Office of Research arid Development
• >' ' •' ?!*.»• ?> • -f
XUhf ¦ ,il
EPA/600/R-16/169 | August 2016 | www.epa.gov/research
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Quality
of the Pensacola Bay
System: Retrospective
Review for Future
Resource Management
and Rehabili tation
-------
EPA/600/R-16/169
August 2016
Environmental Quality of the Pensacola Bay System:
Retrospective Review for
Future Resource Management
and Rehabilitation
by
Michael A. Lewis
Gulf Ecology Division
National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
Gulf Breeze, FL 32561
J. Taylor Kirschenfeld
Water Quality and Land Management Division
Escambia County
Pensacola, FL 32503
Traci Goodhart
West Florida Regional Planning Council
Pensacola, FL 32514
National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Gulf Breeze, FL. 32561
i
-------
Notice
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) through its Office of Research and Development
(ORD) funded and collaborated in the research described herein with representatives from Escambia
County's Water Quality and Land Management Division and the West Florida Regional Planning
Council. It has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative review and has been approved
for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This is a contribution to the EPA ORD Sustainable and Healthy Communities Research Program.
The appropriate citation for this report is:
Lewis, Michael, J. Taylor Kirschenfeld, and Traci Goodheart. Environmental Quality of the Pensacola
Bay System: Retrospective Review for Future Resource Management and Rehabilitation. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, FL, EPA/600/R-16/169, 2016.
-------
Foreword
This report supports EPA's Sustainable and Healthy Communities Research Program. The objective of
this Program is to assist community leaders make decisions that preserve the environment and the vital
services they provide. The primary objective of this report is to provide an updated summary of the
ecological condition of the Pensacola Bay System (PBS) and the value of its ecological goods and
services. An updated summary is needed since a considerable amount of published and unpublished
technical information has become available since the last summary published 15 years ago. This updated
report serves as a technical resource for the public and the regulatory and scientific communities related
to resource management. It provides a synopsis of the environmental database (1680-present) and the
research needed to maintain and improve the environmental quality of the PBS.
The report is a collaborative effort. Authors are from the USEPA's Gulf Ecology Division Research
Laboratory (Gulf Breeze, FL), West Florida Regional Planning Council (Pensacola, FL) and Escambia
County Water Quality and Land Management Division (Pensacola, FL). The USEPA Gulf Ecology
Division conducts ecological effects research to assess the sustainability of estuarine and coastal systems
and determines the factors causing impacts in order to predict future risks. The mission of the WFRPC is
to provide professional planning, coordinating and advisory services to local governments, state and
federal agencies and to he public to preserve and enhance the quality of life in northwest Florida.
Escambia County's Water Quality and Land Management Division serves the community through
development and oversight of local environmental resource projects and programs for the county.
-------
Table of Contents
NOTICE II
FOREWORD Ill
LIST OF FIGURES VII
LIST OF TABLES XII
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS XIV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XV
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY XVI
1 Introduction 1
2 Historical Database 5
3 Natural Resource Inventories (Biodiversity) 13
3.1 History/Overview 13
3.2 Fish 15
3.3 Macrobenthos 18
3.4 Phytoplankton 20
3.5 Zooplankton 20
3.6 Periphytic Algae 21
3.7 Tidal Wetland Vascular Plants 22
3.8 Biodiversity Differences 22
4 Anthropogenic Contaminants 23
5 Groundwater Quality/Superfund Sites 25
6 Surface Water Quality 26
6.1 Nutrients 28
6.2 Trace Metals 30
6.3 Persistent Non-Nutrient Organics 32
6.4 Effects-Based Research 32
7 Sediment Quality 33
7.1 Chemical Quality 34
7.2 Sediment Quality Assessment Guidelines Exceedance 40
7.3 Toxicity (Fauna) 44
7.4 Phytotoxicity 50
7.5 Genotoxicity 50
7.6 Macrobenthic Community Metrics 51
iv
-------
7.7 SQAG Predictive Ability 54
7.8 Spatial Comparisons of Sediment Quality 55
7.9 Stressor Source Comparisons for Sediment Quality 59
8 Dredging 60
9 Bioaccumulation (Contaminant Bioavailability) 62
9.1 Trace Metals (Sans Mercury) 64
9.2 Non-Nutrient Organic Chemicals 69
10 Public Health Risk 70
10.1 Mercury 70
10.1.1 Fish 71
10.1.2 Blue Crabs 71
10.1.3 Oysters/Mussels 71
10.1.4 Exceedance of Consumption Guidelines 71
10.2 PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) and Dioxin Furans 73
10.3 Fecal Coliform Bacteria and Pathogens 74
11 Organismal Health Risk 75
12 Wildlife Health Risk 78
13 Transplanted Oysters 80
14 Colonized Periphyton 82
14.1 Bioaccumulation 82
14.2 Biomass and Pigment Content 84
15 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation 86
16 Habitat Restoration/Creation 92
16.1 Seagrass Meadows 92
16.2 Oyster Reefs 93
16.3 Salt Marsh 94
16.4 Community-Based Shoreline Restoration 94
17 Spatial Environmental Variation 95
17.1 PBS Internal 95
17.2 PBS External 95
18 Temporal Variation 97
19 Economic Value of Ecological Services and Goods 98
19.1 Seagrass 100
19.2 Oysters 101
v
-------
19.3 Tidal Wetlands (Brackish and Salt Marsh) 102
19.4 Uncertainty 105
20 Climate Change 106
21 Discussion 107
22 Recommendations 117
23 Literature Cited 120
vi
-------
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Location of the Pensacola Bay System adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico in northwest
Florida. Subunit focus for summary includes Pensacola, Escambia, East and Blackwater
Bays, Santa Rosa Sound, and adjacent Big Lagoon 1
Figure 1.2 Summer kill of Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) in Bayou Texar 3
Figure 1.3 Relative locations of proposed reference sites for which environmental quality of the
Pensacola Bay System is compared within the summary. Geographic coordinates for
sampling stations available in Lewis et al. (2006) 4
Figure 2.1 Examples of natural and anthropogenic stressors, or "drivers of change", for the
Pensacola Bay System 6
Figure 2.2 Distribution of spatially-specific environmental reports/publications published since
1950. Total number of reviewed reports-290 7
Figure 3.1 Examples of abundant biota inhabiting the Pensacola Bay System. Species not
shown to scale. Photos by author or courtesy of Encyclopedia of Life (Encyclopedia of Life;
accessed 2016 July 14) 14
Figure 3.2 Maximum number of species reported since 1970 by location 15
Figure 3.3 Annual and monthly variability for a diversity index (Shannon and Weaver 1949),
total species and abundance offish collected from Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande
using seines and an otter trawl during 1993-1998. Values represent means (±1 SD) for all
sites and Bayous. Adapted from Lewis et al. (2010) 18
Figure 3.4 Temporal and spatial variation for a diversity index (Shannon and Weaver 1949)
determined for benthic macroinvertebrates, zooplankton and the algal-periphyton. Results
are for samples collected at least four times during the same year (1993-2000) at multiple
sites in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande. Values represent means (±1 SD). See Butts
and Lewis (2002) and Lores et al. (2002) for additional details 21
Figure 4.1 Chemical and biological measurements used to determine the impacts of industrial,
domestic and thermal wastewaters discharged during the 1990s to Pensacola and
Escambia Bays, Santa Rosa Sound, and the Escambia River 24
Figure 4.2 Routes of stormwater runoff to Santa Rosa Sound from the Tiger Point golf
complex. Runoff contains contaminants from course maintenance and spray-irrigated
wastewater. More detail in Lewis et al. (2001b, 2002b, 2004) 24
Figure 6.1 Examples of posted public health warnings for surface water contact with Bayou
Texar and Santa Rosa Sound. Warnings are due to unsually high rainfall and resultant
stormwater entry containing elevated coliform bacteria. Warnings have occurred
intermittently for 30 years but are decreasing annually 27
Figure 6.2 Summary of chlorophyll a (|jg/l), dissolved inorganic nitrogen (mg/l) and dissolved
organic phosphorus (mg/l) concentrations in surface waters collected during 1992-2003.
Values represent means (±1 SD). EastB=East Bay, EscB=Escambia Bay, PB=Pensacola
Bay, SRS= Santa Rosa Sound. Total samples approximates 2,000 29
vii
-------
Figure 7.1 Contaminated sediment collected from Bayou Texar prior to analysis for chemical
quality, toxicity, and benthic community composition. Sediment collected with a Petite
ponar grab sampler to a depth of 13 cm or less 33
Figure 7.2 Frequency distributions for four persistent and bioaccumulative contaminants in
sediments collected during the 1990s from the Pensacola Bay System. Adapted from
Lewis (2005) 35
Figure 7.3 Concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) of total chlordane, total DDT, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (total PAHs) and polycyclic biphenyls (total PCBs) in sediments collected
during 1995-2002 from the Pensacola Bay System and proposed reference areas (Lewis
et al. 2006). Values represent means (±1 SD) 37
Figure 7.4 Exceedance of numerical, effects-based sediment quality assessment guidelines
(SQAGs) proposed by MacDonald et al. (1996) for Florida coastal waters. Values based
on sediment samples collected from the Pensacola Bay System during 1993-2000.
Adapted from Lewis (2005). Threshold effect level: concentration below which no effects
are expected to occur frequently; Probable effect level: concentration for which effects are
expected to occur frequently 41
Figure 7.5 Sediment quality assessment quotients (Long et al. 2006) for Pensacola Bay
System sub-units and proposed reference areas (Lewis et al. 2006). Values are based on
chemical results for 792 sediment samples reported in DeBusk et al. (2002) and Lewis et
al. (2007b). The concentrations of individual chemicals in all sediment samples collected
from a subsystem were averaged and divided by the corresponding numerical guideline
concentration and the fractions summed to form the composite quotient values. TELQ-
threshold effect level quotient; PELQ-probable effect level quotient. Location descriptions
from Fig. 1.3. PB=Pensacola Bay, EscB=Escambia Bay, EastB=East Bay, SRS=Santa
Rosa Sound, BT=Bayou Texar, BC=Bayou Chico, BG=Bayou Grande, EscR= Escambia
River 43
Figure 7.6 Examples of a laboratory whole sediment acute toxicity test conducted for 10 days
with the infaunal amphipod, Ampelisca abdita, and phytotoxicity tests conducted with
wetland plant seedlings such as the smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora. Plants
exposed for 21-28 days to either water-borne contaminants or contaminated whole
sediment 45
Figure 7.7 Examples of test species exposed to whole and diluted sediments collected from
the Pensacola Bay System and their associated pore waters in laboratory acute and
chronic toxicity tests. Test durations were 0.5 hours to 28 days. Species not show n to
scale. Photos by author or courtesy of Encyclopedia of Life (Encyclopedia of Life;
accessed 2016 July 14) 46
Figure 7.8 Survival (%) of epibenthic and infaunal test species after their 4-10 days exposure
to the Pensacola Bay System contaminated whole sediments. Total toxicity tests
conducted=340 48
Figure 7.9 Species- and site-specific differences for survival of five test species exposed to
whole sediments collected from the Pensacola Bay System, nearby bays and proposed
reference areas (Lewis et al. 2006). See Figures 1.3 and 7.5 for site designa tions.
PerB=Perdido Bay; WB=Weeks Bay 49
Figure 7.10 Frequency distributions for structural characteristics of the benthic
macroinvertebrate community in sediments collected during 1993-2000 from the
viii
-------
Pensacola Bay System. Number of analyses=203. Adapted from Lewis (2005).
52
Figure 7.11 Frequency distributions for measures of benthic diversity in sediment samples
collected from the Pensacola Bay System. Results are for approximately 1,000 analyses.
Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (Shannon and Weaver 1949), Margalef Diversity Index
(1958), Simpsons Index (1949), Pielou Eveness Index (1966) 53
Figure 7.12 Comparison of exceedance of sediment quality guidelines (MacDonald et al. 1996)
and results of toxicity tests conducted with the same whole sediments collected from 15
locations in Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande. Test species were Mysidopsis bahia and
Ampelisca abdita, and seedlings of the wetland plants Sesbania macrocarpa and
Echinochloa crusgalli. ND-no data; l-inhibition and S-biomass increase (stimulation)
relative to plant biomass in control 55
Figure 7.13 Temporal and spatial variation for trace metal concentrations (jjg/g dry wt.) in
sediments collected four times at two locations in each of Bayous Texar, Chico, and
Grande. See Lewis et al. (2001 e) and Butts and Lewis (2002) for more detail 57
Figure 7.14 Spatial differences for mortality of two macrobenthic test species exposed to whole
sediments collected from multiple stations in Bayous Texar and Grande. Yellow-
Mysidopsis bahia; red-Ampelisca abdita 58
Figure 8.1 Concentrations of total mercury (ng/g dry wt.) in algal-periphyton colonized for 21
days at 10 locations in Bayou Texar prior to hydraulic dredging and 8 eight months post-
dredging. Dredging occurred during 1993-1994; about 22,800 m3 sediment removed. See
Lewis et al. (2001a) for more details 61
Figure 9.1 Oyster cage and periphytometer containing acrylic substrates used to determine
structural parameters and contaminant bioavailability in the Pensacola Bay System.
Periphytometers are shown before and after 21 day in-situ colonization period 64
Figure 9.2 Total mercury concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) in sediment and various biota collected
from the Pensacola Bay System during 1993-2001. Values represent means (±1 SD).
Sample sizes ranged 7-262. From Lewis and Chancy (2008) 66
Figure 9.3 Trace metal concentrations (jjg/g dry wt.) in roots and blades of the seagrass
Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass) and Halodule wrightii (shoal grass) collected from the
Pensacola Bay System. Values represent means (±1 SD). Results from Lewis et al.
(2007b) 67
Figure 9.4 Trace metal concentrations (jjg/g dry wt.) in the algal-periphyton after 21 days
colonization in the Pensacola Bay System and proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3) during
1993-1996. Values represent means (±1 SD). Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze,
FL) 68
Figure 10.1 Exceedance of consumption advisory levels for mercury and total PCBs for
protection of public health and wildlife consumers of aquatic life. Values represent
exceedance range based on the comparisons of multiple guidelines (ppm) and bioaccumu
lation results from primarily Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009), Karouna-Renier et al.
(2007) and Snyder and Rao (2008) for shrimp, oysters, blue crabs and fish 72
Figure 11.1 Fibrosarcoma on mullet. From Overstreet (1988) 75
Figure 11.2 Spatial comparison of ash free dry weight (g/m2) and pigments to total trace metal
accumulation for the same algal-periphyton colonized for 21 days at multiple stations in
Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande. Values represent means (±1 SD). Unpublished results
ix
-------
(USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL) 76
Figure 11.3 Examples of non-chemical anthropogenic hazards for PBS biota. Photos from the
corresponding author 77
Figure 12.1 Examples of common piscivorus birds vulnerable to contaminated prey from the
PBS. Photos courtesy of Encyclopedia of Life (Encyclopedia of Life; accessed 2016 July
14) and Wikipedia (Wikipedia; accessed 2016 July 14) 78
Figure 14.1 Temporal and spatial variation for trace metal concentrations (jjg/g dry wt.) in the
algal-periphyton colonized 21 days at five sites in Bayou Texar. J-June (1993), N-
November (1993), M-March (1994), J-June (1994). Values represent means (±1 S D).
Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL) 84
Figure 14.2 Temporal and spatial variation for structural characteristics of periphyton colonized
21 days during June (1993), November (1993), March (1994) and June (1994) at 14 sites
in Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande. Values represent means (±1 SD). Unpublished
results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL) 85
Figure 15.1 Early trend for submerged aquatic vegetation coverage in the Pensacola Bay.
From Olinger et al. (1975). Area near Bay Bridge approximates current location of Project
GreenShores Phase 1 (FDEP 2001b) 88
Figure 15.2 Early trend for submerged aquatic vegetation coverage in East Bay. From Olinger
et al. (1975) 89
Figure 15.3 Seagrass (%) reported for 2010 and change in coverage (+/- %) relative to 2003.
Results from Harvey et al. (2015) 90
Figure 15.4 Potential impacts of anthropogenic contaminants on submerged aquatic vegetation
beds such as those dominated by Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass) in Santa Rosa
Sound and Big Lagoon. Photo by author 91
Figure 17.1 Spatial variation for total mercury concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) in algal-periphyton
colonized for 21 days at multiple sites in Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande. Values
represent means (±1 SD). Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL) 95
Figure 19.1 Current coverage of submerged aquatic vegetation meadows, salt marsh (SM),
tidal wetlands (TW) and oyster reefs relative to that 60 years ago and prior to
environmental decline of the Pensacola Bay System. Coverage sources: submerged
aquatic vegetation Lewis et al. (2008), oyster reefs-Reynolds et al. (2014) and Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (personal communication, 2014);
wetlands-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetland Inventory (2014) and Northwest
Florida Water Management District Land Use/Land Cover maps (2010) 99
Figure 19.2 Estimated value (USD) of ecological services provided annually by submerged
aquatic vegetation meadows, salt marsh (SM), tidal wetlands (TW) and oyster reefs. Value
of ecological services lost also shown relative to reduction in coverage as a result of
historical habitat degradation. Evaluations per acre used in the calculation are: submerged
aquatic vegetation-$20,500 (Handley et al. 2007); oyster reefs-$10,325 (Grabowski et al.
(2012); wetlands-$3,900 (Woodward and Wui 2001). Values are not inflation corrected. 100
Figure 19.3 Potential impacts of anthropogenic contaminants on Spa/f/na-dominated tidal
wetlands common to the Pensacola Bay System 103
Figure 21.1 An "environmental report card" or "dashboard" perspective of environmental
X
-------
information for the Pensacola Bay System. Economic evaluation for submerged aquatic
vegetation, oyster reefs and tidal wetlands. Autotrophic index = biomass/chlorophyll a.
Sediment toxicity reported as a percent of all toxicity tests. Uncertainties (Table 21.2)
related to anthropogenic chemicals, water and sediment quality, and natural resources.
Bioaccumulation exceedance (percent of all samples) reported as a range for various
numerical guidelines. System coverage for submerged aquatic vegetation, almost all
submerged aquatic vegetation, is for the entire Pensacola Bay System. Current
submerged aquatic vegetation coverage reported for Santa Rosa Sound (SRS) and Big
Lagoon (BL) 108
Figure 21.2 Several factors affecting determination of the rate of environmental improvement
for the Pensacola Bay System. Blue line=theoretical environmental improvement; 1950
baseline period before major environmental deterioration 112
Figure 21.3 The more environmentally-degraded areas in the Pensacola Bay System based on
current knowledge for water and sediment quality and contaminant bioaccumulation.
Degraded areas generally overlap those for listed impaired waters based on mercury in
fish, fecal bacterial contamination and excess nutrients (FDEP 2010a) 113
Figure 21.4 Exceedance frequency of different consumption guidelines for mercury based on
reported residues in blue crabs, oyster and fish collected from the Pensacola Bay System.
Guidelines from USEPA (2000b, 2001); CCME (2001); FDA (2011); FDEP (2013a) 114
Figure 21.5 Examples of historical sources of largely unfulfilled recommendations for
environmental improvement of the Pensacola Bay System 116
xi
-------
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Chronology and examples of the diversity of environmental observations, research
topics and resource management plans for the Pensacola Bay System 8
Table 3.1 Species diversity and relative abundance (%) offish reported for river-dominated
estuaries of the northern Gulf of Mexico. T=trawl, S=seine. Adapted from Lewis et al.
(2011) 16
Table 3.2 Macrobenthic fauna that exceeded 1 % abundance for Bayous Texar, Chico, and
Grande during 1993-1994. Sediments were collected using a petite Ponar grab sampler.
Total abundances ranged from 81% to 91%. Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze,
FL.) 19
Table 3.3 Periphytic-algae taxa identified after 21-day colonization on acrylic substrates in the
Pensacola Bay System during summer months of 1993-1995 (Bayous) and 1997
(saltmarsh, Santa Rosa Sound and adjacent residential canal). Total abundance in
parenthesis 22
Table 6.1 Contaminant concentrations in decreasing order for media collected from Pensacola
Bay System and proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3). Results from multiple studies
conducted during 1990-2010. Not all analytes were measured at all locations 30
Table 6.2 Comparison of trace metal concentrations (jjg/l) in grab samples of filtered surface
water collected from the Pensacola Bay System and proposed coastal reference areas
(Fig. 1.3). Results from Lewis et al. (2006). Values represent means (±1 SD) 32
Table 7.1 Examples of anthropogenic contaminants determined for sediments collected from
the Pensacola Bay System 39
Table 7.2 Number of proposed sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs) exceeded for
sediments collected from the Pensacola Bay System impacted by different contaminant
sources, proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3) and sediments attached to seagrass. Values
represent the number of sediment samples for which result was observed. N - total
number of samples. TEL - Threshold effects level; PEL-Probable effects level. SQAGs
from MacDonald et al. (1996) 42
Table 7.3 Exceedance of sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs) by analyte and
sediment source. Values represent percent exceedance of total analyses based on
threshold and probable effect levels (in parenthesis) from MacDonald et al. (1996).
N=number of samples per analyte 42
Table 7.4 Test species used in acute and sublethal toxicity tests conducted with whole and
diluted sediments and interstitial pore waters collected from the Pensacola Bay System. 47
Table 7.5 Exceedance of sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs), MacDonald et al.
1996) and concomitant occurrence of toxicity and low benthic diversity for the same
Pensacola Bay System sediment sample. Values represent percent of comparisons where
outcome was observed. Adapted from Lewis (2005) 54
Table 7.6 Relative ranking of stressor sources for severity of contaminated sediment quality.
Identical assessment methods used for all areas. US = urban storm water runoff (Bayous
Texar, Chico, Grande). WW=11 treated municipal and industrial wastewaters (Escambia
xii
-------
and Pensacola Bays). GC=runoff from two golf courses (Santa Rosa Sound). AG=south
Florida Water Management District canals and entry points into Florida Bay. Decreasing
trend for all parameters. Adapted from Lewis (2005) 59
Table 9.1 Examples of anthropogenic contaminants determined in tissues of biota collected
from the Pensacola Bay System 62
Table 9.2 Thirty species of flora and fauna collected from the Pensacola Bay System which
have been analyzed for anthropogenic contaminants 63
Table 13.1 Trace metal residues in soft tissues of oysters (Crassostrea virginica) after 21 days
exposure in enclosures (Fig. 9.1). Exposures during 1993/-1994 (Bayous) and 2000/-2001
(proposed reference areas; Fig. 1.3). Baseline results are for commercially-obtained
oysters prior to field deployment. Values represent mean (±1 SD) in |jg/g dry wt. ND-not
determined, BD-below detection. Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL) 81
Table 14.1 Comparisons of ash free dry weight (AFDW), chlorophyll a, trace metal residues,
and Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index values for the same algal-periphyton colonized 21
days at each location. Values represent mean (±1 SD) for multiple colonizations (excludes
residues) and ranges for Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index values. Only one diversity index
value available for proposed reference sites. Residue concentrations in |jg/g dry wt. and
ng/g dry wt. (mercury). ND-not determined. BD-below detection. Unpublished results
(USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL) 83
Table 17.1 Comparison of various environmental parameters for Pensacola Bay System
subunits (in bold) to other northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries. Apal B - Apalachicola Bay,
Bay L - Bay La Launch, BC - Bayou Chico, BG - Bayou Grande, BT - Bayou Texar,
Choct B - Choctawhatchee Bay, East B - East Bay, Esc B - Escambia Bay, GL - Grand
Lagoon, MS - Mississippi Sound, OR - Old River, PB - Pensacola Bay, SRS - Santa
Rosa Sound, St JB - Saint Joe Bay, St And B - Saint Andrew Bay, SR - Suwannee River
estuary, WR - Withlacoochee River estuary 96
Table 21.1 Most recent information for several environmental metrics and the Pensacola Bay
System 109
Table 21.2 Knowledge-based uncertainties based on contaminant and resource management-
related information absent for the Pensacola Bay System that restricts environmental
improvement 110
xiii
-------
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AFDW
Ash free dry weight
BL
Bay La Launch
CCA
Chromated copper arsenate
DDT
Di chl oro-diphenyl -tri chl oroethane
ER-L
Effects range-low
ER-M
Effects range-median
GL
Grand Lagoon
MS
Mississippi Sound
NO A A
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
OR
Old River
PAH
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PBS
Pensacola Bay System
PCB
Polychlorinated biphenyl
PEL
Probable effects level
SAV
Submerged aquatic vegetation
SQAGs
Sediment quality assessment guidelines
SRE
Suwannee River Estuary
TEL
Threshold effect level
TMDL
Total Maximum Daily Loading
USEPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
WRE
Withlacoochee River Estuary
xiv
-------
Acknowledgments
Ms. Sonya Doten (ASRC Federal Primus, Beltsville, MD) provided report acquisition and Paul
Soderlind (Systems Research and Applications, Fairfax, Va.) provided graphics and formatting support.
Ms. Leah Lewis (University of West Florida, Pensacola) provided GIS support. Mr. Joe Shields III
(Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Tallahassee) and Ms. Beth Fugate (Florida
Department of Environmental Protection, Pensacola) provided information for oyster reef coverage and
local restoration activities. Joe Higginbotham (Florida Department of Health) provided information for
PCB consumption guidelines. Photos by author are courtesy of South Carolina Department of Natural
Resources, Nichols University, Chesapeake Bay Program and National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Helpful reviews were conducted by John Macauley (USEPA), Mike Murrell (USEPA),
Lisa Smith (USEPA) and Patricia Lewis (USEPA). Much of the EPA research was conducted by
George Craven, Robert Quarrels, Jed Campbell, Jim Patrick, Larry Goodman and Roman Stanley. Chloe
Jackson (USEPA student services contractor) assisted in formatting the document.
XV
-------
for machines never built
Everglades
"If you don't synthesize knowledge,
scientific journals become spare parts catalogues
for machines never built.n
Everglades conservationist, Arthur Marshall Jr.
Executive Summary
Biological and habitat diversity-The Pensacola Bay System (PBS) currently supports at least 1,400
estuarine plant and animal species identified from at least 85 natural resource surveys conducted during
the last 50 years. The total does not include PBS-dependent wildlife. Seagrass meadows are largely
limited to Santa Rosa Sound and Big Lagoon. Oyster reefs and tidal marshes dominate in East and
Escambia Bays. The distribution, productivity, and condition of PBS biota are controlled by complicated
and interdependent chemical, biological, and physical factors which are not well understood. As a
consequence, attempts to establish a direct cause-effect relationship for the presence or absence of a
species have been largely futile.
Environmental database-Environmental and physical observations for the PBS have been made for
approximately 330 years beginning in the late 1600s. A relatively large bibliometric database is
available but much data gathering has been reactive, unconnected, repetitive, and with an absence of
central coordination and integration. Furthermore, much of the information is of limited accessibility
and varied quality. Although some reports are available on-line, many are not which limits their value to
the public and regulatory and scientific communities. Approximately 27% of 454 reviewed reports
appear in the traditional peer-reviewed scientific literature. About 100 research topics have been
investigated since the 1950s, including the effects of 22 natural and anthropogenic stressors.
Environmental reports have been more common for Escambia Bay and Pensacola Bay (about 40% of all
reports) and the least common for East and Blackwater Bays, Big Lagoon and Bayou Grande. The most
diverse environmental database is for Bayou Texar.
Environmental condition- Environmental degradation of the PBS ecosystem became noticeable during
the 1950s and its condition remained depressed until about the mid-1970s. As a result, the PBS became
a less complex ecosystem with reduced resiliency to stress. Gradual improvement has occurred since the
1970s and considerable advancement for scientific understanding has occurred in recent years due in
part to the presence of at least 30 management and restoration plans. However, the spatial, temporal, and
experimental differences among many studies limit the ability to judge the environmental trend other
than in general terms. The current extent and rate of improvement are uncertain for many environmental
metrics and many assumptions for recovery and system-wide environmental gains are uncertain. It is
currently unknown if environmental quality continues to improve, has stabilized or is declining and, if
declining, is it reversible. Current monitoring programs are too infrequent and metric-limited to resolve
this issue. The only available reported numerical judgement for condition of the PBS is for 1995-2000
during which 16%, 68%, and 16% of the PBS was considered in good, fair, and poor condition,
respectively. No update is available. Stormwater runoff containing fecal bacteria, anthropogenic
chemicals and suspended solids, and sediment contamination, and the increasing effects of global
climate change are the dominant drivers of change for the near future.
xvi
-------
Anthropogenic chemicals-The adverse effects of anthropogenic chemicals became a noticeable issue
during the 1960s, particularly those contained in domestic and industrial wastewaters. Wastewaters, with
few exceptions, are no longer of concern since direct discharges have been eliminated to all PBS areas
except Santa Rosa Sound. In contrast, the fate and biological effects of PCBs, dioxins, atrazine
(herbicide), and Irgarol (antifoulant) remain uncertain as well as those for more recent chemicals such as
pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, personal care products, veterinary products, nanomaterials
(microbeads), anti-microbials, flame retardants, and anti-sticking agents. Currently, there is a lack or
incomplete understanding of the toxic effects and no effect concentrations for the majority of PBS
shoreline contaminants in water, sediment and biota. The first toxicity test conducted for the PBS was
during 1958 (nutrients) and the first phytotoxicity test was conducted during 1982. Most toxicity
information is for acute effects of contaminated sediments and relatively insensitive single species of
benthic and infaunal invertebrates evaluated under the controlled conditions of the laboratory. The
effects of environmental modifying factors (salinity and temperature) are unknown on chemical toxicity.
As a result of the limited toxicity database, sensitive response parameters and pressure points are
uncertain for most biota and their communities, and there is an inability to distinguish the effects of most
natural and anthropogenic stressors alone and in combination on their condition.
Water quality: Chemical-There has been no long-term, multimetric, and consistently conducted
monitoring effort to determine water quality trends for all but a few parameters. Surface water condition
for the PBS is considered better than that for underlying sediments and has been ranked in the past
between fair and good, including that for the Blackwater, Escambia and East Rivers. However, all
chemical water quality judgments to date are based on an incomplete database and their conclusions are
subject to wide interpretation. The effects and environmental concentrations for chemicals of past
concern such as the highly phytotoxic atrazine and Irgarol and chemicals of recent or emerging concern
are unknown. Water quality monitoring programs have been conducted independently by personnel of
different technical skills ranging from high school students to environmental professionals. The Bream
Fishermen Association has been conducting water quality measurements since 1968. Measurements
have been often limited to routine physicochemical parameters and, to a lesser extent, concentrations of
fecal coliforms, nutrients, chlorophyll a, and several trace metals. Nutrients have decreased to levels not
thought by some to be problematic, including for seagrass, at least in relation to water clarity. PBS has a
suspended solids problem that has been recognized since 1900. Suspended solids continue to degrade
water quality but presumably to a lesser extent than in the past due to increases in water storage
(retention) ponds, use of mechanical hydrodynamic separators, and more vegetative shoreline
modifications. Chemically-contaminated groundwater from two Superfund sites will continue to enter
the upper area of Bayou Texar for the next 70 years, the biological effects of which are still being
evaluated and debated.
Water quality: Effects-based research-The direct and indirect effects of excessive nutrients have
historically received more attention than those for non-nutrient contaminants. Only 2 of 11 symptoms of
nutrient enrichment are present in the PBS, suggesting that nutrient concentrations have decreased from
historically high levels. To some, current ambient nutrient concentrations are a suitable basis on which
to establish numeric nutrient criteria. However, additional scientific confirmation is needed for
verification. Mean autotrophic index values (ratio of biomass to chlorophyll a) for colonized algal-
periphyton were 124, 260, 283, 442, and 244 for Pensacola Bay, Escambia Bay, Bayous Texar, Chico,
and Grande, respectively, indicating the possibility of a high degree of organic enrichment. The toxic
effect concentrations of most water-borne contaminants to PBS biota are unknown but toxicity is
unlikely since most concentrations are low and below national water quality criteria for aquatic life.
However, toxicity of combinations of water-borne non-nutrient contaminants in the presence of ambient
nutrient concentrations under varying conditions of salinity and temperature, the more realistic
condition, are possible and important to understand, particularly, for plankton and seagrass.
xvii
-------
Sediment quality: Chemical-Contaminated sediments are and will continue to be one of the major
impediments for environmental improvement for the PBS. Surficial sediments collected from many
locations are chemically-contaminated and support only pollution-tolerant benthic communities.
Approximately 16-49% of sediment samples analyzed in the past exceed proposed numerical chemical
guidelines, suggesting a biological impact. However, exceedance of these guidelines is not a consistent
indicator of a corresponding biological impact (30-60% accurate). As for the water column,
concentrations of chemicals of emerging and more recent concern are unknown for sediments and not
included in judgments for chemical quality.
Sediment quality: Effects-based research-Acute and chronic toxicity to benthic faunal species,
genotoxicity, and phytotoxicity have been determined for at least 340 whole sediment samples collected
from the PBS. Effects have been analyzed for 13 plant, animal and microbial test species. The frequency
of toxicity observed for these sediments is 8% (acute toxicity), 33% (chronic toxicity), 20%
(genotoxicity), and 57% (phytotoxicity). Sediments collected from various areas in Bayous Texar,
Chico, and Grande have generally been more toxic. The most acutely toxic sediment was collected from
upper Bayou Texar (lethal concentration to 50% of test species=3% contaminated sediment). There have
been no known sediment toxicity identification evaluations conducted with PBS sediments to determine
the specific cause(s) of toxicity and as a result, the Total Maximum Daily Loading (TMDL) process
cannot be applied.
Dredging-Dredging has been conducted intermittently in the PBS to increase depth and remove
contaminated sediments. Repetitive dredging has been needed for the same areas during the past 35
years due to the lack of control for the sources of suspended solids and contaminants to the waterbody.
The ecological benefits of the intermittent dredging events, conducted more frequently in Bayous Texar
and Chico, are uncertain. An overall positive benefit, other than for navigation, should not be assumed
until supporting ecological information becomes available. The uncertain ecological value prevents
calculation of cost-benefit ratios important to support cost-effective management. Noted as early as
1984, long-term ecological studies and control of contaminant and suspended solid sources are needed
prior to dredging to prevent the costly repetitive dredging events.
Bioaccumulation-Chemical bioaccumulation has been determined for 30 faunal and floral species and
69 chemicals during the last 50 years. Many contaminants of current and historical concern are present
in PBS biota, more so for faunal species than primary producers. The most consistent and long-term
bioaccumulation monitoring (30 years) has been conducted for oysters in the PBS as part of NOAA's
Mussel Watch Program.
Bioaccumulation: Public health-Some PBS biota contain concentrations of PCBs, dioxins, furans,
DDT, mercury, Cd, Zn, and inorganic As that may pose public health risks. Exceedance frequency of
reported numerical consumption guidelines, screening values, and benchmarks has been spatially,
species, tissue, and guideline-specific. Consumption risk is lowest for shrimp. The health risk is greater
for consumption of fish and blue crabs collected from Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande, upper
Escambia Bay, and lower Escambia River. Exceedance for numerical mercury criteria has been 27% or
less of samples based on Federal guidelines of 0.3 ppm, 0.4 ppm and 1.0 ppm. However, for the more at
risk population (women of child bearing age, children, and subsistence fishers), the lower thresholds of
0.1 ppm and 0.049 ppm have been exceeded by as much as 89% of samples. Exceedance of a screening
value for inorganic As (0.01 ppm) in oysters and crabs was between 54%-l 00% of samples. PCB
contamination in the PBS is considered serious. Florida Department of Health guidelines for tPCBs
(<50 ppb to >500 ppb) were exceeded for 9 of 24 fish from Escambia Bay as part of a Florida
Department of Health survey and up to 69% of samples from another survey. A USEPA screening level
(20 ppb) was exceeded in all fish (five species, 21 samples) collected from Escambia Bay. There is a
public health risk advisory for the consumption of PCB-contaminated striped mullet (skinless) collected
xviii
-------
from Escambia Bay. The public health risk of consuming seafood containing the human-harmful
perfluorinated compounds (anti-sticking and waterproofing agents) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(flame retardants) cannot be determined due to lack of information. In addition to the above, the
presence of pathogens such as coliform bacteria and Vibrio vulnificans in surface water and oysters is
also a public health risk. On-going monthly monitoring, TMDL implementation, and seasonal and
spatial restriction of harvesting reduces the health risk of oyster consumption.
Bioaccumulation: Wildlife health-Published information describing the risk for wildlife consuming
chemically-contaminated prey from the PBS could not be found. Based on a preliminary analysis, PBS
wildlife may be at risk from consuming mercury and PCB-contaminated oysters, blue crabs, and fish.
Exceedance of proposed wildlife protection guidelines for mercury (0.1 ppm, 0.077 ppm, and 0.033
ppm) was between 21-96% of samples based on a review of bioaccumulation databases for oysters,
crabs, and fish. Exceedance of wildlife protection values (0.1 ppm and 0.016 ppm) for total PCBs and
fish was 12% and 16% based on results of two studies.
Bioaccumulation: Organism health-The acute and sublethal effects of accumulated contaminants,
alone and in combination, on the health or condition of dominant PBS biota including seagrass are
unknown. This includes the incidence of possibly-related histopathological abnormalities.
Spatial environmental differences-The environmental quality of the PBS has been compared internally
(across subunits) and externally (across regional and national estuaries). Environmental quality within
the PBS usually increases seaward away from the shoreline contaminant sources and areas receiving
river discharges. Peripheral bayous/bays act as settling basins removing many contaminants and, as a
result, are environmentally degraded. Environmental degradation has been reported consistently for
upper and mid-Escambia Bay, Pensacola Bay (harbor area), Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande based on
results for sediment contamination, contaminant bioaccumulation, and biotic diversity. These degraded
areas overlap many of the State of Florida-listed impaired water segments for the PBS subject to the
TMDL process. The outcomes of the many across-regional estuary comparisons that include the PBS are
metric-specific, site-specific, time-dependent, and often based on the unproven assumption of watershed
and coastal geomorphological similarity. The results of many comparisons are directionally mixed,
qualitative, and indicate few supportable multimetric differences between the PBS and other northern
Gulf of Mexico estuaries.
