EPA 440/1 -76/060 J
Group II
  Development Document for Interim
 Final Effluent Limitations Guidelines
 and Proposed New Source Performance
            Standards for the
          Photographic Processing

              Subcategory
                 of the
              Photographic

         Point Source Category
                       \
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                 JULY 1976

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             DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
                     for
                INTERIM FINAL
       EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS, GUIDELINES
AND PROPOSED NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

                   for the

     PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING SUBCATEGORY
                    of the
      PHOTOGRAPHIC POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
               Russell E. Train
                Administrator
         Andrew W. Breidenbach, Ph.D.
           Assistant Administrator
      for Water and Hazardous Materials

               Eckardt C. Beck
      Deputy Assistant Administrator for
         Water Planning and Standards
              Robert B. Schaffer
    Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
              Joseph S. Vitalis
               Project officer
                     and
                George M. Jett
          Assistant Project Officer
                  July 1976

         Effluent Guidelines Division
   Office of Water and Hazardous Materials
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
           Washington, D.C.  20U60

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                          ABSTRACT
This document presents  the  findings  of  a  study  of  the
photographic  processing  subcategory  of  the  photographic
point source category for the purpose of developing effluent
limitations and guidelines for existing  point  sources  and
standards  of  performance  and  pretreatment  standards for
existing sources and for new sources, to implement  Sections
301 (b) ,  301(c),  30«»(b), 304 (c) , 306 (b) , 307 (b) , and 307 (c)
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as  amended  (33
U.S.C.   1251, 1311, 131U(b)  and  (c) , 1316 (b) and 1317(b) and
(c) , 86 Stat. 816 et. seq.)  (the "Act").

Effluent limitations and  guidelines  contained  herein  set
forth  the  degree  of effluent reduction attainable through
the application of the Best Practicable  Control  Technology
Currently   Available  (BPT)   and  the  degree  of  effluent
reduction attainable through the  application  of  the  Best
Available  Technology  Economically  Achievable  (BAT) which
must be achieved by existing point sources by July 1,  1977,
and  July  1,  1983,  respectively.   The  standards of per-
formance and pretreatment standards  for  existing  and  new
sources  contained  herein  set forth the degree of effluent
reduction which is achievable through the application of the
Best  Available  Demonstrated  Control  Technology    (NSPS),
processes, operating methods,  or other alternatives.

The development of data and recommendations in this document
relate  to the photographic processing point source category
which  is  one  of  eight   industrial   segments   of   the
miscellaneous  chemicals  point  source  category.   Effluent
limitations were developed for a single subcategory covering
the photographic processing industry on  the  basis  of  the
level  of  raw  waste  load  as  well  as  on  the degree of
treatment achievable  by  suggested  model  systems.   These
systems  include  biological and physical/chemical treatment
and systems  for  reduction  in  pollutant  loads.    Various
combinations  of  in-plant  and end-of-pipe technologies are
considered   for   photographic   processing    laboratories
(plants) .

Supporting   data  and  rationale  for  development  of  the
proposed effluent limitations,  guidelines and  standards  of
performance  for  the photographic processing subcategory of
the photographic point source category are contained in this
report.
                             111

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                     TABLE OF CONTENTS


Section                     Title                    Page

         Abstract

         Table of Contents

         List of Figures

         List of Tables

   I     Conclusions

  II     Recommendations

 III     Introduction

  IV     Industrial Categorization

   V     Waste Characterization

  VI     Selection of Pollutant Parameters

 VII     Control and Treatment Technologies

VIII     Cost, Energy, and Non-water Quality
         Aspects

  IX     Best Practicable Control Technology
         Currently Available (BPT)

   X     Best Available Technology Economically
         Achievable (BAT)

  XI     New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)

 XII     Pretreatment Standards

XIII     Performance Factors for Treatment Plant
         Operations

 XIV     Acknowledgements

  XV     Bibliography

 XVI     Glossary

XVII     Abbreviations and Symbols

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                      LIST OF FIGURES
Number

IV-1

IV-2

IV-3

iv-a


IV-5


IV-6


VIII-1


VIII-1a


VIII-2A


VIII-2B


VIII-2C


VIII-3

VIII-H

VIII-5

VIII-6


VIII-7


VIII-8
           Title
Page
Black and White Film Processing

Reversal Black and White Film Processing

Color Negative Film Processing

Color Reversal Processing
 (Incorporated Couplers)

Color Reversal Processing
 (Couplers in Developer)

Typical Photographic Processing
Flow Diagram

Biological Wastewater Treatment
Cost Model Flow Sheet

In-Plant BPT Treatment Cost
Model Flow Sheet

BAT/NSPS Wastewater Treatment Cost Model
Cyanide Destruct Flow Sheet

BAT Wastewater Treatment Cost Model
Filtration Flow Sheet

BAT/NSPS Wastewater Treatment Cost Model
Ion Exchange Flow Sheet

Equalization Basin/Cost Curve No. 1

Aeration Basin/Cost Curve No. 5

Fixed-Mounted Aerators/Cost Curve No. 5B

Primary and Secondary Clarifier/Cost
Curve No. 2, 6

Sludge Thickeners Including Mechanism/Cost
Curve No. 7

Multi-Media Filters Including Feedwell,
Pumps and Sump/Cost Curve No. 10
                           Vll

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                       LIST OF TABLES
Number                   Title                        Page
1-1           Summary Table - RWL's and Long-Term Daily
              Effluents

II-1          BPT Effluent Limitations Guidelines

II-2          BAT and NSPS Effluent Limitations
              Guidelines

III-1         Photographic Studies, Portrait - SIC 7221

II1-2         Commercial Photography, Art, and
              Graphics - SIC 7333

III-3         Photofinishing Laboratories - SIC 7395

III-H         Services Allied to Motion Picture
              Production - SIC 7819

IV-1          Plant Size From 200 Plant Survey
              Summary Data

IV-2          Bleach Bath Composition

IV-3          Statistical Analysis of NAPM/Field
              Survey - Spring 1976

V-1           Raw Waste Loads - Overall Photographic
              Processing Industry

V-2           Calculated RWL for Typical Photographic
              Processes

VI-1          List of Parameters to be Examined

VI-2          Summary Data for Kodak King's Landing Plant

VII-1         Waste Disposal Methods in the Photographic
              Processing Industry

VII-2         Squeegee Summary

VII-3         Summary of Ozonization Results

VII-4         Feasibility of Treating Photographic
                             IX

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              Processing Chemicals With Activated Carbon
VIII-1


VIII-2

VIII-3



VIII-U



VIII-5



VIII-5a



VIII-6



VIII-6a



VIII-7


VIII-8


IX-1

X-1

XI-1

XII-1

XIII-1

XVIII
Biological Treatment System Design
Summary

BAT Treatment System Design Summary

Wastewater Treatment Costs for BPT,
NSPS and BAT Effluent Limitations
(5,000 sq.ft./day Production Rate)

Wastewater Treatment Cost for BPT, NSPS
and BAT Effluent Limitations (50,000 sq.ft/
day Production Rate)

Summary of Capital Costs for Wastewater
Treatment (Biological Plus In-Plant
Model 5,000 sq ft/day)

Summary of Capital Costs for Wastewater
Treatment (In-Plant BPT Model 5,000
sq. ft/day)

Summary of Capital Costs for Wastewater
Treatment (Biological Plus In-Plant
Model 50,000 sq. ft/day)

Summary of Capital Costs for Wastewater
Treatment (In-Plant BPT Model 50,000
sq. ft/day)

Summary of Capital Costs for Wastewater
Treatment (BAT and NSPS Model 5,000 sq.ft/day)

Summary of Capital Costs for Wastewater
Treatment (BAT and NSPS Model 50,000 sq.ft/day)

BPT Effluent Limitations Guidelines

BAT Effluent Limitations Guidelines

New Source Performance Standards

Pretreatment Unit Operations

Peformance Factor Summary

Metric Table
                             x

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                         SECTION I

                        CONCLUSIONS
General

The  miscellaneous  chemicals  manufacturing  ppint   source
category  encompasses, eight  segments, grouped together for
administrative jpurposes.  This document provides  background
information  for  the photographic processing subcategory of
the photographic point  source  category  and  represents  a
revision  of  a  portion  of  the initial contractor's draft
document issued in February, 1975.

In that document  it  was  pointed  out  that  each  segment
differs  from  the  others  in  raw materials, manufacturing
processes, and final products.  Water usage  and  subsequent
wastewater  discharges also were found to vary considerably.
Consequently, for the purpose  of  the  development  of  the
effluent  limitations  and  guidelines for corresponding BPT
(Best Practicable Control Technology  Currently  Available),
NSPS   (Best  Available  Demonstrated Control Technology) for
new sources, and BAT  (Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable)    requirements,   each   segment   is    treated
independently.

The diversity of products and manufacturing operations to be
covered indicates the need for separate effluent limitations
for  (segments  of  the  industry) industries, and these are
presented in separate development documents for each segment
of the miscellaneous chemicals point source category.   This
development   document  deals  only  with  the  photographic
processing industry.

The photographic processing subcategory of the  photographic
point  source  category  is  defined  to include commodities
listed under Standard Industrial Classifications (SIC)  7221,
7333, 7395 and 7819.

It should be emphasized that the  proposed  treatment  model
technology  is  used  only as a guideline and to establish a
cost basis.   The model may not be the  most  appropriate  in
every  case.   The  cost  models for BPT, BAT, and NSPS were
developed to facilitate the economic analysis and should not
be construed as the only technology capable of  meeting  the
effluent    limitations,   guidelines   and   standards   of
performance presented in this development  document.   There
are  many  alternative systems which, taken either singly or
in  combination,  are  capable  of  attaining  the  effluent

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limitations,   guidelines   and   standards  of  performance
recommended in this development document.   These alternative
choices include:

    1.   Various types of end-of-pipe wastewater treatment.

    2.   Various in-plant modifications and installation  of
         at-source pollution control equipment.

    3.   Various combinations of  end-of-pipe  and  in-plant
         technologies.

It is the intent of this study to allow the individual plant
to make the choice of what specific combination of pollution
control   measures  is  best  suited  to  its  situation  in
complying with the limitations and standards of  performance
presented.   To  avoid  substantial economic injury to small
business  concerns,  a  size  exemption   for   photographic
processing  plants handling 150 square meters per day (1,600
square feet per day)  of film and paper will  be  established
by the Agency.

Photographic Processing

The  photographic processing subcategory of the photographic
point source category was not further subcategorized for the
purpose of effluent limitations, guidelines and  new  source
performance  standards.   Additional  subcategorization  was
deemed unnecessary because the pollutants in the wastewaters
were the  same  and  the  pollutant  loadings  per  unit  of
production  were  in a relatively narrow range in the plants
surveyed.   This  document   represents   the   photographic
processing   portion   of   the  photographic  point  source
category.  As time  and  resources  permit,  the  additional
segments  of  this  category  such  as  the  manufacture  of
photographic  film,  photographic  plates  and  photographic
paper will be promulgated.

The   major   sources  of  wastewater  in  the  photographic
processing   subcategory   are   photoprocessing    solution
overflows  and  wash  waters.  Wastewaters generated by this
segment of the industry can be characterized  as  containing
high  concentrations  of BODJ5, COD, TOC, silver and cyanides
in various forms.

Existing control and treatment technology, as  practiced  in
the   category,   includes   primarily   in-plant  pollutant
reductions for  silver  and  cyanides  through  recovery  of
bleaches  and  silver which is widely practiced for economic
reasons.  An estimate of 95% of all photographic  processing

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plants   discharge  their  wastewaters  to  municipal  sewer
systems;  only  one  plant  visited  had   any   end-of-pipe
treatment  facility,  a 20,000-gpd capacity pilot biological
treatment system to  investigate  the  treatability  of  its
wastewaters.

Effluent  limitations  and  guidelines have been established
for  silver  and  total  cyanides.   The  choice  of   these
parameters    was    based   on   economic   considerations.
Furthermore, these pollutants may exert a toxic effect on  a
biological  treatment process and are the major contaminants
in the photographic processing wastewaters.

The treatment models recommended to attain each of the three
levels of treatment technology are:

     Technology Level      End-of-pipe Treatment Model

          BPT             In-plant modifications

          NSPS            BPT plus cyanide destruction,
                           dual-media filtration and
                           ion exchange for silver removal

          BAT             BPT plus cyanide destruction,
                           dual-media filtration and
                           ion exchange for silver removal

It is emphasized that in-plant measures to reduce silver and
ferrocyanide concentrations as well as end-of-pipe treatment
methods are included as part of  the  recommended  treatment
technologies  as  these  are  currently  in  wide use in the
industry.

In conclusion, effluent limitations guidelines were  derived
on  the  basis  of  the maximum for any one day (maximum day
limitation)  and the average of daily values for  any  period
of  thirty consecutive days (maximum thirty day limitation).
Since  no  long-term  data  for  exemplary  treatment   were
uncovered  in  the  photographic  processing industry during
this study,  the factors used in  deriving  these  time-based
limitations   were   derived  from  generally  accepted  and
achievable variability  factors  for  the  physical/chemical
treatment  systems  evaluated  in  the  electroplating point
source category.   The  paucity  of  end-of-pipe  wastewater
treatment  systems  in  the photographic processing industry
led to the  decision  to  use  performance  factors  from  a
category  that  had  similar  wastewater  treatment systems.
Hence, the performance factors used from the  electroplating
point  source category were applied to both the in-plant BPT

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                                                                             Table  I -i

                                                                           'Summary  Tcb'c
                                                                   Photographic  Processing Industry
                                                                                                                             8PCTCA  (19771 (BPT)

S'jbcategory
%

Entire Industry





£>.

Contami nants
of Interest Flow
L/l ,000 sq. m
(gal/1,000 sq.ft.)
BOD., COO, TOC, , 163,000
TSS, TKN, IDS, (4,000)
Si Iver, Ferro-
cyani de







Parameter

BOD.

COO
-
ta (Silver)

CN (TotaJ)


RWl
kg/1 ,000 sq. m
(lbs./l,OCO sq.ft.;
36.7
(7.5 )

123.0
(25.1)
0.07
(0;015)
.0.39
(C.O19)


mg/L

225

752

0.45

0.57

Treatment
Technology

Long-Term Oji 1y

Effluent
Parameter kg/1,000 sq. m

Regeneration
of Bleach
and Silver
Recovery





(lbs./l,000
Ag (Silver) °-07
(0.015)

CN (Total) °-09
(0.019)




sq.ft.)








                                                          BAT   (1983)
New Source Perform^•:e  Standards  (NSPS)
Subeategory
Entire Industry
Treatment
Technology


Oxidation,
Filtration, and
Ion Exchange

lorq-Tern Daily Effluen
Parameter kg/1,000 sq. n
(lbs./l,000 sq. ft.
Ag (Silver) .0016
.00034)
CN (Total) 0.038
rn "ii7)
Treatment
Technol oqy


Oxidation,
Filtration, and
Ion Exchange

Lonq-Term na; ly E
Parameter kg/I, 000 sq
(lbs./l,000 sq
Ag (Silver) -0016
.00034)
CN (Total) -008
.001?)

ffluent
. rn
. ft.)

                                                                                                                                                      6/30/76

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treatment,   which   utilizes   bleach   regeneration    and
electrolytic    silver    recovery,    and    to    BAT/NSPS
physical/chemical  treatment  steps  consisting  of • cyanide
destructioo,  dual-media  filtration  and  ion  exchange for
silver removal.

Table 1-1 summarizes the contaminants of interest, raw waste
loads, and recommended treatment technologies for BPT,  BAT,
and  NSPS for the photographic processing subcategory of the
photographic point source category.

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                         SECTION II

                      RECOMMENDATIONS
General

The recommendations for effluent limitations and  guidelines
commensurate with the BPT, BAT and NSPS are presented in the
following  text.   A  discussion of in-plant and end-of-pipe
controls technology  required  to  achieve  the  recommended
effluent  limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards are included.  The NSPS for new  sources  includes
the most exemplary process controls.

Photographic Processing

The BPT, BAT, and NSPS effluent limitations proposed for the
photographic processing industry are presented in Tables II-
1 and II-2.  These effluent limitations guidelines are based
on  the  maximum  day  limitation and the maximum thirty day
limitation.  These effluent limitation values are  developed
using  the  performance  factors  for  the  treatment  plant
operation as discussed in Section XIII of  this  development
document.

Wastewaters subject to these limitations include all process
wastewaters, but do not include sanitary wastewaters.

Implicit  in the recommended guidelines for the photographic
processing subcategory  of  the  photographic  point  source
category  is  the use of in-plant control measures to reduce
silver and cyanide.  In-plant  modifications  will  lead  to
reductions  in  wastewater flow, increased quantity of water
used for recycle, and improvement in raw wastewater quality.

In-plant treatment technologies described  in  Section  VIII
should   be   utilized   by   the   photographic  processing
subcategory  to  achieve  BPT   effluent   limitations   and
guidelines.

To  meet  BAT  and  NSPS effluent limitations and new source
performance standards treatment technologies  equivalent  to
in-plant  BPT  treatment  followed  by  cyanide destruction,
dual-media filtration and ion exchange  for  silver  removal
are recommended.

After   varying  degrees  of  in-plant  pollution  abatement
measures  which  serve   as   a   pretreatment   step   most
photographic  processing plants discharge their effluents to

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                                                    Table II-l

                                          BPT   Effluent Limitations Guidelines

                                          Photographic  Processing Industry
              Subcategory
                 Entire
                 Industry
   Effluent
Characteristic
Ag  (Silver)


CN  (Total)
                                                                                 Effluent Limitations
Average of Daily Values
'for 30 Consecutive Days
   Shall not exceed
 kg/1,000 m^
 (lb/1,000 ft2)
     0.07
    (0.015)

     0.09
    (0.019)
Maximum for
Any one day
kg/1,000 m^
(lb/1,000 ft2)
    0.14
   (0.030)

    0.18
   (0.038)
00
                                                                                                     6/30/76

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                                      Table II -2

                     BAT   and NSPS  Effluent Limitations Guidelines

                           Photographic Processing Industry
                                                                  Effluent Limitations
Subcategorv
    Entire
    Industry
   Effluent
Characteristic
 Ag (Silver)
                        CN (Total)
Average of Dally Values
for 30 Consecutive Days
   Shall not Exceed
 kg/1,000 m2
(Ib 1,000 ft2)
      0.0016
     (0.00034)

      0.008
     (0.0017)
  Maximum for
  Anv  Orte Dav
 kg/1,000 m2
(lb/1,000 ft2)
  0.0032
 (0.00067)

  0.016
 (0.0034)
                                                                                       6/30/76

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municipal sewer systems.  Certain constituents (i.e., silver
and cyanide)  which could exert toxic effects on a biological
system and various non-biodegradable material  may  also  be
present.   Therefore,  in-plant  measures or pretreatment to
reduce the concentrations of  such  contaminants  to  levels
acceptable to local authorities must be utilized.
                               10

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                        SECTION III

                        INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Authority

The  Federal  Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972
(the Act) made  a  number  of  fundamental  changes  in  the
approach   to  achieving  clean  water.   One  of  the  most
significant changes was to shift from a reliance on effluent
limitations related to water quality to a direct control  of
effluents  through  the  establishment  of  technology-based
effluent limitations to  form  an  additional  basis,  as  a
minimum, for issuance of discharge permits.

The Act requires EPA to establish guidelines for technology-
based  effluent  limitations which must be achieved by point
sources of discharges  into  the  navigable  waters  of  the
United  States.   Section  301(b)  of  the  Act requires the
achievement by not later  than  July  1,  1977  of  effluent
limitations  for  point  sources,  other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application  of  the
BPT  as  defined  by  the  Administrator pursuant to Section
304 (b)   of  the  Act.   Section  301(b)  also  requires  the
achievement  by  not  later  than  July  1, 1983 of effluent
limitations for point sources,  other  than  publicly  owned
treatment  works,  which are based on the application of the
BAT, resulting in  progress  toward  the  national  goal  of
eliminating  the  discharge of all pollutants, as determined
in accordance with regulations issued by  the  Administrator
pursuant  to  Section 304(b)  of the Act.  Section 306 of the
Act requires the  achievement  by  new  sources  of  federal
standards  of  performance  providing for the control of the
discharge of pollutants, which reflects the greatest  degree
of  effluent reduction which the Administrator determines to
be achievable through the application of the  NSPS  process,
operating  methods,  or other alternatives, including, where
practicable,  a  standard   permitting   no   discharge   of
pollutants.

Section  304(b)  of  the  Act  requires the Administrator to
publish  regulations  based  on  the  degree   of   effluent
reduction  attainable through the application of the BPT and
the  best  control  measures   and   practices   achievable,
including   treatment   techniques,  process  and  procedure
innovations, operation methods, and other alternatives.  The
regulations proposed herein set forth  effluent  limitations
guidelines  pursuant  to  Section  304(b)  of the Act for the
photographic  processing  subcategory  of  the  photographic
                              11

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point  source  category.  Section 304(c)  of the Act requires
the Administrator to issue  information  on  the  processes,
procedures,   or  operating  methods  which  result  in  the
elimination or reduction in the discharge of  pollutants  to
implement  standards of performance under Section 306 of the
Act.  Such information is to  include  technical  and  other
data,  including  costs,  as  are  available  on alternative
methods of elimination or  reduction  of  the  discharge  of
pollutants.

Section  306  of  the Act requires the Administrator, within
one Year after a category of sources is included in  a  list
published  pursuant to Section 306 (b)  (1) (A) of the Act, to
propose  regulations  establishing  federal   standards   of
performance  for  new  sources  within such categories.  The
Administrator published in the Federal Register  of  January
16,  1973  (38  F.R.  1621)   a list of 27 source categories.
Publication of the  list  constituted  announcement  of  the
Administrator's  intention  of  establishing,  under Section
306, standards of performance applicable to new sources.

Furthermore, Section 307(b)  provides that:

    1.   The Administrator shall, from time to time, publish
         proposed  regulations   establishing   pretreatment
         standards   for  introduction  of  pollutants  into
         treatment works (as defined in Section 212 of  this
         Act) which are publicly owned, for those pollutants
         which  are  determined  not  to  be  susceptible to
         treatment by such treatment works  or  which  would
         interfere  with  the  operation  of  such treatment
         works.  Not  later  than  ninety  days  after  such
         publication, and after opportunity for public hear-
         ing,   the   Administrator  shall  promulgate  such
         pretreatment  standards.   Pretreatment   standards
         under  this  subsection  shall  specify  a time for
         compliance not to exceed three years from the  date
         of promulgation and shall be established to prevent
         the  discharge  of  any pollutant through treatment
         works  (as defined in Section 212 of this Act) which
         are  publicly  owned,  which  pollutant  interferes
         with,  passes through, or otherwise is incompatible
         with such works.

    2.   The Administrator shall,  from  time  to  time,  as
         control  technology,  processes, operating methods,
         or   other   alternatives   change,   revise   such
         standards,  following  the procedure established by
         this subsection for promulgation of such standards.
                              12

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    3.   When proposing  or  promulgating  any  pretreatment
         standard  under  this  section,  the  Administrator
         shall  designate  the  category  or  categories  of
         sources to which such standard shall apply.

    <*.   Nothing  in  this  subsection  shall   affect   any
         pretreatment  requirement  established by any State
         or local law not in conflict with any  pretreatment
         standard established under this subsection.

In  order  to  insure that any source introducing pollutants
into a publicly owned treatment works, which would be a  new
source  subject  to  Section  306  if  it  were to discharge
pollutants, will not  cause  a  violation  of  the  effluent
limitations  established  for  any such treatment works, the
Administrator  is  required   to   promulgate   pretreatment
standards  for  the  category of such sources simultaneously
with the promulgation  of  standards  of  performance  under
Section  306  for  the  equivalent  category of new sources.
Such pretreatment standards shall prevent the discharge into
such treatment works of any pollutant  which  may  interfere
with,  pass  through, or otherwise be incompatible with such
works.

The Act  defines  a  new  source  to  mean  any  source  the
construction  of which is commenced after the publication of
proposed regulations prescribing a standard of  performance.
Construction  means any placement, assembly, or installation
of facilities or equipment  (including  contractual  obliga-
tions  to  purchase  such  facilities  or  equipment)  at the
premises  where  such  equipment  will  be  used,  including
preparation work at such premises.

Methods Used for Development of the Effluent Limitations and
Standards for Performance

The   effluent  limitations,  guidelines  and  standards  of
performance proposed in this document were developed in  the
following manner.  The miscellaneous chemicals manufacturing
point  source  category  was  first  divided into industrial
segments,  based  on  type  of  manufacturing  and  products
manufactured.   Determination  was  then  made as to whether
further subcategorization would aid in  description  of  the
category.  Such determinations were made on the basis of raw
materials   required,   products   manufactured,   processes
employed, and other factors.

The raw  waste  characteristics  for  each  category  and/or
subcategory were then identified.   This included an analysis
of:   1)   the source and volume of water used in the process
                              13

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employed and the sources of wastes and  wastewaters  in  the
plant;    and   2)    the  constituents  of  all  wastewaters
(including toxic constituents)  which result in taste,  odor,
and  color  in water.  The constituents of wastewaters which
should be subject to effluent  limitations,  guidelines  and
standards of performance were identified.

The   full  range  of  control  and  treatment ^technologies
existing  within  each  category  and/or   subcategory   was
identified.   This  in'cluded  an identification of each dis-
tinct control and treatment technology, including  both  in-
plant  and  end- of-pipe technologies, which are existent or
capable of being designed for each subcategory or  category.
It  also  included  an  identification of the effluent level
resulting from the application of each of the treatment  and
control technologies, in terms of the amount of constituents
and    of    the    chemical,   physical,   and   biological
characteristics of pollutants.   The  problems,  limitations,
and reliability of each treatment and control technology and
the  required  implementation time were also identified.  In
addition, the non-water quality environmental impacts   (such
as  the effects of the application of such technologies upon
other  pollution  problems,  including  air,  solid   waste,
radiation,  and  noise)  were  also  identified.  The energy
requirements  of  each  of   the   control   and   treatment
technologies  were  identified,  as  well as the cost of the
application of such technologies.

The information, as outlined above, was evaluated  in  order
to  determine what levels of technology constituted the BPT,
BAT, and NSPS,  In identifying  such  technologies,  factors
considered   included  the  total  cost  of  application  of
technology in relation to the effluent reduction benefits to
be achieved from such application, the age of equipment  and
facilities  involved,  the process employed, the engineering
aspects of the  application  of  various  types  of  control
techniques, process changes, non-water quality environmental
impact (including energy requirements), and other factors.

During  the  initial  phases of the study, an assessment was
made of the availability, adequacy, and  usefulness  of  all
existing data sources.  Data on the identity and performance
of  wastewater  treatment  systems were known to be included
in:

     1.  NPDES permit applications.

     2.  Self-reporting plant discharge data from
          various states.
                              14

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     3.  Surveys conducted by trade associations or by
          agencies under research and development grants.

A preliminary analysis of these data  indicated  an  obvious
need for additional information.

Additional  data  in  the following areas were required:  1)
process raw waste  load  (RWL)  related  to  production;  2)
currently  practiced  or  potential in-process waste control
techniques; and 3) the identity and effectiveness of end-of-
pipe treatment systems.  The best source of information  was
the  manufacturers  themselves.   Additional information was
obtained from  direct  interviews  and  sampling  visits  to
production facilities.

Collection  of the data necessary for development of RWL and
effluent treatment capabilities within dependable confidence
limits required analysis of both  production  and  treatment
operations.   In  a few cases, the plant visits were planned
so that the production operations of a single plant could be
studied in association with an end-of-pipe treatment  system
which receive only the wastes from that production.  The RWL
for  this  plant  and  associated treatment technology would
fall within a single subcategory.  However, the wide variety
of products manufactured by most of  the  industrial  plants
made this situation rare.

In  the majority of cases,  it was necessary to visit facili-
ties where  the  products  manufactured  fell  into  several
subcategories.    The   end-of-pipe   treatment   facilities
received  combined  wastewaters  associated   with   several
subcategories   (several   products,   processes,   or  even
unrelated manufacturing operations) .  It  was  necessary  to
analyze   separately   the   production    (waste-generating)
facilities and the effluent   (waste  treatment)   facilities.
This  approach required establishment of a common basis, the
raw  waste  load   (RWL),  for  common  levels  of  treatment
technology for the products within a subcategory and for the
translation   of  treatment  technology  between  categories
and/or subcategories.

The selection of wastewater treatment plants  was  developed
from information available in the NPDES permit applications,
state self-reporting discharge data, and contacts within the
segment.   Every  effort was made to choose facilities where
meaningful information  on  both  treatment  facilities  and
manufacturing  processes  could  be  obtained.   Plants were
selected for visits as being representative of the category.
                              15

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Survey teams composed of project  engineers  and  scientists
conducted  the  actual  plant  visits.   Information  on the
identity and performance of wastewater treatment systems was
obtained through:

    1.   Interviews  with  plant  water  pollution   control
         personnel or engineering personnel.

    2.   Examination   of   treatment   plant   design   and
         historical  operating data (flow rates and analyses
         of influent and effluent).

    3.   Treatment plant influent and effluent sampling.

Information on process plant operations and  the  associated
RWL was obtained through:

    1.   Interviews with plant operating personnel.

    2.   Examination of  plant  design  and  operating  data
         (design   specification,  flow  sheets,  day-to-day
         material balances around individual process modules
         or unit operations where possible).

    3.   Individual   process   wastewater   sampling    and
         analysis.

    4.   Historical production and treatment data.

The data base obtained in this manner was then  utilized  by
the  methodology previously described to develop recommended
effluent   limitations,   guidelines   and   standards    of
performance  for  the photographic processing subcategory of
the  photographic  point  source  category.    All   of   the
references  utilized  are  included  in  Section  XV of this
report.  The data obtained during the field data  collection
program  are included in Supplement B.  Cost information are
available in Supplement A.  These  documents  are  available
for  examination  by  interested  parties  at the EPA Public
Information  Reference  Unit,  Room  2922,  (EPA   Library),
Waterside Mall, 401 M St., S.W., Washington, D.C.  20460.

Photographic Processing Industry

    Scope of the Study

For  the purposes of this study, the photographic processing
subcategory of the photographic point  source  category  was
defined  to  include  all  film processing activities listed
under SIC 7221 (Photographic Studios,  Portrait),  SIC  7333
                              16

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 (Commercial   Photography,  Art,  and  Graphics),  SIC  7395
 (Photofinishing Laboratories), and SIC 7819 (Developing  and
Printing  of  Commercial Motion Picture Film).  Lists of the
specific  services  covered  by  these  Standard  Industrial
Classifications are presented in Tables III-1, III-2, III-3,
and II1-4.

The  photographic processing subcategory of the photographic
point  source  category  is  made  up  of   industrial   and
commercial  laboratories serving both the photographic trade
and the general public in  film  developing,  photoprinting,
and  enlarging.  Photographic processing plants vary greatly
in  size  and  are  subject  to   seasonal   variations   in
production,  nevertheless  the  waste  loads  are similar in
quality and quantity per unit of production.

    Technical  Approach  to  the  Development  of   Effluent
    Limitations Guidelines

The   effluent  limitations,  guidelines  and  standards  of
performance recommended in this  document  for  photographic
processing were developed as described above.   The technical
approach  specific  to  photographic processing is described
below:

    1.   Plants  were   selected   for   visits   as   being
representative of the subcategory.  The purpose of the plant
visits  were threefold.  First, the individual processes for
black and white and color film and paper within  the  plants
were investigated for familiarization with process concepts.
At  this  time, valuable information, otherwise unavailable,
was  obtained  on  the  various  processes.   Secondly,  the
purpose  was  to  investigate  treatment  technology, if any
existed.  Lastly, and most importantly, the purpose  was  to
verify  existing  plant  data  on wastewater discharges with
analytical data measured on the site visits.

    2.   The raw waste  loads  (RWL)   were  determined  from
field  measurements  taken  on three photographic processing
plants visited and data  received  on  Eastman  Kodak  plant
located  on  the  west  coast.  Data supplied by the Eastman
Kodak Company was also used to substantiate the field survey
data.    There  was  very  strong  similarity  in  the  RWL's
determined for the three plants.

    3.   Effluent limitations,  guidelines  and  new  source
performance  standards were developed by applying an end-of-
pipe  treatment  model  to  the  raw  wastewater  and   were
developed for the subcategory as a whole.  Studies indicated
there  was  no  need to impose different levels of treatment
                               17

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                  Table I I I  -1

    Photographic Studios,  Portrait  - SIC  7221
              Home Photographers
              Passport Photographers
              Portrait Photographers
              School  Photographers
              Transient Photographers
                  Table 111-2

 Commercial  Photography, Art,  and  Graphics  -  SIC  7333
              Commercial  Photography
              Photographic Studios,  Commercial
                  Table I I I  -3


         Photofinishing Laboratories  - SIC 7395


 Developing and printing of film,  except commercial
   motion picture film

 Developing and processing  of home movies

 Film processing, except for the motion picture  industry

 Photograph developing and  retouching

 Photographic laboratories  (not manufacturing)


                  Table I I I  -k


 Services Allied to Motion  Picture Production -  SIC  7819


Developing and printing of  commercial motion picture film
                       18

                                                       6/30/76

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within the photographic  processing  subcategory.   Effluent
limitations have been developed for silver and cyanide based
on  the  removal  rate attained by widely used and generally
available in-plant treatment  systems.   For   BAT/NSPS  the
wastewater  treatment technology and systems utilized in the
electroplating point source category are transferred to this
industry.  Cyanide destruction by alkaline chlorination  and
silver  removal  by  ion  exchange  are the particular waste
treatment models used.   Refer to Section VIII  for  detailed
design consideration.

    Scope of Coverage for Data Base

Although   there   are   an  estimated  12,500  photographic
processing plants in the United States, only  650  of  these
facilities    are   considered   major   laboratories   with
significant wastewater discharges.  In order to  obtain  the
information   required   to   establish  realistic  effluent
limitations, sampling surveys were conducted at three photo-
processing plants by  the  EPA  contractor.   Since  limited
information    was    available    on   the   treatment   of
photoprocessing wastes, a fourth plant was visited which had
a pilot biological treatment plant in operation at the  time
of  the  survey.   A  special  field  survey of 30 non-Kodak
photographic processing plants was conducted by NAPM in  the
spring  of 1976 utilizing Kodak field teams.  Data for flow,
BOD5_ and COD resulting from this effort  plus  data  from  6
Kodak  plants  collected in the past three years were merged
with the 4  plants  sampled  by  the  EPA  contractor.   The
weighted  averages  for  these three parameters were used to
build the RWL*s reported in Table V-1.  In addition  to  the
field  surveys, supplemental historical data compiled by the
Eastman Kodak Company for approximately 200  photoprocessing
plants  was  acquired  and  used as back up data but was not
employed in the calculation of the  raw  waste  load.   This
data  was  too  random and had not been validated by on-site
sampling.  However, the 200 plant survey summary was  useful
in identifying current methods of in-plant treatment such as
silver    recovery,    bleach   regeneration,   bleach-fixer
regeneration, squeegees, and wash water controls  which  are
in-plant  controls  widely  used  in  the industry.  Further
information on these in-plant control measures was  provided
by  the  EPOS  Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota.  In
addition, a field visit to the Naval Photographic Center  in
Washington,   D.C.  was  made  to  develop  an  overview  of
photographic processing technology in the military sector.
                           19

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                         SECTION IV

                 INDUSTRIAL CATEGORIZATION
General

The purpose  of  the  total  study  is  the  development  of
effluent  limitations, guidelines and new source performance
standards  for  the  photographic  processing  point  source
category  that will be commensurate with different levels of
in-process waste reduction and end-of-pipe pollution control
technology.   "These  effluent  limitations  and   guidelines
specify  the quantity of pollutants which will be discharged
from a specific facility and will be  related  to  a  common
yardstick for the manufacturing segment, such as quantity of
production.

Photographic Processing

         Discussion of the Rationale of Categorization

The   photographic   processing   subcategory   serves   the
photographic  trade,   the   military   establishment,   the
scientific  community,  the  medical  profession, the dental
profession, and general public in the  developing  of  films
and  in  photoprinting and enlarging.  The following factors
were considered to determine whether further subdivision  of
the  subcategory  and the establishment of separate effluent
limitations and guidelines for different  point  sources  of
the subcategory were justified.

              Plant Type

Photographic  processing laboratories differ in the services
they provide.  Among the estimated 12,500 processing  plants
in  the  United  States,  approximately  3,000  are  amateur
operations, 3,000 are "captive" laboratories in business and
industrial firms, 650 are major labs  specializing  in  work
for  professional  and  industrial  photographers,  and  the
remaining plants are portrait and commercial studios.  Table
IV-3 presents the FWL data summary for 30  non-Kodak  plants
and  6  Kodak  plants  according to. NAPM's classification by
source of  business.   Based  on  this  inspection,  further
subdivision based on plant type was not justified.

              Plant Size

Photoprocessing  laboratories  range  in size from the small
amateur operations  to  the  major  professional  laboratory
                             21

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which may process as much as 100,000 square feet of film and
paper  daily.   According  to  the  NAPM  many  photographic
processing plants process between 25,000 and  50,000  square
feet  per  day.   A profile of estimated plant sizes derived
from the 200  plant  survey  is  given  in  Table  IV-1.   A
separate  economic  study  was  performed  to  determine the
economic impact  of  the  recommended  effluent  limitations
reported  in  this  text.   This  review  indicated that the
Agency  should  incorporate  a  size  cut-off   and   exempt
photographic  processing  plants which process less than 150
square meters per day (equivalent to 1,600 square  feet  per
day) .

