduction targets.
The Water Environment Research Foundation is coordinating a project funded by the Global
Water Research Coalition to develop "Energy Efficiency in the Water Industry: A Compendium
of Tools, Best Practices and Case Studies." When complete (projected for spring 2010), this
document should serve as a useful tool for EPA Section 309 reviewers of EISs for water and
wastewater infrastructure projects. Updates can be found at www.werf.org/operations.
Mining and Other Resource Extraction Projects
The Southwest Energy Efficiency Project (2003) identified a comprehensive set of possibilities
for improving energy efficiency in the mining sector, as follows:
• Improving exploration techniques: minimize exploratory digging and drilling by deploying
non-invasive technologies such as remote sensing and ground-based technologies;
advanced techniques for assaying mineral content at exploratory sites to prioritize follow-
up.
• Raising the efficiency of the drilling, excavation, extraction, and ventilation processes:
using efficient and correctly sized excavation motors and pumps; using insulated pipes and
pumps and fan/coil heat exchangers located in the mine itself for ventilation ("[t]he closed
loop used to pipe chilled water takes advantage of gravity to move water into and out of the
mine, and water can contain 55 times more energy per unit of volume than can air. In
addition, it is simpler and more efficient to insulate pipe than ducts.")
• Ore processing: use of correctly sized and properly maintained motors, along with
adjustable speed drives for applications with varying load requirements; for smelting, use
oxygen-fueled burners rather than air-fueled burners to reduce energy use and emissions.
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DOE (2007) published case studies from the mining industry that demonstrate the savings
associated with improvements in mining, some of which are included in the list above:
• mining fan system optimization;
• retrofitting smelting applications from air-fuel to oxy-fuel burners;
• modernizing an electrolysis system; and
• optimizing pump systems.
EPA reviewers can look for inclusion of technologies such as these in the alternatives evaluated
in anEIS.
Electricity Transmission and Distribution
"The electric grid delivers electricity from points of generation to consumers, and the electricity
delivery network functions via two primary systems: the transmission system and the distribution
system. The transmission system delivers electricity from power plants to distribution
substations, while the distribution system delivers electricity from distribution substations to
consumers. The grid also encompasses myriads of local area networks that use distributed
energy resources to serve local loads and/or to meet specific application requirements for remote
power, village or district power, premium power, and critical loads protection (DOE 2009b)."
Given the state of our electricity grid, EPA is likely to review EISs addressing the expansion
and/or modernization of our electricity grid over the coming years. Grid expansions are
expected to extend electricity transmission to new generators, particularly in the case of
renewable resources, such as wind, which are available in areas currently not served or
connected to the transmission grid. Increases in electricity demand, particularly during peak
hours of the day, is likely to lead to expansions in our transmission and distribution systems.
Demand-side options, including energy efficiency and demand response programs, may defer the
need for such expansions to load growth.
Title XIII of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) states, "It is the policy
of the United States to support the modernization of the Nation's electricity transmission and
distribution system to maintain a reliable and secure electricity infrastructure that can meet future
demand growth and to achieve each of the following, which together characterize a Smart Grid.
1. Increased use of digital information and controls technology to improve
reliability, security, and efficiency of the electric grid;
2. Dynamic optimization of grid operations and resources, with full cyber-security;
3. Deployment and integration of distributed resources and generation, including
renewable resources;
4. Development and incorporation of demand response, demand-side resources, and
energy efficiency resources;
5. Deployment of "smart" technologies (real-time, automated, interactive
technologies that optimize the physical operation of appliances and consumer
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devices) for metering, communications concerning grid operations and status, and
distribution automation;
6. Integration of "smart" appliances and consumer devices;
7. Deployment and integration of advanced electricity storage and peak-shaving
technologies, including plug-in electric and hybrid electric vehicles, and thermal
storage air conditioning;
8. Provision to consumers of timely information and control options;
9. Development of standards for communication and interoperability of appliances
and equipment connected to the electric grid, including the infrastructure serving
the grid; and
10. Identification and lowering of unreasonable or unnecessary barriers to adoption of
smart grid technologies, practices, and services."
EISA established the Federal Smart Grid Task Force
(http://www.oe.energy.gov/smartgrid_taskforce.htm) to coordinate smart grid activities across
the Federal Government. Task Force activities include coordinating security issues and
advancing interoperability standards so that technologies across the grid can better communicate
with one another. The Task Force has also commissioned a report on understanding the potential
CC>2 benefits from smart gird technologies. It includes experts from several Federal agencies,
including DOE (Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability and Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy), FERC, Department of Commerce (DOC), EPA, Department
of Homeland Security (DHS), Department of Agriculture (USD A), Federal Communications
Commission (FCC), and DoD.
The DOE OE office has the lead role on federal efforts to modernize the electricity grid. This
includes both the federal Smart Grid Task Force and a national Electricity Advisory Committee.
DOE also sponsors research and development on smart grid technologies, as well as grid
modernization strategy tools for industry and broad educational offerings for states, customers
and others. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) provided
approximately $4.5B to smart grid investment projects and regional demonstration projects.
DOE is responsible for awarding these funds and reporting on the results. Based on DOE's
selections announced on October 27, 2009, ARRA smart grid investment grant program funding
is being considered in the following categories: advanced metering infrastructure, customer
systems, electricity distribution systems, electric transmission systems, equipment
manufacturers, and integrated and/or cross cutting systems.
At the federal level, FERC has authority over electricity rates and terms and conditions of
transmission and wholesale sales in interstate commerce. FERC also has responsibility for
approving and enforcing mandatory reliability standards for the bulk power system and adopting
smart grid interoperability standards for the interstate transmission of electric power
(http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/smart-grid.asp). It is important to highlight
that FERC has jurisdiction over hydropower projects but has no authority over the construction
or maintenance of power generating plants and has significant limited jurisdiction over
transmission line siting, electricity distribution systems, and retail sales. The responsibility over
the construction and maintenance of power generating plants and transmission lines primarily
resides with the state Public Utility Commissions (PUC). State PUCs also have authority over
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electricity distribution systems and the rates paid and services received by retail customers.
Links to all the PUCs are located at http://www.naruc.org/.
Under EISA, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), (a non-regulatory
federal agency within DOC) has responsibility to coordinate development of interoperability
standards and protocols for a smart grid (http://www.nist.gov/smartgrid/). Interoperability
standards will help generators, transmission, distribution, consumer products, and buildings
communications to facilitate a desired action. For example, "smart" appliances and products
may tell consumers how much power they are using and at what cost, providing additional
information and feedback to help lower their power consumption and energy bills. In addition,
smart grid technologies may help the electricity system manage large penetration (higher than
20%) of renewable generation that provides varying levels of power throughout the day (DOE
2009c).
Efforts are also underway to engage states, consumers, environmental groups and others in the
deployment of the smart grid. For example, DOE and EPA facilitate a Smart Grid Stakeholder
Group, which released a Perspective for Utilities and Others Implementing Smart Grids
document in September 2009. This document was developed to provide general guiding
principles for utilities and other smart grid project developers as they begin to plan and
implement upgrades to their metering infrastructures, transmission and distribution networks. It
is located at http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/documents/stakeholder roundtable sept09.pdf
Key findings include but are not limited to:
• More information on smart grid demonstrations and deployments is needed, particularly
from the perspectives of utility regulators, consumers and those with expertise about the
environmental impacts or benefits.
• Technology investment is important, but thorough evaluations and possibly the adoption
of additional policies are needed to ensure that the potential environmental and consumer
benefits from smart grid investments exceed the costs.
• Pioneers of smart grid deployments need to learn from each other and help to inform
further technology and policy development.
309 Reviewers may be interested in a particular section of this report, "Smart Grid and Its Link
to The Environment." It discusses both the environmental benefits and potential
disadvantages/concerns that may be affiliated with the smart grid. This stakeholder dialogue
revealed the following potential environmental benefits from a smart grid:
1. Reduced integration costs for variable renewable technologies and plug-in electric
vehicles
2. Greater use of clean distributed general on options by all consumers (such as solar
rooftops)
3. Enhanced load control capabilities that can provide sustainable energy efficiency savings
for utilities and therefore help to avoid new generation
4. Reduction in energy losses across the transmission and distribution grids
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Environmental participants' concerns about a smart grid included whether smart grid
technologies would enable greater use of diesel back-up generators or encourage a shift of
energy usage from peak load periods during the day to greater reliance on base load fossil plants
and their effect on total emissions. Further, smart grid technologies themselves use electricity
(computing, network equipment, sensors) and contribute to data center load. For these reasons,
in order to address this issue an EIS may include a utility's holistic approach to meeting emission
reduction goals that may rely on clean demand response (such as load curtailment), increased
deployment of various renewables, smart grid technologies that are themselves energy efficient,
data center energy efficiency efforts, and other measures.
The following are other issues that were highlighted in the report that 309 Reviewers may
consider while reviewing an EIS that addresses a smart grid:
1. What are the anticipated environmental benefits of the smart grid deployment and how
will these be measured, including enabling greater penetration of renewable generation
and peak and total energy use reductions.
2. Are any risks being shifted from the utility to customers, or within customer classes? In
particular, will additional risks be transferred to environmental justice communities?
3. If upgrades are intended to reduce peak load, how much load will be avoided over what
period? Are these savings being captured in energy and air planning?
4. How much consumer interaction is required? Will all customers, including
environmental justice communities, have access to benefits?
a. Will customers have access to their energy use, price and bill information? What
will be done with this information to help make it actionable for consumers to
reduce their total energy use?
b. Will customers be required to purchase a new technology or service (such as grid-
connected appliances, a home area network, or energy management system) in
order to reduce their total energy bills? How will that purchase be incented
through rates and other programs to address the additional market barriers?
c. Will all customers have access to the enabling technology? For example, will
Internet connections be required in homes to obtain information feedback? Will
information also be available to customers in low or no tech formats?
d. Has the utility performed any customer research to fully understand what different
customers want and will respond to? How does this vary by different customer
segments (i.e. low-income residential, commercial buildings with existing energy
management systems, etc).
e. What is being done to ensure the utilities' smart grid technologies will be
interoperable with available technologies within homes and buildings?
5. Has the utility considered the broad environmental impacts as well as benefits from smart
grid deployment? For instance, data storage associated with smart grid technology will
undoubtedly increase. Data storage centers are huge energy users. Has the utility
evaluated the broad spectrum of savings offset by the potential increases of electric use
from its smart grid additions?
6. Will building managers have access to consumption data and information to better
manage energy use by ensuring that installed equipment are maintained and operating as
designed to meet forecasted loads and to allow for changes in operational requirements?
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Another challenge is the integration of renewable energy into the existing grid where there is the
tendency of large-scale renewable energy facilities to be located far from population centers;
additional expense is required for property acquisition, transmission lines and road construction.
To overcome this challenge, one solution is to construct renewable energy projects on
brownfields, abandoned mines, federal Superfund sites, non-federal Superfund sites, or other
disturbed areas. Many of these locations have transmission capacity on-site and/or may be closer
to population centers. Another alternative which limits the need for new transmission is the
possibility of locating solar facilities near substations, where only short-interconnections are
needed.
