&EPA
         United States
         Environmental Protection
         Agency
         FACTS:

• More than $2 billion is spent
  each year on winter road
  maintenance.

• 15 million tons of deicing
  salt are used each year.

• Abrasives such as sand are
  often used in conjunction
  with deicing chemicals to
  provide traction.

• Chloride is not naturally
  removed from water as it
  travels through soil and
  sediments.

• Individual measures might or
  might not be adequate to
  prevent contamination by
  themselves.

• Better forecasting can
  prevent excessive application
  of anti-icing/deicing
  chemicals.

• Alternative deicing
  chemicals may also be used
  for anti-icing.
    Inside this Bulletin:
  Why is it Important to Manage
  Highway Deicing?
  Overview of Deicing
  Alternatives
  Additional Information
        Source Water  Protection
                Practices  Bulletin

Managing Highway Deicing to Prevent
    Contamination of Drinking Water
                                               /- Big Red Snow Plow, NJ 2003
We depend on clear roads and highways for
safe travel and the uninterrupted flow of goods
and services. Deicing chemicals help clear roads
covered by snow and ice during the winter, but
road runoff may later carry these chemicals to sur-
face water and ground water sources of drinking
water. This bulletin focuses on the management of
highway deicing chemicals. See the bulletin on
stormwater runoff for additional source water man-
agement measures.

This document is intended to serve as a resource
for professionals and citizens involved in planning,
decision-making,  and providing technical assis-
tance in the areas of stormwater management and
source water protection. Those who may find this
bulletin useful include: state and regional source
water, stormwater, nonpoint source control, Un-
derground Injection Control (UIC), and other man-
agers; water system operators; members or repre-
sentatives of watershed groups; local officials and
permitting authorities; developers; and federal and
state highway agencies.
        USE OF HIGHWAY DEICING CHEMICALS
                                                       on- cJCuo/t, 1-0084. luyt,

                                                  AaLu bvatinX, 
-------
SOURCE WATER PROTECTION PRACTICES BULLETIN
                                                                                                               PAGE 2
    WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE HIGHWAY DEICING NEAR SOURCES OF
                                            DRINKING WATER?
Surface water and ground water quality
problems resulting from road salt use are
causing concern among federal, state,
and local governments. Salt contributes
to increased chloride levels in ground
water through infiltration of runoff from
roadways2. Also, if runoff containing
road salt reaches a stormwater injection
well, it can provide a concentrated input
of chloride to ground water. In some
areas of the country, such as Woodbury,
Connecticut, a type of injection well
called a dry well drains stormwater run-
off from parking lots and pavement di-
rectly into aquifer systems3. Unlike other
contaminants, such as heavy metals or
hydrocarbons, chloride is not naturally
removed from water as it travels through
soil and sediments and moves towards the
water table. Once in the ground water, it
may remain for a long time if ground water
velocity is slow and it is not flushed away.
Chloride may also be discharged from
ground water into surface water and can
account for elevated levels of chloride
throughout the year, not just in winter4.
Direct input of salt into surface water from
runoff is also problematic45. Increasing
chloride concentrations have been ob-
served over the last few decades in streams,
lakes, and ponds in northern climates that
receive significant snowfall6.  Reservoirs
and other drinking water supplies near
treated highways and salt storage sites are
especially susceptible to contamination.
Thus, regardless of the path that the runoff
                                                        2 - Keep drinking water safe

                                                   takes, salt poses a water quality problem.
                                                   The best chance for long term mitigation
                                                   is to reduce the application of salt to
                                                   road surfaces in a manner that does not
                                                   jeopardize public safety on the roads.