              Plant Location

Plants  are  located  mostly  in  urban areas throughout the
country.  The three plants for which RWL data were  analyzed
were  located  in  Michigan,  Massachusetts,  and Texas.  In
addition a pilot biological treatment system was visited  at
a  plant  in  New  York.   Supplemental data (questionnaire)
compiled by Eastman  Kodak  Company  for  approximately  200
photographic  processing  plants  was  reviewed.  During the
spring of 1976 NAPM took field samples  from  thirty  plants
located   in   four   U.S.  metropolitan  areas  (New  York,
Washington, D.C., Chicago and Detroit).   In  addition  data
from  six  Eastman Kodak plants have been reviewed.  Because
all  plants  operate  within  buildings  and   because   the
processes require strict ambient processing conditions plant
location is not a basis for subcategorization.

              Products

The products produced by the industry are finished color and
black and white films and prints of both.  Most large plants
process  both  color and black and white materials; however,
one  plant  visited  processed  only  color  films  and   no
significant  differences  in  the  raw  waste  loadings were
observed.   Difference   in   photographic   products   were
therefore, deemed not to be a basis for subcategorization.

              Plant Processes

There are a wide variety of photoprocessing machines used to
finish  a  specific  film or paper.  These may be either the
continuous or "rack and tank" or "dip and dunk"  operations.
The  nature,  basic  principles and waste characteristics of
photograhic  processing  are  the  same  in  all  facilities
regardless  of size and age.  Only the quantity of waste per
unit of production (Ibs per 1,000  square  feet  or  kg  per
1,000  square  meters)   showed  a  consistent  relationship.
                              22

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                          TABLE IV  -1

         Plant Size From "200" Plant Survey Summary Data



*Wastewater               Number of       **Est. Production
    gpd                    Plants             sq.  ft./day

 less than 1,000             27             below  250

 1,000 to 10,000             92             250   to  2,500

 10,000 to 50,000            64            2,500    to  12,500

 over 50,000                 28             over   12,500

 unknown                     26

   Total                    237
 *Wastewater flow profile from Table VII G-l
**Based on 4,000  gal/1,000 sq. ft. from Table VG-1
                           23

                                                    6/30/76

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Hence,   process   was
subcategorization.
           eliminated   as
                basis
            for
              Wastewater Characteristics

As  a  result  of the production of both color and black and
white products, large volumes of wastewater  are  discharged
during  the process.  These process wastewaters include both
photoprocessing  solution   overflows   and   wash   waters.
Together, these spent waters are high in BOD, COD, TOC, TDS,
silver,  and complex cyanide ion.  Generally, the pollutants
of significance are the same for both color  and  black  and
white   photofinishing  operations  with  the  exception  of
ferrocyanide, which is generated during the  bleaching  step
in  color development.  Therefore wastewater characteristics
are not a basis for subcategorization.

              Summary of Considerations

Data was  collected  on  both  color  and  black  and  white
processes at three different plants identified as plants 32,
33, and 34.  These plants varied in size by production, flow
rate,  and  geographic  location,  as shown in the following
tabulation:
Plant No.
(Location)
32 (Mich.)
33 (Mass.)
34 (Texas)
Average Daily
Production
   sq ft

 19,300
 22,400
 13,300
Flow Rate
  gpd

 62,600
 67,900
 42,000
Average Flow
gal/1000 sq.ft.
   3,244
   3,031
   3,158
Based on the  total  quantity  of  production,  measured  in
square  feet  of  product, pollutant loadings from the color
and black and white  processes  compare  well  in  order-of-
magnitude.  The arithmetic mean flow for the three plants of
3,144 gallons per 1,000 square feet of production covers all
three  plants  within  a  range  of plus or minus 4 percent.
When the NAPM  field  survey  for  30  non-Kodak  plants  is
combined with historical data for 6 Kodak plants, a weighted
flow of 4,050 gallons per 1000 square feet results.  This is
reported  in  Table  V-1  as  plant  number 00.  The overall
industry  RWL  flow  is  computed  by  merging  the  4   EPA
contractor  data  points  together with the data points from
the 36 plants in the NAPM survey.   The  final  overall  RWL
flow  rate  is  4,000 gallons per 1000 per square feet.  The
raw waste loads are fairly uniform throughout  the  industry
in  color  and  black  and  white  operations because of the
standardization  of  processes   within   the   subcategory.
                             24

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Because   of   this  uniformity,  further  division  of  the
subcategory for the. development  of  effluent  limitations,
guidelines and new source performance standards could not be
justified on the basis of size, location, type of processing
or  wastewater characteristics.  The photographic processing
subcategory is treated as a whole for the purposes  of  this
document,   and  any  analyses  and  regulations  which  are
developed will be  applicable  to  the  whole  point  source
category.   Separate  discussions  of  process  types  have,
however, been presented for a more thorough understanding of
the industry.

         Process Descriptions

Most commercial photoprocessors handle many square  feet  of
film  and  paper  with  automatic  processing machines.  The
basic machines are called the "dip and dunk"  or  "rack  and
tank"  types,  which  consist of a series of tanks with each
tank containing photoprocessing solutions.  These  solutions
impart  the  desired  effect  on  the  film or paper in each
progressive  step   of   development.    Continuous   length
processors   are  used  by  most  large  firms,  and  roller
transports are used in graphic arts and for  hospital  x-ray
films.

During   photoprocessing,  many  changes  occur  within  the
processing  solutions.   Because  of  these   changes,   the
chemicals  used  in  photoprocessing  need  to  be replaced,
strengthened,  or  replenished.   Developing  agents  become
oxidized    and    exhausted;   developer   activators   and
preservatives  wear  out;  anti-foggants  become  used   up;
bromides  or  other  halides resulting from the reduction of
the silver by the developer become more  concentrated;  acid
short  stops  become  neutralized; and the removal of silver
from the emulsion causes increased concentrations of  silver
in  the  fixers  or  hypo  baths.   Chemicals  are  added to
maintain the correct chemical strength and photographic pro-
perties.  When a replenisher is added, its  volume  must  be
sufficient  to  cause  enough  overflow  of the unwanted by-
products.  Overflows from the processing tanks caused by the
addition of replenishers and wash water  overflows  are  two
sources  of  wastewater  from  photoprocessing.   Additional
process wastewater results from "leader running" for quality
control tests,  from  machines  in  "stand  by"  mode  where
machine  is  "certified" for quality control but not running
film,   and   from   start-up   or   shut-down   operations.
Miscellaneous  factors  including  spills,  quick dumps, mix
tank washdown, machine room washdown, etc.,  contribute  the
total flow.
                            25

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         Leader to Film Relationship

By definition, a continuous processing machine cannot be run
without  a  leader.  This leader is used to keep the machine
continuously threaded and is run  while  film  is  still  in
other  parts  of  the  machine.   Since  film is still being
processed while this leader is  run,  wash  water  is  still
required.  Typical situations requiring leader are:

    1.   Leader is required for every film run:

         (a)  While a photographic check and scratch test is
              run to certify  the  machine  and  process  as
              satisfactory for customers' work

         (b)  To fill the machine when  customers'  work  is
              finished.

    2.   Leader is required for dual purpose machines:

         (a)  If a machine runs two widths of film, such  as
              110  and  35  mm, leader is required to change
              sizes, and to change back again.

         (b)  If a machine runs two separate processes, such
              as Super 8 Ektachrome or ECO/ME-U,  leader  is
              run   to   clear  the  machine  before  it  is
              rearranged.

    3.   Leader is required for special situations:

         (a)  If the web is damaged, either through  machine
              malfunction or web defects, leader must be run
              to clear customers' film from the machine.  In
              the   case  of  real,  or  suspected,  machine
              malfunctions, good practice  requires  running
              scratch  test  and  photographic certification
              before processing any more customers' product.

         (b)  Occasionally,  chemical  errors  or   contami-
              nations   occur.   These  require  leader  for
              similar reasons as mechanical problems.

The amount of leader that must be run in connection  with  a
square  foot  of  film  is highly variable.  For example, it
depends on:

    1.   The total process ("dry-to-dry") time.
                              26

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    2.   The amount of customers1 film run.  Since each  run
         takes  a  fixed  amount  of leader, the leader/film
         ratio varies with  the  length  of  the  film  run.
         Length  of  film run in turn depends on the time of
         year,  overall  size  of  the  plant,  pattern   of
         incoming  work,  and  committments  to  dealers for
         service time.

    3.   The type of process and/or machine as "-detailed  in
         Item 2 above.'

    U.   The capacity of  the  specific  machine  in  square
         feet/minute in relation to square feet processed.


All  of  the above are considered as part of the overall raw
wastewater loads in the field survey.

         Black and White Film

              General

Black and white film consists of a foundation  layer,  which
is  coated  with  a  light-sensitive  emulsion, and an outer
protective layer.  Silver  salts,  made  up  of  positively-
charged  silver ions and negatively-charged bromide ions are
among the chemicals contained in the emulsion.  When radiant
energy from light strikes the crystal, a dislodged  electron
from  the  bromide  ion  is captured by a silver ion to form
metallic silver.  The metallic silver clusters  together  on
the  film  surface and a latent image is formed.   This image
is  made  visible  by  a  step  in  photoprocessing   called
development.    Two   development   processes  are  used  in
industry: the two-step  negative-positive  process  and  the
one-step reversal process.

              Negative-positive Process

The  silver  bromide  crystals  in  the gelatin emulsion are
bathed in a chemical  solution  called  a  developer,  which
causes  the  visible  image to form.  The developer solution
contains  developing  agents,   activators,   preservatives,
restrainers,  anti-foggants,  and  water  conditioners.   In
general,  the  developing  agents  for   black   and   white
photography    are    aromatic   compounds    (for   example,
hydroquinone).

After the  photographic  material  has  been  developed  the
desired  amount,  the  developing  process  must be stopped.
This is normally done by treatment  in  an  acidic  solution
                              27

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called  a short stop, which neutralizes the basic activators
of the developer and  conditions  the  emulsion  for  future
processing steps.  Sometimes plain water is sufficient for a
stop  bath.  After stopping the action of the developer, the
unexposed and undeveloped silver must be  removed  from  the
emulsion.   This  is  done  not  only to make the image more
visible and the film more transparent, but  to  prevent  the
remaining  unused  silver  from  eventually being reduced to
metallic silver by the action of light.  There are a  number
of  solvent  fixers,  including sodium thiosulfate, ammonium
thiosulfate, and sodium  thiocyanate.   Following  fixation,
photographic  materials  are  washed and dried.  The process
flow diagram for black and white film is shown in Figure IV-
1.

The  quality  of  wastewaters  from  black  and  white  film
development  is  relatively  uniform throughout the industry
and is characterized by the presence of hydroquinone in  the
developer  waste;  sulfites  in  the  stop  bath  waste; and
acetates, sulfites, and a silver thiosulfate complex in  the
fixer  waste.   Inorganic oxygen-demanding chemicals such as
thiosulfate  and  sulfite  are  major  components   of   all
processing effluents and may contribute more than 50% of the
oxygen demand for some processing wastewaters.  Other wastes
are  generated  during  the  processing.   These pollutants,
however, vary in type and concentration depending upon which
photoprocessing operation is employed.

Once the black and white negative has been  fully  processed
and  is  allowed  to  dry,  the negative is transferred to a
positive paper print by the black and white  paper  process.
The  process  begins  by  directing a controlled exposure of
light onto the negative, thereby creating a  positive  image
on  the  paper, which has an emulsion layer similar to black
and white film.  The latent image formed is then  developed,
using  different  chemicals  from  those  used  in  the film
development process.  Wastewaters from the paper  processing
are   similar  in  type  to  the  wastewaters  in  the  film
development process, although the concentrations are usually
higher.

              Reversal Development

This is a method for obtaining a positive image on the  same
film  used  for  the original exposure.  The exposed film is
first fully developed to  a  negative.   The  film  is  then
washed  and the silver image removed by bathing in an acidic
permanganate or dichromate bleach  bath.   A  clearing  bath
(for  example,  bisulfite)  is  used to remove the bleaching
agent and reaction products.   The  film  is  then  given  a
                              28

-------
                                            Figure IV -1



                                    Black and White Film Processing
Flow
Developers

^ Development
Waste
Water
(overflow)
Short Stop
Ingredients
r— ~j
^ Short Stop
Waste
Water
(overflow)
Fixers Water Vent
1 1 f
1 1
^ r
L_
\
Wa
Wa-
(ove
X : •" IAI
]
r
ste W
ber W
rflow) (ov

ash ^ Dry
1 1
aste
ater
erf low)
                                                                                        6/30/76

-------
uniform  controlled  exposure  of  light, and is developed a
second time.  As an alternative to the  second  exposure,  a
highly fogging developer or nonselective reducer may be used
for  the  second  development.    The process continues as in
other black and white processes  with  a  wash,  fix,  final
wash,  and  dry.   Reversal  development  is  often  used in
processing  amateur   and   16-mm   motion   picture   film.
Wastewaters  in  reversal  processing  are  similar to other
black and white film processing wastes.    The  process  flow
diagram for black and white reversal film is shown in Figure
IV-2.   Negative  removal is accomplished by the addition of
dichromate bleach.  Chemicals very similar to those used  in
the  development of color products are used in the black and
white development.

              Color Film

              General

In black and white photographic materials, the  emulsion  is
sensitive  to wavelengths of light up to visible blue light.
However, certain organic compounds can be  included  in  the
emulsion  to extend the wavelength sensitivity of the silver
grains.  The silver grains then become  latent  images  when
exposed  to  green  or  red  light.    Color  film  has three
separate light-sensitive layers which record an image of the
blue  light  components  on  one  layer,  the  green   light
components  on  another  and  the  red light components on a
third layer.

              Negative-Positive Development

Color  developer  agents  are  generally   N,   N-dialkyl-p-
phenylene-diamines  whose  reaction  products  react  with a
group of organic molecules called  couplers  to  form  dyes.
The   oxidized   components  of  this  special  category  of
developers form colored dyes in  the  film  emulsion  layers
with  the  incorporated  color  couplers.  Frequently a stop
bath follows the color developer  step.    As  in  black  and
white  film  processing,  metallic silver is formed in color
film  upon  exposure  to  light.   However,  in  color  film
processing  the silver image which is formed with the dye is
converted back to silver halide by  reactions  with  one  of
several   complex  iron  compounds  and  a  halide.   Either
ferricyanide  with  sodium  bromide   or   ferric   ammonium
ethylenediamine  tetracetic acid (ferric EDTA) with ammonium
bromide is commonly used.  Continuing the procedure  of  re-
moving  the  unwanted silver image after the bleaching step,
the film is treated in a fixer or hypo-bath.   The  film  is
then  washed  to  remove  residual  processing chemicals and
                            30

-------
                                                  Figure IV -2

                                    Reversal Black and White Film Processing
                                             i
     Film
U)


Pre-
Hardening
Bath


Neutralizing 1 	
Bath 1 *"
!
Fi rst
Develop-
er


Wash

                                             1

Negative
Removal


•- — -•••• 	 —
Exposure to
Light or
Chemical
Fogging Agent

*

Waste
Water
(overflow)
Waste
Water
(overflow)
Waste
Water
(overflow)
Waste
Water
(overflow)
Waste
Water
(overflow)
Waste
Water
(overflow)
                                                                                          Process with
                                                                                          Normal Black
                                                                                          and White
                                                                                          Processing
                                                                                                       6/30/76

-------
dried.  Films of this type include Kodacolor and  Agfa  CNS.
The process flow diagram for color film development is shown
in Figure IV-3.

Effluent  wastewaters  from  color film development are also
relatively uniform in quality and are characterized  by  the
presence  of  benzyl  alcohol,  developing agents, sulfates,
sulfites, borate, and phosphate  in  the  developer  wastes;
acetates  in  the  short  stop  bath  waste; ferrocyanide or
ferric EDTA in the bleach waste; and acetates, sulfites, and
silver thiosulfate complex in the fixing  bath  waste.   The
major pollutants which contribute to BOD are benzyl alcohol,
sulfites, acetates, and thiosulfate.

Many  variations  of  this  basic process exist.  Some color
processes combine the bleach and  fixing  steps  to  give  a
"blix," which performs both operations simultaneously.

After  the  film is dried, positive paper prints are made by
exposing light through  the  film  onto  color  photographic
paper with three color-sensitive layers containing couplers.
Processing  of  the  print  is  similar  to that used in the
negative development.

              Color Reversal Development

There are two different types of color  reversal  films  and
their  processings  are  slightly  different.    In  one, the
compounds which form the color image are  incorporated  into
the  emulsion layers at the time of manufacture.  Most color
reversal films are of this type.  The second type  of  color
reversal  film  has  three  black  and white color-sensitive
layers.  In  this  type  of  film  the  color  couplers  are
included in the color developer solutions.

In  processing  the first kind of color reversal film, after
the negative image is formed, the emulsion is washed and may
be treated in a hardening bath.  The silver not used to form
the negative image in the three layers is  made  developable
either  by  light  or chemical action, and a positive silver
image is formed by the action of  a  color  developer.   The
oxidized  developer  combines with the couplers in the three
layers to form the three  dye  images.   This  part  of  the
process  is very similar to the processing of color negative
material, except that the image on  the  film  is  positive.
The  remaining  steps are much the same.  Films of this type
include Ektachrome, Ansochrome, Agfachrome, and  Fugichrome.
The process flow diagram for color reversal development with
incorporated couplers is shown in Figure IV-4.
                               32

-------
         Figure IV -3
Color Negative Film Processing



Film
. fc__
in ^"
co
co






Color
Developers
T
Color
*•» m i ^
Development"*
t
Waste
Water
(overflow)



Stop
Agents
I
Short
_,
*~ Stop
i
Waste
Water
(overflow)



Bleaching
Agents
, T
j
I
^h i~i n i •
^ Bleaching
^
Waste
Water
(overflow)




Fixers
jr.

^ F t i ,
•^ rlX
t
Waste
Water
(overflow)




Water Vent
1 t

-nn^to. 1 t<-| ."• Ll
^^ wash


^ Dry

I
Waste
Water
(overflow)



Finished
Color Film
Out /




^^







                                                              6/30/76

-------
                                             Figure  IV -4

                                       Color Reversal Processing
                                        (Incorporated Couplers)
                 L    .1             _J.
           r
                                                                Exposure to         Proceed
Film   '    •*•  Hardening   f"^1  Wash      " ~ ^"j  Development
Light or    	». with  Normal
                        ,   ,                 ,                    Chemical    ,        Color
                      	|   |	          |	!       I Fogging	        Processing
                  t           t                   t
                Waste       Waste                Waste
                Water       Water                Water
               (overflow)   (overflow)           (overflow)
                                                                                               6/30/76

-------
The  wastes in the reversal process are similar to the color
process wastes except for the addition of sulfate  from  the
reversal  bleach  process  and  acetate and sulfate from the
hardening bath.  Sulfamic acid  is  used  in  some  reversal
black  and white processes but is not used in color reversal
processes.

Color reversal film without  the  incorporated  couplers  is
processed  in a manner similar to those just described up to
the formation of the negative image  in  all  three  layers.
After  this,  all  three  layers in the emulsion are treated
separately.   First,  the  red-sensitive   layer   is   made
developable by exposure to red light through the base of the
film.   The other two layers, which are not sensitive to red
light, are unaffected.  The film  is  then  treated  with  a
color developer that contains, among many other ingredients,
a  soluble  cyan  dye coupler.  As the color developer agent
reduces the silver and forms an image,  the  oxidized  color
developer  in  the  vicinity  of the developed silver grains
forms a positive cyan dye (red) image.

After washing, the film is exposed from the  top  with  blue
light  forming  a  latent  image  in  the top blue-sensitive
layer.  A yellow filter layer  protects  the  middle  green-
sensitive  layer.   A  second  color developer, containing a
soluble yellow coupler, produces both a  silver  and  yellow
positive dye image in the top layer.

After  a  wash, the film is either exposed to white light or
chemically fogged and a third color developer, containing  a
magenta coupler, forms the final positive silver and magenta
colored  dye image  (green).   In the film or paper, there are
three negative silver images, three positive  silver  images
and three colored dye images.  The silver images are removed
as  in  the  negative color process by bleaching and fixing,
washing and drying.  Films of this type  include  Kodachrome
and  GAF  Moviechrome.   The  process flow diagram for color
reversal development with couplers in the developer is shown
in Figure IV-5.

       Ferricvanide in Photographic Processing Wastes

Ferricyanide  bleaches  are  found  in  color   photographic
processing  applications,  where  it  has  been  used  as  a
standard bleaching agent for years.   The  function  of  the
bleach  in  the  photographic  process  is  to  oxidize  the
metallic silver in the photographic  emulsion  to  a  silver
halide.    During that oxidation, the ferricyanide and halide
ion  concentrations  of  the  bath   decrease,   while   the
ferrocyanide  concentration  increases.   Bromide ion is the
                               35

-------
                                                   FIGURE IV -5

                              COLOR REVERSAL PROCESSING (COUPLERS IN DEVELOPER)
FILM
DEVELOPMENT


1 A/ A C Ul



EXPOSE TO
RED LIGHT


DEVELOPMENT
WITH
CYAN COUPLER


TiTA CIJ
WAorl


EXPOST TO
BLUE LIGHT


DEVELOPMENT
WITH
YELLOW COUPLER


                           I
           WASTE
    WASTE
                                WASTE
                             WASTE
                                                                              T
                                                                                                  WASTE
         WASH
           I
EXPOSURE TO
WHITE LIGHT
OR CHEMICAL
FOGGING AGENT
         WASTE
DEVELOPMENT
WITH
MAGENTA
COUPLER
BLEACH


FIX



WAon


DRY
                     WASTE
                                   WASTE
                                     WASTE
                                                                                                      6/30/76

-------
                        Figure IV -6



                 Typical Photographic Processing

                        Flow Diagram
    H  W
MQ
    i\\
w
LEGEND

H  - Hardner

MQ - 1st Developer
C  - Cyan
Y  - Yellow
R  - Reversal
M  - Magenta
B  - Bleach
F  - Hypo Fix
W  - Wash
W
           T
W i R


                         Coupler
                         Recovery
                       Ifer
          Couprer for
            Reuse
                                  Bleach
                               Regeneration
                     Silver
                    Recovery
           Silver
                               Combined Process
                                Wastewater to
                                  Treatment
                 37
W , M i  W  i W  , B •  F !  W  ! W
                           arm
                                                     6/30/76

-------
most common  halide  ion.   The  reaction  for  photographic
bleaching is:
     Ag°   •*•   Fe(CN)^-3   *   Br-   =   AgBr    +   Fe(CN)e>~*
  metallic      ferri-       Bromine    Silver        ferro-
    silver      cyanide        ion      Bromide      cyanide
                                      precipitate

To   maintain   the   proper   concentration   of   solution
constituents, the solution is  constantly  replenished  with
fresh   material.    That   distinguishes  the  two  primary
solutions for all processing formulations,  the  replenisher
and  working  tank solutions.  Table IV- 2 shows some typical
chemical concentrations for a working tank and a replenisher
tank from three different color photographic processes.

The overflow bleach from the working tank is one  source  of
ferrocyanide   loss   from  the  photographic  process.   In
addition, as film passes through the  processing  solutions,
it  carries  a  certain  volume of tank solution to the next
tank.  That carryover is the total of the surface liquid and
the solution absorbed into the film emulsion.  The carryover
rate depends upon many factors, including the speed  of  the
process   and  the  photo  products  being  processed.   The
carryover loss of solution bleach into the next bath in  the
process  is  a  second  source  of  bleach  loss.   The bath
following the bleach is either a photographic fixing bath or
a wash water.

All photographic processing laboratories are in  a  position
to   estimate  the  average  concentration  of  ferricyanide
discharged from the photographic laboratory over a specified
period of time.  That can be done by calculating the  pounds
of  ferro-  or  ferricyanide  purchased  and dividing by the
total volume of water used by the laboratory during the same
period.
                                38

-------
                        TABLE  IV  -2

                   Bleach Bath Composition




      EXAMPLE A -  From a Typical Color Reversal  Process

                              Working Tank        Replenisher
                                (g/D                (8/D

Sodium Ferrocyanide
(Na4Fe (CN)6- 10 H20)             45.0                5.0

Sodium Ferricyanide
(Na3Fe(CN)6)                     120.0              140.0

Sodium Bromide
(NaBr)                           25.0               55.0



   EXAMPLE B - From A typical  Color Negative Film Processor

                              Working Tank        Replenisher
                                (g/D                (g/D

Sodium Ferrocyanide
 Decahydrate                     6.0                 2.0

Sodium Ferricyanide             23.0                26.0

Sodium Bromide                  15.0                17.0



  EXAMPLE C  - From a Typical Color Positive Paper Processor

                              Working Tank        Replenisher
                                (g/D                (g/D

Sodium Ferrocyanide
 Decahydrate                     13.0                2.0

Sodium Ferricyanide              17.0               25.0

Sodium Bromide                    7.0                8.0
                            39
                                                   6/30/76

-------
                                            TABLE IV-3

                      STATISTICAL ANALYSIS  OF NAPM/FIELD SURVEY - SPRING 1976
O
Type of
Operation
I
(Kodak Historical
Data)
I*
II
III
IV
Total Survey
Data
Statistical BOD
Parameter (lbs/1000 ft2)
Mean
Standard Deviation
Mean
Standard Deviation
Mean
Standard Deviation
Mean
Standard Deviation
Mean
Standard Deviation
Mean
Standard Deviation
12.09
9.40
4.84
2.51
4.41
2.02
4.64
2.68
11.58
12.59
7.5**
7.9
COD
(lbs/1000 ft^)
34.16
27.89
13.31
5.47
10.99
5.18
15.18
7.44
33.23
57.02
25
34
Flow
(gal/1000 f
6,279
3,070
2,857
2,209
3,365
1,417
4,428
2,720
3,584
3,327
4,050*
2,800
      *Samples from plants number 12 and 16 were not included.
     **Samples from plant number 16 was not included.

     KEY:  I = Amateur Photofinishers
          II = Professional and Commercial Finishers
         III = Does both I and II
          IV = Motion Picture
                                                                                            6/30/76

-------
                         SECTION V

                   WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
The  raw  waste  loadings   (RWL)  for  the   photoprocessing
industry   presented  in  Table  V-1  were  determined  from
analyses of samples collected during plant visits by the EPA
contractor and by NAPM.  These data formed the data base and
generally were consistent with existing plant data.  The EPA
contractor RWL in each case represents an  average  of  four
values:   one  each  from two black and white film and paper
operations and two color film  and  paper  operations.   The
pollutant  loadings from these four operations compared well
in  order-of-magnitude,  and  this  formed  the   basis   of
categorization.   Final overall RWL's overflow, BOD^ and COD
are based on a weighted composite of data points from the  4
plants  surveyed  by  the  EPA contractor, from 30 non-Kodak
plants sampled by NAPM and from historical data from 6 Kodak
plants.  The overall industry RWL flow is 4,000 gallons  per
1000 square feet; the overall industry RWL, BOD5_ is 7.50 Ibs
per  1000  square  feet and the overall industry RWL, COD is
25.1 Ibs per 1000 square feet.  Supplemental information  in
the   form  of  calculated  RWLs  for  typical  photographic
processes is shown in Table V-2.  The field survey  revealed
no  full  scale  secondary treatment plant installations for
stand alone photographic processing plants.  The west  coast
plant  was used to confirm historical and field survey data.
The TSS data gathered from the field visits appeared  to  be
low  in  relation to the west coast plant and was considered
non-representative.  The TSS RWL was,  therefore,  developed
from the west coast plant data.

Concentrations  of  the  various  parameters were determined
from grab samples collected  from  the  combined  wastewater
overflows  and wash waters from each process (C-22, C-41, C-
42, Ektaprint 3, etc.).   The  concentration  values  for  a
specific  pollutant  were  found  to  vary  among  seemingly
identical  machines.   Because  of  this  variation   direct
comparison of the concentrations was not possible.

The  constituents  of  the  wastewater  for  which  RWL were
determined  were  those  parameters  which  are   frequently
present   in   the   wastewater  and  may  have  significant
ecological consequences once discharged.    Other  parameters
which  may  be  potentially  toxic  to  municipal  treatment
plants, such as cadmium and chromium were generally found in
trace quantities.
                             41

-------
Table V -1
Raw Waste loads
Photographic Prb< e'S*-' ing Industry
Type of
Plant No. Operation
, BODr
32 Black & White 18.4
(3.77)
33 Black & White 41.6
(8.5)
32 Color 45.7
(9.34)
33 Color 1.46
(0.30)
34 Color 40.3
8.25
OO6 36.7
(7.5)
Paw Waste Load 36. 7
(7.5)'
RWL- Concentration, 225
Raw Waste Loa< -
COD
86.6
(17.7)
167.7
(34.3)
152.6
(31.2)
3.42
(0.7)
120.3
(24.6)
122
(25)
123.0
(25.1)'
752
TQC
11.1
(2.27)
48.9
(10.0)
34.2
(7.0)
1.12
(0.23)
44.1
(9.01)
N/A7
34.6
(7.07)'
212
TDS
319.8
(65.2)
307.1
(62.8)
158.9
(32.5)
31.5
(6.46)
219.0
(44.8)
N/A7
251.0
(51.3)'
1,538
Silver
0.10
(0.02 )
0.08
(0.016)
0.06
(0.013)
0.05
(0.011)
0.08
(0.016)
N/A7
0.07
(0.015?
0.45
TSS
1.
(3.
0.
(0.
J f
(0.
0.
(0.
0.
Phenol
48 x 10" u
03 x 10-5;
0097
0020)
0078
0016)
029
0059)
Oil
(0.0023)
N/A7
3.03 0.014
(0.622JV..003 )2
19 0.
09
kg/1 ,000 sq. IT.. (Ibs./I ,000
1 ron
0.10
(0.021)
10.4
(2.14)
0.85
(0.174)
0.25
(0.0509)
0.69
(0.142)
N/A7
2.47
(0.506)
15.2
Boron
7.03
(1.44)
0.01
(0.0021)
0.75
(0.154)
0.07
(0.0142)
0.73
(0.15)
/A7
2.15
(0.44 )3
13.2
T-P
0.13
(0.027)
0.36
(0.074)
0.18
(0.036)
0.69
(0.141)
1.17
(0.24)
N/A7
0.507
(0.104)
3.1
sq. ft.)
Surfactants


0.33
(0.0679)
0.07
(0.0144)


o.ou
(0.0215)
N/A7
0.17
(0.035)
1.1
TKN
4.9
(1.005)
46.0
(9.42)
13.4
(2.75)
1.19
(0.243)
3.98
(0.814)
N/A7
13.9
(2.85)
85
                                                                                                                                       Total Cyanide
                                                                                                                                          0.09
                                                                                                                                          (0.019)

                                                                                                                                          0.57 8
mg/t/*
            Plant 33 - Color not  included  in RWL average
            Plant 32 - Black and  White  not  included in RWL average
            Plant 33 - Black and  White  not  included in RWL average
            Values based on average  wastewater flow from the three plants (4,000  i?l|ons  per 1,000  sq.  ft.)-except  for TSS, total cyanide, and ferrocyanide
            Values based on data  obtained  from Eastman Kodak's Palo Alto Plant
           ^Val'jss fron 73 additional data points from 36 plants.
           7 N/A = not available.
           8 Value based on average  from 55 parameter analysis results and used -riA *,VQC gal./1,000 sq.  ft.  flow rate to back calculate
             Raw Waste load mass loadings  per area irrmedaately above.
                                                                                                                                                       6/30/76

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                           TABLE V -2

        Calculated RWL for Typical Photographic Processes
                           Flow            BODS
                        gal/1000 sq. ft. Ib/lOOOsq.  ft.
             COD
          Ib/lOOOsq. ft.
RWL
Ektaprint 31 - 4C - 2K
 Processor 15' /min
 2-3-1/2" strands
Kodachrome K-142>3 -
 at 50 '/min
Ektachrome EA-5 - 9-1/2"
 at 3.2 '/min 1411-M
Ektachrome E-4 35mm at
 26 '/min
Ektaprint R-5 - 3-1/2" at
 3 '/min 4R Processor
Eastman Color Print
 - 35 mm at 125 '/min
Eastman Color Negative
 - 35 mm at 50 '/min
B$W Paper - 5" at 6.66
 '/min Himatic Chemicals
B§W Aerial Film - 5" at
 14 '/min Versamat 641
 Dev. § Fix
DuPont Graphic Arts Process
DuPont Medical X-Ray
 Processing
Cronaflex^Engineering
 Reproduction
2960
542
3015
2660
4420
t 12000
1280
1470
1460
195
ess 	
7.36
5.42
6.1
62.
43.5
26.7
23.2
26.4
4.5
6
35
17
26.
9.
21
95
67.
44.
30
37.
5.
8
51
21
4
8


5
8

3
4


11.5
14
     Bl-Fix Regeneration
    2% 1-Re generation
     Fixer Regeneration
        Data  Supplied by NAPM
                          43
                                                    6/30/76

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                         SECTION VI

             SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
General

From  review  of  NPDES  permit  applications   for   direct
discharge  of  wastewaters  from the photographic processing
subcategory of the photographic point  source  category  and
examination  of  related  published  data, twenty parameters
(listed in Table VI- 1) were selected and examined during the
field data collection program.  All field sampling data  are
summarized   in   Supplement   B.    Supplement  B  includes
laboratory analytical results, data from plants visited, RWL
calculations, historical data, analysis of historical  data,
computer   print-outs   (showing   flows,   production,  and
pollutants, performance data on treatment  technologies  and
effluent   limitations   calculations) .    Supplement  B  is
available for examination  at  the  EPA  Public  Information
Reference  Unit,  Room  2922, (EPA Library) , Waterside Mall,
    M. St., S.W. , Washington, D.C.  20460.
The degree of impact on the  overall  environment  has  been
used  as  a basis for dividing the pollutants into groups as
follows:

    Pollutants of significance.
    Rationale for the selection of pollutant parameters.
    Pollutants of specific significance.

The rationale and justification for pollutant categorization
within the foregoing groupings, as  discussed  herein,  will
indicate  the  basis  for  selection  of the parameters upon
which the actual effluent limitations  and  guidelines  were
postulated.   In  addition,  particular parameters have been
discussed  in  terms  of  their  validity  as  measures   of
environmental impact.

Pollutants  observed from photographic processing field data
that were present in  sufficient  concentrations  so  as  to
interfere   with,   be   incompatible  with,  or  pass  with
inadequate treatment through publicly owned treatment  works
are discussed in Section XII of this document.
    Pollutants of Significance
                             45

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Parameters  of  major  concern  are  BODJ5,  COD,  silver and
cyanides in various .forms including complexes   (ferrocyanide
and ferric cyanide).

BOD5   and ' COD   have   been  selected  as  pollutants  of
significance because they are the  primary  measurements  of
organic   pollution.    In  the  survey  of  the  industrial
categories,  most  of  the  effluent  data  collected   from
wastewater   treatment  facilities  were  based  upon  BOD5,
because most of the  end-of-pipe  treatment  facilities  and
municipal   treatment  systems  were  biological  processes.
Where other processes (such  as  evaporation,  incineration,
activated  carbon or physical/chemical)  are utilized, either
COD or TOC may be a more appropriate measure of pollution.
                             46

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                 Table VI-1





List of Parameters to be Examined



         Acidity and Alkalinity-pH



         Dissolved Oxygen



         Biochemical Oxygen Demand



         Chemical Oxygen Demand



         Total Organic Carbon



         Total Suspended Solids



         Phenol



         Phosphorus



         Dissolved Solids



         Nitrogen Compounds



         Sulfates



         Temperature



         Boron



         Cadmium



         Chromium



         Cyanide



         Ferrocyanide



         Silver



         Thiosulfate



         Dye Couplers
                      47

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RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS

I.  Pollutant Properties

Acidity and Alkalinity - pH

Although not a specific pollutant,  pH  is  related  to  the
acidity  or alkalinity of a waste water stream.  It is not a
linear or direct measure of either, however, it may properly
be used as a surrogate to control both  excess  acidity  and
excess alkalinity in water.  The term pH is used to describe
the   hydrogen   ion   -  hydroxyl  ion  balance  in  water.
Technically,  pH  is  the  hydrogen  ion  concentration   or
activity  present  in  a given solution.  pH numbers are the
negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.  A  pH
of  7  generally  indicates  neutrality or a balance between
free hydrogen and free hydroxyl ions.  Solutions with  a  pH
above  7  indicate that the solution is alkaline, while a pH
below 7 indicates that the solution is acid.

Knowledge of the pH of water or waste  water  is  useful  in
determining   necessary   measures  for  corrosion  control,
pollution control, and disinfection.  Waters with a pH below
6.0 are corrosive to water  works  structures,  distribution
lines,  and  household  plumbing fixtures and such corrosion
can add   constituents  to  drinking  water  such  as  iron,
copper,  zinc,  cadmium,  and  lead.  Low pH waters not only
tend to dissolve metals from  structures  and  fixtures  but
also  tend  to  redissolve  or leach metals from sludges and
bottom sediments.  The hydrogen ion concentration can affect
the "taste" of the water and  at  a  low  pH,  water  tastes
"sour".

Extremes  of  pH  or  rapid  pH  changes  can  exert  stress
conditions or kill  aquatic  life  outright.  Even  moderate
changes   from   "acceptable"  criteria  limits  of  pH  are
deleterious to some  species.   The  relative  toxicity*  to
aquatic  life  of  many materials is increased by changes in
the water pH.   For  example,  metalocyanide  complexes  can
increase  a  thousand-fold in toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH
units.  Similarly, the toxicity of ammonia is a function  of
pH.   The  bactericidal  effect of chlorine in most cases is
less  as  the  pH  increases,   and   it   is   economically
advantageous to keep the pH close to 7.
*The term toxic or toxicity is used herein in the normal
scientific sense of the word and not as a specialized
term referring to section 307 (a)  of the Act.
                               48

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Acidi-ty is defined as the quantitative ability of a water to
neutralize  hydroxyl  ions.   It is usually expressed as the
calcium  carbonate   equivalent   of   the   hydroxyl   ions
neutralized.   Acidity should not be confused with pH value.
Acidity is the  quantity  of  hydrogen  ions  which  may  be
released  to react with or neutralize hydroxyl ions while pH
is a measure of the free hydrogen ions in a solution at  the
instant  the  pH  measurement  is  made.  A property of many
chemicals, called buffering, may hold  hydrogen  ions  in  a
solution  from being in the free state and being measured as
pH.  The bond of most buffers is rather  weak  and  hydrogen
ions  tend  to  be  released  from  the  buffer as needed to
maintain a fixed pH value.

