&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Emerging Contaminants-
Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS)
and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)
March 2014
EMERGING CONTAMINANTS FACT SHEET - PFOS and PFOA
At a Glance
Introduction
Fully fluorinated compounds
that are human-made
substances and are not
naturally found in the
environment.
Used as a surface-active
agent and in a variety of
products, such as firefighting
foams, coating additives and
cleaning products.
Do not hydrolyze, photolyze or
biodegrade under typical
environmental conditions and
are extremely persistent in the
environment.
Studies have shown they have
the potential to bioaccumulate
and biomagnifyin wildlife.
Readily absorbed after oral
exposure and accumulate
primarily in the serum, kidney
and liver.
Toxicological studies on
animals indicate potential
developmental, reproductive
and systemic effects.
Health-based advisories or
screening levels for PFOS and
PFOA have been developed
by the EPA and state
agencies.
Standard detection methods
include high-performance
liquid chromatographyand
tandem mass spectrometry.
Common ex situ water
treatment technologies include
activated carbon filters and
reverse osmosis units.
An "emerging contaminant" is a chemical or material that is characterized by
a perceived, potential, or real threat to human health or the environment or
by a lack of published health standards. A contaminant may also be
"emerging" because a new source or a new pathway to humans has been
discovered or a new detection method or treatment technology has been
developed (DoD 2011). This fact sheet, developed by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office
(FFRRO), provides a summary of the emerging contaminants
perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoicacid (PFOA),
including physical and chemical properties; environmental and health
impacts; existing federal and state guidelines; detection and treatment
methods; and additional sources of information. This fact sheet is intended
for use by site managers who may address PFOS and PFOA at cleanup
sites or in drinking water supplies and for those in a position to consider
whether these chemicals should be added to the analytical suite for site
investigations.
PFOS and PFOA are extremely persistent in the environment and resistant to
typical environmental degradation processes. As a result, they are widely
distributed across the higher trophic levels and are found in soil, air and
groundwater at sites across the United States. The toxicity, mobility and
bioaccumulation potential of PFOS and PFOA pose potential adverse effects
for the environment and human health.
What are PFOS and PFOA?
* PFOS and PFOA are fully fluorinated, organic compounds and are the
two perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) that have been produced in the
largest amounts within the United States (ATSDR 2009; EFSA 2008).
»> PFOS is a perfluoralkyl sulfonate that is commonly used as a simple salt
(such as potassium, sodium or ammonium) or is incorporated into larger
polymers (EFSA 2008; EPA 2009c).
»> PFOA is a perfluoralkyl carboxylate that is produced synthetically as a
salt. Ammonium salt is the most widely produced form (EFSA 2008; EPA
2009c).
Disclaimer: The U.S. EPA prepared this fact sheet from publicly available sources that
were available at the time the fact sheet was published; additional information can be
obtained from the source documents. This fact sheet is not intended to be used as a
primary source of information and is not intended, nor can it be relied on, to create any
rights enforceable by any party in litigation with the United States. Mention of trade
names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (5106P)
EPA 505-F-14-001
March 2014
1
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
What are PFOS and PFOA? (continued)
PFOS synonyms include 1-octanesulfonicacid,
heptadecafluoro-, 1-perfluorooctanesulfonicacid,
heptadecafluoro-1-octanesulfonic acid, perfluoro-
n-octanesulfonicacid, perfluoroctanesulfonicacid
and perfluoroctylsulfonicacid (ATSDR2009;
UNEP2005).
PFOA synonyms include pentadecafluorol-
octanoicacid, pentadecafluoro-n-octanoic acid,
pentadecaflurooctanoicacid, perfluorocaprylic
acid, perfluoroctanoicacid,
perfluoroheptanecarboxylicacid and octanoicacid
(ATSDR2009).
They are stable chemicals that include long
carbon chains. Because of their unique lipid- and
water-repellent characteristics, PFOS and PFOA
are used as surface-active agents in various high-
temperature applications and as a coating on
surfaces that contact with strong acids or bases
(Schultz and others 2003; UNEP 2005).