-------
OVERVIEW OF DEICING ALTERNATIVES TO PROTECT SOURCE WATER
                                                                                                                     PAGE 3
This section provides an overview of several deicing management measures. The reference materials cited at the end of this document pro-
vide additional information. Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures might or might not be adequate to prevent contamina-
tion of source waters. Individual measures will likely need to be combined in an overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the
potential source of contamination, the purpose, cost, and operational and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability of the
source water, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired degree of risk reduction.
                      ALTERNATIVE DEICING CHEMICALS
Alternative deicing chemicals include calcium
chloride, magnesium chloride, CMA , and
products that are mixtures of chlorides and or-
ganic compounds9. Although such alternatives
are usually more expensive than salt, their use
may be warranted in some circumstances, such
as near habitats of endangered or threatened
species or in areas where the source water al-
ready has elevated levels of sodium or chloride.
Sensitive areas and ecosystems
along highways  should be
mapped, and the use of deicing
alternatives should be targeted
to those spots. Other considera-
tions for using alternatives to
salt include traffic volume and
weather conditions.
ful to vegetation than sodium chloride, but it is
corrosive to concrete and metal. Magnesium
chloride is effective in extremely cold tempera-
tures (as low as -13 °F). Magnesium chloride is
also safer for vegetation, but can increase flak-
ing of concrete. Calcium magnesium acetate
(CMA) has the benefit of low toxicity to plants
and microbes, but it is costly and is only effec-
tive above 23 °F. CMA can potentially lower
            dissolved oxygen concentrations
            in soils and receiving waters,
            damaging vegetation and aquatic
            life. Many communities, how-
            ever, have used CMA with no
            apparent adverse environmental
            effects. Combining deicers, such
            as mixing calcium chloride and
  DEICING CHEMICALS:
• Calcium Chloride is: CaCl2

• Magnesium Chloride is:  MgCl2
• CMA (calcium magnesium
  acetate) is composed of:
  Calcium carbonate: CaCO3
  Magnesium Carbonate: MgCO3
  Acetic Acid: CH3COOH

• Sodium Chloride is: NaCl
                                     5- Chemistry
The various deicers are effective at differ-
ent temperatures and have different environ-
mental effects. For example, salt is most effec-
tive at temperatures above 20° F. As an alterna-
tive, calcium chloride is effective for tempera-
tures that dip below 0°F and is fast acting, mak-
ing it very useful in some parts of the country. It
is, however, more expensive than sodium chlo-
ride. In New England, calcium chloride is often
used on roadways in areas with high  sodium
concentrations in source water. It is less  harm-
            salt, can be cost-effective and safe
if good information on weather conditions and
road usage are available.

Innovative products have allowed some com-
munities to reduce their salt usage. For exam-
ple, a commercially available beet juice deriva-
tive or another product made from the leftover
mash of alcohol distilleries can be applied to
road surfaces, mixed with a brine for spray
application, or used to treat salt. Salt treated
with these compounds is effective at much
lower temperatures than untreated
sodium chloride, and it works quickly.
The beet juice derivative, in particular,
has been gaining popularity in the
Midwestern United States. Communi-
ties such as Elkhart and Cloverdale,
Indiana, for example, are finding that
the beet juice helps salt and sand ad-
here to roadways, greatly reducing the
amount of salt that needs to be ap-
plied. These products are biodegrad-
able and are safer for roadside vegeta-
tion than sodium chloride. Communi-
ties are still gaining experience with
these "eco-friendly" alternatives; addi-
tional research and experience with
these and other alternatives are
needed.
  (JMg/cnMiAle, <2eici*ux ci^miccwA mcuixie coXcuim cmcmxie, m^ixm^a/uim cmcmxie,