TMDLs-TMDLs are in progress for primarily public health issues (fecal bacterial contamination,
mercury contamination in seafood) and excessive nutrients/chlorophyll a. The TMDL process is not in
place to address major stressors such as sediment contamination and PCB contamination. Insufficient
information for many water body segments of the Pensacola Basin prevents evaluation and verification
of environmental condition, the precursor to the TMDL process.
Seagrass-Seagrass meadows are a keystone habitat for maintaining the biodiversity within the PBS. As
a result, they have received much scientific interest and a diverse environmentally-related database
exists. There have been at least 50 research-related reports, 12 reported summaries of status and
coverage, and about 32 graphic and aerial surveys. The first aerial survey occurred during 1940. Surveys
have been and continue to be sporadic, more so for those that include supporting ground truthing and
condition analysis. Seagrass coverage during 1948 was extensive throughout the PBS, including
Escambia and East Bays, but by 1972, these same areas were devoid of seagrass. Twenty reasons for the
declines have been reported including the possible toxic effects of widely-used herbicides. Seagrass
meadows have and continue to persist largely in Santa Rosa Sound and Big Lagoon but not without
periodic declines. Total coverage during the past 30 years has been relatively steady between 4,100-
4,700 acres relative to 9,530 acres for 1960. Coverage has increased about 8% since 2003.
Habitat coverage-Estimated coverage (acres) of the biodiversity-building seagrass meadows, oyster
xix
-------
reefs, and salt marsh and tidal wetlands in the PBS are 4,462 (year of estimate=2010), 200-400 (2015),
6,697 (2010) and 8,579 (2014). Submerged aquatic vegetation is currently 3% of bay bottom relative to
8% 60 years ago. Seagrass coverage is currently estimated to be about 47% less than during 1960
(loss=5,068 acres), 72% less for oyster reefs (loss=471 to 631 acres) and 53-71% less for wetlands
(loss=2,600 to 4,200 acres). Of these habitats, the future outlook is more promising for tidal marsh and
salt marsh coverage, which has increased 19% (1995-2010) and is expected to further increase due to
sea level rise if not restricted by anthropogenic barriers (roadways, armoured shorelines). In contrast, it
is expected that the coverage of seagrass meadows and viable oyster reefs will decline in the future due
to sea level rise, surface water acidification, and increased herbivory from invasive tropical species.
Economic evaluation-PBS diversity-building habitats provide environmental goods and services that
have economic value. The estimated total value of these services combined for seagrass meadows,
oyster reef complexes, and tidal wetland habitats is as much as $226 million per year. It can be argued
that this total annual value is approximately half as much as that for the same habitats 50-60 years ago
prior to their decline in coverage. For perspective, the current annual total habitat value exceeds the
2015 real estate tax collection for Escambia County ($112 million), the total tourist development tax
collection ($9.1 million) and total toll revenue from the Bob Sikes Bridge ($3.9 million). The above
habitat evaluations do not include values for tourism, recreational use, and seafood harvests. There are
no locally validated models capable of predicting the effects of different levels of stressors on loss of
ecological goods and services and their economic value.
Habitat restorations-Habitat restorations and creations have occurred for at least 40 years and continue
within the PBS primarily for seagrass meadows and oyster reefs. Success has been mixed. A "learn by
doing" approach has been typical of these efforts particularly for seagrass meadows. All restoration
attempts to date are based on the unproven assumption that the ecological services of the destroyed
natural habitats can be reversed and restored, and it is therefore, unknown what degree of replacement or
creation is needed to compensate for the lost ecological services of the original habitat. The site-specific
and aggregate contribution of all restorations to improving the overall environmental condition of the
PBS is unknown. Oyster habitat has been successfully established in many areas at different scales
including Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande, Santa Rosa Sound, Pensacola Bay and East Bay.
Significant oyster habitat creation is planned for 2016 in much of the PBS. Restoration of seagrass
meadows has received considerable attention due to their historical reduction in most PBS areas.
Restorations (transplantations) using primarily sods and seedlings of Halodule wrightii have been
attempted for 40 years at different scales with limited or no long-term success in most previously-
vegetated areas such as Escambia and East Bays. Despite some small-scale success in recent years,
seagrass restoration should be considered in the trial and error stage until life-supporting requirements
and locally sensitive biomarkers of condition become available. In a positive development, shoreline-
vegetated and community-based restorations have increased in recent years, particularly along Pensacola
Bay which include seagrass and saltmarsh plant revegetation and oyster reef creation. One notable
example is Project GreenShores where 10,000 m2 (2.5 acres) of seagrass (Ruppia maritima) has been
added to Pensacola Bay.
Variability-The natural variability for many chemical and biological measurements reported for the
PBS is unknown since single measurements predominate the database. Initial indications are that
temporal variability in results can be as great as one order of magnitude for measurements of
biodiversity, bioaccumulation, and sediment toxicity. The effect of this variability on conclusions for
chemical risk assessments, monitoring programs, habitat restoration efforts, and resource management
decisions is unknown but important to consider.
Climate change-Understanding and adapting to the effects of global climate change is the primary
challenge for maintaining the current environmental condition and future improvement of the PBS.
XX
-------
Consequently, many research needs for filling data gaps and updating information in the historical
database are important but secondary to those for identifying, adapting, and minimizing the increasing
impacts of this stressor. Sea level rise, an influx of tropical species (i.e., lionfish), changes in salinity
zones, acidification of water column, shoreline alteration and reduced coverage and condition for
seagrass meadows and oyster reefs are some effects to be expected.
Future research focus-Information gains for future research and monitoring conducted in Escambia
Bay, Bayou Texar, and Chico will be less than those for environmental studies conducted in areas less
studied in the past, such as Big Lagoon and East and Blackwater Bays. Likewise, additional
uncoordinated and non-focused chemical monitoring for sediment and water quality (physicochemical
parameters, trace metals, chlorophyll a, and nutrients) should be reduced since the information gain will
be minimal. The same applies to benthic community analysis and measurements of chemical quality.
Research and monitoring effort needs to be redirected to the technical areas identified from this
summary for which information is lacking but needed for environmental improvement. These include
increased understanding for the effects of dredging, sediment chronic toxicity, specific cause(s) of
sediment toxicity/degradation, environmental concentrations and biological effects for chemicals of
more recent concern, sensitive indicators for biotic condition and economic value of local biodiversity-
building habitats.
Bottom line-Identifying the current condition of the PBS and preventing further chemical and biological
deterioration is an achievable goal but pragmatically any measureable improvement will occur
incrementally over the long-term in the shadow of the increasing effects of climate change. If noticeable
improvement is expected, research modelling, habitat restorations, and system monitoring will need
proactive, long-term and enhanced multi-organizational coordination and financial commitment.
Specific action steps are provided in the 20 recommendations resulting from our review.
xx i
-------
1 Introduction
Nineteen of the 37 major estuaries in the U.S. are located along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast
(Isphording et al. 1987), including the subtropical Pensacola Bay System (PBS), also known as the
"Pensacola estuary" (Cooley 1970, 1978) and "Escarosa" (Hopkins 1973). The PBS is included in the
Panhandle Bioregion for Florida and in the Group 4 Basin for the 5 year cycle of the Florida Watershed
Management approach (FDEP 2014). It is a shallow and unstable Coastal Plain riverine and estuarine
system partially blocked by a barrier island. It includes several interconnected sub-estuaries such as
Pensacola, Escambia, East, and Blackwater Bays (Fig. 1.1). Also included for this review are two
marine lagoons that parallel the PBS and Gulf of Mexico, Santa Rosa Sound, and Big Lagoon (Fig. 1.1).
Big Lagoon, not usually included in PBS environmental summaries, is a bay barrier bar that connects
Perdido Bay and Pensacola Bay. It is part of the Big Lagoon Florida State Park. A portion of the east-
west orientated Santa Rosa Sound is within the Naval Live Oaks-Gulf Islands National Seashore.
Sections of Big Lagoon, Santa Rosa Sound, and the Blackwater Bay are classified as Florida
Outstanding Waters, the highest protection offered to a waterbody in Florida. The Blackwater Bay
system has been considered the most threatened in the PBS (FDEP 1998). Escambia Bay is a priority
site for conservation (Beck et al. 2000).
Escambia
^ Bay i
Yellow Riv6r
Blackwater
"** Bay
87°0'0"W
Blackwater
River
Escambia River
Pensacola
Pensacola Bay
Gulf of Mexico
1
87
-------
The PBS is the fourth largest estuary in Florida with a surface area of 373 km2, 889 km of coastline, and
an approximate 18,000 km2 watershed. A 0.8 km wide pass opens to the Gulf of Mexico and flushing
times have been estimated as 18 d and 200 d (Olinger et al. 1975; Thorpe et al. 1997). The
geomorphological characteristics of the PBS have been reported on numerous occasions (examples,
Barnett and Gunter 1985; Lewis 1986; Jones et al. 1992; BARC et al. 1998; FDEP 2007; 2012a;
WFRPC et al. 2005) and have been compared to those for other U.S. estuaries (NOAA 1990). Spatial
overviews or contours are available for several chemical and biological characteristics such as seagrass
coverage, oyster contaminants, salt marsh coverage, sediment contaminants, organic carbon, nutrients in
water and sediment, salinity, light penetration, wastewaters and Superfund sites, and benthic fauna. For
examples, see Olinger et al. (1975); Cantillo et al. (2001); Von Appen and Winter (2000); DeBusk et al.
(2002); Macauley et al. (2005); FDEP (2007); Liebens et al. (2006); Lewis and Devereaux (2007);
Mohrherr et al. (2006, 2008, 2009, 2012); Murrell et al. (2009); and Reynolds, Smith and Hills Inc.
(2014).
The PBS is a shared resource with federal, state, regional and local jurisdictional organizations
responsible for its environmental condition. It is one of the many several northern Gulf of Mexico
estuaries that have been impacted by the effects of increasing population growth. Population growth
increased about 500% between 1950 and 2000 (FDEP 2007) and is projected to further increase 20%
and 64% by 2020 for Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties, respectively (Zwick and Carr 2006).
Environmental quality of the PBS has been observed for over 250 years (Table 3.1). Although pollution
had been a problem since 1900, scientific and public concern increased during the 1950s (examples,
Patrick et al. 1953; Murdock 1955) and has continued thereafter. The period between the 1950s and mid-
1970s was a period of relatively few environmental regulations for coastal waters and a period when
declines in harvested fish and shellfish and numerous fish kills became obvious. For example, there
were 166 fish kills between 1970-1974 (Olinger et al. 1975) including 41 in Escambia Bay and 32 in
Pensacola Bay (NWFWMD 1990). Approximately 2,000 to more than 10 million fish died in Mullato
Bayou between 1970 and 1971 (Hopkins 1973). The fish kills paralleled a 98% reduction in the shrimp
fishery during 1968 -1971 (Lewis 1986). Smaller summer fish kills continued intermittently during the
1990s in some areas such as Bayou Texar largely due to anoxic/hypoxic conditions (Fig. 1.2) As a result
of population increases, many of the biota-supporting habitats of the PBS have been degraded,
fragmented, or destroyed resulting in ecological simplification and a reduction in resiliency to
environmental stress. The PBS has been considered a heavily-impacted estuary (Seal et al 1994; Von
Appen and Winter 2000; Livingston 2005) and by one estimate has the lowest biological quality of
several Florida estuaries relative to fish and infaunal invertebrate biomass (Livingston 2010). Macauley
et al. (2005) reported ecological condition as good, fair, and poor for 16%, 68% and 16% of the surface
area for 1995-2000. No update is available.
2
-------
The objective of this
report is to summarize
the scattered
environmental
information for the
PBS which is essential
for understanding its
current environmental
condition and trend
and needed for future
cost-effective and
science-based resource
management. The
management and
regulatory response to
the on-going influx of
anthropogenic
contaminants, the
effects of episodic
events (hurricanes, oil
spills) and the effects
of climate change
depend upon
technically-based
information such as
that contained in a
current state-of-the-
science synthesi s
report. Many
environmental reviews
are available for the
PBS (examples, Pratt
et al. 1990; Thorpe et
al. 1997; BARC et al.
1998; WFRPC et al.
2005) but many are
limited in scope, most
are outdated, and none
have been published
in the peer-reviewed
literature. This review
provides an updated
and critical appraisal of
the environmental
condition of the PBS based on consolidation and integration of historical, recently published, and
unpublished informati on reflective of current chemical and biological assessment methodologies. The
review also includes summaries for ecological information lacking or under-reported in previous
reviews. This includes information for biodiversity, non-nutrient contaminant concentrations in surface
water and sediment, sediment phytotoxicity and genotoxicity, bioaccumulation, use of colonized
Figure 1.2 Summer kill of Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronns) in Bayou Texar.
3
-------
periphyton as bioindicators, organism and wildlife health, economic value for ecological services,
climate change, and temporal variability of environmental measurements.
In addition to the above, there have been multiple across-estuary comparisons reported with the intent to
judge or rank the environmental condition of the PBS. Several of these comparisons scattered in the
literature are summarized in this report. In a parallel effort, comparisons of unpublished results from
identical chemical and biological analyses conducted for the PBS and six potential reference areas are
made to provide an additional regional perspective. These sites were chosen as potential reference sites
based on results from the USEPA's Estuarine Monitoring and Assessment and National Coastal
Assessment Programs, which indicated minimal anthropogenic impact. These areas were Old River
(OR), Bay La Launch (BL), Grand Lagoon (GL), Mississippi Sound (MS), Withlacoochee River
(WRE), and the Suwannee River (SRE) estuaries (Fig. 1.3). Bay La Launch connects Perdido Bay with
Wolf Bay (Alabama). Old River and Grand Lagoon are partially enclosed portions of the Gulf of
Mexico located near Orange Beach (AL) and Panama City (FL), respectively. Geographic coordinates
for sampling stations appear in Lewis et al. (2006).
OR - Old River ^<0*
GL - Grand Lagoon
SRE - Suwannee River Estuary
WRE - Withlacoochee River Estuary
Figure 1.3 Relative locations of proposed reference sites for which environmental quality of the Pensacola Bay
System is compared within the summary. Geographic coordinates for sampling stations available in Lewis et al.
Georgia
Alabama
Louisiana
Mississippi
Gulf of Mexico
Florida
Mississippi Sound
(2006).
4
-------
2 Historical Database
Environmental observations and measurements for the PBS have been made since 1680 but more
commonly after 1960. At least 454 reports are available describing environmental results excluding
those for aquatic animal diseases, shoreline stabilization, off-shore surveys, flood plains, beach
conditions, marina sittings, taxonomic guides, groundwater availability, quality and use, surface water
availability, flood control, erosion, soil surveys, and natural resource descriptions for upper non-tidal
reaches of tributaries. Some technical and overview environmental information for tributaries appears in
Von Appen and Winter (2000) and WFRPC (2005). The Blackwater, Escambia, and Yellow Rivers were
listed priority conservation sites in 1999 by the Nature Conservancy. The environmental reports have
been produced by diverse sources including federal, state, regional and local regulatory agencies,
academic institutions, industry, and volunteer environmental groups. The information appears in internal
reports, workshop and symposium proceedings, academic theses, state and county technical reports,
environmental impact statements, file memos, reviews, bibliographies (examples, Eubank 1975; USEPA
1979; Burch 1981; Mahadevan et al. 1984; Lewis 1986; Bream Fishermans Association 1987; Jones et
al. 1992; USDOI 1996a; SAIC 1996; Von Appen and Winter 2000), and in book chapters (examples,
Livingston 2000, 2003, 2005, 2014). The reports are a mix of limited or no review publications.
Publication in the peer-reviewed scientific literature has been uncommon until the last 30 years. Only
112 of 438 reviewed reports (27%) appear in this format. Periodic summaries of national monitoring
studies such as NOAA's Status and Trends Program (Mussel Watch and Bioeffects) (Kimbrough et al.
2008, 2009) and the USEPA's Environmental and Monitoring Assessment, Regional Environmental and
Monitoring Assessment and National Coastal Condition Assessment Programs (examples, Macauley et
al. 2005; USEPA 2012) also contain environmental information for the PBS.
The environmental database consists of results for many short-term studies, many of which are reactive,
unconnected, often repetitive and, until recently, conducted independently of a watershed management
plan. The quality of the historical environmental reports and results vary and their inadequacies have
been reported by Collard (1991a). Some reports contain large amounts of information not analyzed. In
others, statistical analysis, quality assurance and control procedures are often absent as are descriptions
of experimental techniques, analytical methodologies, detection limits for chemical analyses, and geo-
referencing of sampling sites.
Environmental research objectives for the PBS have been biologically, chemically, spatially, and
temporally diverse (Table 2.1). At least 100 research topics have been the subject of investigation since
the 1950s, which include the determination of the effects of 22 natural and anthropogenic stressors on
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Examples of these stressors appear in Fig. 2.1 and include
atmospheric deposition of mercury, fecal bacterial contamination, drought, flooding, wastewater
discharges, groundwater contamination from hazardous waste sites (Superfund sites), chemical spills
(polychlorinated biphenyls), stormwater runoff, excessive sedimentation, contaminated sediments,
hydraulic dredging, anoxia and hypoxia, CCA-treated lumber, oil drilling, by-catch from shrimp
harvesting, and episodic weather events. The chemical effects of these stressors have been determined
for the microbial community, benthic macroinvertebrates, indigenous and transplanted oysters
(Crassostrea virginica), seagrass, phytoplankton, picophytoplankton, microphytobenthos, zooplankton,
colonized periphytic-algae, surface biofilms, blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus), and several fish.
5
-------
%m 7XH 3"H
'in,. -
NO SWIPING Oil
WATER CONTACT
SPORTS
IIY ODDER OF HEALTH DEPT.
Figure 2.1 Examples of natural and anthropogenic stressors, or "drivers of change", for the Pensacola Bay
System.
The reported environmental information for the PBS is spatially uneven. Seventy percent of the 285 site-
specific research reports are for Escambia Bay (22% of total studies), Pensacola Bay (20%), Bayou
Texar (14 %), and Santa Rosa Sound (14%) (Fig. 2.2). Environmental analysis, at least that reported, has
been considerably less for Big Lagoon (1% of studies), Bayou Grande (5%), Blackwater Bay (6%), and
East Bay (8%). The scarcity of information for East and Blackwater Bays has been previously
recognized (Jones et al. 1992). Although Escambia Bay has been the subject of most reported studies
over a longer time period, many are similar in topic. The more diverse and comprehensive
environmental data sets are for the residential Bayou Texar and the industrialized Bayou Chico as
reported in numerous reports such as those by De Sylva (1955); Moshiri et al. (1972, 1974, 1976, 1978a,
b, 1979); Moshiri and Crumpton (1978a, b); Raney (1980); Moshiri (1981); NWFWMD (1988a, 1993);
Morgan and Stone (1989); Stone and Morgan (1989, 1990, 1991, 1992); Stone et al. (1990, 1991);
Moshiri and Elewad (1990); Wood and Bartel (1994); Waller et al. (1998); Lewis et al. (2001a, d, e,
2010); Butts and Lewis (2002); Mohrherr et al. (2005, 2008); Liebens et al. (2006, 2007, 2011); FDEP
(2011); URS (2012); and Liebens and Mohrherr (2015). Bayou Texar has a repair kit (West Florida
Regional Planning Council/Bayou Texar Foundation 2002). The history of Bayou Chico and early
environmental quality has been reported (Keltner no date).
6
-------
70 -i
(/)
t
o
Q_
CD
or
0)
_Q
E
rs
03
C
03
E
03
03
x
O
(H
03 V
•*—> i—
Is
03
DQ
•*—>
'
03
1
® TO
CD
3 ID
O C
o
CD
03
_l
O >*
C >,
C 3
c/)
>> 03
O)
CO 03
CD 03
03 Ł
CD P
03 O
03 -c
03
03 i-
LU 00
CL 00
C0 CO
00 O
LU
CD DQ
oo O
00
Figure 2.2 Distribution of spatially-specific environmental reports/publications published since 1950. Total
number of reviewed reports-290.
Several research topics and highlights for the PBS appear in chronological order in Table 2.1. Early
keystone publications are those of Butler (1973), who first reported DDT uptake in mollusks from East
Bay, and Cooley (1978), who reported the first and still the most comprehensive natural resource
characterization for the PBS. Other noteworthy reports are those of U.S. Department of the Interior
(USDOI 1970) and Olinger et al. (1975). The Olinger et al. report is probably the most significant early
publication as related to pollution for the PBS and continues to serve as a useful benchmark or baseline
for conditions 40 years ago, as well as serving as the current sole source of data for several PBS subunits
(see Lewis FG 2010). DeBusk et al. (2002) provided the first in-depth summary for sediment toxicity
and chemical quality for the PBS. Mohrherr et al. (2006, 2008, 2009) and Liebens et al. (2006, 2007)
provide the most recent and detailed contaminant sediment survey for the PBS. The most current public
health assessments for seafood safety are those of Karouna-Renier and Snyder (2007); Snyder and Rao
(2008); and Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009). The most recent overview for nutrients is that by FDEP
(2012b, c). Reviews of ecological condition specific to PBS subsystems include those of Hopkins et al.
(1973); Ross and Jones (1979); Lewis T (1986); Jones et al. (1992); Collard (1991a, b); Northwest
Florida Water Management District (1991b); Livingston (1999, 2005); Von Appen and Winter (2000);
DeBusk et al. (2002); Anderson et al. (2005); Macauley et al. (2005); Caffrey (2010); Hall et al. (2010);
-------
Lewis FG (2010); and Geselbracht et al. (2013). In addition, comprehensive water quality status reports
specific to the PBS (FDEP 2004, 2007) are available. Less specific for the PBS are the biannual series of
integrated assessment water quality reports focused on the State of Florida and the TMDL process (the
latest FDEP 2014).
A generalized resource management plan is available to improve the environmental condition for the
northern Gulf of Mexico coastal areas (Gulf of Mexico Alliance 2009). Many of the elements are
paralleled in the 20 resource management, protective strategy and habitat restoration plans that have
been published during the past 40 years by several of the federal, state, regional, county, and city
agencies that have jurisdictional and regulatory oversight of the environmental quality of the PBS. Many
of these plans have been largely paper exercises due to underfunding of the recommended action steps.
The impact of these plans on improving environmental conditions, therefore, has usually been limited.
The plans have been for specific media (surface water), habitats (oyster reefs, seagrass meadows, coastal
wetlands), PBS subunits (Pensacola Bay, Escambia Bay, Bayou Texar, Bayou Chico), and proposed
aquatic preserves. Examples of early comprehensive plans include those of Hennington et al. (1975) and
Glassen et al. (1977). Reports by Thorpe et al. (1997), and to a greater extent, those by BARC et al.
(1998), the West Florida Regional Planning Council (WFRPC et al. 2005), and the National Park
Service (2014) form the "current" basis for watershed management activities.
The impetus for much of the environmental information for the PBS is the result of the Surface Water
Improvement and Management Act (SWIM) which was implemented to restore degraded water bodies
and protect endangered systems using a watershed management approach. It served as a platform for
multiple management strategies, research needs, funding strategies, and water and sediment quality
summaries for the PBS (i.e., NWFWMD 1988b, 1991a, b; Pratt et al. 1990; Thorpe et al. 1997; Collard
1991a; Jones et al. 1992). Funding for SWIM and the Pensacola Bay System ended in 1997/1998 and
accomplishments of the Program were summarized for 1990-1996 by Thorpe et al. (1997). An updated
SWIM management plan funded by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation is scheduled for 2017
(Northwest Florida Water Management District-SWIM Plan Updates 2015-2017; accessed 2016 July
14).
Table 2.1 Chronology and examples of the diversity of environmental observations, research topics and
resource management plans for the Pensacola Bay System.
1686 First physical description of Pensacola Bay
1693 First description of Bayou Chico and appearance on a map
1763 Fish observations in Pensacola Bay
1784 Air and water quality observations
1827 Wetland plant description
1882 Fish surveys in PBS and Escambia River
1880 First numerical record offish harvest
1883 First map for oyster coverage (East and Blackwater Bays)
1898 Oyster production reported
1931 SAV description (navigational charts)
1933 Oyster reef investigations
8
-------
Table 2.1 (continued)
1940 First seagrass aerial photograph (Santa Rosa County)
1941 First seagrass aerial photographs (Escambia County)
1948 Checklist of algae of northern Florida
1953 Lower Escambia River/Bay pollution survey (first of many)
1954 Fishes from the Escambia River with ecologic and taxonomic notes
1955 First report for seagrass loss; pollution conditions in lower Escambia River; Bayou Chico pollution and fish
kill investigation
1957 Escambia Bay fish kills; pollution surveys for wastewaters in Escambia Bay
1958 First bioassay (nutrients)
1960 Aerial seagrass survey
1963 Pollution survey of Escambia River
1964 Ecological survey of Escambia River
1965 First resource management plan; pesticide effect evaluations begin, first with DDT in tidal marsh
1968 Sedimentology of the Pensacola Bay System
1969 Hydraulic oil (PCB) entry to Escambia River discovered; Escambia River fish kills investigated
1970 Effects of pollution on water quality Escambia River and Bay; detection of PCBs (Aroclor 1254) in biota;
sediment and water of Escambia Bay; significance of DDT residues in aquatic life
1971 Mass oyster mortality; Escambia Bay oyster epizootic investigations; nitrogen fixation studies in Escambia
Bay and Mulatto Bayou; survey report for Blackwater River/Bay and East Bay; benthic characterization studies
Escambia Bay
1972 Bayou Chico dredging impact evaluation; N-P budget, phytoplankton and primary productivity
investigations for Bayou Texar; effects of dredging in Mulatto Bayou; fish and oyster mortalities in Escambia
Bay-relation to water quality; comprehensive planning analysis for shoreline and beach
1973 Marine ecology in Escarosa (summarizes market value of seafood and habitat distributions); Gulf Power
thermal wastewater evaluation; assimilative capacity for wastewaters in Pensacola Bay; zooplankton description
for East Bay; water quality management plan for Pensacola urban area, cost of water pollution to Pensacola,
DDT residues in fish, wildlife and estuaries; one of the most in-depth oyster restoration; nitrogen fixation in salt
marshes
1974 First documented red tide; first large seagrass restoration attempt (Escambia Bay), system models and
simulations for Escambia Bay; Aroclor 1254 accumulation in grass shrimp; effects of ground application of
malathion on a salt marsh; tropical fishes from Pensacola; seagrass loss summary for the PBS (1949-1974);
nitrogen-phosphorus budget for Bayou Texar
1975 Environmental and recovery studies of Escambia Bay and the Pensacola Bay System (large wastewater
driven study); Bayou Texar restoration plan; seagrass loss summary for Pensacola Bay 1949-1974; water quality
management plan for Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties; summary of environmental condition for Escambia
Bay, algal bloom problems; checklist of research 1965-1975 for Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties; analysis of
sea foam; summary of the loss of submerged aquatic vegetation (1949-1974)
1976 Ecology, resource, rehabilitation and fungal parasitology of commercial oysters
9
-------
Table 2.1 (continued)
1977 Bayou Chico restoration study; microbial interactions with pesticides in surface films; ecology of the
Blackwater River System
1978 Most comprehensive estuarine faunal survey for the Pensacola Bay System; Bayou Texar fish kills; seagrass
evaluation for Santa Rosa Sound; sediment redox potentials for East Bay; nutrient relationships in Bayou Texar;
persistence of Aroclor 1254 in the Pensacola Bay System
1979 Biological aspects of water quality in Escambia Bay and seven other basins (biodiversity summary 1973-
1978); East Bay oil drilling impact; limiting nutrient algal bioassays
1980 Water quality studies in Santa Rosa Sound (nutrients and phytoplankton), dredging and stormwater
investigations for Bayou Chico; water quality methodology for Bayou Texar; seagrass survey for Pensacola Bay
system; ecology of the Yellow River System
1981 Bioassays for wastewaters; environmental recommendations for dredging; shellfish bed coverage;
Pensacola Bay nutrient monitoring study; biology and water quality study in Yellow and Blackwater Rivers;
water quality and biological assessment of Bayou Chico (impacts of dredging, stormwater runoff, hazardous
waste site); recovery studies for Escambia Bay; American Creosote Works closed after 80 yearsl983. American
Creosote Work site designated a Superfund site
1982 First phytotoxicity test (herbicides)
1983 American Creosote Co. listed as a National priority clean-up site
1984 Pensacola Bay Water Quality Monitoring Program-review and assessment
1985 Comprehensive shellfish growing area survey with bacteriological and bioaccumulation measurements;
infectious and noninfectious diseases in oysters and fish
1986 The Pensacola Bay System analysis of estuarine degradations and relationship to land management
practices (large summary); biological and physicochemical assessments of Santa Rosa Sound, Pensacola Bay and
Escambia River (water quality, sediment, habitat, benthic assemblages)
1987 SWIM Management and Action Plan; environmental bibliography for northwest Florida 1900-1985; surface
and near surface zooplankton survey for Escambia and East Bays; biological and physicochemical assessment for
Santa Rosa Sound
1988 Surface Water and Improvement and Management Program-Pensacola Bay System (SWIM);
documentation of oyster mortalities in Escambia and East Bays, biological quality of the Pensacola Bay System;
seasonal changes in standing crop and chlorophyll content in seagrass
1989 Comparative effects of toxics on 25 drainage areas; dredging recommendations for Bayou Texar;
monitoring project basin surveys for Pensacola Bay and Santa Rosa Sound; comprehensive shellfish harvesting
surveys; Agrico-Chemical Company listed as a National priority clean-up site
1990 Physical, Biological and Environmental Studies of Bayou Texar (first of five volumes), Pensacola Bay System
SWIM Plan for Restoration and Preservation of the Pensacola Bay System; oyster resource summary for
Pensacola Bay System, Santa Rosa Sound water quality monitoring program; first of multiple detailed biological
assessments for wastewaters
1991 Pensacola Bay System; biological trends and current status (SWIM); point source assessment for the
Pensacola Bay System (SWIM); management options for the Pensacola Bay System: value of seagrass and oyster
restorations (SWIM); Yellow River aquatic preserve management plan; heavy metals in Bayou Chico sediments ;
Pensacola Harbor benthic communities
1992 First evaluation of the effects of wastewaters on periphyton photosynthesis; aerial seagrass coverage,
10
-------
Table 2.1 (continued)
literature based review of physical, sedimentary and water quality in Pensacola Bay System (SWIM); sediment
flux and bathymetric changes in Bayou Chico
1993 Research needs for toxic substances and pesticides in the Gulf of Mexico: a strategy; uptake of metals from
chromated-copper-arsenate treated lumber by epibiota
1994 Florida coastal sediment atlas; Escambia Treating Company listed as a National clean-up site; Bayou Chico
sediment and water quality report
1995 Gill net ban initiated
1996 Evaluation of sediment quality guidelines for Florida coastal areas; spatial extent of sediment toxicity for
the Pensacola Bay System; comprehensive survey for shellfish harvesting areas
1997 Magnitude and extent of sediment toxicity in four estuaries includes Pensacola Bay; Pensacola Bay Surface
Water Improvement and Management Plan (SWIM); bacteria and microflagellate production in Santa Rosa
Sound
1998 Pensacola Bay Watershed Management Guide (with action plans); most comprehensive evaluation of the
ecological condition of Bayou Chico; first detailed comparison of local wastewater in-situ impacts including
phototoxicity; sediment denitrification rates
1999 New benthic condition index; Pensacola Bay System environmental study
2000 Biological monitoring in the Pensacola Bay System 1990-2000 (Summary); first sediment phytotoxicity
evaluation; Mapping and monitoring of submerged aquatic vegetation in Escambia Bay; aerial seagrass
coverage; sediment quality and toxicity below Pensacola Bay System wastewater discharges
2001 Seagrass Management Plan for Big Lagoon and Santa Rosa Sound; first sediment genotoxicity tests
conducted; first evaluation of the ecological impact of a golf complex within the Pensacola Bay System (follow-
up 2002, 2004); first evaluation of sediment genotoxicity; periphyton bioaccumulation as indicator of
wastewater impact; biological and chemical impact of dredging in Bayou Texar; Project Greenshores
2002 Sediment quality in the Pensacola Bay System (summary); first use of genotoxicity as an indicator of
sediment quality (follow-up in 2006); most comprehensive study for zooplankton dynamics , chemical quality,
sediment toxicity and benthic communities in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande; macroinvertebrate comparison
in bayous; P nutrient limitation for Pensacola Bay System;); survey of dioxin and furans in Florida panhandle
systems (Pensacola Bay and Santa Rosa Sound) with estimate of risk to birds; first local evaluation for the effects
of local golf courses on water quality and nutrient bioavailability
2003 Last reported aerial seagrass survey with mapping for Pensacola Bay System; bacterioplankton dynamics;
relation of contaminant uptake and hemocyte activity in oysters
2004 Water Quality Draft Status Basin Report: Pensacola Bay (large summary; also in 2007); TMDL development
initiated (list of impaired waters updates: 2006, 2010), phytoplankton and zooplankton seasonal dynamics
2005 Pensacola Bay Watershed Management and Action Plan (includes environmental summaries for subunits
and six plans); Ecological Condition Report for Pensacola Bay; aerial mapping of chlorophyll a concentrations;
importance of seagrass epiphytes in Big Lagoon; microbial biofilms as environmental sensors; profiles of diverse
contaminants in Bayou Texar; zooplankton, phytoplankton and nutrient relationships; natural resource
summary for Gulf Islands National Seashore; cyanobacterial abundance in three Gulf of Mexico estuaries
(includes Pensacola Bay)
2006 Effects of Hurricane Ivan on water quality; spatial patterns for phytoplankton and periphyton growth as
indicators of environmental condition; marsh shoreline protection and wetland mitigation management plan;
11
-------
Table 2.1 (continued)
analysis of fecal loadings to bayous; benthic nutrient flux; Bayou Chico sediment and water quality report;
pollution in Bayou Texar
2007 Survey for trace metals and PCBs in fish and shellfish and risks to humans; first seagrass habitat chemical
evaluation; Pensacola Bay Water Quality Assessment Report (large summary); Seagrass status and trends in Gulf
of Mexico and Pensacola Bay; pollution pathways and petroleum hydrocarbons in Bayou Chico; enhancement of
recruitment and nursery function by habitat creation in Pensacola Bay; susceptibility to hypoxia evaluated
2008 Most current summary of historical changes in seagrass coverage for Pensacola Bay System; trace metals
and PCBs in fishers of Escambia Bay; nutrient limitation of phytoplankton growth and physiology; an approach
for nutrient criteria; mercury concentrations in flora and fauna near contaminant sources; environmental
assessment for Bayou Grande
2009 Detailed analysis of contaminant bioaccumulation in fish and shellfish for northwest Florida region;
detailed analysis of sediment chemical contamination of Escambia Bay and River; hypoxia and benthic processes
in Pensacola Bay; summary of nutrient inputs, responses and impacts in Pensacola Bay; effects of humans and
weather on nitrogen dynamics
2010 Horizon oil spill, seagrass mapping, final verified list of impaired waters, atmospheric deposition of
mercury and other trace elements; seasonal and spatial fish community dynamics in Bayous Texar, Chico, and
Grande pre- and post hurricanes; Escambia and Blackwater Bays and Yellow River baseline resource
characterizations; Bayou Chico Action Management Plan; aerial imagery for seagrass conducted but no mapping;
screening for contaminants in Escambia Bay
2011 Annual report for Agrico-Chemical Superfund site on Bayou Texar; Basin Management Action Plan in Bayou
Chico (TMDL implementation)
2012 Support document for establishing numeric criteria for Pensacola Bay; final TMDL report: fecal coliforms in
Escambia River, Bayou Texar and Carpenter Creek; support document for Escambia Bay TMDL models; detailed
analysis of PCBs in Escambia Bay sediments
2013 Modelling and abating the impacts of sea level rise for the Pensacola Bay System; seagrass mapping and
monitoring program report No. 1 for Pensacola Bay, Santa Rosa Sound and Big Lagoon; final TMDL report-Bayou
Chico and middle Pensacola Bay; coastal response to storms and sea level rise in Santa Rosa Island; discussions
for RESTORE-funded research projects begin
2014 Most current-Integrated water quality assessment for Florida 2012 305(b) report and 303(d) list update
(available biannually); seagrass assessment; Gulf Islands National Seashore Management Plan; proposals for
RESTORE funding available
2015 RESTORE funded oyster reef and community-based shoreline modifications/Bayou Chico dredging
approved
2016 First private commercial oyster farm established (Escambia Bay); Florida Oyster Clutch Placement Project;
Marine Fisheries Hatchery and Enhancement Center approved; historical nutrient summary for PBS
2017 Updated Surface Water Management Plan (Northwest Florida Water Management District)
12
-------
3 Natural Resource Inventories
(Biodiversity)
3.1 History/Overview
Understanding the biodiversity of estuarine flora and fauna in the PBS is necessary for environmental
management and improvement. The more abundant species largely control the rates and directions of
many community and ecosystem processes. Demographic information for biota became available as
early as 1763 for fish (Roberts 1763) and 1827 for wetland vegetation (Williams 1976). However, the
more detailed and useful taxonomic investigations began post-1950, beginning with those for the lower
Escambia River (Patrick et al. 1953; Murdock 1955). The in-depth taxonomic surveys of Cooley (1970;
1978); USDOI (1970); Hopkins (1973); Olinger et al. (1975); Ross and Jones (1979); Moshiri et al.
