&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Technical Fact sheet -
Nanomaterials
January 2014
TECHNICAL FACT SHEET - NANOMATERIALS
At a Glance
Introduction
Diverse class of small-scale
substances that have structural
components smaller than 100
nanometers (nm) in at least one
dimension (EPA 2011 b).
Nanomaterials (NMs) include
nanoparticles (NPs), which are
particles with at least two
dimensions between approximately
1 and 100 nm.
Can be categorized into three types:
natural, incidental and engineered.
Engineered NMs are used in a wide
variety of applications, including
environmental remediation, pollution
sensors, photovoltaics, medical
imaging and drug delivery.
May be released through point and
nonpoint sources, or introduced
directly to the environment when
used for remediation purposes.
May be readily transported through
media, usually over much greater
distances than larger particles of the
same composition. The mobility of
NMs depends on factors such as
surface chemistry and particle size,
and on biological and abiotic
processes in the media.
May stay in suspension as
individual particles, aggregate,
dissolve or react with other
materials.
Characterization and detection
technologies include differential
mobility analyzers, mass
spectrometry and scanning electron
microscopy.
Can be removed from air using air
filters and respirators, and from
water by flocculation, sedimentation
and filtration.
This fact sheet, developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office
(FFRRO), provides a summary of nanomaterials (NMs), including their
physical and chemical properties; potential environmental and health
impacts; existing federal and state guidelines; detection and treatment
methods; and additional sources of information. This fact sheet is
intended for use by site managers and other field personnel who may
need to address or use NMs at cleanup sites or in drinking water
supplies.
Because of their unique properties, NMs are increasingly being used in
a wide range of scientific, environmental, industrial and medicinal
applications. However, there is a growing concern about the lack of
environmental health and safety data.
What are nanomaterials?
»> NMs are a diverse class of small-scale substances that have
structural components smaller than 100 nanometers (nm) in at least
one dimension. NMs include nanoparticles (NPs), which are particles
with at least two dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nm
(EPA 2011 b; Klaine and others 2008).
»> NMs can be categorized into three types according to their source:
natural, incidental and engineered. See Exhibit 1 for examples.
»> Engineered NMs, designed with specific properties or composition,
are intentionally produced through certain chemical processes,
physical processes or both, such as self-assembly (from atoms and
molecules) or milling (from their macro-scale counterparts). These
NMs may be released into the environment primarily through
industrial and environmental applications or improper handling
(DHHS 2009; EPA 2007).
»> Because of their novel nanoscale size, NMs may possess unique
chemical, biological and physical properties compared with larger
particles of the same material (Keiner2008; Klaine and others 2008).
»> The unique properties of NMs allow them to be used for various
applications, as shown in Exhibit 1.
»> As of 2013, more than 1,600 consumer products containing NMs are
on the market (WWIC 2013).
Disclaimer: The U.S. EPA prepared this fact sheet from publically-available
sources; additional information can be obtained from the source documents. This
fact sheet is not intended to be used as a primary source of information and is not
intended, nor can it be relied upon, to create any rights enforceable by any party
in litigation with the United States. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (5106P)
1
EPA 505-F-14-002
January 2014
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
Exhibit 1: Properties and Common Uses of Nanomaterials (NMs)
Types of NMs Physical
(Occurrence) Example Properties Chemical Properties Uses
Carbon-based
(Natural or
Engineered)
(EPA 2007, Klaine
and others 2008)
Metal Oxides
(Natural or
Engineered)
(Klaine and others
2008)
Zero-Valent
Metals
(Engineered)
(EPA 2008a;
Klaine and others
2008)
Quantum Dots
(Engineered)
(Klaine and others
2008)
Dendrimers
(Engineered)
(EPA 2007;
Watlington 2005)
Fullerenes/Buckyballs
(Carbon 60, Carbon
20, Carbon 70),
carbon nanotubes,
nanodiamonds and
nanowires.
Titanium dioxide, zinc
oxide and cerium
oxide.
Nanoscale zero-
valent iron, emulsified
zero-valent nanoscale
iron and bimetallic
nanoscale particles.