                                   a/ve, mMxXu/ve& aJL cJnJuyd^eA cuul mcumic
                                  ROAD WEA THERINFORMA TIONSYSTEMS (R WIS)
       6-RWISunit
                          RWIS help maintenance centers determine cur-
                          rent weather conditions at a given location. They
                          are a key component of winter maintenance pro-
                          grams in Japan and many Western European
                          countries, and since the mid-1980s increasing
                          numbers of states have been using this technol-
                          ogy. Sensors collect data on air and pavement
                          temperatures, levels of precipitation, and the
                          amount of deicing chemicals on the pavement.
                          The data are paired with weather forecast infor-
                          mation to predict pavement temperatures for a
                          specific area and to determine the amount of
                          chemicals needed in the changing conditions.
                          Savings from reduced use of deicers can offset
                           the high cost of a RWIS. According to the Federal
                           Highway Administration, the Massachusetts Highway
                           Authority (MHA) saved $39,000 on salt and sand costs
                           in the first year after installing nine RWIS stations. The
                           MHA has estimated that a complete RWIS in Boston
                           could save up to $250,000 per year10. A RWIS on a
                           bridge over the James River in Virginia recovered 96
                           percent of equipment and installation costs over a sin-
                           gle mild winter by avoiding unnecessary deicer applica-
                           tion11. Information gathered through RWIS is also
                           used to target anti-icing treatment (described below).
                           Several states are developing satellite delivery of RWIS
                           information to maintenance workers.

-------
SOURCE WATER PROTECTION PRACTICES BULLETIN
                                                                                                                      PAGE 4
 MDSS utilize state-of-the-art weather forecasting and data fusion techniques and merge
 them with computerized winter road maintenance rules of practice. The result is better fore-
 casting of surface conditions along with customized treatment recommendations for winter
 maintenance managers. These measures help minimize the potential for excessive applica-
 tion of anti-icing/deicing chemicals and can result in significant reductions in their use12.
Anti-icing or pretreatment methods involve
the application of deicing chemicals to
roads prior to a storm to prevent ice and
snow from bonding to paved surfaces,
making roads easier to clear. Several states
have reported improvements in traffic mo-
bility and traction after using anti-icing
techniques. Anti-icing can reduce the
amount of deicing chemicals needed; a
collection  of estimates from state depart-
ments of transportation compiled by the
Dupage River Salt Creek Workgroup
showed reductions in deicer usage varying
from 41 to 75 percent13.

Alternative deicing chemicals, such as
magnesium chloride, a sodium chloride
brine, CMA, or the newer "eco-friendly"
deicers (e.g., beet juice derivative and dis-
tillery byproducts) may also be used for
anti-icing.  Timing is important in this proc-
omi-i
      ess, and weather reports or RWIS data can
      assist highway departments in determining
      the best time and place to apply the anti-
      icing chemicals. The Southeast Michigan
      Council of Governments recommends ap-
      plication of anti-icers two hours before
      weather events for maximum effective-
      ness14

      The  Pacific Northwest Snowfighters (PNS)
      Association evaluates the safety, environ-
      mental preservation, and performance of
      winter road maintenance products, includ-
      ing road deicers and anti-icers. PNS main-
      tains, monitors, and updates a list of ap-
      proved products on its Web site15.

      Some states have installed fixed chemical
      spraying systems in highway trouble spots,
      such as on curves and bridges, to prevent
      slippery roads. Chemicals are dispensed
                                                                                7 - WSDOTopening Chinook Pass


                                                                        through spray nozzles embedded in the
                                                                        pavement, curbs, barriers, or bridge decks.
                                                                        Using pavement temperature and precipita-
                                                                        tion sensors, maintenance workers can
                                                                        monitor conditions and activate these fixed
                                                                        maintenance systems. This technique saves
                                                                        materials and labor expenses and reduces
                                                                        the use of deicing chemicals during a storm.
                                                                        These systems are especially useful in loca-
                                                                        tions such as bridges that cross sensitive
                                                                        water bodies because the system's high effi-
                                                                        ciency reduces the risk of over-application.
                                                                        Additional advice on anti-icing is provided
                                                                        in a 2004 article by Brown in Road and
                                                                        Bridges Magazine16 and in guidance by the
                                                                        Federal Highway Administration17.
         .u,  om-cnxa
         nou^tA oeXo^e
                                                                                    
