GOALS OF AND CRITERIA FOR DESIGN OF
A BIOLOGICAL MONITORING SYSTEM
by
AN AD HOC STUDY GROUP
of the
ECOLOGY COMMITTEE
January 1§8Q
SCIENCE ADVISORY BOARD
U. S.. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington, D, C, 20460
-------
EPA NOTICE
This report has been written as a part of the activities
of the Ecology Committee of the Science Advisory Board, a
public advisory group providing primarily extramural scientific
information to the Administrator and other officials of the
Environmental Protection Agency. The Board is structured to
provide a balanced expert assessment of scientific matters
related to problems facing the Agency, This report has not been
reviewed for approval by the- Agency, and hence its contents do
not represent the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
-------
TASK GROUP OP DESIGN OP A
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING SYSTEM
Dr.. Gordon 1. Qrians, Chairman
Director
Institute for Environmental studies
University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
Dr. Eileen G. Brennan
Professor
Department of Plant Pathology
Cook College
Rutgers, The State University
New- Brunswick* New Jersey
Dr*. John Cairns, Jr.
Distinguished Professor and Director
Center for Environmental Studies
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Dr. Melbourne R.. Carriker
Professor of Marine Studies
College of Marine Studies
University of Delaware
Lewes, Delaware
Dr. John O* Corliss
Head
Department of Zoology
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
-------
Dr. Ursula M. Cowjill
Professor of Biological Sciences
and Anthropology
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
Dr* Shelby D* Germing
Professor of Zoology
Department of Soology
Arizona State University
Teiipe, Arizona 85281
Dr. Bostwick a. Ketchwm
Senior Scientist Emeritus
Wbods Sole Qceanographic
Institution
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543
Dr. John J. Magnuson
Professor of Zoology
Laboratory of Limnology
University of Wisconsin
Madison/ Wisconsin 53706
Dr.. Ruth Patrick
Senior Curator of Limnology
Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103
Science Advisory Board Staff Officer
Dr. J Frances Allen
Staff Scientist-Ecologist
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.,
iv
-------
TABLE OP CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . ..................... 1
t. INTRODUCTION ........................ 3
II, PRINCIPLES OP BIOLOGICAL MONITORING ........ 8
A. Some Basic Characteristics of Organisms and their
Environments ........ * ........ 8
B. The Components of a Rigorous Biological
Monitoring System .................. 9
C. Important Criteria for Selection of Sites for
Biological Monitoring ....... . 11
D. The utility of Biological Monitoring for SPA's
Goals .......... ...... *. ... ^ . . * 12
1, Monitoring for anticipatory and research
needs 13
2.. Monitoring for regulatory development * . . 13
3* Monitoring for enforcement of regulations * 14
4* Monitoring for determining the effectiveness
of regulations .»,,...,........ 14
III. RANK' ORDERING OF PRIORITIES ............... IS
IV. IMPtSMENfAfION OP A BIOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAM .- 19
APPENDICES
Appendix A * PROCESSES AND TAXA FOR BIOLOGICAL
MONITORING ............... 21
Biological Monitoring in Terrestrial Ecosystems 21
1* Higher plants as air pollution detection
systems .....*,.... . 22
2. Simpler plants as air pollution indicators. 22
3, Plants as monitors of- levels of heavy
metals ,.,,,,«..*.»........ 24
-------
4. -Honeybees as a monitoring system . . . . , 26
5, Monitoring of outbreaks of defoliating
insects ..*....*. .,,»»*.*.„ 26
6* Monitoring of insects at ultraviolet
lights ..„.......*.*,...... 27
7. Monitoring of terrestrial vertebrates ... 27
8. Systematise collections ......... . . . „. 29
9, Eggs of birds ,...........,.* 30
10, Tissues and products of domestic animals . 31
Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Ecosystems ... 31
Monitoring Different Aquatic Ecosystems ... 35
Fresh. Water Systems ..»»......» 35
Marine Systems ....*..,.*....„.*.. 40
Aquatic'Sediments ................. 41
Retrospective Monitoring of Sediment Gores , . 42
Appendix 8 - Plants Known as Accumulators of Certain
Elements or Known Indicators of Mineral
Deposits ....... _ ......... ...... 43
References Cited * * „. * , . 48
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Recently there has been, increasing interest in
biological monitoring. Although sensitivity of chemical
measurements has improved greatly, these measurements do not
reveal or explain the effects of the measured chemicals on
living organisms. The great number of contaminants being
released into the environment is taxing measurement
capabilities,
This report provides scientific insights into the
environmental objectives to which monitoring is to
contribute and suggests suitable criteria for choice of
variables that are likely to be highly cost-effective for
the regulatory purposes of the Environmental Protection
Agency.
Biological monitoring can assist the Agency's major
monitoring functions by
«. providing advance signals of undesirable
environmental changes?
• providing important data for determining the
causal relationships between contaminants and
their mixtures and the responses of living
organisms?
*• helping to determine whether regulations are being
followed; and
•' providing knowledge of the actual responses of
living organisms to different levels and mixtures
of contaminants in the environment*. -
Biological, chemical, and physical monitoring are all
useful in assaying changes in the structure and function of
ecological systems. Biological monitoring must be an
essential component of any environmental monitoring system
for the following reasons:
<*• Only biological monitoring can directly measure a
biological effects toxicity is a biological
concept,
» Monitoring living organisms, which serve as
continuous monitors of environmental conditions,
can often be less expensive than attempting to
maintain continuous chemical monitoring systems.
-------
* Living organisms, which accumulate and concentrate
chemicals in their tissues/ can increase the
sensitivity of measurements.
* Living organisms are the ideal system for
determining the effects of complex mixtures of
contaminants,
* Biological monitoring can be sensitive to a broad
array of complex environmental disturbances.
A biological monitoring program should be broad in
scope to help identify important pollutants and other
stresses on ecological systems whose effects have not yet
been appreciated. A biological monitoring system should also
be continuous over time to help formulate a picture of the
natural variability in ecosystem structures and processes.
A useful biological monitoring system will develop and
change with time, yet must maintain sufficient consistency
so that earlier and later data can be compared and the
differences interpreted.
The findings in this report are not intended to replace
anticipatory studies of ecological systems. Ihis report
concentrates upon processes that are sufficiently well known
so that' their usefulness as signals of events is already
clear. It is urged that biological monitoring be developed,
in part, at sites where long-term ecological studies are
taking place. This should increase the chances of
discovering unanticipated processes and consequences of
significance.
this report is an attempt ,to select biological
monitoring procedures that should be -useful in the concept
of rapidly changing technological and ecological events. It
is hoped that ther suggestions in this report will form the
basis for a long-term monitoring program that will be as-
relevant in the future as it is now and one to which future
components can be added.
-------
GOALS OF AND CRITERIA FOR DESIGN OP
A BIOLOGICAL MONITORING SYSTEM
I. INTRODUCTION
The Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment
(SCOPS) of the International Council of Scientific Unions
(ICStJ) has defined monitoring as "the systematic collection for
a predetermined purpose of intercomparable measurements or
observations of any environmental variable or attribute."
Monitoring involves measurement of (a) substances in various
compartments of the environment; (b) the physical, chemical,
and biological status of the various compartments or
environmental media? and (e) the nature and magnitude of
effects of various perturbations on physical, chemical, and
biological targets in the environment.
Until recently the emphasis of environmental monitoring
programs has been toward more precise measurement of specific
contaminants. This has been stimulated by substantial
improvements in our abilities to measure exceedingly small
amounts of these substances ^and by the nature of existing
legislation, which tends to be oriented toward specific
chemicals. This very success has led to an increasing interest
in biological monitoring because (a) the finer the level of
chemical measurement, the less certain we become of the real
environmental significance of what we are measuring, and (b)
the large number of contaminants currently being released into
the environment means that little can be learned about their
combined effects without looking at the living organisms,
including humans, whose health and welfare the regulations are
really designed to protect*
The main objective of a biological monitoring program is
to signal the likelihood of ecological and human health
implications of introducing various quantities of materials
into the environment* Ideally, it would be desirable to have
some of these consequences expressed as effects on ecosystems.
However, because ecosystems are highly plastic in their
structures and responses, there are no simple diagnostic
parameters of ecosystem disruption. The biotic components of
ecosystems, however, are integrators of the interactive webs of
cause and effect. Therefore living organisms can be used both
as monitors of the movements, accumulations, and modifications
of materials and as monitors of the biological effects of those
materials* Criteria and standards for contaminating materials
should be based on knowledge of their effects and why it is
advisable to keep perturbations of ecological systems within
certain limits. Monitoring of a physical or chemical nature can
only tell us the quantities of those materials in the
environment. Biological monitoring is needed to tell us what
these materials are doing.
-------
This report provides scientific insights into the
environmental objectives to which monitoring is to contribute,
develops suitable criteria for choice of variables to be
monitored, and suggests specific variables that are likely to
be highly cost effective for the regulatory purposes of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These are difficult
tasks because the number of species and interactions in natural
and human-modified communities of living organisms is so large
that only a small fraction can ever be monitored. Given the
large amounts of money likely to be invested in biological
monitoring programs, careful thought must be given to the
design of a program prior to initiating it.
A program of biological monitoring must be accommodated
within the overall framework of monitoring within the EPA.
Biological monitoring can aid the four major functions of
monitoring for the Agency in the following general ways:
(a) Anticipatory/Research Monijtoring
Monitoring that provides advance signals
of change in the environment that may
- be undesirable from the human point of view.
Knowledge of these changes can provide guid-
ance for research activities designed to
determine more precisely the nature of these
changes, their causes, and probable
cumulative effects.
(b) Regulatory Development
Effective and reasonable regulations must
be based upon solid knowledge of causal
relationships between contaminants and
their mixtures and the responses of
living organisms. Monitoring provides
data important or necessary for determining
these relationships.
/
(c) Enfprcem^ejnt^of^Regulations (Including Self-Monitor ing _}_
Monitoring is necessary to find out if
regulations are actually being followed.
(d) Svaluatj._o_n__of _Programs and Regulations
Judgments of the effectiveness of regula-
tions must ultimately be based upon
knowledge of the actual responses of living
organisms to different levels and mixtures of
contaminants in the environment. No amount of
chemical and physical monitoring, however
precise, can provide this information.
-------
Biological, chemical, and physical monitoring are all
useful as ways to assay changes in the structure and
functioning of ecosystems. Biological monitoring is an
essential component of any environmental monitoring system
et
(a) only biological monitoring can directly
measure a biological effect. Environmental
regulations are designed to protect living
organisms, not to achieve a certain level of
some chemical in the environment, itoxieity
is a1 biological, concept.
(b) Living organisms serve as continuous
monitors of environmental conditions and
may accumulate and preserve in their tissues
records of past conditions. Such a record
can be obtained, in many cases, far less
expensively with living organisms than by
attempting to maintain a continuous chemical
monitoring system.
(c) Because many living organisms accumulate and
concentrate chemicals in their tissues, they
can increase the sensitivity of measure— .
ments.
(d) Increasingly, environmental problems involve
understanding the effects of complex mixtures
of. contaminants. Knowing the effects of
these substances, individually or in simple
mixtures, may reveal little about their
effects in complex mixtures* Living
organisms constitute the ideal system for
determining1 the effects of these complex
mixtures. Species differ strikingly in
their responses to different contaminants;
they can also modify some- compounds into
products that may cause unanticipated changes
in ecological systems,
(e) There are many broadly based stresses on
living organisms arising from complex dis-
turbances which include not only micro-
contaminants, toxic substances, and nutri-
ents, but also stream modification, dredg-
ing, filling, draining, exploitation of
living resources, introductions and invas-
ions of exotics, and changing land use such as
forestry and agricultural practices. Bio-
logical monitoring, properly designed, can
be sensitive to a very broad array of disturbances
-------
The importance of biological monitoring is strikingly
illustrated by cases where environmental pollution problems
were first identified by responses from living organisms* For
example, plants have played an important role in the
identification of air pollution problems. In the 1950's,
chemical tests of polluted air in the Los Angeles Basin
revealed a strong oxidizing power and large quantity of
unburned hydrocarbons, but it was the nature o£ vegetation
damage that identified the most toxic components of the
complex mixture. Silvering of the undersurface of foliage of
certain plants was associated with an unknown compound later
identified as peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) (Stephens et al.,
1961). similarly, stippling of the upper leaf surface of grape
was associated with the occurrence of ozone. Today PAN and
are considered the most important oxidants in the air.
at other phytotoxic oxidants may be present in the air is
suggested by specific responses of other plants (Heck, 1S78).