Highly acid waters are corrosive  to  metals,  concrete  and
living organisms, exhibiting the pollutional characteristics
outlined  above  for  low pH waters.  Depending on buffering
capacity, water may have a higher total acidity at pH values
of 6.0 than other waters with a pH value of 4.0.

Alkalinity; Alkalinity is defined as the ability of a  water
to neutralize hydrogen ions.  It is usually expressed as the
calcium   carbonate   equivalent   of   the   hydrogen  ions
neutralized.

Alkalinity is commonly caused by the presence of carbonates,
bicarbonates, hydroxides and to a lesser extent by  borates,
silicates, phophates and organic substances.  Because of the
nature   of   the  chemicals  causing  alkalinity,  and  the
buffering capacity of carbon dioxide in water, very high  pH
values are seldom found in natural waters.

Excess  alkalinity  as exhibited in a high pH value may make
water corrosive  to  certain  metals,  detrimental  to  most
natural organic materials and toxic to living organisms.

Ammonia is more lethal with a higher pH.  The lacrimal fluid
of  the  human  eye  has  a  pH  of  approximately 7.0 and a
deviation of 0.1 pH unit from the norm  may  result  in  eye
irritation  for  the  swimmer.   Appreciable irritation will
cause severe pain.

Oxygen Demand (BOD, COD, TOC and

Organic and some inorganic compounds  can  cause  an  oxygen
demand   to  be  exerted  in  a  receiving  body  of  water.
Indigenous microorganisms utilize the organic wastes  as  an
energy  source  and oxidize the organic matter.   In doing so
their  natural  respiratory  activity   will   utilize   the
dissolved oxygen.
                             49

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Dissolved  oxygen  (DO)   in  water  is  a  quality  that, in
appropriate concentrations, is essential not  only  to  keep
organisms  living  but also to sustain species reproduction,
vigor,  and  the  development  of  populations.    Organisms
undergo  stress  at reduced DO concentrations that make them
less competitive and less  able  to  sustain  their  species
within  the  aquatic  environment.   For example, reduced DO
concentrations  have  been  shown  to  interfere  with  fish
population  through  delayed  hatching of eggs, reduced size
and vigor of embryos, production of  deformities  in  young,
interference  with  food  digestion,  acceleration  of blood
clotting, decreased tolerance to certain toxicants,  reduced
food   utilization  efficiency,  growth  rate,  and  maximum
sustained swimming  speed.   Other  organisms  are  likewise
affected adversely during conditions of decreased DO.  Since
all  aerobic  aquatic  organisms  need   a certain amount of
oxygen, the consequences of  total  depletion  of  dissolved
oxygen  due  to  a  high  oxygen  demand  can  kill  all the
inhabitants of the affected aquatic area.

It  has  been  shown  that  fish  may,  under  some  natural
conditions,    become    acclimatized    to    low    oxygen
concentrations.  Within  certain  limits,  fish  can  adjust
their  rate  of respiration to compensate for changes in the
concentration of dissolved oxygen.  It is generally  agreed,
moreover,  that those species which are sluggish in movement
(e.g.,carp,  pike,   eel)    can   withstand   lower   oxygen
concentrations  than  fish  which  are  more lively in habit
(such as trout or salmon) .

The lethal affect of low concentrations of dissolved  oxygen
in  water  appears  to be increased by the presence of toxic
substances, such as ammonia, cyanides, zinc,  lead,  copper,
or  cresols.  With so many factors influencing the effect of
oxygen deficiency, it is difficult to estimate  the  minimum
safe  concentrations  at  which  fish will be unharmed under
natural conditions.  Many investigations  seem  to  indicate
that  a DO level of 5.0 mg/1 is desirable for a good aquatic
environment and higher DO levels are required  for  selected
types of aquatic environments.

Biochemical  oxygen  demand   (BOD) is the quantity of oxygen
required  for  the  biological  and  chemical  oxidation  of
waterborn  substances  under  ambient  or  test  conditions.
Materials  which  may  contribute  to   the   BOD   include:
carbonaceous  organic  materials  usable as a food source by
aerobic  organisms;   oxidizable   nitrogen   derived   from
nitrites, ammonia and organic nitrogen compounds which serve
as  food  for  specific  bacteria;  and  certain  chemically
oxidizable  materials  such  as  ferrous   iron,   sulfides.
                               50

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sulfite, etc.  which will react with dissolved oxygen or are
metabolized  by  bacteria.  In most industrial and municipal
waste waters,  the  BOD  derives  principally  from  organic
materials  and  from  ammonia  (which is itself derived from
animal or vegetable matter) .

The BOD of  a  waste  exerts  an  adverse  effect  upon  the
dissolved  oxygen  resources  of a body of water by reducing
the oxygen available to fish, plant life, and other  aquatic
species.   Conditions  can  be  reached  where  all  of  the
dissolved oxygen in  the  water  is  utilized  resulting  in
anaerobic conditions and the production of undesirable gases
such  as  hydrogen  sulfide  and  methane.  The reduction of
dissolved oxygen can be  detrimental  to  fish  populations,
fish  growth rate, and organisms used as fish food.  A total
lack of oxygen due to the exertion of an excessive  BOD  can
result  in  the  death of all aerobic aquatic inhabitants in
the affected area.

Water with a high BOD indicates the presence of  decomposing
organic    matter   and   associated   increased   bacterial
concentrations that degrade its quality and potential  uses.
A  by-product  of  high  BOD concentrations can be increased
algal  concentrations   and   blooms   which   result   from
decomposition of the organic matter and which form the basis
of algal populations.

The  BODJ5  (5-day  BOD)   test is used widely to estimate the
pollutional strength of domestic and  industrial  wastes  in
terms  of  the  oxygen  that they will require if discharged
into receiving streams.  The test is  an  important  one  in
water   pollution   control  activities.   It  is  used  for
pollution control regulatory  activities,  to  evaluate  the
design  and efficiencies of waste water treatment works, and
to indicate  the  state  of  purification  or  pollution  of
receiving bodies of water.

Complete  biochemical oxidation of a given waste may require
a period of incubation too  long  for  practical  analytical
test  purposes.   For this reason, the 5-day period has been
accepted  as  standard,  and  the  test  results  have  been
designated  as BODJ5.  Specific chemical test methods are not
readily  available  for  measuring  the  quantity  of   many
degradable substances and their reaction products.  Reliance
in  such  cases is placed on the collective parameter, BOD5_,
which measures the weight of dissolved  oxygen  utilized  by
microorganisms  as  they  oxidize  or  transform  the  gross
mixture of chemical  compounds  in  the  waste  water.   The
biochemical  reactions  involved in the oxidation  of carbon
compounds are related to  the  period  of  incubation.   The
                               51

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five-day  BOD  normally  measures  only  60  to  8056  of the
carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand of  the  sample,  and
for   many   purposes   this   is  a  reasonable  parameter.
Additionally, it can be used to estimate the gross  quantity
of oxidizable" organic matter.

The  BODji  test  is  essentially  a bioassay procedure which
provides   an   estimate   of   the   oxygen   consumed   by
microorganisms  utilizing the degradable matter present in a
waste under conditions that are representative of those that
are likely to occur in nature.  Standard conditions of time,
temperature, suggested microbial seed,  and  dilution  water
for the wastes have been defined and are incorporated in the
standard  analytical  procedure.   Through  the  use of this
procedure, the  oxygen  demand  of  diverse  wastes  can  be
compared  and  evaluated for pollution potential and to some
extent for treatability by biological treatment processes.

Because  the  BOD  test  is  a  bioassay  procedure,  it  is
important  that  the environmental conditions of the test be
suitable  for  the  microorganisms   to   function   in   an
uninhibited  manner  at  all  times.   This means that toxic
substances must be absent and that the necessary  nutrients,
such  as  nitrogen, phosphorous, and trace elements, must be
present.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a purely chemical  oxidation
test  devised as an alternate method of estimating the total
oxygen demand of a waste water.  Since the method relies  on
the  oxidation-reduction  system of chemical analyses rather
than on biological factors, it is  more  precise,  accurate,
and rapid than the BOD test.  The COD test is widely used to
estimate the total oxygen demand (ultimate rather than 5-day
BOD) to oxidize the compounds in a waste water.  It is based
on  the  fact that organic compounds, with a few exceptions,
can be oxidized by strong chemical  oxidizing  agents  under
acid  conditions  with  the  assistance of certain inorganic
catalysts.

The COD test measures the oxygen demand  of  compounds  that
are  biologically  degradable  and  of  many  that  are not.
Pollutants which are measured  by  the  BODS^  test  will  be
measured by the COD test.  In addition, pollutants which are
more resistant to biological oxidation will also be measured
as  COD.   COD  is a more inclusive measure of oxygen demand
than is BODJ5 and will result in higher oxygen demand  values
than will the BODj> test.

The   compounds  which  are  more  resistant  to  biological
oxidation are becoming of greater and  greater  concern  not
                               52

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only  because  of their slow but continuing oxygen demand on
the resources of the receiving water, but  also  because  of
their  potential  health effects on aquatic life and humans.
Many of these compounds result  from  industrial  discharges
and some have been found to have carcinogenic, mutagenic and
similar  adverse  effects,  either singly or in combination.
Concern about these compounds has increased as a  result  of
demonstrations  that  their  long life in receiving waters -
the result of a slow biochemical  oxidation  rate  -  allows
them  to contaminate downstream water intakes.  The commonly
used systems of water  purification  are  not  effective  in
removing  these  types of materials and disinfection such as
chlorination may  convert  them  into  even  more  hazardous
materials.

Thus  the  COD  test measures organic matter which exerts an
oxygen demand and which may affect the health of the people.
It  is  a  useful  analytical  tool  for  pollution  control
activities.   It  provides  a  more rapid measurement of the
oxygen demand and an estimate of organic compounds which are
not measured in the BOD5 test.

Total organic carbon JTOC)^  is  measured  by  the  catalytic
conversion  of  organic  carbon  in  a waste water to carbon
dioxide.  Most organic  chemicals  have  been  found  to  be
measured  quantitatively  by  the equipment now in use.  The
time of analyses is short, from 5 to 10 minutes,  permitting
a  rapid and accurate estimate of the organic carbon content
of the waste waters  to  be  made  by  relatively  unskilled
personnel.

A  TOC  value does not indicate the rate at which the carbon
compounds are oxidized in the natural environment.  The  TOC
test  will  measure compounds that are readily biodegradable
and measured by the BOD5 test as well as those that are not.
TOC  analyses  will  include  those  biologically  resistant
organic compounds that are of concern in the environment.

BOD  and  COD  methods  of  analyses  are  based  on  oxygen
utilization of the waste water.  The TOC analyses  estimates
the  total carbon content of a waste water.  There is as yet
no fundamental correlation of TOC  to  either  BOD  or  COD.
However,   where  organic  laden  waste  waters  are  fairly
uniform, there will be a fairly constant  correlation  among
TOC,  BOD  and COD.  Once such a correlation is established,
TOC can be used as an inexpensive test for  routine  process
monitoring.
                             53

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Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Suspended   solids   include   both  organic  and  inorganic
materials.  The inorganic compounds include sand, silt,  and
clay.   The  organic  fraction  includes  such  materials as
grease, oil, tar, and animal and vegetable  waste,  products.
These  solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits are
often^a  mixture- of  both  organic  and  inorganic  solids.
Solids may be suspended in water for a time, and then settle
to  the  bed of the stream or lake.  These solids discharged
with  man's  wastes  may  be  inert,  slowly   biodegradable
materials,  or  rapidly  decomposable  substances.  While in
suspension, they increase the turbidity of the water, reduce
light penetration and impair the photosynthetic activity  of
aquatic plants.

Suspended  solids  in  water  interfere with many industrial
processes, cause foaming in  boilers  and  incrustations  on
equipment   exposed   to   such  water,  especially  as  the
temperature rises.  They are undesirable  in  process  water
used  in  the manufacture of steel, in the textile industry,
in laundries, in dyeing, and in cooling systems.

Solids in suspension are  aesthetically  displeasing.   When
they  settle  to  form sludge deposits on the stream or lake
bed, they are often damaging to the life in water.   Solids,
when  transformed  to  sludge  deposits, may do a variety of
damaging things, including blanketing the stream or lake bed
and thereby destroying the living spaces for  those  benthic
organisms  that would otherwise occupy the habitat.  When of
an organic nature, solids  use  a  portion  or  all  of  the
dissolved  oxygen  available in the area.  Organic materials
also serve as a food source for sludgeworms  and  associated
organisms.

Disregarding  any  toxic  effect  attributable to substances
leached out by water, suspended solids  may  kill  fish  and
shellfish  by  causing abrasive injuries and by clogging the
gills and respiratory passages  of  various  aquatic  fauna.
Indirectly,  suspended  solids  are inimical to aquatic life
because they screen out light, and they promote and maintain
the  development  of  noxious  conditions   through   oxygen
depletion.   This  results  in  the killing of fish and fish
food  organisms.    Suspended   solids   also   reduce   the
recreational value of the water.

Turbidity:  Turbidity  of  water is related to the amount of
suspended and colloidal matter contained in the  water.   It
affects  the clearness and penetration of light.  The degree
of  turbidity  is  only  an  expression  of  one  effect  of
                               54

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suspended solids upon the character of the water.  Turbidity
can  reduce the effectiveness of chlorination and can result
in  difficulties  in  meeting  BOD  and   suspended   solids
limitations.   Turbidity is an indirect measure of suspended
solids.
Phenols

Phenols, defined as hydroxy derivatives of benzene  and  its
condensed nuclei, may occur in domestic and industrial waste
water  and in drinking water supplies.  Chlorination of such
waters can produce  odoriferous  and  objectionable  tasting
chlorophenols   which   may   include   o-chlorophenol,   p-
chlorophenol, and 2, U-dichlorophenol.

Although described in the  technical  literature  simply  as
phenols,  the phenol waste category can include a wide range
of  similar  chemical  compounds.   In  terms  of  pollution
control,  reported  concentrations of phenols are the result
of a standard methodology which measures a general group  of
similar  compounds  rather  than  being  based upon specific
identification    of    the    single    compound,    phenol
(hydroxybenzene) .

Phenols  are used in some cutting oils and in the molding of
plastics.  Cutting fluids  can  contain  phenolic  compounds
since these materials are normal constituents of hydrocarbon
mixtures.  In addition, phenolic compounds are added to oils
as  preservatives  or for odor control.  They also are found
in the waste waters from the  petroleum  industry  and  from
certain products of the organic chemical industry.

Phenolic  compounds  may  adversely affect fish in two ways:
first, by a direct toxic action, and second, by imparting  a
taste  to  the  fish  flesh.  The toxicity of phenol towards
fish increases as the dissolved oxygen level is  diminished,
as  the  temperature  is  raised,  and  as  the  hardness is
lessened.  Phenol appears to act as a nerve  poison  causing
too  much  blood to get to the gills and to the heart cavity
and is reported to have a toxic threshold of 0.1 - 1.5 mg/1.

Mixed  phenolic   substances   appear   to   be   especially
troublesome  in imparting taste to fish flesh.  Chlorophenol
produces a bad taste in  fish  far  below  lethal  or  toxic
doses.   Threshold  concentrations  for  taste  or  odor  in
chlorinated water supplies have  been  reported  as  low  as
0.00001-0.001  mg/1.   Phenols in concentrations of only one
part per billion have been known to affect water supplies.
                               55

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The ingestion of concentrated solutions of phenol by  humans
results   in  severe  pain,  renal  irritation,  shock,  and
possibly death.  A total dose of 1.5  grams  may  be  fatal.
Phenols  can  be metabolized and oxidized in waste treatment
facilities containing organisms  acclimated  to  the  phenol
concentration in the wastes.

Phosphorus

Phosphorus  occurs  in natural waters and in waste waters in
the form of various types of  phosphate.    These  forms  are
commonly    classified   into   orthophosphat.es,   condensed
phosphates   (pyro-,   meta-,   and   polyphosphorus),   and
organically  bound  phosphates.   These  may  occur  in  the
soluble form, in particles of detritus or in the  bodies  of
aquatic organisms.

The  various  forms  of phosphates find their way into waste
waters  from  a  variety  of  industrial,  residential,  and
commercial  sources.   Small  amounts  of  certain condensed
phosphates are added to some water supplies in the course of
potable water  treatment.   Large  quantities  of  the  same
compounds may be added when the water is used for laundering
or   other   cleaning   since   these  materials  are  major
constituents  of  many  commercial  cleaning   preparations.
Phosphate  coating  of  metals  is  another  major source of
phosphates in certain industrial effluents.

The increasing problem of the growth of algae in streams and
lakes appears to be associated with the increasing  presence
of   certain  dissolved  nutrients,  chief  among  which  is
phosphorus.  Phosphorus is an element which is essential  to
the  growth  of  organisms  and it can often be the nutrient
that limits the aquatic growth that  a  body  of  water  can
support.    In  instances  where  phosphorous  is  a  growth
limiting nutrient, the  discharge  of  sewage,  agricultural
drainage  or  certain industrial wastes to a receiving water
may  stimulate  the  growth,  in  nuisance  quantities,   of
photosynthetic aquatic microorganisms and macroorganisms.

The  increase  in  organic  matter  production  by algae and
plants in a lake undergoing eutrophication has ramifications
throughout the aquatic ecosystem.  Greater demand is  placed
on  the  dissolved oxygen in the water as the organic matter
decomposes at the termination of the life  cycles.   Because
of  this  process,  the deeper waters of the lake may become
entirely  depleted  of  oxygen,  thereby,  destroying   fish
habitats   and  leading  to  the  elimination  of  desirable
species.   The  settling  of  particulate  matter  from  the
productive  upper layers changes the character of the bottom
                           56

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mud, also leading to the replacement of certain  species  by
less  desirable  organisms.  Of great importance is the fact
that nutrients inadvertently introduced to a lake  are,  for
the  most  part,  trapped  there and recycled in accelerated
biological processes. Consequently, the  damage  done  to  a
lake  in  a  relatively  short time requires a many fold in-
crease in time for recovery of the lake.

When a plant population  is  stimulated  in  production  and
attains  a  nuisance  status,  a  large number of associated
liabilities are immediately apparent.  Dense populations  of
pond  weeds  make  swimming  dangerous.   Boating  and water
skiing and sometimes fishing may be  eliminated  because  of
the  mass of vegetation that serves as a physical impediment
to such activities.  Plant populations have been  associated
with  stunted fish populations and with poor fishing.  Plant
nuisances emit vile stenches, impart  tastes  and  odors  to
water  supplies,  reduce  the  efficiency  of industrial and
municipal water treatment, impair aesthetic  beauty,  reduce
or  restrict resort trade, lower waterfront property values,
cause skin rashes to man during water contact, and serve  as
a desired substrate and breeding ground for flies.

Phosphorus  in the elemental form is particularly toxic, and
subject to bioaccumulation in much the same way as  mercury.
Colloidal  elemental  phosphorus  will  poison  marine  fish
(causing skin tissue breakdown  and  discoloration).   Also,
phosphorus   is  capable  of  being  concentrated  and  will
accumulate in organs and  soft  tissues.   Experiments  have
shown  that  marine  fish  will  concentrate phosphorus from
water containing as little as 1 ug/1.

Dissolved Solids

In  natural  waters,  the  dissolved   solids   are   mainly
carbonates,  chlorides,  sulfates,  phosphates,  and,  to  a
lesser extent, nitrates of calcium, magnesium,  sodium,  and
potassium,   with   traces  of  iron,  manganese  and  other
substances.

Many communities in the United States and in other countries
use  water  supplies  containing  2,000  to  U,000  mg/1  of
dissolved  salts,  when  no better water is available.  Such
waters are not palatable, may not  quench  thirst,  and  may
have a laxative action on new users.  Waters containing more
than  *»,000  mg/1  of  total  salts are generally considered
unfit for human use, although in hot  climates  such  higher
salt  concentrations  can  be  tolerated.   Waters containing
5,000 mg/1 or more are reported to be bitter and  act  as  a
bladder  and  intestinal  irritant.   It is generally agreed
                             57

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that the salt concentration of good, palatable water  should
not exceed 500 mg/1.

Limiting  concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh-water
fish may range from  5,000  to  10,000  mg/1,  depending  on
species and prior acclimatization.  Some fish are adapted to
living  in  more  saline waters, and a few species of fresh-
water forms have been found in natural waters  with  a  salt
concentration  of  15,000  to  20,000 mg/1.  Fish can slowly
become acclimatized to higher salinities, but fish in waters
of low salinity  cannot  survive  sudden  exposure  to  high
salinities,  such as those resulting from discharges of oil-
well brines.  Dissolved solids may influence the toxicity of
heavy metals and organic compounds to fish and other aquatic
life,  primarily  because  of  the  antagonistic  effect  of
hardness on metals.

Waters  with  total  dissolved  solids   (TDS) concentrations
higher than 500 mg/1 have decreasing utility  as  irrigation
water.   At  5,000  mg/1,  water  has little or no value for
irrigation.

Dissolved solids in industrial waters can cause  foaming  in
boilers  and can cause interference with cleanliness, color,
or taste of many finished products.  High concentrations  of
dissolved solids also tend to accelerate corrosion.

Specific  conductance  is a measure of the capacity of water
to convey an electric current.  This property is related  to
the  total  concentration of ionized substances in water and
to the water temperature.  This property is frequently  used
as  a  substitute method of quickly estimating the dissolved
solids concentration.

Nitrogen Compounds

Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N)  and total Kjeldahl  nitrogen  (TKN)
are  two parameters which have received a substantial amount
of interest in the last decade.  TKN is the sum of the NH^-N
and organic nitrogen present in the sample.   Both  NH3  and
TKN  are expressed in terms of equivalent nitrogen values in
mg/1 to facilitate mathematical manipulations of the values.

Organic nitrogen may be  converted  in  the  environment  to
ammonia  by  saprophytic  bacteria  under  either aerobic or
anaerobic conditions.  The ammonia nitrogen then becomes the
nitrogen  and  energy  source  for   autotrophic   organisms
(nitrifiers).   The oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and then
to  nitrate  has  a  stoichiometric  oxygen  requirement  of
approximately  4.6  times  the  concentration of NH_3-N.  The
                              58

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nitrification reaction is much slower than the  carbonaceous
reactions,  and, therefore, the dissolved oxygen utilization
is observed over a much longer period.

Ammonia is a common product of the decomposition of  organic
matter.   Dead  and  decaying  animals and plants along with
human and animal body wastes account for much of the ammonia
entering the aquatic ecosystem.  Ammonia exists in its  non-
ionized  form only at higher pH levels and is the most toxic
in this state.  The lower the pH, the more  ionized  ammonia
is  formed  and  its  toxicity  decreases.   Ammonia, in the
presence of dissolved oxygen, is converted to nitrate  (NO^)
by   nitrifying   bacteria.   Nitrite  (NO£),  which  is  an
intermediate product between ammonia and nitrate,  sometimes
occurs  in quantity when depressed oxygen conditions permit.
Ammonia can exist in several  other  chemical  combinations,
including ammonium chloride and other salts.

Infant   methemoglobinemia,   a   disease  characterized  by
specific blood changes and cyanosis, may be caused  by  high
nitrate  concentrations  in  the  water  used  for preparing
feeding formulae.  While it is  still  impossible  to  state
precise concentration limits, it has been widely recommended
that  water containing more than 10 mg/1 of nitrate nitrogen
(NOJ5-N) should not be used for infants.

Nitrates are also harmful in fermentation processes and  can
cause  disagreeable  tastes  in beer.  In most natural water
the pH range is such that ammonium ions (NHU-*-) predominate.

In streams polluted with  sewage,  up  to  one-half  of  the
nitrogen  in  the sewage may be in the form of free ammonia,
and sewage may carry up to 35 mg/1 of  total  nitrogen.   It
has  been  shown  that  at  a  level of 1.0 mg/1 non-ionized
ammonia, the ability of hemoglobin to combine with oxygen is
impaired  and  may  cause  fish  to   suffocate.    Evidence
indicates that ammonia exerts a considerable toxic effect on
all aquatic life within a range of less than 1.0 to 25 mg/1,
depending on the pH and dissolved oxygen level present.

Ammonia   can  add  to  the  problem  of  eutrophication  by
supplying nitrogen through  its  breakdown  products.   some
lakes in warmer climates, and others that are aging quickly,
are  sometimes  limited  by  the  nitrogen  available.   Any
increase will speed up the plant growth and decay process.

Sulfates

Sulfates occur  naturally  in  waters,  particulary  in  the
western  Unites States, as a result of leachings from gypsum
                            59

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and other common materials.  They also occur  as  the  final
oxidized  state  of  sulfides,  sulfites  and  thiosulfates.
Sulfates may also  be  present  as  the  oxidized  state  of
organic  matter  in  the sulfur cycle, but they in turn, may
serve as sources of energy for sulfate  splitting  bacteria.
Sulfates  may  also  be  discharged  in  numerous industrial
wastes, such as those from  tanneries,  sulfate-pulp  mills,
textile  mills,  and  other  plants  that  use  sulfates  or
sulfuric acid.

In moderate concentrations, sulfates are not harmful and  it
has  been  reported  that concentrations up to 1000 mg/1 are
harmless.  Irrigation concentrations less than 336 mg/1  are
considered to be good to excellent.

Temperature

Temperature  is  one  of  the most important and influential
water quality characteristics.  Temperature determines  what
species  may be present; it activates the hatching of young,
regulates their activity, and stimulates or suppresses their
growth and development; it attracts, and may kill  when  the
water  becomes  too  hot  or  becomes  chilled too suddenly.
Colder water generally suppresses development.  Warmer water
generally accelerates activity and may be a primary cause of
aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors are
suitable.

Temperature is a prime regulator of natural processes within
the water environment.  It governs  physiological  functions
in   organisms   and,   acting  directly  or  indirectly  in
combination with other water quality  constituents,  affects
aquatic  life  with  each  change.   These  effects  include
chemical  reaction  rates,  enzymatic  functions,  molecular
movements,  and molecular exchanges between membranes within
and between the physiological systems and the organs  of  an
animal.

Chemical  reaction rates vary with temperature and generally
increase as the temperature is increased.  The solubility of
gases in water varies with temperature.  Dissolved oxygen is
decreased by the decay or decomposition of dissolved organic
substances, and the decay rate increases as the  temperature
of  the  water  increases,  reaching a maximum at about 30°C
(86°F).   The  temperature  of  stream  water,  even  during
summer,   is  below  the  optimum  for  pollution-associated
bacteria.  Increasing the water  temperature  increases  the
bacterial   multiplication  rate  when  the  environment  is
favorable and the food supply is abundant.
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Reproduction  cycles  may  be   changed   significantly   by
increased  temperature  because  this  function  takes place
under restricted temperature ranges.

Spawning may not occur at  all  when  temperatures  are  too
high.   Thus,  a  fish population may exist in a heated area
only by continued immigration.  Disregarding  the  decreased
reproductive  potential,  water  temperatures need not reach
lethal levels to  decimate  a  species.   Temperatures  that
favor  competitors,  predators,  parasites,  and disease can
destroy a species at levels far below those that are lethal.

Fish food organisms are altered severely  when  temperatures
approach  or exceed 90°F.  Predominant algal species change;
primary  production  is  decreased;  and   bottom-associated
organisms  may be depleted or altered drastically in numbers
and distribution.  Increased  water  temperature  may  cause
aquatic plant nuisances when other environmental factors are
favorable.

Synergistic  actions of pollutants are more severe at higher
water temperatures.  Domestic sewage, refinery wastes, oils,
tars,  insecticides,  detergents,  and  fertilizers  deplete
oxygen in water more rapidly at higher temperatures, and the
respective toxicities are likewise increased.

When  water  temperatures  increase,  the  predominant algal
species may change from diatoms, to green  algae,  then,  at
high  temperatures,  to  blue-green algae because of species
temperature  preferentials.   Blue-green  algae  can   cause
serious  odor  problems.   The  number  and  distribution of
benthic organisms decreases as water  temperature  increases
above  90°F,  which  is close to the tolerance limit for the
water's population.  This  could  seriously  affect  certain
fish that depend on benthic organisms as a food source.

The  cost of fish mortalities resulting from their returning
to cooler water after being attracted to  heated  waters  in
winter may be considerable.

Rising  temperatures  stimulate the decomposition of sludge,
formation  of  sludge  gas,  multiplication  of  saprophytic
bacteria  and fungi (particularly in the presence of organic
wastes), and  the  consumption  of  oxygen  by  putrefactive
processes,  thus  affecting  the  aesthetic value of a water
course.

In general, marine  water  temperatures  do  not  change  as
rapidly or range as widely as those of fresh waters.  Marine
and  estuarine  fishes,  therefore,  are  less  tolerant  of
                              61

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temperature variation.  Although this limited  tolerance  is
greater  in  estuarine  than  in  open water marine species,
temperature changes are more important to  those  fishes  in
estuaries  and  bays  than  to  those  in open marine areas,
because of the nursery and replenishment  functions  of  the
estuary   that   can   be   adversely  affected  by  extreme
temperature changes.

Boron

Never found in nature in its elemental form, boron occurs as
sodium borate (borax) or as calcium borate  (colemanite)   in
mineral  deposits  and natural waters of Southern California
and Italy.  Elemental boron is used in nuclear installations
as a shielding material (neutron absorber).   It is also used
in metallurgy to harden other metals.

Boric acid and boron salts are used extensively in  industry
for  such  purposes  as  weatherproofing  wood, fireproofing
fabrics, manufacturing glass  and  porcelain  and  producing
leather, carpets, cosmetics and artificial gems.  Boric acid
is  used  as  a  bactericide and fungicide and boron, in the
form of boron hydrides or borates, is used  in  high  energy
fuels.

Boron  is  present in the ordinary human diet at about 10 to
20 mg/day, with fruits  and  vegetables  being  the  largest
contributors.   In  food  or  in  water,  it  is rapidly and
completely absorbed by the human  system,  but  it  is  also
promptly  excreted in urine.  Boron in drinking water is not
generally regarded as a  hazard  to  humans.   It  has  been
reported  that  boron  concentrations  up to 30 mg/1 are not
harmful.

Cadmium  (Cd)

Cadmium is a relatively rare element that is seldom found in
sufficient quantities in a pure state to warrant  mining  or
extraction  from  the earth's surface.  It is found in trace
amounts  of  about  1  ppm  throughout  the  earth's  crust.
Cadmium   is,   however,   a  valuable  by-product  of  zinc
production.

Cadmium is used primarily as a metal  plating  material  and
can  be  found  as  an impurity in the secondary refining of
zinc, lead,  and  copper.   Cadmium  is  also  used  in  the
manufacture  of  primary cells of batteries and as a neutron
adsorber in nuclear reactors.  Other uses of cadmium are  in
the  production  of  pigments,  phosphors,   semi-conductors,
                             62

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electrical contactors, and special purpose  low  temperature
alloys.

Cadmium  is  an  extremely  dangerous  cumulative  toxicant,
causing insidious progressive chronic poisoning in  mammals,
fish,  and  probably  other animals because the metal is not
excreted.  Cadmium could form organic compounds which  might
lead  to mutagenic or teratogenic effects.  Cadmium is known
to  have  marked  acute  and  chronic  effects  on   aquatic
organisms also.

Toxic  effects  of  cadmium  on  man have been reported from
throughout the  world.   Cadmium  is  normally  ingested  by
humans  through  food  and  water  and also by breathing air
contaminated by cadmium.  Cadmium in drinking water supplies
is  extremely  hazardous   to   humans,   and   conventional
treatment,  as  practiced  in  the  United  States, does not
remove it.  Cadmium is  cumulative  in  the  liver,  kidney,
pancreas, and thyroid of humans and other animals.  A severe
bone  and  kidney syndrome in Japan has been associated with
the ingestion of as little as 600 ug/day  of  cadmium.   The
allowable  cadmium concentration in drinking water is set as
low as 0.01 mg/1 in the U. S. and as high as  0.10  mg/1  in
Russia.

Cadmium  acts synergistically with other metals.   Copper and
zinc  substantially  increase  its  toxicity.   Cadmium   is
concentrated  by  marine  organisms,  particularly molluscs,
which accumulate cadmium in calcareous tissues  and  in  the
viscera.  A concentration factor of 1000 for cadmium in fish
muscle  has  been reported, as have concentration factors of
3000 in marine plants, and up to 29,600  in  certain  marine
animals.   The  eggs  and larvae of fish are apparently more
sensitive than adult  fish  to  poisoning  by  cadmium,  and
crustaceans  appear  to be more sensitive than fish eggs and
larvae.

Chromium  (Cr)

Chromium is an elemental metal usually found as  a  chromite
(FeCr20UJ.   The  metal is normally produced by reducing the
oxide with aluminum.

Chromium and its compounds are used  extensively  throughout
industry.   It  is used to harden steel and as an ingredient
in other useful  alloys.   Chromium  is  also  used  in  the
electroplating  industry  as  an  ornamental  and  corrosion
resistant plating on steel and can be used in  pigments  and
as a pickling acid  (chromic acid).
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The  two  most  prevalent  chromium  forms found in industry
waste waters are hexavalent and trivalent chromium.  Chromic
acid used in industry  is  a  hexavalent  chromium  compound
which is partially reduced to the trivalent form during use.
Chromium   can  exist  as  either  trivalent  or  hexavalent
compounds in raw waste streams.  Hexavalent chromium  treat-
ment  involves  reduction  to  the  trivalent  form prior to
removal of chromium from the waste  stream  as  a  hydroxide
precipitate.

Chromium,  in  its  various  valence states, is hazardous to
man.  It can produce lung tumors when  inhaled  and  induces
skin   sensitizations.    Large   doses  of  chromates  have
corrosive effects on the  intestinal  tract  and  can  cause
inflammation  of  the kidneys.  Levels of chromate ions that
have no effect on man appear to be so  low  as  to  prohibit
determination  to date.  The recommendation for public water
supplies is that such supplies contain  no  more  than  0.05
mg/1 total chromium.

The  toxicity  of  chromium  salts to fish and other aquatic
life  varies  widely  with  the  species,  temperature,  pH,
valence  of  the  chromium  and  synergistic or antagonistic
effects, especially those of hard water.  Studies have shown
that trivalent chromium is more toxic to fish of some  types
than hexavalent chromium.  Other studies have shown opposite
effects.   Fish  food  organisms  and  other  lower forms of
aquatic life are extremely sensitive to chromium and it also
inhibits the growth of algae.   Therefore,  both  hexavalent
and   trivalent  chromium  must  be  considered  harmful  to
particular fish or organisms,

Cyanide  (CN)

Cyanide is a  compound  that  is  widely  used  in  industry
primarily  as  sodium  cyanide  (NaCN)  or  hydrocyanic acid
(HCN).   The major use of cyanides is in  the  electroplating
industry  where  cyanide baths are used to hold ions such as
zinc and cadmium in solution.  Cyanides in various compounds
are also used in steel plants, chemical plants, photographic
processing, textile dying, and ore processing.

Of all the cyanides, hydrogen cyanide  (HCN) is probably  the
most  acutely  lethal compound.  HCN dissociates in water to
hydrogen ions and cyanide ions in a pH  dependent  reaction.
The  cyanide  ion  is  less  acutely  lethal  than HCN.  The
relationship of pH to HCN shows that as the pH is lowered to
below 7 there is less than 1% of the  cyanide  molecules  in
the form of the CN ion and the rest is present as HCN.  When
the  pH is increased to 8, 9, and 10, the percentage of cya-
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nide present as CN ion is 6.7, i»2,  and  87%,  respectively.
The  toxicity  of cyanides is also increased by increases in
temperature  and   reductions   in   oxygen   tensions.    A
temperature  rise  of  10°C  produced  a  two-  to threefold
increase in the rate of the lethal action of cyanide.

In the body, the CN ion, except for a small portion exhaled,
is rapidly  changed  into  a  relatively  non-toxic  complex
(thiocyanate)  in  the  liver  and  eliminated in the urine.
There is no evidence that the CN ion is stored in the  body.
The  safe  ingested  limit  of cyanide has been estimated at
something less than 18 mg/dayr  part  of  which  comes  from
normal  environment  and  industrial  exposure.  The average
fatal dose of HCN by ingestion by man is 50 to  60  mg.   It
has been recommended that a limit of 0.2 mg/1 cyanide not be
exceeded in public water supply sources.

The  harmful  effects  of  the  cyanides  on aquatic life is
affected by the pH, temperature, dissolved  oxygen  content,
and  the  concentration  of  minerals  in  the  water.   The
biochemical  degradation  of  cyanide  is  not  affected  by
temperature  in  the  range  of 10 degrees C to 35 degrees C
while  the  toxicity  of  HCN   is   increased   at   higher
temperatures.

On  lower forms of life and organisms, cyanide does not seem
to be as toxic as it is toward  fish.   The  organisms  that
digest  BOD were found to be inhibited at 1.0 mg/1 and at 60
mg/1 although the effect is more one of delay in exertion of
BOD than total reduction.

Certain metals such as nickel may complex  with  cyanide  to
reduce  lethality,  especially  at higher pH values.  On the
other hand,  zinc  and  cadmium  cyanide  complexes  may  be
exceedingly toxic.

Pollutants of Specific Significance

Review  of  analytical  data indicate that the pollutants of
special significance in the photographic processing industry
are cyanide and silver in various forms.

    Ferrocyanide

Ferrocyanide concentrations were determined through a visual
determination method  developed  by  the  American  National
Standards  Institute.   This  analysis  is  not  a  standard
method, but the results serve  as  a  reasonable  guide  for
differentiating  between  the  various forms of cyanide when
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used in conjunction with the results from the total  cyanide
determination.