-------
                                                                                                                       PAGES
  10 - Under-tailgate spreader with prewetting
  equipment (above)
  11 - Hopper type spreader (below)
                                          Appropriate application equipment aids
                                          in the proper distribution of deicing
                                          chemicals. Many trucks are equipped
                                          with a spinning circular plate (i.e.,
                                          "spinner") that throws the chemicals in a
                                          semi-circle onto the road. However, this
                                          method of application can lead to signifi-
                                          cant salt wastage because the salt has
                                          enough momentum to bounce or roll
                                          away from the application area. A study
                                          by the Indiana Department of Transpor-
                                          tation18 found that salt applied by ordi-
                                          nary spreaders ends up  off pavement 30
                                          percent of the time and in non-target ar-
                                          eas on the pavement 24 percent of the
                                          time. To correct for this problem, zero-
                                          velocity spreaders have  been developed
                                          that "place" salt on the  road with little
                                          impact velocity, reducing waste. For
                                          windrows, a chute is used to distribute
                                          chemicals, typically near the centerline of
                                          the road.
Spreader calibration controls the amounts
of chemicals applied and allows different
chemicals to be distributed at different
rates. Modified spreaders prevent the over
-application of materials by calibrating
the application rate to the speed of the
truck. Automatic spreader/controller
systems are also available that continu-
ously adjust for the speed of the truck and
speed of the auger. A study led by the
Wisconsin Department of Transportation
has indicated that such systems can re-
duce unnecessary salt application by as
much as 47 percent19.

Equipment can also be used to vary the
width of the deiced area. General equip-
ment inspection and maintenance should
be conducted at least once a year to en-
sure proper and accurate operation. Fol-
low-up inspections during the snow re-
moval season can also help detect prob-
lems caused by in-season equipment wear
and tear.
         cuojoM&cl ou

30%  ol Una,  -turve cuul
Employee training and education is as
important as proper, well maintained
equipment. This is especially true in light
of rapidly evolving best management prac-
tices and the increasing complexity and
variety of snow management options.
Training can help counteract pressures to
overuse salt, especially when past job per-
formance was measured by the quantity of
salt applied per shift. Supplying operators
with the tools and knowledge necessary to
make better decisions on the road can lead
to significant reductions in salt usage, as
was observed in one Minnesota Depart-
ment of Transportation Program20 aimed at
improving operator decision making and
rewarding improved performance. Sugges-
tions for training modules from the Ameri-
can Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials include discussing
                                                        up, Gl

                                                        24%  ol  me -turve.
                                        spreader calibration, electronic spreader set-
                                        tings, integrating RWIS data, and anti-icing
                                        fluids20. Training may entail providing road
                                        maintenance workers with access to informa-
                                        tion on road conditions through the use of
                                        technology. Generally, optimal strategies for
                                        keeping roads clear of ice and snow will de-
                                        pend on local climatic, site, and traffic condi-
                                        tions. Personnel should also be made aware
                                        of areas where careful management of deic-
                                        ing chemicals is particularly important (e.g.,
                                        near sensitive water areas such as lakes,
                                        ponds, and rivers). Similarly, workers should
                                        be aware of runoff concerns from roadways
                                        that drain to either surface water or the sub-
                                        surface (e.g., through a dry well or other infil-
                                        tration structure). In some regions, "no salt"
                                        zones have been established near and on
                                        bridges and other sensitive areas.
  DEICING AND ANTI-ICING:
 • A good forecast using RWISs and/or
   MDSSs, or plowing snow away, can
   save money and deicing chemicals.

 • MHA saved $39,000 on salt and sand in
   one year by installing RWISs.

 • By vising anti-icing techniques, deicer
   usage can drop from 41-75%.

 • Alternative deicing chemicals may be
   used for anti-icing.

 • Fixed chemical spraying systems are
   useful in spots with continuous trouble
   every year.

 • Automatic spreaders can reduce unnec-
   essary salt application by 47%.

 • Snow melts faster when salt is applied
   in narrow strips or as brine.