Smart Grid technology deployments may increase energy efficiency by reducing line losses and
controlling voltage levels on the electricity system and supporting greater energy efficiency and
clean distributed generation in homes, buildings and industry. The technologies alone will not
provide the end-use energy efficiency benefits directly. EPA reviewers may also look to
resources of the National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (Section 4.2) for information on
policy and program options to support achieving energy efficiency savings. As smart grid
deployments are still under development, EPA reviewers can request that smart grid projects
share information on the energy savings realized through the investment. This can help better
inform EPA on the efficiency opportunity for future reviews.
EPA reviewers may also consider whether federal actions related directly (siting of new
transmission lines and power plants) or programmatically to electricity transmission and
distribution have considered technologies and policies, including those considered Smart Grid,
that could help increase energy efficiency benefits from the investment. In the case of new long-
distance transmission lines, EPA reviewers may consider not only the line, but potential for
environmental effects from the power generator that will now be generating power due to the
line.
Many review considerations identified in other sections of this document could be relevant,
depending on the details of the proposed action, including the following:
• Procurement of appliances and equipment (Section 5.1)
• Construction and buildings (Sections 5.3 and 5.4)
• Laboratories (Section 5.7)
• Industrial facilities (Section 5.8)
In a related matter, EPA entered into a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the
Department of the Interior (DOI), USD A, DOC, DoD, DOE, the Advisory Council on Historic
Preservation, CEQ, and FERC. Its intent is to expedite the siting and construction of qualified
electric transmission infrastructure in the United States. It also improves coordination among
project applicants, federal agencies, and states and tribes that are involved in the siting and
permitting process. The MOU assigns the lead agency for NEPA and other environmental
reviews. It is located at:
http://www.whitehouse.gov/files/documents/ceq/Transmission%20Siting%20on%20Federal%20
Lands%20MOU.pdf.
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Section 5.11 References
Alliance to Save Energy. 2007. WATERGY: Energy and Water Efficiency in Municipal Water
Supply and Wastewater Treatment Cost-Effective Savings of Water and Energy. Online.
http://www.watergy.org/resources/publications/watergy.pdfAccessed April 2009.
Black Sea Coast Association. 2001. Environmental Management System for Dredging on the
Bulgarian Black Sea Coast. Online.
http://www.rec.org/ecolinks/bestpractices/PDF/bulgaria_bsca.pdf Accessed April 2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2009. Existing Capacity by Energy Source. U.S.
Department of Energy. Online, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epat2p2.html
Accessed April 2009.
Southwest Energy Efficiency Project. 2003. Energy Efficiency Guide for Colorado Businesses-
Recommendations by Sector: Mining. Online.
http://www.coloradoefficiencyguide.com/recommendations/mining.htm Accessed April
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2001. Financial Assistance. Office of Industrial Technology. Office
of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/inventions/pdfs/fmancial brch.pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2007. Industrial Technologies Program: Case Studies by Industry.
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/industry/bestpractices/case studies industry.html#mn
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009a. Power Marketing Administrations. Online.
http://www.energv.gov/organization/powermarketingadmin.htm Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009b. Smart Grid. Online.
http://www.oe.energy.gov/smartgrid.htm Accessed May 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009c. The Smart Grid: An Introduction. Online.
http://www.oe.energy.gov/DocumentsandMedia/DOE SG Book Single Pages(l).pdf
Accessed May 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008a. The Nexus between Water and Energy:
Promoting Energy Efficiency for the Water Sector. Memorandum from Benjamin H.
Grumbles. February 14, 2008. Online.
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http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/pdfs/memo_si_bengrumbles_nexus-between-
water-energy 02142008.pdf Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008b. Combined Heat and Power Partnership:
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/chp/markets/wastewater.html. Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2008c. Ensuring a Sustainable Future: An Energy
Management Guidebook for Wastewater and Water Utilities. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/pdfs/guidebook si energymanagement.pdf
Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009a. Coalbed Methane Outreach Program (CMOP).
Online, http://www.epa.gov/cmop/ Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009b. Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP).
Online, http://www.epa.gov/lmop/index.htm Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009c. The AgSTAR Program. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/agstar/ Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009d. The Methane to Markets Partnership. Online.
http://www.methanetomarkets.org/ Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009e. Natural Gas STAR Program. Online.
http://www.epa.gov/gasstar/basic-information/index.htmltfoverviewl Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2009f Wastes - Partnerships - Coal Combustion
Products Partnership. Online, http://www.epa.gov/osw/partnerships/c2p2/index.htm
Accessed November 2009.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2007. Stages of the Fuel Cycle. Web page updated
February 13, 2007. Online, http://www.nrc.gov/materials/fuel-cycle-fac/stages-fuel-
cycle.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2008. Fact Sheet on Uranium Enrichment. January 2008.
Office of Public Affairs. Online, http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-
sheets/enrichment.html Accessed April 2009.
White House. 2009. Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Coordination in Federal Agency
Review of Electric Transmission Facilities on Federal Land. Online.
http://www.whitehouse.gov/files/documents/ceq/Transmission%20Siting%20on%20Federa
l%20Lands%20MOU.pdf Accessed November 2009.
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6. Renewable Energy Technologies
6.1 Solar Power
6.2 Wind Power
6.3 Geothermal Power
6.4 Biomass
6.5 Hydropower
6.6 Benefits and Limitations
Renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies are
closely related in that both seek to increase energy
sustainability and reduce pollution caused by energy use.
This chapter presents information on current and
developing renewable energy technologies and federal
renewable energy programs. Section 309 reviewers can
use the information provided in this chapter to make
informed recommendations to federal agencies for
incorporating renewable energy technology in the actions,
decisions and operations of the Federal government (see x •
Section 5.11 Other Operations, for information on the related topic of electricity transmission
and distribution).
The figure below shows U.S. energy consumption by production type. In 2007, renewable
energy supplied about 7% of the nation's energy needs. Hydroelectric and biomass together
provide 89% of the U.S. renewable energy supply.
Renewable Energy Plays a Role in the Nation's Energy Supply (2007)
TotaN 101.605
Quadrillion Btu
Petroleum
40%
Total =6.830
Quadrillion Btu
Nuclear Electric
Power —'
8%
Natural Gas
23%
— Solar Energy 1 %
- Hydroelectric 36%
_ Geothermal
Energy 5%
— Biomass 53%
- Wind Energy 5%
Nate: Sum of components may no) equal 100 percent due to independent rounding.
Source: EIA, Renewable Energy Consumption and Etecfricrty Preliminary 2007 Statistics. Tabte 1: U.S.
Energy Consumption by Energy Source. 2003-2007 (Way 2008).
As of 2007, the majority of renewable energy consumption (51%) was for the production of
electricity. Most of the remaining 49% of renewable energy consumed was biomass for industrial
applications (principally paper-making) by plants producing only heat and steam. Biomass is
also used for transportation fuels (ethanol) and to provide residential and commercial space
heating.
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Table 6-1 shows the electricity generated from various renewable sources. The largest share of
the renewable-generated electricity comes from hydroelectric energy (71%), followed by
biomass (16%), wind (9%), geothermal (4%), and solar (0.2%) (EIA 2009b).
Table 6-1
Electricity Net Generation From Renewable Energy by Energy Use Sector and Energy
Source, 2003-2007 (thousand-kilowatt hours)
Sector/Source 2002 2004 2005 2006 2007
Biomass
Geothermal
Hydroelectric
Conventional
Solar/PV
Wind
Total
53,341,092
14,424,231
275,806,329
534,001
11,187,466
355,293,119
53,073,722
14,810,975
268,417,308
575,155
14,143,741
351,020,900
54,160,152
14,691,745
270,321,255
550,294
17,810,549
357,533,995
54,758,512
14,568,029
289,246,416
507,706
26,589,137
385,669,799
55,400,235
14,838,636
248,312,395
606,082
32,143,244
351,300,592
Sources: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-906, "Power Plant Report," and Form EIA-920, "Combined
Heat and Power Plant Report." (EIA 2009a).
Several federal agencies have conducted comprehensive assessments evaluating the potential for
increased renewable energy development. These reports can aid federal and military decision
makers in prioritizing activities that will increase the federal government's use of renewable
energy technologies. Reports include:
• Assessing the Potential for Renewable Energy on National Forest System Lands
(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/36759.pdf). This U.S. Forest Service technical report
evaluates the potential for renewable energy resource development (wind and solar) on
National Forest System lands.
• Assessing the Potential for Renewable Energy on Public Lands
(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy03osti/33 530.pdf). This Department of Interior Bureau of
Land Management (BLM) report is intended to assist federal land managers with
increasing development of renewable energy resources on public lands in the West (except
Alaska). The report studied resources on BLM, Tribal, and Forest Service lands.
• Department of Defense Renewable Energy Assessment
(http://www.acq.osd.mil/ie/energy/renew_energy/renewable.shtml). This Department of
Defense assessment provides an evaluation of wind, solar and geothermal energy use at
U.S. military installations, and considers resource availability, electricity purchasing,
mission compatibility, energy security, and short- and long-term perspectives.
• RE-Power ing America's Land: Renewable Energy on Contaminated Land and Mining Sites
(http://www.epa.gov/renewableenergyland/). EPA is encouraging the development of
renewable energy by identifying currently and formerly contaminated lands and mining
sites that present opportunities for renewable energy development. The website contains
maps showing renewable energy development potential on EPA-tracked sites (linked to
Google Earth), as well as incentive sheets describing renewable energy development and
contaminated lands redevelopment incentives in each state.
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• DOE GeothermalResource Maps (http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/geothertnal/tnaps.httnl).
• DOE Wind Resource Maps (http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/wind maps.asp).
• NREL U.S. Solar Resource Maps (http://www.nrel.gov/gis/solar.html).
• NREL Dynamic Maps, GIS Data and Analysis Tools (http: //www. nr el. gov/gi s/) provides
dynamically-generated maps of renewable energy resources that determine which energy
technologies are viable solutions in national and international regions.
Federal agencies have also prepared several programmatic EIS's related to renewable energy
development:
• West-wide Energy Corridor Programmatic EIS (http://corridoreis.anl.gov/). This DOE,
BLM and DOD Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (PEIS) evaluates issues
associated with the designation of energy corridors on federal lands in 11 Western states.
EPAct 2005 directs the Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Energy, and the
Interior to designate corridors on federal land in 11 Western States (Arizona, California,
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and
Wyoming) for oil, gas, and hydrogen pipelines and electricity transmission and distribution
facilities (energy corridors).
• Solar Energy Development Programmatic EIS (http://www.solareis.anl.gov/). See Section
6.1, Solar Power.
• BLM: Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS (http://windeis.anl.gov/). See Section
6.2, Wind Power.
• Geothermal Resources Leasing Programmatic EIS
(http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energv/geothermal/geothermal nationwide.html). See
Section 6.3, Geothermal Power.
The Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency (DSIRE)
(http://www.dsireusa.org/) is a comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility, and
federal incentives and policies that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. Funded by
DOE, DSIRE is an ongoing project of the North Carolina Solar Center and the Interstate
Renewable Energy Council. DSIRE tracks energy efficiency financial incentives and rules,
regulations and policies established by the federal government, state governments, larger local
governments and larger electric utilities.
The DOE EERE has renewable energy research and development partnership programs and
conducts research related to these renewable energies with the Solar Energy Technologies
Program, the Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program, the Geothermal Technologies
Program, and the Biomass Program. Information in the following sections is adapted from DOE
websites.
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6.1 Solar Power
Solar power involves collecting energy from sunlight and converting it into heat, electricity or
supplemental lighting. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use
technology such as photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs.
Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing
spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the sun.
Passive Solar Design
Passive solar design is the technology of
heating, cooling, and lighting a building
naturally with sunlight rather than with
mechanical systems. Basic design
principles are large south-facing windows
with proper overhangs, as well as tile,
brick, or other thermal mass material used
in flooring or walls to store the sun's heat
during the day and release it back into the
building at night or when the temperature
drops. Passive solar can also use energy
efficient materials, improved insulation,
airtight construction, natural landscaping,
and proper building orientation to take
advantage of the sun, shade, and wind.
Passive solar designs can include natural
ventilation for cooling (DOE 2009c).
Solar Water Heating
Solar water-heating systems use
collectors, generally mounted on a south-
facing roof, to heat either water or
nontoxic antifreeze that is circulated from
the collector to the water storage tanks.
The heated water is then stored in a water
tank similar to one used in a conventional
gas or electric water-heating system.
Collectors heat water either "passively" or
"actively." Passive solar water-heating
systems use natural convection or water
pressure to circulate water through a solar
collector to a storage tank. They have no
electric components that could break, a
Hybrid Solar Lighting Illuminates Energy
Savings for Government Facilities
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/tf hybridso
lar.pdf
Electric lighting is the greatest consumer of
electricity in U.S. commercial buildings and
generating this electricity by conventional power
plants is the building sector's most significant cause
of air pollution. Hybrid solar lighting provides a
new means of reducing energy consumption in
federal buildings while delivering benefits
associated with natural lighting. The technology
could be particularly useful in the Sunbelt where
cooling is a significant source of energy use.
Hybrid solar lighting contributes to meeting the
requirements set by EPAct 2005 for federal
renewable energy consumption The technology was
originally developed for fluorescent lighting
applications but has been enhanced to work with
incandescent accent-lighting sources, such as the
parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps
commonly used in retail spaces. Commercial
building owners—specifically retailers—use the
low-efficiency PAR lamps because of their desirable
optical properties and positive impact on sales. Yet
the use of this inefficient lighting results in some
retailers' spending 55-70% of their energy budgets
on lighting and lighting-related energy costs.
Solar lighting can significantly reduce artificial
lighting requirements and energy costs in many
commercial and industrial buildings and in
institutional facilities Future R&D is aimed at
enhancing the performance and reliability of the
technology as well as extending the application of
the system to work with newly emerging solid-state
lighting sources.
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feature that generally makes them more reliable, easier to maintain, and possibly longer lasting
than active systems. An active system uses an electric pump to circulate water or nontoxic
antifreeze through the system. Active systems are usually more expensive than passive systems,
but they are also more efficient. Active systems are easier to retrofit than passive systems
because their storage tanks do not need to be installed above or close to the collectors. In
addition, the moving water in the system will not freeze in cold climates. However, because
these systems use electricity, they will not function in a power outage. For this reason, many
active systems are now combined with a small solar-electric panel to power the pump.
The amount of hot water a solar water heater produces depends on the type and size of the
system, the amount of sun available at the site, proper installation, and the tilt angle and
orientation of the collectors (DOE 2009c).
Photovoltaics and Thin Film Technology
Photovoltaics are silicon-based devices that convert light into electricity. These devices are
grouped together into photovoltaic modules and either used to provide power for individual
structures or for large-scale grid-connected power generation. The larger photovoltaic
installations, called solar farms, can encompass numerous acres and many interconnected
photovoltaic modules. Because of this modularity, PV systems can be designed to meet any
electrical requirement, no matter
how large or how small. Thin-
film, a more recent development
in PV technology, uses
microscopically thin layers of
material deposited onto a metal,
ceramic, semiconductor or
plastic base. Thin films of
photovoltaic material using
silicon, cadmium telluride and
other elements are used to make
solar panels and solar roof
shingles.
!••»•*•• • Win «•• • !••••
• -
ModuW
Array
Source: DOE 2009.
J
Concentrated Solar Power
Concentrated solar power is a solar thermal technique that uses reflective surfaces from
dish/engine systems, parabolic troughs, and central power towers that focus or concentrate the
sun's heat energy. This concentrated solar energy then drives a generator to produce electricity.
Concentrated solar power systems are divided into concentrated solar thermal and concentrated
photovoltaics. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to
focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated light is then used as heat or as
a heat source for a conventional power plant. Concentrated photovoltaics is a term used when
sunlight is concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of direct electrical power
production. Compared to conventional flat panel solar cells, concentrated photovoltaics are
advantageous because the solar collector is less expensive than an equivalent area of solar cells.
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The DOE Report to Congress, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial Application Study:
Reducing Water Consumption of Concentrating Solar Power Electricity Generation
(http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf discusses potential methods to
reduce water consumption associated with concentrated solar power. The DOE fact sheet,
Concentrated Solar Power (http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/43685.pdf), and Solar
Energy Technologies Program website provide more information on concentrated solar power.
Other solar heating technologies make use of low-temperature solar collectors that absorb the
sun's heat energy, allowing that heat to be used directly for water or space heating in residential,
commercial, and industrial buildings. Solar lighting technologies rely on roof-mounted solar
concentrators to collect sunlight; this is then distributed through optical fibers to special lighting
fixtures in the building's interior that combine natural light with electric light to illuminate
interior spaces.
Distributed Generation
Solar power increases the potential for distributed energy generation. Distributed generation is
the production of energy close to where it will be used, and power capacity usually ranges from 1
kilowatt to 5 megawatts (MW). In contrast, central generation ranges from 10 to 1,000 MW and
supplies power to locations much farther away through transmission lines. Electric utilities often
tap into solar electricity for distributed applications, such as near substations or at the end of
overloaded distribution lines, to avoid or defer costly upgrades of transmission lines (DOE
2009d). Several reports published in February 2008 by NREL and DOE's EERE discuss the
mechanics and challenges of distributed generation, including:
• Distribution System Voltage Performance Analysis for High-Penetration Photovoltaics
(http ://wwwl .eere. energy, gov/solar/pdfs/42298 .pdf)
• Renewable Systems Interconnection (http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/42292.pdf
Power System Planning: Emerging Practices
Suitable for Evaluating the Impact of High-
Penetration Photovoltaics
(http: //www 1. eere. energy. gov/sol ar/pdfs/4229
7.pdf)
Solar Energy Technologies Program
Solar energy capacity has more than doubled between
2000 and 2007, but still represents a very small part of
U.S. electricity generation (DOE 2009). The DOE
EERE Solar Energy Technologies Program focuses on
developing cost-effective solar-energy technologies
that have the greatest potential for incorporation into
the market place. Along with technology research and
development, the program works to remove non-
technical market barriers (e.g., updating codes and
/ Solar Energy Development \
Programmatic EIS
DOE and BLM are preparing (as of
2009) a PEIS to evaluate utility-
scale solar energy development, to
develop and implement Agency-
specific programs that would
establish environmental policies and
mitigation strategies for solar energy
projects, and to amend relevant
BLM land use plans with the
consideration of establishing a new
BLM solar energy development
program. Information about the
PEIS can be found here:
http://www.solareis.anl.gov/.
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standards that are not applicable to new technologies, and improving interconnection agreements
among utilities and consumers). The program works with the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Brookhaven
National Laboratory to perform research support program management. These laboratories are
organized into two virtual labs, the National Center for Photovoltaics (NCPV) and the SunLab
(for Concentrating Solar Power research).
There are four subprograms in the Solar Energy Technologies Program: Photovoltaics,
Concentrating Solar Power, Systems Integration and Market Transformation. The Photovoltaics
subprogram funds PV technologies that have potential for significant advances in solar energy
efficiency. The Concentrating Solar Power subprogram pursues research and development
activities in concentrating solar power to lower technology and manufacturing costs, increase
conversion efficiencies, and improve the reliability of components and systems. The Systems
Integration subprogram focuses on reducing the regulatory, technical, and economic barriers to
integrate solar electricity into the electric grid. The Market Transformation subprogram works
with external partners to address non-R&D issues that are barriers to the widespread adoption of
solar technologies. Through this subprogram the DOE provides financial and technical
assistance, information, and training related to solar technology. The program also presents case
studies (e.g., http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/solar/cs_ca_substation.html) of successful solar
power implementation. More information on the program can be found at:
http ://wwwl. eere. energy, gov/solar/.
6.2 Wind Power
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind
machines and turbines. Wind machines can be large individual structures with a small number of
sizable blades, or numerous smaller structures with many relatively tiny blades. Specially-
designed blades are constructed to capture as much
wind as possible; this turns a drive shaft connected to a
turbine, generating electricity. Modern wind turbines
fall into two basic groups: the horizontal-axis and the
vertical-axis design (DOE 2009e).
Larger turbines are grouped together into wind farms,
which provide bulk power to the electrical grid.
Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts
to as large as several megawatts. Single small turbines,
below 100 kilowatts, are used for homes,
telecommunications dishes, or water pumping. Utility
companies increasingly buy back surplus electricity
produced by small domestic turbines. Wind energy is
one of the lowest-priced renewable energy
technologies available today, costing between 4 and 6
cents per kilowatt-hour (DOE 2009e).
BLM: Wind Energy Development
Programmatic EIS.
In June 2005, BLM prepared a
Final PEIS to evaluate issues
associated with wind energy
development on Western public
lands (excluding Alaska)
administered by the BLM. The
PEIS, along with the Revised
BLM Wind Energy Policy
Instruction Memorandum is
available here:
http://windeis.anl.gov/.
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Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales:
from hour to hour, daily, and seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant.
Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain
grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of
wind power into a grid system. In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not
coincide with peak demand for electrical power. In California and Texas, for example, hot days
in summer may have low wind speed and high electrical demand due to air conditioning.
Proper selection of a wind turbine site is critical to economic development of wind power. Aside
from the availability of wind itself, other factors include the availability of transmission lines,
value of energy to be produced, cost of land acquisition, land use considerations, and
environmental impact of construction and operations. Although wind power plants have fewer
impacts on the environment compared to conventional power plants, impacts include noise
produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts, and danger to migratory birds from the
spinning blades. Many potential sites for wind farms are far from demand centers, requiring
substantially more money to construct new transmission lines and substations.
Deep Water Wind Turbine
Development
Offshore winds tend to
flow at higher speeds
than onshore winds, thus
allowing turbines at
offshore locations to
produce more electricity.
Because the potential
energy produced from
the wind is directly
proportional to the cube
of the wind speed,
increased wind speeds of
only a few miles per
hour can produce a
significantly larger
amount of electricity.
Much of this potential
energy is near major
population (and energy
load) centers where energy costs are high and land-based wind development opportunities are
limited (MMS 2009). For this reason, interest in wind project located off the U.S. coast is
increasing.
In offshore facilities, undersea collection cables connect multiple turbines in the wind facility
and transport the electricity from them to a transformer where the combined electricity is
converted to a high voltage for transmission via undersea cables to a substation. There the
electricity is connected to the onshore electricity grid (MMS 2009).
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Offshore turbines have technical needs not required of onshore turbines due to the more
demanding climatic environmental exposure offshore. U.S. waters are generally deeper than
those on the European coast where offshore wind projects are more common, and will require
new technology. Off-shore locations also have higher construction costs, but may offset these
costs with higher annual power generation, thereby reducing the cost of energy produced. The
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) published two recent reports on offshore wind
power potential, Future for Offshore Wind Energy in the United States in June 2004
(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/36313.pdf) and an April 2009 Outer Continental Shelf report
(http://www.doi.gov/ocs/). The October 2007 MMS OCS Alternative Energy and
Alternate Use Programmatic EIS also contains information on offshore wind energy
development (http://ocsenergy.anl.gov/guide/wind/index.cfm).
