&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
2012 GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAM
City of Neosho
Neosho, Missouri
City of Neosho Green Infrastructure Design
Handbook
Integrating Stormwater Management into Sustainable Urban Design
Image credit: Buddy Sallee
March 2013
EPA 800-R-13-002
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About the Green Infrastructure Technical Assistance Program
Stormwater runoff is a major cause of water pollution in urban areas. When rain falls in undeveloped areas,
the water is absorbed and filtered by soil and plants. When rain falls on our roofs, streets, and parking
lots, however, the water cannot soak into the ground. In most urban areas, stormwater is drained through
engineered collection systems and discharged into nearby waterbodies. The stormwater carries trash,
bacteria, heavy metals, and other pollutants from the urban landscape, polluting the receiving waters.
Higher flows also can cause erosion and flooding in urban streams, damaging habitat, property, and
infrastructure.
Green infrastructure uses vegetation, soils, and natural processes to manage water and create healthier
urban environments. At the scale of a city or county, green infrastructure refers to the patchwork of natural
areas that provides habitat, flood protection, cleaner air, and cleaner water. At the scale of a neighborhood
or site, green infrastructure refers to stormwater management systems that mimic nature by soaking up and
storing water. These neighborhood or site-scale green infrastructure approaches are often referred to as low
impact development.
EPA encourages the use of green infrastructure to help manage stormwater runoff. In April 2011, EPA
renewed its commitment to green infrastructure with the release of the Strategic Agenda to Protect Waters
and Build More Livable Communities through Green Infrastructure. The agenda identifies technical
assistance as a key activity that EPA will pursue to accelerate the implementation of green infrastructure.
In February 2012, EPA announced the availability of $950,000 in technical assistance to communities
working to overcome common barriers to green infrastructure. EPA received letters of interest from over
150 communities across the country, and selected 17 of these communities to receive technical assistance.
Selected communities received assistance with a range of projects aimed at addressing common barriers to
green infrastructure, including code review, green infrastructure design, and cost-benefit assessments. The
City of Neosho was selected to receive assistance identifying green infrastructure barriers and opportunities
and design guidance.
For more information, visit http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/greeninfrastructure/gi support.cfm.
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Acknowledgements
City of Neosho
John Harrington, City of Neosho
Dana Daniel, City of Neosho
EPA / State
Tamara Mittman, USEPA
Christopher Kloss, USEPA
Dan Latham, USEPA
Kerry Herndon, EPA Region VII
Mandy Whitsitt, EPA Region VII
Ruth Wallace, MoDNR
Consultant Team
Neil Weinstein, LID Center
Emily Clifton, LID Center
Doug Davies, LID Center
Martina Frey, Tetra Tech
John Kosco, Tetra Tech
The Low Impact Development Center
5000 Sunnyside Avenue, Suite 100
Beltsville, MD 20705
Phone:301-982-5559
Email: info@lowimpactdevelopment.org
Technical Assistance Tetra Tech
This report was developed under EPA Contract 10306 Eaton Place, Suite 340
No. EP-C-11 -009 as part of the 2012 EPA Green Fairfax, VA 22030-2201
Infrastructure Technical Assistance Program.
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Project Summary
The purpose of this design handbook is to provide a primer of some of the many green infrastructure
techniques available to the City of Neosho, as well as present three scenarios specific to Neosho of how
these techniques can be implemented in new development, redevelopment, and retrofit context in Neosho.
The City of Neosho, Missouri, with a population of more than 11,800, is located on the western edge of the
Missouri Ozarks. Its name, which is of Native American origin, means "clear or abundant water," and was
given due to the great amount of natural, freshwater springs within the area. Clear springs still flow freely
through Neosho today, providing the area with drinking water, a source of water for industrial activities,
and recreational, trout fishing, and tourism opportunities.
Over the years, construction and development have had an impact on Neosho's springs and streams,
leading to more flash flooding, streambank erosion, increased pollution, decreased ground moisture, and
fluctuations of water temperatures and levels. Key to protecting the integrity of its natural resources is
better stormwater management, and green infrastructure can play an important role. According to the
Missouri Guide to Green Infrastructure: "At the scale of a city or county, green infrastructure refers to the
patchwork of natural areas that provides habitat, flood protection, cleaner air, and cleaner water. At the
scale of a neighborhood or site, green infrastructure refers to stormwater management systems designed
to mimic nature by soaking up and storing water" (MdDNR, 2012). By slowing, filtering, and soaking up
runoff, green infrastructure practices minimize stormwater volumes, velocities, and pollutant loads. This,
in turn, leads to fewer flood events, less erosion, and other stream-related benefits. By adding vegetation
and natural areas to the built environment, these practices also provide many other community and
environmental benefits.
The handbook is broken down as follows. Section One defines green infrastructure and identifies the
multiple benefits it provides, while Section Two provides examples of green stormwater infrastructure
management tools - from the rooftop to the street - that are applicable to Neosho. Section Three serves
to pull it all together by showing how these tools can be used within new development and retrofit projects
within the City.
IV
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Contents
Acknowledgements iii
Project Summary iv
PRINCIPLES OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE 1
definition of green infrastructure and low impact development 1
green infrastructure and stormwater management 1
multiple benefits of green infrastructure 1
STORMWATER TOOLBOX 5
green roof 6
living wall 7
downspout disconnection 8
cisterns/rain barrel 9
soil amendment 10
rain garden 11
bioswale 12
vegetated curb extension 13
stormwater planters 14
street trees + reforestation 15
permeable pavement 16
TURNING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE INTO A REALITY:
CONCEPT DESIGNS 17
Neosho High School Branch + Hickory Run Trail 18
lot at West Main Street & South Jefferson Street.... ... 23
References 27
Photo Credits., ...28
v
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Principles of Green Infrastructure
Definition of Green Infrastructure and
Low Impact Development
Green infrastructure refers to the natural and constructed
stormwater controls that mimic the natural hydrologic
cycle by capturing, treating, and/or using stormwater
runoff from public and private properties. These practices
are incorporated into the planning, site design and
construction phases of development projects. Green
infrastructure practices are very flexible and can be
integrated into many different development contexts,
including new development, redevelopment, and retrofit of
public and private properties, streets, trails, and schools.