 • Windrows use a chute to apply deicers
   to a 4-8ft strip along the centerline of a
   road.

 • Deicers are effective if the snow is still
   slushy.

 • Job performance is no longer measured
   by how much salt is applied per shift.

-------
SOURCE WATER PROTECTION PRACTICES BULLETIN
                                                                                                                    PAGE 6
ccut
                  oe WUCe/ve^  auJt oL  d>teepwwi& cwxi culclecl  -aacJc -to &cuul aJJLeA lax, LuJtuae,

                       Cuvu- fUMuzLL  wane, uld CMAO oe ccuecte^ cuul
  Plowing and snow removal are chemical-free op-
  tions to keep roads clear of snow and ice. With
  plowing, less deicing material is needed to melt the
  remaining snow and ice pack. For specific weather
  conditions, specialized snow plows may be used.
  For example, various materials such as polymers
  and rubber can be used on the blade.
  Street sweeping during or soon after the spring
  snow melt can prevent excess sand and deicing
  residue from entering surface and ground wa-
  ters. Many road departments sweep and/or
  vacuum streets at least once in the spring. Sand
  can be filtered out of the sweepings and added
  back to the sand piles for future reuse.
                                            12 - Snow vacuum Canada
                                                              Pre-wetting of sand or deicing
                                                              chemicals is a widespread prac-
                                                              tice because salt needs moisture
                                                              to become a melting agent. The
                                                              resulting brine mixture can pro-
                                                              vide faster melting. Salt can be
                                                              pre-wetted through a spray as it
                                                              leaves the spreader. Sand is often
                                                              pre-wetted with liquid deicing
                                                              chemicals just prior to spreading;
                                                              this is an effective method for
                                                              embedding the sand into the ice
                                                              and snow on the pavement. Pre-
                                                              wetting can pay for itself through
                                                              the savings in materials because
                                                              less sand or salt is lost by bounc-
                                                              ing off the pavement.
Anotu-a -ae i-oca/tecl ou/tauxie oL
                                                                cwxi
                                                                                           &a)LeA pvuitecttoa
                                                  Ground water quality monitoring near salt storage and application sites should
                                                  be performed at least once each year.  Site-specific water table maps that show
                                                  the direction of ground water flow should be reviewed, and monitoring per-
                                                  formed up-gradient and down-gradient of storage and selected application sites
                                                  to detect contamination.
          13 - Simple roof over stockpile
    14 - Enclosed structure for chemical storage
                                    Proper salt storage is key to prevent-
                                    ing the introduction of potentially
                                    harmful contaminant loads to nearby
                                    surface and ground waters. Salt stor-
                                    age sites should be located outside of
                                    wellhead and source water protection
                                    areas, away from private wells, sole
                                    source aquifers (where feasible), and
                                    public water supply intakes. These
                                    areas should be identified so that
                                    application can be  controlled and
                                    storage precautions implemented. It
                                    is important to shelter salt piles from
                                                                                      moisture and wind because unpro-
                                                                                      tected piles can contribute large
                                                                                      doses of salt to runoff. Salt should
                                                                                      be stored inside a covered,  water-
                                                                                      proof structure such as a dome or
                                                                                      shed. A liner or impermeable con-
                                                                                      crete slab may also be appropriate.
                                                                                      Any runoff should be cleaned up
                                                                                      immediately and the collected
                                                                                      brine reused. Spills during loading
                                                                                      and unloading should be cleaned
                                                                                      as soon as possible.

-------
                                                                                                                    PAGE 7
                   ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

These resources contain information on deicing chemicals, best management practices (BMPs), and related topics. Most of the documents
listed are available without a fee on the Internet. State departments of transportation, whose contact information can be found on the Inter-
net or in the phone book, are also good sources of information.
Center for Watershed Protection, 8390 Main Street, Second Floor, Ellicott City, MD, 21043. http://www.cwp.org.
CWP also maintains the Stormwater Manager's Resource Center, http://www.stormwatercenter.net.