With a current annual growth rate of 30% to 40%, the nation's wind energy capacity increased
from 2,500 MW in 1996 to more than 21,000 MW at the end of 2008. However, wind energy
still comprises less than 2% of U.S. energy generation (DOE 2009e).
Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program
The DOE Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program
(http://www 1. eere. energy. gov/windandhydro/about. html) focuses research on increasing the
technical viability of wind systems, and increasing the use of wind power in the marketplace.
DOE assesses market barriers for various turbine size ranges (Table 6-2):
Turbine Size Range
Table 6-2
id Turbine Market Segmental
Applications
Source: MMS 2009.
Barriers
Small (<10kW)
Intermediate (10 kW - 500
kW)
Large (500 kW - 5 MW)
Very Large (>5 MW)
Residential, off-grid
Wind/diesel, industrial
Grid interconnect
Offshore grid interconnect
Zoning
Zoning
Transmission and access;
operational impacts
Cables to shore, viewshed,
new regulatory
DOE uses a state-focused strategy for build acceptance for wind energy technology. DOE uses
several subprograms to promote wind power, including:
• Wind Powering America (WPA) (http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/). WPA identifies
barriers at the state level, and provides technical assistance and outreach to key user
communities - farmers and ranchers, Native Americans, federal facility managers, rural
electric cooperatives, and consumer-owned utilities.
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• National Wind Coordinating Committee (NWCC) (http://www.nationalwind.org/). NWCC
is a collaborative among representatives from electric utilities and support organizations,
state legislatures, state utility commissions, consumer advocacy offices, wind equipment
suppliers and developers, green power marketers, environmental organizations, agriculture
and economic development organizations, and state and federal agencies.
• Federal Wind Siting Information Center
(http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/federalwindsiting/). The Center provides
information on the siting of wind turbines and on federal activities to support the increased
deployment of wind energy facilities on public, private, and tribal lands, airspace, and
offshore.
6.3 Geothermal Power
Geothermal power comes from energy generated by heat stored in the earth. Geothermal energy
is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Geothermal power plants have average availabilities
of 90% or higher, compared to about 75% for coal plants. In the U.S., most geothermal
reservoirs are located in the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. Geothermal resources range
from shallow ground to hot water and rock several miles below the Earth's surface, and even
further down to the extremely hot molten rock called magma (DOE 2009b). Wells over a mile
deep can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be
brought to the surface for use in a variety of applications. Geothermal systems are recognized as
one of the most efficient heating and cooling systems available. Geothermal technologies
include collecting energy through heat pumps, hot dry rock processes, and direct heating.
In most areas, the upper 10 feet of Earth's
surface maintains a nearly constant
temperature between 50 and 60°F. A
geothermal heat pump system consists of
pipes buried in the shallow ground near a
building. In winter, heat from the relatively
warmer ground is collected in the pipes and
brought into building, while in summer hot
air from the building is pulled out into the
relatively cooler ground. Heat removed
during the summer can be used as no-cost
energy to heat water (DOE 2009b).
The initial cost of installing a geothermal
heat pump system can be two to three times
that of a conventional heating system in
most residential applications, new
construction or existing buildings. There are
four basic types of heat pump systems. Three
Closed Loop Systems
Vertical
Source: DOE 2009b.
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of these—horizontal, vertical, and pond/lake—are closed-loop systems. The fourth type of
system is the open-loop option. Which one of these is best depends on the climate, soil
conditions, available land, and local installation costs at the site.
More information on heat pump systems can be found at:
http://www.energysavers.gov/vour home/space heating cooling/index.cfm/mvtopic=12650.
Hot dry rock technology is a type of geothermal power production that uses the very high
temperatures found in rocks a few kilometers below the surface. By pumping high pressure water
down a borehole, the water travels through fractures in the rock and absorbs heat energy and is
subsequently forced out of a second borehole as very hot water. This water is then used to run a
turbine and generate electricity. The cooled water is injected back into the ground to heat up
again in a closed loop. Higher permeability of the rock is important, as it allows for the greater
energy production. Although natural fractures may provide adequate flow rates, systems can be
enhanced through hydraulic stimulation which involves pumping cold water with acid additives
into the rock to open the fractures. Three types of geothermal power plants are operating today:
• Dry steam plants, which directly use geothermal steam to turn turbines;
• Flash steam plants, which pull deep, high-pressure hot water into lower-pressure tanks and
use the resulting flashed steam to drive turbines; and
• Binary-cycle plants, which pass moderately hot geothermal water by a secondary fluid with
a much lower boiling point than water. This causes the secondary fluid to flash to vapor,
which then drives the turbines (DOE 2009b).
In direct geothermal heating, hot water near Earth's surface is piped directly into facilities and
used to heat buildings, grow plants in greenhouses, aquaculture, crop drying and a variety of
other tasks. Some cities pipe the hot water under roads and sidewalks to melt snow. District
heating applications use networks of piped hot water to heat buildings in whole communities
(DOE 2009b). Direct-use systems typically include three components:
• A production facility — usually a well — to bring the hot water to the surface;
A mechanical system — piping, heat
exchanger, controls — to deliver the heat to
the space or process; and
A disposal system — injection well or storage
pond — to receive the cooled geothermal
fluid.
Geothermal Technologies Program
The DOE Geothermal Technologies Program
partners with industry, academia and the national
laboratories to conduct research, development and
Geothermal Resources Leasing
Programmatic EIS
In 2008, BLM and the USDA
Forest Service (FS) prepared a joint
PEIS to analyze and expedite the
leasing of BLM-and FS-
administered lands with high
potential for renewable geothermal
resources in 11 Western states and
Alaska. The PEIS is available here:
http: //www .blm .gov/wo/st/en/prog/
energv/geothermal/geothermal nati
onwide.html.
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demonstration projects on geothermal heat systems. Among other areas, the program focuses
research on enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), which are engineered reservoirs created to
produce energy from geothermal resources that are otherwise not economical due to lack of
water and/or permeability. EGS technology has the potential for accessing the Earth's vast
resources of heat located at depth. The program provides technical information on geothermal
heat, including geothermal resource maps (http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/maps.html),
research reports on the status of the industry
(http://wwwl.eere.energv.gov/geothermal/publications.html) and software programs that model
geothermal systems and economics
(http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/software data.html).
6.4 Biomass
Biomass power is solar energy stored in organic matter. Sources of biomass energy include
agricultural and forestry residues, manure, municipal solid wastes, industrial wastes, and
terrestrial and aquatic crops grown solely for energy purposes. Biomass can be grown from
numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow,
sorghum, sugarcane, and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (DOE
2009a).
Feedstock
Transportation
Distribution
Biomass resources are
used to generate
electricity and power,
and to produce liquid
transportation fuels, such
as ethanol and biodiesel.
There are generally two
ways to release the
energy stored in biomass:
burning and
fermentation. Biomass
can be burned as a direct
heat source, or to heat
water and create steam to
power turbines which
generate electricity. Burning biomass to produce energy can circumvent waste management
problems by removing it from the waste stream. Burning biomass does generate carbon dioxide
and paniculate matter. However, biomass energy recycles carbon dioxide during the plant
photosynthesis process (DOE 2009a).
Biomass can also be fermented and made into liquid fuels, which are easily transportable. Many
car manufacturers are now producing flexible-fuel vehicles, which can safely run on blends of
ethanol, biodiesel and gasoline. Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and
less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and
enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches or cellulose. The distillation process
requires significant energy input for heat, which often comes from the burning of natural gas, as
Processing & Con version
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well as tremendous amounts of water. The burning of biomass itself can be used to increase
biomass sustainability (and reduce lifecycle CC>2 emissions), albeit with the accompanying
carbon dioxide and paniculate matter.
The burning and fermentation processes create co-products that can be used for other purposes,
such as ash for use in construction material, and dried distiller grains, corn gluten feed, corn oil
and other ingredients that can be used in plastics and chemicals. The generation and use of these
co-products help offset some of the energy-intensive nature of producing energy from biomass
(DOE 2009a).
EISA 2007 revises the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) for transportation fuels, originally
created under the Energy Policy Act of 2005. The Act seeks to increase the supply of biofuel by
requiring fuel producers to use in the fuel mix a progressively increasing amount of biofuel,
culminating in at least 36 billion gallons of biofuel by 2022. Within these total volumes, new
volume standards are also created for cellulosic biofuel, biomass-based diesel, and other
advanced biofuel. EISA also includes new definitions and criteria for both renewable fuels and
the feedstocks used to produce them, including new lifecycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
thresholds for renewable fuels. EISA requires a 50% reduction in lifecycle GHG emissions for
fuels to be classified as biomass-based diesel or advanced biofuel, and a 60% reduction in order
to be classified as cellulosic biofuel. EISA also provides some limited flexibility for EPA to
adjust these GHG percentage thresholds downward by up to 10 percent under certain
circumstances. EPA issued a proposed rule on May 19, 2009 to implement these changes to the
RFS program, and is now working on a final rule. Additional details can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/renewablefuels/index.htm
Biomass Program
The DOE Biomass Program partners with industry, academia and the national laboratories to
conduct research, development and demonstration projects on biomass feedstocks and
conversion technologies. Two major focuses of the program are ensuring that cellulosic ethanol
is cost competitive by 2012, and developing infrastructure and opportunities to bring biobased
fuels and products to market. Figure 6-1 shows projected U.S. biofuel sources.
6-13 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Figure 6-1
Other
Corn
Perennial
Crops
Crop
Residues
31%
27%
Forest Resources
Projected U.S. Biofuel Sources
Source: Biomass as Feedstock tor a Hioenergy and Byproducts
Industry: technical f-easibility of a Billion Ion Annual Supply. 2DQ5.
DQEandUSDA.
The NREL has developed (with EPA Region 6 funding) a new biomass assessment tool. While
it does not take the place of an on-the-ground detailed assessment, it can serve as an initial
screening tool to identify and evaluate sites for potential sources of biomass. It is a mapping
application that allows users to explore the potential of biomass-to-power conversions at
different locations and scales. It also allows for visualization and analysis of biomass resources
on a local basis. This tool is located at: http://rpm.nrel.gov/biopower/biopower/launch.
The 309 Reviewer should be aware that unlike oil and gas, the U.S. does not have a biomass fuel
commodity market. For this reason, each biomass project would have to locate and/or acquire its
own supply of quality fuel.
More information about the DOE Biomass program can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/biomass/about.html. Technical resources can also be found at The
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National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the lead national laboratory of the virtual National
Bioenergy Center (http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/).
6.5 Hydropower
Hydropower is derived from the force or energy of moving water. Today, the largest use of
hydropower is for the creation of hydroelectricity, currently the leading renewable energy source
used by electric utilities to generate electric power. Conventional hydropower is a key
component of the U.S. energy portfolio, representing approximately 7% of total U.S. electricity
generation and between 71-75% of U.S. renewable energy electricity generation (DOE 2009f,
EIA 2009b). There are significant opportunities to increase the nation's incremental
hydroelectric generation, to quantify and maximize the ancillary benefits to the U.S. electric grid,
and to improve the environmental performance of the U.S. hydroelectric industry.