The  ferrocyanide ion, Fe(CN)£-*r comes from the bleach used
in  some  color  processes,   i.e.,   ferricyanide   bleach.
Ferrocyanide  is  one  of  the most objectionable pollutants
resulting  from  photographic  processing.   Primarily,  the
complexed ion is potentially harmful because it is converted
to  free,  highly toxic cyanide in the presence of sunlight.
Ferrocyanide concentration was 4.7 mg/1  in  the  wastewater
discharge from plant 34.

Complex  cyanides  (ferro-  and  ferricyanide)  in industrial
wastewaters impose a direct  threat  upon  the  environment.
However,  methods  to recover or destroy these compounds are
currently employed in the photographic processing  industry.
This  compound  represents a potential hazard in the form of
toxic cyanide ion, and since it is not easily biodegraded in
municipal secondary treatment plants, it must be treated  at
its source.

Lurfe and Panova have shown that ferrocyanide first oxidizes
to  ferricyanide  with air in water and then photochemically
oxidizes to iron  hydroxide,  hydrocyanic  acid  and  simple
soluble cyanides.  The proposed mechanism is:

  4 Fe(CN)6-* + O2 + 2 H20 = 4 Fe(CN)j>~3 + 4 OH~

  4 Fe(CN)j6-3 + 12 H20 = 4 Fe(OH)3 + 12 HCN + 12 CN~

Overall Reaction:

  4 Fe(CN)j>-« + O2 + 14 H2O +hv 4 Fe(OH)_3 +12 HCN
                                           + 4 OH- +12 CN-

They  report  that  the rate of oxidation of ferrocyanide in
the presence of sunlight leaves about 25%  of  the  original
concentration in five days..,..the ferrocyanide disappearing
completely in 10-12 days.

A  recent  government  report  has  confirmed  the increased
toxicity of complex cyanides from photographic wastes in the
presence of sunlight.  The results  of  various  tests  show
that  the  conversion of complex cyanide to volatile cyanide
(HCN)  is  probably  reversible  and  product  limited.   The
testing  was  carried  out  using an Ektachrome photographic
waste similar to all commercial film processing ferricyanide
bleaches.
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Ferrocyanide can be oxidized  to  ferricyanide  in  overflow
photographic  color  process  bleaches  using  ozone and the
waste bleach recirculated for reuse in the process.   Dilute
concentrations  of ferricyanide can be destroyed using ozone
or chlorine under proper conditions of temperature, pH,  and
catalyst  addition (for chlorination only).  Since there are
obvious economic advantages for reducing  the  discharge  of
ferrocyanides,  no  plant  should  be allowed to continue to
dump waste waters containing harmful concentrations of  this
compound.

    Silver  (Ag)

Silver  is  by far the most prevalent among the heavy metals
in photographic processing wastewaters.  Most of the  silver
enters  the wastewater stream from either the fix or bleach-
fix bath overflow.  At this point, silver is  usually  in  a
soluble  complex form as silver thiosulfate, and is somewhat
less toxic than ionic silver, but it can and often exists in
other forms.  As reported in one study, essentially no  free
silver  ion results from photographic processing operations.
Silver measured in the effluent from plant 34 was 0.26 mg/1.

Silver is a soft lustrous white metal that is  insoluble  in
water and alkali.  It is readily ionized by electrolysis and
has  a  particular affinity for sulfur and halogen elements.
In nature, silver  is  found  in  the  elemental  state  and
combined  in  ores  such  as  argentite   (Ag2_S) , cerargyrite
(AgCl) , proustite (Ag_3AsS^) , and pyrargyrite (Ag_3SbS^3) .

From these ores, silver ions  may  be  leached  into  ground
waters  and surface waters,  but since many silver salts such
as  the  chloride,  sulfide,  phosphate,  and  arsenate  are
insoluble, silver ions do not generally occur in significant
concentration in natural waters.

While  silver  itself is not considered to be toxic, most of
its salts are  poisonous  due  to  anions  present.   Silver
compounds  can  be  absorbed  in  the circulatory system and
reduced silver deposited in the various tissues of the body.
A  condition  known  as   argyria,   a   permanent   greyish
pigmentation  of  the skin and mucous membranes, can result.
Concentrations in  the  range  of  O.U-1  mg/1  have  caused
pathological  changes  in  the  kidneys, liver and spleen of
rats.

According  to   Kodak   researchers,   silver   is   usually
solubilized as the tightly formed thiosulfate complex during
processing  of photographic paper and film.  The predominant
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complex formed in  the  fixing  bath  after  development  is
Ag(S203)J2-3.

A  second method of removing silver from film which does not
utilize the thiosulfate fixing processes is found in certain
black-and-white reversal processes.   This  method  involves
the  use  of  silver  solvent  bleaches containing potassium
dichromate and sulfuric acid (or sulfamic acid).   The silver
metal is oxidized by the dichromate and  is  solubilized  as
silver  sulfate or silver sulfamate.  Silver is precipitated
from these bleaches by halides, or complexed by thiosulfate.
Silver will exist as insoluble silver bromide (AgBr), silver
sulfide (Ag^S)  or soluble, silver thiosulfate complex.

A third type of process is the wash-off  process,  in  which
non-image  silver  is  removed  by  washing off the emulsion
containing either silver halides or metallic silver.    Since
there  is no silver complexing agent in these processes, the
concentration of dissolved silver would be  limited  by  the
solubility  of  the  most  soluble  silver  halide  present.
Silver bromide is commonly used in this type of emulsion and
has a solubility product of 4.8 x 10~i3 at 25 C.    The  1962
U.S.  Public  Health  Service drinking water standards limit
the concentration of silver to 0.05 mg/1 (ppm).

Eastman  Kodak  Company  respirometric   studies   (Warburg)
indicate  no  toxicity  to  unacclimated activated sludge by
silver thiosulfate at silver levels of 100 mg/1.    In  fact,
there  is  a  17%  stimulation  of  oxygen uptake due to the
presence of thiosulfate.  On the  other  hand,   10  mg/1  of
freely  dissociable  silver nitrate (AgNO3J  results in about
an BH% inhibition.  Extremely insoluble silver  sulfide  has
no  effect  at 100 mg/1.  It is evident that the toxicity of
silver to biological treatment plants is dependent upon  the
free silver ion concentration.

Silver Analyses from Influent and Effluent of Eastman
Kodak Company * s King's Landing Water Purification Plant

Data from the Kodak King's Landing Water Purification Plant,
a 36 mgd (136,260 Cu m/day) activated sludge plant, indicate
that  silver  is  removed by the plant with an efficiency in
the range of 70 to 80 percent.  The influent silver to  this
plant  comes not only from photoprocess waste,  but also from
manufacturing operations.  Analyses of 7-day composites  for
the   entire   year  of  1973  showed  an  average  influent
concentration of about 0.28 mg/1  and  an  average  effluent
concentration  of  about 0.07 mg/1.  These data are shown on
Table V-3.   Several  peak  influent  concentrations  to  the
plant  ranged  from  0.5  to  1.0  mg/1,  but the respective
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effluent concentrations ranged from 0.04 to 0.06 mg/1.   The
BOD5  reduction  obtained at these peak loads ranged from 95
to 98%.
                         Table VI-2

        Summary Data for Kodak King's Landing Plant


          Influent   Effluent   % Ag Removal   X BOD Removal
           mg Ag/1    mg Ag/1

1973 Avg.   0.28        0.07         78               95.5

Extremes  0.06-1.04   <0.02-0.30    40-93             80-99

< = less than

The biological system operated at  King's  Landing  is  very
similar  to  those  of municipal secondary facilities except
that it has a higher MLSS concentration than  that  of  most
municipal   facilities.    However,   it  receives  influent
concentrations of silver much higher than would be  expected
in  a  municipal  treatment  plant  and yet operates with an
efficiency of about 95?? in regard to BOD5  removal.   Recent
analyses  of  silver  concentration  in  the  return  sludge
indicate  a  range  of  1000-3400  mg/kg  dry   weight   (or
approximately 30-100 troy ounces per ton of dry solids).

Dye Couplers

If a coupler is to be removed from solution by use of carbon
dioxide and reclaimed for reuse, a centrifuge should be used
since  it  is easily cleaned and produces recovered couplers
of high purity.  However, if the coupler  was  going  to  be
removed  only  for  pollution-abatement purposes, to prevent
unwanted coupler from going into the sewer, the filter press
with filter aid would be preferred, according to a study  by
Eastman Kodak in 1972.
                               69

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                        SECTION VII

             CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
General

The  entire  spectrum  of  wastewater  control and treatment
technology is at the disposal of the photographic processing
subcategory.  The selection of technology options depends on
the economics of that technology and the  magnitude  of  the
final   effluent   concentration.    Control  and  treatment
technology may be divided into  two  major  groupings:   in-
plant pollution abatement and end-of-pipe treatment.

After discussing the available performance data, conclusions
will be made relative to the reduction of various pollutants
commensurate with the following distinct technology levels:

   I.  Best Practicable Control Technology Currently
         Available (BPT)

  II.  Best Available Technology Economically
        Achievable (BAT)

 III.  Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology
           (NSPS)

To  assess  the  economic  impact of these proposed effluent
limitations and guidelines,  model  treatment  systems  have
been  proposed which are considered capable of attaining the
recommended  RWL  reduction.   It  should   be   noted   and
understood  that  the particular systems were chosen for use
in the economic analysis only, and are not the only  systems
capable of attaining the specified pollutant reductions.

There are many possible combinations of in-plant and end-of-
pipe  systems  capable of attaining the effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance  suggested  in  this
report.

It is the intent of this study to allow the individual plant
to  make  the final decision about what specific combination
of  pollution  control  measures  is  best  suited  to   its
situation  in  complying  with the limitations and standards
presented in this report.
                                71

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                                                        TABLE VII  -1
NJ
WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS IN THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING INDUSTRY
METHOD OF WASTE DISPOSAL
Direct Discharge
Municipal Sewer
Pretreatment Prior to
Municipal Sewer
On-Site Treatment
SILVER RECOVERY
Metallic Replacement
Electrolytic
Other
None
BLEACH REGENERATION
Persulfate
Ozone
Aeration
None
BLEACH-FIXER
Regeneration
No Regeneration
TOTAL (237)*
(212)*
6.12
83. 5$
8 %
9 %
(19D
66 %
36 %
5.2%
5.8%
(179)
55.8%
1.7%
4.5%
1*2.5%
(72)
85 %
15 %
1000 gal/
day (27)
(25)
4 %
88 %
0 %
8 %
(22)
50 %
9.1%
4.5%
ill %
(5)
20 %
0 %
40 %
40 %
W
50 %
50 %
1000-10000
gal/day (92)
(83)
6 %
89 %
7.2%
7.2%
(78)
75.7%
23.1%
3.4%
7-7%
(79)
49.3%
0 %
2.6%
50.7%
(35)
80 %
20 %
10000-50000
gal/day (64)
(60)
10 %
73.5%
6.7%
21.7%
(55)
65.5%
49.1%
7.3%
n "l
U /0
(54)
74.2%
0 %
5.4%
25.8%
(22)
95.5%
4.5%
50000
gal/day (28)
(28)
3.5%'
96.5%
25 %
3.5%
(27)
66.7%
74 %
3.7%
0 %
(27)
70 %
7.5%
0 %
22.5%
(9)
100 %
0 %
Unknown
gaVday(26)
(15)
0 %
80 %
0 %
20 %
(9)
22 %
22 %
11 %
45 %
(7)
14.3%
14.3%
14.3%
71.4%
(2)
50 %
50 %
                                *Number of Photographic Processing Plants  is  Indicated in Parentheses
                                                                                                        6/30/76

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                  TABLE VII  -1 (CONTINUED)

REUSE OF
OTHER SOLUTIONS
Yes
No
REUSE OF WASH WATERS
Yes
No
USE OF SQUEEGEES
Yes
No
WASH WATER CONTROLS
Yes
No
BODc^ LOADING (Ibs/day)
10
10-100
100-500
500
TOTAL (237)*

(192)
16.758
83-3$
(176)
5.7$
94.3$
(84)
63.2$
36.8$
(107)
41 %
59 %
(227)
22.5$
48.9$
21.1$
7.5$
1000 gal/
day (27)

(20)
0 $
100 $
(22)
5 $
95 $
(8)
37.5$
62.5$
(15)
40 $
60 $
(26)
88.5$
11.5$
0 $
0 $
1000-10000
gal/day (92)

(78)
5.1$
94.9$
(79)
2.5$
97.5$
(37)
65 $
35 $
(49)
27 $
63 $
(90)
16.6$
79 $
4.4$
0 $
10000-50000
gal/day (64)

(54)
18.5$
81.5$
(46)
13 $
87 $
(28)
64.3$
35-7$
(27)
44.5$
55.5$
(62)
1.6$
45.2$
43.5$
9.7$
50000
gal/day (28)

(28)
64 $
36 $
(23)
13 $
87 %
(14)
86 %
14 $
(13)
61.5$
38.5$
(27)
0 $
3-7$
59.3$
37 $
.Unknown
gal/day (26)

(12)
0 -$
100 $
(6)
0 $
100 $
(1)
0 $
100 $
(3)
0 $
100 $
(22)
54.6$
36.4$
4.5$
4.5$
*Number of Photographic Processing Plants Is Indicated in Parentheses
                                                                         6/30/76

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Photographic Processing

    In-plant. Pollution Abatement

    Regeneration and Reuse

Present state-of-the-art techniques can  effectively  reduce
most  of  the  photoprocessing  effluent  loads.    The  most
advantageous system, both environmentally and  economically,
is the regeneration and reuse of solutions.

Eastman  Kodak  Company  has reported that silver and sodium
ferrocyanide are removed from all  fixers  before  they  are
sewered   at   their   Dallas   and   Palo  Alto  processing
laboratories.  Both plants discharge into municipal systems.
In addition, couplers are removed from Kodachrome  solutions
before  they are sewered.  Coupling agents precipitated from
K-12 cyan and magenta solutions as well as from  K-14  cyan,
yellow  and  magenta  solutions  are reused.   Both locations
regenerate  100%  of  the  ferricyanide  bleach  using   the
persulfate method.

At  the  U.S. Naval Photographic Center in Washington, B.C.,
cost  reduction  procedures  have  resulted  in  significant
pollution  abatement.   Procedures  implemented include: the
reconstitution and reuse of motion picture black  and  white
developers,  the  recovery  of silver from fixing baths, and
the rejuvenation and reuse of fixing  bath  solutions.   The
reconstitution  of  the  processing  solutions  consists  of
diverting chemical wastewaters from the  various  processing
machines  to  two large sump tanks prior to discharge to the
sanitary sewer.  The wastewaters are pumped to the  chemical
mix  area  as needed for chemical analyses and reconstituted
for use.  Silver  is  recovered  electrolytically  from  the
fixing  baths.   The  electrolytic units recover over 90% of
the  spent  silver.   This  major  military  photoprocessing
installation  uses  eighteen  processing  machines and has a
wastewater flow of 150,000 gpd.  Wastewater sources  consist
of  developer solutions, bleach solutions, fix solutions and
rinse water.

A review of in-plant pollution abatement practices tabulated
from 200 plant survey data from Kodak  (Table VII-1)  reflects
that over  85%  of  the  plants  recover  silver,  over  56%
regenerate  bleach,  over  30%  regenerate bleach-fixer, and
over  15%  reuse  their  solutions.    In   addition,   this
tabulation  shows  that  25%  of the photographic processing
plants use squeegees and 20% use wash water controls.  It is
apparent that these in-plant pollution  abatement  practices
are   well   demonstrated  and  are  found  in  photographic
                                 74

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processing plants ranging in size from less than  1,000  gpd
to over 50,000 gpd operations.

EROS  has  designed a "Chemical Management System" to handle
the chemicals used at their Sioux Falls, S.D. location.  The
system  involves  reuse  of   fixers,   bleach/fixers,   and
bleaches,  and  a waste destruct system which detoxifies the
chemicals  before  they, are  discharged.   The  system   is
controlled  by  a,mini-digital computer with a panel display
of actual working condition.

The "Chemical Management  System"  is  divided  into  eleven
separate  systems  which  are  discussed  below.   Four  fix
regeneration systems are  used  to  desilver  the  fix  with
thiosulfate  and  recycle  the  regenerated  fix back to the
process.  One bleach/fix recovery system is used to desilver
this formulation electrolytically.  The bleach/fix  is  then
aerated  to  oxidize  the  ferrous ion, and then regenerated
with fresh chemicals for reuse.  One bleach reuse system  is
used  to  ozonate  the  used bleach.  The ozone converts the
ferrocyanide to ferricyanide.   The  regenerated  bleach  is
mixed with fresh chemicals and reused.

Two  waste  systems  are used to desilver (electrolytically)
the used fix and bleach/fix which will not be  reused.   The
wastewater  is  then  pumped  to the "General Waste System".
The waste bleach also has a separate treatment  system.   It
is  treated  chemically by either precipitation with ferrous
sulfate  or  with   sodium   hydroxide/sodium   hypochlorite
reaction.   The treated wastewater is then discharged to the
waste treatment ponds.

The tenth step of the system is the "General  Waste  System"
which  consists of a series of tanks with ozonation in each.
This system reduces the COD from an average of  25,000  mg/1
to  less  than  5,000  mg/1.   The  ozonated  water  is then
discharged to the treatment ponds.

The final step of the system is a "Quick Dump System"  which
holds any process dumps until the "General Waste System" can
handle the extra flow.

The waste treatment system at EROS Data Center consists of a
series  of  five  ponds,  one  aerated,  one  settling,  two
polishing, and  a  final  lake.   The  system  receives  the
ozonated  wastewater  and  the  used chemicals which undergo
easy biodegradation (stops, stabilizers,  prehardeners,  and
neutralizers).   On  a  yearly average, the treatment system
has achieved a COD of 30 mg/1, ferrocyanide of 0.05 mg/1 and
a total silver of 0.006 mg/1.
                             75

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    A.  Silver Recovery

Basically there are four methods of recovering  silver  from
photographic  processing  solutions:   metallic replacement,
electrolytic   plating,   ion    exchange    and    chemical
precipitation.   These  methods  can  be  used  singly or in
combination, depending on which is  most  suitable  for  the
particular  needs  of  the  user.   These  four  methods are
examined in detail.

    Metallic Replacement

Metallic replacement occurs when  a  metal,  such  as  iron,
comes  in  contact with a solution containing dissolved ions
of a less active  metal,  such  as  silver.   The  dissolved
silver,  which  is  present  in  the  form  of a thiosulfate
complex, reacts with solid metal  (iron) ;  the  more  active
metal  (iron) goes into solution as an ion, and an ion of the
less active metal becomes solid metal (silver).

Silver  ions will displace ions of many of the common metals
from their solid state.  Zinc or iron can be used to recover
silver from fixes.  Because of its economy and  convenience,
steel   wool   is   the  form  of  metal  used  most  often.
Furthermore, the zinc that would be carried into  the  drain
is  potentially  a  pollutant.   Its  use, therefore, is not
generally  considered  acceptable  from   an   environmental
standpoint.

The  acidity  of  the  fix is an important factor when using
steel wool in the recovery of silver.  Below a pH of 4,  the
dissolution  of  the steel wool is too rapid.  Above a pH of
6.5, the  replacement  reaction  may  be  so  slow  that  an
excessive  amount  of silver may be lost because of the long
reaction time required to recover the silver.   Silver  loss
in  this  case  will  depend  on  the  flow rate through the
reaction cartridge.

Silver  recovery  by  metallic  replacement  is  most  often
carried   out   using   commercially   available  cartridges
consisting of a sealed plastic bucket containing steel wool.
The fixer that comes out of  a  steel  wool  cartridge  will
usually  contain  less than 50 mg/1 silver.  Common practice
is to replace the cartridge when the  silver  reaches  1,000
mg/1,  as  shown  on  a  silver  test  paper.   With careful
maintenance, 90ft or more of the silver in the fixer  can  be
recovered by this method.
                             76

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    Electrolytic Recovery

In  the  electrolytic  method of recovery, silver is removed
from fixing baths by passing a controlled, direct electrical
current between two electrodes (cathode and anode) suspended
in the fixer solution.  Silver is deposited on  the  cathode
in  the  form of nearly pure silver plate.  The cathodes are
removed periodically, and the silver is stripped off.

Electrolytic systems can be installed  in  two  basic  ways.
One  is  to  de-silver  the fixer overflow from a processing
machine as it  flows  to  the  sewer.   The  system  can  be
operated  for  either  a  batch  or  a continuous flow cell.
Another method is to remove  silver  from  the  fixer  in  a
continuously  recirculating  in-line system at approximately
the rate at which silver is being added by processing.   The
latter  procedure  has  the  advantage  of maintaining a low
silver concentration in the  processing  bath  so  that  the
amount  of  silver  carried out with the fixer into the wash
tanks is minimal.  A modification of the circulating  system
can   collect  fixer  overflowing  from  several  processing
machines, deliver it in a separate electrolytic system,  and
then  reconstitute  the  de-silvered  fixer  to  supply  the
processing  equipment  again  where   recommended   by   the
manufacturer.

In-line electrolytic silver recovery can maintain the silver
concentration  in  a  recirculated  fixer system between 500
mg/1 and 1,000 mg/1.  When used as  a  tailing  or  terminal
treatment,  a silver concentration of 20 mg/1 to 50 mg/1 can
be achieved.

    Ion Exchange

Ion exchange is  a  unit  process  in  which  ions  held  by
electrostatic  forces  to  charged  functional groups on the
interior of a polymer bead  are  exchanged  for  ions  in  a
solution.

Ion  exchange  is  a  method  of  removing certain dissolved
solids from water.  During the removal  process,  wastewater
is  percolated  through  a  column  or  bed  of ion-exchange
material.  Ion exchangers are very similar  in  construction
to  pressure-type  sand filters,  except that an ion-exchange
material such  as  zeolite  replaces  the  sand.   The  ion-
exchange  material  has the capacity to replace mineral ions
in  the  water  with  ions  from  inside  the  zeolite.   No
chemicals are added during the exchange process.  Eventually
the ion-exchange capacity of the zeolite is exhausted and it
                             77

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is  then  necessary  to  regenerate  it  by  addition  of  a
chemical.

A  number  of  synthetic  ion-exchange  resins   have   been
developed  making  it  now possible to remove either or both
anions and cations from the solution.   The most  common  set
up  is  to  run  the  ion-exchange columns in series but any
combination can be set up depending on the  requirements  of
the specific situation.

When  resins are exhausted they must be regenerated; an acid
is used to supply hydrogen ion to a cation resin, and a base
is used to supply hydroxyl ions to an  anion  resin.   Where
water  reuse  is  mandatory, it can be used to keep down the
buildup of certain undesirable dissolved solids.   The  water
that  is  put  through the ion exchange process should first
have had as  much  of  the  dissolved  organics  removed  as
possible  in  order  to  minimize  the danger of fouling the
resin.  Ion-exchange units can remove  silver  to  virtually
nondetectable   limits  from  a  waste  stream  if  operated
properly.

    Sulfide Precipitation

Silver may be precipitated from fixers and their washes with
sodium sulfide.  The precipitation  is  quantitative  in  an
alkaline  solution,  and the resultant silver sulfide is one
of the most insoluble substances known.  It has a solubility
product of about 10~5°.  The  physical  characteristics  are
not  as  favorable  as the chemical characteristics.  Silver
sulfide tends to form colloidal suspensions.  Its very small
particle size makes filtration  difficult,  and  the  filter
cake produced is extremely dense.  Diatomaceous earth filter
aid can be used to improve filtration.  About three grams of
filter  aid  are  required  for  each  gram  of  silver if a
conventional filter press is used.

With  sulfide  precipitation  it  is  possible   to   remove
virtually  all  the  silver from both the fixer and the wash
following the fixer.  Tests on experimental  equipment  have
given   results   of   less   than  0.5  mg/1.   The  actual
concentration usually  depends  on  the  efficiency  of  the
filtering  or settling step.  Any silver lost is in the form
of insoluble silver sulfide particles.

    B.  Regeneration of Ferricyanide Bleach

The basis for all the regeneration methods is the use  of  a
sufficiently   strong  oxidizing  agent  that  has  reaction
products compatible with or  used  in  the  process.   Since
                              78

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bromide is required in the bleach formula, bromate, bromite,
and  elemental  bromine  have  been used.  Persulfate can be
used because some sulfate can be tolerated.  Ozone, hydrogen
peroxide, and electrolytic oxidation  have  also  been  used
because they leave no chemical by-products.

    Persulfate Regeneration

In  actual  practice,  persulfate is most widely used.  This
technigue  has  the  advantages  of  being  simple  to  use,
involving  no significant capital expenditure, and requiring
only comparatively  safe  and  stable  chemicals.   However,
regeneration of a bleach with persulfate results in a build-
up of the sulfate ion that slows the rate of bleaching.  The
build-up  of  sulfate  is  higher  in  bleaches for reversal
products because  of  the  comparatively  large  amounts  of
persulfate  used  in  the  regeneration  process.   In  some
processes, especially if  squeegees  are  used  to  minimize
water   carry-in,  the  sulfate  build-up  may  require  the
sewering of  up  to  10  percent  of  the  bleach  for  each
regeneration cycle in order to maintain adequate bleaching.

    Ozone Regeneration

This    process    is   characterized   by   the   following
stoichiometric reaction:

 2[Fe(CN) J6J-* + H2O +  O.3  =  2[Fe(CN)£]~3 + 2(OH)-»  + O^
 ferrocyanide  water  ozone   ferricyanide  hydroxyl  oxygen
     ion                          ion         ion

The pH of the bleach increases  as  the  reaction  proceeds;
consequently,  it  is  necessary  to  add  acid.  Bromide is
required in the bleaching process; the  use  of  hydrobromic
acid, therefore, furnishes both the bromide and the hydrogen
ion.   Theoretically,  one  bromide ion is required for each
ferrocyanide ion that  is  oxidized  to  ferricyanide.   The
hydrobromic  acid  avoids  all build-up of sulfate and other
unwanted products.  If in practice there is a slight  build-
up  of bromide ion, a small amount of sulfuric acid could be
added without danger of high  sulfate  build-up.   Likewise,
slight pH adjustments could be made with sulfuric acid.

    C.  Developer Recovery

Developers   become   exhausted   both  by  loss  of  active
developing agents and by increase of reaction products.  The
limiting   factor   is   usually   the   increased   bromide
concentration.    Two  approaches  may  be  taken  to  reuse
developers:  1)   the reaction products  can  be  removed  so
                              79

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that the bulk of the solution may be reused; or 2)  specific
chemicals can be separated from the bulk of the solution and
reused with or without further purification.

    Ion Exchange

Ion  exchange  generally  can  give  a  greater reduction in
chemical  usage.   As  an  example,  bromide  and  developer
decomposition  products  can be removed by ion exchange from
Eastman  Color  Developers;  other  constituents   are   not
affected.  After passing through an ion exchange column, the
developer  is  reconstituted  to replenisher :strength and is
reused.

    Precipitation and Extraction

The recovery of specific chemicals may not have as great  an
effect  on  reduced chemical usage as the removal of bromide
by  ion  exchange,   but  significant  cost  savings  can  be
realized  and  certain  non-biodegradable  organics  can  be
removed.  The  most  widely  practiced  application  is  the
recovery  of  couplers  from the various color developers in
the process for Kodachrome film.  The couplers  are  soluble
in an alkaline solution but precipitate at a neutral or acid
pH.

It  is  common practice to use CO2^ to adjust the solution to
pH  7  and  then  remove   the   precipitated   coupler   by
centrifuging.   The coupler is dried, assayed, and sometimes
repurified.

Developing agents can be  extracted  with  organic  solvents
using conventional liquid-liquid-extraction techniques.  One
problem  is  that  unwanted  substances  are also extracted,
often making the chemical analysis of the extract difficult.
This technique is not in use at  the  present  time  and  is
being  considered  only  for  possible  use  in the event of
shortages of certain chemicals.

    D.  Use of Squeegees

Effluent loads can also be  minimized  in  the  photographic
process  by  the  correct  use  of  mechanical  aids such as
squeegees, which generally inhibit the carry-over  from  one
tank to the next.

There  are four general locations for squeegee action in the
photographic process:

    1.  After the photographic solution but prior to a wash
                              80

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    2.  After a wash but prior to a photographic solution

    3.  Between two photographic solutions

    H.  After a wash but prior to drying

Generally, a squeegee following a photographic solution will
have relatively little effect on the replenishment  rate  of
that  solution.   An  exception  to  this would be the first
solution  in  thfe  sequence,  such   as   a   developer   or
prehardener.   The  first  solution  is usually alkaline and
causes a considerable swelling of the gelatin; consequently,
large amounts of  chemicals  are  included  in  the  swollen
emulsion.   Solution  removed in this manner is not replaced
by carry-over from  any  previous  solution.   The  squeegee
action here will retain most of the solution on the surfaces
of  the film, thus possibly reducing the replenishment rate.
The advantage of the squeegee in this situation, however, is
not only to reduce the replenishment rate, but  to  increase
chemical  recovery.   The  squeegee  prevents the processing
solution from being transported by  the  film  to  the  wash
water  which is generally discarded.  Instead it allows more
of the solution to overflow where it is collected and  ulti-
mately reused or treated to remove unwanted materials.

The  squeegee following a wash, like the processing solution
discussed, will have  little  effect  on  the  wash  itself.
Again,  the  water  must  go  somewhere  and if the squeegee
removes it from the film, the resulting  build-up  of  water
will  simply  go  out the overflow if the wash rates are not
reduced accordingly.  The important effect of  the  squeegee
in  this instance is evident by a reduction in replenishment
in the next bath caused by the reduction in dilution  water.
The   reduction   of   dilution   water  results  in  higher
concentration in the bath, which generally means both a cost
savings to the processor and fewer chemical pollutants going
to the sewer.

Careful  study  is  required  when  considering  a  squeegee
between  two  photographic  solutions.    There  may  be some
interdependence between the two  chemical  baths  that  were
designed  into  the  process.  By placing a squeegee between
them, the equilibrium could  be  upset,  thus  reducing  the
effectiveness of the process.  A detailed list of advantages
and disadvantages of squeegees is shown in Table VII-2,

    E.  Use of Holding Tanks

Large-scale processors operate on a continuously replenished
system,  not  in  batches.   Normal  operations  require  no
                             81

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                                   TABLE VII  -2
                                  Squeegee Summary
Squeegee Type


Vacuum
Air
Rubber
Offset
Polyurethane
Spring Loaded
Polyurethane
        Advantages
1.  Power requirement less
    than air squeegee
2.  Moisture carried away
    frcmffilm

1.  No physical contact
    with film
2.  Good squeegee action
3.  Simplicity
1.  Inexpensive
2.  Simplicity
1.  Good squeegee
1.  Constant tension
2.  Low Blade pressure
3.  Self-aligning
4.  High efficiency at high
    film speeds
5.  Size not limited
        Disadvantages
1.  High maintenance required
2.  Film damage possible
3.  Requires a vacuum source
1.  Supply of oil free air
2.  High noise level
3.  Solution moisture -
    -  causing possible
    c ontaminat ion
4.  High maintenance required

1.  High blade wear
2.  Film damage possible
1.  Film damage possible
2.  Maintenance required
3.  Lower efficiency at high
    film speeds

1.  Film damage possible
2.  Eventual blade wear
Rotary
Buffers
1.  Simplicity
2.  Good squeegee action
3.  Low power consumption
^4.  Size not linti ted
1.  Separate power drive
    required
2.  Maintenance for nap
    wear
Wringer
Sling
1.  No external power           1.
    supply                      2.
2.  Good crossover squeegee
3-  Relatively simple           3-
    Film damage possible
    Operation limited to
    high film speeds
    Fair squeegee action
                                         82
                                                                      6/30/76

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dumping of solutions.  However,  because  of  an  emergency,
periodic   shutdown,   contamination,   or   exhaustion   of
solutions, occasional disposal of a processing solution  may
be  necessary.   If  this is suddenly "dumped" untreated, it
may shock load or overload wastewater treatment  facilities.
This  situation  can be avoided by a controlled discharge of
the solution.  A holding tank large enough to hold the total
volume of solution that might be reasonably expected  to  be
dumped  at  any  one  time  is used, and the solution in the
holding tank should be treated to remove silver and cyanides
before being bled slowly to the wastewater sewer.

    End-of-pipe Treatment

    A.  Biological Treatment

         Activated Sludge

An  activated  sludge  pilot  unit  is  being  operated   on
photographic  processing wastes.  BOD reductions of over 80%
have  been  obtained  with  this  system  while  the  silver
influent  concentration was as high as 5 mg/1.  In addition,
the sludge in the aeration tank had a silver content greater
than 250 mg/1 of silver.  This silver  is  predominantly  in
the  form  of insoluble silver sulfide with a smaller amount
of elemental silver.   The  extended  aeration  unit  has  a
capacity of 20,000 gpd and was chosen for its high potential
for  BOD5  reduction  and  its  low  solids production.  The
processing wastes fed to the  extended-aeration  plant  were
collected  from  nine  processing  machines.   These wastes,
which varied over a period of years, included effluents from
Ektaprint R, Ektaprint C, and Ektaprint 3 chemicals and from
the E-U, C-22, CRI-I, and  K-12  processes.   The  effluents
from  the  machine  flows  were  collected and pumped to two
1,000-gallon fiberglass holding tanks.  These were  used  to
smooth  out  surges and to provide a constant source of feed
for the treatment plant and insure a constant  flow  to  the
system.

During the first year of operation BOD5 reductions were low,
because  of  a combination of hydraulic overloading and poor
sludge settling characteristics, which caused high suspended
solids in the effluent.  As a result, the  MLSS  content  in
the  aeration  tank  was  low.   This  was  remedied  by the
installation of sand filters to increase MLSS  by  recycling
the  backwash  wastewater into the aeration tank.  After the
sand  filters  were  put  into  operation,   BOD   reduction
immediately improved.  For example, before implementation of
the  sand  filters,  overall  BODJ  reductions  of  85% were
obtained only 12% of the time.  After  the  installation  of
                             83

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the  filters,  85%  BODJ5 reductions were obtained 64% of the
time.  Simultaneously,  the  food  to  microorganisms  ratio
decreased  because  of  the  MLSS  increase.    The pH of the
influent and effluent was monitored daily.   The  pH  of  the
influent  was  always  alkaline,  varying  from 7.2 to 10.3.
More than 98% of the time, the effluent pH was  between  6.5
and 8.5.

    Lagoons

Lagooning  and  ponding  are  popular  methods  for treating
industrial and municipal  wastes.   However,   a  significant
amount  of  acreage  is required for satisfactory treatment.
The use of  surface  mechanical  aeration  equipment  or  of
diffused  aeration  has  helped lagoons become an economical
alternative in  biological  waste  treatment  of  industrial
wastes.

Several   processing  laboratories  have  used  lagoons  for
treating  their  photographic  processing   effluent.    The
overall  BOD5_  reductions  ranged  from 30% to 90% depending
upon the loading and the use of supplemental aeration.

According  to  the  literature  a  photographic   processing
laboratory (plant)  in suburban Detroit has been treating its
wash  waters  in  a  lagoon  prior  to  discharge to a small
receiving  stream.    A  second  example  of   a   successful
biological  system treating photographic processing effluent
is  a  facility  in  Webster,  New  York.   This  wastewater
treatment   plant   utilized  a  two-stage  aerated  lagoon.
Oxygen-demand reductions were  in  excess  of  90%  and  the
silver  content in the lagoon systems was generally in the 1
to  5  mg/1  range.   Another  example  is  the   previously
mentioned  system  at  the  EROS Data Center in Sioux Falls,
South Dakota.

    B.  Physical/Chemical Treatment

              Ozonation

Biological  treatment  experiments  have  shown   that   the
photographic chemicals used in the largest quantity  (such as
thiosulfate,   acetate,  sulfite,  hydroquinone,  and  benzyl
alcohol) respond well to biological treatment.   However,  a
small  percentage  of  chemicals  (such  as color-developing
agents and EDTA) appear to be biodegraded only slowly or not
at all.  Consequently,  ozonation,  a  non-biological  waste
treatment   system,   has   been   tested  to  evaluate  the
treatability of such chemicals.
                             84

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The results of these experiments  are  summarized  in  Table
VII-3.    Only   acetate   and  glycine  were  found  to  be
untreatable, and ethylene  glycol,  methanol,  ferricyanide,
and  ethylene diamine were marginally treatable;.  The other
chemicals are considered treatable.  However, the degree  of
degradation  by ozonation is subject to variation and is not
fully substantiated.

Several factors may  influence  the  rate  of  ozonation  of
photoprocessing  wastes.   These  include  the  contact time
between gas and solution, gas bubble  size  and  flow  rate,
concentration   of   ozone,   nature  and  concentration  of
chemical, temperature, pressure, pH,  and  the  presence  of
catalysts.

The  suggested  uses  of  ozone  are:   1)  as a preliminary
treatment for overflow color developer  solution;  2)  as  a
preliminary   treatment   for  solutions  that  may  contain
substantial amounts of thiocyanate, formate, EDTA, or  black
and  white  developing agents  (other than hydroquinone); and
3) as a means of tertiary treatment and disinfection for  an
overall mixed waste, after that waste has first been treated
biologically.

Ozone Decomposition of Ferrocyanide

The  decomposition of the ferrocyanide ion has been found to
be a very complex mechanism, involving a number of competing
reactions.