Fluoride pollution o£ the atmosphere from specific point
sources has sometimes been detected first by damage to
vegetation. Accumulation of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in
vegetation growing along our highways has provided evidence
that the source of these toxic compounds is traffic-related.
The detection of heavy metals, especially in food crops, has
resulted in further studies with animals and humans.
The existence of a daily pulse of water with high
concentrations of heavy metals in the Sacramento liver below
Keswick Dam was first detected by high mortality rates of
salmon. The sources of the metals were abandoned mines, but
analysis of surface waters of the water column in the reservoir
of the Keswick Dam had failed to reveal the presence of heavy
metals. However, diatoms placed in the river below the dam
plasmolyzed at about 5:00 p.m., and water sampling at that time
revealed the presence of heavy metals. Subsequently, it was
established that the pulse of metals in the water was caused by
the opening of the Shasta Dam gates at noon for production of
peaking power. Pour hours later these waters reached
Keswick Dam, causing turbulence to agitate the bottom
sediments containing the metals. These sediments then passed
through the gates of Kewsick Dam, and the colloids were sorbed
onto diatoms and the gills of fish. The continuous and easy
monitoring provided by the diatoms enabled rapid pinpointing of
the precise time of day when heavy metals were present in the
water column.
Animals have also been useful in identifying
environmental problems ever since coal miners carried canaries
into the mines as quick indicators of carbon monoxide
concentrations. Some geochemical prospecting is being done in
Finland (Boyle and Garrett, 1970) by utilizing trained dogs to
-------
locate mineral deposits by detecting sulfur dioxide that
emanates from oxidi2ing sulfide minerals. Canadian companies
are currently financing a project to investigate a broader use
of canines for geocfaemical prospecting, Termites are being
used, as assistants in geoehemical prospecting in deserts of
South Africa because they may burrow as deep as 160 meters to
find water and carry earth particles from those depths to their
earthen homes near the surface,
Despite these important, contributions/ the potential for
biological monitoring has just been touched.
Focus of This Report
The orientation of this report is toward the four major
roles of monitoring in EPA (page 4). We show when biological
monitoring can provide data, more difficult to obtain by physico-
chemical methods/ and when biological monitoring can be more
cost-effective.. We recognize the importance of quality control,
data storage and retrieval, and methods of analysis of samples,
but we do not provide specific suggestions on those topics. We
also recognize the potential value of remote sensing systems for
detecting changes in communities of plants and animals but this
technology lies' outside the scope of this report. We also
exclude monitoring of groundwater, because physical and chemical
methods are superior to biological ones for that important
component of the environment* We also dwell only briefly on the
important topic of biological monitoring in the open ocean
because responsibility for that activity lies primarily with
other agencies. Our attention is directed toward the- overall
goals of a. biological monitoring system, criteria, for selection
of species, their attributes and biological processes .to be
measured, criteria for site selection^ and interpretation of
results.
The recommendations contained in this report are not
intended to replace anticipatory studies of ecological systems
to reveal underlying processes whose importance for the
activities of the E?A are not now evident. Instead we
concentrate upon processes that are sufficiently well known that
their usefulness as signals of events are already clear, and we
urge that biological monitoring be developed, in part, at sites
where long-term' ecological, studies are talcing place- because this
should increase the chances of discovering unanticipated
processes and consequences of importance.
-------
It. PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
A, SOME BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISMS AND THEIR
ENVIRONMENTS OF IMPORTANCE FOR MONITORING
Only a small fraction of the millions of living species
can be monitored? those few should be selected to be
representative of broad categories of organisms whose responses
are expected to be similar to those of the test species. The
basic characteristics that should guide the selection process
include the following:
TrophicLeye1. A monitoring program should include
organisms atall trophic levels because species in each group
may be exposed to different human-caused stresses and different
concentrations and forms of contaminants because materials are
modified by other organisms and because pollutants are
concentrated and accumulated in the tissues of organisms at
each trophic level. Thus, a monitoring program should include
both the effects of stressors on the environment and the effect
of the "environment*1 on stressors. The kinetics of
biotransformation influence residence times of materials and
are, therefore, important for the selection of test methods.
Structural Complexity. Living organisms range from
relatively simple unicellular species to large and complex
multicellular forms, Associated with these levels of tissue and
organ complexity are striking differences in metabolic rates,
ability to assume resting stages, longevity, patterns of
biotransfconation of ingested materials, bioaecumulation
capabilities, mobility, and diet. Therefore, monitoring should
include organisms covering a broad range of structural
complexity,
Life History Characteristics* All organisms grow, repro-
duce, and die, but they diffVr widely in the ways in which these
activities respond to environmental stress, as follows:
(a) Longevity: Short-lived organisms respond
quickly to rapid environmental changes, long-
lived ones integrate stresses over several
years or decades.
(b) Growths Species with high metabolic rates
and, hence, rapid growth are often more
sensitive to contaminants than are species
with lower metabolic rates. Rapid growth rates
are often characteristic of species adapted for
rapid colonization of disturbed sites.
-------
(c) Reproductions Species allocate different
proportions of their energy budgets to
reproduction*. The rate and success of
reproduction are often the most sensitive
responses of a species to perturbations.
Therefore, monitoring reproductive rates is
often a good way to detect biologically
important perturbations.
(d) Defenses In addition to seeking food,
living organisms devote some of their
resources to avoiding, being eaten. Some
species have physical and chemical defense.
mechanisms while others do not* 111 is may
have important consequences for their
responses to perturbations.
(e) Mobility: Some organisms are sessile,
while others move easily, thereby
escaping areas with high concentrations
of contaminants. At the same time, by
their movements they may transport
contaminants to new areas.
B. THE COMPONENTS OP A BIOLOGICAL MONITORING SYSTEM
Biological changes can provide the first signals that
something needs to be examined more closely and can indicate
where attention needs to be directed*. Because these signals
must be detected over a background of natural variation, a
monitoring program must be broad in scope and continuous in
time. Continuous data over long time periods provide a picture
of the natural background of variability in ecosystem structures
and processes, causes of which are still largely poorly
understood, without which the nature of human—induced changes
cannot be estimated, A broad approach is also important because
many important pollutants and other stresses on ecological
systems have not yet been identified and many new ones are
certain to be created. Any monitoring system geared to known
pollutants will quickly become outdated. Moreover, breadth of
the program is important if the biological impacts of complex
mixtures of pollutants are to be demonstrated.
A useful biological monitoring system must develop and
change with time, but it must also maintain enough consistency
so that earlier and later data can be compared and the
differences interpreted. Methods must also be consistent
geographically to permit meaningful comparisons of results among
different regions of the country. Because of the many
differences among ecological systems and species, few species
are widely enough distributed to occur in all, or even most,
areas where monitoring is needed. However, there may be groups
-------
of species, usually closely related to one another, that are
similar in their responses to perturbations that can serve as
relatively uniform monitors. Hi us, by careful selection of
species and processes to monitor, differences caused by changes
in associated species can be distinguished from differences
caused by variable environments and, hence, the conditions to
which the species are' exposed.
We have attempted to select biomonitoring procedures that
should be relatively insensitive to rapidly changing technical
and ecological events. Hopefully, our suggestions will form
the basis for a long-term monitoring program which will be as
relevant in the future as it is now and which will remain a
part of the basic program to which future components can be
added.
Important aspects of biological monitoring are
measurements of species richness and the rates of important
ecosystem processes. Much can be learned about an ecological
system from an enumeration of species present and estimates of
their relative abundances. Shifts in basic metabolic process,
such as the increase in respiration rates due to increased
bacterial use of organic nutrients, as measured by the
biological oxygen demand (BOD) of a system and the resulting
reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO), may also provide important
clues about ecosystem processes. The concentration,
distribution, and rates of recycling essential plant nutrients,
such as available nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicate, can give
clues about the enrichment or impoverishment of an ecological
system. The concentration of critical compounds can indicate
important ecosystem processes. For example, chlorophyll and
phaeophytin are indices of photosynthetic potential of an
ecosystem, and measurements of ATP or RNA are indices of its
total biomass and heterotrophic capacity. In terrestial
systems, where measurements of useful rates are much more
difficult to obtain than in aquatic, for the present at least, =
monitoring system should focus on responses of particular
species rather than on system level processes.
>
Biological monitoring can be easily coordinated with a
program of chemical monitoring, and the biological data can
greatly enhance our ability to interpret the causes and
significance of observed changes in chemical parameters. For
example, a progressive increase in standing crops of certain
kinds of organisms can presage eutrophication of the ecosystem,*
nutrient measurements may identify potential causes*
Knowledge of the species or species groups in the
community is needed for interpreting measures of structure and
processes in communities of organisms. Caution is necessary
when interpreting measurements of species richness or ecosystem
processes. While such measurements can give quantitative
assessments of rates, these measurements niay not reflect
10
-------
important changes in the quality of the populations involved.
For example, high rate of primary production can be due to
unpalatable species as well as to those that are valuable as
food for herbivores. Many blue-greens and some small green
algae are not ingested or digested by herbivores and may
accumulate to nuisance levels in ecosystems.
C. IMPORTANT CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SITES FOR BIOLOGICAL
MONITORING
Sites for anticipatory monitoring should be established
with a view to their long-term utility because the value of
monitoring data increases with the length of time over which
they are available. Also, as pointed out previously, the value
of biological monitoring data is increased by the availability
of prior and concurrent physical and chemical monitoring from
the same sites. The following criteria are important for
selecting anticipatory monitoring sites;
(a) Sites should represent the major terrestrial,
freshwater and marine ecosystems in the
United States,
(b) Sites should include natural ecosystems and
those that have been perturbed by human activity.
(c) Site-specific programs should utilize available
regional pools of trained scientists and
laboratories.
(d) Sites with previously gathered data on
physical, chemical, and biological
processes are preferable to those without
such data.
Monitoring to determine the efficacy of regulatory
standards and to detect potential violations of those standards
must, be carried out at sites close to specific polluting
facilities and in areas where concentrations of one or more
pollutants are known to be close to the limits established by
regulation, Wherever possible such monitoring should be
preceded by a process of hazard evaluation that estimates the
risks to an ecological system. This process requires evidence
about (1) toxicity — the inherent property of the chemical
that will produce harmful effects to an organism (or community)
after exposure of a particular duration at a specific
concentration (the same strategy may be used for other
stressors such as suspended solids or heat}? and (2)
environmental, concentration —those actual or predicted
11
-------
concentrations resulting from all point and nonpoint sources as
modified by the biological, chemical, and physical processes
acting on the chemical or its byproducts in the environment
(Cairns, 1978). This is the predictive control in Figure 1 from
Herricks and Cairns, 1979. A more detailed description of the
hazard evaluation process may be found in Cairns et al. (1978)*
Protocols for this purpose are in Cairns and Dickson (1978).
If this process is carried out, the biological monitoring
can serve to verify the predictions/ leading to broader
understanding of underlying processes. It also provides an
error control if either the predictions (i.e./ hazard
evaluation) were inaccurate or the recommended concentrations
were exceeded. Systems useful for evaluating the effectiveness
of regulations are of two types: (1) early warning systems,
which expose organisms before the material enters the ecosystem
{van der Schalie et al., 1979) and (2) receiving system monitors
that determine biological response after the material had
entered the aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem (Patrick and
Strawbridge, 1963). Various techniques for both purposes in use
in a number of industrial countries are described in Cairns et
al» (1977). A summary of the literature on early warning systems
may be found in Cairns and van der Schalie (in press).