Site design techniques can include minimizing hard
impervious surfaces such as disconnecting roofs and
parking lots from the storm sewer system and connecting
multiple on-site practices to each other.
When applied at the site development level, green
infrastructure is often referred to as Low Impact
Development (LID). Green infrastructure practices
include, but are not limited to: rain gardens, permeable
pavements, and green roofs.
Green Infrastructure and Stormwater
Management
Green infrastructure can be designed to function as
part of a sustainable stormwater strategy that meets
regulatory requirements for stormwater management
while providing other community benefits. The City
of Neosho is one of approximately 164 communities
within Missouri which has been designated by the US
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the
Missouri Department of Natural Resources (MoDNR) as a
regulated small Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System
(MS4) community that must meet and comply with
Missouri's MS4 permit requirements. The permit requires
regulated MS4s to have had a stormwater management
program in place by March 10, 2008.
Recently, Neosho underwent a voluntary review of the
regulations and standards relevant to the implementation
of stormwater best management practices in order to
identify regulatory updates needed to comply with its
MS4 permit. The purpose of this guide is to provide
information on green infrastructure that can be used in
new development, redevelopment, and retrofit projects
to affordably achieve better stormwater management,
protect water quality, reduce flooding, and provide other
environmental, social, and economic benefits.
Multiple Benefits of Green Infrastructure
The benefits of green infrastructure extend beyond
improved stormwater management. Green infrastructure
helps to protect and restore local watersheds, to enhance
and facilitate the experience of walking, biking, and
other community activities, and to create sustainable
and attractive community gateways. Trees, for example,
can provide shade and cooling, improve local air
quality, and create improved perceptions of a street or
neighborhood (Pataki et al., 2011). Some benefits have a
direct monetary value, such as reduced capital costs for
stormwater infrastructure, reduced long-term O&M costs,
and increased property values.
One approach for evaluating the effect and overall
value of the multiple benefits is the Triple Bottom Line
(TBL) approach (Elkington, 1994). This approach aides
decision makers and stakeholders by considering the
social, economic, and environmental benefits of projects
rather than just the construction life-cycle costs.The TBL
approach can identify opportunities to ingegrate green
technologies into public and private development and
redevelopment projects as well as planned and ongoing
improvements to the transportation infrastructure.
Expected Environmental Benefits
Air Quality
Landscape features such as trees and other vegetation
that are common to green infrastructure help to
reduce ground level ozone by reducing summer
temperatures, reducing the amount of electricity used
for air conditioning, and reducing power plant emissions.
Trees and vegetation also reduce paniculate matter
within the air by absorbing and filtering pollutants which,
|1 Green Infrastructure Design Handbook
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and Sustainable Stormwater Design
left unabated, can enter into the lungs and cause
serious health problems (USEPA, 2011). Green
infrastructure's air quality benefits are of special
importance to Neosho, which is situated in one of
four areas within the state facing the biggest air
quality challenges (MoDNR, 2011).
Climate Changed
Climate change is considered a critical threat to our
social well being and economic future (IPCC, 2007).
In the Midwest, average annual temperatures have
increased over the last several decades, heat waves
have become more frequent, and cold periods have
become rarer. Snow and ice are arriving later and
melting earlier, and heavy downpours occur twice
as frequently as they did a century ago. Future
precipitation events in the Midwest are expected to
become more intense, with longer periods without
precipitation in between (USGCRP, 2009).
Strategically locating green infrastructure and adding
green spaces into urban environments has the
potential to help cities to adapt through the provision
of cooler microclimates and reduced runoff (Gill et
al. 2007). Green roofs, for example, have the ability
to retain large amounts of stormwater, reduce roof
surface and ambient air temperatures, and sequester
carbon. Planting trees in a manner that optimizes
cooling and wind break effects has been shown to
indirectly impact climate change through reducing the
amount of energy needed for heating and cooling,
as well as reducing stormwater requiring treatment
off-site.
Urban Heat Island
Annual mean temperatures in urban areas can
average 2-5°F higher than suburban temperatures.
On a clear night, the difference can be as much as
22°F. This difference is due to the large amount of
hard, reflective surfaces in developed areas that
absorb solar radiation and re-radiate it as heat
(USEPA, 2008). By substituting soils and vegetation
for hard, heat-absorbing pavement and pervious
surfaces (Gill et al., 2007), green infrastructure can
help reduce the urban heat island effect. Water vapor
emitted by trees and other plant materials also acts
to cool ambient temperatures because heat energy
is used by vegetation to evaporate water.
Flash Flood Alleviation
Impervious surfaces come in many types - roofs,
driveways, streets, parking lots, and compact
soils - but the one thing they all have in common
is that water runs off of them and not through
them. Because runoff from an acre of pavement
is 10-20 times greater than runoff from an acre of
vegetation, such hard, impermeable surfaces can
quickly trigger flash floods. With limited ability to
seep into the ground and not enough plant mass
to slow it down, water rushes too quickly into
nearby streams. If water happens to overflow the
streambank, roadways often serve as the least
path of resistance (Frazer, 2005).
As a result, many cities across the U.S., including
Kansas City and St. Louis MO, Chattanooga, TN,
and Milwaukee, MN, are adding more natural or
green spaces back into their community, reducing
impervious surfaces where they can. While green
infrastructure cannot stop flooding completely, it
can lessen the impact of heavy rains on sanitary
and storm sewer systems and urban waterways.
Above: An extensive green roof application on a
multifamily development
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Water Quality and Habitat
Water bodies are significantly influenced by urban
environments. Many streams and rivers listed as
impaired in the National Water Quality Inventory
are affected by urban stormwater runoff. Green
infrastructure can help to reduce the amount of pollution
entering these water bodies and can protect channel
stability.
By capturing the first inch or so of rainwater on site,
green infrastructure helps to reduce runoff volumes,
high flows, and pollutant loads. These functions, in turn,
improve channel stability, water quality, and aquatic
habitat. In addition, the first flush of runoff carries with
it a higher concentration of pollutants (MoDNR, 2012).
By capturing the first flush, green infrastructure can
manage a large proportion of the pollutant load.
Groundwater Recharge
While the primary focus of green infrastructure is
typically to slow and clean stormwater runoff, green
infrastructure practices that direct runoff to vegetation
or areas with porous materials can help recharge
groundwater supplies - particularly where deep-rooting
native grasses, shrubs, and trees are incorporated into
the design. Such plants are also more drought tolerant.