  2 Fe(CN)j5-* + 03 + H20  =    2 Fe(CN)<>-3 + 2 OH~ + O2

  Fe(CN)£~3 =   Fe+3 + 6 CN~

  Destruction of free cyanide ion

  CN- + 
-------
                        Table V I I  -3

            Summation of Ozonation Results


Treatable Chemicals                     Mon-treatable Chemicals

HAS                                             Glycine
Benzyl  Alcohol                                   Acetate ion
Color Developing Agent
Thiosulfate
Sulfate
Hydroquinone
Kodak Elon Developing Agent
Phenidone
EDTA
Ferric EDTA                               Marginally  Treatable
Formate Ion                              	Chemicals	
Fo rma1i n
Maleic Acid                                     Ethylene Glycol
Eastman Color Print Effluent                    Methanol
Ektaprint 3 Effluent                            Ferricyanide
Flexicolor Effluent                             Ethylene Diamine
Synthetic Effluent from Combined  Process        Ektachrome ME-4  Effluent
                          86
                                                        6/30/76

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understood.   Apparently,  the  breakdown  consists   of   a
combination  of  reactions,  including  both  hydrolysis and
oxidation.

    Activated Carbon Adsorption

The feasibility of treating various photographic  processing
chemicals and solutions by activated carbon is summarized in
Table VII-H.

As  with  ozonation,  more  of  the  photographic processing
chemicals are treatable than are untreatable.

    Chemical Precipitation

Precipitation can be used effectively  for  the  removal  of
ferrocyanide    and    ferricyanide   from   photoprocessing
wastewaters.  These complex  ions  can  be  precipitated  by
using  iron  salts;  ferrous  sulfate  has  proved  to be an
economical and effective precipitant.

When  employing  precipitation   for   removal   of   ferri-
ferrocyanide,  four items must be considered:  equalization,
chemical feed system, clarification, and solids handling and
disposal.  The purpose of equalization is  to  minimize  the
peaks in flow and concentration so that the treatment system
can  be designed to provide reliable and consistent results.
The chemical feed system adds the precipitation chemicals in
the proper quantity at the proper  point.   Ferrous  sulfate
dosage  in the range of 250-500 mg/1 with pH of about 8.5 or
greater  has  been  reported  to  give  good  results.   The
precipitated materials may be removed in a clarifier.

The  advantages  of  the  precipitation technique for ferri-
ferrocyanide over other forms of destruction or removal are:
1) precipitation occurs instantaneously, and the system thus
requires less reaction tank  capacity  per  unit  volume  of
wastes; 2) precipitation removes virtually all of the ferri-
ferrocyanide;  3)  hour-to-hour fluctuations in concentration
of the waste  do  not  significantly  change  the  operating
characteristics;  and H)  the process works equally well with
a variable influent since only -the ferri-ferrocyanide in the
system reacts  with  iron.   Disposal  of  the  ferrocyanide
sludges presents some problems,

    Reverse Osmosis

The major chemicals used in photoprocessing have been tested
to  find the degree to which they are stopped by a cellulose
acetate membrane under reverse osmosis  conditions.   Water,
                              87

-------
                                     Table VII  -4

Feasibility of Treating Photographic Processing Chemicals  w-i th  Activated  Carbon
             Treatabl-e Solutions
             >
             Ektaprint 3 Mixed Effluent
             Ektaprint R Color Developer
             Color Developers
               CD-I,  CD-2,  CD-3, CD-k
             Anti-Calcium No. 3
             Elon
             Phenidone
             Citric Acid
             Benzyl Alcohol
             Hydroqui none
             Na^EDTA . 2H 0
             NH^FeEDTA
Non-Treatable Solutions

      Citrizinic Acid
      HAS

      Etliylene Glycol
      Potassium Oxalate
      Ferricyanide

Margi nally-Treatabl e
	Solut ions	

      Ethylene Diamine
      Formic Acid
      Acetic Acid
      Overal1 Photographic Effluent
                                        88
                                                                    6/30/76

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hydroquinone,   and  alcohol  passed  through  the  membrane
easily, but halides and the complex inorganic ions found  in
fixing  baths  and  bleaches  were  easily  stopped.  Recent
studies have confirmed  that  fixer  wash  water  is  easily
separated  into two streams, one containing the concentrated
salts and the other stream  containing  nearly  pure  water.
Thus,  it is possible to return the fixer concentrate or the
bleach concentrate to the mix area for reuse in  building  a
new  replenisher.   The fixer concentrate contains virtually
all of the silver complex that was in the wash water, and it
is now practical to remove it electrolytically.
                              89

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                        SECTION VIII

        COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
General
Qualitative cost information for  the  suggested  end-of-pipe
treatment  models  is  presented in the following discussion
for the purpose of assessing  the  economic  impact  of  the
proposed  effluent  limitations and guidelines.  An economic
analysis of treatment cost impact will  be  available  in  a
separate document.

In  order  to evaluate the economic impact of treatment on a
uniform  basis,  end-of-pipe  treatment  models  which  will
provide  the  desired level of treatment were proposed.  In-
plant control measures have not been  evaluated  separately.
Although  there are general cost and energy requirements for
equipment items, these correlations are usually expressed in
terms of specific design parameters.   Such  parameters  are
related to the production rate and other specific considera-
tions at a particular production site.

In  this  point  source category, there is a wide variety of
process plant sizes  and  unit  operations.   Many  detailed
designs   might   be   required   to  develop  a  meaningful
understanding   of   the   economic   impact   of    process
modifications.   Such a development is really not necessary,
however, because  the  end-of-pipe  models  are  capable  of
attaining the recommended effluent limitations.  An optional
biological  design  for  an  end-of-pipe treatment model has
been provided.  In addition, in-plant modification costs for
a 20,000 gpd flow  system  which  incorporates  electrolytic
silver  recovery,  squeegees on photoprocessing machines and
bleach regeneration are presented.  Costs for these in-plant
changes for this size system is approximately $67,000 on  an
installed basis.  These in-plant controls constitute the BPT
treatment  model.   These  models can be related directly to
the range of influent hydraulic and organic  loading  within
each  plant.   Costs  associated  with  these systems can be
divided by the production rate to show the  economic  impact
of  the  system in terms of dollars per 1,000 square feet of
product or dollars per 1,000 square meters of product.   The
combination  of  in-plant controls and end-of-pipe treatment
used to attain the effluent limitations, guidelines and  new
source  performance  standards  presented  in  this document
should be a decision made  by  the  individual  plant  based
generally upon economic considerations.
                                91

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The  major  non-water  quality consideration associated with
in-process  control  measures  is  the  means  of   ultimate
disposal  of  wastes.   As  the volume of the process RWL is
reduced,  alternative  disposal  techniques  such   as   in-
cineration,  pyrolysis,  evaporation,  ocean  discharge, and
deep-well   injection   become   more   feasible.     Becent
regulations  tend  to  limit  the use of ocean discharge and
deep-well injection because of the potential  long-term  de-
trimental effects associated with these disposal procedures.
Incineration  and  evaporation  are  viable alternatives for
concentrated waste streams.   considerations  involving  air
pollution  and auxiliary fuel requirements, depending on the
heating value of the waste, must be  evaluated  individually
for each situation.

Other  non-water  quality  aspects such as noise levels will
not be  perceptibly  affected  by  the  proposed  wastewater
treatment systems.  Equipment associated with in-process and
end-of-pipe  control  systems would not add significantly to
current noise levels.

Extensive  annual  and  capital  cost  estimates  have  been
prepared  for  the  end-of-pipe treatment models to evaluate
the economic impact of the proposed effluent limitations and
guidelines.  The capital costs  were  generated  on  a  unit
process basis (e.g., equalization, neutralization, etc.) and
are  reported in the form of cost curves in Supplement A for
the proposed treatment systems.  The particular cost  curves
used in the treatment models for photographic processing are
shown  later in this section under the paragraphs titled BPT
Cost Model and BAT Cost  Model.   The  following  percentage
figures  were  added  on  to the total unit process costs to
develop the total capital cost requirements:

                              Percent of Unit Process
            Item              	Capital Cost	

     Electrical                                 14
     Piping                                     20
     Instrumentation                             8
     Site Work                                   6
     Engineering Design and construction
       Surveillance Fees                        15
     Construction Contingency                   15

Land costs were computed independently and added directly to
the total capital costs.

Annual costs were computed using the following cost basis:
                               92

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         Item

Capital Recovery
plus Return

Operations and
    Maintenance
Energy and Power
                             Cost Allocation
                    10 yrs at 10 percent

                    Includes labor and supervision,
                    chemicals, sludge hauling and dis-
                    posal, insurance and taxes (computed
                    at 2 percent of the capital cost),
                    and maintenance (computed at 1 per-
                    cent of the capital cost).

                    Based on $0.02/kw hr for electrical
                    power and 170/gal for grade 11
                    furnace oil.
The 10-year period used for capital recovery  is  acceptable
under   current   Internal   Revenue   Service   regulations
pertaining to industrial pollution control equipment.

The following is a qualitative as  well  as  a  quantitative
discussion  of  the  possible  effects  that  variations  in
treatment technology or design criteria could  have  on  the
total capital costs and annual costs.
                                            Capital
                                       Cost Differential

                                  1.  The cost reduction
                                     could be 20 to UO per-
                                     cent of the proposed
                                     figures.

                                  2.  Cost reduction could
                                     be 20 to 30 percent
                                     of the total cost.
Technology or Design Criteria

Use aerated lagoons and
sludge dewatering lagoons
in place of the proposed
treatment system.

Use earthen basins with
a plastic liner in place
of reinforced concrete con-
struction, and floating
aerators with permanent-
access walkways.

Place all treatment tankage
above grade to minimize
excavation, especially if
a pumping station is re-
quired in any case.  Use
all-steel tankage to
minimize capital cost.

Minimize flows and maximize   4. Cost differential would
                                  3.  Cost savings would
                                     depend on the in-
                                     dividual situation.
                                93

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    concentrations through ex-       depend on a number of
    tensive in-plant recovery and    items, e.g., age of
    water conservation, so that      plant, accessibility
    other treatment technologies,    to process piping,
    e.g., incineration, may be       local air pollution
    economically competitive.        standards, etc.
All cost data were computed in terms of August 1972 dollars,
which corresponds to an Engineering News Records index (ENR)
value of 1780.

This section provides quantitative cost information relative
to  assessing  the  economic impact of the proposed effluent
limitations on  the  photographic  processing  point  source
category.   In  order  to  evaluate the economic impact on a
uniform treatment basis, end-of-pipe  treatment  models  are
proposed which will provide the desired level of treatment:

                            End-of-Pipe
    Technology Level       Treatment Model

          BPT             In-plant modifications

          NSPS            BPT plus cyanide destruction,
                           dual-media filtration and
                           ion exchange

          BAT             BPT plus cyanide destruction,
                           dual-media, filtration and
                           ion exchange

The   combination   of  in-plant  controls  and  end-of-pipe
treatment used to attain effluent limitations and guidelines
is left up to the individual manufacturer to choose  on  the
basis of cost-effectiveness.

BPT Cost Model/In-Piant Modification Costs

Cost estimates obtained from an industry source for a 20,000
gallons per day system is as follows:

    Electrolytic silver recovery       $22,000
    Squeeges on machines                 5,460
    Bleach regenerators                 40,000
         Total Installed Cost          $67,570
                                94

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    Biological Cost Model

Activated sludge treatment process has been selected  as  an
alternate treatment system.  The 20,000 gpd activated sludge
facility  was  not chosen as the model for BPT treatment for
economic reasons.  The BPT cost model is based  on  in-plant
modifications  only.   Performance data on other end-of-pipe
treatment  systems  presently  on  line  were  insufficient.
Furthermore,   a   survey  of  the  photographic  processing
subcategory indicated that there are  no  full  plant  scale
end-of-pipe wastewater treatment systems.

The  application of the activated sludge treatment scheme in
the photographic processing subcategory was made because  of
the  success  encountered  by  the  system in reducing BODji.
Average BOD5 removals from this process  were  70%.   Higher
BOD5  removals   (perhaps  as  much  as  85%)  are possible by
increasing the size of the equalization  tank  used  in  the
biological  model  plant.   This  slight  design change will
allow the treatment process to accomodate variable  incoming
flows   without   adversely  affecting  performance.   Also,
allowances were made in the proposed  biological  system  to
handle  any excessive sludge produced by the upgraded treat-
ment process.  Figure VIII-1 illustrates the unit  processes
included  in the treatment system.  A summary of the general
design basis for this system is presented in  Table  VIII-1.
Cost  curves  used  to  compute capital costs for biological
model are:

  Figure       Cost Curve        Description

VIII-3         No. 1         Equalization Basin
VIII-U         No. 5         Aeration Basin
VIII-5         No. 5B        Fixed Mounted Aerators
VIII-6         No. 2,6       Primary & Secondary Clarifier
VIII-7         No. 7         Sludge Thickeners

Specific in-plant modifications aimed  to  reduce  both  the
silver  and  ferrocyanide  concentrations  in the wastewater
flow should  be  incorporated  into  end-of-pipe  treatment.
These   in-plant   changes   are  considered  part  of  good
housekeeping practice;  modifications  include  electrolytic
silver   recovery   from   the   fix  or  bleach-fix  baths,
regeneration of the  ferricyanide  bleach  by  ozone,  using
ferric  EDTA  bleach  in some processes after evaluating the
respective effectiveness, using  squeegees,  and  collecting
the  spent  concentrated  solutions  in  a  holding tank for
controlled bleed-off to a dilute wastewater stream.

    BAT Cost Model
                             95

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                                                    FIGURE VIII  -1
                                            Biological  COST MODEL
        PHOTOGRAPHIC
          PROCESS
UJ
o
WASTEWATER










'




~~1 AERATORS
K-* ^^ »^-. 	 	

If
EQUALIZATION 1 AERATION TANK |_
BASIN A
rFmT— -fpfRc}— — n
1 T r^XH-^x
X **i>4 ^4t,t.d
rn 1 wr^
L^g—
SLUDGE RETURN
PUMPS
TANK
EXCESS SLUDGE ( 	 MC
I
0 (
h1 H bV iTY"1*''""*"
1 1 J v^v
siunRF ^ss^^^gE^ k -.— t,d »

STORAGE ^
SLUDGE
TRANSFER
PUMPS




1 FINAL
CLARIFIER










TO
DISPOSAL
SITE
                                                                                                      EFFLUENT

-------
                             Table  VIM  -1

           Biological  Treatment  System  Design  Summary



Treatment System Hydraulic Loading:   20.000  qpd

Equal i zatIon

     For plants with less  than 2^-hour/day and  7  day/week  production
     (as is the case for most photoprocessors), a minimum  holding  time
     of 1.5 days is  provided, with  continuous  discharge  from  the equal-
     ization basin over 2k hours.   Given the design  flow of 20,000 gpd,
     the basin size  becomes 30,000  gallons.

Aeration Basin

     Aeration Basins are sized on the basis  of  historic  treatability
     data collected  during the survey.   The  aeration tank  has  a volume
     of 20,000 gallons.  Mechanical  turbine  blowers  will be provided
     to supply the air.  There are  sufficient  phosphates and  nitrates
     in the wastewaters to satisfy  the nutrient requirement of the
     system.

Secondary Flocculator Clarifiers

     Secondary flocculator-clarifiers are designed for an  overflow rate
     of 300 gpd/sq ft.   The required surface area of the clarifier is
     then 70 square  feet.

Sludge Thickener

     The thickener was  designed on  the basis of a solids loading of
     6 Ibs/sq ft/day.

Final  Sludge Disposal

     Excess biological  sludge is  disposed of to a sanitary landfill by
     a contract hauler.
                          97                                6/30/76

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The filtration of the effluent from the alternate biological
system, using dual-media filters, was selected  as  the  BAT
treatment system.  In order to protect the ion exchange beds
for  BAT  removal  of  silver,  dual-media  filtration  also
applies.  Filtration of the  effluent  from  the  biological
treatment  process  would provide incremental BODj> reduction
of 33 percent.  Silver measured in  the  effluent  from  the
model  plant  was  1  mg/1,  which  represents an 80 percent
reduction  from  the  influent  to  the  biological  system.
Figures  VIII-2a,  VIII-2b  and  VIII-2c illustrate the unit
processes involved in the treatment system.   A  summary  of
the  general  design  basis  for  the system is presented in
Table  VIII-2.   Unit  process  cost  curve(s)  employed  to
determine  incremental capital costs for BAT cost filtration
model is  Figure  VIII-8  cost  curve  No.  10,  Multi-Media
Filters Including Feed Well, Pumps and Sump.

                   Table VIII-2

         BAT Treatment System Design Summary
          Photographic Processing Industry

Cyanide Destruction

The  ferricyanide  complex  may  be  chemically destroyed by
chlorination under alkaline conditions at pH 10  or  higher.
This  alkaline  chlorination will completely oxidize cyanide
to carbon dioxide and  nitrogen.   Additional  chlorine  and
contact  time  are  required  to  oxidize  the  ferricyanide
complex.  A  neutralization  step  was  included  after  the
contact  tank  to  bring the pH back to a normal range.  The
cyanide destruct system was sized for the 5,000 ft2 and  the
50,000  ft2  production  plant  sizes.   The  costs  for the
systems  were  developed  from  similar  systems   for   the
electroplating industry.

    Dual-Media Filter

The  filters  are sized on the basis of an average hydraulic
loading of 3 gpm/sq ft.  Backwash facilities  are  sized  to
provide  rates  up  to 20 gpm/sq ft and for a total backwash
cycle of up to 10 min. in duration.  The  filter  media  are
18"  of  anthracite   (O.USm),  6"  of  sand   (0.15m),  and a
drainage bed of 12" (0.3m) of graded gravel.

Ion Exchange

Ion exchange is  a  unit  process  in  which  ions  held  by
electrostatic  forces  to  charged  functional groups on the
interior of a polymer bead  are  exchanged  for  ions  in  a
                              98

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                               Figure VIII-l(a)

                         BET Wastewater Treatment
                          Cost Model Flow Sheet
   Raw Film
   or Paper
Processing
Solutions
Wash Water

                          Processing Steps
Bromide
Recycled
                          Developer
                          Bath and
                              ^
                          Overflow
                                        Bleach

                                        Recycle
                 Silver
                 Recovery
   Recovered Silver
   for  TReprocess
                                                       5-
       Paper and
       Processing Film
Fix and
Wash tank
overflow.
                                        Bleach
                                     Regeneration
                  Silver waste
                  Discharge
                                              Bleach Waste
                                                 Discharge
              Other
              Process
              Steps
              Waste
       Total Processing
       Waste discharge.
  * In-Plant cost model, including squeegees.
                                    99
                                                                     6/30/76

-------
FIGURE VJJI-2A BAT/>^SPS WASTEWATER TREATMENT COST MQDEt
            CYAWJDE DESTRUCT FLOW SHEET
                        100
                                             6/30/76

-------
       1
VIH-2B BAT^SPS WASTEWATER TREATMENT COST MODEL
      FILTRATION FLOWSHEET
                                      6/30/76
                101

-------
I
Alfc*Ji
ftegtnertoU
                                      I
                                    V
                                                             1
                                  Recovery
                                  or Divpourt
                                         «
            Vr»-2C BAT/M5PSWASTEWAfER TREATMENT COST MODEL
                   ION EXCHANGE FLOWSHEET
                                102
                                                       6/30/76

-------
solution.   Both  cationic  and  anionic  resin columns were
designed because the silver may exist in the wastewater with
either a positive or  negative  charge.   The  ion  exchange
columns  follow  the  filtration  step to prevent the resins
from becoming fouled due to particulate matter.  The  system
design  includes two columns for each type of resin in order
to have flexibility  of  operation.   The  system  cost  was
derived  by  adjusting the cost from a similar system on the
basis of flow differences.   The  capital  costs  were  also
adjusted  from  the  article  to  the  1780  ENR  Index used
throughout this document.

    NSPS Cost Model

For new plant sources, the in-plant modifications  available
for  reducing the raw waste loads should be applied wherever
possible.  In addition, a minimum of  end-of-pipe  treatment
as  described  in the BAT treatment system subsection should
be applied; this consists of the BPT in-plant control system
plus cyanide  destruction,  dual-media  filtration  and  ion
exchange for residual silver removal.

    Cost

Capital  and  annual  cost  estimates  were prepared for the
treatment models described  above.   Average  process  water
consumption  (4,000  gal/1,000  sq  ft) for the industry was
based on the average of the  three  plants  visited  and  36
plants from the NAFM field survey.  Costs were developed for
an  average flow rate of 20,000 gpd, as explained earlier in
Section VII under "Size of Facility." In addition,  a  model
was  prepared for an average flow rate of 200,000 gpd.  This
additional model represents the costs for a  plant  with  an
average  production  of  4,650  square  meters  per  day  as
compared to the 465 square meters per day production in  the
original  model.   The  costs  presented for BAT and NSPS in
these tables are incremental costs over the  cost  for  BPT.
For  example, in Table VIII-3 the total capital cost for the
average size photoprocessing plant to  attain  BPT  effluent
limitation  is  $67,000.   The incremental capital costs for
achieving the recommended NSPS  in  Table  VIII-3  would  be
$127,400.   This  cost  would  be in addition to the capital
investment made to achieve the BPT effluent limitation.

Tables VIII-3 and VIII-4 also illustrate  RWL  and  effluent
limitations   based  on  the  production  for  an  alternate
biological model plant.  Percent removals for BODjj  and  COD
are  based  on  past operating experience of the large-scale
activated sludge treatment process.
                            103

-------
                                                  TABLE VIII   -3
                                           Wastewater Treatment Costs for
                                      EPT, NSPS  and BAT   Effluent Limitations
                                         (EMR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs)

                                        Photographic Processing Industry
                                       (5,000 sq ft/day Production Rate)
Average Production 465   sq m/day
                  (5000  sq ft/day)

Production Days     276

Wastewater Flow - kL/day
                  (gpd)
                  kL/1,000 sq m
                  (gal/1,000 sq ft)

BOD Effluent Limitation3- kg BOD/1,000 sq m product   35.7'
                                   (lbs/1000  sq.  ft.)

COD Effluent Limitation3- kg COD/1,000 sq m product   123
                                   (lbs/1000  sq.  ft.)

TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS

ANNUAL COSTS

     Capital Recovery plus return at 10%
       at 10 years
     Operating + Maintenance
     Energy + Power
     Total Annual Cost
     Cost1 /I,000 sq m Product
                                                                                Technology Level
RWL Biological Plus
In-Plant
75.7
(20,000)
163
(40dO )
.7 55
(7.50) (I-")
3 61.6
(25.1) (l2.6^
$ 247,000
$ 40,300
3^,300
700
$ 75-300
$ 587
NSPS 2

3.7
(.76 )
49 .4
(10JL )
$127,400
$ 20,770
$ 5,600
$ 600
$ 26,970
$ 210
BAT 2

3.7
(0.76)
49 .4
(10.1)
$127,400
$ 20,770
$ 5,600
$ 600
$ 26,970
$ 210
EPT4

-
-
$67,570
$11,000
$ 5,660
$ 940
$17,600
$ 137
      Cost based on total annual cost
     2Incremental cost over BPCTCA cost
     3Long term average
     4Based on in-plant alone
6/30/76

-------
                                                    TABLE VIII
                                             Vfc.stewater Treatment Cc^; for
                                          BPT, NSPSand BAT   Effluert  .imitations
                                            (ENR 1780 - August, 1972 Costs)

                                          Photographic Processing Irr.u ;try
                                          (50,000 sq ft/day Production  tete)
                                                                                           Technology Level
                                                                  RWL
o
Ul
      Average  Production 4650 sq m/day
                         (50,000 sq ft/day)
      Production Days
                      276
      Wastewater Flow - kL/day
                         (gpd)
                         kL/1,000  sq m
                         (gal/1,000 sq ft)
                                                              757
                                                         (200,00))
                                                              163
                                                            (4003)
                         o                  (lbs/1000  sq.ft.)
EOD5 Effluent Limitat'.on - kg BODc/1,000 sq m Product   3G.7 (7. JO)
                        o                   (lbs/1000  sq.ft.)
COD Effluent Limitation - kg COD/1,000 sq m Product     123  (25.1)
       TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS

       ANNUAL COSTS

            Capital Recovery plus  return at 10$
            Operating + Maintenance
            Energy + F^wer
            Total Annual Cost
            Cos.1 /I,000 sq m Product
                                                                      Biological Plus
                                                                         In-Plant
                                                                                            NSPS
                                     BAT
                                    BPT*
  5.5 (1.13)


 61.6 (12.6)


$ 783,000
                                                                        $ 128,000
                                                                        $ 117,000
                                                                        $   6,000
                                                                        $ 251,000
                                                                              196
  3.7 (0.76)


 49.4 (10.1)


$364,200
                $ 59,400
                $ 33,500
                $  3,900
                $ 96,800
                $     75.40
                                                                                                                   3.7  (0.76)
                                                                                                                  49.4  (10.1)
                                                                                                                $364,200
                  $ 59,400
                  $ 33,500
                  $  3,900
                  $ 96,800
                  $     75.40r.
                                                                                                                         $120,000
$ 19,500
$  9,900
$  1,700
$ 31,100
$     24.23
             Cost Based on total annual cost
            2Incremental cost over BPCTCA erst
            3long term average

                   on in-plant alone.
                                                                                                                        6/30/76

-------
Tables VIII-5 and VIII-6 present  a  breakdown  of  the  BPT
capital  costs  for  the  wastewater treatment systems which
apply to in-plant modifications for both production rates.

Tables VIII-7 and VIII-8 show the BAT/NSPS capital costs for
the  wastewater  treatment  modules  which  include  cyanide
destruction, dual-media filtration and ion exchange.

These  cost estimates were prepared based on the recommended
design basis.  Variations in the design basis  or  selection
of  alternative  treatment  processes  can  have appreciable
effects on the reported capital costs, as discussed  in  the
General section.

    Energy

The size ranges of the BPT and BAT treatment models preclude
the  application  of  high-energy-using units such as sludge
incinerators.   Therefore,  the  overall  impact  on  energy
should  be  minimal.   Table  VIII-3  presents  the cost for
energy and power for the treatment models for BPT, BAT,  and
NSPS.   The  details  for  energy and power requirements are
included in the Supplement A.

    Non-water Quality Aspects

The major non-water quality aspects of the proposed effluent
limitations encompass  sludge  disposal  for  the  alternate
biological model and noise and air pollution.

The  biological  treatment  model  proposes  landfilling  of
biological sludge.  If practiced  correctly,  this  disposal
method   will   not   create   health  hazards  or  nuisance
conditions.  However, there is  a  widespread  diversity  of
opinion  over  the  effects  of  silver leaching into ground
water supplies.   Carefully  controlled  sludge  application
should minimize these problems.

    Solid  waste  control  must  be  considered.   Pollution
control technologies generate  many  different  amounts  and
types  of  solid  wastes and liquid concentrates through the
removal of pollutants.  These  substances  vary  greatly  in
their  chemical  and  physical composition and may be either
hazardous or non-hazardous.  A variety of techniques may  be
employed  to  dispose  of  these substances depending on the
degree of hazard.

If thermal  processing  (incineration)  is  the  choice  for
disposal  of  sludge  to concentrate silver in the resulting
ash for recovery purposes, provisions must be made to ensure
                             106

-------
                                  TABLE VIII  -5

                               SUMMARY OP CAPITAL COSTS
                               FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
                                 Biological Plus
                                 In-Plant Model
Unit Processes
      Cat egory  Photographic	

      Model Size 	5tooo sq ft/day	

Capital  Cost  (ENR 1780 August 197? Costs)
Low Lift Pump Station
EaualJ nation Pjasin (concrete)
EauaJization Basin Mixers
Neutralization Tanks
Lime Additions Facilities
Sulphuric Acid Additions Facilities
Itepid I'iix Tariks
Primary Flocculator Clarifier
Sludge Pumps
Aeration Basins (concrete)
Aeration Basin Aerators
Secondary Flocculator Clarr'.firr
r.ccy^lc Pumps
Nutrient Additions Facilities
Polymer Additions Facilities
Sludge Thickeners
Aerobic Digesters
Digester Aerators
Sluge Pumps
Vacuum Filters
Flow Measurement & Sampling
Subtotal A
Piping 20% of (A)
Electrical 14% of (A)
Instrumentation 8% of (A)
Sitework 6% of (A)
Land
Subtotal B
Total A & B
Engineering 15% of (A) & (B)
Contingency 15% of (A) & (B)

Subtotal C
In-Plant Modifications
GRAND TOTAL (A + B + C + In-Plant)

$21,000







$22,800
$11,200
$16,350



$22,300






$18,690
$13,083
$ 7,476
$ 5,607



$20,746
$20,746


$67,570


$ 93,^50

$ 44,856
$138,306

$ 41,492

                                107
                          $247,36B~
                 (rounded) $247,000

                               6/30/76

-------
                             TABLE VIII-5(a)

                         Sunmary of Capital Cost
                         For Wastewater Treatment

                          In-Plant (EPT) Model

                                                    Category;  Photographies

                                                       Model Size; 5,000 sq ft/day


Unit Processes                          Capital  Cost  (ENR 1780 August, 1972 costs)


Electrolytic Silver Recovery1	$22,000

Squeegees on Machines1	$ 5,370

Bleach Regeneration 	$40,000



Total Capital Cost                                       $67,570
 Installation Cost Excluded
                                 108
                                                                  6/30/76

-------
                        TABLE VTII-6
                       SUMMARY OF CAPITAL COSTS
                       FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
                      Biological Plus
                      In-Plant Model
                                          category
Unit Processes
                   Photographic

        Model Size 50,OOP ft2/d
Capital Cost (ENR 1?80 August 1972 Costs)
Low Id ft Pump Station
» • ••• i concrete
Equalization Basin (Earthen W/liner )
Equalization Basin Mixers
Neutralization Tanks
Lime Additions Facilities
Sulphuric Acid Additions Facilities
Rapid Mix Tanks
Primary Flocculator Clarifier
Sludpe Pumps
Aeration Basins (concrete)
Aeration Basin Aerators
Secondary Flocculator Clar^fier
Recycle Pumps
Nutrient Additions Facilities
Polymer Additions Facilities
Sludge Thickeners
Aerobic Digesters
Digester Aerators
Sludge Pumps
Vacuum Filters
Flow Measurement & Sampling
Subtotal A
Piping 20% of (A)
Electrical 14$ of (A)
Instrumentation 8$ of (A)
Sitework b% of (A)
Land
Subtotal B
Total A & B
Engineering 15% of (A) & (B)
Contingency 15% of (A) & (B)
Subcategory C

35.000
16,000






125,000
20,000
95,000
10,000


22,000




15,000

67 , 600
47 300
27^000
20'300
10,000

,.
76,500
76,500






















338,000





172,200
510,200


153,000
              In-plant modification

Grand Total  (A + B + C + In-Plant)
                      109
        120,000
                         783,000

                        6/30/76

-------
                          TABLE VIII-6 (a)

                      Sunmary of Capital Costs
                      For Wastewater Treatment

                        In-Plant (BPT) Model

                                                Category: Photographies
                                                   Model Size:50,OOP  sq ft/day


Unit Processes                      Capital Cost (ENR 1780 August,  1972 costs)


Electrolytic Silver Recovery	$40,000

Squeegees on Machines	$  6,000

Bleach Regeneration	$46,000

Installation	$28,000



Total Capital Cost                                   $120,000
                                110
                                                                6/30/76

-------
Unit Processes
                       TABLE VIII-7
                   SUMMARY OP CAPITAL COSTS
                   FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
                 BAT and NSPS  Model
                   5,000 sq. ft./ day
                                        Category Photographic Processing

                                        SubcatgKory  5,000  sq. ft./day

                               Capital Cost (ENR 1780 August 1972 Costs)
Cyanide Destruction

Multi Media Filter
Ion Exchange
Neutralization Tanks
Lime Additions Facilities
 Sulphuric Acid Additions Facilities
Rapid Mix Tanks
Primary Flocculator Clarifier
 Sludge Pumps
 Aeration Basins
 Aeration Batin Aerators
 Secondary Plocculator Clarifier
Recycle Pumps
 Nutrient Additions Facilities
 Polymer Additions  Facilities
 Sludge Thickeners
 Aerobic Digesters
 Digester Aerators
 Sludge Pumps
Vacuum Filters
 Flow Measurement &  r>.mpling
 Subtotal A
        Pi-ping
                20% of (A)
        Electrical
                    of (A)
Instrumentation
Sitework
                            of (A )_
                           "
        •Land
 Subtotal D
 Total A & B
                                          32,400
                                          22,800
                                          11,000
13,240
 9,270
 S,lbU
                                                  3,570
                                         31,800
                                                 98,000
Grand Total  (BAT)
                                       $127,400
                                     111
                                                          66,200
Engineering
Contingency
Subtotal C
1555 of (A) & (B)
15% of TA) & (B)

14,700
14,700
29,400 "
                              6/30/76

-------
                             TABLE VIII-8
                           SUMMARY  OP CAPITAL COSTS
                           FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
                            BAT and NSPS MODEL
                             50,000 sq. ft./day
 Unit  Processes
                     Category Photographic  Processing

                     Subcategory  50,000 sq.ft./day

            Capital Cost (EM 1780 August  1972 Costs) •
Cyanide Destruction
                    37,300
Multi Media Filter
                    88,000
Ion Exchange
                    64,000
 Neutralization Tanks
 Lime Additions Facilities
 Sulphuric Acid Additions Facilities
 Rapid Mix Tanks
 Primary Flocculator Clarifier
 Sludge Pumps
 Aeration Basins
 Aeration Basin Aerators
 Secondary Flocculator Clarifier
 Recycle Pumps
 Nutrient Additions Facilities
 Polymer Additions Facilities
 Sludge Thickeners
 Aerobic Digesters
 Digester Aerators
 Sludge Pumps_
 Vacuum Filters
 Plow Measurement & Sampling
 Subtotal A
 Subtotal  B
 Total A & B
        Engineering
 of  (A) & (B)
~~
42,000
Subtotar
         Contingenc
                    42.000
Grand Total  ( BAT/NSPS)
                                         112
                                        189,300
tiping
Electrical
Instrumentation
Sitewoi*k
20% of (A)
14% of (A)
87, of (A)
' 6% of (A)
37,860
26,500
15,140
Il,3bU
•Land -
                                         90,860
                                                                    280.200
                                                                    84,000
                                       $364,200
                                                       6/30/76

-------
                                                          FIGURE VIII-3

                                                         EQUALIZATION BASIN
          1,000,000
         o
         o
         g 100,000
U>
         GO
            10,000
                                                       CONCRETE-*
                          EARTHEN
                       W/CONC. LINER
                                                                                                 EQUALIZATION BASIN
                                                                                                i      ENR 1780
                                                                                                      I       I    I
                                                                                                     AUGUST, 1972
                  10,000
100,000
1,000,000
                                                                BASIN VOLUME, GAL.
10,000,000
                                                                                                                  6/30/76

-------
                                                     FIGURE VIII-4



                                                      AERATION BASIN
   1,000,000
o
o
<


GO
     100,000
     10,000
                                                                  CONCRETE
                                                                                        AERATION BASIN -


                                                                                        CONCRETE BASINS
                                                                                               !       i

                                                                                           ENR: 1780  |


                                                                                       -  AUGUST. 1972 —
          10,000
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
                                                          BASIN VOLUME, GAL.
                                                                                                            6/30/76

-------
                                              FIGURE VIII-5


                                           FIXED-MOUNTED AERATORS
  100,000
D

cc
LU
O.
o
D
   10,000
    1,000
                                 SINGLE-SPEED
                                                                            TWO-SPEED
                                                                                     FIXED-MOUNTED AERATORS

                                                                                                I     i

                                                                                              ENR 1780
                                                                                            AUGUST, 1972
                                           10
100
1,000
                                               AERATOR HORSEPOWER PER UNIT
                                                                                                   6/30/76

-------
                                                  FIGURE VIII-6

                                          PRIMARY & SECONDARY CLARIFIER
  1,000,000
V)
o
o
   100,000
<
CO
    10,000
                       RECTANGULAR
CIRCULAR
                                             PRIMARY & SECONDARY CLARIFIER
                                                  INCLUDING MECHANISM
                                                        ENR: 1780
                                                      AUGUST, 1972
         100
    1,000
10,000
100,000
                                                      SURFACE AREA, F+2
                                                                                                   6/30/76

-------
                                                 FIGURE VIII-7
                                      SLUDGE THICKENERS INCLUDING MECHANISM
  1,000,000
V)
o
o
2  100,000
V)
    10,000





















*




























































































































1
1
10 II













(













X
X



i in
o —
' ,r»


_^
( *5TC C 1







/
r
















i
i






\ —
slfc
• —


CON


>
/










o
— ',n -
— ICM" _

CRE
y
/









;TE
/















^









1
J
,'
J«


,










g.
i
3


1














— j SURFACE AREA,
























SLUDGE Th
INCLUDING

1 tIMK
AUGUS


2
rT












ICKE
MECh
178C
.T, 19-
































MERS
ANISM
)
72









































































                                            10
100
1,000
                                                          DIAMETER, FT.
                                                                                                    6/30/76

-------
                                                         FIGURE VIII-8

                                   MULTI-MEDIA FILTERS  INCLUDING FEEDWELL, PUMPS AND SUMP
        1,000,000
OD
      C/}
      o
      o
      2  100,000
      JS
      VI
           10,00o
                                                                                             MULTI-MEDIA FILTERS
                                                                                             INCLUDING FEEDWELL..
                                                                                                PUMPS, & SUMP

                                                                                                  EIMR: 1780
                                                                                            	AUGUST, 1972
                10,000
100,000
1,000,000
                                                                                                                        10,000,000
                                                                FLOW RATE,GPD
                                                                                                            6/30/76

-------
against entry of hazardous pollutants into  the  atmosphere.
Consideration  should also be given to recovery of materials
of value in the wastes.

For those waste materials  considered  to  be  non-hazardous
where  land  disposal  is the choice for disposal, practices
similar  to  proper  sanitary  landfill  technology  may  be
followed.   The  principles  set  forth  in  the  EPA's Land
Disposal of Solid Wastes Guidelines 40 CFR Part 211  may  be
used as guidance for acceptable land disposal techniques.