(1980); McAfee (1986); and Barnett and Gunter (1985) followed. Of these, the studies of Cooley (1970,
1978) and Olinger et al. (1975) are the more notable. Ross and Jones (1979) reported biotic diversity for
eight drainage basins, including Escambia Bay. Biological trends for major biotic groups for 1980-1988
were summarized by Collard (1991a). One of the few mussel surveys for the major rivers entering the
PBS was reported by the National Biological Survey (1995). Twenty-eight species of freshwater mussels
were reported for the Escambia River, 14 species in the Yellow River, and none for the Blackwater
River. More recent natural resource investigations are available for Pensacola Bay (Thorpe et al. 1997;
FDEP 2007), Blackwater River watershed (Hall et al. 2010), East and Blackwater Bays (Lewis FG
2010), and the Gulf Islands National Seashore associated with Santa Rosa Sound (Anderson et al. 2005;
Cooper et al. 2005). The trophic organization of the PBS has been presented by Livingston (2010), and
food webs for Juncus marsh and submarine meadows are available from Hopkins (1973).
The PBS supports at least 1,400 aquatic species based on results from at least 85 biological surveys
conducted during the past 130 years. The total does not include PBS-dependent wildlife. The fauna and
flora represent a mix of communities regulated in part by the highly variable gradients of river inflows,
tides, light, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and sediment and water chemical quality. Many
species are dependent upon the presence of seagrass meadows which are found primarily in Santa Rosa
Sound and Big Lagoon, and oyster reefs and tidal marshes which dominate in Escambia and East Bays.
McAffee (1986) reported that oyster beds had the highest number of species, diversity, and biomass of
any habitat in Escambia Bay, and grass beds were the second most productive habitat. Described taxa
for the PBS include benthic macroinvertebrates, microphytobenthos, seagrass, bivalves, phytoplankton,
picophytoplankton, zooplankton, periphyton, macroalgae, and fish. Several dominant species appear in
Fig. 3.1 and the maximum species number by location based on a compilation of historical reports
appears in Fig. 3.2. The total number of different species reported for the macrobenthos, phytoplankton
and periphyton, zooplankton, and fish are 187, 402, 110, and 200, respectively. Cooley (1978) reported
the results of a 1961-1963 survey for which 704 species of benthic and planktonic species collected from
Pensacola, Escambia and Little Sabine Bays, and Santa Rosa Sound were identified. The total included
91 species of annelid worms, 100 species of arthropods, 225 species of mollusks, and 182 species of
bony fishes. Brief summaries and representative reports for major taxa follow.
13
-------
Spot
(Leiostomus xanthurus)
Calanoid Copepod Bay Anchovy Gulf Menhaden
(,Acartia tonsa) (Anchoa mitchilli) (Brevoortia patronus)
Tidewater Silverside Silver Perch
(Menidia peninsulae) (Bairdeilla chrysoura)
Grass Shrimp
(Palaemonetes pugio)
Amphipod
(Gammarus mucronatus)
Phytoplankton
(Chi orel I a ellipsoidea)
Cyanobacterium
(Synechococcus sp.)
Phytoplankton
(Cylindrotheca closterium)
Figure 3.1 Examples of abundant biota inhabiting the Pensacola Bay System. Species not shown to scale. Photos by author or courtesy of Encyclopedia of
Life (Encyclopedia of Life; accessed 2016 July 14).
Polychaete
(Mediomastus ambiseta)
Polychaete Turtle Grass Smooth Cordgrass Black Needlerush
(Streblospio benedicti) (Thalassia testudinum) (Spartina alterniflora) (Juncus roemerianus)
14
-------
Macrobenthos Phytoplankton/ Zooplankton
Periphytic-algae
Fish
(A
QJ
O
Q)
n.
to
300
180 "
160 -
140 -
120 -
100 -
80 -
60 -
40 -
20 -
c/) co (/> co co co
lu co iu m mm
m
(/)
co >
CO CO
w m
<1> CO CO tf) CO CO CO
d. lu (j) uj m mm
>>
TO
m
CD
>>
03
m
>
CD
>.
TO
CO
o
o
¦o
C
TO
m
CO
o
o
"O
s=
m
CO
X
Ł
2
CO
CO
X
Ł
co
CD
o
O
O
o
o
re
la
O
e>
TO
TO
3
3
E
3
3
>
CO
o
o
o
00
8
o
O
o
O
TO
c
>1
>
>>
c
>-
>
Cl>
TO
TO
TO
aj
n
ra
TO
n in m m m m
Figure 3.2 Maximum number of species reported since 1970 by location.
3.2 Fish
The diversity of the fish community was of early interest and was first described in the late 1800's
(Goode 1879; Jordan and Gilbert 1882; Jordan 1884, 1885, 1886). Many surveys have followed,
including those of Haburay et al. (1968), Hopkins (1973); Olinger et al. (1975); Bass and Hitt (1977);
Cooley (1978); Lewis T (1986); Livingston (1999); FDEP (2007, 2012b); Lewis FG (2010); and Lewis
et al. (2010). Based on these surveys, at least 200 species of fish and shellfish (FDEP 2007) have been
reported. However, the community is dominated by relatively few species such as Leiostomus xanthurus
(Spot), Anchoa mitchilli (Bay anchovy), Brevortiapatronus (Gulf menhaden), Micropogonias undulatus
(Atlantic croaker), and Bairdiella chrysoura (Silver perch). More recently, the top ten species collected
from minimally-impacted areas in PensacolaBay included^, mitchilli, B. chrysoura, Membras
martinica (Rough silverside), Anchoa hepsetus (anchovy), Lagodon rhomboides (pinfish), and Menidia
spp. (silversides) (FDEP 2012b). The PBS fish assemblage is similar to those for several nearby coastal
areas (Table 3.1) and also for fish collected from multiple locations along the northern coast of the Gulf
of Mexico during 2000-2004, where A. Mitchilli, L. xcmthurus, and M. undulatus comprised 69% of all
fish (Lewis et al. 2015).
15
-------
Table 3.1 Species diversity and relative abundance (%) of fish reported for river-dominated estuaries of the northern Gulf of Mexico. T=trawl,
Pensacola
Escambia
Apalachicola
Perdido
St. Andrew
Mobile
Bayou La
Northern Gulf
Bayous1
Bay Estuary2
Bay3
Bay4
Bay5
Bay6
Bay7
Batre8
of Mexico9
T
S
T
T
S
T
T
S
T
T S
T
T
Lagodon rhomboides
4
3
16
1
1
8
2
3
4
Micropogonias undulatus
1
15
31
5
31
1
15
36 1
3
5
Anchoa mitchilli
22
2
3
41
15
41
5
21
50 40
89
53
Leiostomus xanthurus
49
12
40
3
2
3
82
8
10
11 4
5
10
Ariusfelis
1
1
2
3
Chloroscombrus chrysurus
3
1
2
4
Cynoscion arenarius
9
9
1
2
Brevoortia patronus
19
53
9
58
21
51
1
1
Bairdiella chrysoura
3
1
1
1
7
Bagre marinus
1
Eucinostomus argenteus
1
1
Anchoa hepsetus
3
Mugil cephalus
4
26
3
Anchoa nasuta
2
Menidia beryllina
4
1
10
1
5
1
Menidia peninsulae
17
8
Fundulus similis
3
Harengula jaguana
2
Menticirrhus americanus
2
2
Polydactylus octonemus
46
Symphurus urospilus
3
Stenotomus caprinus
2
1 Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande, n = 585,000, June 1993-December 1998
2Cooley (1978), n = 21,052, January, April, August, November 1961-1963
3Olinger et al. (1975), n = 79,373, October 1973-September 1974
"Livingston (1976), n = 40,870, March 1972-April 1974
5 USEPA (unpublished data), n = 45,027, March 1990-February 1991
6Ogren and Brusher (1977), n = 207,447, September 1972-August 1973
7Swingle (1971), n-no data, January 1969-March 1969
8Swingle and Bland (1974), n-no data, January 1971-May 1972
9 USEPA (unpublished data), n = 149,000, 993 sites, 2000-200
16
-------
Monthly and annual variability were reported for total abundance, total species, and diversity (Fig. 3.3)
in a multiyear fish survey conducted during 1993-1998 for Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande (Lewis et
al. 2010). B. patronus, Menidiapeninsulae (Tidewater silversidej, and L. xanthurus were dominant in
seines and L. xanthurus and A. mitchilli were dominant in trawls. A. mitchilli was most abundant of all
taxa comprising about 52% of the total catch from the Bayous. Lists of fish species for Blackwater,
Escambia, Shoal, and Yellow Rivers reported by Bass (1993) are summarized in Lewis FG (2010).
Blackwater bay supports 42 fish species (Lewis FG 2010). The Escambia River supports 81 species of
fish, the most for any Florida river (Boning 2007). Shannon-Weaver diversity index values for fish
collected from the PBS have usually been 1.0 or less. Olinger et al. (1975) reported 0.54 and 1.1 for
seasonal fish collections during 1973 and 1974. Diversity was greatest during June.
A related matter for fish abundance and diversity is the future presence of the Marine Fisheries Hatchery
and Enhancement Center. This $19 million facility of the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation
Commission, will produce 5 million fingerlings of primarily recreationally and commercially-important
species annually. The effects of this production-scale hatchery, the first for Florida, on the PBS fishery
is unknown.
17
-------
w
0)
o
CD
Q_
C/3
TO
-*—>
,o
w
0)
o
CD
Q.
CO
03
0
O
c
ro
T3
c
D
n
<
TO
,o
35000 -
30000 -
25000 -
20000 -
5000 -
10000 -
5000 -
J FMAMJJyASON
CD
o
c
03
T3
c
D
_Q
<
,o
35000 "
30000 -
25000 -
20000 -
15000 -
10000 -
5000 -
'¦mL
CO CD CD CO CD CD
(D CD CD CD CD CD
CO A U1 O) -s] CO
Figure 3.3 Annual and monthly variability for a diversity index (Shannon and Weaver 1949), total species and
abundance of fish collected from Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande using seines and an otter trawl during 1993-
1998. Values represent means (±1 SD) for all sites and Bayous. Adapted from Lewis et al. (2010).
3.3 Macrobenthos
Composition of the benthic macroinvertebrate community has been reported by among others, the U.S.
Department of the Interior (USDOI 1970); Ross and Jones (1979); Keltner (1979); Brinson and Keltner
(1981); McAfee (1986); Butts (1990a, b); Moshiri and Elewad (1990); Collard (1991a); Stone et al.
(1991); USEPA (1991) (harbor area); Livingston (1999); Butts and Lewis (2002); and FDEP (2012b).
The most detailed early taxonomic analysis of the benthos appears in Olinger et al. (1975). It was
reported that northern Escambia Bay had greater numbers and biomass than for southern areas of the
Bay. One hundred and eighty seven species of benthic fauna were identified; 89 species in Escambia
Bay, 75 species in East and Blackwater Bays, and 97 species in Santa Rosa Sound. Butts (1990a)
reported 169 species of benthic fauna during winter months (1986) for Santa Rosa Sound. Biomass,
species numbers and numbers of individuals increase from mud to sand stations (McAfee 1986).
18
-------
Primarily, stress-tolerant, near-surface infaunal species are favored in most of the PBS (Collard 1991a),
such as polychaetes and nemertean worms in mud substrates. These include the mud bottom, deposit
feeding polychaetes Mediomastus ambiseta (Family Capitellidae) and Streblospio benedicti (Family
Spionidae) (Fig. 3.1). Both species are tolerant of organic enrichment and comprised the bulk of the
benthic macroinvertebrates in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande during 1993 and 1994 (Table 3.2).
Seasonal density and abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates were reported for Bayou Texar (Moshiri
and Elewad 1990). Leptochelia rapax, a tanaidacean crustacean, was the most abundant species
comprising 39% of total abundance. Distribution maps for numbers of infaunal and epibenthic
invertebrates are available from Livingston (1999).
Table 3.2 Macrobenthic fauna that exceeded 1% abundance for Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande during
1993-1994. Sediments were collected using a petite Ponar grab sampler. Total abundances ranged from
81% to 91%. Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL.)
Bayou Texar
Bayou Chico
Bayou Grande
Mediomastus ambiseta
42.2
Streblospio benedicti
50.8
Streblospio benedicti
68.9
Streblospio benedicti
24.5
Mediomastus ambiseta
10.4
Mediomastus ambiseta
6.3
Hobsonia florida
5.5
Capitella capitata
7.9
Tetrastemma sp.
3.0
Oligochaeta sp.
2.5
Oligochaeta sp
5.1
Polydora sp.
1.2
Polydora sp.
2.3
Cyclaspis varians
3.1
Leitoscoloplos fragilis
1.2
Acanthohaustorius intermedius
2.3
Edotea montosa
3.0
Tetrastemma candidum
2.3
Leitoscoloplos frag His
2.8
Carinoma tremaphoros
1.8
Mulinia lateralis
1.8
Macoma tenta
1.4
Spiochaetopterus costarum
1.7
Neanthes succinea
1.2
Tetrastemma candidum
1.1
Capitella capitata
1.0
Acteocina canaliculata
1.1
Cossura delta
1.1
Sayella fusca
1.0
19
-------
3.4 Phytoplankton
Seasonal abundance, species composition, and spatial differences have been reported since the 1970s for
PBS phytoplankton (Olinger et al. 1975; Adams 1972; Hannah 1972; Conklin 1976; Moshiri et al. 1980;
McAfee 1986; Stone et al. 1991; Livingston 2001, 2003; Murrell and Lores 2004; Murrell et al. 2002a;
Wagner 2006; Smith and Caffrey 2009). The phytoplankton, like the zooplankton, have a bimodal
pattern of abundance; greater during Spring and Fall. Murrell and Lores (2004) reported 21 abundant
taxa for Escambia Bay during 1999-2001. Seventy percent of total abundance was dinoflagellates in
January, largely Procentrum minimum. In contrast, diatoms comprised 50% of total abundance during
summer months. Eighty genera of phytoplankton, primarily diatoms, were identified for Santa Rosa
Sound and Little Sabine Bay for collections during 1977-1979 (Moshiri et al. 1980). Livingston (2001)
reported low species richness dominated by bloom forming species Cyclotella choctawhatcheeana, P.
minimum, and Heterosigma akashiwo; the center for primary productivity was upper Escambia Bay
(Livingston 2010).
Factors impacting phytoplankton distribution and production have been reported (Murrell 2003; Murrell
et al. 2007; Juhl and Murrell 2005, 2008). No imbalance was noted for the PBS phytoplankton
community relative to reactions to excess nutrients (Hagy et al. 2008; Livingston 2010). Spatial
differences for structural characteristics of the phytoplankton community have been reported within the
PBS as well as across other estuaries. Escambia and East Bays had similar rates of primary production,
phytoplankton cell counts during 1973-1975 (Olinger et al. 1975). Carbon fixation and phytoplankton
diversity were greater for Little Sabine Bay than Santa Rosa Sound (Moshiri et al. 1980). Eighty genera
were identified from both areas. Primary productivity in Escambia Bay was reported less than that for
Port Royal Sound, SC (Olinger et al. 1975). Mean cyanobacterial abundance for the PBS was
intermediate to those for Apalachicola Bay (FL) and Weeks Bay (AL) (Murrell and Caffrey 2005).
Nutrient assimilation in Escambia Bay was greater than that in Perdido Bay (Livingston 1999). See Fig.
3.4 for examples of diversity index values.
3.5 Zooplankton
Composition of the zooplankton community has been reported less frequently than that for the
phytoplankton. Important reports are those of Olinger et al. (1975); McAfee (1986); Dye (1987);
Moshiri and Elewad (1990); Lores et al. (2002); and Murrell and Lores (2004). The dominant species
has consistently been the marine calanoid copepod, Acartia tonsa (Fig. 3.1) which is one of the most
ubiquitous copepods along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast. A total of 80 zooplankton species were
identified in Pensacola Bay, Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande (Lores et al. 2002). A. tonsa comprised
82% of the total abundance relative to species of Oithona (11%), Podon (3%) and Balanus (1%).
Shannon-Wiener diversity index values (Shannon and Weaver 1949) averaged 1.1 (Pensacola Bay), 0.91
(Bayou Grande), 0.92 (Bayou Chico), and 1.1 (Bayou Texar). Diversity values varied spatially and
seasonally (Fig. 3.4). The diversity index values were similar to those for the zooplankton collected from
proposed reference areas, 1.2 (Mississippi Sound, Bay La Launch), 1.9 (Grande Lagoon), and 1.6 (Old
River) (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL). Livingston (1999) reported 35 taxa in Bayou
Texar and 75 in Bayou Chico. Reported zooplankton abundances have been 3.1 L"1, 38 L"1, and 17 L"1
(Dye 1987; Lores et al. 2002; Murrell and Lores 2004) relative to an average of 2 L"1 in nearby Perdido
Bay (Livingston 2001). Zooplankton abundance in East and Escambia Bays was considered similar 40
years ago (Olinger et al. 1975)
20
-------
Bayou Grande
H" -Zooplankton
^2 -Periphyton
Bayou Chico
123456789 10 12 12345
Sampling Stations
Figure 3.4 Temporal and spatial variation for a diversity index (Shannon and Weaver 1949) determined for
benthic macroinvertebrates, zooplankton and the algal-periphyton. Results are for samples collected at least four
times during the same year (1993-2000) at multiple sites in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande. Values represent
means (±1 SD). See Butts and Lewis (2002) and Lores et al. (2002) for additional details.
3.6 Periphytic Algae
Approximately 400 taxa of periphytic-algae have been identified for the PBS. These unpublished
taxonomic results are for seasonal colonizations during the 1990s. A comparison of the relative
abundances of the periphyton appears in Table 3.3. The chlorophyte, Chlorella ellipsoidea, (Fig. 3.1)
dominated in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande (relative abundance range= 23-37%), the filamentous
cyanobacteria, Lyngbya and Oscillatoria, dominated taxa in a salt marsh adjacent to Santa Rosa Sound
(48%), and the diatoms, Nitzschia longissima, Cylindrotheca closterium and Mastogloia sp. (56%) were
more abundant in Santa Rosa Sound. The total numbers of identified periphytic-algal species were 44
(Bayou Texar), 102 (Bayou Chico), 41 (Bayou Grande), 52 (Escambia Bay), 40 (lower Escambia River),
30 (Santa Rosa Sound), and 46 (salt marsh). The mean numbers of fish species colonized on each acrylic
substrate were 23 (SD=10,range=2-41, n=122), 31 (SD=16, range=15-46, n=3), 17 (SD=7, range=7-28,
n=17), and 15 (SD=7, range=8-36, n=30), respectively, for Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande, Santa
Rosa sound, Pensacola Bay, and Escambia Bay (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL). For
comparison, the number of colonized periphytic-algae for the proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3) using
identical colonization and taxonomic methodologies averaged between 17 and 30 and ranged from 16-
31 (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL). Periphyton diversity like for zooplankton varies
seasonally (Fig. 3.4).
21
-------
Table 3.3 Periphytic-algae taxa identified after 21-day colonization on acrylic substrates in the Pensacola
Bay System during summer months of 1993-1995 (Bayous) and 1997 (saltmarsh, Santa Rosa Sound and
adjacent residential canal). Total abundance in parenthesis.
Salt Marsh (76%)
Santa Rosa Sound (86%)
Residental Canal (100%)
Lyngbya sp.
Mastogloia spp.
Amphora tenerrima
Oscillatoria sp.
Cylindrotheca closterium
Schizomeris sp.
Scenedesmus bijuga
Nitzschia longissima
Achnanthes brevipes
Merismopedia glauca
Tabularia waernii
Licmophora hyalina
Merismopedia tenuissima
Nitzschia sp.
Nitzschia sp.
Coelastrum sphaericum
Nitzschia areolata
Cylindrotheca closterium
Ankistrodesmus spiralis
Navicula spp.
Amphora tenerrima
Navicula spp.
Melosira nummuloides
Schizomeris sp.
Chroococcus disperses
Campylodiscus innomiasatu
Crucigenia tetrapedia
Striatella interrupta
Bayou Texar (78%)
Bayou Chico (76%)
Bayou Grande (86%)
Chlorella ellipsoidea
Chlorella ellipsoidea
Chlorella ellipsoidea
Fragilaria sp.
Navicula sp.
Navicula sp.
Navicula sp.
Nitzschia sp.
Nitzschia sp.
Chlorella sp.
Chlorella sp.
Chlorella sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Gloeothece sp.
Fragilaria sp.
Nitzschia sp.
Fragilaria sp.
Closterium acerosum
Pinnularia sp.
Pinnularia sp.
Synedra sp.
Chlorococcum sp.
Amphiprora sp.
Fragilaria sp.
Nitzschia sp.
Cyclotella sp.
Pinnularia sp.
Synedra sp.
Chlorella sp.
3.7 Tidal Wetland Vascular Plants
Kurtz (1953) provides one of the earliest and most comprehensive descriptions of tidal marsh vegetative
zonation in northwest Florida relative to soil characteristics and salinity. Other early marsh vegetation
surveys were conducted by Stith et al. (1984) and Ross and Jones (1979). See Collard (1991a) for a
summary. Dominant species in coastal marshes include Juncus roemerianus (Fig. 3.1, black needlerush),
Spartinapatens (salt meadow cord grass), Spartina alterniflora (Fig. 3.1, smooth cord grass), and
Cladium jamaicense (saw grass). Minor species are Borrichia frutescens (sea oxeye), Fimbristylis
cymosa (hurricane grass), Sporobolus vagrancies (coastal dropseed), and Distichlis spicata (salt grass).
The environmental interest in coastal plants is currently largely restricted to their use in shoreline
restoration projects. Their environmental requirements will become more of interest in the future due to
the expected effects of sea level rise that will result in either their submersion or expansion in upshore
areas.
3.8 Biodiversity Differences
The sometimes large differences for species diversity and abundances reported for the same and
different sampling locations are not unusual. The frequency and duration of sampling, level of
taxonomic identification, level of quality assurance, life stage of organisms, method of collection
(sampling gear, mesh size), and season of collection have often differed among studies which impacts
results. Furthermore, the ecological stability, substrate requirements, and sensitivities of most biota and
their communities to the mix of natural and man-induced factors add to the observed differences.
22
-------
4 Anthropogenic Contaminants
The PBS has served for at least 65 years as a repository for anthropogenic chemicals that enter from a
variety of sources including the atmosphere, ground water, tributaries, municipal and industrial
wastewaters, and stormwater runoff. Efforts to determine their fate and distribution among water,
sediment, and biota have been the subject of numerous studies. It was recognized 50 years ago that the
PBS was susceptible to the adverse effects of nutrients, trace metals, and pesticides. As a consequence,
efforts began to determine their environmental concentrations and adverse effects, including the use of
toxicity tests which became an early important diagnostic tool. The first reported toxicity test for the
PBS was an Escambia Bay bioassay (Florida State Board of Health 1958). Other early toxicity studies
are those of USEPA (1973); Tagatz (1974); and FDER (1979) for limiting nutrients, pesticides, and
thermal effluents. The first phytotoxicity test was conducted in 1982. Personnel at the USEPA's Gulf
Breeze Lab analyzed the effects of pesticides on phytoplankton carbon assimilation, oyster shell
deposition, and shrimp equilibrium (USFWS 1965). Despite these and other efforts, it was recognized
that there was an increasing need to better understand the impact of toxicants. The stimulus for this need
is attributable in part to the first report for national water quality standards in 1976 (USEPA 1976). A
chemical risk overview for northern Gulf of Mexico drainage basins (Brecken-Folse 1989) and 27
consensus research needs for chemical risk assessments (Gulf of Mexico Program 1993) are available
that are pertinent for the PBS.
Anthropogenic contaminants contained in wastewaters have had a major impact on the PBS. Assessing
their environmental safety has been a resource management objective since the 1950s. Early studies are
those of Patrick et al. (1953), Florida State Board of Health (1958); Hall (1972); USEPA (1973);
Baseline Inc. (1973); Hopkins and Schomer (1975); and the FDER (1981, 1984). Barnett and Gunter
(1985) investigated wastewater effects on oyster harvesting areas. More detailed wastewater evaluations
occurred during the 1990s (Butts and Frydenburg 1991, 1992a, b, c; NWFWMD 1991a; Woodward and
Clyde Assoc. 1997; Lewis and Weber 1998). More recent investigations included a varied multimetric
approach (Fig. 4.1) that included measures of chronic toxicity, bioaccumulation, and sediment quality in
the wastewater mixing zones (Lewis et al. 2000; Lewis et al. 2001a, c; 2002b). Many of the large
volume domestic and industrial wastewaters which were centers of attention in the past are no longer
directly discharged into the PBS but enter indirectly as runoff after passing through wetlands or from
spray irrigation. For example, a golf complex near Gulf Breeze, FL, is the recipient of about 600,000
gpd of treated wastewater that eventually enters Santa Rosa Sound (personal communication, South
Santa Rosa Utilities System, November 2015) (Fig. 4.2). Treated wastewater from the relatively small-
volume Pensacola Beach and Navarre sewage treatment plants applied to the golf complex ultimately
ends into Santa Rosa Sound.
23
-------
TOXICITY
RECEIVING WATER CHEMISTRY
BIVALVE RESIDUE ANALYSIS
PERIPHYTON • 8IOMASS
• PIGMENT CONTENT
k • PRODUCTIVITY
• DIVERSITY. DENSIiy
BETHOS
DIVERSITY
ID TOXICITY
Figure 4.1 Chemical and biological measurements used to determine the impacts of industrial, domestic and
thermal wastewaters discharged during the 1990s to Pensacola and Escambia Bays, Santa Rosa Sound, and the
Escambia River.
Figure 4.2 Routes of stormwater runoff to Santa Rosa Sound from the Tiger Point golf complex. Runoff contains
contaminants from course maintenance and spray-irrigated wastewater. More detail in Lewis et al. (2001b, 2002b,
2004).
24
-------
5 Groundwater Quality/Superfund Sites
Contaminated surface and groundwater has entered Bayous Texar, Chico, and several adjacent areas of
Pensacola Bay as a result of three abandoned hazardous waste sites: the Escambia Treating Co. (26
acres, wood treatment facility, closed 1991), Agrico Chemical Co. (35 acres, fertilizer producer, closed
1979), and American Creosote Works (18 acre, wood treatment facility, closed 1981). The sites were
listed on the USEPA's National Priorities List between 1983-1994 as part of Superfund or the
Comprehensive, Environmental Response, Compensation Act of 1980 (EPA Superfund Comprehensive.
Environmental Response. Compensation Act of 1980; accessed 2016 July 13). Chemicals of concern in
the plumes were primarily arsenic, lead, dioxins, PCBs, PAHs, creosote, fluoride, and
pentachlorophenols. Goerlitz et al. (1985) reported 12 PAH compounds and 16 phenolic compounds in
groundwater associated with the American Creosote Works site. Clean-up has reduced surface
contamination. However, natural attenuation is the current course of action (or inaction) for the
groundwater plume containing a combination of contaminants from the Agrico Chemical Co. and
Escambia Treating Co. sites that will continue to enter Bayou Texar for the next 70 years. Several of the
environmental effects of these hazardous waste sites have been evaluated (Liebens et al. 2006, 2007).
Mean fluoride concentrations were about ten times greater in Bayou Texar sediments collected from the
groundwater entry zone (100.8 mg/kg) relative to sediments collected from other Bayou Texar areas
(10.2 mg/kg) (Liebens et al. 2006). The mean total mercury concentration was six times greater, 1.9
mg/kg versus 0.3 mg/kg, respectively, for the same areas. Annual and five-year update reports are
available for the groundwater intrusion into Bayou Texar (examples, URS 2012; E2 Inc. 2010).
25
-------
6 Surface Water Quality
Good water quality is important to maintain public, aquatic organism, and wildlife health. Since
chemical quality is temporally and spatially dynamic, it is best described with frequent and long-term,
coordinated sampling using consistent techniques. Water quality results for the PBS have varied for the
same locations, in part, because of differences for the collection technique (grab, composite), frequency,
depth, time of collection, preservation and storage conditions, sample preparation (filtration), method of
chemical analysis, and detection limits. Additionally, quality assurance and control measures have often
been absent or unreported.
Water quality for the PBS has been evaluated as part of compliance monitoring, enforcement actions,
national environmental assessment programs, emergency response operations, and pollution
identification surveys. Symptoms of deteriorated water quality include the effects of eutrophication
(anoxia, hypoxia, algal blooms, fish kills) and chemical contamination of sediments and biota, all of
which have occurred in the PBS. The longest continuous water monitoring program for the PBS has
been conducted since 1968 by the Bream Fishermen Association, although for limited parameters. Water
quality has been determined in response to drought (Butts and Ray 1987) and groundwater
contamination (Rostad and Periera 1987; Elder and Dresler 1988). Seafoam quality has been reported
(Landry 1974). Current and past water quality monitoring programs have centered on measuring
traditional physicochemical parameters such as salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature and nutrient-
related parameters, and several trace metals. Fecal coliform bacteria and indicators of pathogens are
monitored frequently in water quality samples because of the public health risk, which intermittently
occur (Fig. 6.1) because of inadequately maintained septic tanks, domestic sewage overflows/spills, and
urban stormwater runoff. In contrast, concentrations of non-nutrient contaminants have been reported
less commonly such as for petroleum hydrocarbons (aliphatic and aromatic compounds), persistent
organic pollutants (chlorinated and organophosphorus pesticides), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
and the phytotoxic atrazine and Irgarol. These compounds are relatively insoluble; nevertheless,
confirmation is needed. Their presence can impact the commercial quality of shellfish and finfish, and
pesticides/herbicides can have severe effects on non-target organisms, including plant-dominated
ecosystems for which commercially important faunal species depend upon for their survival. Examples
of reports containing results include Olinger et al. (1975); Ross and Jones (1979); Moshiri et al. (1980);
McAfee (1986); Lewis T (1986); Rodriguez and Hunner (1994); FDEP (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008,
2012a); Macauley et al. (2005); Lewis FG (2010); and Hall et al. (2010).
Water quality for the PBS has been considered in need of improvement (FDEP 1998), fair (Jones et al.
1992), good (WFRPC 2005), and 30% good (Macauley et al. 2005). Water quality of the Blackwater
River has been judged better than that for the Escambia and Yellow Rivers, although quality was
considered good for all (Boning 2007). No technical information was provided to support this
conclusion. Judgments of water quality have been based on uneven databases and all do not include
information for contaminants listed previously and, of more recent concern, that are persistent in the
environment and have severe consequences to public health. These include pharmaceuticals,
antimicrobials, and endocrine disruptors and concentrations of the human harmful polybrominated
diphenyl ethers (flame retardants) and perfluorinated compounds (anti-sticking and waterproofing
agents) (USEPA 2013a, b). Furthermore, information is not available for plastic microbeads, which are
common in the marine environment and can adsorb waterborne contaminants and leach toxic additives
(Derraik 2002; Cole et al. 2011). These plastic particles are used as abrasives in facial scrubs, toothpaste,
and soap. There will be phased out beginning in 2017 due to Federal mandate to protect fish and
wildlife.
26
-------
NO SWIPING OK
WATER CONTACT
SPORTS
BY ORDER OF HEALTH l)EI>T.
health
warning
«0 SWIMMING
In simw I
Figure 6.1 Examples of posted public health warnings for surface water contact with Bayou Texar and Santa Rosa
Sound. Warnings are due to unsually high rainfall and resultant stormwater entry containing elevated coliform
bacteria. Warnings have occurred intermittently for 30 years but are decreasing annually
27
-------
6.1 Nutrients
The determination of the fate and effects of nutrients contained in wastewaters and stormwater runoff
has been a major historical research focus for the PBS. Research topics have included determining the
extent of anoxia and hypoxia, algal blooms, nutrient flux, denitrification rates, nutrient limitations,
nutrient budgets, and development of local numeric nutrient water quality criteria. Nitrogen limitation
(Juhl and Murrell 2008), phosphorus limitation (Murrell et al. 2002b; Livingston 2003), and their co-
limitation (Juhl and Murrell 2008) have been reported for Pensacola Bay. Overviews of seasonal
hypoxia occurrence and causes are available (Committee on Environment and Natural Resources 2010;
Caffey and Murrell 2015). It should be noted that hypoxia is not always caused by elevated nutrients and
can be the result of changes in wind and circulation patterns, stratification and upwelling. An average of
25% of the Bay bottom experienced hypoxia in 2008. Flemer et al. (1998) reported its effect on the
macrobenthic community. Algal blooms have been recognized as a periodic problem since at least 1975
(FDER 1975; Young 1986). Summertime blooms in Escambia Bay are comprised largely by the pico-
phytoplankton Synechococcus (Caffery and Murrell 2015).
Nutrient concentrations in Pensacola Bay are low relative to eutrophic estuaries (Bricker et al. 2007).
Nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations have been routinely reported for approximately 45 years.
Early reports are those of Bohannon (1971); Simmons (1972); Moshiri et al. (1972, 1974); Olinger et al
(1975). Useful and more recent studies include those of Murrell et al. (2002a, b); Murrell and Lores
(2004); Han and Jordan (2005); DiDonato et al. (2006); Hagy and Murrell (2007); Juhl and Murrell
(2008); Hagy et al. (2008); Hagy (2009); Hayes (2010); FDEP (2012b); Livingston (2014); and Caffery
and Murrell (2015). Han and Jordan (2005) reported chlorophyll a concentrations (|ig/l) for Escambia
Bay (mean=11.2, range=4.1-23.2), Pensacola Bay (mean=2.3, range=l.l-3.3), East Bay (mean=5.9,
range=4.7-6.9) and Santa Rosa Sound (one value=5.9). Murrell and Lores (2004) reported that
chlorophyll a for Escambia Bay during 1999-2001 averaged 6.8 (SD=5.8, range= 1-26) |ig/l.
Concentrations in Santa Rosa Sound over grass beds during the past 27 years have been between 0.8 and
8.0 |ig/l (FDEP 2012b). Harvey et al. (2015) reported the range of mean chlorophyll a concentrations
over grass beds as 2.8 to 7.8 |ig/l for 2011 and 2014. In addition to published information, a large
unpublished USEPA database (Gulf Breeze, Florida) is available for chlorophyll a, DIN and DIP for
1992-2003 (Fig. 6.2). Mean chlorophyll a concentrations ranged from 3.5-6.4 ju.g/1 for 1156 samples.
Mean DIN concentrations were between 0.0-0.03 mg/1 (N=2,562) and between 0.011-0.022 mg/1
(N=798) for DIP. When compared to guidelines used for National Coastal Assessment Program
(USEPA 2012), chlorophyll a concentrations on average were "good" (<5 |ig/l) for most of the PBS but
"fair" (5-20 |ig/l) in Escambia Bay. All mean DIN concentrations were in the good category (<0.1 mg/1).
In contrast, DIP concentrations were usually "fair" (0.01-0.05 mg/1) except for Santa Rosa Sound where
concentrations were indicative of good water quality. A spatial comparison of the unpublished results
appears in Fig. 6.2. Escambia Bay on average contained more chlorophyll a (6.4, SD=5.4), dissolved
inorganic phosphorus (0.022, SD=0.028), and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (0.076, SD=0.074). The
higher concentrations for Escambia Bay parallels previous findings (Olinger et al. 1975; Han and Jordan
2005; FDEP 2007, 2012b). Nutrient concentrations in East Bay were reported to be similar to those in
Escambia Bay (Caffery and Murrell 2015).
28
-------
Chlorophyll a
(M9/I)
Dissolved
Inorganic
Nitrogen
(mg/l)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.05 -i
0.04 -
Dissolved
Organic
Phosphorus
(mg/l) 0.01 H
0.03 -
0.02 -
EastB EscB
Figure 6.2 Summary of chlorophyll a (fj.g/1), dissolved inorganic nitrogen (mg/l) and dissolved organic
phosphorus (mg/l) concentrations in surface waters collected during 1992-2003. Values represent means (±1 SD).
EastB=East Bay, EscB=Escambia Bay, PB=Pensacola Bay, SRS= Santa Rosa Sound. Total samples approximates
2,000.
Presumably, nutrient concentrations have declined for the PBS and, to some, they are currently below
concentrations of concern at least for submerged aquatic vegetation based primarily on chlorophyll a
concentrations (FDEP 2012a). The State of Florida water quality criterion for chlorophyll a and aquatic
life designated use is <20 |ig/l (FDEP 2010b), which is well above most measured concentrations for the
PBS. Although portions of Escambia Bay, East Bay, and Bayou Chico are considered impaired by
nutrients (FDEP 2007), current thinking is that only 2 of 11 symptoms of nutrient enrichment occur in
the PBS and the only impacted area is upper Escambia Bay. See FDEP (2012b) for a nutrient enrichment
checklist and status. It has also been concluded that water quality criteria for nutrients can be based on
29
-------
current ambient concentrations which were reported not detrimental to submerged aquatic vegetation.
This conclusion was based in part on the suitability of current chlorophyll a concentrations to support
seagrass beds in Big Lagoon and Santa Rosa Sound (FDEP 2012b). However, long term condition of
these grass beds is uncertain. Coverage declined in both areas during 1993-1995 (Heck et al. 1996) and
2003-2010 (Harvey et al 2015). Therefore, additional information is needed to support the acceptability
of current nutrient concentrations, including their effect on the phytotoxicities of non-nutrient
contaminants to phytoplankton and seagrass.
6.2 Trace Metals
Trace metal concentrations have been reported in waters adjacent to different stressor sources in a series
of papers to provide a worst case scenario of their presence in the PBS (examples, Lewis et al. 2002a, b,
2007; Lewis and Chancy 2008). The order of concentrations based on results for multiple studies for the
PBS appears in Table 6.1. The concentration order and magnitude of the concentrations were metal-
specific when compared to results for areas considered to be reference areas (Table 6.2). Concentrations
of As, Cr, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, and Hg were detected in 12% (Pensacola Bay), 15% (Bayou Texar), 12%
(Bayou Chico), 16% (Bayou Grande) and 46% (Santa Rosa Sound-adjacent to a golf course) of 177
water samples. Exceedance of national and Florida water quality criteria to protect aquatic life (USEPA
2014; FDEP 2010b) was infrequent. Concentrations of As, Hg, Zn, Se, and atrazine did not exceed
corresponding Florida and National acute and chronic criterion values. In contrast, continuous chronic
concentrations for Cu and Cr (Bayous Texar, Chico, Grande), Ni (Bayous Texar, Chico, Grande,
Pensacola, and Escambia Bays), Pb (Santa Rosa Sound, Escambia, and Pensacola Bays), and Cu
(Pensacola Bay, Bayous Texar, Chico, Grande) were exceeded based on mean concentrations of these
trace metals in surface water. Exposure to continuous chronic concentrations are assumed to affect long-
term survival, growth and reproduction of the biota. Most mercury concentrations were less than Florida
human use water quality criterion of <0.025 |ig/l for predominately marine waters based on fish
consumption (FDEP 2010b). The higher total mercury levels found were in Santa Rosa Sound at two
locations adjacent to a coastal golf course where they averaged 0.11 (SD=0.02) |ig/l and 0.07 (SD=0.07)
|ig/l (Lewis et al. 2002b).