Expected Social Benefits
Community Reference Point
The phrase community reference point refers to the
ability of a feature to serve as a signature or destination
for community residents or visitors, and/or serve as
a model for development or redevelopment (DC OP,
2011). Green infrastructure features can contribute
to a community reference point, enhancing the
attractiveness of a site or neighborhood and serving
as a source of pride for the community. The benefits
of a community reference point are difficult to quantify,
but may include an increase in visitors to the project
location, an increase in ceremonies held at the location,
and/or an increase in sales by nearby merchants.
Pedestrian Safety
All too often, roads are built without sidewalks or
proper crosswalks. Where they do exist, they are
often inadequate, with crosswalks spaced too far
apart or sidewalks not connected (TFA, 2011). Green
infrastructure in the form of curb extensions helps to
slow down traffic and reduce crossing distances while
increasing awareness of places where people cross.
Adding sidewalks and bike lanes can further add to
public safety.
Recreational Opportunities
By adding vegetation, green spaces, and even wooded
areas, green infrastructure can increase publicly
available recreation and gathering areas. Recognizing
this connection, the City of Lenexa, KS, developed
an award-winning "Rain to Recreation" program
in 2000 to reduce flooding and protect water while
preserving natural habitat and providing educational
and recreational opportunities for residents. Similar
opportunities are available for Neosho to build upon
the Neosho High School Branch + Hickory Run Trail
and to link its beautification efforts with low impact
development practices.
Expected Economic Benefits
Avoided Capital Costs
Green infrastructure often costs less than gray
stormwater infrastructure to install, which is a benefit
to developers (USEPA, 2007). Development projects
that incorporate green infrastructure may have lower
costs for site grading and preparation, stormwater
infrastructure, site paving, and landscaping. When
properly placed, such features can also reduce inflow
and infiltration into sewer lines otherwise burdened
by increase wear, tear, and repair. Over time, these
practices can reduce pressures to increase storm drain
capacity.
Increased Property Values
Green infrastructure features such as increased
plantings and street trees lead to more attractive
neighborhoods, which serve to increase nearby
property values. A study in Portland, Oregon, for
example, found that street trees added an average of
$7,020 to the price of nearby houses (Donovana and
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Minimal Evapotranspiratkn
Large Impervious Area
I
Large Amounts of Stormwater Runoff Through Rpes
Minimal Infiltration
Conventional Design
Increased Evapotranspiration
Less Impervious Area
Increased Infiltration
I
Less Amounts of Stormwater Runoff Through Pipes
Green Design
Conventional (top image) versus green design (bottom). Greener approaches serve to treat a greater
amount of Stormwater on-site, providing multiple benefits along the way.
Butry, 2010). In addition, studies have shown that
access to green spaces and parks can inflate the
value of property in a three-block radius, while also
providing valuable recreation opportunities that boost
communities (TPL, 2009). Such benefits can also
translate into increased annual property tax revenue
for local communities.
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Stormwater Design Toolbox
The City of Neosho was founded in 1833, incorporated
in 1878, and is the county seat of Newton County.
At approximately 9,500 acres in size, it is located in
southwest Missouri and sits on the western edge of the
Missouri Ozarks.
The City's overall population density is low. However,
its location within the fast-growing, four-state region
of southwest Missouri, excellent park system, and
revitalizing downtown area, combined with a well-
educated population and higher median household
income make it an attractive area for growth (City of
Neosho, 2006). Census data shows that the population
has steadily increased over time, with a 12.7%
population growth between 2000 and 2010.
Its downtown, which is the center of municipal and
county government, contains historical buildings that
are signatures of the community. Land uses in this area
include a mixture of government, retail, office, service,
and residential land use. Its primary retail shopping
areas are commercial strips along Neosho Boulevard
and a large shopping area in the City's southern end.
Areas north, west, and south of downtown are generally
residential. Areas to the east of downtown are primarily
unimproved lands (MHDC, 2008).
Flooding has long been a problem for the City. Since
the flooding of 1993, the City has spent more than
$10 million of primarily federal grant money to buy
properties within flood prone areas adjacent to the
downtown. While this has been successful, it is more
difficult and costly to correct stormwater problems
resulting from development than it is to address them
when new development occurs. The City's most recent
comprehensive plan identifies the need to understand
and address stormwater conditions as part of the
construction process in order to ensure the safety of both
structures and residents (City of Neosho, 2006). G
Green Infrastructure Toolbox
Green infrastructure, when incorporated into new
construction, can be designed to handle significant
amounts of runoff. When incorporated into retrofit
designs, they can successfully handle the more common
small storm events, while allowing water from larger
storms to overflow into the storm sewer system.
From green roofs to permeable pavements, the tools
identified in this chapter showcase some of the many
green infrastructure practices available within the
development, redevelopment, and retrofit process.
Additional information on these and other sustainable
site design, development plan, land use planning tools,
and design manuals are available in the Missouri Guide
to Green Infrastructure (MoDNR, 2012), which can be
downloaded from the Missouri Department of Natural
Resource's website at http://www.dnr.mo.gov/env/
wpp/stormwater/mo-gi-guide.htm. For information on
technical design requirements, the reader is urged to
see the 2008 Manual of Best Management Practices for
Stormwater Quality developed by the Kansas City Mid-
America Regional Council (MARC) and the Kansas City
Metro Chapter of the American Public Works Association
(APWA) http://marc.org/environment/water/bmp_manual.
htm.
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Green Roofs provide economic, environmental, and
social benefits and work with many building types.
In addition to water quality benefits, green roofs
reduce the life cycle costs of roofs, save on energy
costs, create wildlife habitat, provide space for food
production, and creates usable green space that
would otherwise go under utilized as empty space.
Green roofs come in two general types: extensive
and intensive. Extensive green roofs typically have
a growing medium of 3-4", are usually planted
with sedum, require less irrigation, and have low
maintenance requirements. Intensive green roofs
have up to 12" of growing medium and can support
shrubs and trees. The ability to maintain larger plant
material also introduces a need for constant irrigation
and a more regular maintenance schedule. Both
types require additional attention to structural integrity,
waterproofing and plant sustainability.