Network monitoring involves periodic collection of
information at a large number of sites that are not specifically
identified by an existing problem. Selection of these sites
depends upon both the importance of gathering information from a
variety of different environments and the availability of
volunteers available to cooperate with the program. In each
case, the specific questions to be answered or patterns to be
detected must be articulated before the monitoring needs
appropriate to those issues can be established, h substantial
amount of network monitoring is already being carried out, and
any new system should make full use of such activities, among
which are the integrated Mussel watch program of EPft. and the
monitoring of the Delaware River and its estuary.
D. THE UTILITY OF BIOLOGICAL MONITORING FOR EPA'S GOALS
As indicated previously, monitoring serves four major
roles for the Environmental Protection Agency. They are (1)
Anticipatory or Research Monitoring, (2) Monitoring for
Regulatory Development, (3) Monitoring for Enforcement of
Regulations, and (4) Monitoring for Evaluation of Programs and
Regulations. We now consider how these roles can be furthered
by biological monitoring activities.
12
-------
1.. Monitoring for Anticipatory and Research Needs
An important goal of any regulatory agency is to
anticipate problems so that corrective action can be taken in
time to avert or at least diminish their impact. Because our
knowledge of the biological effects of chemicals is so meager
and because we are annually developing so many new chemicals
about which nothing is knownr it is clear that the EPA needs to
take advantage of all useful sources of advanced warning
information, living organisms are especially suited for this
purpose because they are inevitably exposed to all environmental
contaminants whether or not we- know about them or have decided
to measure them. Therefore, living organisms are the best
possible signals of environmental events that need timely
investigation* For example, if a certain plant species begins
to exhibit a new type of injury symptom of unknown cause, some
new air pollutant may be involved. The nature of the injury may
also suggest the probable type of contaminant.
Living organisms can also be useful in the reverse manner.
For example, if a new pollutant is identified, EPA may wish to
search for a plant species that exhibits unusual sensitivity
toward that contaminant to provide, a conspicuous environmental
"marker."
For living organisms to be useful, however, it is- not
sufficient to collect and store specimens and data. All
materials need to be analyzed promptly and the results
disseminated to researchers and regulators so that there can be
quick, appropriate responses to the information, Unanalyzed
specimens and samples may be of retrospective use, but they can
contribute little to our ability to anticipate problems,
initiate suitable research, and develop appropriate regulations,
2* Monitoring for Regulatory Development
The heart of development of regulations is the preparation
of criteria documents. Adequate criteria require knowledge not
only of effects close to the source of the contaminants but also
of the patterns of. their movements, the sites of their
accumulation (if any), and their modes of breakdown.
The amount of accumulation varies with the species, the
chemical, exposure time, and age of organisms. For each
program those organisms should be used that are known to have
rapid and high accumulation rates* Ratios between amount
accumulated, rate of water flow, and time of exposure for each
site are highly useful and should be developed as quickly as
possible*.
13
-------
3. Monitoringfor Enforcement of Regulations
Promulgation of regulations does not guarantee that they
will be observed. In fact, the level of violations can be
expected to be inversely correlated with the intensity of
monitoring activities capable of detecting such violations.
This type of monitoring will generally be source specific, and
the systems designed to measure directly the output of
particular point sources. Even here, living organisms have
important advantages because they preserve in their tissues
records of past pollution events. Therefore, collection of
tissues and their analysis on only an intermittent basis can
provide a continuous record of past episodes and, hence,
violations of regulations.
Biological monitoring can also involve people living near
point sources of pollution. For example, small gardens in
which an array of plants with different sensitivities to air
pollutants are planted can provide opportunities for citizens
living near major point sources of pollution to both monitor
progress made in cleaning up the air and to detect sudden
changes. People are generally more interested in and more
impressed by actually observing spots developing on the leaves
of familiar plants than they are in hearing figures about the
number of parts per million of some pollutant in the
atmosphere,
4. Monitoring for Determining the Effectiveness of
Regulations
The purpose of regulations is not to achieve some level of
an environmental contaminant for its own sake but to protect the
health and welfare of living organisms, including humans*
Therefore, the ultimate test of the efficacy of a regulatory
program is its effects on living organisms. The decision
concerning what level of protection we desire and are willing to
pay for is a political one. However, the evaluation of whether
we have, in fact, achieved a politically-determined desirable
objective is a technical problem to which biological monitoring
can and should make a key contribution. Substantial progres-s has
been made in the design of biological monitoring systems for
point source pollution. The general monitoring of changes in
species abundances and distributions, growth rates, and
fecundity reveal a great deal about how well living organisms
are doing. Therefore, most of the monitoring programs we will
suggest should contribute to the ongoing process of evaluating
the progress toward the attainment of desired standards of
environmental quality.
14
-------
III'., 1AHK ORDERING OF PRIORITIES
An ideal biological monitoring system would require
commitment of resources beyond those likely to be available in
this country on a sustained basis. Therefore, though we regard
all aspects of the monitoring program suggested in Appendix A as
being important, we feel compelled to offer some suggestions for
the type of program that night best be implemented under
different levels of funding* To make this more explicit, we
imagine a monitoring program, with low, medium, and high levels
of funding and indicate those components that we feel should be
carried out at each of these three levels. Our decisions are
not made simply on the basis of the importance of certain kinds
of information. We also give heavy weight to the utility of
information that can be gained with little effort. Some of our
suggestions, though vital to a good biological, monitoring
scheme, require considerable investment of funds if they are to
be attempted at all. Our suggestions are summarized in Table 1,
and the arguments for them are contained in the Appendices.
The use. of air pollution gardens, honeybees, fur and skins of
mammals, feathers and eggs of birds for terrestrial environments
and diatoms as measures of aquatic productivity are excellent
for a low level funding program. The advantage of utilizing
these indicators is that they may make use of amateurs and
existing personnel in different governmental agencies and
offices, are simple to coordinate, and provide quick indications
of important environmental quality problems.
The use of lichens and other plants as detectors of heavy
metals, insects at ultraviolet lights, molluscs, fishes, and
retrospective monitoring of sediment cores require more funds if
they are to be effective. The historical record in sediment
cores is being effectively stored in natural, systems at no cost,
and its treasures can be tapped during periods of good resource
availability. There is no need for such a program to be
continuous other than the value of sustained funding of
laboratories to maintain a pool of qualified scientists to carry
out the work.
Monitoring of outbreaks of defoliating insects and
analysis of sediments in lakes are judged to be less cost-
effective than our other suggestions and are most suitable for a
monitoring program with a high level of funding.
We- emphasize that these are tentative judgments based on
our current assessment of the needs of the' EPA and the extent to
which different biological monitoring methods have been
developed. Changes in regulatory needs and new advances in
monitoring techniques and interpretations will, of course, alter
these judgments.
15
-------
The entries in Table 1 should not be taken to raean that
any one of the components at level one should be fully developed
before any of the components at level two are initiated.
Rather, those aspects of the program suggested for
implementation at low funding levels can and should be increased
at moderate funding levels at the same time that additional
components of the program are activated* We have not attempted
to provide details as to how much of each general type of
activity should be carried out at each of the vaguely defined
funding levels. Questions of specifics of design must be
addressed when actual resources are known and the extent of
cooperation with other governmental agencies has been
determined. The advice of biologists should be sought again at
that critical time*
16
-------
fABf.fi 1
best suited far an anticipatory biological monitoring program at different
levels of funding. Judgments are based on, current status of ecological knowledge.
LOW LEVEL OF
FUNDING '
MEDIUM LEVEL OF
fcUHOING
HIGH LEVKL OF
FUHBIHG
WtRESTHlAL
Higher plants
as ale pollution
detectors
Lichens
we tale
Monitoring
with plants
Insects at
ultraviolet:
lights
Outbreak at
defoliating
Insects
Honeybees
Fur, feathers,
and eg g a
Pollution
effects
Pollution
effects
Pollution
effects
Pollution
effects
Accumulation
of toxicants
Accumulation
of toxicants
Accumulation
ol toxicants
X
X
(pages)
21
22
24
21
26
26
29, 30
-------
TABLE 1 {Continued)
AQUATIC
ACTIVITY
Diatoms
Bivalue mollliscs
Fishes
productivity
Species richness
in aquatic
environments
Sediment
analysis
Retrospective
analysis of
cores
UTILIW
Pollution
effects
Accumulation
of toxicants
Pollution
effects
Pollution
effects
Pollution
effects
Accumulation
o£ toxicants
Accumulation
of toxicants
LOW LEVEL Of
FUNDING
HKDIUn L&V&L US
I: UNO IMG
M1GH LSVJSL Of
FUNDING
APPKMJHX A
(pages)
32
33
34
35
15
41
42
-------
IV, IMPLEMENTATION OP A BIOLOGICAL MONITORING SYSTEM
The details of implementing a program of biological
monitoring are outside the scope of this report. Nonetheless,
it is appropriate to include a few remarks of a technical nature
that are particularly' important if a biomonitoring program is to
be genuinely useful.
Quality Control. A monitoring system can be no better
than, though it dan be worse than, the quality of the
measurements it gathers. Therefore, it is necessary to use high
quality instruments and to institute a regular program of
calibration of all instruments used* There needs to be an
adequate training program for all technicians using that
equipment and close supervision by project leaders. Careful
thought should be given to standardization of techniques prior
to initiation of the program and rigid adherence to those
techniques unless a system-wide decision is made to initiate
some change.
The value of stored specimens and samples also depends
upon the adequacy and uniformity of storage conditions,, storage
is too costly in human resources and money to be done poorly.
Many existing collections are of limited use for retrospective
analysis because of improper conditions of storage.
Data, Jtetrieval«. Monitoring programs generate enormous
quantities of data,which are likely to be useless unless' stored
in a readily retrievable form.. Even more important, however, is
that there- needs1 to be a clear idea why the data and materials
are being gathered. If a real need for the data is felt by the
persons gathering the information and by those involved in its
storage and maintenance, then the Information is likely to be
examined and interpreted. If this need is not perceived, the
data are likely to be neglected. Therefore, it is important
that persons involved in all aspects of the monitoring program
be thoroughly informed of the goals and objectives of the program
and that they receive regular updates; on progress, interesting
results and actions taken because of the- monitoring program*.
Interpreta_tj.on. Masses of data do not automatically tell
interesting stories. Data become valuable when analyzed by
qualified persons who understand the patterns that exist, are
alert to different types of changes and what they may signify,
and who know what should be done in the event that certain
anomalies appear. Great volumes of computer printouts may be
impressive, but their utility is directly proportional to the
qualifications of the persons examining them and the time and
resources that are allocated to their interpretation on a
regular ongoing basis. There is little value in starting a
monitoring program without a serious commitment to the analysis
and interpretation of the data.
19
-------
Updat ing the Sy st em. As mentioned previously, there is
considerable value in uniformity of measurement techniques and
consistency of types of measurements in space and time.
Therefore, we have attempted to suggest programs which are
likely to be useful for long time periods. For this reason
specimen and sample banks are likely to. be very useful because
those materials are available for analysis in the future for new
pollutants and by new techniques. Uierefore, they are likely to
be valuable for new problems and analytical methods not
anticipated when the system was initiated.
Coordinating a Biological Monitoring Program with Existing
ActiyitTes^. There""!s substantial biological monitoring activity
already underway in the United States. For economy of human and
financial resources, it is important to integrate EPA's
monitoring program with those of other agencies. Also, the
value of biological monitoring data will be enhanced if
specimens are gathered in areas where there is also extensive
physical and chemical monitoring. This will enable the
relationships between the results of biological monitoring and
physico-chemical events to be better understood. As a
consequence, the predictive power of biological monitoring will
be increased. Personnel of other Federal and state agencies can
also be employed in a nationwide monitoring program* Other ways
in which interagency cooperation could be developed that would
enhance the capabilities of all the units involved should be
vigorously explored.