Table 6.1 Contaminant concentrations in decreasing order for media collected from Pensacola Bay System
and proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3). Results from multiple studies conducted during 1990-2010. Not all
analytes were measured at all locations.
Surface Water
Bayou Texar
Bayou Chico
Bayou Grande
Pensacola Bay
Santa Rosa Sound
Surficial Sediment
Escambia Bay
Pensacola Bay
East Bay
Bayou Texar
Bayou Chico
Cr>Ni>Cu>Zn>Cd>Pb
Cr>Ni>Zn>Cu>Cd>Pb
Zn>Cu>Ni>Cr>Cd>Pb
Cr>Cu>Zn>Ni>Cd>Pb
Pb>Zn>Ni>As>Cu>Cd>Cr
As>tPCB>Cr>Ni>Cd>Pb>Zn>tDDT>Cu>Hg
As>Ni>Cr>Pb>Cd>tPCB>tPAH>tDDT>Hg>Zn>Cu
As>Ni>Cr>Pb»Zn>Cd>Cu
Zn>Cu>Pb>Cr>Ni>tPAH>Cd>tDDT>tPCBs
Zn>Cu>Pb>Cr>Ni>Cd>tDDT>tPCBs
30
-------
Table 6.1 (continued)
Bayou Grande
Santa Rosa Sound
Reference Areas
Colonized Algal-Periphyton
Escambia River
Pensacola Bay
Escambia Bay
Bayou Texar
Bayou Chico
Bayou Grande
Santa Rosa Sound
Reference Areas
Transplanted Caged Oysters
Bayou Texar
Bayou Chico
Bayou Grande
Reference Areas
Indigenous Oysters1
Bayou Chico
East Bay
Indian Bayou
Seagrass Roots2
Seagrass Leaves2
Whole Seagrass3
Blue Crabs4
Mussels5
Fish5
Bayous
Pensacola Bay
Cr>Zn=Pb>Cu>Ni>Cd>tPAH>tPCBs>tDDT
Zn>Cr>Pb>As>Cu>Cd=Ni>Hg
Zn>Cr>Pb>Ni>Cu>As>Cd>Hg>tPAH>tDDT>tPCBs
Zn>Cr>Ni>Cu>Pb>Cd
Zn>Cr>Ni>Cu>Pb>Hg
Zn>Cr>Ni>Cu>Pb>Hg
Zn>Pb>Cu>Cr>Ni>Cd
Zn>Pb>Cu>Cr>Ni>Cd
Zn>Cr>Pb>Cu>Ni>Cd
Zn>Cr>As>Cu>Pb>Ni>Cd>Hg
Zn>Cu>Cr>Ni>Ni>Pb>Se>As>Cd>Ag>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Cd>Ni>Cr>Pb>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Ni>Cd>Cr>Pb>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Cd>Cr>Ni>Pb>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Se>Cd>Ni>Cr>Ag>Pb>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>tPAH>Cd>Ni>Pb>tPCBs>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Cd>Ni>Cr>Pb>Hg>tPAH>tPCBs
Zn>Cu>As>Cd>Ni>Pb>Hg=Sn
PCBs>PAHs>DDT>dieldrin>lindane>mirex>hexachlordane
Zn>Cu>As>Fe>Pb>Ni>Cr>Cd>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Fe>Ni>Pb>Cd>Cr>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Cr>Pb>Ni>Cd>Hg
Zn>Cu>As>Cd>Cr>Pb>Ni>Hg
Zn>Cu>Cr>As>Pb>Ni>Cd
Zn>Ni>As>Cu>Cd>Pb>Cr
Zn>As>Ni>Pb>Cd>Cu>Cr
Crassostrea virginica
Testudinum wrightii
Ruppia maritima
Callinectes sapidus
multiple species from lower Escambia River
31
-------
Table 6.2 Comparison of trace metal concentrations (jug/1) in grab samples of filtered surface water collected
from the Pensacola Bay System and proposed coastal reference areas (Fig. 1.3). Results from Lewis et al.
(2006). Values represent means (±1 SD).
Pensacola
Bay
Suwannee
Withlacoochee
Mississippi
Bay La
Old
Grand
Analyte
System1
Estuary
Estuary
Sound
Launch
River
Lagoon
Arsenic
3.3
16.7
45.0
87.0
74.2
74.0
112.4
(0.1)
(14.4)
(51.3)
(88.2)
(75.5)
(68.8)
(119.8)
Cadmium
10.1
4.1
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
0.68
(6.1)
(8.2)
-
-
-
-
(1.4)
Chromium
23.8
16.2
60.3
74.4
58.7
70.5
83.3
(17.5)
(18.6)
(67.8)
(89.7)
(83.2)
(102.5)
(120.3)
Copper
13.8
0.7
19.4
47.1
41.0
42.9
60.9
(9.7)
(1.6)
(29.4)
(42.2)
(38.3)
(39.0)
(56.7)
Lead
7.5
0.8
2.8
0.55
<0.6
1.0
0.7
(10.8)
(1.0)
(4.3)
(0.64)
(1.2)
(0.83)
Nickel
19.4
3.7
25.0
20.3
14.8
14.8
21.3
(12.0)
(3.9)
(29.7)
(22.7)
(14.4)
(14.6)
(19.8)
Zinc
22.9
20.2
11.3
19.5
10.9
25.9
34.2
(13.3)
(24.2)
(7.9)
(17.1)
(7.6)
(27.0)
(38.7)
1For Santa Rosa Sound, Pensacola Bay, Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande
6.3 Persistent Non-Nutrient Organics
The few reported concentrations of persistent pesticides and PCBs have usually been less than 1 |ig/l or
below method detection limits. For example, the concentrations of 16 pesticides and 18 PCB congeners
were below detection in waters affected by wastewaters in Pensacola Bay, Escambia Bay, and Escambia
River (Lewis et al. 2002a). Low concentrations would be expected since most persistent non-nutrient
organic chemicals are relatively insoluble in water and settle to the sediment attached to particulate
matter. Reported concentrations of atrazine, one of the more widely used herbicides locally, are
surprisingly uncommon for the PBS. Concentrations ranged between 0.024-0.037 |ig/l in Santa Rosa
Sound adjacent to a golf course and National Seashore (Lewis et al. 2002b).
6.4 Effects-Based Research
The biological effects of water-borne contaminants have centered historically on determining the effects
of wastewater-diluted surface water (discussed previously) and indirect and direct effects of excessive
nutrients. The toxic effects of locally relevant non-nutrient contaminants on dominant PBS biota have
not been determined frequently. Their usual low concentrations, less than Florida and national water
quality criteria, suggest that toxicity of their presence alone is unlikely. It is important to note, however,
that national water quality criteria are largely based on information for temperate species for which
sensitivity is less than that for subtropical species (Kwok et al. 2007). The use of application factors
were discussed in that report to remedy this situation. Furthermore, the toxicities of water-bourne
chemicals in combination with PBS ambient nutrients under the influence of different salinities and
temperatures may occur and needs attention.
32
-------
7 Sediment Quality
Sediments serve as reservoirs of particle-sorbed contaminants which continually threaten the condition
of the benthos, rooted plants, fish, wildlife, and public health. The PBS is considered by some to be the
most polluted estuarine system in Florida due to sediment contamination (Seal et al. 1994; Livingston
2005). PBS sediments are biologically and chemically degraded generally near stressor sources and
upper reaches of bayous such as for Bayou Texar (Fig. 7.1). DeBusk et al. (2002) presented an overview
of hot spots. Areas of greater contamination based on that summary are in Bayou Chico, upper Bayou
Texar, lower Bayou Grande, mid- and upper-Escambia Bay, and the Pensacola Bay waterfront. It is
unknown if the contamination is static, increasing, or decreasing since determining the trend is complex.
Sediment physical and chemical properties (example, Jones et al. 1992) and contamination are more
spatially heterogeneous (patchy) than water-born contaminants impacting efforts to quantify quality.
Nevertheless, by one estimate, sedi ment quality has been reported as poor (8% of the area), fair (60%),
and good (32%) during 1995-2000 (Macauley et al. 2005).
Figure 7.1 Contaminated sediment collected from Bayou Texar prior to analysis for chemical quality, toxicity,
and benthic community composition. Sediment collected with a Petite ponar grab sampler to a depth of 13 cm or
less.
Concern for sediment contamination occurred during the 1960's (Jones et al. 1992). The first extensive
evaluation of sediment chemical quality was by Olinger et al. (1975). Sediment quality has been
consistently monitored at three PBS stations (Sabine Point, Indian Bayou, Pensacola public harbor) for
30 years as part of the NOAA's National Bioeffects and Mussel Watch Programs. Publications by Long
et al. (1997), Cantillo et al. (2001), and Kimbrough et al. (2008, 2009) summarize many of the chemical
results from this program. Von Appen and Winter (2000) summarized sediment condition for the PBS
(1990-2000). Sediment investigations have been conducted for determinations of chemical quality,
exceedance frequency, and predictive ability of proposed numerical guidelines, acute toxicity (faunal),
chronic toxicity (faunal), genotoxicity, phytotoxicity, benthic community metrics (univariate,
multimetric), effects of dredging, reference conditions, and spatial and temporal variability in condition
Engle and Summers (1998, 1999) describe a benthic diversity index developed in part for use within the
PBS. These assessment techniques comprise the weight-of-evidence approach recommended for
contaminated sediment risk assessments (Chapman 1990). This approach has not always been followed
for the PBS where individual components of the triad have been conducted independently of the others.
33
-------
7.1 Chemical Quality
Chemical quality has been determined frequently for PBS sediments and the results have often been
compared to proposed sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs) to determine the expected
biological response. Unlike for surface waters, there are no consensus national numeric quality criteria
for sediments to protect aquatic life. However, proposed numerical guidelines are available including
those for Florida (Long and Morgan 1990; MacDonald et al. 1996; Long and MacDonald 1998; Long et
al. 1998). The effect-based guidelines are intended to be used as benchmarks below which the risk from
contamination is expected to be minimal. The more common guidelines include the TEL (threshold
effect level), PEL (probable effects level), ER-L (effects range low), and ER-M (effects range median)
values.
Sediments collected from at least 128 sites within the PBS have been analyzed for a variety of
chemicals, including those in Table 7.1. Concentrations for trace metals dominate the database and their
order of concentration by analyte appears in Table 6.1 for several PBS subsystems. Arsenic, zinc, and
copper typically have been the major contaminants. Of the many reports for sediment quality, the more
recent studies are for Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande and Escambia Bay/River (Liebens et al. 2006,
2007; Mohrherr et al. 2006, 2008, 2009, 2012). Concentrations for as many as 14 trace metals were
reported in these studies.
Of the trace metals, the presence of mercury in sediments is of more concern due to its methylation to
methyl mercury which, when accumulated in some biota, can become a public health issue.
Methylmercury and total mercury concentrations are usually considered equivalent due to the cost of
measuring methylmercury. Consequently, total mercury is the analyte usually reported for PBS
sediments. A frequency distribution of total mercury concentrations in PBS sediments appears in Fig.
7.2. Mean total mercury concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) have averaged 564.5 (SD=169.6), 13.7
(SD=28.5), 54.1 (SD=63.4), 8.5 (SD=7.4), respectively, in sediments collected from urban-impacted
bayous, Santa Rosa Sound adjacent a golf course, Pensacola and Escambia Bays near wastewater
outfalls, and under Santa Rosa Sound seagrass beds. Mercury averaged 0.22 (range=<0.001-0.79) mg/kg
in Bayou Chico (Liebens et al. 2007) and 0.7 mg/kg in Escambia Bay (Mohrherr et al. 2009).
Concentrations were between 0.003-3.4 mg/kg for Bayou Texar (Liebens et al. 2006). Mercury
concentrations ranged from 0.1-0.17 |ig/g dry wt. during 2004/2005 (Kimbrough et al. 2008) and 0-0.6
|ig/g dry wt. during 1991-1996 (Cantillo et al. 2001) for three PBS stations determined as part of
NOAA's Mussel Watch Program. For comparison, mean mercury concentrations (ug/g dry wt.) in
sediments collected from six proposed reference coastal areas were between 0.002 and 0.090 (Lewis et
al. 2006). Of the 187 determinations for mercury reviewed for this summary, 89% were less than the
TEL value (0.13 ppm) and 10% were between the TEL and the PEL guidelines (0.13-0.7 ppm). No
concentrations exceeded the PEL guideline.
34
-------
Total PAHs
V)
0)
Q_
E
CO
CO
c
CD
E
"O
CD
C/5
00 (J)
LO CD
CM CO
CM CM
O O
CM 00
LO CD
Total PCBs
OO OOOOOT"
t— CMC0^-UOCDh-f>
V O
CM 00 LO CD
Total DDT
CM CO
CM CO
LO CD N CO
Total Mercury
60 —
o o o o
CD N CO (D
O O ^
CM CO CO
CM CO
LO CD N CO
CM CO
Concentration (ng/g dry wt)
Figure 7.2 Frequency distributions for four persistent and bioaccumulative contaminants in sediments collected
during the 1990s from the Pensacola Bay System. Adapted from Lewis (2005).
35
-------
Concentrations of non-nutrient organic contaminants in PBS sediments have been evaluated less
frequently than for trace metals. Frequency distributions for concentrations of four highly
bioaccumulative and persistent contaminants appear in Fig. 7.2, and a PBS subsystem and across-
estuarine comparison of mean concentrations appears in Fig. 7.3 for three of the four. It is apparent that
concentrations, on average, are greater in the PBS and these chemicals, banned at least 35 years ago, still
persist in some PBS areas, particularly for PCBs in Escambia Bay/River. Chlorinated pesticide
concentrations have been reported for Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande. Mean concentrations (ng/g dry
wt.) for sediments in the three Bayous were from 1.3-9.2 (chlordane), BD-7.0 (dieldrin), 6.9-24.2
(DDE), 7.6-18.2 (DDD), and 1.2-6.8 (DDT) (Lewis et al. 2001e). The maximum concentrations (ng/g
dry wt.) were 30.3, 18.4, 40.5, 40.7, and 9.8, respectively for the same order of chemicals. Endosulfan (I
and II) was detected in 7 of 78 samples. Concentration ranges were 0.8-5.8 (endosulfan I) and 1.5-10.9
(endosulfan II). DDT and total chlordane concentrations in PBS sediments as part of the Mussel Watch
Program were between 0-40 ng/g dry wt. and 0-5 ng/g dry wt., respectively (Cantillo et al. 2001). In the
same study, dieldrin and aldrin in sediments collected from the public harbor area in Pensacola Bay
were in the upper 15% of those measured nationwide (Cantillo et al. 2001). DDT concentrations were
below detection in Escambia Bay but were detected in the lower areas of Escambia River (Mohrherr et
al. 2009). In the only reported study found, the concentration of flame retardants (PBDEs) in one
sediment sample collected from Pensacola Bay was 0.1 ng/g (Kimbrough et al. 2009).
36
-------
Total Chlordane
20000 —
Total PAHs
10000
8000
6000
2000
Figure 7.3 Concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) of total chlordane, total DDT, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (total
PAHs) and polycyclic biphenyls (total PCBs) in sediments collected during 1995-2002 from the Pensacola Bay
System and proposed reference areas (Lewis et at, 2006). Values represent means (±1 SD).
Most studies for sediment-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and total petroleum
hydrocarbons concentrations have been conducted in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande. Reports by
37
-------
Liebens et al. (2006, 2007) represent the more recent and detailed studies and were conducted partly in
response to concern for the effects of nearby Superfunds sites. Total petroleum hydrocarbons ranged
from 6-730 mg/kg dry wt. and total PAHs ranged 0-291,940 |ig/kg in Bayou Chico and near its entry to
Pensacola Bay including the Sanders Beach area (Liebens et al. 2007). TELs were exceeded at four sites
for low molecular weight PAHs and at 6 sites for high molecular weight PAHs. Total PAHs in Bayou
Texar ranged from 117-14,430 |ig/kg for samples collected during 2003-2004 (Liebens et al. 2006).
Total PAH concentrations in sediments (ng/g dry wt.) collected during 1993/94 from multiple sites in
Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande ranged from 1,638-22,122, 3,243-16,199, and 29-7,057, respectively
(Lewis et al. 2001e; Butts and Lewis 2002). The concentrations exceeded the TEL guideline of 1,684
ppb in 23 of 39 samples and 1 of 39 samples for the PEL guideline of 16,770 ppb. PAH concentrations
for sediment from three sites in the PBS during 1986-1996 were between approximately 4,000-6,000
ng/g dry wt. (Cantillo et al. 2001). One value was in the upper 15% percentile for estuaries nationwide.
Mohrherr et al. (2009) reported PAH concentrations were usually below Florida SQAG guidelines and
averaged 238.2 (range=2.4-2,859) |ig/kg for sediments collected from Escambia Bay during 2007-2008.
38
-------
Table 7.1 Examples of anthropogenic contaminants determined for sediments collected from the Pensacola Bay System.
Trace
Chlorinated
Polycyclic Aromatic
PCB Congeners1
Metals
Pesticides
Hydrocarbons
Ag
Aldrin
Acenaphthene
2,
4'
-CL2
8
As
Endrin
Acenaphthylene
2,
2'
, 5-CL3
18
Cd
Dieldrin
Anthracene
2,
4,
4'-CL3
28
Cu
Alpha-Chlordane
Benzo (a) anthracene
2,
2!
, 3, 5'-CL4
44
Cr
Gamma-Chlordane
Benzo (a) pyrene
2,
2!
, 5, 5'-CL4
52
Hg
Oxychlordane
Benzo (b) fluoranthene
2,
3'
, 4, 4'-CL4
66
Ni
Cis-Nonachlor
Benzo (e) pyrene
2,
2'
, 4, 5, 5'-CL5
101
Pb
Trans-Nonachlor
Benzo (g, h, i) perylene
2,
3,
3', 4, 4'-CL5
105
Ra
Heptachlor
Benzo (k) fluoranthene
2,
3'
, 4, 4', 5-CL5
118
Sb
Heptachlor Epoxide
Chrysene
2,
2'
, 3, 3', 4, 4'-CL6
128
Se
Chlorpyriphos
Dibenzo (a, h) anthracene
2,
2'
, 3, 4, 4', 5'-CL6
138
Sn
2, 4'-DDD
2, 6-Dimethylnapthalene
2,
2'
, 4, 4', 5, 5'-CL6
153
Th
4, 4'-DDD
Fluoranthene
2,
2'
, 3, 3', 4, 4', 5-CL7
170
Zn
2, 4'-DDE
Fluorene
2,
2'
, 3, 4, 4', 5, 5'-CL7
180
4, 4'-DDE
Indeno (1, 2, 3, c, d) pyrene
2,
2'
, 3, 4', 5, 5', 6-CL7
187
2, 4'-DDT
1-Methylnapthalene
2,
2'
, 3, 3', 4, 4', 5, 6-CL8
195
Organophosphorus
4, 4'-DDT
2-Methylnaphthalene
2,
2'
, 3, 3', 4, 4', 5, 5', 6-CL9
206
Pesticides
Hexachlorobenzene
Lindane (gamma-BHC)
1-Methyphenanthrene
Naphthalene
Phorate
Alpha-BHC
Perylene
Diazinon
Mi rex
Phenanthrene
Chlorpyrifos
Endosulfan 1
Pyrene
Methyl Parathion
Endosulfan II
1, 6, 7-Trimethylnaphthalene
Fenthion
Beta-BHC
Malathion
Delta-BHC
Parathion
1up to 209 congeners have been determined (Mohrherr et al. 2012)
39
-------
The history of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) monitoring in PBS sediments and biota is presented in
Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009). Many reported concentrations in the past have been for total PCBs.
The number of congeners analyzed (209 possible) and summed as "total" PCBs has varied among
reports which needs to be considered for a cross-study comparisons. Total PCBs (ng/g dry wt.) in
sediments collected from different sites in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande ranged from BD-44, 34-
288, and 4-92, respectively (Butts and Lewis 2002). The total PCB concentrations in the Bayous
exceeded the TEL guideline value of 21.6 ppb for 22 of 34 samples but only once for the PEL guideline
of 189 ppb. Total PCBs concentrations for three sites in Pensacola Bay (1986-1996) were between 0-200
ng/g dry wt. (Cantillo et al. 2001). Hemming et al. (2003) reported the results of a sediment survey
(1992-2001) conducted for dioxins and furans in six panhandle bay systems including Pensacola Bay
and Santa Rosa Sound. The dioxin toxicity equivalents at the two sites were below levels posing a risk
to sensitive fish but sediment from Pensacola Bay was thought to be a possible risk to sensitive birds and
additional sampling was recommended. In the same study, the mean dioxin toxicity equivalent (a dioxin
compounds toxicity relative to 2,3,7,8- TCDD) for Perdido Bay sediments was almost twice that for
Pensacola Bay and the toxicity equivalent for Pensacola Bay was greater than equivalents for sediments
collected from Choctawhatchee, St. Andrew, St. Joe, and Apalachicola Bays.
Recent detailed descriptions of PCBs, dioxins-furans, and dioxin-like PCBs concentrations in sediments
are available for Bayous Chico and Grande from Mohrherr et al. (2006, 2008). It was concluded that the
sediments were very contaminated based on exceedance of numerical guidelines and that the indigenous
seafood likely represented a public health risk due to PCB bioaccumulation. PELs for total PCBs were
exceeded for 5 of 17 samples and 13 of 17 samples exceeded the TEL guidelines in Bayou Chico.
Liebens et al. (2011) reported concentrations of dioxins/furans and dioxin-like PCBs in sediments and
blue crabs from Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande. Sediments were more contaminated in Bayou Chico
and uptake profiles were different between sediment and crab.
PCBs have been detected in sediments (and biota) from Escambia Bay for over 45 years due to largely a
chemical release. Hydraulic oil containing PCBs was first detected entering the Escambia River in 1969
from the Monsanto Company's nylon plant. The more recent and detailed reports related to this
contamination are by Mohrherr et al. (2009, 2012) and Liebens and Mohrherr (2015). Concentrations
exceeded Florida numerical guidelines in 12 of 57 sediment samples. Total PCBs averaged 17.9
(range=0.9-125.9) |ig/kg dry wt. and dioxin/furans averaged 186.4 (range=22-l 1,004) ng/kg dry wt.
(Liebens and Mohrherr 2015). The mean concentration for the northern Bay was 26.7 mg/kg relative to a
mean of 11.9 mg/kg for sediment collected from the lower Bay. A useful sediment PCB profile for
multiple stations in Escambia Bay based on five data bases is available from the Mohrherr et al. (2009)
report. Sediment-sorbed PCBs did not affect sediment nutrient dynamics in Escambia Bay during 2005
after storm events (Smith and Caffrey 2009).
7.2 Sediment Quality Assessment Guidelines Exceedance
Contaminant concentrations were below proposed numerical sediment quality assessment guidelines for
approximately 50% (TEL) and 80% (PEL) of total sediment samples collected during 1993-2000 as
reported in multiple studies (Fig. 7.4). The number of guidelines exceeded and exceedance frequency for
specific analytes by stressor source and location appear in Tables 7.2 and 7.3, respectively, as
determined for 171 and 165 sediment samples, respectively. It is obvious that sediment chemical quality
was less in the Bayous, areas impacted by urban runoff (Table 7.2). TEL exceedances occurred for 31%
of total samples collected from East and Escambia Bays, 17% (Pensacola Bay), and 11% (Santa Rosa
Sound). Five-67% of sediment samples collected from various sites within Bayous Texar, Chico, and
Grande exceeded TEL guidelines and 0-36% exceeded the PEL guideline concentrations. The number of
40
-------
measured chemicals of concern (those exceeding the TEL and less than PEL) were 17 (Bayous Texar
and Chico), 14 (Bayou Grande), and 12 (Pensacola Bay). The more commonly exceeded guidelines in
decreasing order based on percent of total samples analyzed was
As>Cr>Ni>Pb>Cd>Zn>Cu=Hg>tPAH>tDDT>tPCBs for Pensacola, East, and Escambia Bays. In the
most recent survey for Escambia Bay and River (Mohrherr et al. 2009), PELs were not exceed for As,
Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, and Zn. In contrast, results for 99 of 434 analyses exceeded a TEL in the following
sequence: As>Ni=Cd>Cr>Pb>Zn>Cu>Hg. In the same study, 25% of DDT concentrations exceeded a
SQAG value, usually the PEL. TELs were exceeded for As, Cr, Cu, Hg, and Ni and PELs were
exceeded for Cd, Pb, and Zn in Bayou Grande sediments collected during 2006 (Mohrherr et al. 2008).
TELs were exceeded for As, Cr, Cu, Hg, and Ni, and PELs exceeded for Cd, Pb, and Zn for sediments
collected from Bayou Chico during 2005 (Mohrherr et al. 2008).
to
-------
Table 7.2 Number of proposed sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs) exceeded for sediments
collected from the Pensacola Bay System impacted by different contaminant sources, proposed reference
areas (Fig. 1.3) and sediments attached to seagrass. Values represent the number of sediment samples for
which result was observed. N - total number of samples. TEL - Threshold effects level; PEL-Probable effects
level. SQAGs from MacDonald et al. (1996).
SQAG
Urban
Proposed
Guidelines
Stormwater
Golf Course
Treated
Seagrass
Reference
Guidelines
Exceeded
Runoff1
Runoff2
Wastewater3
Meadows4
Areas
TEL
0
6
18
43
13
3
1-3
5
10
27
1
3
4-6
17
1
6
2
4
7-9
9
1
0
0
2
PEL
0
11
24
75
16
12
1-3
15
6
1
0
0
4-6
9
0
0
0
0
7-9
2
0
0
0
0
N
37
30
76
16
12
1 Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande
2 Santa Rosa Sound
3 Pensacola and Escambia Bays
4 Santa Rosa Sound
Table 7.3 Exceedance of sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs) by analyte and sediment source.
Values represent percent exceedance of total analyses based on threshold and probable effect levels (in
parenthesis) from MacDonald et al. (1996). N=number of samples per analyte.
Urban
Golf
Treated
Seagrass
Proposed
Analyte
Stormwater Runoff1
Course Runoff2
Wastewater3
Meadows 4
Reference Areas5
As
7(0)
2
5
8
8
Cd
59(11)
7
14
0
8
Cr
30 (10)
2
19
0
8
Cu
46 (26)
7(2)
21
8
0
Ni
24(0)
0
11
8
0
Pb
34(47)
0
0
0
0
Zn
19 (49)
2
2
0
0
Hg
—
5
8
0
8
N
118
44
63
12
12
Chlordane
5 (15)1
6(6)
0
0
0
Dieldrin
13(21)
6
0
0
0
DDD
23(36)
15 (9)
9(1)
0
0
DDE
67 (0)
30
7
0
0
DDT
5(5)
3(6)
0
0
8
TPCB
51(3)
0
19
0
0
TPAH
56 (5)
0
1
0
8
N
39
33
69
12
12
1 Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande
2 Santa Rosa Sound
3 Escambia and Pensacola Bays
4Santa Rosa Sound
5 see Fig. 1.3
42
-------
An additional analysis using SQAGs can be used to judge sediment quality. Contaminant concentrations
in the same sediment sample can be divided by the corresponding SQAG values and then summed to
produce a quotient value (SQAQs) (Long et al. 2006). The greater the quotient value the greater
likelihood of an adverse biological effect occurring. SQAQs were determined for about 790 sediment
samples collected from the PBS and proposed reference areas and the results are summarized by
location in Fig. 7.5. It is obvious that sediment contamination based on this metric is greater for Bayous
Texar, Chico, and Grande. The average TEL quotient values for the PBS are between 0.3 (Santa Rosa
Sound) and 20.7 (Bayou Chico). The average PEL quotient values are between 0.05 (Santa Rosa Sound)
and 4.9 (Bayou Texar).
20 ~1
15 -
TELQ 10 -
5 -
0
0
1 -
2 -
PELQ
3 -
4 -
5 -
Figure 7.5 Sediment quality assessment quotients (Long et al. 2006) for Pensacola Bay System sub-units and
proposed reference areas (Lewis et al. 2006). Values are based on chemical results for 792 sediment samples
reported in DeBusk et al. (2002) and Lewis et al. (2007b). The concentrations of individual chemicals in all
sediment samples collected from a subsystem were averaged and divided by the corresponding numerical
guideline concentration and the fractions summed to form the composite quotient values. TELQ-threshold effect
level quotient; PELQ-probable effect level quotient. Location descriptions from Fig. 1.3. PB=Pensacola Bay,
EscB=Escambia Bay, EastB=East Bay, SRS=Santa Rosa Sound, BT=Bayou Texar, BC=Bayou Chico,
BG=Bayou Grande, EscR= Escambia River.
43
-------
7.3 Toxicity (Fauna)
Several PBS sediments have been found acutely and chronically toxic to epibenthic and infaunal
macroinvertebrates, wetland plants, and the microbial community. Approximately, 500 toxicity tests
have been conducted with PBS sediments since the early 1990s to determine the differences in species
sensitivities, response parameter sensitivities, pore water versus whole sediment toxicities, relevance of
assessment guidelines, frequency of toxicity relative to contaminant sources, and relationship to
bioaccumulation. Initial studies were often limited to acute tests (Fig. 7.6) using an insensitive infaunal
amphipod, Ampelisca abdita (Fig. 7.7) as the test species. However, 13 species and a bacterium (Table
7.4; Fig. 7.7) have been used since to determine toxicity after exposure periods of 0.5 h-28 days.
Methods for many tests appear in Lewis et al. (2006). Effects on survival, young production, shoot and
root biomass, seed germination and photosynthetic activity, mutagenicity, sea urchin fertilization, and
bacterial bioluminescence have been determined. Tests have been conducted with whole sediments, pore
waters, and contaminated sediments diluted with reference sediments. However, most toxicity tests have
been conducted with undiluted whole sediment which negates the determination of LC50 values-the
basic calculation for acute toxicity tests that identifies concentrations lethal to 50% of test species.
44
-------
Acute Toxicity Tests
Phytotoxicity Tests
Figure 7.6 Examples of a laboratory whole sediment acute toxicity test conducted for 10 days with the infaunal
amphipod, Ampelisca abdita, and phytotoxicity tests conducted with wetland plant seedlings such as the smooth
cordgrass, Spartinci alterniflora. Plants exposed for 21-28 days to either water-borne contaminants or
contaminated whole sediment.
45
-------
Grass Shrimp Sea Urchin
(.Palaemonetes pugio) (Arbacia punetulata)
Amphipod
(Ampelisca abdita)
Salt-marsh Bulrush
(Scirpus robustus)
Smooth Cordgrass
(Spartina alterniflora)
Mysid
(Mysidopsis bahia)
Sheepshead Minnow
(Cyprinodon varlegatus)
Figure 7.7 Examples of test species exposed to whole and diluted sediments collected from the Pensacola Bay
System and their associated pore waters in laboratory acute and chronic toxicity tests. Test durations were 0.5
hours to 28 days. Species not show n to scale. Photos by author or courtesy of Encyclopedia of Life
(Encyclopedia of Life; accessed 2016 July 14).
(Leptocheirus plumulosus)
46
-------
Table 7.4 Test species used in acute and sublethal toxicity tests conducted with whole and diluted sediments
and interstitial pore waters collected from the Pensacola Bay System.
Flora
Echinochloa crusgalli - Barnyard grass
Scirpus robustus - Salt marsh bulrush
Sesbania macrocarpa - Yellow bladder pod
Spartina alterniflora - Smooth cordgrass
Fauna
Americamysis bahia - Mysid shrimp
Ampelisca abdita - Benthic estuarine amphipod
Arbacia punctulata - Sea urchin
Brachionus calaflorus - Freshwater rotifer
Cyprinodon variegatus - Sheepshead minnow
Hyalella azteca - Freshwater epibenthic amphipod
Leptocheirus plumulosus - Benthic estuarine amphipod
Palaemonetes pugio - Grass shrimp
Thamnocephalus platyurus - Beaver-tail fairy shrimp
Vibrio fischeri - Bioluminescent bacterium
The only published LC50 value (concentration lethal to 50% of test species) reported is for a
contaminated whole sediment collected for one site in upper Bayou Texar (Norton et al. 1999). The
LC50 value was as low as 3% contaminated sediment (diluted with reference sediment). This, to our
knowledge, is the most acutely toxic sediment identified to date for the PBS. The probable sources of
toxicity are from the considerable stormwater runoff and contaminated groundwater from nearby
Superfund sites that enter the Bayou.
The peak of sediment toxicity testing for the PBS occurred during the 1990s. Acute toxicity has
generally been low (high survival) based on results of 340 whole toxicity tests conducted during this
period with PBS sediments (Fig. 7.8). Toxicity occurrence (control-corrected) as a percent of total tests
conducted was 8% (acute toxicity) and 33% (chronic toxicity). Of 78 acute-chronic comparisons, 48
sites had no acute and chronic toxicity and 30 sites had no acute toxicity but had chronic effects. The
usual lack of high mortality combined with the occurrence of sublethal effects suggests that chronic
toxicity should be the focus for future toxicity tests conducted with sediments. It is important to note that
there has been no known attempt to determine the specific cause (and source) of toxicity in
contaminated PBS sediments despite an available method for a toxicity identification analysis (USEPA
2007). The lack of this information combined with the absence of numerical, effects-based toxic
concentrations for benthic species and most sediment-sorbed chemicals precludes the use of the TMDL
approach for contaminated sediment remediation.
47
-------
Ł
"So
o
X
Ł
0)
o
<
250 —|
200 —
150 —
100 —
50 —
0
-20
-40
o
CD
O
CO
100
o
CN
<5
CO
Percent Survival
Figure 7.8 Survival (%) of epibenthic and infaunal test species after their 4-10 days exposure to the Pensacola Bay
System contaminated whole sediments. Total toxicity tests conducted=340.
Interspecific differences in sensitivities have been minor based on acute toxicity results (Fig. 7.9). Mean
survival after exposure to the same whole sediment (52 toxicity tests) collected from PBS areas
receiving treated wastewater was 95%, 83%, 83%, and 87% for M bahia, Cyprinodon variegatus, A.
abdita, and Leptocheirusplumulosus, respectively. Mean survival (%) of Ampelisca abdita after
exposure to Bayou Texar, Chico, and Grande sediments (70 tests) was 75 (SD=33), 86 (SD=15), and 84
(SD=31), respectively. Mean survival for L. plumulosus exposed to sediments collected from Bayous
Texar and Grande was 78 (SD=32) % and 82 (SD=26) %, respectively. Mean survivals (%) for A.
abdita, L. plumulosus, Hyalella Azteca, and C. variegatus exposed up to 11 times to a sediment from
Perdido Bay and used as the control sediment in many toxicity tests conducted with PBS contaminated
sediments were 96 (SD=5), 95 (SD=10), 98 (SD=4), and 95 (SD=4), respectively (Unpublished results,
USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
48
-------
100 -1
80 -
60 -
40 -
X
Ampelisca
abdita
100
Mysidopsis
bahia
> .
C/>
X -=t_x
Leptocheirus
plumulosus
Hyalella
azteca
100 -
80 -
60 -
Cyprinodon
variegatus
J I I I I I L
CO CO Q1 H o CD CO
a. o o m m m Ł
LLl LL1 ^
-J _l CO CC LU IU CQ
m o s o Ł S s
CO ^ Q_
Locations
Figure 7.9 Species- and site-specific differences for survival of five test species exposed to whole sediments
collected from the Pensacola Bay System, nearby bays and proposed reference areas (Lewis et al. 2006). See
Figures 1.3 and 7.5 for site designations. PerB=Perdido Bay; WB Weeks Bay.
49
-------
Results of acute toxicity tests with sediments have been spatially similar (Fig. 7.9). For example, mean
survival (%) was 70 (SD=40), 94 (SD=5), 93 (SD=16), 94 (SD=3), and 94% for Bayous Texar, Chico,
and Grande, Santa Rosa Sound, and Escambia and Pensacola Bays, respectively, based on
approximately 133 sediment toxicity tests conducted withM bahia. These results are similar to those
forM bahia exposed to sediments collected from nearby Perdido Bay, Florida (mean=94%, SD=3%)
and Weeks Bay, Alabama (mean=92%, SD=3%).
As stated previously, sublethal toxicity to benthic-dwelling faunal species has been reported less
frequently than acute toxicity. The extent of sublethal toxicity based on results of 40 toxicity tests (sea
urchin fertilization test, pore water, one hour test duration) and reported as a percent of study area was
estimated as great as 14.4 km2or 5.3% (Long et al. 1996). In contrast, only 0.015%) of the study area
was estimated to be acutely toxic to the amphipod, A. abdita. Toxicity tests using bioluminescence
bacteria and organic extracts of sediments were also reported by Long et al. (1997). All samples from
Bayou Grande, Bayou Chico, and inner Pensacola harbor were highly toxic in that study. Samples from
Escambia Bay, East Bay, and Bayou Texar were not toxic. In an unpublished USEPA study (Gulf
Breeze, Fl), effects of whole sediments collected from Pensacola and Escambia Bays and the Escambia
River were determined in 7-d tests monitoring survival, weight and fecundity ofM bahia. There were
no locational differences in weight. In contrast, fecundity was reduced in decreasing order for sediments
collected from the lower Escambia River>Escambia Bay>Pensacola Bay.