PFCs are used in a wide variety of industrial and
commercial products such as textiles and leather
products, metal plating, the photographic industry,
photolithography, semi-conductors, paper and
packaging, coating additives, cleaning products
and pesticides (ATSDR 2009; EPA 2009c; OECD
2002).
Through 2001, PFCs were used to manufacture
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF). PFOS-
based AFFF is used to extinguish flammable liquid
fires (for example, hydrocarbon fueled), such as
fires involving gas tankers and oil refineries (EPA
2013a;DoDSERDP2012).
They are human-made compounds and do not
occur naturally in the environment (ATSDR 2009;
EPA2009C).
PFOS and PFOA can also be formed by
environmental microbial degradation or by
metabolism in larger organisms from a large group
of related substances or precursor compounds
(ATSDR 2009; UNEP 2006).
The 3M Company, the primary manufacturer of
PFOS, completed a voluntary phase-out of PFOS
production in 2002 (ATSDR 2009; 3M 2008).
Exhibit 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of PFOS and PFOA
(ATSDR 2009; Brooke and others 2004; EFSA 2008; Environment Canada 2012; EPA 2002b; OECD 2002;
UNEP 2006)
Property
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Number
Physical Description (physical state at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure)
Molecular weight (g/mol)
Water solubility at 25°C (mg/L)
Melting Point (°C)
Boiling point (°C)
Vapor pressure at 20 °C (mm Hg)
Octanol-water partition coefficient (log Kow)
Organic-carbon partition coefficient (log KOC)
Henry's law constant (atm-m3/mol)
Half-Life
PFOS (Potassium Salt)
2795-39-3
White powder
538
550 to 570 (purified), 370 (fresh
water), 25 (filtered sea water)
>400
Not measurable
2.48X10"b
Not measurable
2.57 (Value estimated based on
anion and not the salt)
3.05 x 10'9
Atmospheric: 114 days
Water: > 41 years (at 25° C)
PFOA (Free Acid)
335-67-1
White powder/
waxy white solid
414
9.5X103(purified)
45 to 54
188 to 192
0.0171
Not measurable
2.06
Not measurable
Atmospheric: 90 days2
Water: > 92 years (at 25° C)
Abbreviations: g/mol - grams per mole; mg/L - milligrams per liter; C - degree Celsius; mm Hg - millimeters of mercury;
atm-m3/mol - atmosphere-cubic meters per mole.
1 Extrapolation from measurement.
2 The atmospheric half-life value identified for PFOA is estimated based on available data determined from short study periods.
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
What are PFOS and PFOA? (continued)
PFOS chemicals are no longer manufactured in the
United States; however, EPA significant new use
rules (SNURs) allow for the continuation of a few,
limited, highly technical applications of PFOS-
related substances where no known alternatives
are available. In addition, existing stocks of PFC-
based chemicals that were manufactured or
imported into the United States before the
effective date of the SNURs (for example, PFOS-
based AFFF produced before the rules took effect
in 2002) can still be used (EPA2009c, 2013a).
PFOA as its ammonium salt is manufactured
primarily for use as an aqueous dispersion agent
and in the manufacture of fluoropolymers (which
are used in a wide variety of mechanical and
industrial components) such as electrical wire
casings, fire- and chemical-resistant tubing and
plumbing seal tape. They are also produced
unintentionally by the degradation of some
fluorotelomers (ATSDR 2009; EPA 2009c).
As part of the EPA's PFOA stewardship program,
eight companies committed to achieve the
following by 2010: (1) reduce global facility
emissions of PFOA to all media; (2) reduce
precursor chemicals that break down to PFOA and
related higher homologue chemicals; and (3)
PFOA product content (95 percent). The
companies also agreed to work toward eliminating
these chemicals from emissions and products by
2015 (EPA 2013a).
What are the environmental impacts of PFOS and PFOA?
During past manufacturing processes, large
amounts of PFOS and PFOA were released to the
air, water and soil in and around fluorochemical
facilities (ATSDR 2009).