There are three types of hydropower facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage.
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An
impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a
reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn
activates a generator to produce electricity. The water may be released either to meet changing
electricity needs or to maintain a constant reservoir level (DOE 2009e). There are not many
locations in the United States where dam installation is currently feasible, as many of the best
locations have already been acquired and built upon. In addition, the potential environmental
impacts to riverine systems associated with dam installation render many projects infeasible.
Transmission Lines -
conduct electricity,
ultimately to homes
and businesses
Dam - stores water
Penstock - carries
water to the turbines
Generators - rotated
by the turbines to
generate electricity
Turbines - turned by
the force of the water
on their blades
Cross section of conventional
hydropower facility that uses
an impoundment dam
Source: DOE 2009e.
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In a diversion hydroelectric facility, sometimes called run-of-river, a portion of a river is
channeled through a canal or penstock. A diversion facility may not require the use of a dam.
When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped storage facility stores energy by pumping
water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical demand, the
water is released back to the lower reservoir to generate electricity.
Generating electricity using water has several advantages, including: 1) low cost, 2) little air
pollution compared with fossil fuel plants, and 3) limited thermal pollution compared with
nuclear plants. Like other energy sources, the use of water for generation also has limitations,
including environmental impacts caused by damming rivers and streams (EIA 2009c). Current
DOE research focuses on reducing the environmental impacts of hydropower facilities through
improved design of turbines in existing facilities.
Hydrokinetic Technologies
DOE research also focuses on new marine and hydrokinetic technologies - technologies capable
of generating electricity from waves, tidal, ocean, and river currents, and ocean thermal
energy/temperature gradients. Tidal power converts the energy of tides into electricity. Because
tides are caused by the forces related to the gravitational interaction with the moon, the sun and
the Earth's rotation, tidal power is predictable and practically inexhaustible. Tidal power can be
classified into two main types: kinetic and potential. Tidal stream systems make use of the
kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in a similar way to windmills that use moving
air. Some tidal stream systems use propellers or aerofoils, while others involve placing obstacles
in rivers in order to cause the formation of vortices which can then be tapped for energy. The
higher density of water means that a single generator can provide significant power at low tidal
flow velocities when compared to wind velocities.
Potential energy can be tapped by barrages (structures built across rivers and estuaries to manage
water) by taking advantage of the difference in water height between high and low tides.
Turbines installed in the barrage wall generate power as water flows in and out of the estuary
basin, bay, or river.
Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves. Waves are generated by wind
passing over the sea, and there is an energy transfer from the wind to the most energetic waves.
Devices can be used to take advantage of the wave swells: the rising and falling of the waves
can move a buoy-like structure, creating mechanical energy which is converted into electricity
and transmitted to shore over a submerged transmission line. Other wave power devices consist
of a single piston pump attached to the sea floor, with a float tethered to the piston. Waves cause
the float to rise and fall, generating pressurized water, which is piped to an onshore facility to
drive hydraulic generators or run reverse osmosis desalination.
The U.S. market for marine and hydrokinetic energy is still in the early stages of development,
with a few technologies ready for demonstration or deployment. These technologies can be
deployed near densely populated load centers as well as for remote power applications.
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Renewable Energy Development on the Outer Continental Shelf
In May 2009, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the U.S. Department of
Interior, Minerals Management Service (MMS) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
regarding renewable energy development activities on the Outer Continental Shelf, including
hydrokinetic sources such as wave, tidal and ocean current. According the MOU:
• "MMS has exclusive jurisdiction with regard to the production, transportation or
transmission of energy from non-hydrokinetic renewable energy projects including wind
and solar. MMS also has jurisdiction to issue leases, easements and rights-of-way
regarding Outer Continental Shelf lands for hydrokinetic projects. MMS will conduct any
necessary environmental reviews, including those under the National Environmental
Policy Act, related to those actions.
• FERC has exclusive jurisdiction to issue licenses and exemptions from licensing for the
construction and operation of hydrokinetic projects on the Outer Continental Shelf and
will conduct any necessary analyses, including those under the National Environmental
Policy Act related to those actions. FERC's licensing process will involve relevant federal
land and resource agencies including DOI.
• FERC will not issue a license or exemption for an Outer Continental Shelf hydrokinetic
project until the applicant first obtained a lease, easement or right-of-way from MMS for
the site. FERC will not issue preliminary permits for hydrokinetic projects on the Outer
Continental Shelf. In all leases, easements and rights-of-way for hydrokinetic projects,
MMS will require that construction and operation cannot begin without a license or
exemption from FERC, except when FERC notifies MMS that a license or exemption is
not required (FERC 2009)."
The MOU also states that, "at its discretion, FERC may choose to become a cooperating agency
with MMS in the latter's preparation of an environmental document for the lease, easement and
right-of-way for any Outer Continental Shelf hydrokinetic project. Likewise, MMS may choose
to be a cooperating agency with FERC in the preparation of FERC's environmental documents
for the license or exemption of any Outer Continental Shelf hydrokinetic project (FERC 2009)."
The agencies also will coordinate to ensure that any licenses or exemptions issued by FERC and
all operations regulated by FERC, with respect to a lease, easement or right-of-way, are
consistent with the provisions of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, the Federal Power Act
and other applicable laws (FERC 2009). A copy of the MOU can be accessed at:
http://www.ferc.gov/legal/maj -ord-reg/mou/mou-doi .pdf.
Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program
The mission of DOE's Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program is to conduct research and
development that will improve the technical, societal, and environmental benefits of hydropower
and provide cost-competitive technologies that enable the development of new and incremental
hydropower capacity. Three of DOE's National Laboratories with experience in hydropower
issues provide technical support to the Program: Idaho National Laboratory (INL), Oak Ridge
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National Laboratory (ORNL), and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). The lead
laboratory for engineering and program management support is INL. ORNL is the lead
laboratory for environmental and computational support. PNNL is involved in biological testing
and technology development studies, taking advantage of their experience with fish and test
facilities. A combination of industry, universities, and federal facilities conduct research
activities for the Hydropower Program. More information can be found at:
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/about.html and http://hydropower.id.doe.gov/.
In 2008, DOE, through the Water Power Program (a subprogram within DOE's Wind and
Hydropower Technologies Program), initiated advanced water power activities to research, test,
and develop innovative technologies capable of generating renewable, environmentally
responsible, and cost-effective electricity from water. These include marine and hydrokinetic
technologies, a new suite of renewable technologies that harness the energy from untapped wave,
tidal, current and ocean thermal resources.
The Water Program's activities with marine and hydrokinetic technologies include:
• Research and development funding for components and devices to optimize these
technologies and help industry reduce costs and technical risks. In 2008, the program
initiated the development of two new National Marine Renewable Energy Centers, and
began technology characterization efforts that included the development of a marine and
hydrokinetic technology and project database (http://www.eere.energy.gov/windand
hydro/hydrokinetic/default.aspx), which includes a technology glossary.
• Higher-resolution resource assessments to quantify and validate estimates of extractable
energy quantity by location. Results from assessments will improve the quality of device
and component testing by providing fundamental resource characteristic data and fill
essential information gaps needed to reduce technical and project risk for the investment
community.
• Environmental effects studies to better assess potential impacts that hinder technology
deployment, to aid the regulatory process, and to reduce project development costs.
In addition, the Water Power Program works to develop technologies and processes to improve
the efficiency, flexibility, and environmental performance of hydroelectric generation. The
Water Power Program's activities with conventional hydropower include:
• Assessing the current state of the U.S. hydroelectric infrastructure and identifying
opportunities for increased and more valuable generation. This includes increasing
incremental generation through efficiency and capacity gain at existing power stations,
placement of power stations at existing non-powered dams and in constructed waterways
such as canals, and supporting the development of the small hydropower industry.
• Developing and deploying technologies, including pumped storage, that increase stability
and operational flexibility of the U.S. electric grid and support the integration of variable
renewable energy resources.
• Addressing environmental impacts through the development of new technologies and
methods to improve environmental performance, which will mitigate such impacts as fish
passage, water quality in reservoirs and downstream from dams, and altered flow regimes
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Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
that may degrade physical habitat for fish below dams. DOE published the Draft Report
to Congress on the Environmental Effects of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Projects in
December 2008, with the final report scheduled for publication in 2009. The report,
prepared pursuant to EISA 2007, describes options to mitigate and prevent adverse
environmental impacts from marine and hydrokinetic energy technologies
(http://www.lawofrenewableenergv.com/2008/12/articles/renewable/doe-issues-draft-
report-on-environmental-effects-of-marine-and-hydrokinetic-energy-projects/).
More information can be found at
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro about.html.
6.6 Benefits and Limitations
There are substantial benefits to pursuing renewable energy technologies: a relatively unlimited
supply, with little greenhouse gas or particulate matter generation. Renewable energy would also
help reduce the nation's dependence on foreign oil, protect against rising utility rates, reduce
operating costs, and provide jobs. There are some technical, economic, operational, and regional
concerns regarding renewable energy, which are summarized in Table 6-3.
Table 6-3
Renewable Energy
Issues & Solar Wind Geothermal Biomass Hydropower
Concerns
Variability
Regional Issues
& Efficiency
Transmission
Land Use
Power generated
only during
daylight hours
Highest
efficiency
achieved in areas
with fewest
cloudy days and
most direct
sunlight; only
achieve —10-
40% efficiency
with current
technology
Power generated
only when wind
is blowing
Highest
efficiency
achieved in areas
with stronger
winds; strong
development
potential in
Midwest
Earth provides
constant heat
source
Most activity in
western U.S.,
Alaska and
Hawaii
Variability
between organic
matter sources
Production of
some sources not
energy efficient;
energy use from
agricultural
production and
transportation
can exceed
energy created
Seasonal
fluctuations in
flow rates
Pacific coast
has the most
potential for
wave power;
tidal influence
required for
tidal power
Large-scale facilities for these types of renewable energy typically located far from population
centers; additional expense required for property acquisition, transmission lines and road
construction. Feasible to construct RE projects on brownfields, abandoned mines, federal
Superfund sites, non-Federal Superfund sites, or other disturbed areas; many of these locations
have transmission capacity on-site.
Requires
substantial tracts
of land for large
scale production
Requires
substantial tracts
of land for large
scale production
90% of all
significant
geothermal
activity located
on federal land
Many organic
matter sources
require large
scale farm
production
Locations
limited to
streams, rivers
and oceans,
many sites
already in use
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Table 6-3
Renewable Energy
Issues & Solar Wind Geothermal Biomass Hydropower
Concerns
Natural
Resource
Impacts
Social Impacts
Large-scale
facilities are
typically located
in arid regions;
potential water
quantity impacts
due to heavy
water use (wet
cooling plants
use lOx more
water than dry
cooling plants);
potential water
quality/ habitat
impacts from
herbicides used
to prevent
sunlight-
blocking
vegetation
growth
Perceived to
cause visual
blight to
landscape
Birds and bats
can be injured
by swiftly
spinning blades;
newer designs
attempt to
prevent roosting
and decrease
potential
mortality
Perceived to
cause visual
blight to
landscape;
potential noise
impacts from
wind machines
Potential impact
to groundwater
aquifers from
leaks of acid
used in
production.