7.4 Phytotoxicity
The sensitivities of indigenous aquatic plants (vascular and non-vascular) to anthropogenic contaminants
and natural stressors associated with the PBS are almost unknown despite the well-documented
biodiversity-building and phytoremediation properties of near-shore plant-dominated ecosystems and
the availability of in-situ methods (Durako et al. 1995) and laboratory test methods (Walsh 1991). The
earliest known phytotoxicity investigation is that of Grigsby (1982). In that study, the effects of three
herbicides were evaluated on Ruppia maritima. In a more recent and in-depth study, several PBS
sediments were found phytoinhibitory or phytostimulatory. Early seedling shoot and root growth was
determined in 70 toxicity tests (Fig. 7.6) conducted with salt marsh bulrush (Fig. 3.1, Scirpus robustus)
and salt marsh cordgrass (Fig. 3.1, Spartina alterniflora) and sediments collected from 15 sites in
Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande (Lewis et al. 2001d). Sediment phytotoxicity was common and
species-specific. Phytotoxic effects were observed at 12 of 15 sites but invertebrate mortality occurred at
only two sites. Stimulation was more common than phytoinhibition likely reflecting a nutrient reservoir
in the sediments. It was concluded that phytotoxicity provides useful information not available if only
the traditional faunal species are used. It remains to be seen if this is true for seagrass for which
sediment phytotoxicity may be a determinant for their survival and for which no local information is
available.
7.5 Genotoxicity
Pore waters extracted from several PBS sediment sites have been found to be genotoxic, including those
impacted by golf course runoff, urban runoff, hydraulic dredging, and treated wastewaters (Long et al.
1997; Lewis and Daniels 2006). All pore water samples collected from Bayou Chico in 1994 were found
to be genotoxic using the commercial microbial Mutatoxtm assay (Long et al. 1997). Pore waters from
PBS sediments in areas receiving 10 different wastewaters discharged into Escambia and Pensacola
Bays and the lower Escambia River were assayed using a similar mutagenicity assay (Vibrio fischeri-
M169) before and after activation using rat liver microsome mix (Lewis and Daniels 2006). Direct and
indirect genotoxic effects were observed for 14%> and 32%> of the 37 tests conducted, respectively. Both
direct and activated responses were observed for the same sediment sample in 5%> of the tests. One in six
50
-------
pore water samples from Santa Rosa Sound adjacent to a golf course and one in five samples in dredged
areas of Bayou Texar were genotoxic (direct). Genotoxicity occurred more frequently than acute toxicity
to the benthic amphipod A. abdita.
7.6 Macrobenthic Community Metrics
The herbivorous infaunal biota are the base of the primary estuarine food web and are important to
secondary production (Livingston 1999). The PBS has a faunally-diminished benthic community, low
secondary productivity, and benthic respiration rate (Livingston 1999, 2005). Furthermore, the infaunal
invertebrate biomass is lower than that for other Gulf of Mexico bays (Livingston 2010). The low
abundance has been attributed to habitat limitation, hypoxia and low phytoplankton production
(Livingston 2005). In another appraisal for 1995-2000, the benthic community was considered poor
(16% of area), fair (13%), and good (58%) (Macauley et al. 2005).
The structural and, to a lesser extent, functional characteristics (Rakocinski 2011) of the benthic
community in the PBS have been analyzed frequently since the 1970s (examples, Olinger et al. 1975;
Livingston 1999, 2005; Murrell et al. 2009; Smith and Caffrey 2009; FDEP 2012b). An early in-depth
analysis (1973-1978) is available for 250 sites (Ross and Jones 1979). Frequency distributions for
numbers of taxa and organisms and density determined for PBS sediments collected between 1993 and
2000 appear in Fig. 7.10. The majority of samples contained 20 or less taxa, 300 or less organisms and
3,000 organisms/m2 or less. Based on Florida guidelines, 13% of samples were in the poor category
(<200 orgs/m2), 25% were of marginal quality (200-500 orgs/m2) and 62% in the good category (>500
orgs/m2).
51
-------
Number of Taxa
o o o o o o
CNI CO If) CD
II II II
Number of Organisms
"O
CD
C/)
CM 00
en cd r^- co cd
o o o o
HI ID N (D
o o o
1- CN CO
ooooooooooo
ooooooooooo
ooooooooooo
-!-c\jco^rir>cDh~coa)Oo
I II I I I I I I
oooooooo^-A
ooooooooo
i-cMco^rmcDi^-ooo
CD
Figure 7.10 Frequency distributions for structural characteristics of the benthic macroinvertebrate community in
sediments collected during 1993-2000 from the Pensacola Bay System. Number of analyses=203. Adapted from
Lewis (2005).
52
-------
Benthic diversity index values represent a single number summary of the health of the macroinvertebrate
community. The most commonly used measure of diversity is that of Shannon and Weaver (1949)
commonly referred to as the Shannon-Wiener Index. Values usually range between 1 and 4; the lower
the value the more simplistic the community. A frequency distribution of results for this Index and three
other indices for PBS benthos appear in Fig. 7.11 based on taxonomic results for about 1,000 sediment
samples. Approximately 60% of the samples had Shannon-Wiener Index values between 2.0-3.0 and
27% below 2.0. Ninety percent of the 400 sites evaluated using a different benthic index were found to
be degraded during 1991-1994 (Engle and Summers 1999). The definitive cause of the low benthic
diversity commonly observed in the PBS, like for toxicity, is unknown. Salinity was not a factor in the
Engle and Summer's study.
140
Shannon-Wiener
Diversity
Index
if)
JD
CL
E
03
if)
-*—•
c
<1>
E
-------
7.7 SQAG Predictive Ability
The ability of the proposed sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs) to predict adverse
biological effects based on chemical measurements alone has been evaluated (Long et al. 1997; Lewis et
al. 2001b, d, e; Lewis and Daniels 2006). Comparisons for results of multiple tests for acute and chronic
toxicity, genotoxicity, and phytotoxicity and analyses of community diversity have been made to the
number of SQAG guidelines exceeded for the same sediment sample. Results are summarized in Table
7.5 and an example is provided in Fig. 7.12 for co-occurrence of acute toxicity and phytotoxicity (plant
biomass) in 15 Bayou sediments. The results for this comparison as well as others are inconsistent, and
the chemical-biological concordance depends upon the measured biological effect. The predictive ability
(SQAG exceedance = biological effect or no SQAG exceedance=no biological effect) has been about
60% (acute toxicity), 58% (microbial genotoxicity), 56% (lowbenthic diversity), and 65%
(phytotoxicity). Thus, reliance on chemical measurements alone will lead to misleading conclusions on
sediment biological quality, which supports the use of a weight-of-evidence approach for sediment
contaminant evaluations in the PBS.
Table 7.5 Exceedance of sediment quality assessment guidelines (SQAGs), MacDonald et al. 1996) and
concomitant occurrence of toxicity and low benthic diversity for the same Pensacola Bay System sediment
sample. Values represent percent of comparisons where outcome was observed. Adapted from Lewis (2005).
Benthic
Acute Macroinvertebrate
Toxicity1 Genotoxicity2 Phytotoxicity3 Diversity4
SQAG exceedances and biological
effects
9
20
53
31
SQAG exceedances and no
biological effects
39
20
32
13
No SQAG exceedances and
biological effects
1
22
3
31
No SQAG exceedances and no
biological effects
51
38
12
25
Number comparisons
350
40
38
62
Acute toxicity and biological effects
-
5
11
4
Acute toxicity and no biological
effects
-
7
5
3
No acute toxicity and biological
effects
-
44
45
45
No acute toxicity and no biological
effects
44
39
48
Number comparisons
-
40
38
78
1 Survival 20% or less (control-corrected) for Americamysis bahia, Ampelisca abdita, Palaemonetes pugio.
2 Direct or activated response observed (Lewis and Daniels 2006)
3 Statistically significant phytoinhibition or phytostimulation.
4Shannon-Wiener diversity index value < 2.0. (Shannon and Weaver 1949)
54
-------
Plant
Biomass
(%)
Ampelisca 60
Survival
(%)
Mysidopsis
Survival
(%)
Sediment
Assessment
Quality
Guidelines
Exceeded
(%)
4 ¦
3
2 ¦
1 ¦
0 ¦
Inl II
12 3 4
Bayou Texar
1 2 3 4 5
Bayou Chico
~ - TEL
¦ - PEL
U_L
1 2 3 4 5 6
Bayou Grande
Figure 7.12 Comparison of exceedance of sediment quality guidelines (MacDonald et al. 1996) and results of
toxicity tests conducted with the same whole sediments collected from 15 locations in Bayous Texar, Chico and
Grande. Test species were Mysidopsis bcthict and Ampelisca abdita, and seedlings of the wetland plants Sesbania
macrocarpa and Echinochloa crusgctlli. ND-no data; I-inhibition and S-biomass increase (stimulation) relative to
plant biomass in control.
7.8 Spatial Comparisons of Sediment Quality
Sediment chemical quality has been compared within the PBS and also to other coastal areas. Quality
varies between and within Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande as shown in Fig. 7.3 and 7.13 based on
reports of Lewis et al. (2001d, e); Butts and Lewis (2002) and Macauley et al. (2005). See Mohrherr et
al. (2005) and Liebens et al. (2006, 2007) for relatively recent spatial profiles of metals, pesticides, and
PAHs within Bayous Texar and Chico and Escambia Bay (Mohrherr et al. 2009). Macauley et al. (2005)
ranked sediment contamination in decreasing order as Bayou Grande>Bayou Chico>Bayou Texar.
Olinger et al. (1975) reported that the order of copper and nickel contamination was Pensacola
55
-------
Bay>Escambia Bay>East Bay>Blackwater Bay. Comparisons for 12 trace metals in sediments across as
many 16 coastal areas were provided in that report. For example, copper and nickel concentrations in
sediments from Escambia Bay were less than in sediments from Chesapeake and Galveston Bay. Mean
tPAH, tPCB and mercury concentrations were usually greater for Pensacola Bay than in other Florida
panhandle bays (Long et al. 1997). Concentrations of dioxins/furans in sediments in decreasing order
were Perdido Bay>Pensacola Bay/Santa Rosa Sound>Choctawhatchee Bay>St Joe Bay>St Andrew
Bay>Apalachicola Bay (Hemming et al. 2003). An excellent comparison of nine organic and nine trace
metal concentrations for Pensacola Bay (three sites) during 1986-1996 relative to three other Florida
panhandle estuaries appears in Cantillo et al. (2001). Although site-specific, concentrations of mercury,
lead, mirex, lindane, dieldrin, chlordane, DDT, and PCBs were generally less in the PBS. Escambia Bay
was ranked 6th of 25 estuarine drainage areas for pesticide contamination; it was considered more
susceptible to chemical contamination than Mobile Bay but less so than Perdido Bay (Brecken-Folse
1989).
56
-------
Total Mercury
(ng/g)
-t
F, o)
O
2.0
1.0
0
100 —|
80 —
60 —
40 —
20
0
250 —i
100
50 —
30 —i
20
10
0
500 —
400 —
300 —
200 —
100 —
0
1000 —t
1
Cadmium
_l I I
Chromium
il
L
Copper
ll
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
J Jy M J
J Jy M J
J Jy M J
2
J Jy M J
J Jy M J
2
Bayou Texar
Bayou Chico
Bayou Grande
Figure 7.13 Temporal and spatial variation for trace metal concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) in sediments collected
four times at two locations in each of Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande. See Lewis et al. (2001e) and Butts and
Lewis (2002) for more detail.
57
-------
Sediment acute toxicity has been generally low within the PBS (Fig. 7.9) except for a few hot spots as
shown for two bayous (examples, Fig. 7.14). The similarity in toxicity results also extends to that
observed for the PBS and other estuaries (Fig. 7.9). In contrast, spatial differences for sublethal toxicity
have been reported and found at times to be test species-specific as demonstrated by the results from
Long et al. (1997). In that study, toxicity based on sea urchin fertilization in decreasing order was for
sediments collected from Apalachicola Bay>Choctawhatchee Bay>Pensacola Bay>St. Andrew Bay. In
the same study, the geographical order of decreasing effects was Choctawhatchee Bay=St. Andrew
Bay>Apalachicola Bay>Pensacola Bay based on reductions in microbial bioluminescence. Sediment
toxicity including genotoxicity in Bayou Chico was greater than that in most other sites located in
Choctawhatchee, St. Andrew, and Apalachicola Bays (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
% MORTAI
Figure 7.14 Spatial differences for mortality of two macrobenthic test species exposed to whole sediments
collected from multiple stations in Bayous Texar and Grande. Yellow-Mysidopsis buhia: red-Ampelisca abdita.
Many spatial comparisons have been made within the PBS and across regional estuaries for the
macrobenthos. Shannon-Weiner Index values for benthic macroinvertebrates were similar in Escambia,
East, and Pensacola Bays (1981-1986), and values for Escambia Bay were less than those Hillsborough
and Galveston Bays (McAfee 1986). Escambia Bay had lower biomass of infaunal and epibenthic
invertebrates than other regional river-dominated estuaries (Livingston 2010). Escambia and Pensacola
Bays had lower biomass, secondary production and species richness than Apalachicola, Choctawhatchee
and Perdido Bays (Livingston 2005, 2010), and lower mean benthic abundance than Tampa, Charlotte
58
-------
and St. Andrew Bays (FDEP 2012b). The benthos in Santa Rosa Sound was more diverse and had
greater biomass and number of individuals than assemblages in Escambia Bay and East Bay (Olinger et
al. 1975). Escambia and East Bays also had relatively low macroinvertebrate diversity during 1979
(Ross and Jones 1979). Upper Escambia Bay and Blackwater Bays had the highest biomass of infauna
and the high salinity areas of Pensacola Bay and mid-Escambia Bay had the highest diversity
(Livingston 1999; FDEP 2012b).
7.9 Stressor Source Comparisons for Sediment Quality
One of the major goals of aquatic resource managers and urban planners is to understand the magnitude
of the effects of the various urban stressors impacting the local resource in order to prioritize the
allocation of often-limited research and remediation funds to mitigate their effects. Reported attempts to
rank the severity of the impacts of common sources of chemical stressors for the PBS began in the late
1990s and extended to the 2000s (examples, Lewis et al. 2000, 2004, 2006; Lewis and Chancy 2008).
The chemical and biological impacts of urban stormwater (Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande), 11
wastewaters (Pensacola and Escambia Bays, Santa Rosa Sound) and golf course runoff (Tiger Point-
Santa Rosa Sound) were evaluated in a multiyear study using identical diagnostic techniques. Some
results appear in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 and a ranking summary appears in Table 7.6. The results are metric-
specific but urban stormwater runoff and municipal and industrial wastewaters were at the time more
detrimental than golf course runoff containing chemicals from course maintenance (pesticides,
fertilizers) and treated municipal wastewater (spray irrigation). Since this evaluation 15 years ago, direct
wastewater discharges have been reduced to the PBS and the golf complex has been reduced in size due
to economic and climatic factors. Consequently, this has reduced their significance as stressors. In
contrast, stormwater runoff although more controlled than in the past, still remains a major determinant
of environmental quality.
Table 7.6 Relative ranking of stressor sources for severity of contaminated sediment quality. Identical
assessment methods used for all areas. US = urban storm water runoff (Bayous Texar, Chico, Grande).
WW=11 treated municipal and industrial wastewaters (Escambia and Pensacola Bays). GC=runoff from
two golf courses (Santa Rosa Sound). AG=south Florida Water Management District canals and entry
points into Florida Bay. Decreasing trend for all parameters. Adapted from Lewis (2005).
Metric Ranking
TEL exceedances(>TEL WW > GC>AG
PEL exceedances
US > GC > WW>AG
Trace metal enrichment1
US = WW > GC>AG
Acute Toxicity2
GC > US > WW
Chronic toxicity3
GC > WW>AG
Genotoxicity (pore water)
US > WW > GC
Benthic diversity index4
GC>AG>US>WW
Macroinvertebrate abundance5
US=AG>GC>WW
Number of taxa6
AG>GC>US>WW
1Based on total number of trace metals after normalization to aluminum (Windom et al. 1989).
2Based on total number of toxicity tests for Americamysis bahia, Ampelisca abdita, and Palaemonetes pugio where
mortality was 20% or more (after control corrections).
3Not determined for sediments affected by urban storm water, based on results for L. plumulosus and Americamysis bahia.
4Based on Shannon-Wiener diversity index values of 2.0 or less.
5Based on 500 orgs/m2 or less.
6Based on 20 taxa or less.
59
-------
8 Dredging
The environmental impacts of dredging are variable, site-specific, and influenced by the magnitude and
frequency of activity, methodology, intertidal area, tidal range, rate of mixing, and presence and
sensitivity of animal and plant communities. Predicting effects with any degree of confidence is
uncertain without this information. Near-field and far-field detrimental effects include decrease in
density and diversity of the benthic community, increase in bioaccumulation of contaminants,
redistribution of contaminated sediments far-field, increase in suspended solids, decrease in light
penetration (may lead to hypoxia), clog gills of fish and oysters, release of organic substances which
may decrease dissolved oxygen and cause algal blooms. Positive effects are restoration of water depth
and flow and removal of contaminated sediments.
Repetitive dredging continues to occur in the PBS primarily for Bayous Texar and Chico due to the
inadequate control of the particulate solids and contaminants entering from their increasing urbanized
and industrialized watersheds. The efficacy and practicability of these continuous dredging events has
been debated for years (WFRPC 2005). The more recent dredging events are those in Bayou Texar
(2015) to remove sediment from a flooding event (10,000 cubic yards, cost=$670,000) and in Bayou
Chico (2016; cost=$360,000) to remove contaminated sediments. The environmental effects of these
dredging events are not known. In contrast, several of those for previous dredging events have been
investigated sporadically (Livingston 1971; Brinson and Keltner 1981; Morgan and Stone 1989; Moshiri
and Elewad 1990; EA Engineering Science and Technology 2000; Lewis et al. 2001a). Dredging
operations in Mulatto Bayou (1965-1970) resulted in changes in circulation patterns and dredged pits
with high levels of nutrients and low dissolved oxygen and fish kills (Livingston 1971). Chlorophyll a
and nutrients increased in the water column and there was no long-term benefit to the benthos after
navigational dredging in Bayou Chico (Brinson and Keltner 1981). It was concluded that future removal
of sediments be conducted only after assurance that water quality would improve and that other sources
of pollution are controlled. The environmental effects of dredging on sediment toxicity (faunal and
genotoxicity), benthic community composition, colonized periphyton composition, and contaminant
uptake and light penetration were evaluated in one of the few pre- and post-dredging studies conducted
in Bayou Texar (Lewis et al. 2001a). Hydraulic dredging reduced the diversity of the benthic community
and light penetration and altered the composition of the periphyton. Dredging reduced mercury
bioavailability to the periphyton by 65% at multiple sites in Bayou Texar (Fig. 8.1); Cr, Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd,
and Ni concentrations were reduced between 4-44% eight months after dredging. Acute toxicity was not
altered but genotoxic activity was particularly high in recently dredged areas in Bayou Texar where
effect levels (% porewater) were 22 (SD=9, range=2-44) and 20 (SD= 22, range=2-70) for direct and
indirect effects, respectively. It was concluded for this small-scale dredging event that the environmental
impact was localized and of short-term consequence based on the 8 mos. study duration. It was noted
however that additional studies would be needed for larger-scale dredging events to validate this
conclusion. Based on the above, the long-term chemical and biological effects of local dredging events
are uncertain and additional supporting evidence is needed before their environmental benefit can be
assumed.
60
-------
Periphyton
2000-
1500-
PRE - DREDGING
POST - DREDGING
O 1000-
9 10
COLONIZATION STATIONS
m
Figure 8.1 Concentrations of total mercury (ng/g dry wt.) in algal-periphyton colonized for 21 days at 10 locations
in Bayou Texar prior to hydraulic dredging and 8 eight months post-dredging. Dredging occurred during 1993-
1994; about 22,800 m3 sediment removed. See Lewis et al. (2001a) for more details.
61
-------
9 Bioaccumulation (Contaminant
Bioavailability)
Field bioaccumulation studies conducted within the PBS have been used to determine the bioavailability
of at least 69 contaminants (examples, Table 9.1) for as many as 30 species of flora and fauna (Table
9.2). Bioaccumulation assessments began in earnest during the early 1970s and centered on DDT and
PCBs (Duke et al. 1970; Hansen and Wilson 1970; Nimmo et al. 1971a, b; Butler 1973). The more
recent and detailed studies are those of Karouna-Renier et al. (2007), Snyder and Rao (2008), and
Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009) for trace metals, furans, and dioxins in oysters, blue crabs, and fish
with accompanying reports for sediments (Mohrherr et al. 2009; Liebens et al. 2011; Liebens and
Mohrherr 2015). Most determinations have been for field-collected specimens although caged fish,
caged oysters (Fig. 9.1), and colonized periphyton (Fig. 9.1) have been used on occasion (Hopkins and
Schomer 1975; Lewis et al. 2001a, c, 2002b, 2004). Study objectives in addition to public health
concerns have included determination of spatial, temporal, and species differences, and understanding
the availability of chemicals associated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood, hydraulic
dredging, wastewater discharges, urban runoff, golf course runoff, hazardous waste sites, and agriculture
runoff. Accumulations of the same chemical in the above studies have been species-specific as shown
for total mercury (Fig. 9.2) and chemical-specific as shown for seagrass (Fig. 9.3) and colonized algal-
periphyton (Fig. 9.4). This is not unexpected, since bioconcentration patterns are influenced by as many
as 22 physicochemical factors (Rai 2009) that impact biotransformation and membrane transfer kinetics,
and partitioning between storage and structural lipids. Biological factors include organism type, size,
age, gender, life stage, life mode, mobility, type of diet, sample preparation (skin on/off), and lipid
content.
Table 9.1 Examples of anthropogenic contaminants determined in tissues of biota collected from the
Pensacola Bay System.
Trace metals
PCB congeners
PCB congeners
continued
Chlorinated
Pesticides
Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons
Aluminum
8
126
Aldrin
Acenaphthalene
Arsenic
18
138
c/'s-chlordane
Anthracene
Barium
28
153
g-Chlordane
Benzo (a) anthracene
Cadmium
29
154
Dieldrin
Benzo (a) pyrene
Chromium
44
170
Lindane
Benzo (b) fluoranthene
Copper
50
180
Heptachlor
Benzo (g,h,l) perylene
Iron
52
187
Heptachlor epoxide
Benzo (k) fluoranthene
Lead
66
188
Hexachlorobenzene
Benzo (e) pyrene
Manganese
77
195
Mi rex
Chrysene
Mercury
87
201
Trans-nonachlor
Dibenz (a,h)anthracene
Nickel
101
209
2,4' -DDE
Fluoranthene
Selenium
104
2,4' -DDD
Fluorene
Silver
105
2,4' -DDT
Indeno (l,2,3-c,d) pyrene
Tin
118
4,4' -DDD
Napthalene
Zinc
4,4' -DDE
2-Methylnapthalene
4,4' -DDT
1-Methylnapthalene
2,6 Dimethylnaphthalene
2,3,5-Trimethylnapthaline
62
-------
Table 9.2 Thirty species of flora and fauna collected from the Pensacola Bay System which have been
analyzed for anthropogenic contaminants.
Common Name
Turtle Grass
Shoal Grass
Widgeon Grass
Mussels (freshwater)
Seaweed
Colonized algal periphyton
Eastern oyster
Brackish clam
Barnacle
Mussel
Shrimp
Blue crab
Hardhead catfish
Channel catfish
Atlantic croaker
Bluegill
Bluefish
Flounder
Jack crevalle
Largemouth bass
Pompano
Red drum
Sheepshead
Spotted seatrout
Striped mullet
Spot
White trout
Oyster drill snail
Scientific Name
Thalassia testudinum Banks ex Konig
Halodule wrightii Aschers
Ruppia maritina Linnaeus
Utterbackia imbecillis
Lampsilis straminea
Lampsilis claibornesis
Villosa villosa
Ceramium sp.
Crassostrea virginica Gemlin
Rangia cuneata Gray
Balanus eburneus
Brachydontis recurvis
Farfantepenaeus spp.
Callinectes sapid us Rath bun
Ariusfelis Linnaeus
Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque
Micropogonias undulatus Linnaeus
Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque
Pomatomus saltatrix
Paralichthys spp.
Caranx hippos Linnaeus
Micropterus salmoides Lacepede
Trachinotus carolinus
Sciaenops ocelatus
Archosargus probatocephalus
Cynoscion nebulosus
Mugil cephalus
Leiostomus xanthurus Lacepede
Cynoscion arenrius
Thais haemostoma
63
-------
SUBSTRATES
I
PERIPHYTOMETERS
16 cm
OYSTER CAGE
Figure 9.1 Oyster cage and periphytometer containing acrylic substrates used to determine structural parameters
and contaminant bioavailability in the Pensacola Bay System. Periphytometers are shown before and after 21 day
in-situ colonization period.
9.1 Trace Metals (Sans Mercury)
The fate of trace metals, including the biologically non-essential Cd and Pb, and the essential Cu and Zn,
have been the focus of multiple bioaccumulation studies. The descending order of trace metal
accumulations in periphyton, oysters, seagrass, blue crabs, mussels, and fish appears in Table 6.1. Much
of the database consists of information for mollusks, particularly the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea
virginicct. Trace metal concentrations (ppm wet wt.) for this species collected from approved shellfish
harvesting areas in Escambia and East Bays ranged from 0.08 (Pb) to 433.8 (Zn) and in decreasing order
were Zn>Fe>Cu>Al-Mn>As>Cd>Ni>Se>Cr>Pb (Barnet and Gunter 1985). Oysters collected from
Pensacola Bay have been analyzed for trace metals since 1986 as part of the National Mussel Watch
Program (NOAA National Status and Trends Program) and the results have been periodically
summarized (FDEP 1998; Cantillo et al. 2001; Kirnbrough et al. 2008, 2009). In a more recent Mussel
Watch Program report, concentrations of As, Ni and Pb in oysters collected during 2004-2005 from
Sabine Point, Indian Bayou and the public harbor area of Pensacola Bay were judged regionally high
(Kirnbrough et al. 2008). Oliver et al. (2003) reported concentrations of 16 trace metals, including
tributyl tin in oysters collected from East Bay and Bayou Chico and compared them to internal defense
64
-------
mechanism activity. Oysters collected from Bayou Chico were approximately three-times more
contaminated (total metal concentration) than those collected from East Bay. The mean total metal
concentration (jug/g dry wt., 16 trace metals) was 15,706 (Bayou Chico) and 5,142 (East Bay). Defense
mechanism activity increased with increasing contaminant concentrations. Karouna-Renier et al. (2007)
reported the concentrations for 10 trace metals in oysters and blue crab muscle and hepatopancreas
collected from 23 stations from the PBS. Weis et al. (1993) analyzed Cu, Cr and As in an alga
(Ceramium sp.), barnacle (Belanus eburneus), and mussel (Brachidontes recurvus) collected from CCA
treated wood in Santa Rosa Sound. The metals were elevated in all cases, particularly on treated wood
less than one year old. Freshwater mussels (Villosa villosa, Lampsilis straminea, Lampsilis teres,
Uterbacki embicillis) were collected from seven locations in the lower Escambia River during 1995/96
and analyzed for trace metals (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL). Copper (range= 0.5-3.7)
and zinc (range= 9.5-63.6) were concentrated in greater concentrations (|ig/g wet wt.). Snyder and Rao
(2008) reported that concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, and Pb were low in five fish species collected from
Escambia Bay near the I-10 bridge.
The bioaccumulation potential for primary producers in the PBS is less understood than that for faunal
species. Lewis et al. (2004, 2007) reported trace metal concentrations in above and below ground tissues
of seagrass (Fig. 9.2) and colonized periphytic-algae (Lewis et al. 2001a, c, 2002b, 2004) (Fig. 9.3).
Concentrations in seagrass were relatively low and less than those in their rooted sediments and in
colonized periphyton. Mean bioconcentration factors (concentration in biota/concentration in water) for
eight trace metals in biota collected from Santa Rosa Sound ranged between 519-26,467 (periphyton)
and 26-11,033 (seagrass) relative to 44-8,718 (blue crabs) and 87-162,625 (oysters) (Lewis et al. 2004).
65
-------
Mr
3 5
®Ł
5 73
_ CD
05
CD
.O Ł=
1600 —
1400 —
c
0
E
T3
CD
CO
U)
if)
CD
i—
CD
CD
CD
CO
O
0 V)
CL <
(/)
t_
0)
oo
>,
O
V)
0
en
m
D
(/)
o E
cp _g
DQ O
(/)
.Q
CD
1
o
0
_D
CQ
V)
Figure 9.2 Total mercury concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) in sediment and various biota collected from the Pensacola
Bay System during 1993-2001. Values represent means (±1 SD). Sample sizes ranged 7-262. From Lewis and
Chancy (2008).
66
-------
Roots
| - Thalassia testudinum
I I - Halodule wrightii
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.06
Hg
Figure 9.3 Trace metal concentrations ((.ig/g dry wt.) in roots and blades of the seagrass Thalassia testudinum
(turtle grass) and Halodule wrightii (shoal grass) collected from the Pensacola Bay System. Values represent
means (±1 SD). Results from Lewis et al. (2007b).
67
-------
4o-i Cadmium
3.0 -
Chromium
Copper
Total Mercury
(ng/g)
Nickel
60 -
Figure 9.4 Trace metal concentrations (ug/g dry wt.) in the algal-periphyton after 21 days colonization in the
Pensacola Bay System and proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3) during 1993-1996. Values represent means (±1
SD). Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
68
-------
9.2 Non-Nutrient Organic Chemicals
Bioaccumulation information for persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and the
organochlorine pesticides DDT, toxaphene, chlordane, and lindane is less common than that for trace
metals. This information is important since these chemicals magnify in the food chain, do not degrade
readily, and several can have public and wildlife health consequences. The importance of understanding
their biological uptake was first reported for DDT (Hansen and Wilson 1970; Butler 1973). DDT
metabolites in East Bay oysters ranged from 10-26 ppb (Butler 1973). Total pesticides (ng/g dry wt.)
averaged 83.8 (SD=81.6) in oysters from Bayou Chico and 6.9 (SD=3.1) in those from East Bay (Oliver
et al. 2003). Total PAH concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) in the same study averaged 6,225 (SD=1973.8)
and 69.3 (SD=36.9) for oysters from Bayou Chico and East Bay, respectively. Total pesticide
concentrations in Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus) and spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) collected
from Pensacola Bay, Bayou Texar, and Bayou Grande averaged for all collection sites were between 2.7
and 9.7 ng/g wet wt. (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL). Long-term information is
available from the Mussel Watch Program. Cantillo et al (2001) reported that tDDT concentrations in
oysters from three locations in the PBS during 1986-1996 were usually 60 ppb or less. Concentrations at
the same sites during 2004-2005 were between 7.9-20.0 ppb (Kimbrough et al. 2008). The order of
accumulation in oysters collected from Sabine Point, Indian Bayou, and the public harbor area of
Pensacola Bay during 2004-2005 was PAHs>PCBs>DDT>butyltins=chlordane>dieldrin (Kimbrough et
al. 2008). Concentrations ppb of PCBs in oysters ranged from 28-83 in the same study. Downward
trends were reported for butyltins, total chlordane, total DDT, dieldrin, PAHs, and PCBs. Across-
regional comparisons are available for pesticide concentrations in oysters and fish collected from the
PBS and other Florida, Gulf of Mexico, and U.S. coastal areas (Cantillo et al. 2001; Kimbrough et al.
2008).
The bioaccumulation of contaminants originating from an on-shore Superfund hazardous waste site has
been evaluated. Excess preservative fluid containing creosote and pentachlorophenol were stored for up
to 80 years in unlined ponds which eventually entered Bayou Chico and adjacent nearshore areas of
Pensacola Bay. The bioaccumulative effects of PAH-contaminated groundwater and runoff from the
wood-treatment facility, American Creosote Company, was determined by Rostad and Pereira (1987)
and Elder and Dresler (1988). Tissues for the field collected oyster drill snails (Thais haemastoma) and
caged oysters were analyzed for 13 PAHs, 7 nitrogen heterocycles, 2 sulfur heterocycles, and an oxygen
heterocycle. Total PAH concentrations (|ig/kg wet wt.) in snails ranged from 1-194. Accumulation of
fluoranthene, pyrene, and phenanthrene, but not napthalene, were up to ten times greater than for both
species collected from control sites located across Pensacola Bay.
69
-------
10 Public Health Risk
Shrimp, oysters, blue crabs, and fish are harvested from the PBS for human consumption, more so in the
past than currently. Many reports describing the size and economic value of the harvests are available
for 1964-2009 (Olinger et al. 1975; Hopkins 1983; Lewis T 1986; FDEP 1998; Snyder and Karouna-
Renier 2009; Lewis FG 2010). Annual landings (approximate values in lbs.) have ranged from 66,000-
4,600,000 (fish), 400-137,000 (blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus), 0-492,000 (Eastern oysters, Crassostrea
virginica), and 43,000-906,000 (penaeid shrimp). Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009) estimated 2008
seafood landings (individuals) for Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties as approximately 18,900 (C.
virginica), 133,000 (brown shrimp, Farfantepenaeus azteca), 137,000 (C. sapidus), and 380,000 mullet
(Mugil cephalus). Total combined landings for spot (Leiostomus xanthurus), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion
nebulosus), black drum (Pogonias cromis), Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus), white trout
(iCynoscion arenius), flounder (Paralichthys spp.), and sheepshead (Archosargusprobatocephalus) was
about 454,000 individuals.
The public risk of consuming chemically-contaminated seafood collected from the PBS, like that for the
presence of pathogens, is of concern and has been the focus of many bioaccumulation surveys
particularly for the presence of methylmercury, PCBs, and dioxins/furans. Methylmercury impairs brain
development in developing fetuses of pregnant mothers exposed to the toxin and impacts hearing,
vision, and muscle coordination in adults. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), a group of 209 chemicals,
are probable carcinogens and can affect hormone functions, development, and the immune system in
humans (Carpenter 1998). The public health risk from consuming biota containing trace metals such as
Cd and Zn (example, Mohrherr et al. 2009) has also been reported. In contrast, concentrations of other
potentially harmful contaminants to humans such as the persistent, toxic, and broadly distributed
perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) have not been reported for PBS biota (USEPA 2013a, b). Also, scarce
are reports for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs, flame retardant chemicals). Concentrations in
oysters collected from the PBS during 1996-2007 in the only known report were between 1.8 and 6.7
ng/g (Kimbrough et al. 2009).
10.1 Mercury
Methylmercury contamination in some fish is the leading cause of water quality impairment in Florida's
estuaries (FDEP 2014). The primary source of mercury to the PBS is the atmosphere (Landing 2010;
Caffrey 2010; Caffrey et al. 2010). Mercury advisories have been issued for Escambia, Blackwater, and
Yellow Rivers and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and seaward for species such as King
mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) and Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) that enter the
PBS. As a result, TMDLs (total maximum daily loads) for mercury in fish and shellfish have been
issued for several PBS areas (FDEP 2010a).
Mercury concentrations have been reported in many edible and non-edible biota collected from the PBS.
Concentrations in non-edible species provides information on trophic transfer. Total mercury, not
methylmercury, has been the usual form of mercury reported for seafood safety studies since the
analysis for methylmercury is less economically feasible. It has been assumed that methylmercury and
total mercury concentrations are equitable. This assumption is a conservative approach, however, since
methylmercury concentrations represent about 75 to 95% of total mercury in aquatic biota (Bloom 1992;
Lasorsa and Allen-Gil 1995; Kannan et al. 1998).
70
-------
10.1.1 Fish
Total mercury usually occurs at low concentrations for many levels of the PBS food chain (Table 6.1)
but not so for fish and blue crabs (C. sapidus) (Fig. 9.2). Rider and Adams (2000) reported that the mean
concentration of mercury in 89 spotted seatrout (C. nebulosus) collected from Pensacola Bay (1993-
1996) was 0.4 (SD=0.15, range=0.11-0.88, median=0.39) ppm. The more recent evaluations for mercury
contamination are those of Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009) for 23 estuarine fish species and Snyder
and Rao (2008) for five fish species. Concentration ranges (|ig/g wet wt.) for several common PBS
species were 0.025-0.092 (sheepshead, A. probatocephalus), 0.1-0.64 (spotted seatrout, C. nebulosus),
0.12-0.26 (white trout, C. arenrius), 0.07-1.1 (red drum, Sciaenops ocelatus), 0.017-0.059 (Atlantic
croaker, M. undulatus), 0.14-0.21 (flounder, Paralichthys spp.), and 0.008-0.026 (Striped mullet, M
cephalus) (Snyder and Karouna-Renier 2009). Total mercury (|ig/g wet wt.) in fish collected near
wastewater outfalls in Pensacola Bay averaged 0.24 (SD=0.06, range=0.08-0.47) and 0.48 (SD=0.2,
range=0.29-0.68) for Escambia Bay (Lewis et al. 2002c).