Amateurs can be usefully employed in a nationwide
monitoring system. This not only provides a substantial
increment to the human resources available, but it also involves
citiaens in efforts to improve their environments. If people
feel that they are a part of efforts to enhance the quality of
life, they will be more supportive of such efforts and better
informed about the prospects and problems associated with them.
For many years, the National Audubon Society has utilized large
numbers of amateur ornithologists in an annual breeding bird
census of many habitats in the United States. Some of these
records provide the longest continuous censuses of bird
populations anywhere in North America. Many interesting trends
in species abundances and distributions have been revealed by
these censuses. Similar projects involving persons interested
in other taxonomic groups, such as butterflies and flowering
plants, could be very productive.
20
-------
Appendix A
PROCESSES AND TAXA FOR BIOLOGICAL MONITORING SYSTEMS
To supplement our suggested goals of a biological
monitoring program and the criteria by which sites, taxa, and
processes can be selected, we offer here specific suggestions
for events to monitor in terrestrial and aquatic environments.
The selection is not intended to be comprehensive but rather
indicative of processes that are currently adequately understood
so that the Task Group could judge their practicality and the
circumstances under which they would be useful* As ecological
knowledge and insights increase, additional processes and taxa
will emerge as suitable for inclusion in an evolving biological
raonitoring program, and the same or similar criteria can be
employed in their selection.
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
The efforts of hundreds of ecologists throughout the world
involved with the International Biological Program (IBP) have
clearly demonstrated the great time and effort required to
obtain even rough estimates of rates of basic terrestrial
ecosystem processes* Moreover, because terrestrial productivity
is highly sensitive to normal variations in temperature and
precipitation, changes due to human-induced stresses are
difficult to detect over the high levels of background "noise,"
for these reasons productivity measurements, although ultimately
of great importance, are not currently well suited to an
extensive biological monitoring program where cost-effectiveness
is of prime consideration. However, sites where productivity is
being measured may be excellent ones for incorporation into a
monitoring network because those measurements will enhance the
value of the monitoring data.
Our suggestions center around the use of selected groups
of terrestrial organisms having one or more properties of
special utility for anticipatory and regulatory monitoring.
Because of their size, complexity, and dominance in terrestrial
systems, we begin with vascular plants, then consider simpler
plants and, finally, animals.
1., Higher Plants as Air Pollution Detectors
Higher plants can function as a very effective air
pollution detection system because of the sensitivity of certain
species to particular pollutants and because characteristic
symptoms are exhibited following acute exposures to different
gases.
21
-------
In the 1950s, smog was a familiar phenomenon in
California, but the toxic components of photochemical oxidants
were unknown until they were revealed by plant assays. Lesions
on bean, spinach, and grape leaves indicated the presence of
ozone (Middleton, 1956) and on annual faluegrass indicated the
presence of peroxyacetylnitrate (Bobrov, 1955). Should another
toxicant be released into the environment some other plant
species might be affected by it before the atmospheric chemist
recognizes it*
In the last 25 years, detailed descriptions have been
published of species that are sensitive to the major pollutants
and of symptoms that are readily recognizable. An array of
colored prints has been indexed in Recognition of Air Pollution
Injury to Vegetation; A Pictorial Atlas (WeinstiTn and McCune,
1970). Theseso-called indicator plants are extremely useful in
delineating air pollution episodes, Bel W3 tobacco has been
used extensively in the Onited States and Europe as an indicator
of ozone contamination. Heck and his associates (1969? 1970)
developed the technique. In a recent publication on
photochemical oxidants by the National Acadeniy of Sciences
{1977), Heck concluded that the response of Bel W3 tobacco can
provide estimates of the frequency of occurrence of phytotoxic
concentrations of oxidants, the relative severity of each
episode, and the regional distribution of oxidant pollutants,
Thus/ there is considerable return for little money.
Although tobacco is a good indicator of oxidant phytotoxicity,
it is not a good indicator of oxidant concentrations in the
ambient air. (Heck, 1977), Tobacco injury does not correlate
well with oxidant concentrations on a weekly basis, probably
because other environmental factors influence plant response.
This is a significant shortcoming, but chemical and
meteorological data alone do not give a clear picture of the
biotoxicity of air pollution episodes either.
Weinstein and McCune (1970) have advocated the use of
plants as indicators of HF pollution. Tb ensure success, they
have urged that the planted plots under observation meet the
criteria of unifgrmity in general background and cultural
maintenance, sufficient abundance, sufficient sites in the area
to account for pollutant dispersion, a species composition that
will develop specific symptoms, and sufficient variety of plants
to represent a range of susceptibility.
2. SimplerPlants as Air Pollution Indicators
Simpler terrestrial plants such as lichens and mosses
have no vascular tissues? rather, they absorb water and
nutrients directly from rainwater and air. They also absorb
pollutant particles from airborne or substrate-borne water
solutions. Short-term sensitivity of lichens to toxins is no
greater than that of vascular plants, but, because lichens
absorb and concentrate pollutants much faster than vascular
plants, toxic effects appear sooner.
22
-------
Because SC»2 absorbed into tissues converts chlorophyll
to phaeophytin, which is nonphotosynthetic, exposure to .302
reduces photosynthetic capacity* Presumably it is the
accumulation of toxins from prolonged exposure that retards or
halts vegetative growth and reduces or prevents reproduction,
The effect is faster and/or more pronounced on lichens with a
more luxuriant growth form, that isf with a greater surface-to-
volume ratio. Also, the effect of toxins is greater if
humidity is high, perhaps because high humidity allows
absorption to proceed taster.
A useful index for detecting the effects of air pollution
on lichens is Lichen Species Diversity, a measure combining
both the number of species present and their relative
abundances, abundance is conveniently measured in terms of
extent of coverage of substrate area, but growth form and
degree of luxuriance can also be entered into the index,.
lichen species diversity declines with increasing levels
of 303 pollution in the air and declines with increasing
levels of other toxins, such as heavy metals, on substrates*
Its decrease is caused by reduction in the number of species and
in the abundance (areal coverage) of each species, particularly
because abundant species usually decline in abundance more than
others* In general, fructicose lichens become proportionately
more rare in number of species and in real coverage per species
than foliose lichens, and foliose become more rare than
crustose*
To diagnose pollution., one must compare lichen species
diversities on affected and unaffected areas with the same
sampling method on comparable sites. Important site conditions
include:
^a) Substrate. Boles of living, vertical, unshaded trees
are" bestTbecau.se they are exposed to wind; their poor
buffer capacity does not mask S02 levels (high pH
weakens SC>2 effect), and they have high lichen
species diversity in unpolluted areas, where trees
are absent, acid stonework, the top foot of free-
standing sandstone walls, granite tombstones, old
asbestos roofs, or calcareous stonework can be used
instead. •
(b) Shelter. Pollutants which get trapped in thermal
inversions, such as SO2* have less effect in
sheltered valleys and narrow ravines than on exposed
ridges..
The accuracy of. lichen species diversity is high if a
scale which measures the abundance of a large number of species
on uniform substrate, shelter, and humidity is used. Experiments
show that SQ2 and at least some heavy metals (zinc and
23
-------
cadmium) are toxic and strongly reduce the photosynthetic
capacity of lichens after short-terra exposure. Also, the
negative correlation of lichen species diversity with distance
from pollution source is close and corresponds to levels of mean
ambient S02 concentration measured electronically,
3. Plants as Monitors of Levels ofHeavy Metals
• About 45 years ago Goldschmidt (1937) and Vernadsky (1934)
showed that some elements were accumulated by humus and
vegetation* As a result of their discoveries, the use of
biological methods in search for deposits of important minerals
began to be developed. The basic underlying assumption is that
a given element in the substrate, bedrock, or soil will be
accumulated in a repeatable manner by a specific plant, and that
a high quantity in the plant will indicate a high quantity in
the substrate. The studies of Cannon and her co-workers, (1960;
1964}, carried out on the Colorado Plateau on the distribution
of uranium in plants, facilitated the discovery of several
uranium ore bodies. This approach to the discovery of the
presence of elements could also be employed by EPA.
Furthermore, because contamination of the environment by toxic
amounts of elements will be indicated by the presence or absence
of certain plants, this observation could be used as a
monitoring device.
In certain portions of Utah where the apiary industry
suffered from an abnormal loss of bees, it was discovered that
the death of bees was caused by selenium toxicity from their
pollinating of seleniferous plants. Seleniferous plants were
spreading into that region in large enough numbers to account
for the observed bee mortality. An enhanced distribution of
seleniferous plants has also been observed elsewhere on the
western slope of the Bockies.
In a study concerning the distribution of lead in plants
growing near Canadian highways, Warren and Delavault (I960;
1967} showed that gasoline exhaust from cars and trucks is
distributed in and on vegetation growing near- highways and that
plants in such an environment could accumulate a.s much as 1,000
ppro of lead in their ash despite the fact that they grew far
from any area known for lead mineralization.
Not all plants react in the same fashion to the anomalous
quantities of an element or an assemblage of elements in the
bedrock. Certain species of plants, such as Astragalus
bisculcatus, will grow only where there is a specific element or
assemblage of elements present, in this case selenium. The
selenium accumulators of the genus Astragalus are universal
indicators; if they are present there is at least 2 ppm of
selenium in the soils. They will not grow in the absence of
selenium, although their accumulating ability may vary from
season to season as well as from one growth state to the
subsequent one (Cowgill, 1979).
24
-------
Some plant species will grow in an environment and
accumulate one or more elements if present, but if these
elements are absent the plants grow perfectly well. A typical
example of such an accumulator plant is hickory (Carya, spp.)
which grows quite well in the absence of rare earths, but which
accumulates them in high quantity when present, suffers no ill
effects, and even manages to deter insect predators from its
leaves (Robinson, Whetstone, and Scribner, 1938? Kobinson,
Bastron, and Murata, 1958).
Plants known to accumulate specific elements are listed
in Appendix B.
The use of indicator accumulator plants and physiological
and morphological changes in plants, brought about by excess
quantities of elements, have both advantages and disadvantages
as a system in biological monitoring. The advantages ares
** Plant roots extend into areas that are not
immediately obvious to the observer and hence may
provide information more easily and more quickly
than soil, and rock sampling would readily provide.
Treesr for example, may have an extensive root
system which might provide information on the
amounts of chemicals in the groundwater 40 m
below.. Furthermore, plants with extensive root
systems, such as Astragalus, sample a much greater
area and volume of soil than one would normally
obtain in a soil survey.
*• Plant, samples are easier to collect, are lighter
than soil, and are easily identifiable by a
botanist.
*' Interference problems in chemical analysis are
minimal in plant material as compared to soils,
rocks-, and lake and river bottom muds.
The disadvantages are:
•* Trained botanists are needed to correctly identify
the plants, and trained field workers are required
for the sampling,
*• Other factors, mostly physical, such as drainage,
slope, soil type, age differences, available
moisture, and pH can have an effect on the chemical
composition of a plant.
*» A. statistically adequate number of individuals of a
given species must be available in the sampling
region.
25
-------
* Plant samples are far more susceptible to
contamination than soils, rocks, and muds. Greater
care is required in their collection, handling,
storage and maintenance,
* Background levels of elements of interest in
natural vegetation in uncontaminated regions must
be determined. This requires collection of much
basic chemical information not currently available.
4. Honeybees asaMonitoring System
Bees and the materials they carry back to their hives are
already being used to determine the distribution and abundance
of a variety of pollutants including more than 40 elements,
among which are copper, zinc, phosphorus, cadmium, lead,
arsenic, fluoride, and sulfur. Bees also accumulate
radioactive substances leaking from waste disposal areas or
power plants. Radioactive fallout materials from such natural
sources as the radionuelide beryllium formed in the
stratosphere and from the Chinese atmospheric weapons tests
have been detected in the bodies of bees. The materials
available for analysis are pollen, honey, water, and the bees
themselves. Chemical analyses of pollen are well suited for
the detection of particles that settle out of the air.