Bimetallic nanoscale
particles include
elemental iron and a
metal catalyst (such
as gold, nickel,
palladium or
platinum)
Quantum dots made
from cadmium
selenide, cadmium
telluride and zinc
selenide.
Hyperbranched
polymers, dendrigraft
polymers and
dendrons.
Exist as hollow
spheres (buckyballs),
ellipsoids, tubes
(nanotubes), 1-
nanometer wires
(nanowires) or
hexagonal structures
(nanodiamonds).
Excellent thermal and
electrical conductivity.
Some have
photocatalytic
properties, and some
have ultraviolet
blocking ability. When
used in sunscreen,
nano-titanium dioxide
and nano-zinc oxide
appear transparent
when applied on skin.
Between 1 and 100
nanometers or greater,
depending on the NM-
type containing the
zero-valent metal.
Properties can be
controlled by varying
the reductant used and
the reduction
conditions.
Size: 10 to 50
nanometers. Reactive
core controls the
material's optical
properties. The larger
the dot, the redder
(lower energy) its
fluorescence
spectrum.
Size: 2 to 20
nanometers. Highly
branched polymers.
Common shapes
include cones, spheres
and disc-like
structures.
Carbon-based NMs are stable,
have limited reactivity, are
composed entirely of carbon
and are strong antioxidants.
High reactivity; photolytic
properties.
High surface reactivity.
Common starting materials
used in production include
ferric or ferrous salts with
sodium borohydride.
Closely packed semiconductor
whose excitons (bound
electron-hole pairs) are
confined in all three spatial
dimensions. Possible metal
structures include cadmium
selenide, cadmium telluride,
cadmium selenide telluride,
zinc selenide, indium
phosphide or lead selenide, for
the core; cadmium sulfide or
zinc sulfide for the shell.
Highly branched; multi-
functional polymers.
Biomedical
applications, super-
capacitors, sensors
and photovoltaics.
Photocatalysts,
pigments, drug
release, medical
diagnostics,
cosmetics, ultraviolet
blockers in
sunscreen, diesel
fuel additive and
remediation.
Remediation of
waters, sediments
and soils to reduce
contaminants such
as nitrates,
trichloroethene and
tetrachloroethene.
Medical imaging,
targeted
therapeutics,
photovoltaics,
telecommunication
and sensors.
Drug delivery,
chemical sensors,
modified electrodes
and DNA transferring
agents.
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
Types of NMs Physical
(Occurrence) Example Properties Chemical Properties Uses
Composite NMs
(Engineered)
(EPA 2007; Gil
and Parak2008)
Nanosilver
(Engineered)
(Klaine and others
2008; Luoma
2008)
Produced using two
different NMs or NMs
combined with larger,
bulk-type materials.
They can also be
made with NMs
combined with
synthetic polymers or
resins.
Forms include
colloidal silver, spun
silver, nanosilver
powder and polymeric
silver.
Composite NMs have
novel electrical,
magnetic, mechanical,
thermal or imaging
features.
Size: 10 to 200
nanometers.
Made up of many
atoms of silver in the
form of silver ions.
Multifunctional components,
catalytic features.
High surface reactivity, strong
antimicrobial properties.
Potential
applications in drug
delivery and cancer
detection. Also used
in auto parts and
packaging materials
to enhance
mechanical and
flame-retardant
properties.
Medicine
applications, water
purification and
antimicrobial uses.
They are used for a
wide variety of
commercial
products.
How can nanomaterials affect the environment?
NMs in solid wastes, wastewater effluents, direct
discharges or accidental spills may be transported
to aquatic systems by wind or rainwater runoff
(Klaine and others 2008).
NPs fate and transport in the environment are
largely dependent on material properties such as
surface chemistry, particle size and biological and
abiotic processes in environmental media.
Depending on these properties, NPs may stay in
suspension as individual particles, aggregate
forming larger sized NMs, dissolve or react with
other materials (EPA 2009; Luoma 2008).
Because of their small size and slower rate of
gravitational settling, some NMs may remain
suspended in air and water for longer periods and
may be readily transported over much greater
distances than larger particles of the same
material (EPA 2007, 2009).