10.1.2 Blue Crabs
Karouna-Renier and Snyder (2007) reported total mercury concentrations in C. sapidus collected from
23 PBS stations during 2003-2004. The concentrations (jug/g) in muscle and hepatopancreas samples
ranged from 0.07 to 0.23 and 0.02 to 1.1, respectively. Total mercury concentrations (jug/g) in edible
tissues of blue crabs collected during the 1990s averaged 0.17 (SD=0.038), 0.14 (SD=0.13), 0.053.0
(SD=0.023), 0.088 (SD=0.017), and 0.19 (0.14), respectively, for Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande, and
Escambia Bay and Santa Rosa Sound (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
10.1.3 Oysters/Mussels
Eastern oysters (C. virginica) have been commonly analyzed for total mercury. Oysters collected 30
years ago from approved harvesting areas in Escambia and East Bays contained on average 0.02
(range=0.01-0.03) |ig/g wet wt. of mercury (Barnett and Gunter 1985). Mercury in oysters collected
from the PBS during 1986-1996 were 0.3 ppm or less (Cantillo et al. 2001). Total mercury
concentrations averaged 0.19 (SD=0.04) and 0.42 (SD=0.09) |ig/g dry wt., respectively for Bayou Chico
and East Bay oysters (Oliver et al. 2003). Oysters collected from 23 PBS stations contained total
mercury ranging from 0.006-0.075 |ig/g wet wt. (Karouna-Renier et al. 2007). For comparison,
concentrations in oysters collected from the proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3) averaged 0.01
(SD=0.003) |ig/g wet wt. In an unique evaluation, total mercury concentrations in five species of
mussels (Table 9.1) collected from seven locations in the lower Escambia River during 1995 ranged
from 0.027-0.123 |ig/g wetwt. (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
10.1.4 Exceedance of Consumption Guidelines
The mercury concentrations reported above have been compared to various numerical screening levels
and consumption guidelines to protect public health. Consumption guidelines are not regulations but
recommendations. Guidelines commonly used include the USEPA maximum advisable methylmercury
fish tissue concentration of 0.3 ppm to protect human consumers (USEPA 2001), the State of Florida
Total Maximum Dailey Load thresholds of 0.3 ppm (general population) and 0.1 ppm total mercury
(women of child-bearing age and children) (FDEP 2013a), the Food and Drug Administration action
level of 1.0 ppm methylmercury (USFDA 2011), and the USEPA risk-based screening levels of 0.4 ppm
(recreational fishers) and 0.049 ppm (subsistence fishers) (USEPA 2000b). The two screening
concentrations are used to estimate contaminant risk for consumers of non-commercially caught fish and
are intended to be used by local, state and regional health officials responsible for issuing human health
71
-------
consumption advisories.
The exceedance frequency of consumption guidelines for humans varies (Fig. 10.1) due to differences
for species-, tissue-, location-, and consumption frequency and portion size. Generally, risk is least for
shrimp and greater for blue crabs and fish. Mercury concentrations in soft tissues of oysters and shrimp
did not exceed any consumption guideline based on results of multiple studies reviewed for this
summary. No mercury concentrations in fish, oysters, blue crabs, and freshwater mussels collected by
the USEPA personnel from 98 sites in the PBS during 1993-2000 exceeded the USFDA action limit of
1.0 ppm based on a compilation of previously reported and unreported data. However, 5 of 41 (12%)
blue crab samples, and 24 of 89 (27%) fish samples exceeded the USEPA criterion value of 0.3 ppm.
The EPA screening levels for subsistence fishers (0.049 ppm) was exceeded for 42 of 47 (89%) oyster
and blue crab samples and 2 of 47 (4%) samples exceeded the recreational fishers guideline of 0.4 ppm.
Using published databases (Karouna-Renier et al. 2007; Snyder and Rao 2008; Snyder and Karouna-
Renier 2009), exceedance of the mercury guidelines/thresholds of 0.3, 0.4, and 1.0 ppm was between 1-
5% for total samples of oysters, blue crabs, and fish. In contrast and for the same studies, 50% of the
samples exceeded the subsistence fisher guideline of 0.049 ppm. About 45% of 88 fish samples (seven
species) and 88% of blue crab muscle samples exceeded the 0.1 ppm State of Florida threshold for
women of child-bearing age and children. Thirty-two blue crab tissue and hepatopancreas samples
exceeded the screening value of 0.15 ppm mercury used by Karouna-Renier et al. (2007). None of the
oyster samples exceeded the screening value but 34 of 53 samples for striped mullet, Atlantic croaker,
flounder, red drum, sheepshead, speckled trout, and white trout did (Snyder and Karouna-Renier 2009).
-§ aT
CD O)
(D
O CO
X ^z-
LU
80
40 -
II
I
—i—i—i—i—i—i—
0049 0.1 0.15 0.3 0.4 1.0
Public
80
40
—I 1 1-
0.03 0.08 0.1
Wildlife
80
40 -
—I 1
0.02 0.05
Public
80
40 -
I 1—
0.1 0.16
Wildlife
Mercury TPCBs
Figure 10.1 Exceedance of consumption advisory levels for mercury and total PCBs for protection of public
health and wildlife consumers of aquatic life. Values represent exceedance range based on the comparisons of
multiple guidelines (ppm) and bioaccumu lation results from primarily Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009),
Karouna-Renier et al. (2007) and Snyder and Rao (2008) for shrimp, oysters, blue crabs and fish.
The health risk of consuming mercury-contaminated seafood may be overstated in those cases where
concentrations have exceeded consumption benchmarks. As previously stated, methylmercury
concentrations are often considered equivalent to those for total mercury, which is not the case (usually
10-20 % less). In addition, a possible mitigating health factor is the co-occurring presence of selenium
(Ralston 2005, 2008; Ralston et al. 2008). Molar ratios of Se/Hg greater than one are thought by some to
reduce the toxicity of methylmercury (Ralston et al. 2008). Co-occurring selenium concentrations have
not been reported in mercury-focused studies conducted in the PBS. Consequently, Se-Hg ratios and the
related Selenium Health Benefit Values (Ralston 2008; Berry and Ralston 2008; Rezayi et al. 2012) are
not available. However, results for other northern Gulf of Mexico areas are available that suggest lower
72
-------
risk (Lewis and Harwell 2016 Draft). The mean Se:Hg ratios for about 500 samples of fish and shrimp
collected during 2000-2006 from northern Gulf of Mexico near-shore areas including the PBS was 191
(whole fish and shrimp, range=7-493) and 59 (filleted fish, range=4-191). The analyses were for fish
commonly collected in the PBS such as spot (L. xanthurus), Atlantic croaker (M undulatus), and pinfish
(L. rhomboides). Selenium Health Benefit Values averaged 47 (fish fillets, range=l-184) and 86 (whole
fish and shrimp, range= 4-550) suggesting minimal risk of human consumption.
Only one study has reported a public health risk for trace metals (inorganic As, Cd, Zn) other than
mercury (Karouna-Renier et al. 2007). Of these, exceedance of screening values was more frequent for
inorganic As (concentrations converted from total As). The USEPA screening value of 0.01 mg/kg as
was exceeded for 100% (crab hepatopancreas), 93% (edible crab tissue), 54% (crab muscle), and 96%
(oyster) of samples. Arsenic, cadmium, and zinc pose a health risk to human consumers of seafood
collected from Escambia Bay and River (Mohrherr et al. 2009). Exposure to high concentrations of As,
Cd and Zn can result in cancer, kidney, lung and bone diseases, reduced nerve development, and
immunity and growth problems.
10.2 PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) and Dioxin Furans
Reported PCB concentrations in PBS media are not all equivalent which needs to be considered in
across-study comparisons for their presence in PBS biota. The commonly reported measure of "total
PCBs" often represents different numbers of congeners. Concentrations of single congeners, groups of
congeners, and all 209 congeners have been reported.
A historical perspective on PCB accumulation in biota from the PBS and the Gulf of Mexico is available
from Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009). PCB residues were first detected in shrimp in Escambia Bay in
1969 (Terrebonne 1973) and have been reported in other PBS biota thereafter (Duke et al. 1970; Nimmo
et al. 1971a, b; Hopkins 1975; Butler 1973; Wilson and Forester 1978; FDEP 1998; Rider and Adams
2000; Kimbrough et al. 2008). Dioxins/furans and dioxin-like PCBs have been reported in seafood from
Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande (Mohrherr et al. 2006, 2008; Liebens et al. 2011). PCBs in oysters
have been determined for 30 years as part of NOAA's Mussel Watch Program. Of the three sites in the
PBS, total PCB concentrations (18 congeners) were greater for oysters from Indian Bayou (Escambia
Bay), which ranged from 300-800 ng/g dry wt. (Casillo et al. 2001). Mean concentrations of total PCBs
(18 congeners; ng/g dry wt.) in oysters collected from Bayou Chico in 1998 averaged 368.1 but were
below detection in East Bay oysters (Oliver et al. 2003). Concentrations of dioxins/furans and dioxin-
like PCBs were determined for oysters (C. crassostrea) and male blue crabs (C. sapidus) collected from
24 sites in the PBS (Karouna-Renier et al. 2007). The USEPA recreational screening value of 0.098 pg/g
was exceeded at all locations for dioxins/furans and dioxin-like PCBs. Areas of the higher carcinogenic
and non-carcinogenic health risks were Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande and western Escambia Bay.
Oysters from Escambia and East Bays and crabs from East and Blackwater Bays generally contained
lower levels of contaminants.
The most detailed and current analysis of PCBs and PCB-like chemicals in fish is that reported by
Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009). Concentrations of 17 dioxin/furans and 12 dioxin-like PCB
congeners (as well as Hg) were reported for shrimp and 24 fish species. Mullet (Mugil cephalus)
contained the highest total PCB concentrations of all fish (range=2-l,580 |ig/kg), particularly those
collected from upper and west Escambia Bay-areas impacted by the hydraulic fluid/PCB discharge to
the Escambia River discovered in 1969. It was concluded that dioxins/furans and dioxin-like PCBs were
elevated throughout the PBS and that "serious PCB contamination" exists. The exceptions were
Blackwater and East Bays, lower Pensacola Bay, and Santa Rosa Sound, which were considered "green
areas" relative to tissue quality. In another study, the mean concentration for mullet collected near the I-
10 bridge (upper Escambia Bay) were between 284-1,580 |ig/kg and most fish tissues exceeded the
73
-------
USEPA and Florida threshold concentrations of 20 ng/ and 50 ng/g total PCBs, respectively (Snyder and
Rao 2008). As a follow-up to the Snyder reports, 60 M. cephalus were collected from Escambia, East
and Pensacola Bays, and Santa Rosa Sound and analyzed for 19 of 209 PCB congeners (Goff 2009). The
decreasing spatial order of accumulation was for fish collected from upper Escambia Bay>lower
Escambia Bay>Pensacola Bay>East Bay=Santa Rosa Sound. Concentration ranges (ng/g) for mullet
were 24-88 (upper Escambia Bay), 18-109 (lower Escambia Bay), 12-48 (Pensacola Bay), and below
detection (East Bay and Santa Rosa Sound).
PBS biota contain PCBs above State of Florida health advisory concentrations. Total PCB
concentrations (tPCB) reported by Goff (2009), Snyder and Rao (2008) and Snyder and Karouna-Renier
(2009) for fish are compared below to Florida Department of Health advisory concentrations for tPCBs
based on consumption of an 8 ounce meal. These health advisory concentrations are <50 ppb unlimited;
50-100 ppb one meal per week; 110-500 ppb one meal per month; and >500 ppb do not eat. Exceedance
of these advisory levels for 177 fish samples was, respectively, about 69%, 14%, 12%, and 3%. Goff
(2009) reported that of the 24 fish collected from Escambia Bay, eight contained total PCBs between the
50-100 ppb advisory concentration and one fish contained in excess of 100 ppb. Based on these results,
it was concluded that the consumption of skinless striped mullet (M cephalus) collected from upper and
lower Escambia Bay should be limited to one 8-ounce meal per week. In contrast, unlimited amounts of
fish could be eaten from Pensacola Bay, East Bay, and Santa Rosa Sound. Snyder and Rao (2008)
reported that 21 fish samples representing five species exceeded a USEPA screening threshold of 20
ng/g tPCBs. Mohrherr et al. (2009) discusses the cancer risk of consuming PCB-contaminated seafood
from upper Escambia Bay and lower Escambia River.
10.3 Fecal Coliform Bacteria and Pathogens
Although not chemically-related and not discussed in detail for this summary, the presence of high
numbers of coliform bacteria in surface water and some biota is an indication of the possible presence of
disease causing bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Stormwater runoff containing fecal coliforms, largely a
result of high rainfall, enters the PBS. Unsafe swimming conditions were reported as early as 1973 for
Bayous Chico and Texar, Sanders Beach (Pensacola Bay), upper Escambia Bay, and Blackwater Bay
(Terrebonne 1973). Periodic warnings continue to be issued for these areas (Fig. 6.1). The most recent
for Bayou Texar occurred in 2015. A Bayou Chico Basin Management Action Plan to reduce fecal
coliform bacteria has been in place since 2011. Nevertheless, exceedance of State criterion levels were
about 23%) and 32% of the approximately 650 water samples collected from two Bayou areas during
2009 and 2015. The most acute public health issue for Bayou Grande are fecal coliforms in surface
water (Mohrherr et al. 2008). Consumption of fecal contaminated oysters is controlled in part by
seasonally and spatially limiting the oyster harvest areas. The limitation can be severe. Escambia County
had no approved harvesting areas from 1951-1986 (Lewis T 1986). Currently, oyster harvesting is
seasonally permitted in middle and lower Escambia Bay and East Bay. In addition to coliform bacteria,
the elevated presence of the pathogen Vibrio vulnificus (biotype 1) in estuarine water (entry through pre-
existing wounds and in under cooked shellfish and blue crabs) is of particular concern since it is the
number one cause of seafood-borne death from any food source in Florida (Hlady et al. 1993) and cause
of 95%) of all seafood deaths in the U.S. (Oliver 2005). To date (August, 2015), 17 cases (7 deaths) have
occurred in Florida due to its presence (South Marion Citizen; accessed 2016 July 13). Consequently,
the presence of pathogens is more of a public health issue than consumption of chemically-contaminated
seafood.
74
-------
11 Organismal Health Risk
Tissue-accumulated chemicals can have no, reversible, or irreversible adverse effects on the organism
depending on measures of metabolism, partitioning to target and non-target sites, and excretion.
Determinations of their impact on organism health have not been published often due to the lack of
threshold internal lethal and sublethal concentrations for most common shoreline chemicals and coastal
flora and fauna. Consequently, there are few consensus regional and national numerical guidelines to
which tissue contaminant concentrations can be compared to. Thus, the effects of the reported
accumulated chemicals, alone and in combination, on physiological mechanisms, histopathological
disorders such as tumors (Fig. 11.1) and loss of reproductive potential are unknown for most PBS biota.
There is no reported summary of tumor occurrence for PBS biota. To our knowledge, the toxicological
and physiological significance of accumulated contaminants have been evaluated only twice: for oysters
and indicators of stress (Oliver et al. 2003; Fisher et al. 2003) and for colonized periphyton and biomass
and pigment content (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL). There was a connection in the
Oliver et al. (2003) report but there were no obvious relationships between chemical residues and
structural characteristics of the same periphyton colonized in Bayous Chico and Grande (Fig. 11.2). The
inability to determine organismal impact represents a historical and ongoing hindrance that limits the
value of most field bioaccumulation studies conducted in the PBS. More visible than chemical impacts
on organism health are non-chemical impacts (Fig. 11.3) due to anthropogenic negligence.
Figure 11.1 Fibrosarcoma on mullet. From Overstreet (1988).
75
-------
Bayou Texar
Ash Free
Dry Weight
(g/m2)
Chlorophyll a
(mg/m2)
Carotenoids
(mg/m2)
Pheophytin
(mg/m2)
20
15 -
10 -
5 -
o
35-
30-
25-
20-
15-
10-
1l
1 2 34 5
35'
30-
25-
20 ¦
15-
10-
30 -
25 -
20 -
20 -
15 -
j 15- 10- ||
JL :L1L M
12345 12345 12345
100 -i
80 -
60-
Bayou Chico
60-i 60 n T
UL yL :UL
12 3 4
12 3 4
50 -
40 -
30 -
20
10 H
0
1 234
1 234
100 -|
Bayou Grande
50-i 50-i
40 -
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 34 5
30 -
1 2 3 45
m
1 23 4 5
Total Metal
Residues
(ppm dry wt.)
1800 -i
1600 -
1400 -
1200 -
1000 -
800 -
600 -
400 -
200 -
1 2 3 4 5
1000-1 -r
12 3 4
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
1 2 3 4 5
Colonization Sites
Figure 11.2 Spatial comparison of ash free dry weight (g/m2) and pigments to total trace metal accumulation for
the same algal-periphyton colonized for 21 days at multiple stations in Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande. Values
represent means (±1 SD). Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
76
-------
Figure 11.3 Examples of non-chemical anthropogenic hazards for PBS biota. Photos from the corresponding
author.
77
-------
12 Wildlife Health Risk
Wildlife species are bioindicators of the environmental condition of aquatic ecosystems. PBS-dependent
wildlife such as resident and migratory birds may be at risk from consuming chemically-contaminated
prey. Barnett and Gunter (1985) provide a listing of wildlife that utilize waters, tidal flats, beaches, salt
marshes, and swamps for their feeding, nesting, and resting. This includes a variety of wading birds,
waterfowl, shorebirds, and raptors (examples, Fig. 12.1). Salt marshes in Florida support 23 threatened
birds and 14 threatened mammals (Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission 2012) and 13 species of
common waterfowl winter in Pensacola Bay salt marshes (Lewis 1986). A detailed discussion of the
effects of environmental contaminants in wildlife consumers of aquatic organi sms is available for
aquatic birds including raptors (Beyer et al. 1996). However, there apparently has been only one
reported local risk assessment for PBS wildlife. Hemming et al. (2003) determined the risk of dioxin and
furans in sediments collected from Pensacola Bay and Santa Rosa Sound to birds. A sediment sample
from Pensacola Bay represented low risk and a sample collected from Santa Rosa Sound was of no risk.
To provide additional insight, tissue-accumulated chemicals reported in PBS biota are compared below
to several proposed protective benchmarks. The results of this comparison, which should be considered
preliminary, indicate a potential for adverse effects.
Blue Heron
(Ardea herodias)
Black Skimmer
{Rynchops niger)
Brown Pelican
(Pelecanus occidentalis)
Osprey
(Pandion haliaetus)
Figure 12.1 Examples of common piscivorus birds vulnerable to contaminated prey from the PBS. Photos
courtesy of Encyclopedia of Life (Encyclopedia of Life; accessed 2016 July 14) and Wikipedia (Wikipedia;
accessed 2016 July 14).
78
-------
Numerical tissue-based contaminant criteria for wildlife associated with the Gulf of Mexico are not
available. However, spatially-non-specific benchmarks and criteria have been published for mercury.
These include, for example, a criterion of 0.1 ppm in whole fish for fish-eating birds and wildlife (Eisler
1987) and 0.077 ppm for piscivorous wildlife (USEPA 1997). The recommended criteria of 0.1 ppm and
0.077 ppm were exceeded for 42% and 50% of 109 skinless samples, respectively, for locally-important
Atlantic croaker (M undulatus), flounder (Paralicthyes spp.), striped mullet (M cephalus), red drum (S.
ocelatus), sheepshead (A. probatocephalus), speckled trout (C. nebulosus), and white trout (C.
arenarius) as reported by Snyder and Rao (2008) and Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009). When
compared to results from Karouna-Renier et al. (2007), the two guidelines were not exceeded for oysters
but were exceeded for blue crabs (21% and 96% of samples).
In addition to the above, a Canadian tissue residue guideline is available for methylmercury (33 ng/g)
which is intended to protect wildlife consumers of aquatic life in estuarine and marine waters (Canadian
Council of Ministers of the Environment 2001). Exceedance of the guideline using the results of
Karouna-Renier et al. (2007) was 29% (oysters), 100% (blue crab muscle), and 96% (blue crab
hepatopancreas). Exceedance was 61% of 109 fish samples (eight species) based on the combined
results of Snyder and Rao (2008) and Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009).
A wildlife protection value of 0.16 ppm has been recommended for PCBs (USEPA 1997). Exceedance
of this protection value was 12% when compared to the results for 180 fish samples (8 species) reported
by Snyder and Rao (2008), Snyder and Karouna-Renier (2009), and Goff (2009). The Great Lakes
Water Quality agreement recommends that the total PCB concentration in fish tissues should not exceed
0.1 ppm for the protection of birds and wildlife which consume fish (EPA Great Lakes; accessed 2016
July 13). The 0.1 ppm protection value was exceeded for approximately 16% using the same three
databases. Neither guideline was exceeded when applied to the concentration range of 28-83 ppb
reported in oysters by Kimbrough et al. (2008). It is important to note that the exceedance of PCB
benchmarks may be underestimated when based on results for skinless fish, which contain less PCBs
than skin-on whole fish and is the form normally consumed by wildlife.
The negative effects of DDT in coastal birds as a result of fish consumption was noted in the 1950s, and
its effect on egg shell thinning and reproductive success led in part to its almost total ban in 1972. Its
presence in PBS biota was a concern during the 1960s. Butler (1973) was one of the first to measure its
presence in PBS biota (oysters from East Bay) during 1965-1972. Hansen and Wilson (1970) reported
DDT residues in PBS fish collected during 1965-1966. The residues were usually less than 0.1 ppm and
did not exceed 1.3 ppm. Cantillo et al. (2001) and Kimbrough et al. (2008) report more recent
information. Wildlife protection benchmarks for DDT have been generally been between 6-200 ng/g
(USGS Types and Sources of Water-Quality Benchmarks for Pesticides; accessed 2016 July 13). The
Canadian guideline is 14 ng/g (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment 2001). These
guidelines were exceeded frequently during the 1960s, for example, when based on the results of
Hansen and Wilson (1970). In contrast, concentrations in PBS biota have decreased. Only one of three
oyster samples collected during 2004/05 as part of NOAA's Mussel Watch Program (Kimbrough et al.
2008) exceeded the Canadian guideline. It was noted in that report that DDT levels in oysters from the
PBS have declined since 1986.
79
-------
13 Transplanted Oysters
Filter-feeding oysters (C. crassostrea) are sessile and are commonly used as indicators of environmental
conditions. Their presence in the PBS is dependent upon the availability of hard substrate, which is not
common. Therefore, transplanted oysters and other mollusks have been used to determine contaminant
bioavailability in areas generally absent of these mollusks (Elder and Desler 1988; Oliver et al. 2003;
Fisher et al. 2003). Oliver et al. (2003) and Fisher et al. (2003) determined the response of transplanted
oysters (hemocyte count and bactericidal activity) to contaminated conditions in Bayous Texar and
Chico. Enhanced defense activity was observed in several cases with increased tissue concentrations of
contaminants. Elder and Dresler (1988) reported the effects of surface and groundwater contamination
from a wood treating facility on tissue quality of caged oysters near the entrance of Bayou Chico to
Pensacola Bay.
In addition to the above, caged oysters and brackish water clams (Rangia cuneata) were used to assess
contaminant bioavailability in areas impacted by golf course runoff (Santa Rosa Sound), wastewaters
(Escambia and Pensacola Bays), urban stormwater runoff (Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande), and also
in proposed reference areas (Fig. 1.3). For these unpublished USEPA studies (Gulf Breeze, Florida),
oysters were obtained from Bayou Labatre (AL) and maintained for a month in a seawater flow-through
system, prior to placement in cages constructed of aquaculture plastic netting (Fig. 9.1) for in-situ
deployment. A subset of the oysters (soft tissues) were analyzed for inorganic and organic analytes prior
to deployment. The oysters (14-17 per cage) were exposed three to four times at the same station for one
year. Exposures were for 3w and occurred at multiple locations. Oyster survival, gaping, and growth
were monitored weekly at several locations to ensure their viability. Uptake was spatially-specific as
shown for exposures in the reference areas and bayous (Table 13.1) and the order of accumulation was
generally similar to that for indigenous oysters (Table 6.1). It was concluded that the technique was
useful but labor intensive.
80
-------
Table 13.1 Trace metal residues in soft tissues of oysters (Crassostrea virginica) after 21 days exposure in
enclosures (Fig. 9.1). Exposures during 1993/-1994 (Bayous) and 2000/-2001 (proposed reference areas; Fig.
1.3). Baseline results are for commercially-obtained oysters prior to field deployment. Values represent
mean (±1 SD) in |xg/g dry wt. ND-not determined, BD-below detection. Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf
Breeze, FL).
Location
Trace Metals
Ag
As
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Se
Zn
Bayou Texar
ND
8.4
5.6
3.6
2.3
4.3
0.6
5686
(2.3)
(2.7)
(5.5)
(147)
BD
(4.5)
(1.5)
BD
(4148)
Bayou Chico
ND
9.1
2.5
1.8
234
2.6
0.4
5495
(5.8)
(1.2)
(1.8)
(231)
BD
(2.4)
(1.5)
BD
(3843)
Bayou
Grande
ND
9.8
6.4
4.2
229
4.0
3.1
3520
(2.8)
(3.2)
(3.0)
(172)
BD
3.7
(4.6)
BD
(2406)
Bay La
Launch
1.9
12.4
4.2
1.7
104.2
0.55
3.5
0.56
5.2
1612.6
(0.5)
(2.6)
(1.2)
(1.1)
(22.2)
(0.012)
(2.0)
(0.24)
(0.9)
(472.6)
Grand
Lagoon
2.6
36.7
4.3
1.3
151.8
0.043
2.4
0.58
5.2
1889.6
(0.9)
(12.4)
(1.2)
(0.6)
(46.9)
(0.015)
(0.8)
(0.24)
(1.0)
(639.1)
Mississippi
Sound
2.1
13.9
5.7
1.3
104.3
0.049
2.2
0.62
5.6
1317.2
(0.1)
(6.9)
(2.0)
(0.5)
(21.7)
(0.014)
(0.5)
(0.21)
(1.0)
(550.9)
Old River
1.8
19.2
3.5
1.1
94.3
0.059
2.9
0.56
5.2
1450.3
(0.5)
(5.9)
(1.1)
(0.3)
(32.4)
(0.007)
(1.7)
(0.31)
(0.6)
(614.5)
Baseline
1.7
6.9
5.2
1.0
117.9
0.033
437
0.34
4.7
1364.0
(0.1)
(0.3)
(1.0)
(0.5)
(44.2)
(0.006)
(1.7)
(0.09)
(0.3)
(525.0)
81
-------
14 Colonized Periphyton
The autotrophic and heterotrophic components of the periphyton serve as a food source for higher
trophic levels. The use of colonized periphyton provides a useful multimetric in-situ response of an
important biotic community over a defined exposure period to environmental conditions. Periphyton
have been commonly used as an indicator of environmental condition in freshwater for over 75 years
and a rapid periphyton survey is currently used in freshwaters of the PBS watershed (FDEP 2013b). In
contrast, the use of colonized periphyton in estuarine waters of the PBS has been uncommon. The first
documented use was by Ross and Jones (1979) followed 20 years later (1995-2002) by a series of
studies, including those of Lewis et al. (2001a, c, 2002a, b, 2004), Snyder et al. (2005), and Wagner
(2006). The objectives of the Lewis et al. (2001a, c, 2002a, b, 2004) studies, conducted intermittently
during 1993-2001, were for method development and environmental assessment. Seasonal and spatial
differences were evaluated for measurements of post-colonization community composition, biomass,
pigment content, phaeophytin and contaminant residues. The relationship between contaminant residues
and structural community changes was determined also. Periphyton were colonized bimonthly on
multiple acrylic plexiglass plates (surface area one side= 0.01m2) contained in a periphytometer (Fig.
9.2) for 3w and 6w at an approximate depth of 10.0 cm. Colonizations occurred at 135 sites in Escambia
and Pensacola Bays, Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande, and Santa Rosa Sound, as well as at 31 external
coastal sites for comparison. Focus was for areas receiving treated wastewater (Lewis et al. 2002a), pre-
and post-hydraulic dredging (Lewis et al. 2001a), and areas impacted by stormwater runoff from a
coastal golf course (Lewis et al. 2002b). In addition, 120 colonizations were conducted quarterly during
1993-1994 in the urbanized Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande to determine seasonal variability for
chemical uptake and structural parameters (Unpublished results, USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
14.1 Bioaccumulation
The periphyton serve as a source of anthropogenic chemicals to the grazing community (herbivores) in
the PBS. Trace metals have been commonly detected in local periphyton but not PAHs, PCBs, or
chlorinated pesticides. Zinc, chromium, copper, and lead are accumulated in greater concentrations
(Tables 6.1, 14.1). Metal uptake is spatially and temporally variable as shown during 1993/94 for
Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande (Table 14.1; Fig. 14.1). Trace metals were more concentrated in
periphyton colonized in urban and industrial-impacted areas such as Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande
(Table 14.1). Using total mercury as an example, concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) averaged 71 (SD=22,
range=15-152), 59 (SD=35, range=17-133), 401 (SD=269, range=22-988) for areas impacted by golf
course runoff (Santa Rosa Sound), wastewaters (Pensacola and Escambia Bays), and urban runoff
(Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande), respectively. The mean mercury concentration for proposed
reference areas (Fig. 1.3) was 75 (SD=16, range=16-102) ng/g dry wt. The BCF values (concentration in
periphyton/concentration in surface water) have ranged from 355-16,843 (Cr), 1,432-16,927 (Cu),
2,019-1,653 (Ni), 735-5,656 (Pb), 13,132-61,071 (Zn), and 2,663-53,634 (Hg) for periphyton colonized
seasonally at 12 sites in Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande. As previously noted, dredging in Bayou
Texar reduced trace metal bioavailability to colonized periphyton (Lewis et al. 2001a).
82
-------
Table 14.1 Comparisons of ash free dry weight (AFDW), chlorophyll a, trace metal residues, and Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index values for the
same algal-periphyton colonized 21 days at each location. Values represent mean (±1 SD) for multiple colonizations (excludes residues) and ranges
for Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index values. Only one diversity index value available for proposed reference sites. Residue concentrations in |xg/g
dry wt. and ng/g dry wt. (mercury). ND-not determined. BD-below detection. Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
Mean Trace Metal Residues
Location
AFDW
(g/m2)
Chlorophyll a
(mg/m2)
As
Cd
Cr
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
Zn
Diversity
Index
Bayou Texar
5.1 (4.1)
18.2 (15.8)
ND
1.4
33
48
0.57
15
80
399
0.5-2.6
Bayou Chico
13.7 (9.5)
30.8(18.1)
ND
0.7
28
74
0.3
11
63
412
o
rn
1
r^
d
Bayou Grande
6.6 (2.3)
27.3 (9.0)
ND
2.0
60
20
0.13
11
44
121
0.7-2.0
Pensacola Bay
2.6 (1.2)
20.8(6.9)
15
0.7
17
32
0.06
9
13
86
0.7-1.1
Escambia Bay
2.6 (1.6)
14.8(9.8)
BD
BD
42
10
0.06
13
9
104
ro
t—i
1
LO
d
Santa Rosa Sound
6.2 (0.4)
8.8 (4.0)
20
1
24
17
0.05
7
11
79
2.2-3.0
Bay La Launch
0.28(0)
9.1 (2.4)
9.5
0.29
14.4
7.9
0.02
9.0
7.8
83
1.5
Grand Lagoon
0.87 (0)
10.1 (0)
23.5
0.36
36.1
27.3
0.01
11.2
19.4
110
2.3
Mississippi Sound
0.48(0.09)
3.4 (1.5)
16.5
0.86
22.8
61.5
0.03
19.8
11.8
125
2.1
Old River
0.28(0.04)
3.4 (3.4)
9.3
0.74
69.0
12.4
0.09
10.8
24.1
50
1.5
Suwannee River Estuary
0.48(0.24)
23.4(12.2)
3.7
0.39
8.0
7.9
0.02
6.2
4.6
28
2.4
Withlacoochee River Estuary
0.41 (0.08)
5.3 (3.6)
9.3
0.73
69.0
12.4
0.09
10.8
24.1
50
1.5
83
-------
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Nickel
J N M J
Lead
120
100
80 -
60 -
40 -
20 -
Zinc
700 "I
600 -
500 -
400 -
300 -
Mercury
(ng/g)
1000 -|
T 800
600 -
400
200 -
J N M J
Figure 14.1 Temporal and spatial variation for trace metal concentrations ((.ig/g dry wt.) in the algal-periphyton
colonized 21 days at five sites in Bayou Texar. J-June (1993), N-November (1993), M-March (1994), J-June
(1994). Values represent means (±1 S D). Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
14.2 Biomass and Pigment Content
Structural characteristics of the algal-periphyton varied monthly (biomass and pigments) (Fig. 14.2)
within and between bayous (Lewis et al. 2001c, 2002a, b, 2004). Mean ash free dry weight (AFDW,
g/m2) in decreasing order by colonization location was: Bayou Chico>Bayou Grande>Bayou
Texar>Santa Rosa Sound>Pensacola Bay=Escambia Bay. Mean chlorophyll a concentrations (mg/m2) in
decreasing order were: Bayou Chico>Bayou Grande, Pensacola Bay>Bayou Texar>Escambia
Bay>Santa Rosa Sound (Table 14.1). Mean biomass and chlorophyll a for periphyton colonized in the
three urban-impacted bayous, was usually greater than that for the proposed reference areas (Table
14.1). No obvious relationship was observed between biomass and pigment content and total metal
residues for the nine colonization sites in Bayous Chico and Grande (Fig. 11.2). In contrast, biomass,
pigment content and metal residues declined in almost parallel for colonization sites in Bayou Texar.
84
-------
Bayou Texar
Ash Free
Dry Weight
(g/m2)
J N M J
Chlorophyll a
(mg/m2)
Carotenoids
(mg/m2)
Bayou Chico
60 n
Bayou Grande
50 -|
J N M J
J N M J
Pheophytin
(mg/m2)
35 -
30 -
25 "
20 -
Lm
50 i
40 -
30 -
20 -
J N M J
Colonization Periods
Figure 14.2 Temporal and spatial variation for structural characteristics of periphyton colonized 21 days during
June (1993), November (1993), March (1994) and June (1994) at 14 sites in Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande.
Values represent means (±1 SD). Unpublished results (USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
Autotrophic index (AI) values are high for PBS algal-periphyton. The AI, the ratio of algal biomass and
chlorophyll a, is an indicator of nutrient enrichment and relative input of allochthonous material to a
waterbody (Weitzel 1979). Although somewhat controversi al, values greater than 100 are thought to
indicate heterotrophic polluted conditions while values less than 100 indicate autotrophic clean
conditions. AI values averaged 124 (Pensacola Bay), 244 (Bayou Grande), 260 (Escambia Bay), 283
(Bayou Texar), 442 (Bayou Chico), and 689 (Santa Rosa Sound, near golf course). Maximum AI values
were 911, 1,158, and 487 for Bayous Texar, Chico, and Grande, respectively.
85
-------
15 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
The coverage of freshwater and saltwater submerged plants (SAV) in the PBS approximates 6,600 acres
(Reynolds, Smith and Hill Inc. 2014). Current SAV coverage is about 3% of bay bottom (Yarbro and
Carlson 2013) relative to 8% 60 years ago (Handley et al. 2007). Vallisneria americana (Eel grass,
Water celery) and six species of seagrass comprise the bulk of the SAV. Attached macroalgae are
typically absent. Most scientific and public attention has centered on the "iconic" seagrass which have
dramatically declined in the PBS and elsewhere along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast (U.S.
Geological Survey and Gulf of Mexico Program 2004). Seagrass are considered biological sentinels of
coastal ecosystems due to their role in supporting biodiversity and their sensitivity to changes in water
and sediment quality. Seagrass meadows support grazing and detrital food webs, stabilize sediment, and
are important in carbon sequestration and storage. One acre of Florida seagrass produces 10 tons of
leaves, supports 40,000 fish and 50 million invertebrates according to the Florida Department of
Environmental Protection. McAfee (1986) reported that grass beds were second to oyster beds in
biodiversity and productivity in Escambia Bay. It was thought that the destruction of V. americana and
Halodule beaudettex (Shoal grass; formerly Halodule wrightii) in Escambia and East Bays could reduce
biodiversity 50% and 60%, respectively (Olinger et al. 1975). The decline in scallops and shrimp
industry in the 1960s has been attributable to the decline in seagrass coverage (Lewis T 1986).
At least 50 reports have been published since 1965 (Lewis et al. 2008) describing habitat condition,
species structural characteristics, and coverage of Thalassia testudinum (Turtle grass) (Fig. 3.1),
Syringodium filiforme, (Mantee grass), H. wrightii, Halophila engelmanni (Star grass), Ruppia maritima
(Widgeon grass), and V. americana. In PBS history, status and trends of seagrass coverage have been
reported locally to various degrees by many (Rogers and Blisterfied 1975; Williams 1981; Lewis 1986;
Collard 1991a, b; Heck et al. 1996; Lores and Specht 2001; U.S. Geological Survey and Gulf of Mexico
Program 2004; Schwenning et al. 2007; FDEP 2001a; Yarbro and Carlson 2013; Reynolds, Smith and
Hills Inc. 2014; Harvey et al. 2015) and at larger geographic scales for the Gulf of Mexico (Handley et
al. 2007; U.S. Geological Survey and Gulf of Mexico Program 2004) and Florida (Dawes et al. 2004;
Carlson and Madley 2007). In other studies, Winter (1978) and Macauley et al. (1988) reported
structural characteristics and life-supporting requirements of the seagrass in Santa Rosa Sound. The
effects of epiphytes (Big Lagoon) (Wear et al. 1999; McCall 2005), nutrient enrichment (Escambia Bay,
Big Lagoon) (Wear et al. 1999; Lores et al. 2000), and low salinity (Escambia Bay) (Lores and Specht
2001) have also been reported, as well as the ecology, composition of the microbial community, and
biogeochemical interactions (Kusel et al. 1999, 2001; Smith et al. 2004; Devereux et al. 2011).
The first reported loss of seagrass for the PBS was in 1955 (Hopkins 1973; FDEP 2007). Coverage was
extensive during 1948 but it continually receded between the 1950s and 1970s (Rogers and Blisterfield
1975; Olinger et al. 1975; WFRPC 2005). A 95% decline occurred between 1950 and 1980 (Harvey et
al. 2015) and all major beds were gone in Escambia and Pensacola Bays by 1966 or 1976, depending
upon the source. Coverage during the past 30 years has generally been between 4,000 and 4,600 acres
with little evidence of dramatic drops and increases. Historically, most seagrass coverage was for Santa
Rosa Sound and Big Lagoon. Most coverage for 2010 was in Santa Rosa Sound (65% of total). The
stability of coverage in Santa Rosa Sound and Big Lagoon is uncertain. Heck et al. (1996) reported that
above-ground biomass of H. wrightii and T. testudinum decreased in Big Lagoon and Santa Rosa Sound
during 1993-1995. A decline of 5.6% occurred between 2003 and 2010 for Santa Rosa Sound (Harvey et
al. 2015). The decline in seagrass coverage for Big Lagoon, based on a workshop, was attributable to 19
causes (BARC et al. 1998).