The Salt Institute, 700 N. Fairfax Street, Suite 600, Alexandria, VA 22314. Website contains information on salt storage and its Sensible
Salting Program, http://www.saltinstitute.org.

USEPA links to sites on roads, highways, and bridges: http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/roadshwys.html.
Caraco D. and R. Claytor. 1997. Stormwater BMP Design Supplement for Cold Climates. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City,
MD. http://www.cwp.org/Resource_Library/Center_Docs/special/ELC_coldclimates.pdf.

Church, P. and P. Friesz. 1993. Effectiveness of Highway Drainage Systems in Preventing Road-Salt Contamination of Groundwater: Pre-
liminary Findings. Reprinted from: Transportation Research Record. No. 1420. National Research Council.
http://www.nap.edu/books/NI000009/html/index.html.

Granato, G.E. and K.P. Smith. 1999. Estimating Concentrations of Road-Salt Constituents in Highway-Runoff from Measurements of Spe-
cific Conductance. U.S.  Department of the Interior. U.S. Geological Survey. Water Resources Investigation Report 99-4077.
http://ma.water.usgs.gov/ggranato/WRIR99_4077.pdf

Michigan Department of Transportation. 1993. The Use of Selected Deicing Materials on Michigan Roads: Environmental and Economic
Impacts. December, http: //www.michigan.gov/documents/toc-deice_5145 l_7.pdf

New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. 1996. Road Salt and Water Quality. Environmental Fact Sheet WMB-4.
http://des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/factsheets/wmb/documents/wmb-4.pdf

Ohrel, R. 1995. Choosing Appropriate Vegetation for Salt-Impacted Roadways. Watershed Protection Techniques. 1(4): 221-223.
http://www.stormwatercenter.net/Database_Files/Publications_Database_lPage92.html.

Ohrel, R. 1995. Rating Deicing Agents: Road Salt Stands Firm. Watershed Protection Techniques. 1(4): 217-220.
http://www.stormwatercenter.net/Database_Files/Publications_Database_lPage423.html.

Road Management Journal. 1997. Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance. [Information reproduced with permission from the
Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin No. 6, March 1996.] December, http://www.usroads.eom/journals/p/rmj/9712/rm971202.htm.

Seawell, C. andN. Agbenowosi. 1998. Effects of Road Deicing Salts on Groundwater Systems.
http://www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmenM/teach/gwprimer/roadsalt/roadsalt.html.

Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. 1991. Highway Deicing: Comparing Salt and Calcium Magnesium Acetate.
Special Report 235. http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/sr/sr235.html.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. 1996. Manual of Practice for an Effective Anti-icing Program: A
Guide for Highway Winter Maintenance Personnel. Publication No. FHWA-RD-95-202. June.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/mopeap/eapcov.htm.

USEPA. 2007. Shallow Injection Wells (Class V). http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/uic/class5/index.html.

United States Geological Survey. 1999. An Overview of the Factors Involved in Evaluating the Geochemical Effects of Highway Runoff on
the Environment. Open-File Report 98-630. http://ma.water.usgs.gov/FHWA/products/ofr98_630.pdf.

-------
SOURCE WATER PROTECTION PRACTICES BULLETIN                                                                 PAGE 8
United States Geological Survey. 2000. National Highway RunoffWater Quality Data and Methodology Synthesis, State Transportation
Agency Reports. http://ma.water.usgs.gov/FHWA/qw/state.htm.

Warrington, P.D. 1998. Roadsalt and Winter Maintenance for British Columbia Municipalities. Best Management Practices to Protect Wa-
ter Quality. December, http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/bmps/roadsalt.html.

Wilfrid A. Nixon, Ph.D., P.E. Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, College of Engineering, The University of Iowa. (2001) The Use of
Abrasives in Winter Maintenance: Final Report of Project TR 434. IIHR Technical Report No. 416.
http: / /www. iihr. uiowa. edu/products/pubvid/pdf/IIHR416. pdf.