The mobility of NMs in porous media is influenced
by their ability to attach to mineral surfaces to form
aggregates. For example, NMs that readily attach
to mineral surfaces may be less mobile in
groundwater aquifers (Wiesner and others 2006);
smaller NMs that can fit into the interlayer spaces
between soil particles may travel longer distances
before they become trapped in the soil matrix
(EPA 2007); and soils with high clay content tend
to stabilize NMs and allow greater dispersal (EPA
2008a).
A field study demonstrated that once nanoscale
zero-valent iron (nZVI) is emulsified to form
emulsified zero-valent iron (EZVI), the nZVI
particles generally agglomerate and the size of the
particles is significantly greater than nanoscale,
thereby reducing the mobility of nZVI in the
subsurface (ESTCP 2010).
The surface chemistry and therefore the mobility
of NMs in porous media may be affected through
the addition of surface coatings. For example,
nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2) can be harmless in
soil, but could be problematic in water or once a
surface coating is added. In addition, uncoated
nZVI can aggregate more rapidly in soil and water
compared with coated nZVI, thereby reducing the
NM's environmental transport in soil and water
(EPA 2008a; Keller and others 2012; Lubick
2008).
Some NMs are reported to be photoactive, but
their susceptibility to photodegradation in the
atmosphere has not been studied (EPA 2007).
The potential mechanisms of biodegradation of
NMs are the subject of current investigation. Some
fullerenes such as C60 and C70 have been found
to biodegrade after several months. Many NMs
containing inherently non-biodegradable inorganic
chemicals such as metals and metal oxides may
not biodegrade as readily (EPA 2007).
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
How can nanomaterials affect the environment? (continued)
Research is still being conducted on the effects of
NMs on wildlife species. Some studies have
reported oxidative stress and pathological
changes in aquatic species, specifically trout, after
exposure to nano-TiO2 (Federici and others 2007).
Additionally, study results indicate potential
hepatic effects in rainbow trout after exposure to
nanosilver and potential toxic effects to
phytoplankton species after exposure to some
forms of nZVI (Keller and others 2012; Monfared
and Soltani2013).
A recent study compared the toxic effects of zinc
oxide (ZnO) NPs and ion zinc toward Dunaliella
tertiolecta, a type of marine algae. Results found
the ZnO NPs affected the growth rate of the algae
and suggested that the ZnO NPs were more toxic
to the marine algae than bulk ZnO (Manzo and
others 2012).
Although nZVI is widely used in site remediation,
information is limited on its fate and transport in
the environment. While increased mobility
because of the smaller size may allow for efficient
remediation, research is ongoing to determine
whether these NMs could migrate beyond the
contaminated plume area and persist in drinking
water aquifers or surface water (EPA 2008a).
What are the routes of exposure to nanomaterials?
Human exposure to NMs may occur through
ingestion, inhalation, injection and dermal
exposure, depending on the source and activities
of the person. In the workplace, inhalation is a
widely recognized route of human exposure
(DHHS 2009; EPA 2007; Watlington 2005).
The small size, solubility and large surface area of
NMs may enable them to translocate from their
deposition site (typically in the lungs) and interact
with biological systems. Circulation time increases
drastically when the NMs are water-soluble. With
smaller NM sizes, the likelihood of greater
pulmonary deposition and potential toxicity exists
(DHHS 2009; SCENIHR 2009).
Studies have shown that NMs, as a result of their
small size, have the potential to pass through both
the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the placenta.
For example, a recent study showed that nano-
anatase TiO2 may pass the BBB of mice when
mice are injected with high doses (DHHS 2009;
Liu and others 2009).
Some types of NMs that translocate into
systematic circulation may reach the liver and
spleen, the two major organs for detoxification and
further circulatory distribution. Various
cardiovascular and other extra pulmonary effects
may also occur (Nel and others 2006; SCENIHR
2009).
Animal studies indicate that nano-TiO2 may
accumulate in the liver, spleen, kidney and brain
after it enters the bloodstream through various
exposure routes (Chang and others 2013).