PFOS and PFOA have been detected in a number
of U.S. cities in surface water and sediments
downstream of former fluorochemical production
facilities and in wastewater treatment plant
effluent, sewage sludge and landfill leachate (EPA
2002b;OECD2002).
The environmental release of PFOS-based AFFF
may also occur from tank and supply line leaks,
use of aircraft hangar fire suppression systems
and firefighting training (DoD SERDP 2012).
Both PFOS and PFOA are the stable end products
resulting from the degradation of precursor
substances through a variety of abiotic and biotic
transformation pathways (Conder and others
2010).
Because of their chemical structure, PFCs,
including PFOS and PFOA, are chemically and
biologically stable in the environment and resist
typical environmental degradation processes,
including atmospheric photooxidation, direct
photolysis and hydrolysis. As a result, these
chemicals are extremely persistent in the
environment (OECD 2002; Schultz and others
2003).
PFOS and PFOA have very low volatility because
of their ionic nature. Therefore, they will be
persistent in water and soil (3M 2000; ATSDR
2009).
When released directly to the atmosphere, PFCs
are expected to adsorb to particles and settle to
the ground through wet or dry deposition (Barton
and others 2007; Hurley and others 2004).
In their anionic forms, PFOA and PFOS are water-
soluble and can migrate readily from soil to
groundwater, where they can be transported long
distances (Davis and others 2007; Post and others
2012).
Monitoring data from the Arctic region and at sites
remote from known point sources have shown
levels of PFOS and PFOA in environmental media
and biota, indicating that long-range transport has
occurred. For example, PFOA and PFOS have
been detected in concentrations from the low- to
mid- picograms per liter (pg/L) range in remote
regions of the Arctic caps. In addition, PFOS
concentrations detected in the liver of the
Canadian Arctic polar bear range from 1,700 to
more than 4,000 nanograms per gram (ng/g) (Lau
and others 2007; Martin and others 2004; Young
and others 2007).
Causes of long-range PFC transport include (1)
atmospheric transport of precursor compounds
(such as perfluoroalkyl sulfonamides), followed by
degradation to form PFCs and (2) direct, long-
range transport of PFCs via ocean currents or in
the form of marine aerosols (Armitage and others
2006; Post and others 2012).
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
What are the environmental impacts of PFOS and PFOA? (continued)
The wide distribution of PFCs increases the
potential for bioaccumulation and bioconcentration
as they are transferred from low to higher trophic
level organisms. Because of their persistence and
long-term accumulation, higher trophic level
wildlife such as fish, piscivorous birds and other
biota can continue to be exposed to PFOS and
PFOA (EPA 2006a; UNEP 2006).
The bioaccumulation potential of PFCs increases
with increasing carbon chain length (ATSDR2009;
Furdui and others 2007).
PFOS is the only PFC that has been shown to
accumulate to levels of concern in fish tissue. The
estimated bioconcentration factor in fish ranges
from 1,000 to 4,000 (EFSA 2008; MDH 2011;
OECD2002).
As of 2013, the Superfund Information Systems
Database indicates PFCs have been reported in
the 5-year reviews of 14 hazardous waste sites on
the EPA National Priorities List (EPA 2013b).
Data gathered in 2008 from the DoD Knowledge
Based Corporate Reporting System show that 594
DoD facilities have been categorized as
Fire/Crash/Training Sites and, therefore, have the
potential for PFC contamination based on
historical use of AFFF (DoD 2008; DoD SERDP
2012).
What are the routes of exposure and the health effects of PFOS and PFOA?
Studies have found PFOS and PFOA in the blood
samples of the general human population and
wildlife nationwide, indicating that exposure to the
chemicals is widespread (ATSDR 2009; EPA
2006a).
Reported data indicate that serum concentrations
of PFOS and PFOA are higher in workers and
individuals living nearfluorochemical production
facilities than for the general population (Calafat
and others 2007; EPA 2009c).
Potential pathways, which may lead to widespread
exposure, include ingestion of food and water, use
of commercial products or inhalation from long-
range air transport of PFC-containing particulate
matter (ATSDR 2009; EPA 2009c).