An important advantage of using bees as monitors is that
there already exists an elaborate network of commercial beehives
covering most of the Onited states. It is a simple matter to
collect bees at the entrances to their hives with a vacuum
apparatus and freeze them immediately on dry ice. Beehive
operators could readily become directly involved in routine
collection of bees and in preserving small amounts of honey at
the time of annual collection.
5. Monitoring of Outbreaks of Defoliating Insects •
Outbreaks of defoliating insects are an important
environmental problem throughout the world. 1!hey cause severe
economic losses, and attempts to control them may involve use of
dangerous or controversial pesticides. Physical and chemical
stresses on plants, both natural and human-induced, may reduce
their abilities to defend themselves against insects (White,
1974 r Rhoades, 1979). There is evidence that insect outbreaks
are more likely to occur downwind from large factories and power
plants then elsewhere in the same general region. If these
activities increase the frequency and severity of such
outbreaks, serious regulatory problems may arise.
26
-------
The' CK S. Forest Service has a program for monitoring
outbreaks of a few forest pest species, but insufficient
attention is being paid to subeconomic level infestations and
their dynamics. An integrated monitoring system of potentially
outbreaking insects and, in particular, relating such a system
to patterns o£ pollution-caused stresses on forest trees would
be a valuable source of information,. The personnel needed to
carry out these surveys are already employed by the United
States Government, but their collective activities do not
constitute a useful monitoring system.
6» Monitoring of Insects at Ultraviolet Lights
Entomologists have long collected insects at night by the
use of ultraviolet lamps (black lights). Such lights are
general attractors of insects, and little can be learned about
exactly where the insects came from and what they were doing.
In addition, the numbers and kinds of insects arriving at 0V
lights are highly dependent upon immediate weather conditions*
This makes it difficult to detect overall trends in insect
populations. Nonetheless, entomologists have observed, for
example, that many large moths no longer come to black lights in
the northeastern states? other losses of species groups might be
noted if there were more careful monitoring of arrivals at black
lights.
A potentially useful way of accomplishing such a program
would be to utilise personnel manning the large number of U.S.
Forest Service lookout stations throughout the United States.
These persons should have ample time to collect insects at black
lights on a limited number of nights during the summer; however,
such a program should not be initiated unless a system of
regional storage and identification centers, such as the
proposed system of regional taxonomic service centers which has
been vigorously proposed by the Entomological Society of America
and by the Assembly of life Sciences of the National Research
Council, has been established* Otherwise the result is likely
to be vast but uninterpretable collections of insects*
7, Monitoring__of Terrestrial Vertebrates
Terrestrial vertebrates are generally large and
conspicuous and attract a great deal of attention. Moreover,
they are physiologically more similar to humans than other
organisms and can be expected to respond similarly to a variety
of. environmental contaminants. Birds and mammals are the most
promising of terrestrial vertebrates for these purposes. Birds
can, for example, absorb some toxicants through their feet, and
roosts have been treated with fenthion and endrin to control
birds. Fowle (1972) demonstrated that birds that perch on
phosphamidon—treated twigs can be killed. Takemoto et al.
(1974) reported that pigeons living in highly industrialized
areas of Japan developed lung pathologies when aerial pollution
27
-------
levels were only one-tenth the value of those that produce
analogous pathologies in human lungs. Available information
suggests that birds may be good monitors of both gaseous and
particulate pollution (Lewis et al,, 1978»» Takemoto et al, ,
1974; Tashiro et al., 1974; Takemoto, 1972; Steal and Qlstrum,
1971).
Birds exhibit many characteristics that maJse them
potentially good pollution monitors. Ibey are conspicuous,
generally day-active/ typically live above ground, and fly at
levels where gaseous and other respirable pollutant levels may
be highest. The lungs and respiratory tract are particularly
valuable for monitoring air pollution. In contrast, ingested
pollutants probably selectively affect the liver and the
kidney, Small birds, especially when in flight, have very high
metabolic rates, and the external respiratory system probably
acts very much like a high volume sampler. Birds are
relatively long-lived, and life histories of most are well
known. Of considerable importance, also, is the fact that
birds are well known and readily identifiable. "There is more
information on the population biology and behavior of birds
generally than for any other class of animals, and there is an
excellent fund of knowledge on the physiology of birds.
Birds typically deposit large fat stores in winter or
prior to migration. Thus, they are especially good
accumulators of lipophilic pollutants and are often subject to
delayed mortality, since the residue may be sequestered in the
fat bodies until they are mobilized during molt, migration, or
incubation.
Mammals vary greatly in behavioral and ecological
characteristics, showing the greatest extremes in size,
metabolic rate, and life span among terrestrial animals.
Small mammals, especially the more abundant rodents, can be
collected easily, although populations may fluctuate widely
from year to year* Many species in mid and high latitudes
hibernate and are only seasonally available. Burrowing
species may have limited exposure to many pollutants.
As pointed out by Lewis and Lewis (1978),there is
considerable species variation among small mammals in
susceptibility to pollutants. However, adults of the small
rodent species that are most amenable to study (e.g.,
Perpmyscus, Microtus, Rattus) appear to be highly resistant to
direct acute and sub-acute exposures to most of the more
common pollutants. The abundant and widely distributed deer
mouse, PeromysGUS, appears to be practically unaffected by
normal or even heavy applications of various pesticides {Robel
et al., 1972). This species can tolerate ten times as much
dietary DDT as can the laboratory mouse (Cordes, 1971).
28
-------
The potential use of small mammals as air pollution
monitors has been given very little attention. Elevated body
concentrations of lead have been demonstrated in small mammals
along major highways. Yamaoka et al. (1973) reported a number of
increases in organ weights (e.g., lungst kidneys, adrenal glands,
and spleen) of experimental rats after 30 to 100 days of exposure
to urban air (relative to controls)*
8. Systematics Collections
Museum and herbarium collections have been frequently
employed for retrospective analysis. For example, laboratories
assessing transport and effects of pesticides began using museum
materials collected before the 1930s as "blanks" for purposes of
chemical comparison. Vertebrate materials assayed in the past
have included bone, soft tissues, hair, skin, feathers, or nails.
Products such as eggs have also been assayed., & number of
special types of museum collections such as comparative
serological collections, alcohol preserved tissues, and freese-
• dried specimens are also of potential importance,. {Lewis and
Lewis, 1978).
"'Sampling strategies and methods of preservation and
storage of general and research collections are not
generally satisfactory for chemical analyses of
pollutants that are widely distributed in nature.
Nevertheless, used with care, museum collections may
prove very valuable. Such collections are often more
amenable to biological monitoring and therefore, play a
supportive role in relation to specimen banks designed
for retrospective' chemical analyses," (Lewis and
Lewis, 1978)
Also, according to Lewis and fewis (1978), hair and
feathers are a major excretory route for some chemicals such as
methyl mercury, heavy metals and radionuclides, Uie treatments
and preservatives employed for most museum skins to prevent
infestations by pests are an important source of contamination,
but integumental structures are stable under normal museum
management. Appropriately cleaned, they can provide valuable
information on the extent of historical pollution by trace
contaminants such as lead, arsenic, cadmium and mercury (Dorn et
al. , 1974,- Gordus et al. , 1973).
However, there is considerable doubt as to the usefulness
of using most soft-bodied museum specimens for determining past
levels of metals in the environment. Collection techniques,
large and sometimes unknown variations in preservatives, and lack
of knowledge of the handling of specimens subsequent to
collection usually prevent confident utilization of museum
specimens for this purpose (Nat. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1976),
29
-------
Several programs to use and expand taxonomic collections for
monitoring purposes are already in existence. They include the
National Pesticide Monitoring Program and the National
Environmental Specimen Banking System. The latter system is
intended to provide monitoring data for an environmental early
warning system and well preserved and documented environmental
samples for future retrospective analysis. Its stated objectives
are to (1) conduct a survey and evaluation of existing specimen
collections in the United States, (2) organize a planning
committee to evaluate the feasibility of such a banking system,
{3} develop a five-year plan for carrying out the work, and (4)
develop a program to establish criteria for sample collection,
preparation, storage, and analysis (Rood and Goldstein, 1977),
toad kills, though they represent non-random samples of
hard-to-collect mammals, may be a valuable source of information
on population densities, reproductive rates, and accumulation of
toxicants, Hunters' bags have already proven useful in wildlife
management surveys including pesticide monitoring. Wings of
mallards, black ducks, and mourning doves have been monitored
nationwide for pesticide residues. Duck wings that were collected
during the 1965 and 1966 hunting seasons were assayed for
organochlorine pesticides (Heath, 1969}, and the process was
repeated during 1969-70 (Heath and Hill/ 1974). Residues of DDE,
DDT, dieldrin, and J?CBs in these species have declined in certain
flyways since 1969 (White and Beath, 1976).
Relationships between disease, including carcinomas,
pollutant burdens, other effects, and air pollution have been
observed in zoo animals (Lombard and witte, 1959; Snyder and
Ratsliff, 1969; Bazell, 1971? Tashiro et al. , 1974). Because most
zoos are in urban or suburban environments, and the animals may be
attended by full or part-time veterinary staffs, tissues can
easily be taken from healthy, ill, moribund, or recently dead
animals, Clincial records, vital statistics and extensive life
history information would be available on many of these animals.
The value of zoos is enhanced by their global distribution which
offers the possibility of worldwide monitoring of vertebrate
animals. -<
9. Eggs of Birds
Bird eggs are readily gathered and stored, and large
collections covering more than a century of activities already
exist in the museums of the world. Such collections were not
initially intended for monitoring environmental changes, but,
with the discovery that' DDT accumulation causes eggshell thinning
in many birds, interest in bird eggs as indicators of
environmental pollution was stimulated. To date, bird eggs have
been studied to determine their altered physical properties as a
result of pesticide accumulations, but eggs may also be very
useful for chemical monitoring as well.
30
-------
The average avian egg shell contains 99 percent solids, of
which about 2 percent are organic materials (mainly protein) and
about 98 percent are inorganic materials * almost entirely
crystalline calcium carbonate (calcite). The organic materials
include a protein-glycosamino-glyeuronoglycon, glycoprotein
complex, and peptides combined with galactose, mannose,
fructose, and hexosamine, thuSr there is sufficient chemical
complexity in eggshells to make them potentially excellent
monitors of many important environmental changes. However, the
possible utility of eggs has not been adequately explored, and a
research program should be initiated simultaneously with a
monitoring program. There is no reason, however, to delay the
establishment of a systematic collection of birds1 eggs, because
the areas from which eggs should be taken and the kinds of
species which should be represented can be established on
general ecological considerations.
Extensive geographical representation is important because
of differences in basic energetic and nutrient cycling processes
in different types of ecosystems and because pollution loads
vary geographically. A variety of bird species with different
diets is important because species feeding low on'the food chain
are exposed to quite different concentrations of many pollutants
in their food from species much higher on the food chain.
The bird species selected should be common in the region,
and approximately ten sets of eggs from each habitat type should
be collected once every five years. Sampling more often is not
likely to reveal important- trends not detectable by a less
frequent sampling schedule.
10. Tissues and Products of Domestic Anjjnalg
It is possible to collect and bank regulated animal
products such as milk and blood. The value of such a system is
that it would involve sampling of human food or non-destructive
sampling of animals that are of high economic importance. For
example, a number of pollutants may be excreted in relatively
large concentrations in milk. It was implied that lactation was
the major route of excretion of dieldrin in dairy cattle that
were provided with contaminated diets (Braund et al», 1968?
Lewis and Lewis, 1978).