In humans, although most inhaled NMs remain in
the respiratory tract, less than 1 percent of the
inhaled dose may reach the circulatory system
(SCENIHR 2009).
Use of sunscreen products may lead to dermal
exposure to NMs (TiO2 and ZnO), depending on
the properties of the sunscreen and the condition
of the skin. In healthy skin, the epidermis may
prevent NM migration to the dermis. However,
damaged or flexed skin may allow NMs to
penetrate the dermis and access regional lymph
nodes, as suggested by quantum dots and
nanosilver (EPA 2010; Mortensen and others
2008; Nel and others 2006).
Ingestion exposure may occur from consuming
NMs contained in drinking water or food (for
example, fish) or from unintentional hand to mouth
transfer of NMs (DHHS 2009; Wiesner and others
2006).
What are the health effects of nanomaterials?
Further epidemiological studies are needed to
determine whether NMs, under realistic exposure
scenarios, may present adverse health effects to
humans (Chang and other 2013).
The potential health effects of NMs are variable,
depending on their characteristics. Clinical and
experimental animal studies indicate that NMs can
induce different levels of cell injury and oxidative
stress, depending on their charge, particle size
and exposure dose. In addition, particle coatings,
size, charge, surface treatments and surface
excitation by ultraviolet (UV) radiation can modify
surface properties and thus the aggregation and
potential biological effects of NMs (Chang and
others 2013; Nel and others 2006).
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
What are the health effects of nanomaterials?(continued)
EPA is researching how NMs interact with
biological processes important to human health
and identifying the unique properties that regulate
their activity (EPA 2013).
Some NMs may generate reactive oxygen species
(ROS), which can lead to membrane damage,
including increases in membrane permeability and
fluidity. As a result, cells may become more
susceptible to osmotic stress or impaired nutrient
uptake (Klaine and others 2008).
ROS production may also lead to DMA damage.
For example, study results indicate that C60
fullerenes and nano-TiO2 may impair the structure,
stability and biological functions of DMA (EPA
2007; Jaeger and others 2012; Klaine and others
2008).
When cultured cells are exposed to NMs of
various metals (such as NMs containing titanium
and iron), NMs may be absorbed and gain access
to tissues that the metals alone cannot normally
reach. The uptake-and-damage mechanism is
frequently called the "Trojan Horse effect," where
the NMs appear to "trick" the cells to let them
enter, and once inside, the toxic metals can
significantly increase the damaging action of such
materials (Limbach and others 2007).
Metal-containing NMs may cause toxicity to cells
by releasing harmful trace elements or chemical
ions. For example, silver NMs may release silver
ions that can interact with proteins and inactivate
vital enzymes. The lead and cadmium used in
quantum dots are known reproductive and
developmental toxins. However, estimates of
releases of these metals from NMs are crude
because of varying factors such as the
concentration of metal in the source (Klaine and
others 2008; Luoma 2008; Powell & Kanarek
2006).
Research has shown that NMs may stimulate or
suppress immune responses (or both) by binding
to proteins in the blood (Dobrovolskaia & McNeil
2007).
Study results suggest that certain NMs may pose
a respiratory hazard after inhalation exposure. For
example, rodent studies indicate that single-walled
carbon nanotubes may cause pulmonary
inflammation and fibrosis. Exposures to nano-TiO2
have also resulted in persistent pulmonary
inflammation in rats and mice (EPA 2007; NIOSH
2011, 2013a;OSHA 2013b).
Based on the results of available animal inhalation
and epidemiologic studies, the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has
concluded that nano-TiO2 may have a higher
mass-based potency than larger particles and
should be considered as a potential occupational
carcinogen. Additional data and information are
needed to assist NIOSH in evaluating potential
occupation and health issues (NIOSH 2011).
Are there any federal and state guidelines or health standards for
nanomaterials?
Federal standards and guidelines:
• Many currently available nano-products fall
under the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's
(FDA) regulation (such as foods, cosmetics,
drugs, veterinary products and sunscreens).
FDA regulates these products based on a safety
assessment of the bulk material ingredients or
product. For example, FDA regulates nZVI the
same as all forms of iron and carbon nanotubes
the same as all forms of carbon (FDA 2012).