Research conducted on green roof installations in the
Midwest indicates that they can retaining an average
of 75% of annual rainfall, with winter absorption
averaging 40-50% (MacDonagh 2005). Green roofs
also have the capability to sequester large amounts of
carbon. Replacing conventional roofing materials in an
urban area of about one million people, for example,
would capture more than 55,000 tons of carbon - the
same effect as removing more than 10,000 mid-sized
SUVs or trucks off the road a year (Getter et al. 2009).
Top: Extensive green roof technology is showcased
at Wildwood Community College, Wildwood, MO.
Stormwater flows through the growing medium,excess
water is then collected and transported to the storm
drain. Bottom: St. Louis Children's Hospital Rooftop
Garden in St. Louis, MO, showcases an intensive green
roof designed expressly for children and families who
want a place for privacy, solace and healing.
6
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Living Wall
Green infrastructure technologies are continuously
evolving as engineers, designers, and landscape
architects find new, creative ways to integrate the
concepts of 'green' into urban landscapes. Living
walls, or green walls, on commercial and public
buildings are one such example.
While the idea of having greenery growing up a
building or retaining wall is not new, coupling it with
ways to ensure improved stormwater uptake and
community benefits is. Researchers such as those at
the University of Washington (see image below) are
experimenting with ways to improve their utility and
ease of maintenance.
Living walls can be designed to help slow down and
absorb stormwater, modify micro-climates, and add
beauty to a garden or living space. When designed
without soil, cisterns placed above the growing
medium can help provide a constant supply of water.
The Biodiversity —
Green Will will
provide vertical
habitat and
increase building
performance
The Green Wall-
is designed on
a manual pulley
system lor ease
in research and
maintenance
Irom the adjacent
balcony
A Water
Harvesting System
will capture, reuse
and clean sergflf
runoff for use in
the Green Wall
irrigation.
There are several
examples of where
living walls have
been designed
for their artistic,
aesthetic appeal
in urban spaces.
The potential
for incorporating
living walls into
the flower box city
seems especially
appealing, and
an excellent
opportunity
to provide an
outdoor education
experience for local
schools.
••"Solar panels will
be installed in
phase II to offset
100% of electrical
needs lor the
project
"'An Edible Green
Screen will explore
vertical surfaces to
support local food
production.
-Th* existing
garden below will
provide sealing
for reflection
and restoration
opportunities with
vertical nature
Above: A living wall
installation designed by
botanist Patrick Blanc.
Left: A project under
way at the University of
Washington's College of
Built Environments.
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Downspout Disconnection
A downspout is a pipe that carries rainwater off
of rooftops. Some downspouts drain into yards or
other vegetated surface. Other downspouts drain
directly onto pavement or are piped into stormwater
inlets. Even during very short rains, increased
volume and velocity often contribute to overloading
the separate storm sewer system and adding wear
and tear to aging sanitary sewer lines along the
way. Inflow and infiltration can lead to sanitary
sewer overflows.
Discouraging or eliminating direct connections
of impervious areas to stormdrains is a simple
yet effective green infrastructure practice that is
applicable to a wide variety of site conditions and
development designs. Redirecting downspouts and
sump pumps into rain gardens or other pervious
surfaces will increase infiltration and reduce volume
runoff. In some cases, the downspout disconnection
requires repitching gutters to direct flow to another
corner of the roof or relocating downspouts in order
to drain into an appropriate receiving area. To be
most effective and to minimize possible problems
such as building or street flooding, this measure
requires close attention to site drainage patterns
(MARC, 2008).
disconnected for
•Theatthrer streams
Above: A disconnected downspout flows into a
stormwater planter. Left: Due to the relative ease
in which a downspout disconnection program can
be developed, several cities like Gresham, OR, have
encouraged downspout disconnections as part of a
community outreach campaign to promote better on-site
stormwater management.
8
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Cistern/Rain Barre
Rain barrels are cost efficient, easy to maintain
features that have applications in residential,
commercial and industrial buildings. Rain Barrels
capture stormwater from the roofs of buildings and
store it on site. These systems help reduce runoff
volumes and velocity, and protect delicate watersheds
and aquatic life. To be most effective, they should be
completely dewatered between rain events.
Rain barrels and cisterns hold water that is free of
most sediment and dissolved salts, making it perfect
for landscape irrigation. These systems help reduce a
buildings overall potable water usage while capturing
rain water for reuse. Covers and screens are placed at
the entrance to keep out mosquitoes.
Cisterns are typically used in more commercial
applications, can hold as much as 10,000 gallons of
rainwater, and can be stored either above or below
grade. Cisterns can help reduce pollution runoff by
capturing water and storing potentially contaminated
water and filtering it before further use. As their use
has increased, some residential builders have begun
offering them as well.
Above: Rendering of a rain
barrel designed to direct
overflow into the lawn.
Left: In Raleigh, NC, an area
custom home builder now
offers cisterns as an option in
all new homes for sale.
9
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Soil Amendments
Standard site preparation procedures prior to
the construction of residential or nonresidential
units typically involves removing or stock piling
the existing vegetation and topsoil. This has an
immediate hydrologic impact because of the
reduction in soil structure, pore space, organic
content and biological activity. After construction,
a thin layer of topsoil is usually spread on the now
very compacted subsoil and then the area is seeded
or sodded.
The combination of soil compaction and loss
of organic matter has several undesirable
consequences, including reductions in the soil's
infiltration capacity, groundwater recharge, and the
availability of subsurface water to plants, and an
increase in the volume and frequency of stormwater
runoff.
Soil additives - or amendments - can be used to
minimize development or redevelopment impacts
on native soils by restoring their pre development
infiltration capacity and chemical characteristics,
which typically have better drainage and are better
for plant growth. Amendments can include topsoil,
compost, lime and gypsum. Mostly these additives
try to combat soil acidity and nutrient deficiencies
in soils. Soil amendments in conjunction with
vegetation can vastly improve both animal and
human habitat. Often this green infrastructure
technique is used in
conjunction with other
practices.
Above: Compost amended soils in a downtown planter,
Below: Soil amending process used to minimize
development impacts.
10
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Rain Garden
Rain gardens - also known as bioretention cells
- are depressed basins designed to slow down,
collect, and clean stormwater runoff, giving it time
to infiltrate into the ground or evapotranspirate
into the air. Rain gardens are typically designed
to completely drain within a 12-24 hour period.