Best  practicable control technology as known today requires
disposal of the pollutants removed from waste waters in this
industry  in  the  form   of   solid   wastes   and   liquid
concentrates.    In   most   cases  these  are  nonhazardous
substances requiring only minimal custodial care.    However,
some  constituents  may be hazardous and may require special
consideration.  In order to ensure long-term  protection  of
the    environment   from   these   hazardous   or   harmful
constituents, special consideration of disposal  sites  must
be made.  All landfill sites where such hazardous wastes are
disposed  should be selected so as to prevent horizontal and
vertical  migration  of  these  contaminants  to  ground  or
surface  waters.  In cases where geologic conditions may not
reasonably  ensure  this,  adequate  legal  and   mechanical
precautions   (e.g.,  impervious  liners)   should be taken to
ensure  long-term  protection  to   the   environment   from
hazardous  materials.   Where  appropriate,  the location of
solid  hazardous  materials   disposal   sites   should   be
permanently  recorded  in  the  appropriate  office of legal
jurisdiction.

Noise levels will  not  be  appreciably  affected  with  the
implementation   of  the  proposed  treatment  models.   Air
pollution  should  only  be  a   consideration   if   sludge
incineration is selected as the waste disposal alternative.
                            119

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                         SECTION IX

            BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
                 CURRENTLY AVAILABLE (BPT)
General
The effluent limitations that must be achieved by all plants
by  1  July,  1977  through  the  application  of  the  Best
Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPT) are
based upon an average of the best  performance  achievements
of   existing   exemplary   plants.    In  those  industrial
categories where  an  exemplary  treatment  plant  does  not
exist,  the effluent limitations have been based upon levels
of  technology  which  are  currently  practiced  in   other
industries with similar wastewater characteristics and which
can be practicably implemented by 1 July, 1977.

The  development  of the BPT has been based on both in-plant
and  alternate   end-of-pipe   technology.    The   effluent
limitations  and  guidelines  commensurate with the BPT have
been established on the basis of information in Sections III
through VIII of  this  report,  and  are  presented  in  the
following   sections.    It   has   been  shown  that  these
limitations can be attained through the application  of  BPT
pollution control technology.

Photographic Processing

Effluent  limitations  and  guidelines  for the photographic
processing subcategory  of  the  photographic  point  source
category  were  developed by applying the in-plant treatment
model presented in Sections  VII  and  VIII.   The  in-plant
measures  include  silver recovery, bleach regeneration, and
squeegee installation.  These in-plant  pollution  abatement
techniques,  except  for squeegees, are in common use within
the photographic processing subcategory.  Squeegees,  on  the
other   hand,  require  special  operational  attention  and
careful maintenance.  The  variability  in  this  system  is
discussed in Section XIII.

The design data from the activated sludge unit was the basis
of  the  BODJ5,  COD, and silver reduction presented in Table
IX-1  under  biological  model.    Although   the   effluent
limitations  and  guidelines  for  BPT  may be attained by a
number of  combinations  of  in-process  and  end-of-process
means,  the  numerical  values  for  these  guidelines  were
calculated by the application  of  waste  reduction  factors
from the electroplating point source category and applied to
                              121

-------
                                                                      Table IX -1

                                                          BPT   Effluent Limitations Guidelines
                                                            Photographic Processing Industry
                                                                                                       BPT Effluent Limitations
                                                                                      BPT               Average of Dai]y Values
                                                                                     Long-Term          for 30 Consecutive Days  Maximum for
      Subcategory    	Flow	  	Raw Waste Load (RW)	Average Daiiy Effluent     Shal 1  Not Exceed	   Any One Day
                      L/1,000 sq m        Parameter    kg/1,000 sq m    m./L    kg/1,000 ;               kg/1 ,000                 kg/1,000
                     (gal/1,000 sq ft)                (lb/1,000 sq ft)         (lb/1,000 sq ft)         (lb/1,000 sq ft)       -(lb/1,000 sq ft)

I—i
f°   Entire Industry     163,000         Ag (Silver)       0.07 '           0.45       0.07                    0.07                     0.14
M                         (4,000)                         (0.015)                     (0.015)                  (0.015)                  (0.03)


                                        CN (Total)        0.09            0.57       0.09                    0.09                     0.18
                                                         (0.019)                     (0.019)                  (0.019)                   (0.038)
                                                                                                                                     6/30/76

-------
the  BPT  in-plant  -treatment  model  for cyanide and silver
parameters.
                             123

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                         SECTION X

     BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
General

The effluent limitations and guidelines to  be  achieved  by
all  plants  by  July 1r 1983 through the application of the
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable  (BAT)  are
based  upon  the  very best control and treatment technology
employed by the existing exemplary plants in each industrial
subcategory.  Where this  level  of  control  and  treatment
technology  was found inadequate for the purpose of defining
BAT, control and  treatment  technologies  were  transferred
from   other   point   source   categories   or   technology
demonstrated in pilot plant studies were  employed  for  the
photographic processing subcategory.

Photographic Processing

Treatment   commensurate   with  BAT  for  the  photographic
processing subcategory requires the application  of  cyanide
destruction  by alkaline chlorination, dual-media filtration
and ion exchange (to remove the silver) added to the BPT in-
plant treatment.  The performance of these systems has  been
discussed in Section VII.

Effluent  limitations and guidelines for BAT were calculated
by applying the above reduction factors to the BPT  effluent
limitations   and   guidelines   as  shown  in  Table  IX-1.
Performance factors  from  Table  XIII-1  were  applied  for
maximum day limitations and maximum thirty day limitations.

The BAT effluent limitations for silver (Ag) and for cyanide
(CN)  were  determined  by  using  achievable  concentration
limits  from  the  electroplating  industry  for  the   same
treatment  technology.   Concentratons  were  converted to a
mass basis using a RWL flow of 4000 gallons per 1000  square
feet of film and/or paper processed.  Concentrations used in
this technology transfer as as follows:

                   Maximum Day         Maximum 30 day
    Parameter      Concentration       Conce ntration

       Ag             0.02 mg/1           0.01 mg/1
       CN             0.10 mg/1           0.05 mg/1

The   effluent   limitations  and  guidelines  for  BAT  are
presented in Table X-1.
                              125

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                                                            Table X -1
                                             BAT   Effluent Limitat'ons Guidelines
                                                 Photographic Processing  Industry
Subcategory
  Flow
                 L/1,000 sq m
               (gal/1,000 sq ft)
                                                                                              BAT   and BADCT Effluent Limitations
                      BPCTCA
                 Long-Term Average
 Parameter        Daily Effluent	
               kg/1,000 sq m
              (lbs/1,000 sq ft)
                    Long-Term Average  Daily
                      kg/1,000 sq m
                    (lbs/1,OOP  sq ft)  	
                   Average or  Da iIy Values
                   for 30 Consecutive  Days
                     sha11 not exceed
                     kg/1 ,001) sq n
                   (lbs/1,000  sq  ft)   	
                         Maximum Value
                         for Any 0".3  Day
                      kg/1,000  sq m
                     (lbs/1,000 sq  ft) _
Entire Industry
163,000
 (4,000)
Ag  (Silver)
 0.07
(0.015)
 0.07
(0.015)
 0.0016
(0.00034)
 0.0032
(0.00067)
                                  CN  (Total)
                                  0.09
                                 (0.019)
                                             0.09
                                             (0.019)
                                                   0.008
                                                  (0.0017)
                                                   0.016
                                                  (0.0034)
                                                                                                                                    6/30/76

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                         SECTION XI

              NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
General

The term "new source"  is  defined  in  the  "Federal  Water
Pollution  Control  Act  Amendments  of  1972"  to mean "any
source, the construction of which  is  commenced  after  the
publication  of  proposed regulations prescribing a standard
of performance".  Technology applicable to new sources shall
be  the  Best  Available  Demonstrated  Control   Technology
(NSPS)t  defined by a determination of what higher levels of
pollution  control  can  be  attained  through  the  use  of
improved  production  process  and/or  wastewater  treatment
techniques.  Thus, in addition to considering the  best  in-
plant  and  end-of-pipe  control technology, NSPS technology
are to be based  upon  an  analysis  of  how  the  level  of
effluent  may  be reduced by changing the production process
itself.

Photographic Processing

Best Available Demonstrated Control  Technology   (NSPS)  for
the  photographic  processing point source category is based
upon the utilization of both in-process controls and end-of-
pipe process treatment technologies  as  proposed  for  BAT.
Performance  standards for silver and cyanide parameters are
identical with the BAT effluent limitations, guidelines  and
new  source performance standards.  Table XI-1 presents NSPS
performance  standards  for  the   photographic   processing
subcategory of the photographic point source category.
                               127

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                                                                      VAE j: xi-i

                                                            New Source Performance Standards
                                                            Photographic ?r x:cssing Inc.ustry
   Subcategory
Flow
                 L  L/l,000 sq m
                  (gal/1,000 sq ft)
                     BPT
                Long-Term Average
Parameter        Daily Effluent
             "'kg/1 ,000 sq m
             (lbs/1,000 sq ft)
                                                                                                 BAT   and NSFS  Effluent Limitations
Long-Term Average Daily
 kg/1,000 sq m
(lbs/1,000 sq ft)	
Average of Daily values
for 30 Consecutive Days
  sha 1 1 not exceed	
 kg/1 ,OOU sq m
(lbs/1,000 sq ft)  	
   •  Maximum Value
    for Any One Day
 kg/1,000 sq m
(lbs/1 ,000 sq ft)
{3 Entire  Industry     163,000
oo                     (4,000)
              Ag (Silver)
                  0.07
                 (0.015)
      0.07
      (0.015)
     0.0016
    (0.00034)
                                                                                                                                    0.0032
                                                                                                                                   (0.00067)
                                      CN (Total)
                                O.C9
                               (0-019)
                                                                                  0.09
                                                                                  (0.019)
                                                                   0.008
                                                                   (0.0017)
                                                       0.016
                                                       (0.0034)
                                                                                                                                        6/30/76

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                        SECTION XII

                  PRETREATMENT GUIDELINES
General

Pollutants  from  specific processes within this subcategory
may  interfere  with,  pass   through,   or   otherwise   be
incompatible  with  publicly  owned treatment works (POTWs).
The  following  sections  examine  the  general   wastewater
characteristics   of   the   various   industries   and  the
pretreatment unit operations which may be applicable to  the
photographic processing industry.

Approximately  5 percent of all major photoprocessing plants
are classified as existing point sources and, therefore, are
subject to the effluent limitations contained  herein.   The
remaining   95   percent   of  the  plants  discharge  their
wastewater to municipal treatment systems and are  regulated
by  the  pretreatment  guidelines  for those systems.   These
guidelines are designed to prevent plants  from  discharging
industrial  wastewaters  which  would  upset  the  treatment
processes  used  by  the  municipal  system  and  industrial
wastewaters  which  would  pass  through  the  works without
adequate treatment.

The incompatible pollutants in the  photographic  processing
wastewater  are  silver  and  ferrocyanide.   The developing
solutions, couplers and  fixers  may  become  a  problem  if
dumped  in  a  slug  to  a  treatment  plant.  Although most
processing plants operate on a continuous basis, dumping  of
solutions  occur  during  emergencies,  periodic  shutdowns,
contamination, or exhaustion of  solutions.   To  prevent  a
shock  to  the  wastewater  treatment  plant, a holding tank
should be installed to permit equalization of  the  flow  to
the treatment plant.

The  most  practical pretreatment of incompatible pollutants
involves regeneration and  reuse  of  processing  solutions.
Various  in-process  modifications are currently in use by a
majority  of  the  Photographic   Processing   Industry   as
indicated  by  the  Eastman-Kodak  survey  (Table VII-1).  In
addition to  being  economical  for  the  plant,  the  reuse
procedures substantially reduce the pollutant loading in the
wastewater.   Both  silver and ferrocyanide may be recovered
and reused.
                                129

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The following  in-plant  controls  have  been  discussed  in
Sections  VII  and  VIII and are recommended as pretreatment
control procedures:

    1.   Silver may be recovered from the solutions  by  any
         of four methods: metallic replacement, electrolytic
         plating, ion exchange, chemical precipitation.

    2.   The regeneration of ferrocyanide bleach may be done
         by oxidation with persulfate or ozone.   The  Kodak
         plants  in  Dallas  and  Palo Alto are regenerating
         100* of the bleach.

    3.   Developing solutions may be cleaned  for  reuse  by
         ion exchange or precipitation and extraction.

    <*.   The use of  squeegees  is  a  mechanical  means  of
         reducing  the  quantity of wastewater by preventing
         solution  carry-over  between  process  steps   and
         decreasing dilution water usage.

In  addition  to in-plant control measures, pretreatment for
new sources would include  cyanide  destruction,  dual-media
filtration and ion exchange.

The  pretreatment  standards  for  new  sources  within  the
photographic  processing  subcategory  of  the  photographic
point source category are as follows:

Pollutant or                 Pretreatment
Pollutant Property           Standards

                  Maximum for   Average of daily
                  any one day   values for thirty
                                consecutive days
                  	   shall not exceed

         (Metric units)    kg/1000 m2 of product

Ag (Silver)             0.0032          0.0016
CN(Total Cyanide)     0.016           0.008
pH                Within the range 6.0 to 9.0.

         (English units)  lb/1000 sq ft of product

Ag(Silver)             0.00067         0.0003U
CN (Total Cyanide)     0.0034          0.0017
pH                Within the range 6.0 to 9.0.
                               130

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                             Table  XI I  -1

                     Pretreatment Unit  Operations
Bioloyical  System
                            Bio log!col  System
                              I independent Physical
                              Chemical  System	
Physical methods and
chemical precipitation
+ solids separation +
equa1izat ion
Physical methods and
chemical precipitation
+ solids separation +
equa1i zat i on
                                                          Physical methods and
                                                          chemical precipitation
                                                          + solids separation +
                                                          equa1izat ion
                                131
                                                                    6/30/76

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Cost  to implement these abatement measures are estimated to
be equivalent to the incremental costs shown in Tables VIII-
3 and VIII-4 for 5000 square foot per day and 50,000  square
foot  per  day  NSPS treatment models respectively.   The 150
square meter per day and below facilities would be given  an
exemption  based  on  economic  impact  except  for  cyanide
destruction, equalization of flow and neutralization  as  is
done in the electroplating industry.

New  York  is  the  only  state  specifically  limiting  the
discharge of complex cyanides into  receiving  waters.   The
limit is O.U mg/1 Fe(CN)6.

Due  to  the  conversion of complex cyanides to toxic simple
cyanides, the complex should be converted to the  equivalent
amount  of  cyanide  (CN) and treated prior to discharge to a
receiving stream.  The range of sewer codes for  cyanide  is
0.0  to 10.0 mg/1 while the range in stream standards is 0.0
to 1.0 mg/1.  These values depend upon  the  specific  city,
stream,  point  of  entry,  etc., but represent a reasonable
range of concentrations  that  cyanide  treatment  equipment
should be capable of meeting.

The  yearly  discharge  of  cyanide  salts from photographic
sources has been estimated at over 5,000,000 pounds.
                              132

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                        SECTION XIII

             PERFORMANCE FACTORS FOR TREATMENT
                      PLANT OPERATIONS
General

Variations in the performance of wastewater treatment plants
are usually attributable to one or more of the following:

    1.   Severe ambient air temperature  changes.   Although
         ambient  temperature changes may not be controlled,
         design features such as injection of steam  or  hot
         water  can be incorporated that will minimize these
         effects.

    2.   Variations in sampling  techniques  and  analytical
         methods  do  not  affect the performance of a waste
         treatment  system  but  may  result  in  false   or
         incorrect  evaluation  of such systems performance.
         Establishment  and  use  of  standard  methods  can
         eliminate apparent variations.

    3.   Variations in one or more  operational  parameters,
         e.g.,  the  organic  removal rate by the biological
         mass, settling rate changes of  biological  sludge.
         These  are  usually  the result of changing flow or
         waste loadings and the addition of an  equalization
         tank normally takes care of this problem.

    5.   Controllable   changes    in    the    treatability
         characteristics  of  the  process  wastewaters even
         after adequate equalization.  Good tight  operating
         practices   and   training  skilled  operators  and
         personnel  will  aid  in  reducing  this  type   of
         variation in treatment performance.
Variability in Biological Waste Treatment Systems

In  the past, effluent requirements for wastewater treatment
plants have been related to the  achievement  of  a  desired
treatment efficiency based on long term performance.

The effluent limitations promulgated by EPA and developed in
this  document  include values that limit both long term and
short  term  waste  discharges.   These   restrictions   are
necessary  to  assure  that  deterioration  of  the nation's
waters does not occur on a short term  basis  due  to  heavy
                              133

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intermittent  discharges,  even though an annual average may
be attained.

Some  of  the  controllable  causes   of   variability   and
techniques  that  can  be  used  to  minimize  their  effect
include:

    A.   Storm Runoff

Storm  water  holding  or  diversion  facilities  should  be
designed  on  the  basis  of rainfall history and area being
drained.  The collected storm runoff can be drawn off  at  a
constant  rate  to the treatment system.  The volume of this
contaminated  storm  runoff  should  be  minimized   through
segregation  and  the  prevention  of  contamination.  Storm
runoff  from  outside   the   plant   area,   as   well   as
uncontaminated  runoff,  should be diverted around the plant
or contaminated area.

    B.   Flow Variations

Raw waste load variations can be reduced by  properly  sized
equalization  units.   Equalization  is  a  retention of the
wastes in a suitably designed and operated holding system to
average  out  the  influent  before  allowing  it  into  the
treatment system.

    C.   Spills

Spills of certain materials in the plant can cause  a  heavy
loading  on the treatment system for a short period of time.
A spill may not only cause higher effluent levels as it goes
through the system, but may inhibit a  biological  treatment
system and therefore have longer term effects.  Equalization
helps  to  lessen the effects of spills.  However, long term
reliable control can only be attained by an aggressive spill
prevention and maintenance  program  including  training  of
operating  personnel.   Industrial  associations such as the
Manufacturing Chemists Association have developed guidelines
for prevention, control and reporting of spills.  These note
how to assess the potential of spill occurrence and  how  to
prevent  spills.  If every plant were to use such guidelines
as part of plant waste management control programs, its  raw
waste load and effluent variations would be decreased.

    D.   Climatic Effects

The design and choice of type of a treatment  system  should
be  based  on the climate at the plant location so that this
effect can be minimized.  Where there  are  severe  seasonal
                               134

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climatic conditions, the treatment system should be designed
and  sufficient  operational flexibility should be available
so that  the  system  can  function  effectively  under  all
ambient conditions.

    E.   Treatment Process Inhibition

Chemicals likely to inhibit the treatment  processes  should
be identified and prudent measures taken to see that they do
not  enter  the wastewater in concentrations that may result
in treatment process inhibition.  The  common  indicator  of
the  pollution characteristics of the discharge from a plant
historically has been the long-term average of the  effluent
load.   However,  the  long-term (yearly) average is not the
only parameter on which  to  have  an  effluent  limitation.
Shorter term averages also are needed, both as an indication
of performance and for enforcement purposes.

Wherever  possible,  the best approach to develop the annual
and shorter term limitations is to use historical data  from
the  industry in question.  If enough data is available from
a well designed and well operated plant,  the  shorter  term
limitations can be developed from a detailed analysis of the
hourly,  daily, weekly or monthly data.  Rarely, however, is
there an adequate amount of short term data.  However, using
data which  show  the  variability  in  the  effluent  load,
statistical  analyses  can  be  used  to  compute short term
limits (30 day average or daily) which should  be  attained,
provided  that the plant is adequately designed and operated
in the proper way to achieve  the  desired  results.   These
analyses  can  be  used to establish variability factors for
effluent limitations or to check  those  factors  that  have
been developed.

Photographic Processing

It  is  apparent  from the performance data collected on the
activated sludge unit during the field study that  BOD5  and
COD  reductions  were variable during the first two years of
performance.  Following the installation of the sand filters
in the second year, BOD5 reduction in percent brought  about
by  the  combined  installation varied from 78 percent to 91
percent;  during a different  period,  COD  reduction  varied
from  45  percent to 70 percent.  It is apparent that either
the system was improperly designed or improperly operated or
both.

The photographic processing subcategory is characterized  by
batch-type  operations,  a  very  diverse  product  mix, and
seasonal production variation.   As these process  variations
                              135

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are  similar  to  those  in  the pharmaceutical point source
category,  the  organic  load  variability  on   end-of-pipe
treatment plants for the photographic processing subcategory
and the pharmaceutical point source category are, therefore,
anticipated to be closely related.  For the same reason, the
performance  of  end-of-pipe  treatment  plants in these two
categories should be similar.  Consequently, the performance
factors of treatment plant operations as developed  for  the
pharmaceutical  point  source  category  from  the long-term
performance of biological treatment plant  operations  could
be  applied  to  the alternate biological systems considered
for the photographic  processing  subcategory  also.   These
performance factors are as follows:

                        TABLE XIII-1

                 Performance Factor Summary
               Performance Factor    Performance Factor
               for Maximum Monthly   for Maximum Daily
  Parameter    Effluent Value	   Effluent Value

    BODS            2.1                  2.9

    COD             2.1                  2.9
    CN              1.0                  2.0
    Ag              1.0                  2.0

    TSS             2.1                  2.9

As  additional  treatment  plant  performance  data  in this
subcategory becomes available, the above performance factors
will be reevaluated and modified, if necessary.

Sufficient historical data  were  not  available  from  this
industry  to  perform  a  statistical  analysis to determine
variability factors for  silver  and  cyanide  in  treatment
plant effluent.  The draft development document for effluent
limitations  guidelines  for  the  metal  finishing industry
establishes a variability factor of 2.0 between the  maximum
for  any  single  day  average  and  the thirty-day average.
Silver and cyanide numerical values for the maximum  average
of  daily  values  for any period of thirty consecutive days
(maximum thirty day limitation) and maximum  value  for  any
one  day  (maximum  day limitation) shown in Tables II-1 and
II-2 are developed using performance factors of 1.0 and  2.0
respectively.
                              136

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The  performance  factors  presented  in  this  section were
applied to the long-term average daily effluent  limitations
to  develop  the  effluent  limitations,  guidelines and new
source performance standards  for  the  maximum  thirty  day
limitation  and  the maximum day limitation, as presented in
Sections II, IX, X, and XI of this document.
                               137

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                        SECTION XIV

                      ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared  by  the  Environmental  Protection
Agency  on  the  basis  of  a  comprehensive  study  of this
industry performed by Roy F. Weston,   Inc.,   under  contract
No.  68-01-2932.   The  original  study  was  conducted  and
prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency  under  the
direction  of Project Director James  H. Dougherty, P.E.,  and
Technical Project Manager Jitendra R. Ghia,  P.E.  Update  of
the original study was done by W.D. Sitman and Dr. K.M. Peil
of RFW, Inc.

The  original RFW study and this EPA revision were conducted
under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Joseph S. Vitalis,
Project Officer, assisted  by  Mr.  George  Jett,  Assistant
Project Officer.

Overall  guidance and excellent assistance were provided the
Project Officer by his associates in the Effluent Guidelines
Division, particularly Messrs. Allen Cywin,  Director,  Ernst
P.  Hall,  Deputy  Director,  Walter  J. Hunt, Branch Chief.
Special acknowledgement  is  also  made  of  others  in  the
Effluent Guidelines Division:  Messrs. John Nardella, Martin
Halper,  David  Becker,  Bruno Maier, Dr. Chester Rhines and
Dr. Raymond Loehr, for their helpful suggestions and  timely
comments.  EGDB project personnel also wishes to acknowledge
the   assistance  of  the  personnel  at  the  Environmental
Protection Agency's regional centers,  who  helped  identify
those  plants achieving effective waste treatment, and whose
efforts provided much of  the  research  necessary  for  the
treatment technology review.

Appreciation  is  extended  to  Mr. James Rodgers of the EPA
Office of General Counsel for his valuable input.

The  following   individuals   supplied   input   into   the
development of this document while serving as members of the
EPA working group/steering committee which provided detailed
review, advice, and assistance:

    W. Hunt, Chairman, Effluent Guidelines Development Branch,
        Effluent Guidelines Division
    L. Miller, Effluent Guidelines Division
    J. Vitalis, Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines Div.
    G. Jett, Asst. Project Officer, Effluent Guidelines Div.
    J. Ciancia, NERC, Edison, New Jersey
    M. Strier, Office of Enforcement
    D. Davis, Office of Planning and Evaluation
    C. Little, Office of General Counsel
                              139

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    R. Swank, SERL, Athens, Georgia
    E. Krabbe, Region II
    L. Reading, Region VII

The  National  Association  of  Photographic  Manufacturers,
Inc.,  (NAPM)  are recognized for providing information used
in this document and  for  assisting  in  the  selection  of
representative photographic processing plants which provided
data relating to RWL and treatment plant performance.

The  cooperation  of  the individual photographic processing
plants  who  offered  their   facilties   for   survey   and
contributed   pertinent   data  is  gratefully  appreciated.
Facilities visited were the property of the following:

    Guardian Photo
    Berkey Film Processing
    Eastman Kodak Company
    District Photo, Inc.

Furthermore,  the  Effluent  Guidelines  Development  Branch
wishes    to   express   appreciation   to   the   following
organizations and individuals for  the  valuable  assistance
which they provided throughout the study:

    Thomas J. Dufficy, NAPM
    Raymond M. Hertel, California Regional Water
     Quality Board
    J  Roy King, Eastman Kodak Company
    Irvin Kemp, U.S. Naval Photographic Center
    Robert C. Ramsey, Eastman Kodak Company
    Myron Rieser, District Photo, Inc.
    William L. Button, M.D., Eastman Kodak Company
    Donald Wilson, NERC Cincinnati
    Paul A. Wilson, Eastman Kodak Company

Acknowledgement  and  appreciation  is also given to Ms. Kay
Starr, Ms. Nancy Zrubek and Mr. Eric Yunker  for  invaluable
support  in coordinating the preparation and reproduction of
this report, and to  Mrs.  Alice  Thompson,  Mrs.  Ernestine
Christian,  Ms. Laura Cammarota and Mrs. Carol Swann, of the
Effluent Guidelines Division  secretarial  staff  for  their
efforts  in  the  typing  of drafts, necessary revision, and
final  preparation  of  the  revised   Effluent   Guidelines
Division development document.
                              140

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                         SECTION XV

                        BIBLIOGRAPHY


G.  Photographic Processing Industry

G-1.     "Information  Form  For  Requesting  Assistance  In
         Pollution   Abatement,"   Photographic   Technology
         Division, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.

G-2.     "Wolfman Report on the Photographic Industry in the
         United States," Modern Photography Magazine,  1973-
         1974.

G-3.     Bard,  C.E.,  et  al,  "Silver  in  Photoprocessing
         Effluents," Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, N.Y.

G-4.     Dagon,  T.J.,  "Biological  Treatment   Of   Photo-
         processing  Effluents,"  JWPCF,  Vol.  15,  No. 10,
         October 1973.

G-5.     "Pretreatment   of   Pollutants   Introduced   Into
         Publicly Owned Treatment Works," EPA, October 1973.

G-6.     Fulweiler,  S.B.,  "The  Nature   of   Photographic
         Processing,"  Presented  at Photoprocessing and the
         Environment Seminar, June 1974.

G-7.     "American   National   Standard   on   Photographic
         Processing Effluents," Drafts, ANSI, November 1974.

G-8.     Terhaar, C.J., et  al,  "Toxicity  of  Photographic
         Processing Chemicals to Fish," Photographic Science
         and  Engineering,  Vol.  16,  No.  5,  September
         October 1972.

G-9.     Cooley, A.C., "Reuse  and  Recovery  of  Processing
         Chemicals,"  Presented  at  Photoprocessing and the
         Environment Seminar, June 1974.

G-10.     Ayers, G.L., "How  Processor  Waste  Loads  Can  Be
         Minimized,"  Presented  at  Photoprocessing and the
         Environment Seminar, June 1974.

G-11.     Dagon, T.J., "Specific Applications Of Photographic
         Processing  Effluent   Treatment,"   Presented   at
         Photoprocessing  and  the Environment Seminar, June
         1974.
                                 141

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G-12.    Dufficy, T.J., "The Federal Water Pollution Control
         Act of 1972.  Its Effect on Photographic Processing
         Operationsr" Photoprocessing  and  the  Environment
         Seminar, June 1974.

G-13.    "Effluent Limitations Guidelines and  Standards  of
         Performance  -  Metal  Finishing  Industry,"  Draft
         Development Document, January 1974.

G-14.    Lamp, G.E., Jr., "Package Treatment Plant  Prices,"
         Water  Pollution  Control  Federation Journal, Vol.
         46, No. 11; 1974; pp. 2604 - 2610.

G-15.    Hammer, M.J., "Determination of Design Capacity  of
         a  Wastewater  Treatment  Plant,"  Water and Sewage
         Works; 1973; pp. R110 - R115.

G-16.    National Association of Photographic Manufacturers;
         American   National   Standard   on    Photographic
         Processing  Effluent,  American  National Standards
         Institute, pub.; 1975.

G-17.    Bober,  T.W.,  and  Dagon,  T.J.,   "Ozonation   of
         Photographic Processing Wastes," Journal WPCF; Vol.
         47, No. 8; August 1975; pp. 2114-2129.

G-18.    National Association of Photographic Manufacturers;
         Environmental Effect of Photoprocessing  Chemicals,
         Vol.  1;  NAPM, 600 Mamaroneck Ave., Harrison, N.Y.
         10528; June 1974.

G-19.    National Association of Photographic Manufacturers;
         Environmental Effect of Photoprocessing  Chemicals,
         Vol. II; NAPM, 600 Mamaroneck Ave., Harrison, N.Y.,
         10528; June 1974.

G-20.    U.S. EPA;  Treatment of  Complex  Cyanide  Compounds
         for  Reuse  or Disposal; EPA-R2-73-269; Prepared by
         Thomas N.  Hendrickson and Dr.  Louis  G.  Daignault
         for   EPA   Office   of  Research  and  Monitoring,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; June, 1973.

G-21.    Lur'e, Yu. Yu. and  Panova,  V.  A.,  "Behavior  of
         Cyano  Compounds  in  Water  Ponds",  Hydrochemical
         Materials, Vol.  37,  p.  133-43,  Moscow,  Russia,
         1964.

G-22.    Alletag, Gerald C., "Truth in Pollution Abatement",
         Paper presented at Pure Meeting, Washington,  D.C.,
         April 6, 1971.
                               142

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G-23.    Bober, T.M. , and Cooley, A.C.,  "The  Filter  Press
         for   the   Filtration  of  Insoluble  Photographic
         Processing  Wastes,"   Photographic   Science   and
         Engineering; Vol. 16, Number 2, March-April, 1972.

G-24     Neblette,  C.B.;  Photography  Its  Materials   and
         Processes,   6th  Edition;  Van  Nostrand  Reinhold
         Company, New York, 1961.

G-25.    Dufficy, T. J., "Effluent  Limitations,  Guidelines
         and   Standards   of  Performance  -  Miscellaneous
         Chemicals Industry (Photographic Processing)," NAPM
         memorandum to W. J.  Hunt; May 1976.

G-26.    Kennedy, B.C., et.al.; "Prediction of  Ion-Exchange
         Sorption  of  Metal  Ions from Complex-Ion Formation
         Data," a paper presented at the 171st National  ACS
         Meeting, New York City, New York; April 7, 1976.

G-27.    Luther, P.A., et.al.; "Treatability and  Functional
         Design  of a Physical-Chemcial Wastewater Treatment
         System for a Printing and Photodeveloping Plant," a
         paper  presented  at   the   31st   Annual   Purdue
         University, West Lafayette, Indiana; May 6, 1976.

G-28.    Kreye,  W.C.,  et.al.;  "Kinetic   Parameters   and
         Operation  Problems   in the Biological Oxidation of
         High    Thiosulfate     Industrial     Wastewaters,"
         Proceedings  of  the  30th  Purdue Industrial Waste
         Conference, Purdue University; 1975; pp. 410 - 419.

G-29.    Netzer, A. and Wilkinson,  P.;  "Removal  of  Heavy
         Metals  from  Wastewater  by  Adsorption  on Sand,"
         Proceedings of the  30th  Purdue  Industrial  Waste
         Conference, Purdue University; 1975; pp. 841 - 845.

G-30.    Raef, S.F., et.al.;  "Fate of  Cyanide  and  Related
         Compounds    in    Industrial   Waste   Treatment,"
         Proceedings of the  30th  Purdue  Industrial  waste
         Conference. Purude University; 1975; pp. 832 - 840.

G-31.    Supplement A&B - Detailed Record of Data  Base  for
         "Development  Document  for  Interim Final Effluent
         Limitations, Guidelines  and  Proposed  New  Source
         Performance    Standards   for   the   Photographic
         Processing  Point Source  Category,"   U.S.   EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460, June, 1976.

G-32.    Cooley,  A.C.;  "Regeneration   and   Disposal   of
         Photographic    Processing   Solutions   Containing
                               143

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         Hexacyanoferrate," Journal of Applied  Photographic
         Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 2, Spring 1976.

G-33.    The Impact of Snow Enhancement - Technology Assess-
         ment of Winter Orographic Snowpack Augmentation  in
         the Upper Colorado River Basin,  compiled by Leo W.
         Weisbecker, Stanford Research Institute,  University
         of Oklahoma Press.

References

GR-1     AICHE Environmental Division;  "Industrial  Process
         Design  for  Pollution Control," Volume 4; October,
         1971.

GR-2     Allen, E.E.; "How to Combat Control  Valve  Noise,"
         Chemical  Engineering  Progress,  Vol.   71,  No. 8;
         August, 1975; pp. 43-55.

GR-3     American  Public   Health   Association;    Standard
         Methods  for  Examination of Water and waste Water,
         13th Edition; APHA, Washington, D.C.   20036; 1971.

GR-U     Barnard, J.L.; "Treatment  Cost  Relationships  for
         Industrial  Waste  Treatment,"  Ph.D. Dissertation,
         Vanderbilt University; 1971.

GR-5     Bennett, H., editor; Concise Chemical and Technical
         Dictionary; F.A.I.C. Chemical  Publishing  Company,
         Inc., New York, New York; 1962.

GR-6     Blecker,  H.G.,  and  Cadman,  T.W.;   Capital   and
         Operating  Costs  of  Pollution  Control   Eguipment
         Modules, Volume I - User Guide; EPA-R5-73-023a; EPA
         Office of  Research  and  Development,  Washington,
         D.C.  20460; July 1973.

GR-7     Blecker,  H.G.,  and  Nichols,  T.M. ;  Capital  and
         Operating  Costs  of  Pollution  control   Equipment
         Modules, Volume II - Data  Manual;  EPA-R5-73-023b;
         EPA Office of Research and Development, Washington,
         D.C.  20U60; July, 1973.

GR-8     Bruce, R.D., and Werchan, R.E.; "Noise Control  in
         the  Petroleum  and  Chemical Industries," Chemical
         Engineering Progress, Vol. 71, No. 8; August, 1975;
         pp. 56-59.

GR-9     Chaffin, C.M.; "Wastewater Stabilization   Ponds  at
         Texas Eastman company."
                              144

-------
GR-10    Chemical  Coagulation/Mixed  Media  Filtration   of
         Aerated    Lagoon    Effluent,    EPA-660/2-75-025;
         Environmental   Protection    Technology    Series,
         National  Environmental  Research Center, Office of
         Research  and  Development,  U.S.  EPA,  Corvallis,
         Oregon  97330.

GR-11    Chemical Engineering, August  6,  1973;  "Pollution
         Control at the Source."

GR-12    Chemical Engineering,  68  (2),  1961;  "Activated-
         Sludge Process Solvents Waste Problem."

GR-13    Chemical Week, May 9r 1973;  "Making  Hard-to-treat
         Chemical Wastes Evaporate."

GR-11    Cheremisinoff, P.N. , and Feller, S.M.;  "Wastewater
         Solids Separation," Pollution Engineering.

GR-15    Control of Hazardous Material  Spills,  Proceedings
         of  the  1972  National  Conference  on  Control of
         Hazardous Material Spills, Sponsored  by  the  U.S.
         Environmental  Protection  Agency at the University
         of Texas, March 1972.

GR-16    Cook, C.; "Variability in  BOD  Concentration  from
         Biological    Treatment   Plants,"   EPA   internal
         memorandum; March, 1974.

GR-17    Davis, K.E., and Funk, R.J.;  "Deep Well Disposal of
         Industrial  Waste,"  Industrial   Waste;   January-
         February, 1975.

GR-18    Dean, J.A., editor; Lange's Handbook of  Chemistry,
         11th  Edition;  McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
         New York; 1973.

GR-19    Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.; Water  Quality  Engineering
         for  Practicing  Engineers; Barnes and Noble, Inc.,
         New York, New York; 1970.

GR-20    Eckenfelder, W.W., Jr.;  "Development  of  Operator
         Training Materials," Environmental Science Services
         Corp., Stamford, Conn.; August, 1968.

GR-21    Environmental Science and Technology, Vol.   8,  No.
         10, October, 1974; "Currents-Technology."

GR-22    Fassell, W.M. ; Sludge  Disposal  at  a  Profit?,  a
         report  presented  at  the  National  Conference on
                               145

-------
         Municipal    Sludge     Management,     Pittsburgh,
         Pennsylvania;  June, 1974.

GR-23    Guidelines for Chemical Plants  in  the  Prevention
         Control  and  Reporting  of  Spills;  Manufacturing
         Chemists Association, Inc., Washington, D.C.  1972.

GR-2U    Hauser, E.A.,   Colloidal  Phenomena,  1st  Edition,
         McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York; 1939.

GR-25    Iowa  State  University  Department  of  Industrial
         Engineering  and  Engineering  Research  Institute,
         "Estimating  Staff  and  Cost  Factors  for   Small
         Wastewater Treatment Plants Less Than 1 MGD," Parts
         I  and  II;  EPA  Grant  No. 5P2-WP-195-0452; June,
         1973.