Based on the limited information available, fish
and fishery products seem to be one of the
primary sources of human exposure to PFOS
(EFSA 2008).
While a federal screening level or toxicity value for
the consumption offish has not yet been
established, the Dutch National Institute for Public
Health and the Environment has calculated a
maximum permissible concentration for PFOS of
0.65 nanograms per liter (ng/L) for fresh water
(based on consumption offish by humans as the
most critical route) (Moermond and others 2010).
Studies also indicate that continued exposure to
low levels of PFOA in drinking water may result in
adverse health effects (Post and others 2012).
Toxicology studies show that PFOS and PFOA are
readily absorbed after oral exposure and
accumulate primarily in the serum, kidney and
liver. No further metabolism is expected (EPA
2006a, 2009c).
PFOS and PFOA have half-lives in humans
ranging from 2 to 9 years, depending on the study.
This half-life results in continued exposure that
could increase body burdens to levels that would
result in adverse outcomes (ATSDR 2009; EPA
2009c; Karrman and others 2006; Olsen and
others 2007).
Acute- and intermediate-duration oral studies on
rodents have raised concerns about potential
developmental, reproductive and other systemic
effects of PFOS and PFOA (Austin and others
2003; EPA 2006a).
The ingestion of PFOA-contaminated water was
found to cause adverse effects on mammary gland
development in mice (Post and others 2012).
One study indicated that exposure to PFOS can
affect the neuroendocrine system in rats; however,
the mechanism by which PFOS affects brain
neurotransmitters is still unclear (Austin and others
2003).
Both PFOS and PFOA have a high affinity for
binding to B-lipoproteins and liver fatty acid-
binding protein. Several studies on animals have
shown that these compounds can interfere with
fatty acid metabolism and may deregulate
metabolism of lipids and lipoproteins (EFSA 2008;
EPA2009C).
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
What are the routes of exposure and the health effects of PFOS and PFOA?
(continued)
In May 2006, the EPA Science Advisory Board
suggested that PFOA cancer data are consistent
with the EPA guidelines for the Carcinogen Risk
Assessment descriptor "likely to be carcinogenic to
humans." EPA is still evaluating this information
and additional research pertaining to the
carcinogenicity of PFOA (EPA 2006b, 2013a).
The American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has classified PFOA
as a Group A3 carcinogen — confirmed animal
carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans
(ACGIH 2002).
The chronic exposure to PFOS and PFOA can
lead to the development of tumors in the liver of
rats; however, more research is needed to
determine if there are similar cancer risks for
humans (ATSDR 2009; OECD 2002).
In a retrospective cohort mortality study of more
than 6,000 PFOA-exposed employees at one
plant, results identified elevated standardized
mortality ratios for kidney cancer and a statistically
significant increase in diabetes mortality for male
workers. The study noted that additional
investigations are needed to confirm these
findings (DuPont 2006; Lau and others 2007).
Studies have shown that PFCs may induce
modest effects on reactive oxygen species and
deoxyribonucleicacid (DMA) damage in the cells
of the human liver (Eriksen and others 2010;
Reistad and others 2013).
Analysis of U.S. National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey representative study samples
indicate that higher concentrations of serum PFOA
and PFOS are associated with thyroid disease in
the U.S. general adult population. Further analysis
is needed to identify the mechanisms underlying
this association (Melzerand others 2010).
Epidemiologic studies have shown an association
between PFOS exposure and bladder cancer;
however, further research and analysis are
needed to understand this association (Alexander
and others 2004; Lau and others 2007).
Are there any federal and state guidelines and health standards for PFOS
and PFOA?
In January 2009, the EPA's Office of Water
established a provisional health advisory (PHA) of
0.2 micrograms per liter (ug/L) for PFOS and 0.4
ug/L for PFOA to assess the potential risk from
short-term exposure of these chemicals through
drinking water. PHAs reflect reasonable, health-
based hazard concentrations above which action
should be taken to reduce exposure to
unregulated contaminants in drinking water (EPA
2009d,2013a).