Between period of rain, they remain dry, eliminating
the chance of mosquitos to lay and hatch eggs.
Because of their relatively small footprint, they can
easily fit into an urban landscape or other areas
where space is limited.
In areas where infiltration is not desired due to
a high water table or where adjacent soils are
contaminated, rain gardens can be designed
with an underdrain to move excess water into a
conventional storm sewer pipe.
Other benefits include reduced urban heat
island effect, reduced downstream erosion and
sedimentation, and improved community aesthetics.
Many other green infrastructure techniques, such as
vegetated curb extensions and stormwater planters,
are based off of this structural best management
practice.
Rain gardens can easily be retrofitted in a variety of
street applications. Strategically placing them near
sidewalks, roads, alleys and within parking lots can
make them effective choices for reducing urban
runoff.
Above: Rain gardens allow rain and snowmelt to seep
naturally into the ground while also providing visually
appealing landscaping. Below left: Rain gardens
work equally well in residential areas. Below right: A
bioretention cell filters rainwater in a shopping center
parking lot.
11
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Bioretention swales, or bioswales, are modified
swales that use bioretention media beneath the
swale to improve water quality, reduce the runoff
volume, and modulate the peak runoff rate.
Bioswales are designed to collect sheet flow of
runoff from small lengths of drainage to help absorb
water and then convey the excess runoff from
storms.
Bioswales, differ from bioretention cells in that they
are designed to be conveyance treatment devices,
not storage devices. Bioswales may or may not
require underdrains, even in areas of high clay
content due to the slope of the swale.
Bioswales are often designed as rural roadside
filters and parking lot filters. More and more,
however, bioswales are being integrated into
roadsides and landscape features within urban
environments. Within a street application, bioswales
can be added in stretches of unused right-of-way,
Above right:
Diagram of a
bioswale.
Right: Bioswale
in an urban park
setting.
Top of swale
or where lane widths can be reduced by 2 feet or
more to accommodate their presence.
12
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Vegetated Curb Extension
Curb extensions are a type of traffic calming device
that serve to narrow the roadway width. When modified
to incorporate stormwater treatment into their design,
they are capable of filtering and infiltrating all of the
stormwater from the street on which they are located.
Stormwater flowing down the street is directed towards
the curb extension, where it is filtered and infiltrated in
a vegetated area that resembles that of a biortetention
cell. Vegetated curb extensions are ideal retrofits for
low to medium density residential or commercial areas
where some loss of on-street parking is tolerable.
These same principles can be applied to roundabouts
that are now replacing many four-way stops in
residential subdivisions and mixed-use communities.
In addition to providing stormwater treatment and
traffic calming, vegetated curb extensions also help
Above: A rain garden in a roundabout designed to capture and
infiltrate stormwater in Milwaukee, WI. Left: Rendering of a curb
bumpout along a residential street. Below: Cut-away of a curb
bumpout with permeable pavers on sidewalk.
to reduce the urban heat island effect, improved air
quality, and improve community aesthetics. They can
also be combined with mid-block crossings to further
increase pedestrian safety when crossing streets.
Low-density residential streets, in particular, can
provide good opportunities to convert a portion
of available on-street parking into vegetated curb
extensions with little to no impact on parking for
residents. In areas where on-street parking is at a
premium, smaller vegetated curb extensions that are
spaced more frequently can minimize parking loss to
any individual property.
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Stormwater Planters
Stormwater planters, also known as infiltration or
flow-through planters, are similar in function to regular
bioretention practices except they are adapted
to fit into "containers" within urban landscapes.
Integrated into tree boxes or urban landscaping
planters, Stormwater planters are designed to collect
Stormwater from pavement (mostly sidewalk and
roads) and filter it through a bioretention system to
collect pollutants such as excess nutrients, heavy
metals, oil, and grease.
Treated Stormwater is then either infiltrated into
the ground as groundwater (infiltration planters) or
discharged into a conventional storm sewer pipe
(flow-through planters), where infiltration is not
appropriate.
Stormwater planters have a small footprint, are
normally rectangular, and usually feature hard
edges and concrete sides. They can easily be
incorporated into street retrofits and can be built to fit
between driveways, utilities, trees and other existing
constraints. Such systems can be used in conjunction
with permeable pavement and curb extensions to
fully develop a green street and reduce overall
Stormwater outfall. Because the top of the soil is
lower in elevation than the sidewalk to allow for runoff
to flow into the planter through an inlet at street
level, Stormwater planters can be also be useful
for intercepting and catching trash, which can be
removed on a periodic basis. Stormwater planters
also help to provide greenery, improve air quality, and
reduce the urban heat island effect.
Above: Stormwater planters along a street. Left: Cross-section
of a Stormwater planter.
City of Neosho 14
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Street Trees and Reforestation
estimated crown spread -
Trees are one of the most
economical stormwater
BMPs available. Trees
intercept stormwater via their
canopies, improve air quality,
reduce the urban heat island
effect, improve neighborhood
aesthetic, and reduce
stormwater runoff through
evapotranspiration and root
uptake.
More important than the
number of trees is the size and
composition of the soil area to
allow for proper growth. Dense,
compact soil and a small soil
area can dramatically reduce a
tree's size potential, and as a
consequence, reduce potential
stormwater benefits. In more
suburban or rural settings,
reforestation and afforestation can provide more
benefits than street trees alone. Typically defined
as reforestation or afforestation areas of contiguous
estimated crown spread •
30 feel (tiameler
estimated crown spread
21 fee) diameter
Soil Volume = 120 cubic feet
Soil Volume = 500 cubic feet
Soil Volume = 1000 cubic feet
Above: As the potential growing medium increases (soil volume), the tree size over time can be
greatly enhanced. (Casey Trees, 2OO8)Mussilicaet Catusci ex nu consuam issenterena
woodland greater than or equal to 5,000 square feet,
additional benefits provided include the creation
of habitat, noise abatement, and stream bank
stabilization, in addition to root uptake of stormwater.
Above: Trees on the left side of this sidewalk were planted with significantly smaller root growth area vs. the right. Even after almost 30
years, these trees still show a significant size differential. Trees along the street have roughly 300 cubic feet of growth area vs. the right
with large green space. Pennsylvania Avenue Northwest, Washington, DC. (Casey Trees, 2008)
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Permeable Paving
Permeable pavement comes in many varieties,
but the most common include open grid and
interlocking pavers, porous concrete, and asphalt.