Winter Maintenance Virtual Clearinghouse, Federal Highway Administration. U.S. Department of
Transportation.
http://ops.fhwa.dot. gov/weather/resources/publications/tech_briefs/tech_briefs.htm.


REFERENCES CITED IN BULLETIN       is - NO s»ow Removal sign,  VA.

1 Federal Highway Administration.  2005. How Do Weather Events Impact Roads?
http://ops.fhwa.dot. gov/Weather/ql_roadimpact.htm.

2 Wilde, F. 1994. Geochemistry and Factors Affecting Ground-water Quality at Three Storm-water
Management Sites in Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey, Report of Investigations No.  59. Contact
Maryland Geological Survey at: http://www.mgs.md.gov/ to order a copy.

3 U.S. Geological Survey, Assessing the Vulnerability of Public-Supply Wells to Contamination:  Glacial Aquifer System in Woodbury,
Connecticut. Fact Sheet 2010-3002. January, 2010.

4 Kelly, Walton R., Samuel V. Panno, Keith C. Hackley, Hue-Hwa Hwang, Adam T. Martinsek, andMomcilo Markus. 2010. Using chlo-
ride and other ions to trace sewage and road salt in the Illinois Waterway. Journal of Applied Geochemistry, January 20, 2010.

5 Raushal, S.S., P. M. Groffman, G. E. Likens, K. T. Belt, W. P. Stack, V. R. Kelly, L. E. Band, and G. T. Fisher. 2005. Increasedsaliniza-
tion of fresh water in the northeastern United States. PNAS 102 (38): 13517-13520.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0506414102.

6 Amirsalari, F. and Li, J. 2007. Impact of Chloride Concentrations on Surface Water Quality of Urban Watersheds Using Landsat Im-
agery. Environmental Informatics Archives 5: 576- 584.

7 Centers for Diesease Control and Prevention. 2009. Americans Consume Too Much Salt. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Press Release: March 26, 2009. http://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2009/r090326.htm.

8 Florida Agency for Health Care Administration. 2008. "Sodium in diet." Reviewed by Patrika Tsai, MD/MHP & David Zieve, MD/
MPH.  http://www.floridahealthfmder.gOv/healm-encyclopedk/healm%20mustrated%20encyclopedk/l/002415.shtml.

9 Ramakrishna, D., and T. Viraraghavan. 2005. Environmental impact of chemical deicers - a review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 166:
49-63.

10 Federal Highway Administration. 1996. Clearer Roads at Less Cost. FHWA Road Weather Management - Publication No.: FHWA-
SA-96-045 (CS036). http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather/resources/publications/tech_briefs/cs036.htm.

11 Wyant, David C. 1998. Exploring ways to prevent bonding of ice to pavement: Report VTRC 98-R18. Virginia Transportation Research
Council, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. Charlottesville, Virginia.
http: / /www. virginkdot. org/ vtrc/main/online_reports/pdf79 8-r 18. pdf.

12 Indiana Department of Transportation. 2009. Maintenance Decision Support System, Statewide Implementation, Final Report for FY09.
Prepared by Tony McClellan, Paul Boone, Melody A. Coleman.
http://www.in.gov/indot/files/MDSSReportWinter08-09.pdf

-------
13 Dupage River Salt Creek Workgroup. 2008. Fact Sheet: Chloride Usage Education and Reduction Program.                    PAGE 9
http://www.drscw.org/reports/CFS_PWS.pdf.

14 Southeast Michigan Council of Governments. 2009. Salt Storage and Application Techniques.
http://www.semcog.org/uploadedFUes/Programs_and_Projects/Water/Stormwater/M
Road%20Salt%20Application.pdf.

15 Pacific Northwest Snowfighters Association. 2009. Website includes a monitored and updated list of approved deicing products.
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/partners/pns/pdf/PNSQPL.pdf.