GR-26    Iowa  State  University  Department  of  Industrial
         Engineering  and  Engineering  Research  Institute,
         "Staffing Guidelines  for  Conventional  Wastewater
         Treatment  Plants  Less  Than 1 MGD," EPA Grant No.
         5P2-WP-195-0452; June, 1973.

GR-27    Judd,   S.H.;    "Noise   Abatement   in    Existing
         Refineries,"  Chemical  Engineering  Progress, Vol.
         71, No. 8; August, 1975; pp. .31-42.

GR-28    Kent, J.A., editor; Reigel's Industrial  Chemistry,
         7th  Edition;   Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New
         York; 1974.

GR-29    Kirk-Othmer; Encyclopedia of  Chemical  Technology,
         2nd Edition; Interscience Publishers Division, John
         Wiley and Sons, Inc.

GR-30    Kozlorowski,  B.,  and  Kucharski,  J.;  Industrial
         Waste Disposal; Pergamon Press, New York; 1972.

GR-31    Lindner,   G.    and   K.   Nyberg;    Envi ronmen t al
         Engineering,  A Chemical Engineering Discipline; D.
         Reidel Publishing  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts
         02116, 1973.

GR-32    Liptak,  E.G.,  editor;  Environmental   Engineers*
         Handbook,  Volume  I, Water Pollution; Chilton Book
         Company, Radnor, Pa. ; 1974.

GR-33    Marshall, G.R. and E.J.  Middlebrook;  Intermittent
         Sand  Filtration  to  Upgrade  Existing  Wastewater
         Treatment Facilities,  PR  JEW  115-2;  Utah  Water
                               146

-------
         Research  Laboratory,  College of Engineering, Utah
         State  University,  Logan,  Utah  84322;  February,
         1974.

GR-34    Martin, J.D., Butcher, V.D.,  Frieze,  T.R.,  Tapp,
         M.,   and   Davis,   E.M.;   "Waste   Stabilization
         Experiences  at  Union  Carbide,  Seadrift,   Texas
         Plant."

GR-35    McDermott,  G.N.;  Industrial  Spill  Control   and
         Pollution  Incident  Prevention, J. Water Pollution
         Control Federation, 43 (8)  1629 (1971).

GR-36    Minear,  R.A.,  and  Patterson,  J.W.;   Wastewater
         Treatment   Technology,   2nd   Edition;  State  of
         Illinois  Institute  for   Environmental   Quality;
         January, 1973.

GR-37    National Environmental Research Center; "Evaluation
         of Hazardous Waste Emplacement in Mined  Openings;"
         NERC Contract No. 68-03-0470; September, 1974.

GR-38    Nemerow, N.L.; Liquid Waste of Industry - Theories,
         Practices and Treatment; Addision-Wesley Pulbishing
         Company, Reading, Massachusetts; 1971.

GR-39    Novak, S.M.; "Biological Waste Stabilization  Ponds
         at Exxon Company, U.S.A. Baytown Refinery and Exxon
         Chemical  Company, U.S.A. Chemical Plant (Divisions
         of Exxon Corporation) Baytown, Texas."

GR-40    Oswald, W.J., and Ramani, R.; "The Fate of Algae in
         Receiving  Waters,"  a  paper  submitted   to   the
         Conference  on  Ponds  as  a  Wastewater  Treatment
         Alternative, University  of  Texas,  Austin;  July,
         1975.

GR-41    Otakie, G.F.; A Guide to  the  Selection  of  Cost-
         effective  Wastewater Treatment Systems; EPA-430/9-
         75-002, Technical Report, U.S. EPA, Office of Water
         Program Operations, Washington, D.C.  20460.

GR-42    Parker, C.L.; Estimating  the  Cost  of  Wastewater
         Treatment  Ponds;  Pollution Engineering, November,
         1975.

GR-43    Parker,  W.P.;  Wastewater   Systems   Engineering,
         Prentice-Hall,  Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
         1975.
                              147

-------
GR-44    Parker, D.S.;   "Performance  of  Alternative  Algae
         Removal   Systems,"   a  report  submitted  to  the
         Conference  on  Ponds  as  a  Wastewater  Treatment
         Alternative,  University  of  Texas,  Austin; July,
         1975.*

GR-45    Perry, J.H., et. al.; Chemical Engineers' Handbook,
         5th Edition; McGraw-Hill Book  Company,  New  York,
         New York;  1973.

GR-46    Public Law 92-500, 92nd Congress,  S.2770;  October
         18, 1972.

GR-47    Quirk, T.P.; "Application of Computerized  Analysis
         to Comparative Costs of Sludge Dewatering by Vacuum
         Filtration   and   Centrifugation,"   Proc.f   23rd
         Industrial  Waste  Conference,  Purdue  University;
         1968; pp.  69-709.

GR-48    Riley,  B.T.,    Jr.;   The   Relationship   Between
         Temperature   and   the  Design  and  Operation  of
         Biological Waste Treatment Plants, submitted to the
         Effluent Guidelines Division, EPA; April, 1975.

GR-49    Rose, A.,  and  Rose,  E.;  The  Condensed  Chemical
         Dictionary,    6th   Edition;   Reinhold  Publishing
         Corporation, New York; 1961.

GR-50    Rudolfs, W.; Industrial Wastes,, Their Disposal  and
         Treatment;  Reinhold  Publishing  Corporation,  New
         York; 1953.

GR-51    Sax,  N.I.;   Dangerous  Properties  of   Industrial
         Material,    4th   Edition;  Van  Nostrand  Reinhold
         Company, New York; 1975.

GR-52    Seabrook,  B.L.; Cost  of  Wastewater  Treatment  by
         Land   Application;   EPA-U30/9-75-003,   Technical
         Rgport;  U.S.   EPA,   Office   of   Water   Program
         Operations,  Washington, D.C.  20U60.

GR-53    Shreve, R.N.;  Chemical  Process  Industriest  Third
         Edition; McGraw-Hill, New York; 1967.

GR-5U    Spill Prevention Techniques for Hazardous Polluting
         Substances,    OHM   7102001;   U.S.   Environmental
         Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460; February
         1971.
                              148

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GR-55    Stecher,  P.G.r  editor;  The   Merck   Index,   An
         Encyclopedia  of  Chemicals and Drugs, 8th Edition;
         Merck and Company, Inc., Rahway, New Jersey; 1968.
                                                     *
GR-56    Stevens, J.I., "The Roles of Spillage, Leakage  and
         Venting in Industrial Pollution Control", Presented
         at  Second  Annual  Environmental  Engineering  and
         Science Conference, University of Louisville, April
         1972.

GR-57    Supplement A 6 B - Detailed Record of Data Base for
         "Draft  Development  Document  for  Interim   Final
         Effluent  Limitations,  Guidelines and Standards of
         Performance   for   the   Miscellaneous   Chemicals
         Manufacturing  Point  Source  Category",  U.S. EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460, February 1975.

GR-58    Swanson,  C.L.;   "Unit   Process   Operating   and
         Maintenance  Costs for Conventional Waste Treatment
         Plants;" FWQA, Cincinnati, Ohio; June, 1968.

GR-59    U.S. Department of Health, Education, and  Welfare;
         "Interaction  of Heavy Metals and Biological Sewage
         Treatment Processes," Environmental Health  Series;
         HEW  Office  of Water Supply and Pollution Control,
         Washington, D.C.; May, 1965.

GR-60    U.S. Department of the  Interior;  "Cost  of  Clean
         Water,"  Industrial  Waste  Profile No. _3; Dept. of
         Int. GWQA, Washington, D.C.; November, 1967.

GR-61    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design  Manual  for  Upgrading
         Existing  Waste  Water  Treatment  Plants, U.S. EPA
         Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.   20460;
         October, 1974.

GR-62    U.S. EPA; Monitoring Industrial Waste  Water,  U.S.
         EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  D.C.
         20460; August, 1973.

GR-63    U.S. EPA; Methods for Chemical  Analysis  of  Water
         and  Wastes,  U.S.  EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA
         625/6-74-003; Washington, D.C.  20460; 1974.

GR-64    U.S. EPA; Handbook for Analytical  Quality  Control
         in  Water  and  Waste  Water Laboratories, U.S. EPA
         Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.   20460;
         June, 1972.
                               149

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GR-65    U.S. EPA;  Process  Design  Manual  for  Phosphorus
         Removal,   U.S.   EPA   Technology  Transfer;  EPA,
         Washington, B.C.  20460; October, 1971.

GR-66    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design  Manual  for  Suspended
         Solids  Removal,  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA
         625/1-75-003a, Washington,  D.C.   20460;  January,
         1975.

GR-67    U.S. EPA; Process Design Manual for Sulfide Control
         in Sanitary Sewerage Systems, U.S.  EPA  Technology
         Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  D.C.  20460; October,
         1974.

GR-68    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design   Manual   for   Carbon
         Adsorption,  U.S.  EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; October, 1973.

GR-69    U.S.  EPA;  Process  Design   Manual   for   Sludge
         Treatment   and   Disposal,   U.S.  EPA  Technology
         Transfer;  EPA   625/1-74-006,   Washington,   D.C.
         20460; October, 1974.

GR-70    U.S.  EPA;  Effluent  Limitations  Guidelines   and
         Standards of Performance, Metal Finishing Industry,
         Draft  Development  Document;  EPA 440/1-75/040 and
         EPA 440/1-75/040a; EPA  Office  of  Air  and  Water
         Programs, Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington,
         D.C.  20460; April, 1975.

GR-71    U.S.  EPA;  Development   Document   for   Effluent
         Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
         -  Organic  Chemicals  Industry; EPA 440/1-74/009a;
         EPA Office of  Air  and  Water  Programs,  Effluent
         Guidelines   Division,   Washington,  D.C.   20460;
         April, 1974.

GR-72    U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document  for  Effluent
         Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
             Steam   Supply  and  Noncontact  Cooling  Water
         Industries; EPA Office of Air and  Water  Programs,
         Effluent   Guidelines  Division,  Washington,  D.C.
         20460; October, 1974.

GR-73    U.S. EPA; Draft Development Document  for  Effluent
         Limitations Guidelines and Standards of Performance
            Organic Chemicals Industry, Phase II Prepared by
         Roy F. Weston, Inc. under EPA Contract  No.  68-01-
         1509;   EPA  Office  of  Air  and  Water  Programs,
                                 150

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         Effluent  Guidelines  Division,  Washington,   D.C.
         20460; February, 1974.

GR-74    U.S. EPA; Evaluation of Land  Application  Systems,
         Technical    Bulletin;   EPA   430/9-75-001;   EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; March, 1975.

GR-75    U.S. EPA; "Projects  in  the  Industrial  Pollution
         Control    Division,"    Environmental   Protection
         Technology   Series;   EPA    600/2-75-001;    EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; December, 1974.

GR-76    U.S. EPA;  Wastewater  Sampling  Methodologies  and
         Flow  Measurement Techniques; EPA 907/9-74-005; EPA
         Surveillance and Analysis,  Region  VII,  Technical
         Support Branch; June, 1974.

GR-77    U.S. EPA; A Primer on Waste  Water  Treatment;  EPA
         Water Quality Office; 1971.

GR-78    U.S. EPA; Compilation of Municipal  and  Industrial
         Injection Wells in the United States; EPA 520/9-74-
         020;  Vol.  I and II; EPA, Washington, D.C.  20460;
         1974.

GR-79    U.S. EPA; "Upgrading Lagoons," U.S. EPA  Technology
         Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  D.C.   20460; August,
         1973.

GR-80    U.S.  EPA;   "Nitrification   and   Denitrification
         Facilities,"  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; August,
         1973.

GR-81    U.S.  EPA;  "Physical-Chemical  Nitrogen  Removal,"
         U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA, Washington, D.C.
         20460; July, 1974.

GR-82    U.S. EPA; "Physical-Chemical  Wastewater  Treatment
         Plant  Design,"  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; August, 1973.

GR-83    U.S.  EPA;  "Oxygen  Activated  Sludge   Wastewater
         Treatment  Systems,  Design  Criteria and Operating
         Experience," U.S.  EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; August, 1973.

GR-84    U.S.    EPA;    Wastewater    Filtration     Design
         Considerations;  U.S. EPA Technology Transfer; EPA,
         Washington, D.C.  20460; July, 1974.
                                  151

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GR-85    U.S. EPA; "Flow Equalization," U.S. EPA  Technology
         Transfer; EPA, Washington, B.C. 20460; May, 1974.

GR-86    U.S. EPA; "Procedural  Manual  for  Evaluating  the
         Performance  of  Wastewater Treatment Plants," U.S.
         EPA  Technology  Transfer;  EPA,  Washington,  D.C.
         20460.

GR-87    U.S. EPA; Supplement to  Development  Document  for
         Effluent  Limitations,  Guidelines  and  New Source
         Performance  Standards   for   the   Corn   Milling
         Subcategory,  Grain  Processing, EPA, Office of Air
         and Water Programs, Effluent  Guidelines  Division,
         Washington, D.C.  20460, August 1975.

GR-88    U.S. EPA;  Pretreatment  of  Pollutants  Introduced
         Into  Publicly Owned Treatment Works; EPA Office of
         Water Program Operations, Washington, D.C.   20460;
         October, 1973.

GR-89    U.S.   Government   Printing    Office;    Standard
         Industrial    Classi fication   Manual;   Government
         Printing Office, Washington, D.C.   20492; 1972.

GR-90    U.S. EPA; Tertiary Treatment of  Combined  Domestic
         and    Industrial   Wastes,   EPA-R2-73-236,   EPA,
         Washington, D.C. 20460; May, 1973.

GR-91    Wang,  Lawrence   K.;   Envi ronmenta1   Engineering
         Glossary (Draft) Calspan Corporation, Environmental
         Systems Division, Buffalo, New York 14221, 1974.

GR-92    Water Quality Criteria 1972, EPA-R-73-033, National
         Academy  of  Sciences  and  National   Academy   of
         Engineering;  U.S.  Government Printing Office, No.
         5501-00520, March, 1973.

GR-93    Weast, R., editor; CRC Handbook  of  Chemistry  and
         Physics,  54th  Edition; CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio
         44128; 1973-1974.

GR-94    Weber,   C.I.,   editor;   Biological   Field   and
         Laboratory  Methods  for  Measuring  the Quality of
         Surface  Waters   and   Effluents,"   Environmental
         Monitoring    Series;    EPA   670/4-73-001;   EPA,
         Cincinnati, Ohio  45268; July, 1973.

GR-95    APHA, ASCE, AWWA, and WPCF, Glossary of  Water  and
         Wastewater Control Engineering, American Society of
         Civil Engineers, New York, 1969.
                              152

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GR-96    Kennedy, D.C., et.al.; "Functional Design of a Zero
         Discharge  WasteWater  Treatment  System  for   the
         National  Center  for  Toxicological  Research,"  a
         paper  presented  at   the   31st   Annual   Purdue
         Industrial     Wastewater     Conference,    Purdue
         University, West Lafayette, Indiana; May 6, 1976.

GR-97    Sittig, M.; Pollutant Removal Handbook, Noyes  Data
         Corporation,  Park  Ridge,  New  Jersey and London,
         England; 1973.

GR=98    U.S. EPA; Development Document  for  Interim  Final
         Effluent  Limitations  Guidelines  and Proposed New
         Source Performance Standards  for  the  Common  and
         Precious Metals Segment of the Electroplating Point
         Source  Category;  EPA 440/1-75/040, Group I, Phase
         II, EPA Office of Water  and  Hazardous  Materials,
         Effluent   Guidelines  Division,  Washington,  D.C.
         20460; April, 1975.

GR-99    U.S. EPA; Revised BATEA Supplement  to  Development
         Document  for  Interim  Final  Effluent Limitations
         Guidelines for t:he Common and Precious  Metals  and
         Metal  Finishing  Segments  of  the  Electroplating
         Point Source Category, Draft Document;  EPA  Office
         of   Water   and   Hazardous   Materials,  Effluent
         Guidelines  Division,  Washington,   D.C.    20460;
         December, 1975.
                              153

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                        SECTION XVI

                          GLOSSARY

G.   Photographic Processing Industry

Black and White Film.  This  film  consists  of  a  support,
usually  a  plastic  film  which  is  coated  with  a  light
sensitive emulsion  and  an  outer  protective  layer.   The
emulsion  is  adhered  to the supporting base with a special
layer called a sub.   The  emulsion  is  made  of:  gelatin;
silver  salts of bromide, iodide, and chloride; sensitizers;
hardeners; couplers; and emulsion plasticizers.

Bleaching.  A step in  color  film  processing  whereby  the
silver image which is formed with the dye image is converted
back  to  silver  halide  by reactions with ferricyanide and
sodium bromide or ferric EDTA.

Blix.  A solution that contains both  bleaching  and  fixing
chemicals  used  in  some color processing to simultaneously
fix and bleach the processed material.

Complex  Cyanide.   This   term   refers   to   ferrocyanide
        -*] and/or ferricyanide [ Fe (CM) 6>~ 3 ] .
Couplers.  A group of organic chemicals which react with the
oxidized  components  of  the developers to form color dyes.
They are either incorporated in the  film  emulsion  at  the
time  of  manufacture   (e.g. ,  Ektachrome  film) or they are
included in the color developing solution (e.g.,  Kodachrome
film) .

Developing Agents.  These photographic materials usually are
aromatic  compounds  with  phenolic  or amino electron-donor
groups arranged ortho or para with respect  to  each  other,
such as:  hydroquinone, methyl p- amino- phenol (metol) , or 1-
phenol-3 pyrazolidone  (phenidone) .

Development.   A  step in photoprocessing whereby the latent
image is made visible in a developer solution.

Developer Solution.  This solution contains:  (1)  activators
like sodium or potassium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, borax,
phosphate;     (2)    preservatives   like   sodium   sulfite,
hydroxylamine; (3)  restrainers  like  sodium  or  potassium
bromide,   sodium   chloride,  potassium  iodide;  (4)   anti
foggants like benzotrizole; and  (5) water conditioners  like
phosphates, EDTA,  or NCA.
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"Dip  and  Dunk".   An  automatic processing machine whereby
strips of film are "dipped" into successive  photoprocessing
tanks and held for development.

Dye Image.  A color image formed when the oxidized developer
combines with the color couplers.

EDTA.   The  disodium  salt  of  ethylenediamine tetraacetic
acid.  EDTA is oxidized well by ozonation.

Fix.  A step in photoprocessing whereby  the  unexposed  and
undeveloped  silver  must  be  removed  from  the  emulsion.
Common among the solvent fixers are sodium thiosulfate.

Formalin.  A 37.5 percent aqueous solution  of  formaldehyde
containing about 5 to 15 percent methanol.  Dilute solutions
of formalin are readily biodegradable.

Glvcine.   Aminoacetic  acid.  Glycine does not oxidize with
ozonation.  Glycine is not to be confused with para-hydroxy-
phenyl  glycine,  commonly   known   as   photographic-grade
glycine.

Hypo.   The  common  name  for  the chemical compound sodium
thiosulfate which is a fixing agent.

Incorporated Couplers,  couplers that are included  in  film
at the time of manufacture, common to reversal film.

Negative  Film  Development.   A  two-step  process whereby,
following the negative development, a controlled exposure of
light is directed onto paper through the negative creating a
negative of a negative, or a positive image on paper.

Photochemical Reaction.  A chemical  reaction  catalyzed  by
light.

"Rack and Tank".  See "Dip and Dunk".

Regeneration.     The    oxidation    of   ferrocyanide   to
ferricyanide.

Reversal Development.  A  method  of  obtaining  a  positive
image on the same film used for the original exposure.

Short   Stop.   A  step  in  photoprocessing  which  follows
development whereby the basic activators  in  the  developer
are neutralized to prevent further development.
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Silver Halide.  Usually silver bromide, which, upon exposure
to  light  converts  to  metallic  silver,  forming a latent
image.

Three Layers.  Color film that has three  separate  chemical
layers  that  are  sensitive  to red, blue, and green light,
respectively.

Toxicity.  The quality of being poisonous.  The  term  toxic
or toxicity is used herein in the normal scientific sense of
the v word and not as a specialized term referring to section
307 (a) of the Act.
General Definitions

Abatement.   The  measures  taken  to  reduce  or  eliminate
pollution.

Absorption.  A process in which one material  (the absorbent)
takes  up  and  retains  another  (the  absorbate)  with the
formation of a homogeneous mixture having the attributes  of
a  solution.   Chemical  reaction  may  accompany  or follow
absorption.

Acclimation.  The ability of an organism to adapt to changes
in its immediate environment.

Acid.   A  substance  which  dissolves  in  water  with  the
formation of hydrogen ions.

Acid  Solution.   A  solution with a pH of less than 7.00 in
which the activity of the hydrogen ion is greater  than  the
activity of the hydroxyl ion.

Acidity.   The  capacity  of a wastewater for neutralizing a
base.  It is normally associated with the presence of carbon
dioxide, mineral and organic acids and salts of strong acids
or weak bases.   It  is  reported  as  equivalent  of  CaCO^
because  many  times  it  is  not  known just what acids are
present.

Acidulate.  To make somewhat acidic.

Act.  The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments  of
1972, Public Law 92-500.

Activated   Carbon.    Carbon  which  is  treated  by  high-
temperature heating with steam or carbon  dioxide  producing
an internal porous particle structure.
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Activated  Sludge  Process.   A  process  which  removes the
organic matter from sewage by saturating  it  with  air  and
biologically   active   sludge.    The  recycle  "activated"
microoganisms are  able  to  remove  both  the  soluble  and
colloidal organic material from the wastewater.

Adsorption.   An advanced method of treating wastes in which
a material removes organic matter not necessarily responsive
to clarification or biological treatment by adherence on the
surface of solid bodies.

Adsorption  Isotherm.   A  plot  used  in   evaluating   the
effectiveness  of  activated carbon treatment by showing the
amount of impurity adsorbed  versus  the  amount  remaining.
They are determined at a constant temperature by varying the
amount  of  carbon used or the concentration of the impurity
in contact with the carbon.

Advance Waste Treatment.  Any treatment  method  or  process
employed  following  biological  treatment  to  increase the
removal of pollution load, to remove substances that may  be
deleterious  to  receiving  waters  or the environment or to
produce a high-quality effluent suitable for  reuse  in  any
specific  manner or for discharge under critical conditions.
The term tertiary  treatment  is  commonly  used  to  denote
advanced waste treatment methods.

Aeration.   (1)  The  bringing  about  of  intimate  contact
between air and a liquid by one of  the  following  methods:
spraying  the  liquid  in  the air, bubbling air through the
liquid, or  agitation  of  the  liquid  to  promote  surface
absorption  of  air.    (2)  The  process  or  state of being
supplied or impregnated with  air;  in  waste  treatment,  a
process  in which liquid from the primary clarifier is mixed
with compressed air and with biologically active sludge.

Aeration  Period.    (1)   The   theoretical   time,   usually
expressed  in  hours,  that the mixed liquor is subjected to
aeration in an  aeration  tank  undergoing  activated-sludge
treatment.  It is equal to the volume of the tank divided by
the  volumetric  rate  of  flow of wastes and return sludge.
(2) The theoretical  time  that  liquids  are  subjected  to
aeration.

Aeration Tank.  A vessel for injecting air into the water.

Aerobic.   Ability  to  live, grow, or take place only where
free oxygen is present.
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Aerobic  Biological  Oxidation.   Any  waste  treatment   or
process  utilizing aerobic organisms, in the presence of air
or oxygen, as agents for  reducing  the  pollution  load  or
oxygen demand of organic substances in waste.

Aerobic Digestion.  A process in which microorganisms obtain
energy  by  endogenous  or  auto-oxidation of their cellular
protoplasm.  The  biologically  degradable  constituents  of
cellular  material  are  slowly  oxidized to carbon dioxide,
water and ammonia, with the ammonia being further  converted
into nitrates during the process.

Algae.   One-celled  or  many-celled  plants  which  grow in
sunlit waters and which are capable of photosynthesis.  They
are a food for fish and small aquatic animals and, like  all
plants, put oxygen in the water.

Algicide.  Chemical agent used to destroy or control algae.

Alkali.   A  water-soluble  metallic  hydroxide that ionizes
strongly.

Alkalinity.  The presence of salts of  alkali  metals.   The
hydroxides,  carbonates  and bicarbonates of calcium, sodium
and magnesium are common impurities that  cause  alkalinity.
A  quantitative  measure  of  the  capacity  of  liquids  or
suspensions to neutralize strong  acids  or  to  resist  the
establishment of acidic conditions.  Alkalinity results from
the   presence   of  bicarbonates,  carbonates,  hydroxides,
volatile  acids,  salts  and  occasionally  borates  and  is
usually  expressed  in terms of the concentration of calcium
carbonate  that  would  have  an  equivalent   capacity   to
neutralize strong acids.

Alum.   A  hydrated  aluminum  sulfate or potassium aluminum
sulfate or ammonium aluminum sulfate  which  is  used  as  a
settling agent.  A coagulant.

Ammonia  Nitrogen.   A  gas  released by the microbiological
decay of plant and animal proteins.  When  ammonia  nitrogen
is   found   in  waters,  it  is  indicative  of  incomplete
treatment.

Ammonification.   The process in which ammonia  is  liberated
from organic compounds by microoganisms.

Anaerobic.  Ability to live, grow, or take place where there
is no air or free oxygen present.
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Anaerobic  Biological  Treatment.   Any  treatment method or
process utilizing anaerobic or facultative organisms, in the
absence of air, for the  purpose  of  reducing  the  organic
matter in wastes or organic solids settled out from wastes.

Anaerobic Digestion.  Biodegradable materials in primary and
excess  activated sludge are stabilized by being oxidized to
carbon dioxide,  methane  and  other  inert  products.   The
primary  digester  serves  mainly  to  reduce VSS, while the
secondary digester is mainly for  solids-liquid  separation,
sludge thickening and storage.

Anion.  Ion with a negative charge.

Antagonistic  Effect.   The  simultaneous action of separate
agents mutually opposing each other.

Aqueous Solution.  One containing water or watery in nature.

Arithmetic Mean.  The arithmetic mean of a number  of  items
is  obtained  by  adding all the items together and dividing
the total by the number of items.  It is  frequently  called
the average.  It is greatly affected by extreme values.

Backwashing.   The  process  of  cleaning  a  rapid  sand or
mechanical filter by reversing the flow of water.

Bacteria.  Unicellular, plant-like  microorganisms,  lacking
chlorophyll.   Any  water  supply  contaminated by sewage is
certain to contain a bacterial group called "coliform".

Bateria, Coliform Groug.  A group of bacteria, predominantly
inhabitants of the  intestine  of  man  but  also  found  on
vegetation,  including all aerobic and facultative anaerobic
gram-negative, non-sporeforming bacilli that ferment lactose
with gas formation.  This  group  includes  five  tribes  of
which   the  very  great  majority  are  Eschericheae.   The
Eschericheae tribe comprises three genera and  ten  species,
of  which  Escherichia  Coli  and  Aerobacter  Aerogenes are
dominant.  The Escherichia Coli are  normal  inhabitants  of
the  intestine  of man and all vertbrates whereas Aerobacter
Aerogenes normally are found on grain and plants,  and  only
to  a  varying  degree  in the intestine of man and animals.
Formerly referred to as B. Coli, B. Coli  group,  and  Coli-
Aerogenes Group.

Bacterial  Growth.   All  bacteria  require  food  for their
continued life and  growth  and  all  are  affected  by  the
conditions  of  their  environment.  Like human beings, they
consume food, they respire, they need moisture, they require
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heat,  and  they  give  off  waste  products.   Their   food
requirements  are  very  definite and have been, in general,
already outlined.  Without an adequate food  supply  of  the
type  the specific organism requires, bacteria will not grow
and multiply at their maximum rate and they will  therefore,
not perform their full and complete functions.

NSPS  Effluent  Limitations.   Limitations  for  new sources
which are based on the application  of  the  Best  Available
Demonstrated Control Technology.

Base.  A substance that in aqueous solution turns red litmus
blue,  furnishes  hydroxyl  ions  and reacts with an acid to
form a salt and water only.

Batch Process.  A process which has an intermittent flow  of
raw  materials into the process and a resultant intermittent
flow of product from the process.

BAT Effluent Limitations.  Limitations  for  point  sources,
other  than  publicly owned treatment works, which are based
on  the  application  of  the  Best   Available   Technology
Economically Achievable.  These limitations must be achieved
by July 1, 1983.

Benthic.  Attached to the bottom of a body of water.

Benthos.   Organisms  (fauna  and  flora)   that  live on the
bottoms of bodies of water.

Bioassay.   An assessment  which  is  made  by  using  living
organisms as the sensors.

Biochemical  Oxygen  Demand  (BOD).  A measure of the oxygen
required to oxidize the organic  material  in  a  sample  of
wastewater  by  natural  biological  process  under standard
conditions.  This test is presently universally accepted  as
the  yardstick  of  pollution  and is utilized as a means to
determine the degree  of  treatment  in  a  waste  treatment
process.   Usually  given  in  mg/1  (or ppm units), meaning
milligrams of oxygen required per liter  of  wastewater,  it
can also be expressed in pounds of total oxygen required per
wastewater  or  sludge batch.  The standard BOD is five days
at 20 degrees C.

Biota.   The flora and fauna (plant and  animal  life)   of  a
stream or other water body.
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Biological   Treatment   System.    A   system   that   uses
microorganisms to remove organic pollutant material  from  a
wastewater.

Slowdown.   Water intentionally discharged from a cooling or
heating   system   to   maintain   the   dissolved    solids
concentration  of  the  circulating  water  below a specific
critical level.  The removal of a  portion  of  any  process
flow to maintain the constituents of the flow within desired
levels.   Process may be intermittent or continuous.  2)  The
water discharged from a boiler or cooling tower  to  dispose
of accumulated salts.

BODS.   Biochemical  Oxygen  Demand  (BOD)   is the amount of
oxygen required by bacteria while  stabilizing  decomposable
organic  matter  under aerobic conditions.   The BOD test has
been developed on the basis of  a  5-day  incubation  period
(i.e. BODS).

BPT  Effluent  Limitations.   Limitations for point sources,
other than publicly owned treatment works,  which  are  based
on   the   application   of  the  Best  Practicable  control
Technology Currently Available.  These limitations  must  be
achieved by July 1, 1977.

Break  Point.  The point at which impurities first appear in
the effluent of a granular carbon adsorption bed.

Break  Point  Chlorination.   The  addition  of   sufficient
chlorine to destroy or oxidize all substances that creates a
chlorine  demand with an excess amount remaining in the free
residual state.

Brine.  Water saturated with a salt.

Buffer.  A solution containing either a weak  acid  and  its
salt  or  a  weak  base  and  its salt which thereby resists
changes in acidity or basicity, and resists changes in pH.

Carbonaceous.  Containing or composed of carbon.

Catalyst.  A substance which changes the rate of a  chemical
reaction but undergoes no permanent chemical change itself.

Cation.   The  ion  in  an  electrolyte  which  carries  the
positive charge and which migrates toward the cathode  under
the influence of a potential difference.

Caustic  Soda.   In  its  hydrated  form it is called sodium
hydroxide.  Soda ash is sodium carbonate.
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Centrate.  The liquid fraction that is  separated  from  the
solids fraction of a slurry through centrifugation.

Centrifugation.  The process of separating heavier materials
from  lighter  ones  through  the  employment of centrifugal
force.

Centrifuge.  An apparatus that rotates at high speed and  by
centrifugal   force   separates   substances   of  different
densities.

Chemical Oxygen Demand  (COD).  A measure of oxygen-consuming
capacity of organic and inorganic matter present in water or
wastewater.   It  is  expressed  as  the  amount  of  oxygen
consumed  from  a  chemical  oxidant in a specific test.  It
does not differentiate between stable and  unstable  organic
matter  and  thus does not correlate with biochemical oxygen
demand.

Chemical Synthes is.  The processes of  chemically  combining
two or more constituent substances into a single substance.

Chlorination.   The application of chlorine to water, sewage
or  industrial  wastes,  generally  for   the   purpose   of
disinfection   but   frequently   for   accomplishing  other
biological or chemical results.

Clarification.  Process of removing turbidity and  suspended
solids  by  settling.  Chemicals can be added to improve and
speed up the settling process through coagulation.

Clarifier.  A basin or  tank  in  which  a  portion  of  the
material suspended in a wastewater is settled.

Clays.   Aluminum  silicates  less  than 0.002mm  (2.0 urn) in
size.  Therefore, most clay  types  can  go  into  colloidal
suspension.

Coagulation.   The  clumping together of solids to make them
settle out of the sewage faster.  Coagulation of  solids  is
brought  about  with  the  use of certain chemicals, such as
lime, alum or polyelectrolytes.

Coagulation  and  Flocculation.   Processes   which   follow
sequentially.

Coagulation  Chemicals.  Hydrolyzable divalent and trivalent
metallic ions of aluminum, magnesium, and iron salts.   They
include  alum (aluminum sulfate), quicklime (calcium oxide),
hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), sulfuric acid,  anhydrous
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ferric  chloride.  Lime and acid affect only the solution pH
which in turn causes coagulant precipitation, such  as  that
of magnesium.

Coliform.   Those bacteria which are most abundant in sewage
and in streams  containing  feces  and  other  bodily  waste
discharges.  See bacteria, coliform group.

Colloid.  A finely divided dispersion of one material (0.01-
10  micron-sized  particles) ,  called  the "dispersed phase"
(solid), in another material, called the "dispersion medium"
(liquid) .

Color Bodies.  Those complex molecules which impart color to
a solution.

Color Units.  A solution with the color of unity contains  a
mg/1    of    metallic    platinum   (added   as   potassium
chloroplatinate  to  distilled  water).   Color  units   are
defined against a platinum-cobalt standard and are based, as
are  all  the  other  water  quality  criteria,  upon  those
analytical methods described in  Standard  Methods  for  the
Examination  of  Water  and Wastewater, 12 ed., Amer. Public
Health Assoc., N.Y., 1967.

Combined Sewer.  One which carries  both  sewage  and  storm
water run-off.

Composite  Sample.   A  combination of individual samples of
wastes taken at selected intervals, generally hourly for  24
hours,   to   minimize  the  effect  of  the  variations  in
individual  samples.   Individual  samples  making  up   the
composite  may  be of equal volume or be roughly apportioned
to the volume of flow of liquid at the time of sampling.

Composting.  The biochemical stabilization of  solid  wastes
into  a humus-like substance by producing and controlling an
optimum environment for the process,

Concentration.  The total mass of the suspended or dissolved
particles contained in a unit volume at a given  temperature
and pressure.

Conductivity.    A   reliable   measurement  of  electrolyte
concentration  in  a   water   sample.     The   conductivity
measurement can be related to the concentration of dissolved
solids  and  is  almost  directly  proportional to the ionic
concentration of the total electrolytes.

Contact Stabilization.  Aerobic digestion.
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Contact Process Wastewaters.   These  are  process-generated
wastewaters  which  have  come in direct or indirect contact
with the reactants used in the process.  These include  such
streams as contact cooling water, filtrates, centrates, wash
waters, etc.

Continuous  Process.  A process which has a constant flow of
raw materials into the process and resultant  constant  flow
of product from the process.

Contract  Disposal.   Disposal  of waste products through an
outside party for a fee.

Crustaceae.  These are small animals ranging  in  size  from
0.2  to  0.3 milimeters long which move very rapidly through
the water in search of food.  They  have  recognizable  head
and  posterior  sections.   They  form a principal source of
food for small fish and  are  found  largely  in  relatively
fresh natural water.

Crystallization.   The formation of solid particles within a
homogeneous phase.  Formation of crystals separates a solute
from a solution and generally leaves  impurities  behind  in
the mother liquid.

Culture^  A mass of microorganisms growing in a media.

Cyanide.   Total cyanide as determined by the test procedure
specified in 40 CFP Part 136 (Federal Register, Vol.  38, no.
199, October 16, 1973).

Cyanide A.  Cyanides amendable to chlorination as  described
in  "1972  Annual  Book of ASTM Standards" 1972:  Standard D
2036-72, Method B, p. 553.

Demineralization.  The total removal of all ions.

Denitrification.  Bacterial mediated reduction of nitrate to
nitrite.  Other bacteria may act on the nitrite reducing  it
to  ammonia  and  finally N2 gas.  This reduction of nitrate
occurs under anaerobic  conditions.   The  nitrate  replaces
oxygen  as  an  electron  acceptor  during the metabolism of
carbon compounds under anaerobic conditions.   A  biological
process  in  which gaseous nitrogen is produced from nitrite
and  nitrate.    The   heterotrophic   microoganisms   which
participate   in   this   process   include   pseudomonades,
achromobacters and bacilli.

Derivative.  A substance  extracted  from  another  body  or
substance.
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Desorption.  The opposite of adsorption.   A phenomenon where
an adsorbed molecule leaves the surface of the adsorbent.

Diluent.  A diluting agent.

Disinfection.   The  process  of  killing the larger portion
(but not necessarily all) of the harmful  and  objectionable
microorganisms in or on a medium.

Dissolved  Air  Flotation.   The  term "flotation" indicates
something  floated  on  or  at  the  surface  of  a  liquid.
Dissolved  air  flotation  thickening is a process that adds
energy in the form of air bubbles, which become attached  to
suspended  sludge  particles, increasing the buoyancy of the
particles and producing more positive flotation.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO).   The  oxygen  dissolved  in  sewage,
water   or   other  liquids,  usually  expressed  either  in
milligrams per liter or percent of saturation.   It  is  the
test used in BOD determination.

Distillation.   The separation, by vaporization, of a liquid
mixture of miscible and volatile substance  into  individual
components,  or,  in some cases, into a group of components.
The process of raising the temperature of a  liquid  to  the
boiling  point  and condensing the resultant vapor to liquid
form by cooling.  It is used to  remove  substances  from  a
liquid  or  to  obtain a pure liquid from one which contains
impurities or which is a mixture of several  liquids  having
different  boiling  temperatures.    Used in the treatment of
fermentation products, yeast,  etc.,  and  other  wastes  to
remove recoverable products.