The first record of SAV spatial coverage was for 1931 on navigational charts (Collard 1991a). The first
aerial surveys for seagrass coverage occurred in 1940 (Collard 1991b). At least 39 sources of seagrass
86
-------
coverage based on navigational charts, drawings, and photographs are available from 1931-2010.
Several early time sequence surveys are available (Figs. 15.1, 15.2) for Escambia and East Bays from
1949-1974 (Olinger et al. 1975). About 6,500 acres (2,633 ha) were reported for the PBS based on
vegetation maps of 1940 and 1954 (McNulty et al. 1972). McNulty et al. (1972) reported 30, 43 and
1,547 acres of submerged SAV in East, Escambia, and Pensacola Bays, respectively. More recent
coverage (acres) for the same areas was 60, 250 and 475 (FDEP 1998). At least four major aerial
surveys have been conducted since 1960. Total coverage for 1960, 1980, 1992, and 2003 was estimated
as 3,858 (9,533 acres), 1,894 ha (4,680 acres), 1,814 ha (4,480 acres) and 1,654 ha (4,085 acres),
respectively (Lewis et al. 2008). The estimated 1,654 ha (4,085 acres) of seagrass for 2003 was
distributed as follows: 74% (Santa Rosa Sound), 13% (Big Lagoon), 9% (Pensacola Bay), 3%
(Escambia Bay), and <1% (East Bay) (Lewis et al. 2008). The most current mapping surveys for
seagrass were conducted during 2010. Harvey et al (2015) reported coverage of 232 ha (574 acres), 79
ha (196 acres), 115 ha (283 acres), 1,172 ha (2894 acres), and 209 ha (515 acres) for Pensacola Bay,
Escambia Bay, East Bay, Santa Rosa Sound, and Big Lagoon, respectively. Total coverage of 4,462
acres was an 8.4% increase since 2003. For reference, total seagrass coverage for Florida is
approximately 2.7 million acres and 277 acres for nearby Perdido Bay (2002) (Handley et al. 2007).
Coverage increases and decreases relative to 2003 for the PBS which appears in Fig. 15.3. All areas
experienced increases except for Santa Rosa Sound (-4.8%) and Big Lagoon (-5.6%). Dominant species
were site-specific but in general were Thalassia testudinum>Halodule wrightii>Ruppia
maritima>Syringodium filiforme. Comparison of results across the aerial and non-aerial surveys is
impacted by differences for technical quality and level of ground-truthing. The intermittent pattern of
aerial surveys in the past has resulted in recommendations for frequent condition monitoring and less
frequent aerial surveys with ground-truthing (Collard 1991b; Harvey et al. 2015). Surveys should be
conducted preferably during September-October, periods of greatest water clarity (Heck et al. 1996). It
was recommended in the latter report that seagrass should be sampled annually to determine biomass,
number of shoots, growth rate of shoots, and basic water chemistry. Other possible condition indicators
include leaf area, blade width, shoot density, chlorophyll, C:N:P ratios, and epiphyte biomass. See
Neckles (1994) for a detailed description of indicator development for Gulf of Mexico seagrass. Harvey
et al. (2015) recommended monitoring every two years and high-resolution imagery and mapping every
six years.
87
-------
1951
1958
1961
1974
port
Figure 15.1 Early trend for submerged aquatic vegetation coverage in the Pensacola Bay. From Olinger et al.
(1975). Area near Bay Bridge approximates current location of Project GreenShores Phase 1 (FDEP 2001 b).
88
-------
1949 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974
Redfish Pt.
Redfish Pt.
Tom King
Bayou .
3 km
Tom King
Bayou /
Figure 15.2 Early trend for submerged aquatic vegetation coverage in East Bay. From Glinger et aL (1975).
89
-------
87°0'0"W
Continuous Coverage
Escambia River
Patchy Coverage
Yellow Rw€r
City
of
Pensacola
9 Km
T
87OTW
Figure 15.3 Seagrass (%) reported for 2010 and change in coverage (+/- %) relative to 2003. Results from Harvey
etal. (2015).
The seagrass meadows destroyed and degraded in the past, despite some recent encouraging evidence
(Harvey et al. 2015), have largely not recovered. Numerous restoration attempts and the availability of
management and restoration plans for over 40 years (Rogers 1974; Collard 1991b; FDEP 2001a; USDOI
2014) have failed to significantly increase coverage. In general terms, the scarci ty of information for
local life-supporting characteristic, the impacts of natural and anthropogenic stressors (alone and in
combination), and the lack of sensitive indicators of condition have limited successful long-term
restorations. Thirteen to 20 reasons are thought responsible for the decline of seagrass in the PBS
(Collard 1991a, b; WFRPC 2005). These include hydrological modification, trawling, decreased water
clarity, prop scarring, dock shading, coastal landscape practices (armoured shorelines), burial, and
dredging. Elevated nutrient concentrations in the PBS were once thought to have a negative influence on
seagrass but recent thought suggests that current levels are not an issue, at least from a water clarity
point of view (FDEP 2012b). The presence of non-nutrient anthropogenic contaminants has also been
considered a possible stressor for seagrass with several possible pathways for adverse effects to occur,
including through rooted-sediments (Fig. 15.4). Seagrass settle suspended solids and as a result their
sediments can by organically-enriched and chemically-contaminated. However, only one contaminated-
related study has been conducted with PBS seagrass. Chemical quality of rooted sediments and tissues
of two species were determined for 13 Florida grass beds, including those in the PBS (Lewis et al.
2007). Many contaminants were greater in seagrass-rooted sediments than in nearby non-vegetated
sediments, but the magnitude of contamination was not unusual and within the range of concentrations
reported for seagrass-rooted sediments worldwide (Lewis and Devereux 2009). Furthermore, only a few
90
-------
SQAGs were exceeded and bioaccumulation factors were usually less than one (range=l-6). It was
concluded that a contaminated sediment effect on seagrass survival and condition was unlikely. In
addition, spatial, interspecific, and tissue differences among the different grass beds were usually an
order of magnitude or less for the same accumulated analyte.
CONTAMINANT TROPHIC TRANSFER
(GRAZING)
DRIFT and EXPORT
CONTAMINANT
TOXICITY and ^
BIOACCUMULATION
MODIFYING FACTORS
LITTER
COMPOSITION
MODIFYING FACTORS
• Dissolved Oxygen
• Sulphide Concentrations
• Total Organic Carbon
SEDIMENT TOXICITY and CONTAMINANT
BIOACCUMULATION
(Rhizome, Roots, Epibenthic and
Infaunal Species )
Figure 15.4 Potential impacts of anthropogenic contaminants on submerged aquatic vegetation beds such as those
dominated by Thalassia testudinum (turtle grass) in Santa Rosa Sound and Big Lagoon. Photo by author.
91
-------
16 Habitat Restoration/Creation
There has been recognition for at least 40 years of the need to restore, maintain and enhance PBS
habitats to reverse historical declines in species diversity and ecosystem services (early examples,
Henningson et al. 1975a; Glassen et al. 1977). Most restorations for the PBS have followed a "learn by
doing" approach. Success has been limited and the cost-ecosystem benefit ratios are unknown. With the
exception of Project GreenShores (FDEP 2001b), there have been no long-term (> 5 years) successful
large habitat restorations in the PBS. In contrast, several small-scale restorations attempted since 1994
by the Northwest Florida Department of Environmental Protection (Florida Department of
Environmental Protection-Ecosystem Restoration Section; accessed 2016 July 14) have been successful.
The contributions singular restoration projects and in aggregate to the environmental quality of the PBS
are unknown. Furthermore, it is unknown what percent restoration equates to a full or satisfactory
replacement of the original habitat. To some, it is unlikely that habitat substitutes can replace the diverse
services of the previous multifunctioning ecosystem (Moberg and Ronnback 2003). For example, 621
wetland restorations failed promised results or matched the performance of natural systems (Ecology
Ecosystems; accessed 2016 July 13). In addition, the technical foundation for successful habitat
restorations, with the exception for oyster reefs (Kroeger 2012), are not well understood.
Collard (1991a, b) provides an excellent, although dated, historical review of seagrass and oyster bed
restorations for the PBS, including a critique of procedures used, reasons for failure, requirements for
successful restorations, and research needs. It was concluded that the probability of successfully
restoring functional seagrass habitats was low to very low for a variety of still valid reasons. These
include incomplete knowledge of the reasons for their destruction and the chemical and biological
requirements necessary to maintain their long-term survival and healthy condition. In addition, restoring
and maintaining historical conditions, if possible, may not be sufficient to maintain biotic diversity in
the future. Therefore, management strategies and risk-based adaptation plans need to include actions to
increase the capacity of restorations to absorb stress such as that expected from climate change.
16.1 Seagrass Meadows
Restoration of seagrass meadows is time-consuming and costly based on planning, transplanting and
post-restoration monitoring. Re-vegetation is most successful where the loss is recent and the habitat has
not been degraded substantially; conditions not usually encountered in the PBS. Seagrass restoration
costs are variable and have been estimated from $14,000 to $l,035,000/ha for five coastal areas in the
U.S. (Grabowski et al. 2012). The "ins" and "outs" of seagrass restoration for the PBS and requirements
and recommendations for success have been presented by Collard (1991b). Collard estimated $25,000 to
$75,000 (1991 dollars; estimated $44,000 to $132,000 in 2015 dollars) was needed to restore one acre of
seagrass in the PBS. The preferred species was Halodule wrightii. He recommended that prior to
restoration, 4 one-acre plots be established and monitored for two years. Determination of sediment
phytotoxicity has also been suggested as a precursor to seagrass transplantation (Durako et al. 1995).
Seagrass restoration and salvage/replantation efforts have been conducted intermittently since the 1970s.
These efforts usually included planting individual laboratory-cultured seedlings, seedling mats (sods) or
transplanting natural "clumps". Implantation of synthetic grass was once recommended (Hopkins 1973).
Examples of early restoration efforts are those of Rogers (1974) and Olinger et al. (1975). In the Olinger
et al. study, Halodule wrightii were taken from East Bay and transplanted to Escambia Bay. Success was
mixed and no long term success was reported. Seagrass restoration efforts continue; the most noticeable
is the 85 m2 (0.02 acre) of Ruppia maritima planted as part of Project Greenshores (2003) which has
increased to 10,000 m2 (about 2.5 acres) as of 2015. This represents about 0.0006% of the 2010 total
92
-------
acreage of 4,462 acres for the PBS. Additional community-based shoreline restorations are planned for
2016 that include seagrass. Despite this success, seagrass restorations should still be considered to be in
the trial and error stage until their life supporting requirements are better understood. See Collard
(1991a) and WFRPC (2005) for several requirements and strategies needed for seagrass sustainability
and recovery. The WFPRC report contains 18 recommendations alone.
16.2 Oyster Reefs
Restoration techniques and life-supporting requirements are better understood for oyster reefs than for
seagrass meadows. Regional guidance for establishment and monitoring is available (Baggett et al.
2014). Restoration efforts have generally been historically successful, at least short-term (Collard
1991b). In contrast, the lack of hard substrate coupled with natural variability in salinity, depth and
temperature, and the occurrence of predation and disease are factors that have contributed to the
unpredictable success of restorations and the slow recovery of oyster populations since their destruction
during the 1960s to early 1970s.
Oyster habitat restoration and creation within the PBS have occurred intermittently since 1964 and
continues (Little 1973; Olinger et al. 1975; Teehan and Barnett 1989a, b; Hudson 1990; Collard 1991b;
FDAC 2005). One of the largest rehabilitations was that reported by Little and Quick (1976) for 1972
when 425 shell piles were used in a 23 acre restoration project. The restoration was short-lived; the
oysters were largely absent in 1975 due to low salinity from the flooding Escambia River. Recent efforts
continue and include cultch plantings, transplantation of oysters to debilitated beds, and creation of new
habitat and reefs. Twenty-eight reefs were installed during 2014 in East Bay, Bayou Texar, and Chico.
Approximately 6,800 yd3 of total clutch material were added during 2008-2012 to East Bay and east
Escambia Bay (Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Joe Shields III, personal
communication, February 2015). Oyster reef breakwaters were a part of the erosion protection of
Deadman's Island in Pensacola Bay (Deadman Island; accessed 2016 July 13). This effort was of mixed
success and serves as a good example of the difficulty in establishing long-term viable oyster habitat,
particularly in areas where oysters did not historically exist. Oyster reef creation, usually in the form of
breakwaters, was also included in Project GreenShores and is included in future community-based living
shoreline projects. Seven acres were created as part of Project GreenShores Phase I (FDEP 2001b).
Other examples for 2016 include a 10 acre commercial oyster farm established in lower Escambia Bay
(tstmeyer/PNJ.com; accessed July 2016); addition of 12,000 cubic yards of clutch material to 60 acres in
Pensacola Bay as part of the Florida Oyster Clutch Placement Project (Escambia County RESTORE
Act; accessed 2016 August 17) and eight miles of oyster habitat restoration planned for the eastern shore
of East and Blackwater Bays (abirch@tnc.org; accessed 2016 January).
Costs of oyster reef restorations and creations are variable and location and method-specific. Cost of the
Deadman's Island Project approximated $2 million. A proposal to create two miles of oyster reefs along
East Bay is for $5 million (Florida Department of Environmental Protection Deepwater Horizon;
accessed 2016 July 14). Eight miles of reef are proposed for East and Blackwater Bays for which the
projected cost of design, engineering, permitting and monitoring of Phase One approximates $2.2
million (Florida Gulf Environmental Benefit Fund 2015, Proposal 50003, The Nature Conservancy).
The $1.5 million cost of construction of one mile of oyster reef breakwater in Mobile Bay is expected to
return about $3 million to the local community (NOAA Oyster Economics factsheet; accessed 2016 July
13). Local costs reported by WFRPC et al. (2005) for one acre of restored reef w/shell was $42,000 and
$1,650 for one acre w/ gravel. New reef cost estimates elsewhere range from $20,000/acre (Henderson
and O'Neil 2003) to $104,000/acre (Grabowski et al. 2012). In the latter report, the reefs recover the
median restoration cost in 2-14 y.
93
-------
16.3 Salt Marsh
Reports for salt marsh restoration along the PBS shoreline are uncommon. Several small-scale efforts
have occurred in recent years such as those conducted by the Northwest Florida Department of
Environmental Protection (Florida Department of Environmental Protection-Ecosystem Restoration
Section; accessed 2016 July 14). Planting of Spartina seedlings was included in Project GreenShores
and will be included in future living shoreline restorations as well. The outlook is more promising for
this habitat type than seagrass and oyster habitats since, in addition to restorations, rising sea levels due
to climate change will increase coverage in non-armoured areas (Geselbracht et al. (2013) at the expense
of freshwater coastal wetlands and forested areas.
16.4 Community-Based Shoreline Restoration
Shoreline protection and modification have been of increasing interest during the past 10 years
(example, NWFWMD 2006) and a homeowner's guide is available (NWFWMD 2001). The most
publicized and recent large-scale shoreline restoration is Project Greenshores (FDEP 2001b) which
consisted of seagrass and wetland plant restorations and breakwater/oyster reef construction. Thirty
acres of oyster, salt marsh, and seagrass habitat were created along 2 miles (3.2 km) of northern
urbanized Pensacola Bay for about 6 million dollars (cash plus donated time and supplies). The Project
had 87 partners and contributors (Florida Department of Environmental Protection Project Greenshores
sponsors; accessed 2016 July 13). About 90,000 Spartina alterniflora and 4,000 Ruppia maritima
seedlings were planted. The success of the Project can be shown by the results for seagrass; seagrass
initially covered 0.01 acre (50 m2) and has increased to 2.5 acres (10,000 m2). This coverage represents
about 0.004% of total seagrass coverage for Pensacola Bay (574 acres) and, as stated earlier, about
0.0006% of total coverage for the PBS (4,462 acres) based on information in Harvey et al. (2015).
Similar restorations are planned for additional sites in Pensacola Bay for which 230 acres of emergent
marsh and SAV habitat will be created in addition to about 27,000 linear feet of oyster reef breakwater
(Restore the Gulf Draft Initial Funded Priorities List; accessed 2016 July 13).
An additional approach to shoreline modification is the establishment of vegetative buffer zones for the
terrestrial-aquatic transitional zone. No information on the cost of their construction is available. It has
been recommended that these vegetated zones be at least 100 ft (30.5 m) but preferably 1,500 ft (457.2
m) for maximum benefit (WFRPC 2005). Others have proposed an average of 30 ft (9m) and 50 ft (15
m) for optimal protection (NWFWMD 2001). Obviously, the necessary width of buffer zones to ensure
the maximum environmental benefit needs additional evaluation. Nineteen shoreline plant species
suitable for planting are listed in the NWFWMD report.
94
-------
17 Spatial Environmental Variation
17.1 PBS Internal
The environmental quality of the PBS is not universal. In general terms, environmental condition
improves seaward away from peripheral bayous and entries of rivers and stormwater runoff from
adjacent urbanized and industrialized areas. These seaward areas are characterized by greater physical
and chemical stability and dilution. The characteristic shallow waters of the PBS are physically,
chemically, and biologically unstable relative to short-term, seasonal, and annual changes in salinity,
temperature, and water quality. These differences are responsible in part for the spatial differences
reported on numerous occasions in this summary between and within PBS subunits for sediment
chemical contamination (Figs. 7.3, 7.5, 7.12; Tables 7.2, 7.3), toxicity (Figs. 7.13, 7.14), species
numbers/abundance and diversity (Tables 3.1, 3.2; Figs. 3.2, 3.3, 3.4), bioaccumulation (Tables 13.1,
14.1; Figs. 9.3, 17.1), and algal-periphyton structural parameters (Table 14.1; Fig. 14.2).
o 5
a3
— en
J3 Ł=
Bayou
Texar
Bayou
Chico
Bayou
Grande
T
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
Stations
Figure 17.1 Spatial variation for total mercury concentrations (ng/g dry wt.) in algal-periphyton colonized for 21
days at multiple sites in Bayous Texar, Chico and Grande. Values represent means (±1 SD). Unpublished results
(USEPA, Gulf Breeze, FL).
17.2 PBS External
The environmental quality of the PBS has been ranked and compared to that for other estuaries for a
variety of metrics. The outcomes of most across-estuary comparisons have been directionally mixed and
indicate few supportable multimetric differences between the PBS and other northern Gulf of Mexico
estuaries. Numerous comparisons are available although scattered in the literature for sediment chemical
quality and toxicity, bioaccumulation, oyster reef coverage, productivity/net ecosystem metabolism,
biogeochemical aspects, eutrophication potential, and fish community composition (examples, Olinger
et al. 1975; USDOI 1989; Long et al. 1996; Hemming et al. 2003; Livingston 2005; Rider and Adams
95
-------
2000; Kimbrough et al. 2008, 2009; Murrell et al. 2009; Snyder and Karouna-Renier 2009; Lewis et al.
2010; Gesselbracht et al. 2013; Caffery and Murrell 2015). A summary of rankings for several
parameters based on results from these and other reports appear in Table 17.1. Many of the across-
estuary rankings are based on the often unproven assumptions of similarity for geomorphological
characteristics and for results from different experimental techniques (study periods, collection
techniques, taxonomic levels, chemical analytical methodologies, statistical analysis, and level of quality
assurance). For these reasons, the value of many across-estuary environmental rankings is uncertain. The
more supportable generalizations are those for small geographic scales based on results for similar
assessment methodologies. See Livingston (2014) for an in-depth comparison of various environmental
parameters for five Florida panhandle bay-river systems including Escambia River/Bay and Blackwater
River/Bay.
Table 17.1 Comparison of various environmental parameters for Pensacola Bay System subunits (in bold) to
other northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries. Apal B - Apalachicola Bay, Bay L - Bay La Launch, BC - Bayou
Chico, BG - Bayou Grande, BT - Bayou Texar, Choct B - Choctawhatchee Bay, East B - East Bay, Esc B -
Escambia Bay, GL - Grand Lagoon, MS - Mississippi Sound, OR - Old River, PB - Pensacola Bay, SRS -
Santa Rosa Sound, St JB - Saint Joe Bay, St And B - Saint Andrew Bay, SR - Suwannee River estuary, WR
- Withlacoochee River estuary.
Parameters
Biota
Spatial Difference (high to low)
Sediment Nutrients
Total Organic Phosphorous
PB>Choct B>Esc B>East B
Total Organic Nitrogen
Choct B>PB>Esc B=East B
Sediment PCBs
Dioxins/Furans
PDB>PB>Choct B>St JB>St And B>Apal B
Sediment Benthos
Benthic Diversity1
BC>GL=SRS=MS>BT>Bay L=OR=WR>SR>BG
Benthic Taxa (Max)
SRS>Esc B>PB>GL>BT>WR>MS>BG>BC>OR>Bay L>SW
Sediment Toxicity
Sea urchin
Apal B>Choct B>PB>St And B
Microbial
Choct B> St And B> Apal B >PB
A. abdita 2
PB>Apal B=Choct B=St And B
A. abdita
BG=BT>GL=MS=OR=SW=WR=Bay L>WR>BC>PDB
L. plumulosus3
MS>OR>Bay L>WR=SW=GL>BG>PDB>BT
Algal-Periphyton
Mercury
BT>BC>BG>WR>SR>OR>MS>GL=Bay L>OR>GL
Taxa (Max)
BOEsc B>GL>BT>BG>OR=Esc R>Bay
L>SR>SRS>WL>MS
Chlorophyll a
BOEsc B>GL>BT>BG>OR=Esc R>Bay
L>SR>SRS>WL>MS
Biomass
BC>BG>SRS>BT>PB=Esc B
Autotrophic Index4
SRS>BC>BT>BG>EscB>PB
Zooplankton
Diversity
GL>OR>PB>BT>MS=Bay L>BC=BG
Taxa(Max)
Esc B>East B>GL>PB>BC>OR>BG>BT>MS> Bay L
Oyster
Copper
BC=BG>BT>GL>MS=Bay L>OR>SRS>PB=Esc B
Bioaccumulation
Zinc
BC>BT=BG>GL>SRS>Bay L>OR>BSL=PB>MS>Esc B
1 from Shannon and Weaver (1949)
2 two data sets available for Ampelisca abdita
3 Leptocheirus plumulosus
4 ratio of algal biomass/chlorophyll a
96
-------
18 Temporal Variation
Much of the environmental information generated in the past for the PBS has been based on one or only
a few chemical and biological measurements made during a single observation period. It is uncertain if
the results for single measurements are sufficient for environmental judgments since it is unknown if
they adequately reflect the short and long-term chemical and biological fluctuations that parallel diurnal,
tidal, seasonal, and annual biological and chemical cycles. The temporal variability of the composition
of the phytoplankton, zooplankton, periphyton, benthic infauna, and fish communities is well understood
and, to a lesser extent, the differences for chlorophyll a, primary productivity, fish reproduction,
dissolved oxygen, and acid volatile sulfides (examples, Livingston 1977; Moshiri et al. 1980; Moshiri
and Elewad 1990; Middaugh and Hemmer 1992; Von Appen and Winter 2000; Lores et al. 2002;
Murrell and Lores 2004). In contrast, only a few attempts have been made to evaluate the variability of
contaminant concentrations in surface water, sediment and biological tissues, and results of toxicity
evaluations. One early example is that of Butler (1973). In that report, DDT isomers in oysters collected
from East Bay (1965-1971) varied two-fold or less and seven-fold or less for Aroclor 1254.
A series of contaminant-related studies were conducted during the 1990s that included determination of
the temporal variability in results as a research objective. As many as 14 identical chemical and
biological evaluations were conducted with media collected from the same sites in Bayous Texar, Chico,
and Grande during periods up to three years. Variability was assessed for measurements of sediment
chemical quality and contaminant uptake in biota (Lewis et al. 2004), fish abundance (Lewis et al.
2010), biotic diversity (Lores et al. 2002; Lewis et al. 2010), whole sediment acute toxicity (Lewis et al.
2001b), and periphytic structural characteristics (Lewis et al. 2002a, b). Some results for these studies
are discussed below and the algal-periphyton appear in Figures 14.1 and 14.2. Contaminant
concentrations in sediment varied 3-fold or less and a diversity index for zooplankton, 2 to 13-fold
during 1-3 years of evaluation. Uptake of six trace metals by oysters varied <1 to 27-fold and mercury
uptake by periphyton varied from
-------
19 Economic Value of Ecological Services
and Goods
Socioeconomics has become an important consideration in environmental science (USDOI 1996b).
Within this context, the ecosystem finance approach is an additional tool available to resource managers
in making environmental management decisions. The benchmarks of this approach is ecosystem
services which are the direct and indirect contributions that ecosystems make to the well-being of
humans (USEPA 2009). It has been estimated that coastal systems such as estuaries provide ecological
services worldwide in excess of $25 trillion (Barbier et al. 2011). A summary of these ecological
services for estuaries and the tropical seascape are available from, among others, Moberg and Ronnback
(2003), Pendleton (2009), Barbier et al (2011,) and the Gulf of Mexico Services Viewer (Gulf of Mexico
Alliance GecoView; accessed 2016 August 17). They include storm buffering, flood protection,
prevention of erosion, seafood production, wildlife support, and carbon uptake which reduces the rate of
climate change. In addition, the value of seafood harvests is also included (example, $1.8 million for a
single Bluefin tuna). There have been many other efforts to determine the economic value of ecological
services (example, Costanza et al. 1997) and of the reduction in water quality (Poor et al. 2007). In the
latter report, the cost of a one mg/1 increase in dissolved inorganic nitrogen and suspended solids was
estimated to reduce home values along the Chesapeake Bay by approximately $18,000 and $1,100,
respectively. The PBS has financial value to humans that goes beyond aesthetic appeal and urban
shoreline development. It provides the public with many services that are not obvious but nevertheless
have monetary value. However, unlike for Tampa and Choctawhatchee Bays (Hass Center 2006; Tampa
Bay Estuary Program 2014), the local production of environmental services and their monetary value,
with few exceptions (Terrebonne 1973; Stevenson 2007) have not been reported for the PBS. In one of
the few studies, the estimated cost of environmental degradation was considerable. Terrebonne (1973)
calculated the annual losses (1962-1972) in shrimp, oysters, tourism, recreation, and property in
response to increasing water pollution from wastewater treatment facilities in PBS to range from
approximately $14 to $141 million.
Three coastal habitats associated with the PBS that are linked to human well-being are seagrass
meadows, oyster reefs, and tidal marshes. An analysis follows that provides estimates of their financial
value. The analysis is based on current and past coverage of the habitats (Fig. 19.1) and the value of the
environmental services provided by one habitat acre. The acre evaluations were based on "local"
estimates (seagrass meadows for Florida) and those reported in the scientific literature for oyster and
tidal marsh at the time of their reporting. Based on this information, the estimated total value to the
public of the three habitats approximates $118 to $126 million annually. This includes about $91.5
million for seagrass, $1 million to $1.7 million for oyster reefs, and between $25.7 million to $33.5
million for salt marsh/tidal wetlands (Fig. 19.2). The evaluations above and others discussed below were
inflation adjusted for 2016 (DollarTimes Inflation Calculator; accessed 2016 August 5) using interest
rates between 1.2% and 2.3%. Using this approach, the total inflation-adjusted value for the three
habitats is between $211 million and $226 million annually. For perspective, the total value exceeds the
2015 property tax revenues for Escambia County of about $112 million and $60 million for Santa Rosa
County (Escambia and Santa Rosa Tax Collectors Offices, August 2016); total tourist development tax
collection of $9.1 million and total toll collection of $3.9 million for 2015 (Escambia County Public
Works Dept. August 2015). The community benefit of trees for removing air pollution, sequestering
C02 and reduction for energy use in Escambia County approximates $0.5 million annually (EDIS
Escobedo Report; accessed 2016 August 17).
98
-------
Current
CO
CD
O
<
CD
CD
2
O
O
10000 ¦
8000 -
6000 ¦
4000 -
2000 -
0 ¦
2000 ¦
4000 ¦
6000 ¦
8000 -
10000
Seagrass Wetlands
TW
Oyster
Reefs
Lost
Figure 19.1 Current coverage of submerged aquatic vegetation meadows, salt marsh (SM), tidal wetlands (TW)
and oyster reefs relative to that 60 years ago and prior to environmental decline of the Pensacola Bay System.
Coverage sources: submerged aquatic vegetation Lewis et al. (2008), oyster reefs-Reynolds et al. (2014) and
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (personal communication, 2014); wetlands-U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service National Wetland Inventory (2014) and Northwest Florida Water Management District Land
Use/Land Cover maps (2010).
99
-------
Current
c
o
¦4—<
cI)
CD
c
3
o
05
—
>
LJJ
Ł
c
CD
O
1
CD
Q
o (/)
O
=)
O
s—'
LU
100 -
80 -
60 -
40 -
20 -
0 -
20 -
40 -
60 -
80 -
100 -
120 -
Seagrass
Wetlands
TW
Oyster
Reefs
Lost
Figure 19.2 Estimated value (USD) of ecological services provided annually by submerged aquatic vegetation
meadows, salt marsh (SM), tidal wetlands (TW) and oyster reefs. Value of ecological services lost also shown
relative to reduction in coverage as a result of historical habitat degradation. Evaluations per acre used in the
calculation are: submerged aquatic vegetation-$20,500 (Handley et al. 2007); oyster reefs-$ 10,325 (Grabowski et
al. (2012); wetlands-$3,900 (Woodward and Wui 2001). Values are not inflation corrected.
The economic cost of not preventing environmental degradation can be severe. It is well known that
coverage of the three habitats have historically decreased in the PBS (Fig. 19.1). The value of the lost
ecological services associated with their decrease can be estimated by applying the same per acre
evaluations used in the above calculations and their reported coverage 50-60 years ago before the
declines. The result of this calculation is a total annual loss of about $116 million to $123 million in
ecological services ($104 million seagrass, $2 million-$2.6 million oyster reefs, $10 million-$16.3
million tidal/salt marsh) based on a total decrease of about 8,000-10,000 acres combined for the three
habitats over time. If inflation-corrected, the total annual loss is between $205-217 million. Therefore, if
the degradation and resultant loss of coverage had not occurred, the current estimated total value of
these habitats would almost double. A breakdown of the economic analysis by habitat type follows.
19.1 Seagrass
The annual value of one seagrass-vegetated acre in Florida has been estimated as $20,500/acre/year
(1991 currency; 2016 currency=$3 6,240) based in part on storm protection, support of recreational and
commercial fisheries, and nutrient cycling (FDEP 2001c; Flandley et al. 2007). For reference, the annual
100
-------
value of the ecological services provided by one seagrass-vegetated acre ranges worldwide between
$9,000 and $28,000 (Lewis and Devereux 2009). The value of the estimated 4,462 acres in the PBS as of
2010 (Harvey et al. 2015) using $20,500/acre is about 91.5 million dollars/y ($161.7 million inflation
corrected). The value of the ecological services lost because of the 5,067 acre decrease from 1960
(coverage=9,529 acres) to 2010 (coverage=4,462 acres) within the PBS, approximates $104 million/y
($183.6 million/y inflation corrected).
19.2 Oysters
Oysters (C. virginica) have economic value as seafood, although the production for the PBS is marginal
and subject to unpredictable variations. Oyster harvests for 1967-2009 have been between 0-491,000 lbs
(Hopkins 1973; Barnett and Gunter 1985; Lewis T 1986; BARC et al. 1998) with an annual value of $0-
$87,000. The cost of water pollution on oyster harvests from 1962-1972 was between $1,374 and
$858,000 (Terrebonne 1973). The oyster population across years has been impacted by lack of suitable
substrate, overharvesting, natural variability in salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, water
availability, turbidity (sedimentation), predation and infestations of bacterial, and protistan and fungal
parasites (WFRPC 2005). The presence of marine biotoxins from toxic dinoflagellates Karenia brevis
(formerly Gymnodinium breve) and Gonyaulax monilata also reduces oyster harvesting. A bloom in
1974 (3,000,000 cells/1) resulted in a month long closure of harvesting areas (Barnett and Gunter 1985).
Oyster die-offs have historically occurred at least once a decade (Lewis T 1986). Mass mortalities
approaching 100% have occurred in 1963, 1967, 1971, 1987, and 1991 (FDEP 1998; Lewis FG2010).
The largest mortality event of 1971 destroyed 95% of the reefs in the PBS, which was the focus of a
large restoration event during 1972 (Little and Quick 1976). Abundance, however, can rapidly change.
For example, oysters were plentiful in East Bay during 1987 but no oysters were found during 1989
(Collard 1991b). A 3.6 mile reef restoration for nearby Mobile Bay was projected to produce $38,000-
$46,000/year from an increase in fish and crab fisheries (Kroeger 2012).
Oyster reefs provide ecological services in addition to harvested meats. These include improving water
quality, dissipating wave energy (shoreline protection), stabilizing bottom sediments, and providing
substrate for a variety of organisms (see Kilgen and Dugas 1989) important for fish and crabs. Oyster
beds in the northern Gulf of Mexico support as many as 170 estuarine species (USDOI 1989). Oyster
beds in Escambia Bay had greater density and diversity of macroinvertebrates than seagrass meadows
(Olinger et al. 1975).
The economic value of harvested oysters is better understood and easier to determine than the value of
the ecological services oyster reefs provide. However, the value of oysters as a harvested commodity is
considered by some to be an order of magnitude less than the ecological value of oyster reefs
(Grabowski et al. 2012). The value of fish species that use oyster reefs may be greater than that of the
oysters produced by the same reefs (Beck et al. 2011). There are no reported economic values for the
ecological services produced by PBS oyster reefs. The value used for our analysis is $10,325/ha (one
hectare=2.54 acres) reported by Grabowski et al. (2012). This is an average value (range=$5,500-
$99,000) based on 2011 dollars and water quality services, shoreline protection, and provision of habitat
for biota. The estimate is conservative since recreational fishing, carbon burial, oyster harvesting,
increased biodiversity and inflation are not included in the Grabowski et al. calculation. The inflation
corrected value is $11,142/ha.
The historic trend for oyster reef coverage for the PBS is more difficult to determine than that for
seagrass and salt marshes due to a lack of information. This is further confounded by the inconsistent
differentiation between public and private reefs and between open and closed reefs. This lack of
information is reflected in an evaluation of oyster reef coverage for the Gulf of Mexico by Baggett et al.
(2014). The historic oyster reef area and extent remaining could not be determined for Pensacola Bay,
101
-------
unlike for 14 other northern Gulf of Mexico areas. Oyster investigations and reef surveys were first
reported for the PBS, depending upon the source, either during 1898 (Brice 1898), 1933 (Prytherch
1933), or 1935 (FDEP 1998). The historical abundance and biological trends for oysters have been
summarized by Collard (1991b) based on the results of numerous studies beginning in 1951. Reports for
oyster include those of McNulty et al. (1972); Hopkins (1973); Little and Quick (1976); Barnet and
Gunter (1985); Teehan and Barnett (1989a, b); Hudson (1990); Hudson and Wiggins (1996); Knight
(2003); and FDAC 2004, 2005). McNulty et al. (1972) reported 280 acres of public natural reef, 138
acres of private reefs and about 8,200 acres closed for East and Escambia Bays, for the 1940-1950s.
Hopkins (1973) provided a map of shellfish reefs but no values for acreages. Only 10% of oyster reef
coverage observed in 1972 (8,388 acres) was observed in 1987-1992 (761 acres) (Florida Department of
Environmental Protection Deepwater Horizon Florida; accessed 2016 July 14). Oyster reefs were
considered "moderately-sized" in 1998 (FDEP 1998). Recent estimates for oyster reef coverage are
3,144 h (7,768 acres) (Baggett et al. 2014), 400 acres (162 ha) (Reynolds, Smith and Hills Inc. 2014)
and 871 acres (353 ha) (1987-1992) (Restore the Gulf Pensacola Bay Watershed restoration; accessed
2016 July 14). The most current assessment available is for 235-245 acres of reefal complex including
areas classified as restricted or prohibited and where clutching is warranted (Florida Department of
Agriculture and Consumer Services, Joe Shields III, personal communication, February 2015). About
75% of coverage is in East Bay. The estimate by Baggett et al. (2014) was not used in our analysis since
it is well above other estimates.
The estimated economic value of current reef coverage estimated for 96 ha (240 acres) and 162 ha (400
acres) is approximately $991 thousand to $1.7 million/y, respectively, based on the average of
$10,325/ha reported by Grabowski et al. (2012). If inflation-corrected for 2016 currency, the value is
between $1 million and $1.8 million/y. The current reef coverage of either 96 ha or 162 ha when
compared to the total coverage (public and private) of 343 ha (871 acres) during 1987-1992 represents
an approximate loss of 181 ha or 247 ha, respectively. This equates to an approximate annual loss of
$1.9 million to $2.5 million or $2.0 million to $2.8 million (inflation adjusted) in ecological services.
19.3 Tidal Wetlands (Brackish and Salt Marsh)
A summary of the ecological services, goods and stressors impacting tidal wetlands have been
summarized (Wright et al. 2006; Engle 2011; Barbier et al. 2011). Multiple pathways for the adverse
effects of one stressor, chemical contaminants, appear in Fig. 19.3. Wetlands serve 10 functions
(Woodward and Wui 2001; Spalding et al. 2014), including groundwater recharge and discharge, wave
attenuation, water quality control (sequesters chemicals and solids), flood control, shoreline and storm
protection, and recreation. In addition, tidal wetland vegetation act as carbon sinks (Spalding et al. 2014)
and provide habitat and refuge for biota. Young menhaden, spot, croaker, and mullet depend upon PBS
wetlands for their survival (Hopkins 1973).