• FDA has proposed guidelines on the evaluation
and use of NMs in FDA-regulated products. In
June 2011, FDA published the "Draft Guidance
for Industry: Considering Whether an FDA-
Regulated Product Involves the Application of
Nanotechnology." In April 2012, FDA issued two
new draft guidelines for manufacturers of food
substances and cosmetics (FDA 2012).
The presence of a NM in a pesticide may affect
EPA's assessment under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA) of whether the product causes
unreasonable adverse effects on the
environment. In 2011, EPA issued a notice
announcing the proposed plan forgathering
information on NMs present in pesticide
products and their potential effects on humans
or the environment (EPA 2007, 2011 b).
Many NMs are regarded as "chemical
substances" under the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) and therefore are subject to the
requirements of the Act. EPA has already
determined that carbon nanotubes are subject to
reporting under Section 5 of TSCA. Under
TSCA, EPA may also regulate NMs considered
as existing chemicals (EPA 2008b, 2011 a).
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
Are there any federal and state guidelines or health standards for
nanomaterials?(continued)
Federal standards and guidelines (continued):
• EPA is developing a Significant New Use Rule
(SNUR) under TSCA Section 5(a)(2) that would
require persons who intend to manufacture,
import or process new NMs based on chemical
substances listed on the TSCA Inventory to
submit a Significant New Use Notice (SNUN) to
EPA at least 90 days before that activity
commences (EPA 2011 a).
• If NMs enter drinking water or are injected into a
well, they may be regulated under the Safe
Drinking Water Act (EPA 2007). However,
currently no maximum contaminant level goals
(MCLGs) and maximum contaminant levels
(MCLs) have been established for NMs based
solely on their size. MCLGs and MCLs are
established for the macro-sized forms of NMs.
• Risks from NMs at waste sites may be evaluated
and addressed under the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA) and the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) (EPA
2007).
• Discharges to waters of the United States that
contain NMs may require authorization under a
Clean Water Act (CWA) permit pursuant to
Section 402 of the CWA. EPA can establish
compound-specific effluent limits in permits
under the CWA (EPA 2007).
• NMs may also be regulated under the Clean Air
Act if their use or manufacture results in
emissions of pollutants that are or could be
listed as criteria air pollutants or hazardous air
pollutants (EPA 2007).
• Some Occupational Health and Safety
Administration (OSHA) standards may apply to
situations where workers handle or are exposed
to NMs. In addition, OSHA has approved plans
for 25 states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands
that enable them to adopt federal safety
standards for workers in private industry. These
plans allow states to adopt guidelines to manage
the risks of NMs in the workplace (OSHA 2013a,
2013b).
• NIOSH has developed interim guidelines on the
occupational safety and health implications and
applications of NMs, including the use of
effective control technologies, work practices
and personal protective equipment (NIOSH
2013b).
• NIOSH has established a recommended
exposure limit (REL) of 1.0 micrograms per
cubic meter (ug/m3) as an 8-hour time-weighted
average (TWA) for carbon nanotubes and
carbon nanofibers. In addition, NIOSH
established a REL of 2.4 milligrams per cubic
meter (mg/m3) for fine TiO2 (primary particle
diameter between about 100 nm and 3,000 nm)
and 0.3 mg/m3 for ultrafine (primary particle
diameter less than 100 nm including engineered
nanoscale) TiO2 as a 10-hour TWA (NIOSH
2011,2013a).
State and local standards and guidelines:
• In 2006, Berkeley, California, adopted the first
local regulation specifically for NMs, requiring all
facilities manufacturing or using manufactured
NMs to disclose current toxicology information,
as available (Berkeley 2006).
• In 2010 and 2011, the California Department of
Toxic Substances Control (CA DTSC) issued
formal request letters to the manufacturers of
certain carbon nanotubes, nanometal oxides,
nanometals and quantum dots requesting
information related to chemical and physical
properties, including analytical test methods and
other relevant information (CA DTSC 2013).
• Several other states may have community right-
to-know laws that authorize reporting or
disclosures broader than the federal law; this
may provide authority to require reporting when
facilities use or produce NMs (Keiner2008).