Potential impact
to surface water
quantity/quality
from heavy
water use in
production
Potential noise
impacts from
drilling and
blasting for
temperature
gradient wells,
seismic
exploration, and
core drilling
Potential surface
water
quantity/quality
impacts due to
heavy water use
for fermentation,
filtration, and
extraction and
fertilizer/
pesticides use;
potential climate
change impacts
(CO2, paniculate
matter) from
burning
Increase/
decrease in
demand has
economic
impacts on
agricultural
industry
Changes the
natural flow of
streams/rivers
causing
sedimentation/
erosion, surface
water
quantity/quality
impacts;
potential
aquatic and
terrestrial
habitat impacts
Viewshed
impacts from
dams and
surface-related
wave devices
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Section 6 References
Links to external web sites provided in this document may be useful or interesting and are being provided consistent
with the intended purpose of this guidance document. EPA cannot attest to the accuracy of information provided by
any linked site. Providing links to a non-EPA web site does not constitute an endorsement by EPA or any of its
employees of the sponsors of the site or the information or products provided on the site. Also, be aware that the
privacy protection provided on the epa.gov domain (see Privacy and Security Notice) may not be available at the
external link.
Energy Information Administration. April 2009a. Electricity Net Generation from Renewable
Energy by Energy Use Sector and Energy Source. Online.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/tablell.html Accessed
November 2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2009b. Energy in Brief. Online.
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/energy_in_brief/renewable_energy.cfm Accessed November
2009.
Energy Information Administration. 2009c. Renewable and Alternate Fuels: Hydroelectric.
Online, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/hydroelec/hydroelec.html
Accessed April 2009.
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. May 2009. Secretary Salazar, FERC Chairman
Wellinghoff Sign Agreement to Spur Renewable Energy on the U.S. Outer Continental
Shelf. Online, http://www.ferc.gov/news/news-releases/2009/2009-2/04-09-09.pdf
Accessed May 2009.
Minerals Management Service. 2009. OCS Alternative Energy and Alternate Use Programmatic
EIS Information Center. Online, http://ocsenergy.anl.gov/index.cfm Accessed June 2009.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2009. National Bioenergy Center. Online.
(http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/). Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Defense. 2005. Department of Defense Renewable Energy Assessment.
Online, http://www.acq.osd.mil/ie/energy/renew energy/renewable.shtml. Accessed
April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009a. Biomass Program. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/biomass/about.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009b. Geothermal Technologies Program. Online.
http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/about.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009c. Passive Solar. Online.
http://www.eere.energv.gov/buildings/highperformance/technologies.htmltfpassive solar
Accessed April 2009.
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U.S. Department of Energy. 2009d. Solar Energy Technologies Program. Online.
http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/solar/ Accessed March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009e. Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program. Online.
http://www 1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/about.html Accessed April 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2009f Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program: Building a
New Energy Future. Online.
http://wwwl.eere.energy.gov/office_eere/pdfs/windhydro_fs.pdf Accessed November
2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2008. Renewable Energy Data Book. Online.
http ://wwwl. eere. energy. gov/maps_data/pdfs/eere_databook_091208 .pdf Accessed
March 2009.
U.S. Department of Energy. June 2005. Wind Energy Development Programmatic EIS. Online.
http://windeis.anl.gov/ Accessed April 2009.
U. S. Department of Interior. February 2003. Assessing the Potential for Renewable Energy on
Public Lands. Online, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy03osti/33530.pdf Accessed April
2009.
U.S. Forest Service. January 2005. Assessing the Potential for Renewable Energy on National
Forest System Lands. Online, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/36759.pdf Accessed
April 2009.
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7. Energy Efficiency-Related Training Opportunities
There are many training opportunities available to increase familiarity with both general and
specific aspects of energy efficiency. A "snapshot in time" of the training that is available as of
spring 2009 is summarized in Table 7-1.
7-1 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
Energy Efficiency Training - General
FedCenter Training
Fed Center is a web-based portal for federal agencies and federal facilities managers and
provides comprehensive information resources and data management capabilities to enhance
the effectiveness and efficiency of environmental compliance and stewardship programs, in
addition to opportunities for interagency collaborative self-management on environmental
issues across the federal government. It allows real-time access to recognized best management
practices on compliance, environmental management systems, green procurement, energy
management, sustainable construction, chemical management, restoration and reuse, NEPA,
and natural resources. In addition it provides a significant instrument for tracking and
reporting of common environmental metrics across the federal government.
Current Energy efficiency related training:
Basics of Daylighting in a Green Environment (Online)
ENERGY STAR Online Trainings and Presentations (Online)
FEMP Lights Online Training (Online)
Integrating Energy Conservation into the Capital Planning Process (Webinar)
FEMP Training
Variety of training opportunities on energy efficiency topics, including UESCs/ESPCs,
alternative financing tools for implementing energy efficiency projects.
GovEnergy
Co-Sponsors: DOE, GSA, VA, DoD, DHS, EPA
Training conference where participants will have the opportunity to :
Obtain insight on reducing Federal agency energy usage and cost, as mandated by the Energy
Policy Act, Executive Order 13423, EISA 2007 and additional Federal guidance.
Access the tools, techniques and best practices needed for meeting both day-to-day and long-
term energy management goals.
Develop effective partnerships amongst Federal energy professionals.
Many
no cost,
some
have
fees.
Many
no cost,
some
have
fees.
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one
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1-800-343-
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x
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X
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7-2
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Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
Comprehensive 5-Day Training Program for Energy Managers
(preparation for CEM certification)
Association of Energy Engineers
Provides in-depth, comprehensive learning and problem-solving forum for those who want a
broader understanding of the latest energy cost reduction techniques and strategies.
Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Spring 2009 Energy Efficiency Classes, sponsored by
the Pacific Energy Center (PEC) and the Energy Training Center - Stockton (ETC)
ETC offers continuing education for businesses, construction professionals and participants of
energy efficiency education programs. PEC offers educational programs, design tools, advice,
and support to create energy efficient buildings and comfortable indoor environments, with
most efforts focused around commercial buildings.
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7-3
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Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
1 Topic ^H
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Durat More Buildi Activi portat rue- ^H
Title / Source/ Description Cost ion Information ngs ties ion tion ^H
ENERGY STAR Training
U.S. EPA
Provides free online training to help improve the energy performance of organizations.
Seminars for Professionals
Association of Energy Engineers
Includes a range of topics including energy efficiency-related offerings.
Timing Is Everything: Moving Investment Decisions to Energy-Efficient Solutions
American Council for an Energy -Efficient Economy
The 2009 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry offers opportunities to learn
about approaches to securing boss' support for energy efficiency, financing mechanisms to pay
for projects, regulatory aspects affecting energy efficiency projects, commercially-available
technologies that work, and emerging technologies likely destined to be the next big thing.
No cost
$245 -
$1595
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ns, or
Hrtwtil
\A\J Will
oaa
pre-
record
ed
lesson
s
1 5
days
4
days
1-866-229-
3239
http://www.en
ergystar.gov/i
ndex.cfm?c=b
usiness.bus in
ternet_present
ations
https://www.a
eecenter.org/s
eminars/
Rebecca
Lunetta
Director of
Conferences
(302) 292-
3966
fax (302) 292-
3965
rrunettatgiveriz
on.net
http://aceee.or
g/conf/09ss/09
ssindex.htm
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7-4 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
-------
March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
Information Center
DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)
Information about residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation energy efficiency, as
well as the use of solar, wind, biofuels, and other renewable energy sources.
Energy Efficiency Global Forum and Exposition
Alliance to Save Energy
Showcases new technologies and ideas for growing an energy efficient economy.
NA
$600
NA
May
10-
12,
2010
Facilities/Green Building
1-877-EERE-
INF
1-877-337-
3463
EERE Office
of Business
Admin.,
Program
Execution
Support
EE-3A
1000
Independence
Avenue, SW
Washington,
DC
http://wwwl.e
ere.energy.gov
/informationce
nter/
http://eeglobal
forum.org/
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7-5
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
-------
March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
1 Topic ^H
Facili ^M
ties/ Indus Trans ^H
Contact/ Green trial - Const 1
Durat More Buildi Activi portat rue- ^H
Title / Source/ Description Cost ion Information ngs ties ion tion ^H
BOC Level I Training
Building Operator Certification
Course series consists of Building Systems Overview, Energy Conservation Techniques, HVAC
Systems and Controls, Efficient Lighting Fundamentals, Operation & Maintenance Practices
For Sustainable Buildings, Indoor Air Quality, and Facility Electrical Systems.
BOC Level II Training
Building Operator Certification
Course series consists of Preventive Maintenance & Troubleshooting Principles, Advanced
Electrical Diagnostics, HVAC Troubleshooting & Maintenance, HVAC Controls &
Optimization, plus two supplemental classes (choices include Water Efficiency for Energy
Operators, Commercial Energy Audits) .
Green Building for Building Professionals
National Association of Home Builders
Includes strategies for incorporating green-building principles into homes without driving up
the cost of construction.
$1275
$1275
(T; o 1 c f
3>jz.j lor
non-
members
74
hours
in
seven
1-2
dav
sessio
ns
61
hours
in six
1-2
(\f\\T
U.O.J
sessio
ns
2
days
206-292-4793,
ext. 2
BOCinfotgithe
BOC.info
www.theBOC.
info
206-292-4793,
ext. 2
BOCinfotgithe
BOC.info
www.theBOC.
info
Mr. Ashley
Burnette
HBAof
Greater
Knoxville
221 Clark
Street, NW
Knoxville, TN
37921
http://www.na
hb.org/meetin
g details, aspx
?meetingID=l
7160§ionl
D=116
X
x
X
X
7-6 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
-------
March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
Building Science Fundamentals
Building Science Corporation
Seminar about optimizing building performance. Fundamental building science principles
(such as the control of heat, air and moisture andlAQ) as well as applications in disaster
management, building investigations and sustainability.
Residential Green Building Workshop Series
Building for Social Responsibility
Participants learn about key green building topics, including health, quality and durability;
preserving the natural ecosystem on the building lot; locating homes efficiently; reducing
potable water use;reducing environmental impacts of building materials; reducing emissions
through energy efficiency and renew able energy; and educating homeowners about green
building features.
Designing Low Energy Buildings: Tools, Techniques and Technologies
Building Science Corporation
This seminar examines challenging techniques for heating, cooling and ventilation low energy
buildings, including: natural ventilation, radiant heating and cooling, and passive design
approaches for commercial building enclosures.
Green Building Basics and LEED®
U.S. Green Building Council
Inlcudes an introduction to USGBC, green building principles, and the fundamentals of the
LEED® Rating System.™
Green Building Operations And Maintenance
U.S. Green Building Council
Walks through the phases of a typical project, using case examples and implementation
strategies throughout to reinforce learning and encourage students to apply knowledge to real-
life situations. Prior Knowledge: Familiarity with the LEED® Rating System is a must and
USGBC's " LEED® Core Concepts & Strategies" workshop is strongly recommended.
$795
$250
$395
$225
$445
2
davs
Iday
1 day
1 day
1 day
http://www.bu
ildingscicnccs
cminars com/s
c ininars/funda
mentals/2008/i
ndex.html
httD*//www bs
vt. org/contact
iic VltTTll
LlO.llLllll
http://www.bu
ildingsciences
eminars.com/
(800) 795-
1747
(202) 742-
3792
www.usgbc.or
g
http://www.us
gbc.org/Displa
yPage.aspx?C
MSPaeeID=2
83
X
X
X
x
x
x
7-7
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
Achieving Zero Energy Green Homes
Florida Solar Energy Center
A 12-course series on implementing strategies to achieve zero energy use.