EPA Region 4 calculated a residential soil
screening level of 6 milligrams per kilogram
(mg/kg) for PFOS and 16 mg/kg for PFOA (EPA
Region 4 2009).
Various states have established drinking water
and groundwater guidelines, including the
following:
• Minnesota has established a chronic health
risk limit of 0.3 ug/L for PFOS and PFOA in
drinking water (MDH 2011).
• New Jersey has established a preliminary
health-based guidance value of 0.04 ug/L for
PFOA in drinking water (NJDEP 2013).
• North Carolina has established an interim
maximum allowable concentration (IMAC) of 2
ug/L for PFOA in groundwater (NCDENR
2006).
In 2010, the North Carolina Secretary's
Science Advisory Board (NCSAB) on Toxic Air
Pollutants recommended that the IMAC be
reduced to 1 ug/L based on a review of the
toxicological literature and discussions with
scientists conducting research on the health
effects associated with exposure to PFOA. As
of February 2014, the NCSAB's
recommendation was still pending review by
the North Carolina Division of Water Quality
(NCSAB 2010).
Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA),
the EPA finalized two SNURs in 2002 for 88
PFOS-related substances, which require
companies to notify the EPA 90 days before
starting to manufacture or importing these
substances for a significant new use; this pre-
notification allows time to evaluate the new use
(EPA2002a,2013a).
In 2007, the SNURs were amended to include 183
additional PFOS-related substances (EPA 2006a,
2013a).
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
Are there any federal and state guidelines and health standards for PFOS
and PFOA? (continued)
On September 30, 2013, the EPA issued a final
SNUR requiring companies to report 90 days in
advance of all new uses of long-chain
perfluoroalkyl carboxylic (LCPFAC) chemicals
(defined as having perfluorinated carbon chain
lengths equal to or greater than seven carbons
and less than or equal to 20 carbons) for use as
part of carpets or to treat carpets, including the
import of new carpet containing LCPFACs. In
addition, the EPA is amending the existing SNUR
to add PFOS-related substances that have
completed the TSCA new chemical review
process but have not yet commenced production
or importation, and to designate processing as a
significant new use (EPA 2012, 2013a).
The SNURs allow for continued use for a few
highly technical applications of PFOS-related
substances where no alternatives are available;
these specialized uses are characterized by very
low volume, low exposure and low releases (EPA
2009c, 2013a).
The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry has not established a minimal risk level
(MRL) for PFOS or PFOA; when the draft
toxicological profile was published, human studies
were insufficient to determine with a sufficient
degree of certainty that the effects are either
exposure-related or adverse (ATSDR 2009).
The EPA has not derived a chronic oral reference
dose (RfD) or chronic inhalation reference
concentration (RfC) for PFOS or PFOA and has
not classified PFOS or PFOA carcinogenicity.
The EPA removed PFOS and PFOA from the
Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) agenda
in a Federal Register notice released on October
18, 2010. At this time, EPA is not conducting an
IRIS assessment for these chemicals (EPA 2010).
PFOS and PFOA were included on the third
drinking water contaminant candidate list, which is
a list of unregulated contaminants that are known
to, or anticipated to, occur in public water systems
and may require regulation under the Safe
Drinking Water Act (EPA 2009a).
What detection and site characterization methods are available for PFOS
and PFOA?
PFOS and PFOA are commonly deposited in the
environment as discrete particles with strongly
heterogeneous spatial distributions. Unless
precautions are taken, this distribution causes
highly variable soil data that can lead to confusing
or contradictory conclusions about the location
and degree of contamination. Proper sample
collection (using an incremental field sampling
approach), sample processing (which includes
grinding) and incremental subsampling are
required to obtain reliable soil data (EPA 2003,
2013c).
PFOS and PFOA in anionicform can be extracted
from environmental media by conventional
methods using either acidification or ion pairing to
obtain a neutral form of the analyte. Sample
preparation methods used for PFCs have included
solvent extraction, ion-pair extraction, solid-phase
extraction and column-switching extraction
(Flaherty and others 2005).
Precursors and intermediate degradation products
can be extracted using solvents (Dasu and others
2012; Ellington and others 2009).