What detection and characterization methods are available for
nanomaterials?
The detection, extraction and analysis of NMs
are challenging because of NM's small size,
unique structure, physical and chemical
characteristics, surface coatings and interactions
in the environment, including agglomeration and
sequestration (EPA 2007).
The analysis of NMs in environmental samples
often requires the use of multiple technologies in
tandem. Analysis can include use of size
separation technologies combined with particle
counting systems, morphological analysis and
chemical analysis technologies (EPA 2007,
2010).
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
What detection and characterization methods are available for
nanomaterials? (continued)
Aerosol mass spectrometer provides chemical
analysis of NMs suspended in gases and liquids
by vaporizing them and analyzing the resulting
ions in a mass spectrometer (SCENIHR 2009).
Aerosol fractionation technologies (differential
mobility analyzers and scanning mobility particle
sizers) use the mobility properties of charged
NMs in an electrical field to obtain size fractions
for subsequent analysis. Multi-stage impactor
samplers separate NM fractions based on the
aerodynamic mobility properties of the NMs
(EPA 2007).
Expansion condensation nucleus counters
measure and derive NM density in gas
suspension through adiabatic expansion
followed by optical measurement. Currently
available instruments can detect NPs as small
as 3 nm (Saghafifar and others 2007).
Size-exclusion chromatography, ultrafiltration
and field flow fractionation can be used for size
fractionation and collection of NM fractions in
liquid media (EPA 2007).
NM fractions may be further analyzed using
dynamic light scattering for size analysis and
mass spectrometry for chemical characterization
(EPA 2007).
One of the main methods of analyzing NM
characteristics is electron microscopy. Scanning
electron microscopy and transmission electron
microscopy can be used to determine the size,
shape and aggregation state of NMs below 10
nm (EPA 2007; SCENIHR 2006).
Atomic force microscopy can provide single
particle size and morphological information at
the nanometer level in air and liquid media (EPA
2007).
Dynamic light scattering is used to characterize
manufactured NMs and provides information on
the hydrodynamic diameter of NMs in
suspensions. It is capable of measuring NPs
from a few nm in size (EPA 2010).
Other analytical techniques include X-ray
diffraction to measure the crystalline phase and
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to determine
the surface oxidation states and chemical
composition of NMs (EPA 2010).
Additional research is needed to determine
methods to detect and quantify engineered NMs
in environmental media. EPA is currently
researching practical methods for detecting,
quantifying and characterizing NMs in the
environment (EPA 2013).
What technologies are being used to control nanomaterials?
Limited information is available about which
technologies can be used to control NMs in
water and wastewater streams.
Air filters and respirators are used to filter and
remove NMs from air. A study found that
membrane-coated fabric filters could provide an
NP collection efficiency above 95 percent (Tsai
and others 2012; Wiesner and others 2006).
NMs in groundwater, surface water and drinking
water may be removed using flocculation,
sedimentation and sand or membrane filtration
(Wiesner and others 2006).
A recent study stabilized silver NPs using
different capping agents to control the transport
of the NPs in porous media (Badawy and others
2013).
Where can I find more information about nanomaterials?
Badawy, A.M., Hassan, A.A., Scheckel, K.G.,
Suidan, M.T. and T.M Tolymat. 2013. "Key Factors
Controlling the Transport of Silver Nanoparticles in
Porous Media." Environmental Science and
Technology. Volume 47 (9). Pages 4039 to 4045.
California Department of Toxic Substances
Control (CA DTSC). 2013. Nanomaterials
Information Call-In, www.dtsc.ca.qov/pollution
prevention/chemical call in.cfm
Chang, X., Zhang, Y., Tang, M., and B. Wang.
2013. "Health Effects of Exposure to nano-TiO2: a
Meta-Analysis of Experimental Studies."
Nanoscale Research Letters. Volume 8 (51).
Council of the City of Berkeley, California
(Berkeley). 2006. Section 12.12.040 Filing of
Disclosure Information and Section 15.12.050
Quantities Requiring Disclosure. Ordinance No.