They provide the same load-bearing support
that conventional pavement does and are good
for walking, biking, and parking areas, and for
driving on low- to moderately-trafficked streets.
However, permeable pavement is specially
designed to allow stormwater to infiltrate through
the pavement to an underground storage basin or
exfiltrate into the ground and recharge the water
table.
Permeable pavement is ideal for planting trees
in a paved environment while not still permitting
full use of the pavement because their porous
nature allows adjacent trees to receive more air
and water. Because they are light in color and
have an open-cell structure, they also help to
reduce the urban heat-island effect. From a safety
perspective, permeable pavements are beneficial
for reducing hydroplaning. Due to this, they
have recently been gaining popularity for use on
highways and other high-traffic areas.
Concrete Pavers
Permeable Joint Material
Open-graded
Bedding Course
Open-graded
Base Reservoir
Open-graded
Subbase
Reservoir
Underdrain
(as required)
Optional Geotextile
Under Subbase
Uncompacted Subgrade Soil
Above: System Components of Permeable Interlocking
Concrete Pavement (PICP). The base layers of a permeable
pavement system are similar for permeable pavers, porous
asphalt, and pervious concrete. Each system has some
variations which are important for structural integrity.
Below: Pervious pavement in Portland, OR.
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Concept Designs
The tools identified in the previous chapter showcase
some of the many green infrastructure practices
applicable to development and redevelopment
projects. To help visualize how these practices could
be implemented in Neosho, two concept plans were
prepared.
Two areas were selected in cooperation with the City
of Neosho's Stormwater Management Department:
a future trail system within Neohso's existing park
system, and city-owned property within Neosho's
historic downtown. These sites were selected due to
their ability to serve as strong demonstration projects
that meet the city's stated themes of increasing city-
wide beautification efforts, improving stormwater
management, engaging youth, allowing for increased
cultural exchanges, and providing a system of
linkages between the City's existing parks (City of
Neosho, 2006).
The first design focuses on integrating green
infrastructure and LID concepts into the proposed
hickory creek + high school branch trail system
as a means to showcase the many ways it can be
implemented and to provide environmental education
opportunities. Two sites along the trail were selected
as primary reference points: 1) near the high school,
and 2) a wetland + prairie boardwalk.
The second focuses on how green infrastructure
retrofits can be incorporated within the City's
downtown area. This concept design focuses on
the Neosho Auditorium Lot and South Wood Street
Parking Lot.
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High School Branch + Hickory Run Trail
Neosho High School Branch +
Hickory Run Trail
Location
High School Branch is an ephemeral stream that
flows north through the City of Neosho and into
Hickory Run. The City has proposed a 3 mile
greenway along High School Branch and Hickory
Run including a biking and hiking trail. The greenway
would link Neosho Junior High School in the south to
the Morse Park Baseball Fields in the North.
Project Description
The City of Neosho's park system encompasses
nearly 400 acres of land, including three large
parks and a network of trails. The City of Neosho
currently has plans to develop a hickory creek / high
school branch trail, shown on page 17, to promote
connectivity between its existing trail and park system
and the downtown area.
The intent of the Neosho High School Branch +
Hickory Run Trail design concept presented here
is to showcase the many ways that LID and green
infrastructure can be incorporated within and along
the City's currently proposed trail route to provide
a natural trail experience within an urban setting.
Doing so would allow for improved stormwater
management along the City's waterways while
providing an enjoyable trail experience and
environmental education opportunities to the City's
youth. The concepts are intended to be implemented
incrementally as funds become available.
Developing a trail that goes through both urban and
natural landscapes allows for a wide variety of green
infrastructure practices to be implemented. The
trail itself is an integral part of green infrastructure;
connecting residential communities, commercial
districts and educational institutions with the natural
environment reduces stormwater impacts while also
providing alternate modes of transportation, enriching
student environmental education, providing safe
routes to school, and improving a number of other
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social, economic, and environmental factors (including
traffic, air pollution, and urban heat island effects). The
trail also allows the community improved access to the
high school branch stream.
Morse Park
The trails eastern most connection and terminus is at
the Morse Park Baseball Fields. In addition to hiking,
fishing, playgrounds, gardens, and sport fields, Morse
Park provides the potential for educational opportunities
to learn about wetlands, floodplains and the ecosystem
services they provide. With a possible connection south
along White Avenue to the National Fish Hatchery and
the Bicentennial Conservation Area, the east trail provides
opportunities to act as a large outdoor classroom.
The prairie walk leaves the main trail and
takes visitors to an observation deck that
overlooks the landscape.
toprarte
Wetland + Prairie Boardwalk
As part of the Morse Park section of the trail, and in
an effort to improve environmental conditions and
wildlife habitat, the green infrastructure design concept
proposes the construction of a wetland with a raised
boardwalk and educational signs geared at allowing
the user to experience the "hidden" world of wetlands.
Wetlands help reduce flooding by acting as a sponge
and improve water quality by removing pollutants. This,
in turn, improves fish and wildlife habitats, benefiting the
local fish population and recreational fishing.
Located next to the proposed prairie fields, this area
provides a rich and diverse environment for wildlife.
Designed as a raised boardwalk, the wetland and prairie
trail would allow for unimpeded animal movement and
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would provide walkers with a better visual access
than a ground level trail. Educational plaques along
the trail would provide information about the many
interesting aspects of the ecosystem.
In the prairie boardwalk, visitors would traverse a
loop that takes them from the edge of the wetlands
to an outlook tower that overviews the prairie
landscape. From the outlook tower, visitors would be
able to use a wide swathe of the prairie land and the
tower will serve as a vantage point to view birds and
wildlife.
The wetland boardwalk would feature a dock
reaching out onto Hickory Creek. From this
dock, observers will be able to see first hand the
happenings within the stream and students can
conduct experiments to measure the stream's health
and vitality. Camouflaged blinds along the waters
edge in the wetlands could provide areas that mask
visitors from wildlife and provide excellent bird
watching opportunities.
This small motor produces electricity from passing
trains and could potentially power lights or signs.