Save Energy Now in Federal Data Centers
Energetics, Inc.
Provides information on state-of-the-art strategies to improve data center energy performance.
While it will be targeted towards facility engineers, managers, and operators, information
technology (IT) professionals and project managers will also benefit from attending.
High-Performance Buildings for High-Tech Industries - Data Centers
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Provides training resources for data center energy management. Includes workshop developed
by DOE and ASHRAE, which provides information, tools, and environmental best practices for
data center/telecom power and cooling facilities.
$69 for
each
course
in the
series
No cost
unlisted
1 day
por-li
^/d^n
1 day
Iday
Mable Flumm
1679
Clearlake
Road
Cocoa, Florida
32922
(321)638-
1401
Fax: (321)
638-1010
mabletgjfsec.u
cf.edu
http://www.fse
c.ucf.edu/en/e
ducation/cont
ed/schedule.ph
E
AYoungtgjene
rgetics.com
http://www.go
venergy.com/e
vents related.
php
http://hightech
.lbl.gov/trainin
g/training.html
X
X
X
7-8
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
March 2010
Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Green Workplace Auditor
Midwest Renewable Energy Association
Basic "green practices " that can be applied to most businesses. Emphasis will be placed on
how these practices can help save money, improve employee health, and reduce the carbon
footprint of the company.
$240
Iday
Contact /
More
Information
7558 Deer
Road
Custer, WI
54481
(715) 592-
6595
Fax: (715)
592-6596
gretatgithe-
mrea.org
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
X
X
LEED
LEED" Core Concepts and Strategies
U.S. Green Building Council
Provides essential knowledge of the LEED® Rating Systems and sustainable building concepts
for those seeking a better understanding of LEED® or pursuing GBCI's LEED® Green
Associate (Tier I) credential.
$445
1 day
X
X
X
LEED" for Commercial Interiors Technical Review
U.S. Green Building Council
Provides technologies and strategies for achieving LEED®
of leased spaces.
credits to optimize the performance
$445
1 day
X
LEED" For General Contractors And Construction Managers
U.S. Green Building Council
Will help general contractors and construction managers understand LEED® as it relates to
their project role, with a focus on technical requirements. Includes strategies for general
contractor and subcontractor documentation and cost tracking.
$225
1/2
day
X
LEED for Homes Program Review
U.S. Green Building Council
Provides key concepts needed for successful participation in the LEED® for Homes initiative.
$225
Iday
X
7-9
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
LEED® For New Construction Technical Review
U.S. Green Building Council
Designed for those who have a basic knowledge of LEED® and want to delve deeper into the
technical requirements of the rating, the building certification process and other
implementation strategies.
LEED® For Schools Technical Review
U.S. Green Building Council
Provides a complete review of the LEED® for Schools Rating System™ and how to apply it on
school projects including the tools and insights needed to incorporate green building practices
into projects. Case studies of certified school projects illustrate successful strategies and
practices for improving school design and performance.
Managing LEED® Documentation
U.S. Green Building Council
Provides in-depth instruction on LEED® documentation. Attendees should have completed a
technical review workshop or have equivalent knowledge of a LEED® Rating System.
Using Energy Modeling On LEED® Projects
U.S. Green Building Council
Cover es application of the LEED® for New Construction energy modeling protocol and the use
ofASHRAE Standard 90. 1 for LEED® Energy and Atmosphere credit compliance.
$445
$445
$225
$225
Iday
Iday
1/2
day
1/2
day
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Renewable Energy/Alternative Fuels
Law of Renewable Energy: Regulatory and Transmission Issues for Renewable Energy
Projects
Electric Utility Consultants, Inc.
Briefly addresses the requirements and applicable exemptions of the Federal Power Act and
other applicable federal and state statutes and regulations related to power sales,
transmission, and interconnection, as well as important differences in transmission and
interconnection requirements in the different regional transmission organization areas.
$295
Web
confer
ence
or CD
1.5
hours
(303) 770-
8800
www.euci.co
ffl
X
7-10
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency for Tribal Community and Project
Development
DOE, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Tribal Energy Program
This unique course will help tribal leaders and staff understand the range of energy efficiency
and renewable energy opportunities that exist within their communities.
Demand Response & Energy Efficiency World
Electric Utility Consultants, Inc.
Hear from commissioners, utilities and brilliant leaders within the power community. Inquire
about specific case studies and learn first-hand results of different pilot programs and their
effectiveness.
Alternative Fuels and Vehicles National Conference
Alternative Fuel Vehicle Institute
Presents alternative fuels, vehicles and technologies. Showcases natural gas, ethanol,
biodiesel, propane, electricity, and hydrogen, and their companion vehicles. The conference
embraces advanced technologies that result in fuel efficiency, petroleum displacement and
emissions improvements. Included are hybrid-electric and plug-in hybrid technologies; blends,
including hydrogen; fuel cells; and, idle-reduction devices.
No cost
for
tribal
member
s and
BIA
employ
ees
$1,295
$799
5
days
2
days
May
9-12,
2010
David
Glickson
fax: (303-384-
6568)
david slickso
nginrel.gov
http://www.ee
rtredearth. com
/documents/D
OE-
TEPRegionalT
rainingFlyer.p
df
(303) 770-
8800
www.euci.co
m
http'//www af
v2010.com/
X
X
X
X
X
7-11
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Durat
Title / Source/ Description
Electric Vehicles for Utilities: Impact, Opportunities and Challenges for a Smart Grid
Electric Utility Consultants, Inc.
Learning outcomes include, but not limited to:
• Evaluate the impact of electric vehicles on electric utilities
• Identify when and where wide scale deployment is projected to take place
• Analyze the effect that electric vehicles will have on the Electricity T&D system at
certain stages of implementation
• Examine strategies to provide electric vehicle charging to those who do not have in-
home access to an outlet
• Examine how renewable energy can be used to charge electric vehicles
• Discuss the implications ofGHG legislation and management ofRECsfor utilities in
terms of electric vehicles
• Review how electric vehicles fit into a utility's greater smart grid strategy
• Experience PHEV and smart grid technology with hands on demonstrations
Contact /
More
Information
Topic
Facili
ties / Indus Trans
Green trial - Const
Buildi Activi portat ruc-
nes ties ion tion
$1195
Govt:
no cost
2
days
(303) 770-
8800
www.euci.co
m
X
Construction
Energy Efficient and Environmentally Friendly Construction
Midwest Renewable Energy Association
Provides the basics of energy efficient and environmentally friendly construction, including:
site analysis, passive solar design strategies, superinsulatedframe construction techniques,
sustainable building materials, renewable heating systems and mechanical systems.
$110
Iday
7558 Deer
Road
Custer, WI
54481
(715) 592-
6595
Fax: (715)
592-6596
gretatgithe-
mrea.org
X
X
7-12
EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Index
21st Century Partnership Truck Partnership 5-98
A
Air barrier xv, 5-29, 5-41
Aircraft 5-60,5-106,5-107,5-116,5-117
Airport xi, xii, 5-98, 5-103, 5-114, 5-122, 5-123, 5-131
Alternate Component Package ACP 5-25
Alternative Fuel 4-3, 4-4
Alternative Fuel Vehicles AFV 4-3, 5-53, 5-89, 5-90, 5-94, 5-95, 5-112
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
(ASHRAE) 5-23,5-24
Appliances and Equipment 1-3, 4-5, 5-1, 5-4, 5-9, 5-26
B
Bicycle 5-13, 5-15, 5-119, 5-120, 5-121, 5-128, 5-129
Biodiesel xv, 5-90, 5-91, 5-109, 5-110, 5-112, 5-114, 6-11
Biofuel 3-4,6-12
Biomass 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 5-32, 6-1, 6-11, 6-12, 6-13, 6-20
Boats 5-102
Bonneville Power Administration 4-8, 4-9, 5-84, 5-86
Brownfields 5-13, 5-16
Building America Program 5-36
Building Code 5-24,5-25,5-28,5-31,5-42
Building Commissioning xv, 4-7, 5-28, 5-39, 5-44, 5-65
Building Energy Codes Program 5-24, 5-37, 5-42
Building Envelope xv, 5-28, 5-29, 5-35, 5-36, 5-39, 5-42, 5-58
Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability BEES xi, 5-19, 5-29
Building Orientation 5-15, 5-29, 6-3
Building Technologies Program 5-9, 5-28, 5-35, 5-37, 5-42
Buildings xvi, 1-3, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 3-9, 4-4, 4-5, 4-7, 5-1, 5-3, 5-5, 5-6, 5-12, 5-13,
5-14, 5-15, 5-23, 5-24, 5-25, 5-26, 5-27, 5-28, 5-29, 5-30, 5-31, 5-32, 5-33, 5-34, 5-35, 5-36,
5-37, 5-38, 5-39, 5-40, 5-42, 5-43, 6-5, 6-9, 6-10, 6-20
Bus(es) xi, xix, 5-13, 5-15, 5-96, 5-97, 5-98, 5-99, 5-100, 5-103, 5-104, 5-109, 5-120, 5-121,
5-129
Bus Rapid Transit BRT xi, 5-121
C
Clean Air Act CAA 1-2,2-2,2-3,2-5,2-6
Clean Cities Program 5-109, 5-116
Cleanroom xvi, 5-64, 5-67
Cogeneration 4-4
Combined Heat and Power CHP 4-4, 4-5, 4-9, 5-38, 5-43, 5-48, 6-2
Commercial Buildings Initiative 3-5
Commercially Available LED Product Evaluation and Reporting (CALIPER) 5-38
Congestion Mitigation 5-124, 5-129, 5-130, 5-131