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Because similar types of lakes and streams can be found in
widely separate geographical regions' of the country, aquatic
sites can be especially useful In comparing anthropogenic
effects among regions with different histories and degrees of
development and rehabilitation. The best organisms and
processes to monitor differ depending upon whether the objective
is anticipatory or regulatory in nature. A monitoring program
31
-------
-------
to anticipate changes caused by human activity must be based on
the fact that future perturbations are largely unpredictable,
Therefore, features which signal changes in the functioning of
organisms and basic processes in the communities are highly
appropriate for monitoring. Special attention needs to be
given to species composing the various stages of energy and
nutrient transfer in the ecosystem and to those that represent
sinks for various chemicals. Also important are the factors
that affect ecosystem stability, the diversity of habitats in
the system, and factors that influence productivity as measured
by biomass and effectiveness of reproduction. Discussion of
established and innovative types of monitoring are presented by
Bascom, 1978| McErlean, Kerby, and Swartz, 1972? Pequegnat,
1978? National Science Foundation, 1977, 1978.
An aquatic monitoring program for determining the
effectiveness of and compliance with regulations needs to be
tailored to measure the effect of an outfall or non-point
source on a receiving body of water. From a general knowledge
of the source of pollution, an estimate can be made of probable
types of perturbations. Given this knowledge, those organisms
that most accurately determine the presence of those pollutants
can be chosen for the monitoring system. Some generally useful
aquatic organisms include the following:
1* Algae
Algae are excellent organisms for measuring the effects
of pollutants entering a body of. water. They may be studied by
examining carefully selected natural areas or by the
introduction of artificial substrates, such as glass slides or
styrofoam,
Algae vary in their usefulness as indicators of different
types of changes. For example*
» Sutrophication — increases in nutrients can be
estimated by increase in biomass of diatoms,
Spirpgyrg, Qedoggniura, Stigeoclonium, Cladophora, and
various genera of blue—green algae.
• Heavy metals and radioactivity — Diatoms and some
other algae are known to be able to concentrate heavy
nietals and radioactive materials many thousand times,
thus making them extremely effective collectors of
those materials.
* Organic compounds --* These are accumulated by those
species that store fats and oils, but more research is
needed to establish the concentration factors.
32
-------
2, Higher plants
Floating and rooted plants also increase in biomass with
increases in nutrients. Aerial photography is an efficient way
to estimate yearly changes in the extent of beds of these
plants, though more detailed mapping may also be needed. The
tips of glodea leaves accumulate heavy metals and can be used
to monitoF"°thJe entrance of these substances into a body of
water/ but as yet the exact correlation between the amount that
is concentrated and ambient input is not known.
3. Molluscs
Both fresh and salt water species of bivalve molluscs
have been used for monitoring. The most useful species are
well known biologically? are sedentary and relatively long~
lived; bioaccumulate heavy metals, transuranic elements,
petroleum hydrocarbons, and halogenated hydrocarbons (Goldberg
et al., 1978); and preserve a record of some of these chemicals
in their valves.
Species which can be employed as sentinel organisms
include: Mytilus, Crassostrea, and Ostrea sp. in outer
estuaries and coastal waters? Geakensia sp. and other marsh
genera in tidal marshes; and Anodonta sp. and related genera in
fresh water lakes, rivers, and streams (Goldberg et al, , 1978,*
Patrick and Kiry, 1976). Bivalves can be examined in natural
beds or placed in Introduced substrates, either suspended from
wharves or piers, or anchored to the bottom.
A few critical stations should be established along the
three coasts of the United States and at the mouths of major
lakes and rivers for monitoring once a year in mid-fall. By this
time bivalves have completed their reproductive cycle and are
"fattening" for the winter, much of the warm-season shell has
been added, and if the population is growing, young of the year
will have settled among the adults. Quality of the soft tissues
of adults can be determined by growth rate of marked
individuals, condition of soft tissues (primarily glycogen), and
presence or absence of pathogenic viruses, parasites
(histopathological changes), and noxious chemicals.
Determinations can be made of metals, pesticides, and
hydrocarbons in soft tissues, and of metals in shell (Carriker
et al., in press; Goldberg et al., 1978), The shell laid down
during the previous year must be separated from the rest of the
shell to provide estimates of heavy metals and radioactive
nuclides for that year. Shell growth is periodic, and degree of
concentration of elements varies in different layers with
environmental conditions (Carriker et al., in press; Nat. Mus.
Nat. Hist., 1976), Whereas chemicals incorporated in the shell
remain there with some permanence, different chemicals vary in
33
-------
the rate of flushing from, or accumulation in, soft parts.
Additional studies are needed to determine the rate of retention
and concentration of these chemicals in soft tissues, as well as
the effect on* their uptake of salinity, dissolved organic
matter, non-filterable particles, and yearly sexual cycles. It
will also be necessary to determine whether a composite sample
of 25 individuals is adequate for satisfactory reduction of the
sampling variance, in soft tissues (Goldberg et al., 1978).
4-». Insects
jf
Insects are known to be useful as indicators of
eutrophication or acidification (blackfly and chironomid
larvae), various toxicants (mayflies and stoneflies),
temperature changes (stoneflies), loads of suspended solids
(caddisflies), and heavy metals {caddisflies}. Detailed
taxonomic knowledge is important because there are striking
species differences in responses. For example, some species of
caddisflies thrive in the presence of concentrations of heavy
metals that eliminate other species. Similarly, some species of
blackflies. increase with stream acidification while others
decrease.
5, Fishes
Fishes are economically important in most aquatic
environments, and they attract considerable public attention.
In addition, because of their long generation time, fishes are
informative, indicators of long-term changes in physical and
chemical pollutants, as measured by bioaccumulaticm, body
growth, and community changes.
Non-biodegradable materials (pesticides, heavy metals,
and radionuclides) may be concentrated as they pass through the
aquatic food chain until they reach the apex consumers, the
fishes* Depending upon the substances to be monitored, the
liver, gall bladder, flesh, and bones should be analyzed.
Growth can be measured more sensitively and accurately than
other physiological parameters of fishes because the history of
growth rates of a fish is preserved in the annular marks in the
scales and other hard parts of the body such as otoliths.
Nonetheless, the significance of changes in growth rates may be
difficult to determine- because growth rates of fishes are
sensitive to population density, food supply, and temperature
as well as to concentrations of toxicants.
Systematic surveys of fish populations will often reveal
the effects of some outside influence by virtue of changes in
relative abundance of species, loss of species, or the presence
of new invading species. Short-term impacts may be detected by
behavior* Fish may-avoid-areas of altered temperature or
34
-------
increased concentrations of toxic materials, and a noticeable
migration avray from an area may suggest the presence of
pollution. Acute toxic responses of fishes to toxicants include
the cough response, dpercular movements, and abnormal activity.
A summary of the utility of different aquatic organisms
for anticipatory and regulatory monitoring purposes is provided
in Table A.I, Procedures are divided into intermittent and
continuous activities, but the original references must be
consulted for details of the intensity of data gathering needed
for different purposes and for details of actual methods.
MONITORING DIFFERENT AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
FRESH WATER SYSTEMS
Rivera
From a chemical standpoint, streams in the United States
fall into the following types:
(a) Streams of low conductivity and productivity.
(b) Streams of low conductivity but high in humates, such
as blackwater streams.
(c) Streams with low calcium-carbonate hardness (less than
50 ppm).
(d) Streams of medium hardness (50-200 ppm),
(e) Very hard streams (>200 ppm}.
(f) Streams that are rich in alkaline metals, such as sodium
and potassium, and high in carbonates of various types,
The monitoring system should include streams of all of
these types at various altitudes, because high altitude streams
are often exposed to more fallout. Also, streams should be
measured in various major ecosystems of the country, preferably
in conjunction with the terrestrial monitoring program.
Monitoring rivers for anticipatory purposes and
effectiveness of regulations should include the assessment of
numbers and kinds of species and productivity (reproductive
success and biomass) of algae, invertebrates, fishes, and other
vertebrates if they occur in sufficient numbers to be important
in the functioning of the ecosystem. The most important groups
of organisms are benthic and vagile species. When they occur,
species that live in the land-water interface should be
included,
35
-------
The monitoring of rivers for regulatory development and
enforcement of regulations should use those organisms which
concentrate or show physiological changes that indicate the
pollutant in question. Useful methods include continuous field
monitoring, semicontinuous monitoring, and laboratory
monitoring as set forth in Table A.I.
Lakes
Lakes can be classified in a number of ways but for
purposes of a regulatory agency the following characteristics
are most important.
(a) Presence or absence of thermal stratification.
Stratification can occur during the winter in regions where
temperatures are low enough for freezing to occur and during
the summer when warm layers may overlay colder/ deeper water*
In some lakes, however, there is sufficient mixing of water
from all depths that little or no thermal stratification
develops at any time of the year.
(b) Renewal rate of water. Lakes range from those in
which the amount of water flowing through them is so great that
the average residence time of molecules of water may be no more
than a few months to a few years. In other lakes, flow through
in relation to lake volume is so small that residence times of
water in the lake may be decades or centuries. The responses
of lakes to perturbations and restoration attempts depend, in
large part> on the renewal rate of the water.
(c) Shape* Shapes of lakes determine the relative
exposure of the water mass to shore conditions. Long, thin,
shallow lakes are more strongly influenced by shore conditions
than are circular,* deeper lakes.
(d) Nutrient status.. Because of differences in their
drainage basins, lakes differ strikingly in their chemistry.
Acid bogs low in nutrients and alkaline lakes rich in nutrients
represent extremes along one chemical continuum.
Lakes differing in these characteristics respond
differently to anthropogenic and natural perturbations.
Therefore, a thorough monitoring scheme should include examples
of lakes differing in as many of these characteristics as
possible in a variety of geographical regions of the country,
The general groups of organisms and types of monitoring
are the same as described for rivers. However, in lakes,
plankton organisms are very important in the food web and should
be monitored along with vagile and benthic species. Important
processes to be monitored are reproductive success and rate of .
accumulation of biomass.
36
-------
•table A,l, Continuous and Intermittent Apattc Biological HoriitoKing Jutted
especially useful lor teticipatory efA Regulatory Purposes,
A.
flnticipatory
Monitoring
or
Program
Effective
Monitoring
Intermittent
Continuous
Biological survey — the examination of all major groups of organisms iraportant
in nutrient transfer In the ecosystem, Hiia is carried
cut by a team of trained people.
'Suggested groups to study; , .
1. Plankton speciea — productivity (O™, prisary production ? C), |iiytjoplanktonf zooplankton
2, Denlhic organisms — ejpecies, bioniass, productivity} algae, protozoana, worma, uolluacs, insects
3, Aquatic inacrojJiytea — species, mapping size of beds, blomss
4. Fishes — species, relative mnitoera, estinute of standing crop
Algae — artificial Btiistrates (diatametar) , ^
Species, oomunity structure, Lioinsa, chlorophyll, C, aociKuLation of
insecticides and heavy iretals
•Mussels and oysters — trays, cages, from designated beds
Growth, condition, pests, accumulation of pesticides and metals
Invertebrates
Insects
Dandy baskets
Crustacea; species, ntnters, bionass
37
-------
A,l. Continued
B.
Regulatory
Manitoriiiif
-Continuous
Mversion of effluent throogti
aquaria and por*ia, ai*3 mix
with stream
Diversion of stream or estuary
to monitor (juality
Algae — en substrates
Hunters and kinds of species, productivity,
bi
-------
fable A.I. Continued
Regulatory
Monitoring"
- Intermittent*
-Algae
- Invectebrataa
-Fishes
Acute teats
Death
Hiatologlcal changes
Chronic Tbsts
Physiological changes
respiration \
reproduction I
assimilation I
photosynthesis /
ceil divislcn I
J
effects of organofhoaphatea -v
on cholinasteraae I
enqroatic system efficiency J
Behavioral changes
sight
cough
swimming
opercular rhythms
Morphological i, hisbological
changea
Piahea
Fishes
Algaa
Invartebrabas
Fishes
-------
MARINE STSTSMS
Estuaries receive not only the pollutants which are added
directly to the system but also those pollutants carried into
the estuary by the rivers at the upper end. Conditions in the
estuary reflect, therefore, all of the accumulation of
pollutants from the entire drainage basin. Some of the
pollutants added to the streams and rivers are, of course,
sedimented or recycled before they reach the estuary? others
must pass through the estuary to reach the final destination,
the open sea.