6,960-N.S. www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/citycouncil/
ordinances/2006/6960.pdf
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
Where can I find more information about nanomaterials? (continued)
Dobrovolskaia, M.A. and S.E McNeil. 2007.
"Immune-logical Properties of Engineered
Nanomaterials." Nature Nanotechnology. Volume
2. Pages 469 to 478.
Environmental Security Technology Certification
Program (ESTCP). 2010. "Emulsified Zero-Valent
Nano-Scale Iron Treatment of Chlorinated Solvent
DNAPL Source Areas" (ER-200431).
Federici, G., Shaw, B.J., and R.R. Handy. 2007.
"Toxicity of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles to
Rainbow Trout: Gill Injury, Oxidative Stress, and
Other Physiological Effects." Aquatic Toxicology.
Volume 84. Pages 415 to 430.
Gil, P.R. and W.J Parak. 2008. "Composite
Nanoparticles Take Aim at Cancer." ACS Nano.
Volume 2 (11). Pages 2200 to 2205.
Jaeger, A., Weiss, D.G., Jonas, L, and R.
Kriehuber. 2012. "Oxidative Stress-Induced
Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects of Nano-Sized
Titanium Dioxide Particles in Human HaCaT
Keratinocytes." Toxicology. Volume 296 (1 to 3).
Pages 27 to 36.
Keiner, S. 2008. "Room at the Bottom?: Potential
State and Local Strategies for Managing the Risks
and Benefits of Nanotechnology." Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars.
http://emerqinqlitiqation.shb.com/Portals/f81bfc4f-
cc59-46fe-9ed5-7795e6eea5b5/pen11 keiner.pdf
Keller, A.A., Garner, K., Miller, R.J., and H.S.
Lenihan. 2012. "Toxicity of Nano-Zero Valent Iron
to Freshwater and Marine Organisms." PLoS One.
Volume 7(8).
Klaine, S.J., Alvarez, P.J.J., Batley, G.E.,
Fernandes, T.E., Hand, R.D., Lyon, D.Y.,
Mahendra, S., McLaughlin, M.J., and J.R. Lead.
2008. "Nanoparticles in the Environment:
Behavior, Fate, Bioavailability and Effects."
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Volume
27(9). Pages 1825 to 1851.
Limbach, K. L., Wick, P., Manser, P., Grass, R.N.,
Bruinink, A., and W.J. Stark. 2007. "Exposure of
Engineered Nanoparticles to Human Lung
Epithelial Cells: Influence of Chemical
Composition and Catalytic Activity on Oxidative
Stress." Environmental Science & Technology.
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Liu, H., Ma, L., Zhao, J., Liu, J., Van, J., Ruan, J.,
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Technical Fact Sheet - Nanomaterials
Where can I find more information about nanomaterials? (continued)
Saghafifar, H., Kurten, A., Curtius, J. and S.
Borrmann. 2007. "Modification and
Characterization of an Expansion Condensation
Nucleus Counter for Nanometer-sized Particles."
European Aerosol Conference 2007.
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SCENIHR. 2009. "Risk Assessment of Products of
Nanotechnologies." European Commission:
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Tsai, C.S., Echevarrfa-Vega M.E., Sotiriou, G.A.,
Santeufemio, C., Schmidt, D., Demokritou, P., and
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
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EPA. 2008a. "Nanotechnology for Site
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EPA. 2008b. "Toxic Substances Control Act
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Scientific, Technical, Research, Engineering and
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EPA. 2011 a. "Control of Nanoscale Materials under
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EPA. 2012. Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
Research, www.epa.gov/nanoscience/
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2012.
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Topics/Nanotechnology/default.htm
Watlington, K. 2005. "Emerging Nanotechnologies
for Site Remediation and Wastewater Treatment."
www.clu-in.org/download/studentpapers/
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Wiesner, M.R., Lowry, G.V., Alvarez, P., Dionysiou,
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Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
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Contact Information
If you have any questions or comments on this fact sheet, please contact: Mary Cooke, FFRRO, by phone at
(703) 603-8712 or by email at cooke.marvt@epa.gov.
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