1-1 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Congestion pricing 5-123
Construction... 1-3, 2-2, 4-3, 5-3, 5-10, 5-14, 5-15, 5-16, 5-17, 5-18, 5-19, 5-20, 5-21, 5-22, 5-23,
5-24, 5-25, 5-26, 5-27, 5-28, 5-30, 5-31, 5-34, 5-35, 5-36, 5-39, 5-40, 5-45, 5-47, 6-3, 6-7, 6-9,
6-12,6-18
Corporate average fuel economy CAFE 3-4
COSTSAFR 5-24
Council on Environmental Quality CEQ 2-1, 2-5, 2-6
Criteria for Excluding Buildings from the Energy Performance Requirements of
Section 543 3-4,3-11
D
Daylight xvi, 3-2, 5-30, 5-31, 5-40, 6-18
Demand Management xiv, 5-75, 5-124, 5-127, 5-128
Demand Response 4-2, 4-9
Department of the Navy Environmental Strategy 5-55
Dimming systems 5-30, 5-40
Dredging 5-132,5-135,5-140
E
EO 13514 5-4, 5-11, 5-36, 5-43, 5-44, 5-99, 5-122,
Electric Metering 3-9, 3-11, 5-39
Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool EPEAT xvi, 3-6, 3-7, 5-1, 5-7, 5-12
Energy and Water Campaign Plan for Installations 5-50, 5-51, 5-62
Energy audit 4-7
Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Reserve CRER xi, 5-132
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 3-4, 3-11, 4-3, 4-7, 5-40
Energy Intensity 3-2, 4-3
Energy Intensive Industries 5-78
Energy Management Plans 3-6
Energy Policy Act of 2005 3-1, 3-4, 3-7, 3-9, 3-11, 4-3, 5-2, 5-39
Energy Savings Performance Contracts 3-5, 4-1
Energy Smart 5-41
ENERGY STAR 3-2, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 4-3, 4-5, 4-10, 5-1, 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 5-9,
5-10, 5-11, 5-12, 5-26, 5-39, 5-40, 5-45, 5-47
ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager 5-136
Ensuring a Sustainable Future: An Energy Management Guidebook for Wastewater and Water
Utilities 5-136,5-140
Environmental Management Systems EMS 3-8
Ethanol 6-1,6-11,6-12
Executive Order 12902 EO 12902 2-3,2-6,3-10
Executive Order 13101 EO 13101 3-8
Executive Order 13123 EO 13123 3-8
Executive Order 13134 EO 13134 3-8
Executive Order 13148 EO 13148 3-8
Executive Order 13149 EO 13149 3-8
Executive Order 13211 EO 13211 2-3,2-6,3-9,3-10
Executive Order 13221 EO 13221 2-3,2-6,3-8,3-10
1-2 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
Executive Order 13423 EO 13423 2-3,2-6,3-7,3-10
F
Facility Siting 1-3, 5-13, 5-18
Federal Acquisition Regulation FAR 3-6, 3-10
Federal Acquisition Service 5-100, 5-112, 5-114
Federal Energy Management and Planning Programs, 10 CFR436 3-6
Federal Energy Management Program FEMP 3-2, 4-1, 4-9, 5-5, 5-10, 5-12
Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of
Understanding 3-7, 5-23, 5-43
Federal Vehicle Fleets 1-3
Federally Assisted Housing 1-3, 3-5
FEMP-designated 3-2, 3-5, 4-3, 5-1, 5-3, 5-40
Fluorescent xix, 5-2, 5-30, 5-37, 5-40, 5-66
FreedomCAR 5-108
Freight Logistics and Energy Tracking (FLEET) Performance Model 5-18
Fuel Cell..5-93, 5-94, 5-97, 5-99, 5-103, 5-106, 5-108, 5-109, 5-110, 5-111, 5-115, 5-116, 5-117,
5-136
Fuel Economy 3-4, 5-60, 5-89, 5-90, 5-96, 5-99, 5-100, 5-109, 5-111, 5-112, 5-118
Fuel Efficiency 5-17, 5-60, 5-89, 5-90, 5-96, 5-98, 5-99, 5-104, 5-108, 5-120, 5-121, 5-122
G
Geothermal 3-4, 4-3, 4-5, 5-15, 6-1, 6-2, 6-9, 6-10, 6-11, 6-18, 6-20
Geothermal Power xvii, 6-9, 6-10
Green Building xiv, xvii, 3-5, 4-7, 4-10, 5-14, 5-16, 5-20, 5-22, 5-25, 5-27, 5-44, 5-56, 5-68,
Green Construction 5-17, 5-27, 5-39
Green Electronics Council 3-6, 5-1, 5-7
Green Globes 5-26,5-27,5-28,5-41
Green power 4-5
Green roof xvii, 5-33, 5-34
H
Heat Island Effect 5-13, 5-18, 5-33, 5-120, 5-121
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) xii, 5-31, 5-123
High Occupant Toll (HOT) lanes xii, 5-119
High Occupant Vehicle (HOV) lanes xii, 5-119
High Performance Commercial Buildings Program 5-36
Highway xiii, 5-13, 5-23, 5-95, 5-97, 5-98, 5-99, 5-104, 5-119, 5-121, 5-122, 5-124, 5-130,
5-131
Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 3-5, 3-10
HUD Energy Action Plan 5-45
Hybrid xii, xvii, 3-7, 5-17, 5-31, 5-81, 5-91, 5-95, 5-96, 5-99, 5-103, 5-104, 5-106, 5-108,
5-109,5-110,5-111,5-114,5-115
Hydrogen ...5-59, 5-93, 5-94, 5-95, 5-97, 5-104, 5-106, 5-109, 5-110, 5-114, 5-115, 5-116, 5-134
Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program 5-109
Hydropower xvii, xix, 4-5, 6-3, 6-8, 6-14, 6-15, 6-16 6-17, 6-18, 6-20
1-3 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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March 2010
Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
I
Idling 5-17, 5-21, 5-97, 5-100, 5-101, 5-103, 5-104, 5-107, 5-108, 5-109, 5-117, 5-118, 5-120,
5-122, 5-123, 5-130
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America IESNA xii, 5-23, 5-24
Incident Management Systems xvii, 5-128
Industrial Assessment Centers 5-78, 5-83, 5-87
Industrial Audit Guidebook 4-8,4-9, 5-84, 5-86
Industrial Facilities 1-3, 4-8, 5-15, 5-33
Industrial Technologies Program xiii, 5-74, 5-78, 5-88, 5-140
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IIEE 5-7
Integrated Energy Systems (IES) IES 5-31
Intelligent Transportation Systems ITS xiii, xviii, 5-127, 5-128
International Energy Conservation Code IECC xii, 5-24, 5-29
L
Laboratories 1-3, 5-35, 5-36, 5-38, 6-6, 6-11, 6-12
Labs21 xiii, 4-3, 5-67, 5-68
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory LBNL xiii, 5-64, 5-69
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design LEED 4-4, 4-7, 5-14
Life cycle costs xviii, 3-2, 3-3, 3-6, 5-29, 5-40
Lighting xvi, 3-5, 4-5, 5-1, 5-2, 5-5, 5-10, 5-25, 5-28, 5-29, 5-30, 5-31, 5-37, 5-38, 5-40, 5-41,
5-43, 6-3, 6-5
Lighting Research and Development Program 5-37, 5-38
Locomotive 5-105, 5-106, 5-117, 5-118, 5-122
Los Alamos National Laboratory 5-67, 5-69
Low Speed Vehicles xviii, 5-97, 5-98
M
Military Installations 1-3, 6-2
Mining 5-70, 5-72, 5-75, 5-76, 5-78, 5-84, 5-87, 5-106, 5-117, 5-132, 5-136, 5-137, 5-140
Modal choice xviii, 5-119, 5-130
N
Nanomanufacturing xviii, 5-82, 5-84, 5-87
National Defense Authorization Act of 2008 5-116
National Energy Conservation Policy Act of 1978 3-3
National Environmental Policy ActNEPA 1-2, 2-1, 2-2, 2-5, 2-6
National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL xiii, 5-23, 5-36, 5-114, 6-6, 6-13, 6-20
Natural Gas xi, xiii, 3-6, 4-4, 4-7, 5-31, 5-32, 5-50, 5-56, 5-58, 5-60, 5-70, 5-73, 5-76, 5-77,
5-81, 5-93, 5-94, 5-95, 5-96, 5-97, 5-102, 5-103, 5-110, 5-115, 5-132, 5-134, 5-141, 6-12
O
Oak Ridge National Laboratory ORNL xiii, 5-32, 5-36, 5-41, 5-46, 5-48, 5-80, 5-86, 6-6, 6-16
Occupancy sensors 5-30, 5-40
Office of Federal High-Performance Green Buildings 4-7
Other Federal Government Operations 1-3
1-4 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
P
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) xiv, 5-36, 6-16
Parking 5-13, 5-18, 5-27, 5-33, 5-101, 5-120, 5-121, 5-123, 5-128, 5-129, 5-131
Passenger Rail 5-121, 5-123
Passive Cooling 5-32, 5-40
Pedestrian 5-2, 5-13, 5-15, 5-119, 5-120, 5-121, 5-128, 5-129
Petroleum Refining 5-73, 5-76, 5-77, 5-78, 5-84, 5-86, 5-87
Power Plants 5-80, 5-132, 5-134, 5-135, 6-7
Propane xviii, 5-17, 5-49, 5-89, 5-94, 5-96, 5-98, 5-115
Public Transportation 5-13, 5-15, 5-120, 5-121, 5-123
R
Rail Freight 5-121,5-122,5-124
Recycled Content Tool (ReCon) 5-19
Recycling 2-3, 3-8, 5-8, 5-17, 5-18, 5-19, 5-21, 5-29, 5-77
Renewable Energy 1-3, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 5-1, 5-10, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-7,
6-14,6-18
S
Signals 5-2,5-3,5-120,5-129
Smart Grid xix, 5-152, 5-153, 5-154, 5-155, 5-156, 5-157, 7-11,
Smart Growth 5-13, 5-14, 5-16, 5-34, 5-43, 5-121, 5-128
SmartWay Transport Partnership 5-107
Solar3-2, 3-4, 4-3, 4-5, 5-14, 5-15, 5-25, 5-29, 5-35, 5-36, 5-37, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, 6-6, 6-11,
6-20
Solar Power xvi, xix, 5-58, 5-106, 6-3, 6-5, 6-6
Solid-State Lighting (SSL) xiv, 5-37
Spectrally Enhanced Lighting (SEL) xiv, xix, 5-37
Standby power 3-5,3-8,4-3,5-4,5-9,5-10
State Energy Program 5-10, 5-12
Stormwater management 5-33
TEAM 4-4,4-9
Tidal power xix, 6-15, 6-18
Toll xii, 5-119, 5-120
Transit xix, 5-13, 5-14, 5-98, 5-119, 5-120, 5-121, 5-123, 5-128, 5-129
Transit Oriented Development 5-13, 5-14, 5-121
Transmission xvi, 3-4, 4-5, 4-9, 5-14, 5-16, 5-34, 5-76, 5-100, 5-105, 5-110, 5-111, 5-144,
5-145, 5-148, 5-152, 5-153, 5-154, 5-155, 5-156, 5-158, 6-1, 6-3, 6-6, 6-8, 6-9, 6-16, 6-17, 6-
19, 7-9,
Transport and assisting equipment 5-107
Transportation facilities 1-3
Trucks xvi, 5-17, 5-59, 5-89, 5-90, 5-96, 5-97, 5-98, 5-99, 5-100, 5-101, 5-103, 5-108, 5-109,
5-110,5-120,5-122
1-5 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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Energy Efficiency Reference for Environmental Reviewers
U
Ultra-low Sulfur Diesel ULSD xiv, 5-95, 5-97, 5-115, 5-116
United States Green Building Council USGBC 5-14
Uranium Enrichment 5-132, 5-133, 5-134, 5-141
Utility energy service contracts UESCs 4-2, 5-3
V
Vehicle Technologies Program 5-108, 5-109, 5-116
Vessels 5-102,5-103,5-124
W
Waste Reduction Model (WaRM) 5-19
Water and Wastewater Infrastructure 5-132, 5-135, 5-136
Water Efficiency 4-1,5-14,5-34
Water-efficient 3-6,5-1
WaterSense 5-34,5-40,5-43
Wave power xix, 6-15, 6-18
Weatherization xiv, xix, 5-45, 5-46, 5-47, 5-48
Weatherization Assistance Program 5-45, 5-46, 5-48
Whole Building Design xiv, xix, 5-27, 5-28, 5-35, 5-36, 5-39, 5-41, 5-44
Wind xx, 4-3, 4-5, 5-14, 5-15, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-7, 6-8, 6-9, 6-15, 6-18, 6-19
Wind Power 6-7,6-8,6-9
Window Glazing 5-29, 5-40
1-6 EPA Publication No. 315-R-09-001
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