Wayfinding
A useful, informative wayfinding system is integral
to a trail's success. The concept design presented
here recommends that signs be installed near trail
entrances to provide directions to trail heads and
parking areas. Trail markers installed along the trail
would provide information on distances to landmarks
and trail features. Runners and cyclists rely on trail
Terracing a channelized stream, like the church
grounds, can provide a more inviting atmosphere.
1 '
markers for navigation and distance, and marked
trails are more easily adapted to running and cycling
events.
Potential North Trail Connection
At the northern most point of the trail, there is a
potential to connect to a larger regional trail system
by connecting north to Joplin, following Shoal Creek.
Train Track Lighting
Just west of Morse Park, the proposed greenway
crosses a train track. As a potential showcase
project of alternative energy and sustainability,
new technology is available that converts train
vibrations into usable energy. This technology could
be installed where the greenway crosses the train
Dog parks bring together communities and can fit in
small vacant lots.
20
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track to both light the trail or act as an early
warning signal (SBU, 2013).
Church Prayer Garden
Located at the corner of Young and Grant
Street are two churches -- Second Baptist
Church and Bible Holiness Assembly of
God -- separated by an empty lot and a
channelized stream. The site is currently
occupied by unorganized parking on one side
and lawn on the other. The concept design
visualizes restructuring parking along the
street and replacing the channel wall with
streamside terraced gardens. The gardens,
which would be designed and constructed
in flood plain conditions with native plants
typically associated with the riparian zone.
This would improve filtration capacity and
allow the stream to expand and contract as
water levels fluctuate. The plantings would
also improve the visual appeal of the riparian
area while serving as a physical barrier.
Dog Park/Big Spring Park
At the end of Adams Street between North
Valley Street and North Lincoln Street lies two
triangular spaces. Both spaces are bordered
on two sides by streets, and the stream on
the remaining side. These triangular spaces
present an opportunity to open the trail up
and provide public open space within the
neighborhood. A dog park and playground
can help increase property values, improve
safety, and provide a community focal point.
For the dog park, the upfront consideration
and periodic review of pet waste management
would be necessary to ensure that pet waste
remains out of the stream system.
High School
At the southern end of the trail, the Neosho
High School property sits at the beginning of
the high school branch stream. Currently, the
stream is highly eroded. Applying multiple
green infrastructure practices throughout the
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woodand parking buffer pedestrian crossing
property would improve stream
health and reduce runoff.
The most prominent feature
in this design is the stream
restoration along the school
campus. The entire length
of the stream would be
widened and planted with
vegetation that can survive
both wet and dry periods.
Eroded stream banks would
be stabilized and adjacent
areas gently sloped. Since
this stream is ephemeral, it is important to provide
space for the stream to expand and contrast. In
sections where other uses begin to interrupt the
streams boundaries, such as the various parking
lots, encroachments would be pushed back and
reconstructed to allow the stream corridor to better
handle the high flow conditions. Underutilized lawn
spaces within the campus can be converted to
prairie or forest to reduce mowing and maintenance
costs.
In addition to reconfiguring the area to allow the
stream to expand, the concept design envisions
retrofitting the campus' central parking lots with tree
islands, rain gardens, bioswales, and permeable
pavements as necessary. All parking facilities on the
campus would be fitted with the most appropriate
LID features to reduce runoff.
.
woodland parking buffer
permabte parking strip
The main building of the high school can also be
retrofitted with green roofs or cisterns, depending
on the structural capacity of the existing roof. The
green roof would provide an outdoor classroom
space for students, and cisterns would provide water
for gardens, landscaping, or other non potable uses
within the facility.
Above: Current
conditions between
the parking lots at
the high school.
Left: Potential
stream buffer and
permeable parking
lot.
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Lot at West Main Street and South
Lot at West Main Street & South
Jefferson Street / S. Wood Street
Parking Lot
Location
This concept plan applies green
infrastructure principles and practices to
visualize how two downtown lots: the City
of Neosho Municipal Auditorium lot and
the S. Wood Street parking lot could be
redeveloped to privde not just parking lot
but open space to accommodate public
events, performances, gatherings, and
celebrations in an outdoor setting.
Project Description
Just behind the City of Neosho's Municipal Auditorium
lies an unused grass lot that was formally the site of
an old church. Initially intended to be used for parking,
lfrom West Main Street of the
plaza, stage and flower box wall.
23
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efferson Stree
View from the corner of South Jefferson
+ West Main Street of the infiltration
planters and municipal sign.
.
this lot is re-envisioned as an outdoor performance
space for the municipal auditorium, with parking
along the edge. The parking lot on South Wood
Street is retrofitted as a green parking lot, utilizing
permeable pavement. The performance space
created is designed to be used as a space where it
could function as a movie lawn in the summer and a
place for lunch during the week. Other events such
as weddings or concerts could also take place within
the space.
Park Features
The green infrastructure concept design envisions
creating a new public park consisting of a flower box
planter wall, stage, movable tables and chairs, and
a row of additional parking. The current lot would be
leveled and a retaining wall added to provide a flat
surface. This will provide a backdrop for the stage
and rise above the sidewalk to enclose the space.
The planter wall, as envisioned, would pay tribute to
Neosho's title as the flower box city by holding over
20 flower boxes that can be maintained by City staff
or through community
volunteers. These boxes
can be used for flowers,
herbs, or can be planted
for events taking place
in the plaza. As part of
the design, a cistern
would be used to collect
stormwater from the
auditorium so the flower
boxes can be watered
without drawing from
potable sources. While
there does not appear to
be much runoff coming
off this lot, the design
could easlity be altered
to allow for underground
storage if future
engineering studies
identify volume control
as an issue.
24
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Flower Box Wall
Central to the design are a
stage and main plaza area to
be used for outdoor concerts,
weddings, and auditorium
performances. Seating
would be constructed using
permeable pavers with a light
color to reduce runoff and the
urban heat island effect.
Adding a tree grove at the
back of the plaza would buffer
the stage and seating area
from the rear parking lot while
providing a shaded area for tables and chairs for
residents and visitors to stop for lunch.
Streetscape
The proposed design calls for the existing sidewalk
Plaza Level
Cross-section showing the leveled
plaza and flower box wall, and how it
connects to the existing sidewalk.
to be widened in order to allow for tree box filters
and a planter bed to be placed around the edge of
the retaining wall to level the plaza. Integrated with
the wall will be an entrance sign signifying that you
have entered downtown Neosho.