DO  Units.  The units of measurement used are milligrams per
liter  (mg/1)  and parts per  million  (ppm),  where  mg/1  is
defined  as  the  actual weight of oxygen per liter of water
and ppm is defined as the  parts  actual  weight  of  oxygen
dissolved  in a million parts weight of water, i.e., a pound
of oxygen in a million  pounds  of  water  is  1  ppm.   For
practical  purposes in pollution control work, these two are
used interchangeably; the density of water is so close to  1
g/cm3  that the error is negligible.  Similarly, the changes
in  volume  of  oxygen  with  changes  in  temperature   are
insignificant.   This,  however,  is not true if sensors are
calibrated in percent saturation rather than in mg/1 or ppm.
In that case, both temperature and barometric pressure  must
be taken into consideration.

Dual  Media.    A  deep-bed  filtration  system utilizing two
separate and discrete  layers  of  dissimilar  media  (e.g..
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anthracite  and  sand)  placed  one  on  top of the other to
perform the filtration function.

Ecology.  The s.cience of the interrelations  between  living
organisms and their environment.

Effluent.   A  liquid  which  leaves  a  unit  operation  or
process.  Sewage,  water  or  other  liquids,  partially  or
completely  treated  or in their natural states, flowing out
of a reservoir basin, treatment  plant  or  any  other  unit
operation.  An influent is the incoming stream.

Elution.   (1)  The process of washing out, or removing with
the use of a solvent.  (2) In an ion exchange process it  is
defined  as  the  stripping  of  adsorbed  ions  from an ion
exchange  resin  by  passing  through  the  resin  solutions
containing other ions in relatively high concentrations.

Elutriation.   A  process of sludge conditioning whereby the
sludge is washed, either with fresh water or plant effluent,
to reduce the sludge alkalinity  and  fine  particles,  thus
decreasing  the  amount  of  required  coagulant  in further
treatment steps, or in sludge dewatering.

Emulsion.  Emulsion is a suspension of fine droplets of  one
liquid in another.

Environment.    The  sum  of  all  external  influences  and
conditions affecting the life  and  the  development  of  an
organism.

Equalization  Basin.  A holding basin in which variations in
flow and composition of a liquid are averaged.  Such  basins
are  used to provide a flow of reasonably uniform volume and
composition to a treatment unit.

Eutrophication.  The process in  which  the  life-sustaining
quality  of  a  body  of  water is lost or diminished (e.g.,
aging or filling in of lakes).  A eutrophic condition is one
in which the water is rich in nutrients but has  a  seasonal
oxygen deficiency.

Evapotranspiration.   The loss of water from the soil both by
evaporation  and  by  transpiration  from the plants growing
thereon.

Facultative.  Having  the  power  to  live  under  different
conditons (either with or without oxygen).
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Facultative  Lagoon.   A  combination  of  the  aerobic  and
anaerobic lagoons.  It is divided  by  loading  and  thermal
stratifications  into  an  aerobic  surface and an anaerobic
bottom, therefore the principles of  both  the  aerobic  and
anaerobic processes apply.

Fauna.   The  animal  life adapted for living in a specified
environment.

Fermentation.   Oxidative decomposition of complex substances
through the  action  of  enzymes  or  ferments  produced  by
mi croo rgan i sm s.

Filter, Trickling.  A filter consisting of an artificial bed
of  coarse  material, such as broken stone, clinkers, slate,
slats or brush, over which sewage is distributed and applied
in drops, films or spray,  from  troughs,  drippers,  moving
distributors  or fixed nozzles.  The sewage trickles through
to the underdrains and has the opportunity to form  zoogleal
slimes which clarify and oxidize the sewage.

Filter,  Vacuum.   A filter consisting of a cylindrical drum
mounted on a horizontal  axis  and  covered  with  a  filter
cloth.   The  filter  revolves with a partial submergence in
the liquid, and a vacuum is maintained under the  cloth  for
the larger part of each revolution to extract moisture.  The
cake is scraped off continuously.

Filtrate.   The  liquid  fraction that is separated from the
solids fraction of a slurry through filtration.

Filtration, Biological.  The process  of  passing  a  liquid
through a biological filter containing media on the surfaces
of  which zoogleal films develop that absorb and adsorb fine
suspended, colloidal and dissolved solids and  that  release
various biochemical end products.

Flocculants.   Those  water-soluble organic polyelectrolytes
that  are  used  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  inorganic
coagulants   such  as  lime,  alum  or  ferric  chloride  or
coagulant aids to agglomerate solids  suspended  in  aqueous
systems  or  both. The large dense floes resulting from this
process permit more rapid and more  efficient  solids-liquid
separations.

Flocculation.    The  formation  of  floes.  The process step
following  the  coagulation-precipitation  reactions   which
consists  of  bringing together the colloidal particles.  It
is the  agglomeration  by  organic  polyelectroytes  of  the
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small,  slowly settling floes formed during coagulation into
large floes which settle rapidly.

Flora.  The plant life characteristic of a region.

Flotation.  A method of  raising  suspended  matter  to  the
surface of the liquid in a tank as scum-by aeration, vacuum,
evolution of gas, chemicals, electrolysis, heat or bacterial
decomposition  and  the .subsequent  removal  of the scum by
skimming.

Fungus.  A vegetable  cellular  organism  that  subsists  on
organic material, such as bacteria.

Gland.   A  device  utilizing a soft wear-resistant material
used to minimize leakage between a rotating  shaft  and  the
stationary portion of a vessel such as a pump.

Gland  Water.   Water  used to lubricate a gland.  Sometimes
called "packing water."

Grab Sample.  (1)  Instantaneous  sampling.   (2)  A  sample
taken at a random place in space and time.

Grease.   In sewage, grease includes fats, waxes, free fatty
acids, calcium and magnesium soaps, mineral oils  and  other
nonfatty  materials.  The type of solvent to be used for its
extraction should be stated.

Grit Chamber.  A small detention chamber or  an  enlargement
of  a  sewer  designed to reduce the velocity of flow of the
liquid and permit the separation  of  mineral  from  organic
solids by differential sedimentation.

Groundwater.   The  body  of  water  that is retained in the
saturated zone which tends to move by hydraulic gradient  to
lower levels.

Hardness.    A   measure   of  the  capacity  of  water  for
precipitating soap.   It is reported  as  the  hardness  that
would  be  produced  if  a  certain  amount  of  CaCC3  were
dissolved in water.   More than one ion contributes to  water
hardness.   The  "Glossary  of  Water and Wastewater Control
Engineering" defines hardness as: A characteristic of water,
imparted by salts of calcium, magnesium, and ions,  such  as
bicarbonates, carbonates,  sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates,
that cause curdling of soap, deposition of scale in boilers,
damage   in   some   industrial   process,   and   sometimes
objectionable taste.  Calcium and  magnesium  are  the  most
significant constituents.
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      Metals.  A general name given for the ions of metallic
elements,   such   as  copper,  zinc,  iron,  chromium,  and
aluminum.  They are normally removed from  a  wastewater  by
the   formation  of  an  insoluble  precipitate  (usually  a
metallic hydroxide).

Hydrocarbon.   A  compound  containing   only   carbon   and
hydrogen.

Hydrolysis.   A chemical reaction in which water reacts with
another substance to form one or more new substances.

Incineration.  The combustion (by burning)  of organic matter
in wastewater sludge.

Incubate.   To  maintain  cultures,   bacteria,   or   other
microorganisms   at   the  most  favorable  temperature  for
development.

Influent.  Any sewage, water or other liquid, either raw  or
partly  treated,  flowing into a reservoir, basin, treatment
plant, or any part thereof.   The  influent  is  the  stream
entering  a  unit  operation;  the  effluent  is  the stream
leaving it.

In-Plant   Measures.    Technology   applied   within    the
manufacturing  process  to reduce or eliminate pollutants in
the raw waste water.  Sometimes called  "internal  measures"
or "internal controls".

Ion.   An  atom  or  group of atoms possessing an electrical
charge.

Ion Exchange.  A reversible interchange of  ions  between  a
liquid  and  a  solid  involving  no  radical  change in the
structure of the solid.  The solid can be a natural  zeolite
or  a  synthetic resin, also called polyelectrolyte.  Cation
exchange resins  exchange  their  hydrogen  ions  for  metal
cations in the liquid.  Anion exchange resins exchange their
hydroxyl  ions  for  anions  such as nitrates in the liquid.
When the ion-retaining capacity of the resin  is  exhausted,
it  must be regenerated.  Cation resins are regenerated with
acids and anion resins with bases.

Lacrimal.  Tear forming fluid.

Lagoons.  An oxidation pond that receives  sewage  which  is
not settled or biologically treated.
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LC  50.   A  lethal  concentration  for 505? of test animals.
Numerically the same as TLm.  A statistical estimate of  the
toxicant,   such   as   pesticide  concentration,  in  water
necessary to  kill  50%  of  the  test  organisms  within  a
specified  time under standardized conditions  (usually 24,48
or 96 hr) .

Leach.  To dissolve out  by  the  action  of  a  percolating
liquid, such as water, seeping through a sanitary landfill.

Lime.   Limestone  is  an  accumulation  of  organic remains
consisting mostly of calcium  carbonate.   When  burned,  it
yields  lime  which  is  a  solid.   The  hydrated form of a
chemical lime is calcium hydroxide.

Liquid-licruid-ex traction.   The   process   by   which   the
constituents  of  a  solution are separated by causing their
unegual distribution between two insoluble liquids.

Maximum Day Limitation.  The effluent limitation value equal
to the maximum for any one  day  and  is  the  value  to  be
published by EPA in the Federal Register.

Maximum  Thirty  Day  Limitation.   The  effluent limitation
value for which the  average  of  daily  values  for  thirty
consecutive  days  shall  not  exceed and is the value to be
published by EPA in the Federal Register.

Mean.  The  arithmetic  average  of  the  individual  sample
values.

Median.   In  a  statistical array, the value having as many
cases larger in value as cases smaller in value.

Median Lethal Dose (LD50) .  The dose lethal to 50 percent of
a group of test organisms for a specified period.  The  dose
material may be ingested or injected.

Median Tolerance Limit (TLm).  In toxicological studies, the
concentration  of pollutants at which 50 percent of the test
animals can survive for a specified period of exposure.

Microbjal.  Of or pertaining to a pathogenic bacterium.

Mixed Liquor.  The mixture of recirculated activated  sludge
and  primary  clarifier  overflow  which enters the aeration
tank.

Mixed Liquor Suspended  Solids  jMLSS).   This  is  a  vital
design  factor for conventional activated sludge systems and
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is used to define sludge retention time (SRT).   SRT  equals
pounds  of  MLSS  under  aeration  divided  by the pounds of
suspended solids wasted and pounds of suspended solids  lost
in final effluent per day.

Molecular   Weight.    The  relative  weight  of  a  molecule
compared to the weight of an atom of carbon taken as exactly
12.00; the sum of the atomic  weights  of  the  atoms  in  a
molecule.

MoHusk  (mollusca).    A  large animal group including those
forms  popularly  called  shellfish   (but   not   including
crustaceans).   All have a soft unsegmented body protected in
most  instances by a calcareous shell.  Examples are snails,
mussels, clams, and oysters.

Mycelium.  The  mass  of  filaments  which  constitutes  the
vegetative body of fungi.

Navigable  Waters.   Includes  all  navigable  waters of the
United States; tributaries of navigable  waters;  interstate
waters;  intrastate  lakes,  rivers  and  streams  which are
utilized by interstate travellers for recreational or  other
purposes;  intrastate  lakes,  rivers and streams from which
fish or shellfish are taken and sold in interstate commerce;
and intrastate lakes, rivers and streams which are  utilized
for   industrial   purposes   by  industries  in  interstate
commerce.

Neutralization.    The  restoration  of  the   hydrogen   or
hydroxyl  ion  balance  in  a  solution  so  that  the ionic
concentration  of  each  are  equal.   Conventionally,   the
notation "pH"  (puissance d1hydrogen) is used to describe the
hydrogen  ion  concentration  or activity present in a given
solution.  For dilute solutions of strong acids, i.e., acids
which are considered to be completely  dissociated   (ionized
in solution),  activity equals concentration.

New  Source.    Any  facility from which there is or may be a
discharge  of  pollutants,  the  construction  of  which  is
commenced  after  the  publication  of  proposed regulations
prescribing a standard of performance under section  306  of
the Act.

Nitrate  Nitrogen.   The  final decomposition product of the
organic nitrogen compounds.  Determination of this parameter
indicates the degree of waste treatment.

Nitrification.  Bacterial mediated oxidation of  ammonia  to
nitrite.  Nitrite can be further oxidized to nitrate.  These
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reactions  are  brought  about  by  only  a  few specialized
bacterial species.  Nitrosomonias sp.  and  Nitrococcus  sp.
oxidize  ammonia  to nitrite which is oxidized to nitrate by
Nitrobacter sp.
           «
Nitrifiers.  Bacteria which causes the oxidation of  ammonia
to nitrites and nitrates.

Nitrite  Nitrogen.   An  intermediate  stage in the decompo-
sition of organic nitrogen to the nitrate form.   Tests  for
nitrite nitrogen can determine whether the applied treatment
is sufficient.

Nitrobacteria.   Those  bacteria (an autotrophic genus) that
oxidize nitrite nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen.

Nitrogen Cycle.  Organic nitrogen in waste  is  oxidized  by
bacteria  into  ammonia.   If  oxygen is present, ammonia is
bacterially  oxidized  first  into  nitrite  and  then  into
nitrate.   If oxygen is not present, nitrite and nitrate are
bacterially reduced to nitrogen gas.   The  second  step  is
called "denitrification."

Nitrogen  Fixation.  Biological nitrogen fixation is carried
on by a selected group of bacteria which take up atmospheric
nitrogen and convert it to amine groups or  for  amino  acid
synthesis.

Nitrosomonas.   Bacteria which oxidize ammonia nitrogen into
nitrite nitrogen; an aerobic autotrophic life form.

Non-contact Cooling Water.  Water used for cooling that does
not  come  into  direct  contact  with  any  raw   material,
intermediate product, waste product or finished product.

Non-contadt Process Wastewaters.  Wastewaters generated by a
manufacturing  process which have not come in direct contact
with the reactants used in the process.  These include  such
streams   as   non-contact   cooling  water,  cooling  tower
blowdown, boiler blowdown, etc.

Nonputresci ble.   Incapable  of  organic  decomposition   or
decay.

Normal  Solution.   A  solution that contains 1 gm molecular
weight of the dissolved substance divided  by  the  hydrogen
equivalent  of  the substance  (that is, one gram equivalent)
per liter of solution.   Thus,  a  one  normal  solution  of
sulfuric  acid (H2S
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NPDES.  National Pollution Discharge Elimination System.   A
federal  program  requiring  industry  to  obtain permits to
discharge plant effluents to the nation's water courses.

Nutrient.  Any substance assimilated by  an  organism  which
promotes growth and replacement of cellular constituents.

Operations  and  Maintenance.  Costs required to operate and
maintain  pollution  abatement  equipment  including  labor,
material, insurance, taxes, solid waste disposal, etc.

Organic  Loading.  In the activated sludge process, the food
to micoorganisms  (F/M)   ratio  defined  as  the  amount  of
biodegradable  material  available  to  a  given  amount  of
microorganisms per unit of time.

Osmosis.  The diffusion of a solvent through a semipermeable
membrane into a more concentrated solution.

Oxidation.  A process in which an atom  or  group  of  atoms
loses electrons; the combination of a substance with oxygen,
accompanied  with  the release of energy.  The oxidized atom
usually becomes a positive ion  while  the  oxidizing  agent
becomes a negative ion in  (chlorination for example).

Oxidation  Pond.   A man-made lake or body of water in which
wastes are consumed by bacteria.  It  receives  an  influent
which  has  gone  through  primary  treatment while a lagoon
receives raw untreated sewage.

Oxidation Reduction (OR).  A class of chemical reactions  in
which  one  of  the  reacting  species  gives  up  electrons
(oxidation)  while another species in  the  reaction  accepts
electrons  (reduction).   At one time, the term oxidation was
restricted  to  reactions   involving   hydrogen.    Current
chemical  technology  has broadened the scope of these terms
to include all reactions where electrons are  given  up  and
taken  on  by  reacting  species;  in fact, the donating and
accepting of electrons must take place simultaneously.

Oxygen,  Available.   The  quantity  of  atmospheric  oxygen
dissolved  in  the  water  of  a  stream;  the  quantity  of
dissolved oxygen available  for  the  oxidation  of  organic
matter in sewage.

Oxygen,  Dissolved.   The  oxygen (usually designated as DO)
dissolved in sewage, water or  another  liquid  and  usually
expressed in parts per million or percent of saturation.
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Ozonation.    A   water   or  wastewater  treatment  process
involving the use of ozone as an oxidation agent.

Ozone.  That molecular oxygen with  three  atoms  of  oxygen
forming  each  molecule.   The  third atom of oxygen in each
molecule of ozone is  loosely  bound  and  easily  released.
Ozone  is  used  sometimes for the disinfection of water but
more  frequently  for  the  oxidation   of   taste-producing
substances,   such   a.s   phenol,   in  water  a*nd  for  the
neutralization of odors in gases or air.

Parameter.    A   variable   whose   measurement   aids   in
characterizing the sample.

Parts   Per  Million  (ppm).   Parts  by  weight  in  sewage
analysis; ppm by weight is equal  to  milligrams  per  liter
divided by the specific gravity.  It should be noted that in
water   analysis   ppm  is  always  understood  to  imply  a
weight/weight ratio, even though in practice a volume may be
measured instead of a weight.

Pathogenic.  Disease producing.

Percolation.  The  movement  of  water  beneath  the  ground
surface  both  vertically  and  horizontally,  but above the
groundwater table.

Permeability.  The ability of a substance  (soil)  to  allow
appreciable  movement of water through it when saturated and
actuated by a hydrostatic pressure.

pH.   The   negative   logarithm   of   the   hydrogen   ion
concentration  or  activity  in  a  solution.   The number 7
indicates  neutrality,  numbers   less   than   7   indicate
increasing  acidity,  and  numbers  greater  than 7 indicate
increasing alkalinity.

Phenol.   Class of cyclic organic derivatives with the  basic
chemical formula C6H5OH.

Phosphate.   Phosphate  ions  exist  as  an ester or salt of
phosphoric  acid,  such  as  calcium  phosphate  rock.    In
municipal  wastewater,  it  is  most  frequently  present as
orthophosphate.

Phosphorus Precipitation.  The addition of  the  multivalent
metallic ions of calcium, iron and aluminum to wastewater to
form insoluble precipitates with phosphorus.
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Photosynthesis.   The mechanism by which chlorophyll-bearing
plants utilize light  energy  to  produce  carbohydrate  and
oxygen  from  carbon  dioxide  and  water  (the  reverse  of
respiration).

Physical/Chemical Treatment System.  A system that  utilizes
physical  (i.e.,  sedimentation, filtration,  centrifugation,
activated carbon, reverse  osmosis,  etc.)   and/or  chemical
means  (i.e., coagulation, oxidation, precipitation, etc.) to
treat wastewaters.

Phytoplankton.   (1)  Collective term for the plants and plant
like  organisms  present  in  plankton;  contrasts with zoo-
plankton.

Plankton.  Collective term for  the  passively  floating  or
drifting  flora  and  fauna  of  a  body  of water; consists
largely of microscopic organisms.

Point  Source.   Any  discernible,  confined  and   discrete
conveyance,  including  but  not limited to any pipe, ditch,
channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container,
rolling stock, concentrated  animal  feeding  operation,  or
vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or
may be discharged.

Pollutional Load.  A measure of the strength of a wastewater
in  terms  of its solids or oxygen-demanding characteristics
or other objectionable physical and chemical characteristics
or both or in terms of harm done to receiving  waters.   The
pollutional  load  imposed  on  sewage  treatment  works  is
expressed as population equivalent.

Polyelectrolytes.  Synthetic chemicals   (polymers)  used  to
speed up the removal of solids from sewage.  These chemicals
cause  solids  to  coagulate  or clump together more rapidly
than do chemicals such as alum or lime.  They can be anionic
(-charge) , nonionic  (+ and -charge) or  cationic   (^charge—
the  most  popular).   They  are  linear or branched organic
polymers.  They have high molecular weights and  are  water-
soluble.    Compounds   similar   to   the   polyelectrolyte
flocculants include surface-active agents and  ion  exchange
resins.   The former are low molecular weight, water soluble
compounds used to disperse solids in aqueous  systems.   The
latter  are high molecular weight, water-insoluble compounds
used to selectively replace certain ions already present  in
water with more desirable or less noxious ions.

Population  Equivalent   (PE).  An expression of the relative
strength of a waste  (usually industrial)  in  terms  of  its
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equivalent  in  domestic  waste, expressed as the population
that  would  produce  the  equivalent  domestic  waste.    A
population  equivalent  of  160  million  persons  means the
pollutional effect equivalent to raw sewage from 160 million
persons; 0.17 pounds BOD  (the  oxygen  demand  of  untreated
wastes from one person) = 1 PE.

Potable  Water.   Drinking water sufficiently pure for human
use.

Potash.   Potassium  compounds  used  in   agriculture   and
industry.   Potassium  carbonate  can  be obtained from wood
ashes.  The mineral potash is usually  a  muriate.   Caustic
potash is its hydrated form.

Preaeration .   A preparatory treatment of sewage consisting
of aeration to remove gases and add oxygen or to promote the
flotation of grease and aid coagulation.

Precipitation.  The phenomenon which occurs when a substance
held in solution passes out  of  that  solution  into  solid
form.   The adjustment of pH can reduce solubility and cause
precipitation.  Alum and lime are frequently used  chemicals
in   such   operations  as  water  softening  or  alkalinity
reduction.

Pretreatment.  Any  wastewater  treatment  process  used  to
partially reduce the pollution load before the wastewater is
introduced  into  a  main  sewer  system  or  delivered to a
treatment plant for substantial reduction of  the  pollution
load.

Primary   Clarifier.   The  settling  tank  into  which  the
wastewater (sewage)  first enters and from which  the  solids
are removed as raw sludge.

Primary Sludge.  Sludge from primary clarifiers.

Primary  Treatment.    The removal of material that floats or
will settle in sewage by using screens to catch the floating
objects and tanks for the heavy matter to  settle  in.    The
first  major treatment and sometimes the only treatment in a
waste-treatment   works,   usually   sedimentation    and/or
flocculation  and  digestion.    The  removal  of  a moderate
percentage of suspended matter but little or no colloidal or
dissolved matter.  It may effect the removal  of  30  to  35
percent or more BOD.

Process  Waste Water.   Any water which,  during manufacturing
or processing, comes into direct  contact  with  or  results
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from the production or use of any raw material, intermediate
product, finished product, by-product, or waste product.

Process  Water.   Any  water (solid, liquid or vapor) which,
during the manufacturing process, comes into direct  contact
with  any  raw  material,  intermediate product, by-product,
waste product, or finished product.

Putrefaction.  Biological decomposition  of  organic  matter
accompanied  by  the  production  of  foul-smelling products
associated with anaerobic conditions.

Pyrolysis.  The high temperature  decomposition  of  complex
molecules that occurs in the presence of an inert atmosphere
(no oxygen present to support combustion).

Raw  Waste Load (RWL).  The quantity  (kg)  of pollutant being
discharged in a plant's wastewater.  measured  in  terms  of
some  common  denominator  (i.e., kkg of production or m2 of
floor area).

Receiving waters.   Rivers, lakes, oceans  or  other  courses
that receive treated or untreated wastewaters.

Recirculation.   The refiltration of either all or a portion
of the effluent in a  high-rate  trickling  filter  for  the
purpose  of  maintaining  a  uniform  high  rate through the
filter.  (2)  The return of effluent to the incoming flow  to
reduce its strength.

Reduction.   A  process in which an atom (or group of atoms)
gain electrons.  Such a process always requires the input of
energy.

Refractory  Organics.   Organic  materials  that  are   only
partially   degraded   or   entirely   nonbiodegradable   in
biological waste treatment processes.   Refractory  organics
include  detergents,  pesticides,  color-  and  odor-causing
agents, tannins, lignins, ethers, olefins, alcohols, amines,
aldehydes, ketones, etc.

Residual Chlorine.  The  amount  of  chlorine  left  in  the
treated  water  that is available to oxidize contaminants if
they enter the  stream.   It  is  usually  in  the  form  of
hypochlorous  acid  of  hypochlorite  ion  or  of one of the
chloramines.  Hypochlorite  concentration  alone  is  called
"free  chlorine residual" while together with the chloramine
concentration  their  sum  is  called   "combined   chlorine
residual."
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Respiration.   Biological  oxidation within a life form; the
most likely  energy  source  for  animals  (the  reverse  of
photosynthesis).
               •
Retention  Time.   Volume  of the vessel divided by the flow
rate through the vessel.

Reverse  Osmosis.   The  process  in  which  a  solution  is
pressurized to a degree greater than the osmotic pressure of
the solvent, causing it to pass through a membrane.

Salt.   A compound made up of the positive ion of a base and
the negative ion of an acid.

Sanitary Landfill.  A sanitary landfill is a  land  disposal
site  employing  an  engineered method of disposing of solid
wastes on land in  a  manner  that  minimizes  environmental
hazards  by  spreading the wastes in thin layers, compacting
the solid wastes  to  the  smallest  practical  volume,  and
applying  cover  material  at the end of each operating day.
There are two basic sanitary landfill methods;  trench  fill
and  area  or  ramp fill.  The method chosen is dependent on
many factors such as  drainage  and  type  of  soil  at  the
proposed landfill site.

Sanitary Sewers.  In a separate system, pipes in a city that
carry  only  domestic wastewater.  The storm water runoff is
handled by a separate system of pipes.

Screening.  The removal of relatively coarse,  floating  and
suspended solids by straining through racks or screens.

Secondary   Treatment.    The  second  step  in  most  waste
treatment systems in which bacteria consume the organic part
of the wastes.  This is accomplished by bringing the  sewage
and  bacteria together either in trickling filters or in the
activated sludge process.

Sedimentation,  Final.   The  settling  of  partly  settled,
flocculated  or  oxidized sewage in a final tank.  (The term
settling is preferred).

Sedimentation, Plain.   The sedimentation of suspended matter
in a liquid unaided by chemicals or other special means  and
without any provision for the decomposition of the deposited
solids in contact with the sewage.  (The term plain settling
is preferred).

Seed.  To introduce microorganisms into a culture medium.
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Settleable  Solids.   Suspended solids which will settle out
of a liquid waste in a given period of time.

Settling Velocity.  The terminal rate of fall of a  particle
through  a  fluid  as  induced  by gravity or other external
forces.

Sewage, Raw.  Untreated sewage.

Sewage, Storm.  The  liquid  flowing  in  sewers  during  or
following   a   period   of  heavy  rainfall  and  resulting
therefrom.

Sewerage.  A comprehensive term  which  includes  facilities
for  collecting, pumping, treating, and disposing of sewage;
the sewerage system and the sewage treatment works.

Silt.  Particles with a size distribution of  0.05mm-0.002mm
(2.0um).  Silt is high in quartz and feldspar.

Skimming.  Removing floating solids (scum) .

Sludger  Activated.   Sludge floe produced in raw or settled
sewage  by  the  growth  of  zoogleal  bacteria  and   other
organisms   in   the   presence   of  dissolved  oxygen  and
accumulated in sufficient  concentration  by  returning  the
floe previously formed.

Sludge,  Age.  The ratio of the weight of volatile solids in
the digester to the weight of volatile solids added per day.
There is a maximum sludge age beyond  which  no  significant
reduction  in  the  concentration  of  volatile  solids will
occur.

Sludge,   Digested.    Sludge   digested   under   anaerobic
conditions  until  the  volatile  content  has been reduced,
usually by approximately 50 percent or more.

Solution.  A homogeneous mixture of two or  more  substances
of  dissimilar molecular structure.  In a solution, there is
a  dissolving  medium-solvent  and  a  dissolved  substance-
solute.

Solvent.  A liquid which reacts with a material, bringing it
into solution.

Solvent  Extraction.  A mixture of two components is treated
by a solvent that preferentially dissolves one  or  more  of
the  components  in the mixture.  The solvent in the extract
leaving the extractor is usually recovered and reused.
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Sparger.  An air diffuser designed to  give  large  bubbles,
used  singly  or  in  combination  with  mechanical aeration
devices.

Standard Deviation.  The square root of the  variance  which
describes  the  variability  within the sampling data on the
basis of the deviation of individual sample values from  the
mean.

Standard  Raw  Waste  Load (SRWL).  The raw waste load which
characterizes a specific  subcategory.   This  is  generally
computed  by  averaging  the  plant raw waste loads within a
subcategory.

Sterilization.   The  complete  destuction  of  all   living
organisms  in or on a medium; heat to 121°C at 5 psig for 15
minutes.

Stillwell.    A   pipe,   chamber,   or   compartment   with
comparatively  small  inlet  or  inlets communicating with a
main body of water.  Its  purpose  is  to  dampen  waves  or
surges  while  permitting the water level within the well to
rise and fall with the major fluctuations of the  main  body
of  water.   It  is  used  with  water-measuring  devices to
improve accuracy of measurement.

Stoichiometric.  Characterized  by  being  a  proportion  of
substances  exactly  right  for a specific chemical reaction
with no excess of any reactant or product.

Substrate.    (1)    Peactant  portion  of   any   biochemical
reaction,  material  transformed  into  a  product.  (2) Any
substance used as a nutrient by a  microorganism.   (3)   The
liquor  in  which activated sludge or other material is kept
in suspension.

Sulfate.  The final decomposition product of organic  sulfur
compounds.

Supernatant.  Floating above or on the surface.

Surge tank.  A tank for absorbing and dampening the wavelike
motion  of  a  volume  of liquid;  an in-process storage tank
that acts as a flow buffer between process tanks.

Suspended Solids.  The wastes that will not sink  or  settle
in  sewage.   The quantity of material deposited on a filter
when a liquid is drawn through a Gooch crucible.
                               181

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Synerqistic.  An effect which is more than the  sum  of  the
individual contributors.

Svnergistic  Effect.   The  simultaneous  action of separate
agents which, together, have greater total effect  than  the
sum of their individual effects.

Tertiary  Treatment.   A  process  to remove practically all
solids  and  organic  matter  from   wastewater.    Granular
activated carbon filtration is a tertiary treatment process.
Phosphate  removal  by chemical coagulation is also regarded
as a step in tertiary treatment.

Thermal Oxidation.  The wet combustion of organic  materials
through the application of heat in the presence of oxygen.

TKN (Total K-jeldahl Nitrogen) .  Includes ammonia and organic
nitrogen  but does not include nitrite and nitrate nitrogen.
The sum of free nitrogen and organic nitrogen in a sample.

TLm.  The concentration that kills 50% of the test organisms
within a specified time span,  usually in 96 hours  or  less.
Most  of  the  available  toxicity  data are reported as the
median tolerance limit  (TLm).   This system of reporting  has
been misapplied by some who have erroneously inferred that a
TLm value is a safe value, whereas it is merely the level at
which half of the test organisms are killed.  In many cases,
the  differences  are  great  between TLm concentrations and
concentrations that are low enough  to  permit  reproduction
and growth.  LC50 has the same numerical value as TLm.

Total  Organic  Carbon  (TOC).   A  measure of the amount of
carbon in a sample originating  from  organic  matter  only.
The  test  is  run  by  burning the sample and measuring the
carbon dioxide produced.

Total Solids.  The total amount of solids  in  a  wastewater
both in solution and suspension.

Total  Volatile  Solids (TVS).  The quantity of residue lost
after the ignition of total solids.

Transport Water.  Water used to carry insoluble solids.

Trickling Filter.  A bed of rocks or stones.  The sewage  is
trickled  over  the  bed so that bacteria can break down the
organic wastes.  The bacteria collect on the stones  through
repeated use of the filter.
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Turbidity.  A measure of the amount of solids in suspension.
The  units  of  measurement  are  parts per million  (ppm) of
suspended solids  or  Jackson  Candle  Units.   The  Jackson
Candle Unit (JCU) is defined as the turbidity resulting from
1  ppm  of  fuller's  earth  (and inert mineral)  suspended in
water.  The relationship between  ppm  and  JCU  depends  on
particle  size,  color, index of refraction; the correlation
between  the  two  is  generally  not  possible.   Turbidity
instruments  utilize  a light beam projected into the sample
fluid to effect a measurement.  The light beam is  scattered
by solids in suspension, and the degree of light attenuation
or   the  amount  of  scattered  light  can  be  related  to
turbidity.  The  light  scattering  is  called  the  Tyndall
effect  and  the  scattered  light  the  Tyndall  light.  An
expression of the optical property of a sample which  causes
light  to  be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted
in straight lines through the sample.

Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS).  The quantity of  suspended
solids lost after the ignition of total suspended solids.

Waste Treatment Plant.  A series of tanks, screens, filters,
pumps  and  other  equipment by which pollutants are removed
from water.

Water Quality Criteria.   Those  specific  values  of  water
quality  associated with an identified beneficial use of the
water under consideration.

Weir.  A flow  measuring  device  consisting  of  a  barrier
across  an open channel, causing the liquid to flow over its
crest.  The height of the liquid above the crest varies with
the volume of liquid flow.

Wet Air Pollution Control.  The technique of  air  pollution
abatement utilizing water as an absorptive media.

Wet  Oxidation.   The  direct oxidation of organic matter in
wastewater liquids in the presence of  air  under  heat  and
pressure;  generally  applied to organic matter oxidation in
sludge.

Zeolite.   Various natural or synthesized silicates  used  in
water softening and as absorbents.

Zooplankton.   (1)   The  animal portion of the plankton. (2)
Collective term for the nonphotosynthetic organisms  present
in plankton; contrasts with phytoplantkton.
                             183

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                        SECTION XVII

                 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
A.C.     activated
ac ft    acre-foot
Ag.      silver
atm      atmosphere
ave      average
B,       boron
Ba.      barium
bbl      barrel
BOD5     biochemical oxygen demand, five day
Btu      British thermal unit
C        centigrade degrees
C.A.     carbon adsorption
cal      calorie
cc       cubic centimeter
cfm      cubic foot per minute
cfs      cubic foot per second
Cl.      chloride
cm       centimeter
CN       cyanide
COD      chemical oxygen demand
cone.    Concentration
cu       cubic
db       decibels
deg      degree
CO       dissolved oxygen
E. Coli. Escherichia coliform bacteria
Eq.      equation
F        Fahrenheit degrees
Fig.     figure
F/M      BOD5 (Wastewater flow)/ MLSS  (contractor volume)
fpm      foot per minute
fps      foot per second
ft       foot
g        gram
gal      gallon
gpd      gallon per day
gpm      gallon per minute
Hg.      mercury
hp       horsepower
hp-hr    horsepower-hour
hr       hour
in.      inch
kg       kilogram
kw       kilowatt
kwhr     kilowatt-hour
                               185

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L(l)
L/kkg
Ib
m
M
me
mg
mgd
min
ml
MLSS
MLVSS
MM
mole
mph
MPN
mu
N0.3
NH3_-N
02_
P04_
p.
pH

pp.
ppb
ppm
psf
psi
psig
R.O.
rpm
RWL
sec
Sec.
S.I.C.
SOx
sq
sq ft
SS
stp
SRWL
TDS
TKN
TLm
TOG
TOD
TSS
u
ug
vol
wt
yd
liter
liters per 1000 kilograms
pound
meter
thousand
milliequivalent
milligram
million gallons daily
minute
milliliter
mixed-liquor suspended solids
mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids
million
gram-molecular weight
mile per hour
most probable number
millimicron
nitrate
ammonium nitrogen
oxygen
phosphate
potential hydrogen, or hydrogen- ion index (negative
logarithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration)
pages
parts per billion
parts per million
pound per square foot
pound per square inch
pounds per square inch gauge
reverse osmosis
revolution per minute
raw waste load
second
Section
Standard Industrial Classification
sulfates
square
square foot
suspended solids
standard temperature and pressure
standard raw waste load
total dissolved solids
total Kjeldahl nitrogen
median tolerance limit
total organic carbon
total oxygen demand
total suspended solids
micron
microgram
volume
weight
yard
                        186

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                                    TABLE XVIII

                                   METRIC TABLE

                                 CONVERSION TABLE
MULTIPLY [ENGLISH UNITS)

    ENGLISH UNIT      ABBREVIATION

acre                     ac
acre-feet                ac ft
British Thermal
  Unit                   BTU
British Thermal
  Unit/Pound             BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute        cfm
cubic feet/second        cfs
cubic feet               cu ft
cubic feet               cu ft
cubic inches             cu in
degree Fahrenheit        °F
feet                     ft
gallon                   gal
gallon/minute            gpm
horsepower               hp
inches                   in
inches of mercury        in Hg
pounds                   Ib
million gallons/day      mgd
mile                     mi
pound/square
  inch (gauge)           psig
square feet              sq ft
square inches            sq in
ton (short)              ton
yard                     yd
by
[ CONVERSION A
0.405
1233.5
0.252
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555 (°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
(0.06805 psig +1)*
0.0929
6.452
0.907
0.9144

EBREVIATI01
ha
cu m
kg cal
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
atm
sq m
sq cm
kkg
m
TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)

       METRIC UNIT

       hectares
       cubic meters

       kilogram-calories

       kilogram calories/kilogram
       cubic meters/minute
       cubic meters/minute
       cubic meters
       liters
       cubic centimeters
       degree Centigrade
       meters
       liters
       liters/second
       killowatts
       centimeters
       atmospheres
       kilograms
       cubic meters/day
       kilometer

       atmospheres (absolute)
       square meters
       square centimeters
       metric ton (1000 kilograms)
       meter
                 *Actual conversion, not a multiplier
                                               187

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