16 Brown, P., 2004. "Snow Patriots: New England fights winter's wrath by staying loyal to anti-icing techniques." Roads and Bridges Maga-
zine, April 2004. http://www.glchloride.com/brochure/Article%20-%20Snow%20Patriots.pdf.

17 Federal Highway Administration. 1995. Manual of Practice for an Effective Anti-Icing Program. FHWA-RD-95-202.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/mopeap/eapcov.htm.

18 Nantung, T. 2001. Evaluation of a zero-velocity deicer spreader and salt spreader. Indiana Department of Transportation in cooperation
with U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. FHWA/IN/JTRP-2000/24.
http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/jtrp/95.

19 Clear Roads. 2008.  Saving Resources through Accurate Materials Delivery. Report No. CR2005-02.
http: / /www. clearroads. org/files/06-21 calibration-b. pdf.

20 Venner Consulting and Parsons Brinckerhoff. 2004. Environmental Stewardship Practices, Procedures, and Policies for Highway Con-
struction and Maintenance. Chapter 8: pp 563-620. Requested by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO). http://www.trb.org/NotesDocs/25-25%284%29_FR.pdf.
1 - Flickr Creative Commons: Attribution only search. Big Red Snow Plow, uploaded by "wwSbillard" on February 9, 2007.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/mister_flash/385166864/

2 - Clip Art.

3 - Wikimedia Commons with full release to Public Domain, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Internal_organs.png

4 - Flickr Creative Commons: Attribution only search. De-icing at Syracuse, uploaded by "PhillipC" on February 25,2005.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/flissphil/5400609/

5 - Flickr Creative Commons: Attribution only search. The Chemistry of Inversion, uploaded by "[FJloxymoron" on July 1, 2010.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/f-oxymoron/4752989199/

6 - RWIS unit (from original Bulletin images).

7 - WSDOT Opening Chinook Pass. Taken from the Pacific Northwest Snowfighters website: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/partners/pns/

8 - Flickr Creative Commons: Attribution and Non-Commercial Use search. Goldensecretl4, uploaded by JillHannah on July 14, 2010.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/jillhannah/4795106174/

9 - Deicing in Oregon using a distributor bar.  Taken from the Pacific Northwest Snowfighters website:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/partners/pns/photos.htm

10 and 11 - Taken from the Federal Highway Administration page tided: "Manual of Practice for an Effective Anti-icing Program: A Guide for
Highway Winter Maintenance Personnel" at  http://www.fliwa.dot.gov/reports/mopeap/mop0296a.htm

12 - Flickr Creative Commons: Attribution, Non-Commercial, No Derivatives search. A Snow Vacuum!, uploaded by "emilybean" on December 7,
2007.  http://www.flickr.com/photos/emilybean/2093204369/

13 and 14 - Taken from the Federal Highway Administration page tided: "Manual of Practice for an Effective Anti-icing Program: A Guide for
Highway Winter Maintenance Personnel" at  http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/mopeap/mop0296a.htm

15 - Flickr Creative Commons: Attribution only search. No Snow Removal Beyond This Point, uploaded by "taberandrew" on May 30, 2007.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/andrewbain/522363815/

Back Cover:: Flickr Creative Commons: Attribution only search. De-icing the Marquam Bridge, uploaded by "OregonDOT" on December 18, 2008.
http://www.flickr.eom/photos/oregondot/3118072153/

-------
                       Source Water Protection Practices Bulletin

                Managing Highway Deicing to Prevent Contamination of
                                     Drinking Water

                         The mission of EPA is to protect human health
                         and to safeguard the natural environment — air,
                          water and land — upon which life depends.

                           USEPA East (EPA East) [Old ICC Building]
                                1201 Constitution Avenue N.W.
                                   Washington, DC 20004
                                          United States
                                          Environmental Protection
                                          Agency
Office of Water (4606)
EPA ### ### ### ###
www. epa.gov/safewater
August 2010

-------