..
.
.
,
'."
.
The tree grove at the south of the plaza provides
space for gathering and access to parking.
•—r
25
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Reverse Angled Parking
To provide additional parking, the design proposes
re-striping the green parking lot to allow for reverse
angled parking. Reverse angled parking, which is
already utilized for street parking within Neosho's
downtown area, has been proven to increase
parking by roughly 25% and reduce accidents by
43%.
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References
Casey Trees (2008) Tree Space Design: Growing the Tree
Out of the Box.
City of Neosho (2006) Neosho, MO Comprehensive Plan.
District of Columbia Office of Planning (DC OP) (2011)
New York Avenue Green Infrastructure Assessment.
Elkington, J. (1994) Towards the Sustainable Corporation:
Win-Win-Win Business Strategies for Sustainable Develop-
ment. California Management Review. Vol. 36, Iss. 2.
Frazer, L. (2005) Paving Paradise: The peril of impervious
surfaces. Environmental Health Perspective, Vol. 113,
Iss. 7.
Getter, K.L, D.B. Rowe, G.P. Robertson, B.M. Gregg and
J.A. Andresen (2009) Carbon Sequestration Potential
of Extensive Green Roofs. Environmental Science &
Technology, Vol 43, Iss. 19.
Gill, S.E., J.F. Handley, A.R. Ennos and S. Pauleit (2007)
Adapting Cities for Climate Change: The Role of the Green
Infrastructure. Built Environment, Vol. 33, No. 1.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007)
Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, www.ipcc.ch/pdf/
assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf.
MacDonagh, L. Peter (2005) Benefits of Green Roofs.
Implications, Vol. 4, Iss. 8.
Mid-America Regional Council (MARC) (2008) Manual of
Best Management Practices for Stormwater Quality.
Missouri Dept. of Natural Resources (MoDNR) (2012)
Missouri Guide to Green Infrastructure. Retrieved from:
www.dnr.mo.gov/env/wpp/stormwater/mo-gi-guide.htm.
Missouri Dept. of Natural Resources (MoDNR) (2011) Air
Pollution Control Program: 2011 Missouri Clean Diesel
Program. Retrieved from: www.dnr.mo.gov/gatewayvip/201
1 mocleandieselprogram.htm.
Missouri Housing Development Commission (MHDC)
(2008) Residential Demand Analysis: Neosho Downtown
Market Area.
Pataki, D.E., M.M Carreiro, J. Cherrier, N.E. Grulke,
V. Jennings, S. Pincetl, et al. (2011). Coupling biogeo-
chemical cycles in urban environments: Ecosystem
services, green solutions, and Misconceptions. Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment. Vol. 9, Iss. 8.
Stony Brook University (SBU)(2012v ) Press Release:
SBU Team Wins National Award for Rail Road Energy
Harvesting. (Retrieved from: http://commcgi.cc.stonybrook.
edu/am2/publish/General_University_News_2/Stony_
Brook_Team_Wins_National_Award_for_Technology_that_
Harvests_Energy_from_Railroad_Train_Vibrations.shtml)
Transportation for America (TFA). 2011. Dangerous by
Design: Solving the Epidemic of Preventable Pedestrian
Deaths. Transportation for America: Washington, DC.
Retrieved from http://t4america. org/docs/dbd2011/
Dangerous-by-Design-2011 .pdf.
Trust for Public Lands (TPL) (2009) Measuring the
Economic Value of a City Park System.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
(2011) Why Green Infrastructure? Last updated on
Friday, January 11, 2013. water.epa.gov/infrastructure/
greeninfrastructure/gLwhy.cfm.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
(2008) Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of
Strategies.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
(2007) Reducing Stormwater Costs through Low Impact
Development (LID) Strategies and Practices.
United States Global Change Research Program
(USGCRP) (2009) Global Climate Change Impacts in the
United States . Karl, T.R., J. M. Melillo, and T. C. Peterson
(eds.). http://globalchange.gov/publications/reports/
scientific-assessments/us-impacts.
Kansas City Mid-America Regional Council (MARC)
and the Kansas City Metro Chapter of the American
Public Works Association (APWA) (2008) Manual of Best
Management Practices for Storm-water Quality.
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Photo Credits
We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for the use of their images. Every effort
has been made to trace and contact the original copyright holders. If there are any inadvertent omissions,
we apologize to those concerned and ask that you contact us so that we can correct any oversight as
soon as possible. Any such inquiries should be directed to the Low Impact Development Center. Contact
information is provided at the front this handbook. All other photos or images on these pages are copyright
© The Low Impact Development Center.
Page Credit
Cover Courtesy of Buddy Sallee
6 Top image courtesy of Kelly Luckett, Green
Roof Blocks; bottom image courtesy of
Robert Boston, Washington U. School or
Med.
7 Top image courtesy of Patric Blanc; bottom
image courtesy of Green Futures Lab,
University of Washington
8 Top image from the US EPA; bottom image
from the City of Gresham, OR.
9 Top image courtesy of Sanitation District No.
1, bottom image courtesy of Stanton Homes -
Home Builder.
10 Bottom image from US EPA.
11 Bottom left image courtesy of the City of
Maplewood, Minnesota.
12 Top image courtesy of GreenWorks PC,
Portland, Oregon; bottom image courtesy of
LPA Inc./Costea Photography, Inc.
13 Top image courtesy of Bob Newport, US
EPA Region V
15 Renderings and images courtesy of Casey
Trees
16 Top image courtesy of the Interlocking
Concrete Pavement Institute
17 Background map data copyright Google
Earth. Trail location added by LID Center.
18 Background map data copyright Google
Earth. Trail location added by LID Center.
20 Top photo courtesy of Matt Lanza; middle
image courtesy of Lei Zuo, The Research
Foundation for the State University of New
York; bottom image courtesy of Jim's Photos
1 under a Creative Commons license.
21 Background map data copyright Google
Earth. High School retrofit options added by
LID Center.
Page Credit
22 Middle image copyright Google Earth.
23 Background map data copyright Google
Earth. Green infrastructure features added by
LID Center.
24 Bottom right photo courtesy of Neosho Area
Chamber of Commerce.
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