Air samples maybe collected using high-volume
air samplers that employ sampling modules
containing glass-fiber filters and glass columns
with a polyurethane foam (Jahnke and others
2007a).
Detection methods for PFCs are primarily based
on high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) coupled with tandem mass spectrometry
(MS/MS). HPLC-MS/MS has allowed for more
sensitive determinations of individual PFOS and
PFOA in air, water and soil (EFSA 2008; Jahnke
and others 2007b; Washington and others 2008).
Both liquid chromatography (LC)-MS/MS and gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) can
be used to identify the precursors of PFOS and
PFOA (EFSA 2008).
EPA Method 537, Version 1.1, is an LC-MS/MS
method used to analyze selected perfluorinated
alkyl acids in drinking water. While most sampling
protocols for organic compounds require sample
collection in glass, this method requires plastic
sample bottles because PFCs are known to
adhere to glass (EPA 2009b).
The development of LC - electrospray ionization
(ESI) MS and LC-MS/MS has improved the
analysis of PFOS and PFOA (EFSA 2008).
Reported sensitivities for the available detection
methods include low picograms per cubic meter
(pg/m3) levels in air, high picograms per liter (pg/L)
to low ng/L levels in water and high picogram per
gram to low ng/g levels in soil (ATSDR 2009).
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
What technologies are being used to treat PFOS and PFOA?
Because of their unique physicochemical
properties (strong fluorine-carbon bond and low
vapor pressure), PFOS and PFOA resist most
conventional in situ treatment technologies, such
as direct oxidation (Hartten 2009; Vectis and
others 2009).
Factors to consider when selecting a treatment
method in all media include: (1) initial
concentration of PFCs; (2) the background organic
and metal concentration; (3) available degradation
time; and (4) other site-specific conditions (Vectis
and others 2009).
Ex situ treatments including activated carbon
filters, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis units
have been shown to remove PFCs from water;
however, incineration of the concentrated waste
would be needed for the complete destruction of
PFCs (Hartten 2009; MDH 2008; Vectis and
others 2009).
Research into a cost-effective treatment approach
for PFOS and PFOA is ongoing (DoD SERDP
2012).
Alternative technologies studied for PFOS and
PFOA degradation in water, soil and solid waste
include photochemical oxidation and thermally
induced reduction, which have achieved some
bench-scale success (Hartten 2009; Vectis and
others 2009).
Laboratory-scale studies have also evaluated
sonochemical degradation (that is, ultrasonic
irradiation) to treat PFOS and PFOA in
groundwaterand have reported a sonochemical
degradation half-life less than 30 minutes for both
PFOS and PFOA (Cheng and others 2008, 2010).
Results from a laboratory-scale study suggested
the promising potential of using a double-layer
permeable reactive barrier (DL-PRB) system for
the in situ containment of PFC-contaminated soil
and groundwater. The DL-PRB system is
composed of an oxidant-releasing material layer
followed by a layer of quartz sands immobilized
with humification enzymes. The system drives
enzyme-catalyzed oxidative humification reactions
to degrade PFCs in the PRB (DoD SERDP 2013).
In situ chemical oxidation is being explored as a
possible means to treat PFCs in water.
Laboratory-scale study results indicate that heat-
activated persulfate and permanganate can
effectively degrade PFOS and PFOA in water (Liu
and others 2012a, b).
Where can I find more information about PFOS and PFOA?
3M. 2000. "Sulfonated Perfluorochemicals in the
Environment: Sources; Dispersion, Fate and
Effects." 3M Company submittal to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's Administrative
Record. OPPT2002-0043-0005.
3M. 2008. "3M's Phase Out and New
Technologies." 3M Company.
http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en US/PFO
S/PFOA/lnformation/phase-out-technoloqies/
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry (ATSDR). 2009. "Draft Toxicological
Profile for Perfluoroalkyls."
www.atsdr.cdc.qov/toxprofiles/tp200.pdf
Alexander, B. H. 2004. "Bladder Cancer in
Perfluorooctanesulfonyl Fluoride: Manufacturing
Workers." University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
MN. U.S. EPA Administrative Record. AR-226-
1908.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH). 2002. "Documentation of the
Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure
Indices." Cincinnati, Ohio.