Within the estuary, there is a gradual increase in
salinity from the river to the offshore coastal waters.
Pollutants in the estuary are gradually"diluted with this
increased participation of sea water in the circulation* As a
result of the increased salt content and of chemical reactions
with elements in sea water, some constituents are precipitated
out. of solution and accumulate in the sediments.
Oceanic islands, such as Hawaii, Puerto Hico, the U.S.
Virgin Islands, and some coastal offshore islands, may be
subjected to direct ocean dumping of pollutants that do not pass
through estuaries. In such instances, biological monitoring
systems would have to be implemented for purely marine
communities such as coral re^fs, offshore fishing banks,
littoral marine communities, the marine plankton and nekton, and
the marine benthos. The relevance and importance of coastal and
marine communities notwithstanding, this report does not delve
into communities beyond the estuary. The biological monitoring
af marine ecosystems deserves additional attention by SPA.
The major regions to be monitored in marine systems are
marshlands, which are the breeding and feeding ground for many
invertebrates and vertebrates, and open water which is the site
of plankton production, the reproductive area of fishes that
spawn in the water column, and the migration paths of these
organisms. The sites to be monitored should include one. in the
river beyond salt penetration to evaluate riverine inputs; one
in mid-estuary where, under annual mean river flow, the mid-
channel water column contains about equal amounts of river
water and coastal water7 and one at the mouth in mid-channel.
Marshes adjacent to the sampling sites, if present, in each of
these locations also should be monitored. In embayments, where
salinity differs only slightly, or not at all, from that in
outside sea water, sites should include one near the land, one
in the center, and one at the mouth with companion sites on
adjacent marshes if these are present.
The organisms to be monitored for anticipatory needs
should represent three stages in the food web? primary
producers (diatoms, blue-green algae, green algae)? herbivores
(oysters, mussels, crustaceans), and omnivores or carnivores
40
-------
(fishes, lobsters). The specific organisms should be those
most important in the food web or of commercial importance*
Their growth, reproductive success, biomass, and accumulation
of chemicals should be determined. Because the stage
immediately following hatching is. often the most sensitive,
particular attention should be paid to very young animals,
For regulatory and compliance monitoring the organisms
selected should be the most sensitive to a given type of
pollution. For bioaccumulation of toxicants, molluscs, some
attached aquatic algae, and fishes have proved most useful.
For changes resulting from eutrophication, algae and attached
aquatics and some types of worms are most useful.
AQOATIC SEDIMEHTS
Rain and wind may bring elements such as the halogens,
boron, and sulfur, and participate matter to bodies of water
far removed from their sources. Mercury (Hg) concentrations,
caused by industrial activity and technological advance
{Cowgill, 1975), appear in lake basins far removed from such
activity* Recently, vitamin B complex has been found in rain
(Parker and Wachtel, 1977), and, earlier, thiamin {Hutchinson,
1943), niacin and biotin (Hutchinson and Setlow, 1946} were
noted to have a seasonal distribution in some lake waters.
Elements in water may attain concentrations that exceed
the solubility product of their compounds. Minerals form in
aitu, precipitate out and slowly arrive at the mud surface.
Examples include various types of calcium minerals, notably
calcite, aragonite, and gypsumj iron and manganese compounds?
aluminum oxides; and silicates. Aluminum and silicon minerals
have been shown to be experimentally formed in water under
natural conditions (Hern, Boberson, Lind, and Polzer, 1973).
Presumably diatoms extracting silicon from siliceous minerals
may contribute to the incidence of such compounds in the mud.
Dying organisms,yespecially plankton, also make major
contributions to elements in aquatic sediments, and their
organic compounds may sorb and concentrate elements such as
bromine and iodine (Mackereth, 1965, 1966? Cowgill and
Hutchinson, 1966, 1970).
Few bodies of water have been thoroughly studied from a
chemical or a biological viewpoint so it is difficult to come to
any conclusion that would prove generally applicable.
Examination of the chemical composition of the- sediments alone,
on the basis of present knowledge, will not provide conclusive
evidence as to the state of health of a body of water.
Nonetheless, a program of monitoring elements in sediments can
provide valuable information on changes taking place in the
watersheds draining into those bodies of water, h well-designed
41
-------
monitoring program of bottom sediments should include a series
of lakes and estuaries in different climatic zones with"
different depths and sizes, but closelj matched for these traits
while contrasting in the patterns of human impacts on their
watersheds. Without this aspect of experimental design, changes
caused by human activities cannot be distinguished from those
caused by natural fluctuations in environmental conditions.
RETROSPECTIVE MONITORING OF SEDIMENT CORES
Paleoecology provides retrospective monitoring of aquatic
and terrestrial environments. Changes in the remains of algae,
pollen, and invertebrates and fishes may indicate general shifts
in climatic conditions, the rise and fall of the coast line, as
well as the effects of development in industry, forestry,
agriculture, mining, urbanisation, and other land uses.
Microfossils can provide temporal records of past environments.
Selection of sites in different regions of the country or near
different types of developments can add a spatial dimension and
specific information of past conditions.
A unique advantage of these methods is that the samples
are presently well preserved in the bottoms of thousands of
lakes and reservoirs scattered across the United States. The
occurrence or relative abundance of pigment determinations and
relative sizes of pollen grains indicate ecological changes in
the water and on land and the effects of human activities.
Thus, the past history of major changes in the landscape can be
measured or recognized.
42
-------
Appendix B
PLANTS KNOWN AS ACCUMULATORS OP CERTAIN ELEMENTS OR KNOWN INDICATORS
OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
ALUMINUM
Lycopodlum |abelli forme
Atzelia 'a'fricana
Ly copod i urn sp,
ASS EN 1C
gseudotsuqa menziesii
BARIUM
Bertfaolletia excels a
PseudQtsuga doiiglasii
BERYLLIUM
Vicia sylvatica
Aco'nitum excel sum
C a . 1 amag r o s t i s arundinacea
BORON
Surotia ceratoides
L imo n x urn " s u ffruticosum
CHROMIUM
scoparium
Cassinia vauvilliersii
COBALT
Si lane cobalticola
Crotal'aria cobaTlTcQla
COPPER
Gypsophila patrini
Acrocephalus robertii
0"ca.nium
Merceya latifolia
viscaria alpina
Po_lycarpea _sp_irostylis
Becium homblei
Princess pine
club moss
Douglas fir
Brazil nut
Douglas fir (?)
winterfat
statics
karum
basil
copper moss
German catchfly
pink
mint
43
-------
Acrocephalas katangaensis
Polycarpaea gjlabra
Escfascholtgia meaxcana California poppy
Tephrosia sp,
Astragalus declinatus milk
Cassia desolata
FtiTot'us gjbovatus
Scaevola denseveatlta
HALOGENS
Dichapetalum cyinosmti—*P
Fe x3oa s_eiiowXana--I
IRON
Betula sp.
dusia rg_sea
Dacrydimn caledonicum
Damriara gyata
Eutessa i_ntermed!a
LEAD
Brian thus g_igranteus beardgrass
LITHIUM
Acacia raddiana
Acacia ehrenhergiana
Thalictrura sp.
Lycium sp«
Solanum sp«
Datura sp,
Atroipa sp.
Cirsium sp.
MANGANESE
Digitalis pjirpurea
Pucus ye_siculolus
Trapa natans
Zostera riana
MEEC0RY
Aren,ar_i_a setacea
Ho_lostTum uihbellatum
MOLYBDENDM
Astragalus declinatus milk vetch
Quercus wializeni oak
Q^ douqlasii blue oak
Pyosb'pis ju'Iiflora mesquite
44
-------
NICKEL
Al^ssum bertolonii
murale '
Asplenium adulterlum Aspj.enium
Pulsatilla patens
Hybantnus £ lor ib'undus
NIOBIUM
Rubus areticus
t/accun i urn my r^ i 1 1 u s
Chamaernerion august! folium
Betula pubescens
PHOSPHORUS
Convolvulus althaeoides bindweed
RARE EARTHS
Carya sp. hickory
Candica albicans
RHENIUM
Atriplex ccmf ertifoli_a
Oe no t tie r a_ c ae sp 1 1 ps a
SELENIUM
Astragalus bisulcatus
A.
A.
A.
A.
A.
A.
A.
A,
A.
A,
A.
A.
A.
A.
A.
A.
A.
A,
A.
A.
A.
A.
diiiolcys .
haydenianus
oocalyois
racemosus
osterhouti
alfaulus
argiliosus
confertif Iprus
moencoppensis
grayi
pecti'natus
toatius
beathii
gastwoodae
gllisiae
crotalariae
pattersoni
preussi
racedens
sabulosus
saurinus
preusse and A. pat
greu3s_e and A_-_ pattersoni also indicate the presence of U
while some species of Stanleya indicate the absence of u.
45
-------
Oonopsia golden weed
Aster venustus woody aster
Stanieya sp. Prlnceplum
Xyjlorhiza
Towns enHTa incana
Gutierrezia sarothrae
Neptunia amplexjcaolis
SILVER
Sriogonug ov^lifoliouin Eriogonum
Pinus con tor ta E^odgepole pine
Pgp_ulus tremuloidea aspen
Ps_eudotsug_a taxifolia Douglas fir
Juniperus communis dwarf juniper
Abies lasiocarga Bocky Mountain fir
" horsetails
_
Lgnicera confusa honeysuckle
STRONTIUM
B chi urn italicum
&lhage kirghisormn
Ikmpelopsis vitJL£oli_a
Gly_cyrrh i 2a~^l_abr a
All "itnbwn analysis of the Graiaineae have shown that Sr is
present {dry weight) 26-410 ppm.
TIN
Semper^ ivum sobolifarum
Pluchea giiitoc
Calluna vulgaris
Gnaphaliom sylvaticum
S liene'lnllata
Tanacetum vulgare
Quercua sessilis
UHANIUM
Astragalus thoinpsonae
ft,iA pattersoni
A« preussi
Allium Sp*
Astragalus bisolcatus
Astraga.ljLjis pjceussi
Cast ills 3 a
Chrysotfaamnua
Amantia muscaria
46
-------
YTTRIUM
Calaigagrostis arundinacea
D a c't^I I s "glbme ra t a
Some Perns
2 INC
Viola calaminaria zinc violet
Phi1adeIphus• 1awisii syringa orange
Rut a gaveo1en_s
Thlaspi calamxnare
Gomphrena canescens
Polycarpaea synardra var gracilis
Tephrosjia polyzyga
ZIHCONIUM
Calama^rostis arund.JLncea
DactylIs glomerata
47
-------
REFERENCES CITED
Bascom, W. 1978. Coastal Water Besearch Project, annual report
foe the year 1978, Southern Calif., Coastal Water Project,
El Segundo, Calif.
Bazell, R. J. 1971, Lead poisoning: 2oo animals may be just
victims. Science 1973sl30-131.
Bobrov, R. A.. 1955. Use of plants as biological indicators of
smog in the air of Los Angeles County. Science:510-511.
ioyle, R* W., and R. G. Garrett, 1970. Geochemical prospecting;
A review of its status and future. Earth Sci* Rev. 6j71-75.
Braund, D. G., L. D. Brown, J. T. Huber,'N. C. Leeling, and M. J.
Sabik. 1968. Placental transfer of dieldrin in dairy
heifers contaminated during three stages of gestation.
J. Dairy Sci. 51*116-118,
Cairns, J,, Jr., 1978.. Hazard evaluation* Fisheries 3(2}:2-4.
Cairns, J., Jr., and K. I*. Dickson. 1978, Field and laboratory
protocols for evaluating the effects of chemical substances
on. aquatic life, J. Test. Sval. 6{2);81-9Q»
Cairns, J. , Jr., K. L» Dickson, and A., Maki, eds» 1978.