Armitage, J., Cousins, I., Buck, R.C., Prevedouros,
K., Russell, M.H., MacLeod, M., and S.H.
Korzeniowski. 2006. "Modeling Global-Scale Fate
and Transport of Perfluorooctanoate Emitted from
Direct Sources." Environmental Science and
Technology. Volume 40 (22). Pages 6969 to 6975.
Calafat A.M., Wong, L.Y., Kuklenyik, Z., Reidy,
J.A., and L.L. Needham. 2007. "Polyfluoroalkyl
Chemicals in the U.S. Population: Data from the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) 2003-2004 and Comparisons with
NHANES 1999-2000." Environmental Health
Perspectives. Volume 115(11). Pages 1596
to1602.
Cheng, J., Vecitis, C.D., Park, H., Mader, B.T.,
and M.R. Hoffmann. 2008. "Sonochemical
Degradation of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS)
and Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) in Landfill
Groundwater: Environmental Matrix Effects."
Environmental Science and Technology. Volume
42(21). Pages 8057 to 8063.
Austin, M.E., Kasturi, B.S., Barber, M., Kannan,
K., MohanKumar, P.S., and S.M. MohanKumar.
2003. "Neuroendocrine Effects of Perfluorooctane
Sulfonate in Rats." Environmental Health
Perspectives. Volume 111(12). Pages 1485
to1489.
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
Where can I find more information about PFOS and PFOA? (continued)
•:« Barton, C.A., Kaiser, M.A., and M.H. Russell.
2007. "Partitioning and Removal of
Perfluorooctanoate during Rain Events: The
Importance of Physical-Chemical Properties."
Journal of Environmental Monitoring. Volume (9).
Pages 839 to 846.
•:« Brooke, D., Footitt, A., and T.A. Nwaogu. 2004.
"Environmental Risk Evaluation Report:
Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS)."
•:« Cheng, J., Vecitis, C.D., Park, H., Mader, B.T.,
and M.R. Hoffmann. 2010. "Sonochemical
Degradation of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS)
and Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) in Groundwater:
Kinetic Effects of Matrix Inorganics."
Environmental Science and Technology. Volume
44(1). Pages 445 to 450.
»> Conder, J.M., Wenning, R.J., Travers, M., and M.
Blom. 2010. "Overview of the Environmental Fate
of Perfluorinated Compounds." Network for
Industrially Contaminated Land in Europe
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»> Environment Canada. 2012. "Screening
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S.A. Mabury. 2007. "Spatial Distribution of
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Hurley, M.D, Andersen, M.P.S, and T.J.
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Jahnke, A., Ahrens, L., Ebinghaus, R., Berger, U.,
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Alkyl Substances in Environmental Air Samples."
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Jahnke, A., Huber, S., Temme, C., Kylin, H., and
U. Berger. 2007b. "Development and Application
of a Simplified Sampling Method for Volatile
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Karrman, A., Bavel, B., Jarnberg, U., Hardell, L.,
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in Relation to Other Persistent Organic Pollutants
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Hutchens, A., and J. Seed. 2007. "Perfluoroalkyl
Acids: A Review of Monitoring and Toxicological
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
Where can I find more information about PFOS and PFOA? (continued)
Liu, C.S., Higgins, C.P., Wang, F., and K. Shih.
2012a. "Effect of Temperature on Oxidative
Transformation of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)
by Persulfate Activation in Water." Separation and
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51
Liu, C.S., Shih, K., and F. Wang. 2012b.
"Oxidative Decomposition of
Perfluorooctanesulfonate in Water by
Permanganate." Separation and Purification
Technology. Volume 87. Pages 95 to 100.
Martin, J.W., Smithwick, M.M., Braune, B.M.,
Hoekstra, P.F., Muir, D.C.G. and S.A. Mabury.
2004. "Identification of Long Chain Perfluorinated
Acids in Biota from the Canadian Arctic."
Environmental Science and Technology. Volume
38. Pages 373 to 380.
Melzer, D., Rice, N., Depledge, M.H., Henley,
W.F., and T.S. Galloway. 2010. "Association
between Serum Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)
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Minnesota Department of Health (MDH). 2008.
"MDH Evaluation of Point-of-Use Water Treatment
Devices for Perfluorochemical Removal. Final
Report Summary." www.health.state.mn.us/divs/
eh/wells/waterqualitv/poudevicefinalsummary.pdf
MDH. 2011. Perfluorochemicals (PFCs) in
Minnesota, www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/
hazardous/topics/pfcs/index.html
Moermond, C., Verbruggem, E., and C. Smit.
2010. "Environmental Risk Limits for PFOS: A
Proposal for Water Quality Standards in
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National Institute for Public Health and the
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New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection (NJDEP). 2013. "Perfluorooctanoic Acid
(PFOA) in Drinking Water." www.nj.gov/dep/
watersupplv/dwc quality pfoa.html
North Carolina Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (NCDENR). 2006.
"Recommended Interim Maximum Allowable
Concentration for Perfluorooctanoic Acid."
North Carolina Secretary's Science Advisory
Board on Toxic Air Pollutants (NCSAB). 2010.
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for an Interim Maximum Allowable Concentration
of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) in
Groundwater." http://daq.state.nc.us/toxics/
risk/sab/ra/PFOA Pending.pdf
Olsen, G.W., Burris, J.M., Ehresman, D.J.,
Froehlich, J.W., Seacat, A.M., Butenhoff, J.L., and
L.R. Zobel. 2007. "Half-life of Serum Elimination of
Perfluorooctanesulfonate,
Perfluorohexanesulfonate, and Perfluorooctanoate
in Retired Fluorochemical Production Workers."
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2382880.pdf
Post, G.B., Cohn, P.O., and K.R. Cooper. 2012.
"Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), an Emerging
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Reistad, T., Fonnum, F., and E. Mariussen. 2013.
"Perfluoroalkylated Compounds Induce Cell Death
and Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species in
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Sulfonate." Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants Review Committee. Geneva, 6 -
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DoD. 2011. Chemical & Material Risk Management
Program. www.denix.osd.mil/cmrmd/ECMR/
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Remediation of Perfluoroalkyl Contaminated
Groundwater." Environmental Restoration (ER)
Program Area. FY2013 Statement of Need.
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Emerging Contaminants Fact Sheet - PFOS and PFOA
Where can I find more information about PFOS and PFOA? (continued)
DoD. SERDP. 2013. "Remediation of Perfluoroalkyl
Contaminated Aquifers using an In Situ Two-Layer
Barrier: Laboratory Batch and Column Study." Er-
2127. www.serdp.org/Program-Areas/Environmental-
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lssues/ER-2127/ER-2127
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002a.
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Perfluorooctanoic Acid and its Salts."
EPA. 2003. "Guidance for Obtaining Representative
Laboratory Analytical Subsamples from Particulate
Laboratory Samples." EPA 600/R-03/027.
EPA. 2006a. "PFAS-Proposed Significant New Use
Rule." 40 CFR 721. Federal Register: Volume 71
(No 47). www.gpo.gov/fdsvs/pkg/FR-2006-03-
10/pdf/E6-3444.pdf
EPA. 2006b."SAB Review of EPA's Draft Risk
Assessment of Potential Human Health Effects
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006.
EPA. 2009a. "Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate
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register.gov/articles/2009/10/08/E9-24287/drinking-
water-contaminant-candidate-list-3-final
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Washington, J.W., Henderson, W.M., Ellington J.J,
Jenkins, T.M, and J.J. Evans. 2008. "Analysis of
Perfluorinated Carboxylic Acids in Soils II:
Optimization of Chromatographyand Extraction."
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Young, C.J., Furdui, V.I., Franklin, J., Koerner, R.M.,
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Contact Information
If you have any questions or comments on this fact sheet, please contact: Mary Cooke, FFRRO, by phone at (703)
603-8712 or by email at cooke.maryt@epa.gov.
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