Estimating the hazards of chemical substances to aquatic
life* Aia*. Soc» Test. Mater. Spec. Tech. Publ. 657,
Philadelphia, Pa. 278 pp.
Cairns, J., Jr., K. L.» Dickson, and G. F. Westlake, eds. 1977.
Biological monitoring of water and effluent quality. Am.
Soc. Test. Mater.. Spec. Tech.. Publ. 607, Philadelphia,. Pa.
242 pp.
Cairns, J., Jr., and W.. H. van der Schalie. Biological monitoring
Part ij Early warning systems. Water Res. In press.
Cannon, H. L, 1960. Development of botanical methods of
prospecting for uranium on the Colorado plateau. 0.S. Geol.
Surv. Bull.. 1085-Asl-50.
Cannon, H, L. 1964.. Geochemistry of rocks and related soils and
vegetation in the Yellow Cat area, Grand County, CJtah.
U.S. Geol* Surv. Bull.. 1176;. 127 pp.
Carriker, M. R., R.. £. Palmer, L. V. Sick, and C. C,, Johnson.
Interaction of mineral elements in sea water and shell of
oysters (Crasaostrea virginica) cultured in controlled and
natural systems, J* Exp. Mar. Bio. Scol, In press,
43
-------
Cordes, C. L. 1971, Comparative study of the uptake, storage and
loss o£ ODT in small mammals, Ph.D. thesis, North Carolina
State University,
Cowgill, 0. M. 1975. Mercury contamination in a 54 in core from
Lake Huleh. Nature 256:476-478.
Cowgill, U. M. 1979. Variations in annual precipitation and
selenium accumulation by miIk-vetch. J. Plant Nutr. Soil
Sci. 1:73-80.
Cowgill, 0. M,, and G. E. Hutchinson. 1966. A general account of
the basin and the chemistry and mineralogy of the sediment
cores. History of Laguna de Petenxil. Conn. Acad, Arts
and Sci. Mem. 17s7-62.
Cowgill, U. M,, and G. E. Hutehinscm. 1970, Chemistry and
mineralogy of the sediments and their source materials,
lanula* An account of the history and development of
the Lago di Monterosi, Latium, Italy, Trans. Am. Philos.
Soc, 60:37-101.
Cowgill, 0. M./ and G. E. Sutchinson. 197Qa. lanula: A summary
of the history of Lago di Monterosi. Trans. Am. Philos.
Soc. 60:163-170.
Dorn, R. C., P, P. Phillips, J, 0. Pierce III, and G, R. Chase,
1974, Cadmium, copper, lead and zinc in bovine hair in the
new lead belt of Missouri. Bull, Environ. Contain.
Toxicol. 12:626-632.
Fowls, C. D. 1972, Effects of phosphamidon on forest birds in
New Brunswick. Can. Wildl. Hep. Ser. 16:1-25.
Gerloff, G. C., D. 0. Moore, and J. T. Curtis. 1964. Mineral
content of, native plants in Wisconsin. Wise. Univ. Agric.
Exp, Sta. Res, Rep. 14:1-26.
J
Goldberg, E. D. et al. 1978. The Mussel Watch, Environ, Conserv.
5(2}:101-125.
GQldschmidt, 0, M. 1937. The principles of distribution of
chemical elements in minerals and rocks. Chem. Soc. J.
1:655-673,
Gordus, A. A., C. C. Mather III, and G. C. Bird, 1973. Human
hair as an indicator of trace metal environment exposure.
Pages 164-487 in Proc, 1st Ann. Nat. Sci. Pound. Trace
Contain. Conf., Aug. 8-10, 1973, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
Heath, R. G. 1969, Nationwide residues of organochlorines in
wings of mallards and black ducks, Pestic. Monit. J,
3:115-123.
49
-------
Heath, R. G,f and S., A. Hill. 1974. Nationwide organochlorine
and mercury residues in wings of adult mallards and black
ducks during the 1969-70 hunting season. Pestic. Monit. J.
7:153-164,
Heck, W. 1977. Plants and microorganisms. Pages 437-566 in
ozone and other photochemical oxidants. Nat* Acad* ScT. /
Washington, D.C.
Heck, W., F. Pox, C. Brandt, and J. Dunning. 1969. Tobacco, a
sensitive monitor for photochemical air pollution, Nat. Mr
Pollut. Contr. Admin, Publ. No. AP-55, Cincinnati, O.S.
Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare. 23 pp.
Heck, W», and A. Heagle. 1970. Measurement of photochemical air
pollution with a sensitive monitoring plant. J. Air Pollut.
Contr. Assoc. 20:97-99*
Hem, H. D., C. E. Boberson, C. 3, Lind, and W. L. Polzer. 1973.
Chemical actions of aluminum with aqueous silica at 25°C.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Pap. 1827-E.
Herricks, E. E., and J. Cairns, Jr. 1979. Monitoring and
mitigation of aquatic hazards. S. R. Fredericks (ed.).
Pages 220-231 in Control of specific (toxic) pollutants.
Mr Poll.. Contr. Assc. Spec. Conf»
Hutchinson, G*. E. 1§43. 1!hiamin in lake waters and aquatic
organisms. Arch. Biochem. 2j143-150.
Hutchinson, G, S., and J. K. Setlow. 1946. Limnological studies
in Connecticut. VII. i&e niacin cycle in a small inland
lake. Ecology 27:13-22.
Lewis, R. A., and C. t.. Lewis, 1978. Terrestrial
vertebrates as biological monitors of pollution.
Contribution to the International Workshop on Monitoring
Environmental Materials and Specimen Banking. Berlin,
German Federal Republic. October 1973. 36 pp*
Lewis, R. A,, M. I*. Marton, M. D. Kern, J. D. Chilgren, and
E. M. Preston. 1978. The effects of coal-fired power plant
emissions on vertebrate animals in southeastern Montana (a
report in progress). Pages 213-279 in The biological
environmental impact of a coal-fired power plant. Third
interim report, EPA-600/3-73-021.
Lombard, L. S., and S. J. Witte. 1959. Frequency and types of
tumors in mammals' and birds of the Philadelphia Zoological
Garden. Cancer Ses. 9:127-141.
50
-------
Mackereth, F, J* H. 1965, Chemical investigations of lake
sediments and their interpretations. Proc. R. Soc. (B)
161i295-310.
Mackereth, F. J, H, 1966. Some chemical observations on
post-glacial lake sediments. Trans. R. Soc. (B}2SG:165-
213.
McErlean, A. J. , C. Kerby, and R. C. Swartz. 1972. Discussions
of the Status of knowledge concerning sampling variation,
physical tolerances, and possible change criteria for bay
organisms. Chesapeake Sci. 13:342-554,
Middieton, J. T, 1956. Response of plants to air pollution.
J. Air Pollut. Contr. Assoc. 6;7-9.
National Museum of Natural History. 1976. The use of museum
speciments for past pollutant documentation—An evaluation.
The Smithsonian institution, Washington, D.C, 204 pp.
National Science Foundation. 1977, Long-term ecological
measurements. Report of a. Conference, March 16-18, 1977r
Woods Hole, Mass, 26 pp.
National Science Foundation. 1978. Report on Second Conference
on Long-term Ecological Measurements, Feb. 6-10, 1978,
Woods Hole, Mass. 44 pp.
weal, J. E., and E. G. Qlstrum. 1971. Birdlife—An indicator of
environmental quality. Sxt. lull. E-7Q7. Nat. Resour.
Coop, Ext. Serv.„ Michigan State University. 4 pp.
Parker, B. C,, and M* A. Wachtel. 1977. Seasonal distribution of
B. vitamins. Pages 661-695 in J. Cairns. Jr., ed. Aquatic
microbial communities. Garland Publishing, Inc., New York.
Patrick, R., and R, R. Kiry. 1976. Sstuarine surveys,
biomonitoring, and bioassays. Contrib. Dep. Linrnol. Acad.
Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. 62 pp.
Patrick, R., and D, Strawbridge. 1963, Methods of studying
diatom populations. J, Water Pollut. Contr. Fed.
35(2}:151-160.
Pequegnat, W. 1978, Combined field-laboratory approaches to
detecting impacts of waste materials on organisms. Third
Annual Conference on Treatment and Disposal of Industrial
Wastewaters and Residues, Apr. 18-20, 1978, Houston, Tex.
Rhoades, D. F, 1979. Evaluation of plant chemical defense against
herbivores. Pages 3-34 in Rosenthal, G, A., and D. H. janzen,
eds. Herbivores; Their interaction with plant secondary
metabolites. Academic Press, New York.
51
-------
r
Rebel, R. J., C. D* .Stalling, M. E. Westfahl, and A. M* Kadoum.
1972, Effects of insecticides on populations of rodents
in Kansas—1965-69. Pestic. Moult* J.. 6:115-121.
Robinson, W. 0., H. Bastron, and K» J. Murata.. 1958,
Biogeochemistry of the rare earth elements with particular
reference to hickory leaves. Geoehint. Cosmochim* Acta
14;5S-67.
Robinson, W, 0., R. R. Whetstone, and B. B1. Scribner. 1938.
Presence of rare earths in hickory leaves. Science 87:470.
Rood, H« It,, and <3* M. Goldstein. 1977. Recommendations of the
EPA/UBS Workshop on the National Environmental Specimen
Bank. 0* S. Environmental Protection Agency Sep.
SPA-6QQ/1-77-Q2Q, Environmental Health Effects Bes. Ser.
54 pp.
Stephens, C. R. t. S. P. Darl$y, 0. C,. Taylor, and W, E. Scott.
1961, Photochemical reduction products in air pollution.
Int. J. Air Pollut. 4?79-100.
Snyder, R. l»,, and H. L. Ratsliffe. 1969. Primary lung cancer
in birds and mammals of the Philadelphia 2oo. Cancer Res.
26J514-S18.
Swart?, R. C., 1972. Biological criteria of environmental change
in the Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake Sci. 13: S17-S41.
Takemoto, K. 1972. Mr pollution of the lungs of dogs and birds,
Pages 19-23 in Histopathological studies of the human being
affected by air pollution.
Takemoto, K., H. Katayama, K* Namie, R. Endo, and K* Tashiro.
1974. Effects of air pollution on the ornithorespiratory
system. Part IV. Pathology of doves lung. (In Japanese)
Nippon Eiseigaku 2asshi 29;106.
Tashiro, K., K. Namie, K. Takeiaoto, and E. Hisasumi. 1974.
Effects of air pollution on the respiratory system of
animals in a zoological garden. (In Japanese) Nippon
Eiseigaku Zasshi 29;107.
van der Schalie, W. H. / K*. L.. Dickson, <3. F. Westlake, and
J. Cairns, Jr. 1979. Pish bioassay monitoring of waste
effluents. Environ. Manage. 3(3):217-235,
Warren, S, V., and R. E, Delavault, 1960. Observations on the
biochemistry of lead in Canada, Trans. R. Soc. Can. Ser.
54*11-20.
Warren, H,. V., and a. S. Delavault. 1967. A geologist looks at
pollution—mineral variety. West. Miner 40:22-32.
52
-------
1
White, T, C. R. 1§74. A hypothesis to explain outbreaks of
looper caterpillars, with special reference to populations
of Selidoseiaa suayis in a plantation of Pi pus radjLata in
New Zealand, Qecologia 16:279-302.
White, D. H., and E.G. Heath. 1976. Nationwide residues of
organochlorines in wings of adult mallards and black ducks,
Pestic. Monit. J. 9*176-185,
Weinstein, L., and D. McCune. 1970. Field surveys, vegetation
monitoring. Pages G1-G4 in Recognition of air pollution
injury to vegetations A pictorial atlas, Mr Pollut,
Contr. Assoc,, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Yamaoka, S,, M. Pukuda, and M. Oka {O, Pukase). 1973.
Experiments of exposing animals to urban polluted airr
Part I. (In Japanese) Rep. Oaka Municipal Inst. Hygiene
35il34-135.
53
------- |