102
-------
Freshwater
Inflow ™
Anthropogenic
Chemicals
MODIFYING FACTORS
• Temperature
s
• Salinity
• Irradiance
• Water Level
MODIFYING FACTORS
Sulphides
' Total Organic Carbon
¦ Particle Size
' Dissolved Oxygen
Toxicity
Tidal
Exchange
Solute
Exchange
(grazers)
Near
coastal
water
Oil
spills
Dredging
Sea
level
rise
Smooth Cordgrass
(¦Spartina alterniflora)
Figure 19.3 Potential impacts of anthropogenic contaminants on Spartina-dominated tidal wetlands common to
the Pensacola Bay System.
103
-------
The economic value of an acre of PBS tidal wetland based on the above services has not been reported.
However, many estimates are available for other coastal areas and these differ by as much as two orders
of magnitude. Examples are $6,700 (acre of salt marsh) and $10,602(acre of brackish marsh) (Farber
and Costanza 1987); an average of $32,149 (median=$2,428, range = $l-$200,994) (Heimlich et al.
1998), a predicted average of $3,900/acre (range=$l,084-$22,856) (Woodward and Wui 2001), and
$9,990/ha for tidal marsh/mangroves (Costanza et al. 1997). The mean predicted value of $3,900/acre
(1990 currency; 2016 currency=$7,315/acre) by Woodward and Wui (2001) is used for the evaluation
below since it is based on a literature review of 39 wetlands and the ten ecological services.
There are multiple reports and sources for tidal wetland coverage for the PBS. Many of the more recent
are based on aerial imagery color infrared or true color photography. Comparison of past and present
coverage is complicated by the technical differences in assessment techniques and coverage
classifications. The differentiation between tidal wetlands, tidal marsh, and salt marsh has not always
been made. Salt marsh coverage as a percent of shoreline for 1971 was reported as 20% for the entire
PBS and as 14.4% (Escambia County alone) and 31.2% (Santa Rosa County alone) (Hopkins 1973). Salt
marsh comprised about 0.05% or 878.3 acres of the Pensacola Basin surface area in 2007 (FDEP 2007).
The estimated coverage of PBS tidal marshes (acres) approximated 213 (Pensacola Bay), 309 (Santa
Rosa Sound), 3,307 (East Bay), and 5,152 (Escambia Bay) based on vegetation maps of 1940 and 1954
(McNulty et al. 1972). Based on Northwest Florida Water Management District Land Use/ Land Cover
estimates for 1995, 2004, and 2010, salt marsh coverage (acres) has decreased during the past 20 years
approximately from 149 to 117 in Big Lagoon and 180 to 68 in Santa Rosa Sound. In contrast, coverage
increased from 1,400 to 1,794 acres in Blackwater Bay, from 3,750 to 4,519 acres in Escambia Bay and
from 59 to 103 acres in Pensacola Bay. Coverage has remained relatively stable for East Bay (96 acres,
100 acres). The 2010 estimated total salt marsh coverage of 6,701 acres is 19% (1,067 acres) more than
that for 1995. Using geospatial data from the 2014 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetland
Inventory (Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory; accessed 2016 July 13), total tidal
wetland coverage approximates 8,579 acres consisting of 148, 152, 621, 978, 2,037 and 4,643 acres,
respectively, for Big Lagoon, East Bay, Pensacola Bay, Santa Rosa Sound, Blackwater Bay, and
Escambia Bay. One point of agreement among the three sources of data covering 1940-2014 (McNulty
et al. 1972, National Wetlands Inventory, FLULC System) is the dominance of wetlands and the relative
similarity in coverage across years for Escambia Bay (between 3,800 and 5,100 acres) and East Bay (84-
100 acres). Finally, as part of the Pensacola Bay Bridge assessment, 8,891 acres of tidal marsh were
reported (Reynolds, Smith and Hills Inc. 2014) but no source and date of the estimate was provided.
This estimate is almost identical to that reported by McNulty et al. (1972).
The total current value of ecological goods and services produced annually by salt marsh (6,601 acres;
2010 NWFWMD land cover estimates) and tidal wetland (8,579 acres; 2014 National Wetland
Inventory) for the PBS approximates $26.1 million and $33.5 million, respectively, based on the mean
of $3,900/acre or $48.1 million to $62.8 million if inflation corrected. Based on our evaluation, there
appears to be an approximate net loss of approximately 2,600 acres and 4,200 acres of these habitats
since the 1940/1950s. The approximate 53% or 71% declines in coverage are based on comparison of
the 8,981 acres of tidal marsh combined for Pensacola Bay, Santa Rosa Sound, East Bay, and Escambia
Bay, reported by McNulty et al. (1972) to the approximate 6,400 tidal wetland acres from the 2014
National Wetland Inventory and the 4,800 acres of salt marsh from the 2010 Florida Land Use and Land
Cover System reported for the same areas. The estimated value of the ecological services lost annually
due to the decline in coverage; not accounting for inflation is approximately somewhere between $10
million and $16 million using the mean of $3,900/acre. Loss increases to between $19 million and $31
million based on the inflation corrected $7,315 per acre evaluation. Salt marshes may increase coverage
as a result of future sea level rise if not restricted by anthropogenic barriers (roadways, armoured
shorelines). This possibility, when combined with the current positive trend indicated by the LULC
104
-------
estimates for 1995-2010, should increase ecological services and the economic value of coastal
wetlands.
19.4 Uncertainty
It is important to note that the above calculations are estimates and are specific to our coverage estimates
and habitat-specific acre evaluations chosen from on-line and peer-reviewed sources. Local (State of
Florida) per acre evaluations are available only for seagrass meadows. The prediction of the value of
local oyster reefs and tidal wetlands based on estimates reported for the same type of habitat located
elsewhere is uncertain. A more accurate economic evaluation for the PBS would require local
determinations of habitat values and confirmation of current coverages. Although the values reported
based on our analysis can be debated, it is clear that the intrinsic value of just three estuarine habitats to
the public can be argued to be in millions of dollars per year. This type of knowledge certainly justifies
the expense of their protection and restoration considering the estimated economic cost of their historical
neglect.
105
-------
20 Climate Change
Climate change is an increasing determinant and threat for the environmental quality of the PBS. Its
addition to an already complex human-biophysical system adds uncertainty to maintaining current
biodiversity and economic value. The effects of climate change on Florida's coastal resources—have
been summarized (Florida Oceans and Coastal Council 2009; Livingston 2014). Climate change will
cause saltwater encroachment into freshwater habitats and modify the shoreline configuration, similar in
part to that reported by Kish and Donoghue (2013) for the effects of storms and Santa Rosa Sound. Sea
level rise is occurring in the PBS at about 2.1 mm/y (Zervas 2009) relative to a predicted 0.75 mm and
9.95 mm/y predicted for Gulf coastal states (Thatcher et al. 2013) and a model prediction of a 8-20 inch
rise along the Gulf Coast in the next century (Twilley et al. 2001). Increasing sea level will reshuffle
habitats within the PBS. Coastal acidification and sea level rise will likely reduce oyster reefs/ harvests
due to thinning of shells (more susceptible to predation), decreased size, reduced accretion rates, and
submersion. Some, however, think that vertical reef accretion may be able to outpace sea level rise and
benefit from the added subaqueous space (Rodriguez et al. 2014). It is expected that tidal wetlands will
increase and seagrass beds decrease. The effects of climate change on seagrass have been reviewed
(Short and Neckles 1999; Koch et al. 2007). Climate change will also alter the organic carbon cycle,
salinity zones, increase water temperature, decrease rainfall and potentiate the biological effects of
current stressors. Salinity zones are important to the spatial distribution, condition, and survival of biota
such as for seagrass (Shaffer 1995; Koch et al. 2007) and tidal marsh plants (Kurz 1953). The most
recent and extensive summary of salinity tolerances are presented in Lewis FG (2010) for plants and
animals in Blackwater and East Bays and the lower Yellow River. Salinity effects chemical toxicity
(Nimmo and Bahner 1974). Toxicity to aquatic organisms increases with increasing temperature (Kwok
et al. 2007). Finally, species tropicalization is occurring in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Fodrie et al.
2013), including the PBS (example, the lion fish, Pterois volitans). New species alter species diversity
and the influx of grazer species such as herbivorous turtles, manatees, and parrotfish will decrease the
condition and nursery functions of seagrass meadows.
Reports for local management strategies to determine the possible effects and specific mitigation
strategies of climate change could not be found. However, useful insight is available among others from
Twilley et al. (2001); Florida Oceans and Coastal Council (2009); Geselbracht et al. (2013); and Cross
(2014). An in-depth analysis of the increase in sea level rise for the PBS and four other estuaries based
on use of the Sea Level Affecting Marshes Model (SLAMM, version 6.2, 2012) has been published
(Geselbracht et al. 2013). This report describes vulnerable animal and plant species, and predicts
changes in various habitat coverages based on sea level increases of 0.7 m, 1.0 m and 2.0 m. Loss of
undeveloped dry land is predicted for the PBS with major decreases in coastal forest and inland
freshwater marsh and cypress swamp by 2100. In contrast, salt marsh coverage will increase, assuming
submergence does not occur and shoreline anthropogenic impediments are absent. The transitioned areas
will benefit wading birds and fish. The projected order of net change in coastal wetlands in decreasing
order was Tampa Bay>Corpus Christi Bay>Mobile Bay>Pensacola Bay>Big Bend area. Additional
information applicable to the PBS is available from the U.S. EPA's Climate Ready Estuaries Program
(EPA Climate Ready Estuaries; accessed 2016 July 14), which works with the National Estuaries
Program to identify vulnerabilities and develop adaption plans to climate change.
106
-------
21 Discussion
The environmental condition for PBS is not as well understood as would be expected after 135 years of
intermittent analysis and after 40 years of attempted improvement by multiple Federal, state, regional,
and local jurisdictional agencies. A "report card" or "dashboard" perspective appears in Figure 21.1
based primarily on the state-of-knowledge found in more recently published reports (Table 21.1).
Examples of several unknowns related to resource management and anthropogenic contaminants appear
in Table 21.2. Although some environmental recovery has been made since the 1970s, and there has
been a steady increase for environmental information, the extent of the recovery is uncharacterized for
many biological metrics. Likewise, the specific reasons or causes of the decline in environmental quality
of the PBS in other than general terms, are largely unknown and likely the result of the complex
interaction of natural and anthropogenic stressors influenced by daily and seasonal factors, the
individual effects of which are not well understood. Thus, sensitive response parameters and pressure
points for most PBS communities in response to stress are not known and as a result, there is an inability
to predict changes in biotic distribution, condition, and productivity in response to current and future
environmental perturbations. The lack of this information has resulted in an absence of validated models
although the RIOS (Goldstein et al. 2015; Resource Investment Optimization System-Natural Capital
Project; accessed 2016 July 13) and theUSEPA's H20 Model (EPAH20; accessed 2016 July 13) show
promise. However, sufficient metadata needed for these models to reliably predict the local effects of
stressors on ecological services and goods are largely absent. Therefore, their current and near-future
value is primarily conceptual.
107
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL DASHBOARD/SUMMARY
Database Biodiver
First
Report
16S6
500 +
28%
100 +
22
Reports
Reviewed
Topics
Stressors
Ah out 1,400
Taxa
Trends
Overall
Climate+
Contaminated
Runoff 1
Pathogens 1
Seafood
Change |
Sediment?
*
Contamination ?
7
16%
68%
16%
Good
Fair
Poor
Current
1995-2000
Estimated Economic Value (peryear)
$211
$416
Million
Million
Ratings
Water Quality
Nutrients >Guidelines
2015 1960
Autotrophic Index (Periphyton)
30%
Good or Fair
1
2 of 11
I
Problems
~
Remain
Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb
124
260
283
442
294
PB
EscB
Texar
Chico
Grande
Chemical
128
87
20-50&
Chemicals
Exceed
Analyzed
Guidelines
Sediment Quality
Toxicity
<100 = Good water qua
ity
340
14
Test
8%
33%
20%
57%
Tests
Species
Acute
Chronic
Senotoxk
Phvtotoxic
Benthos
9054
Sites
Degraded
30
69
Species
Chemicals
Bioaccumulation
Exceedance
Hg PCBs Hg/PCBs
0-39%
3-69%
16-100%
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Bay Bottom Current Coverage System Coverage
s%
3%
65% J
^ 12% ^ 47% J 9% |
1960
2016
SRS
BL
1960 2003-2010
Public Public Wildlife
Figure 21.1 An "environmental report card" or "dashboard" perspective of environmental information for the
Pensacola Bay System. Economic evaluation for submerged aquatic vegetation, oyster reefs and tidal wetlands.
Autotrophic index = biomass/chlorophyll a. Sediment toxicity reported as a percent of all toxicity tests.
Uncertainties (Table 21.2) related to anthropogenic chemicals, water and sediment quality, and natural resources.
Bioaccumulation exceedance (percent of all samples) reported as a range for various numerical guidelines.
System coverage for submerged aquatic vegetation, almost all submerged aquatic vegetation, is for the entire
Pensacola Bay System. Current submerged aquatic vegetation coverage reported for Santa Rosa Sound (SRS) and
Big Lagoon (BL).
108
-------
Table 21.1 Most recent information for several environmental metrics and the Pensacola Bay System.
Natural Resource Inventory
Olinger et al. 1975
Cooley 1978 (most comprehensive survey)
Ross and Jones 1979 (seven drainage basins)
Moshiri et al. 1980 (Santa Rosa Sound)
Butts and Lewis 2002 (macroinvertebrates)
Lores et al. 2002 (zooplankton)
Murrell and Lores 2004; Murrell et al. 2007 (phytoplankton)
Lewis et al. 2010 (fish)
Lewis 2010 (East and Blackwater Bays)
System Environmental Quality Summaries
Collard 1991a (1950-1990)
Von Appen and Winter 2000 (1990s)
Macauley et al. 2005 (quantitative for 1995-2000)
FDEP 2007, 2012b
Watershed Management Plans
West Florida Regional Planning Council 2005 (19 water quality action plans)
Northwest Florida Water Management District SWIM plan (projected completion-2017)
Nutrients/Eutrophication
FDEP 2012b (overview)
Caffrey and Murrell 2016 (overview)
Toxic Substances
Gulf of Mexico Program 1993 (research needs)
Sediment Quality
Long et al. 1997 (chemical quality/toxicity/ estuarine comparison)
Lewis et al. 2001b (golf course/Santa Rosa Sound)
Lewis et al. 2001d (phytotoxicity)
Debusk et al. 2002 (chemical quality/toxicity overview)
Mohrherr et al. 2005 (Bayou Texar)
Lewis and Daniels 2006 (pore water genotoxicity)
Mohrherr et al. 2006 (Bayou Chico)
Liebens et al. 2007 (Bayou Chico)
Lewis et al. 2007 (seagrass-rooted sediments)
109
-------
Table 21.1 (contiunued)
Mohrherr et al. 2008 (Bayou Grande)
Mohrherr et al. 2009, 2012 (Escambia Bay)
Dredging
Livingston 1971 (Mulatto Bayou)
Brinson and Keltner 1981 (Bayou Chico with recommendations)
Morgan and Stone 1989 (Bayou Texar)
Moshiri and Elewad 1990 (Bayou Texar)
Lewis et al. 2001a (Bayou Texar)
Bioaccumulation
Karouna-Renier et al. 2007 (PCBs, dioxins, trace metals, PBS, blue crabs, oysters)
Lewis et al. 2007 (above and below substrate seagrass tissues)
Snyder and Rao 2008 (dioxins, PCBs, trace metals, Escambia Bay, fish)
Kimbrough et al. 2008 (Mussel Watch Program summary for 3 PBS stations)
Goff 2009 (PCBs, Pensacola and Escambia Bays, mullet)
Snyder and Karouna-Renier 2009 (PCBs, dioxins, furans, mercury, oysters, blue crabs, fish, PBS)
Seagrass
Collard 1991 (review of value and restoration success for oysters and seagrass)
FDEP 2001 (management plan for Big Lagoon and Santa Rosa Sound)
Handley et al. 2003 (Gulf of Mexico and PBS summary)
Lewis et al. 2007 (chemical bioavailability)
Lewis et al. 2008 (historical coverage review)
Harvey et al. 2015 (current coverage)
Table 21.2 Knowledge-based uncertainties based on contaminant and resource management-related
information absent for the Pensacola Bay System that restricts environmental improvement.
1. System-wide analysis for current environmental condition and trend for many metrics
2. Number of FDEP impaired waters based on considerations of chemically-contaminated and toxic sediments;
low benthic diversity and PCB-contaminated seafood
3. Sensitive local biocriteria (structural and functional) to judge health (condition) of PBS dominant biota and
diversity-building habitats
4. Environmental concentrations, and water column and benthic toxic effects for chemicals of recent concern:
pharmaceuticals, anti-microbials, endocrine disruptors, nanomaterials, microplastics, veterinary products,
perfluorochemicals (anti-sticking and waterproofing agents) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (flame
retardants)
110
-------
Table 21.2 (continued)
5. System-wide nutrient budget
6. Long-term biological effects of the continued entry of contaminated groundwater from Superfund sites
7. Specific cause(s) of benthic degradation, and sediment acute and chronic toxicity to benthic flora and fauna
8. Impact of intermittent hydraulic dredging on short- and long-term environmental condition
9. Acute and chronic toxicities of tidal wetland sediments to rooted plants, nutrient-non-nutrient contaminant
concentrations to plankton and seagrass, and runoff from indirect wastewater discharges on receiving water
biota
10. Verified coverage and health of local biodiversity-building oyster reefs, seagrass meadows and tidal marsh
11. Quantified ecological and economic value of ecological goods and services produced by local naturally
occurring biodiversity-building habitats and their restorations/creations
12. Life-supporting requirements for successful long-term habitat restorations and creations
13. Ecological equivalence of natural, restored and created habitats
14. Dimensions of vegetative buffer zones and living shoreline modifications that provide maximum ecological
services for stormwater reductions and reduced inputs of chemicals and suspended solids
15. Public health risk for consumption of seafood containing combinations of human-harmful chemicals
16. Wildlife health risk for consuming chemically-contaminated prey from the Pensacola Bay System
17. Effects of tissue-accumulated chemicals, alone and in combination, on the health of dominant estuarine
biota
18. Incidence of histopathological disorders in dominant Pensacola Bay System biota
19. Definable limits of chemical and biological variability for the Pensacola Bay System and their impact on
conclusions for condition and chemical risk assessments
20. Functional redundancy of Pensacola Bay System biota
21. Validated local models to predict current and future effects of non-nutrient chemical stressors and climate
change on the ecological goods and services provided by the Pensacola Bay System
22. Cost-effective mitigation techniques for the chemical, biological and physical effects of climate change
(invasive species, upslope migration of tidal wetlands, degradation of seagrass and oyster habitats)
The current environmental trend and rate of improvement are uncertain for the PBS due to a variety of
reasons (Fig. 21.2). Over the past few decades, the PBS has been considered stable or on the rebound
(Ross and Jones 1979; Thorpe et al. 1997), and water quality has been considered fair and good
(Hopkins 1973; WFRPC 2005; Macauley et al. 2005; FDEP 2012a). Collard (1991a) summarized trends
for several biota and found no improvement in water quality (1970-1991) and macroinvertebrate
community composition (1955-1991). Caffery and Murrell (2015) reported that chlorophyll a
concentrations have remained steady for the last 40 years. A positive or upward trend for improvement
is supported, among other factors, by declines in nutrient concentrations, suspended solid
concentrations, septic treatment systems, large-scale fish kills, initiation of a state-wide gill net ban in
1994, the elimination of direct discharges of high-volume wastewaters to Pensacola and Escambia Bays,
improved wastewater treatment, and increasing use of living shoreline restorations. The listing of
impaired waters and TMDL implementation are also positive developments. As of 2010 (FDEP 2010a),
ill
-------
there were 43 impaired water segments in the Yellow, Blackwater and Escambia Rivers, Pensacola,
Escambia, Blackwater and East Bays, Santa Rosa Sound, and several bayous (Williams, Indian, Trout,
Tom King, Grande, Judges, Jakes, Mulatto). The parameters of concern were largely public health issues
for mercury levels in fish, the presence of fecal coliforms, and to a lesser extent, issues for low dissolved
oxygen, high nutrients and elevated chlorophyll a ( Florida Department of Environmental Protection
watershed assessment; accessed 2016 July 14). The number of impaired or degraded areas is likely
under-estimated if contaminated sediments, PCB-contaminated seafood, and low biodiversity are
included in the analysis. However, the degraded areas based on these parameters often overlap many
listed impaired waters (Fig. 21.3).
Environmental Trend
NEGATIVE
Baseline
1950
Legacy contaminants
Containated ground water
Contaminated sediments
Inconsistent seagrass recovery
Lack of scallop recovery
Oyster harvest restricted
Degraded shoreline configuration
(armoured, no buffer zone)
Invasive species increasing
Seafood contamination continues
Climate change increasing
Incomplete chemical database
2016
1960 -1975
POSITIVE A.
' Pesticides decreased
• Nutrients decreased
Fish kills uncommon
' Direct wastewater
discharges reduced
1 Better wastewater treatment
Gill net ban
1 TMDLs in place
1 Shoreline restorations increasing
1 Stormwater control increasing
1 Steptic tank replacement increasing
' Increased funding
1 Fish hatchery?
Figure 21.2 Several factors affecting determination of the rate of environmental improvement for the Pensacola
Bay System. Blue line=tlieoretical environmental improvement; 1950 baseline period before major environmental
deterioration.
112
-------
87°0'0"W
Blackwater
River
Escambia River
Yellow River
Escambia
. Bay ,
City
of
Pensacola
Pensacola Bay
Gulf of Mexico
87°0,0"W
Figure 21.3 The more environmentally-degraded areas in the Pensacola Bay System based on current knowledge
for water and sediment quality and contaminant bioaccumulation. Degraded areas generally overlap those for
listed impaired waters based on mercury in fish, fecal bacterial contamination and excess nutrients (FDEP 2010a).
In contrast to positive developments, there are few long-term quantitative trajectories for environmental
stressors and environmental parameters. Unconstrained entry of untreated stormwater remains a major
stressor, although constraints are increasing and the volumes entering the PBS are likely less than those
in the past. The total volume of stormwater entering the PBS has not been reported to our knowledge.
There is an incomplete chemical database for the effects and concentrations of chemicals of emerging
and current concern in the water column and sediment. Turbidity has been a stressor since 1900 (Collard
1991a) and continues to effect environmental quality of several areas. Sediments have become degraded,
chemically and biologically, and toxic, and continue to serve as a reservoir for upper trophic level
contaminant transfer. The specific cause(s) of toxicity and reduced benthic community quality remain
unknown, which restricts rehabilitation by the TMDL process. The oyster industry is limited and
temporally and spatially-restricted, shrimp harvests are reduced from historical levels, and the scallop
industry (Argopecten irrcidicins), which peaked during 1968-1969, is non-existent. Invasive species such
as the lion fish, are increasing and likely will continue to do so. Chemically-contaminated seafood
represents a public health risk. The estuarine food chain contains anthropogenic contaminants, for which
the effects, alone and in combination, on wildlife and organismal health are uncertain. Efforts to repair
and replace historically-destroyed habitats have been of mixed success because of often unknown
factors. The impact of the few successful restorations on improving the environmental quality of the
PBS has been beneficial but the extent is unknown. Armoured shorelines continue to inhibit seagrass
coverage.
113
-------
The current scientific uncertainties for the PBS are largely attributable to a combination of the lack of
sufficient economic support for coordinated resource management and conducting consistent state-of-
the-art chemical and biological monitoring (examples, Van der Meer 1997; USEPA 2003; FDEP 2013a).
Some uncertainty is also because of the limitations of environmental science that include the inability to
distinguish effects of most natural and anthropogenic stressors, alone and in combination, on the
functional and structural characteristics of aquatic life. There are minimal national, regional, and state
numerical criteria available to determine the significance of many environmental measurements made
within the PBS. Numerical metrics forjudging the condition of an estuary include the national and
Florida water quality criteria, proposed sediment quality criteria (MacDonald et al. 1996), metrics based
on regional frequency distributions (Friedmann and Hand 1989), and the condition criteria used in the
past by large monitoring programs conducted in part in the PBS (i.e., EMAP-Estuarine Monitoring and
Assessment Program; NCA-National Coastal Assessment). Important numerical benchmarks missing for
environmental judgements include tissue-based criteria, biological criteria, and consumption guidelines
for wildlife. Furthermore, exceedance frequency of the few tissue-based consumption guidelines, such
as for humans and mercury, depend upon which of the guidelines and consumption rates are used (Fig.
21.4), and if the presence of selenium is included in the assessment.
Hg Consumption
Guidance
Exceedance
Percent of Samples
Figure 21.4 Exceedance frequency of different consumption guidelines for mercury based on reported residues in
blue crabs, oyster and fish collected from the Pensacola Bay System. Guidelines from USEPA (2000b, 2001);
CCME (2001); FDA (2011); FDEP (2013a)
Much of the cause-effect research for the PBS has focused on excessive nutrients that appear to be no
longer a major stressor in most areas (FDEP 2012b). In contrast, the fate and effects of non-nutrient
contaminants, alone and in combination, are less understood. Concentrations of several historical
"problem" chemicals, despite being banned or restricted for use since 1972, persist in PBS surface
waters, sediments, and biota. Examples include DDT concentrations in Escambia Bay and adjacent
wetlands (Liebens and Mohrherr 2015), the presence of PCBs/furans in some seafood (Karouna-Renier
et al. 2007; Snyder and Karouna-Renier 2009), and dioxins and wood treating chemicals entering Bayou
Texar from contaminated groundwater (Liebens et al. 2006, 2007; URS 2012). In addition, nothing has
been published for the fate and effects of pharmaceuticals, personal care products and the highly
114
Wildlife
Subsistence Fishers
jHuman Health Water Quality Criterion
| Recreational Fishers
FDA Action Level
-------
bioaccumulated polybrominated diphenyl ethers and perfluorinated compounds (USEPA 2013a, b)
which can impact public health. These chemicals have been detected commonly in surface waters, are
toxic, and have been of concern since the mid-1990s. Research recommendations and background
toxicity data are available for these two compounds (USEPA 2008).
Urban stormwater runoff containing anthropogenic chemicals and suspended solids, contaminated
sediments, and the effects of global climate change are major stressors for the ecosystems of PBS.
Control and remediation of their effects represent the major challenge for future environmental
improvement more so than the research opportunities available to update information and fill data gaps
in the historical database. The most practical and cost-effective forward strategy is to determine the
current condition of the PBS, which will then serve as the baseline for future comparison using a
multiyear, metric-rich, system-wide environmental assessment. This should be followed by a frequently
conducted, long-term, state-of-the-art monitoring program that incorporates sensitive local indices of
chemical and biological condition. Guidance for this monitoring program is available from the National
Water Quality Monitoring Council (National Water Quality Monitoring Council; accessed 2016 July
13), USEPA (2000a, 2003), and Gulf of Mexico Alliance (2013 a, b). Habitat restorations that are
resilient to the increasing effects of climate change would supplement this monitoring program to
support the goal of incremental improvement. From resource allocation and management perspectives,
further chemical and biological data collection for Bayous Texar and Chico, as well as Escambia Bay,
should be decreased while areas less studied should be increased (Big Lagoon, East Bay, Blackwater
Bay, Bayou Grande). This research "downsizing" also applies to routine determinations of nutrients
(chlorophyll a concentrations), and the chemical and biological quality of sediments. PBS sediments that
are most likely to be contaminated have been effectively characterized for most physical, chemical, and
biological metrics. Two sediment-related issues in need of additional information, however, are
identification of the specific cause(s) of degradation and assessment of the environmental effects of
dredging. Sediment toxicity identification evaluations (USEPA 2007) can be used to determine which
contaminants are causing toxicity and lead to their control by the TMDL process, which is currently not
possible without a fixed numeric target. Without this information, sediment contamination will continue
to restrict environmental improvement in much of the PBS for the foreseeable future, unless extensive
dredging occurs or a large scouring event occurs as a result of hurricane activity as reported for Mobile
Bay (Isphording et al. 1987). Seven strategies for sediment recovery appear in the WFRPC (2005)
report, but most have not been implemented and others have not been effective.
In summary, although considerable advancement for scientific understanding has occurred in recent
years, an aggressive watershed and science-based management approach coupled with adaptive and
responsive regulation policy is needed if future environmental improvement to be achieved under the
influence of climate change. This is necessary since coastal environmental degradation is occurring at a
faster rate than the ability of the scientific community to identify sources, specific cause(s), and control
procedures. Effective basin management and regulation requires multiple factor risk assessment that
considers cascading and scale-related effects that require an ecosystem perspective. This is an idealized
approach, however, and all that can or should be done to fully protect the PBS from further degradation
is limited by funding and the yet to be understood controlling factors for the structural and functional
characteristics of the dominant biota. Consequently, we will never be certain of every technical detail
nor have answers to all of the science-based questions necessary to compensate for the historical
environmental decline. As a result, professional judgement will continue to be an important factor for
conducting focused research and developing the most effective resource management and research
strategies.
115
-------
Surface Water Improvement and Management
(S.W.I.M.) Program
Management Option* for thr Pentarola Bay Sjktcm:
Northwest Florida Water Manugcmcnl Dhtrlcl
July 1991
Surface Water Improvement and Management
(S.W.LM.) Program
The Pensacola Hay System
Biological Trends and C urrent Statu*
\
Research Needs for
Toxic Sobstances and
Pesticides in
The Gulf of Mexico:
Ilia,
jy
a
Northwest Florida Water Management District
Pensacola Bay System
Surface Water Improvement
and Management Plan
pensacola baV Watershed
MANAGEMENT GUIDE
AN
INTEGRATED
7f
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
IN THE
PENSACOLA MV SYSTEM
KtporfSibmUtaA Or fl\»
>. .-ntfytmT narula M
*** ,±
UiMMWA vw«m
rw pthoya wwrrx
#
Seagrass
Management Plan
lor
Big Lagoon and
Santa Rosa Sound
1 .
<.-/ S
&
THt
PfNSACOLA BAY
WATfRSHtD
MANAGEMENT PLAN
AN iNTf6RAHD ACTION PLAN
2005
LL
ims
ml
Pensacola Bay
Communlly-Bas«l Watershed Plan
t?"-Nature (*j
Conservancy
Figure 21.5 Examples of historical sources of largely unfulfilled recommendations for environmental
improvement of the Pensacola Bay System.
116
-------
22 Recommendations
Resource management plans for research, conservation, and restoration and their accompanying
recommendations have been numerous during the past 45 years. For examples, see Olinger et al. (1975);
Brinson and Keltner (1981); Lewis (1986); Pratt et al. (1990); Jones et al. (1992); Collard (1991a, b);
Gulf of Mexico Program (1993); Thorpe et al. (1997); BARC et al. (1998); Von Appen and Winter
(2000); DeBusk et al. (2002); Macauley et al. (2005); WFRPC (2005); Gulf of Mexico Alliance (2009);
and Caffery and Murrell (2015). The SWIM reports of Pratt et al. (1990) and the updated version by
Thorpe et al. (1997) describe as many as 37 projects related to non-point assessment, point sources,
habitat preservation, restoration and conservation, administrative planning, and education. The BARC et
al. (1998) report and updated version, WFRPC et al. (2005), are comprehensive and detailed. They
include as many as 54 action plans for database management, air quality, land management, water
quality, and public education. The "to-do-list" or recommendations in the WFRPC document
approximate 250. Many of the above plans and their recommendations have been largely planning
exercises with their implementation limited by lack of sufficient and long-term economic support.
Consequently, many previous recommendations, strategies, and action plans still wait action. Several
recommendations that follow encompass those previously made locally (Fig. 21.5), and parallel those
made in general for marine waters and the Gulf of Mexico (Gulf of Mexico Program 1993; Boesch et al.
2001; Heinz Center 2008; Gulf Ecosystem Restoration Task Force 2014). Implementation of the
following recommendations, either sequentially or in parallel, will require an interactive-phased
approach and a long-term resource commitment.
Environmental resource management-Fund an existing local or regional agency to improve
coordination and to oversee resource management, environmental monitoring, and research and
restoration activities for the PBS. The goal is to reduce repetitive and overlapping environmental studies
characteristic of the past.
Environmental information management-Create, fund, and maintain a frequently updated on-line site
to consolidate past and present environmental information such as for natural resource coverages, local,
regional, federal and state research activities, restoration progress, summaries of chemical and biological
monitoring results, updates for TMDL progress, and state regulatory actions. On-line site will increase
public awareness and assist policy makers and the regulatory community in making consensus-based
and technically-supported environmental management decisions.
Environmental condition and trend analysis-Determine the current environmental condition of the
PBS by conducting a one-time, multi-seasonal, multi-metric, and system-wide environmental analysis.
Focus this baseline study for locations and metrics historically less studied for which current information
is lacking, inadequate or outdated. Follow the comprehensive study with frequently conducted state-of-
the-art monitoring to update changes in condition over time and to establish the environmental trend.
The long-term periodic monitoring should be adaptable to new found information and include analysis
of chemicals of recent concern. Use of a stratified sampling design and targeted monitoring when
problems have been detected is recommended. Random site selection is inefficient and not sufficient
alone to effectively characterize local conditions.
Spacial priority-Future environmental research, natural resource characterizations, and monitoring
activity should decrease for Escambia Bay, Bayous Texar, and Chico unless major restoration activities
occur that need confirmation of progress. Redirect effort for areas with less diverse and limited
environmental databases such as for Big Lagoon, East and Blackwater Bays, and Bayou Grande.
Temporal variability for environmental metrics-Determine the temporal variability of in-situ single
117
-------
chemical and biological measurements by conducting seasonal evaluations. Determine the impact of the
variability on conclusions and recommendations for resource management actions and stressor risk
assessments. Determine the value of applying uncertainty or safety factors to single measurements to
account for the variability in results.
Anthropogenic chemicals-Standardize analytical methods and quality assurance and control procedures
used to determine effects/fate of anthropogenic-source contaminants in the PBS. Differentiate
anthropogenic toxicant-caused effects on biota from those caused by natural stressors. Identify a
standard toxicity test battery (test species) for common PBS anthropogenic chemicals. Determine the
chronic toxic effect and no effect concentrations for common shoreline chemicals (nutrients and non-
nutrient contaminants) alone and in combination to phytoplankton, zooplankton, and seagrass. Focus on
analyzing the fate and effects of highly phytotoxic atrazine and Irgarol on seagrass meadows. Conduct
toxicity tests under natural extreme conditions for salinity and temperature using laboratory tests and in-
situ enclosures and mesocosms. Determine effects of runoff from indirect wastewater discharges (spray
irrigation, wetland pass-through) on receiving water biota. Develop and validate locally-sensitive
models to predict the impacts of current and future common chemical stressors on keystone species and
biodiversity-building habitats.
Water quality-Reduce frequency of routine measurements for most physicochemical measurements,
nutrients, and chlorophyll a. Increase database for environmental concentrations and toxic effects of
water column chemicals for which no or inadequate information is available. Conduct monitoring
programs for the highly phytotoxic atrazine, a local widely used herbicide, and Irgarol, an anti-fouling
chemical commonly found in Florida marina areas. Likewise, determine concentrations for
pharmaceuticals, antimicrobials, endocrine disruptors, veterinary products, personal care products,
nanomaterials such as microplastics, perfluorochemicals (anti-sticking and waterproofing agents), and
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (flame retardants). Validate local nutrient criteria by exposing plankton
and submerged vegetation using in-situ and laboratory mesocosms. Expose the biota to combinations of
ambient nutrient concentrations and non-nutrient contaminants (i.e., herbicides) under the influence of
different conditions of temperature and salinity.
Sediment quality-Develop a management and improvement plan for contaminated sediments. Reduce
the frequency of routine chemical and biological measurements for which new information gain will be
minimal. These measurements include trace metal concentrations, acute toxicity, and benthic community
analysis. Focus attention on identifying the cause(s) of sediment toxicity and benthic degradation using a
combination of chronic toxicity tests and sediment toxicity identification evaluations so that the TMDL
process can be applied. Determine the acute and chronic phytotoxicities of tidal wetland and seagrass-
rooted sediments affected by stormwater runoff. Identify the optimal sediment chemical conditions
needed to support sustainable and resilient seagrass meadows. Determine benthic effects and fate of
chemicals of more recent concern listed above for water quality.
Dredging-Prevent the entry of contaminants and suspended solids to the waterbody of interest before
dredging occurs to prevent repetitive and unnecessary expense. Determine the short-term and long-term
ecological effects of local dredging events so that their assumed environmental value can be validated.
Public health-Public health investigations for seafood safety should continue PBS-wide with frequent
monitoring for mercury, PCBs, furans, dioxins, and, to a lesser extent, inorganic arsenic. Develop a
baseline database for the human-harmful perfluorinated compounds and polybrominated diphenyl ethers
for which no local tissue-based published information is available. Evaluate public health risk using a
proactive tissue-chemical mixture approach.
Wildlife health-Conduct a risk assessment for wildlife consumers of PBS-dependent prey using
information for toxic effects and body burdens of local wildlife species. Evaluate health risk using a
118
-------
proactive tissue-chemical mixture approach.
Organism health-Assess lethal and sublethal impacts of accumulated chemicals, alone and in
combination, on health of dominant PBS biota. Routinely determine the incidence of histopathological
abnormalities for local recreationally and commercially important shrimp, oysters, blue crabs, and fish.
Biocriteria-Determine locally sensitive indicators of biological condition (biocriteria) for dominant
diversity-building habitats (tidal wetlands, oyster reefs, seagrass meadows). Use condition indicators for
resource monitoring and judging post-restoration progress.
Habitat restorations/coverage-identify local life-supporting requirements prior to habitat restorations
and creations. Conduct long-term post-restoration monitoring to determine success. Determine the
ecological and economic benefits of successful restorations, singular and in aggregate, so their overall
value to improving the condition of the PBS can be judged. Determine the ecological equivalency of
created and restored habitats to similar naturally occurring habitats. Prior to full scale seagrass
restorations, consider use of pilot plots and assessment of sediment phytotoxicity to seedlings. Conduct
routine aerial surveys for oyster reef, salt marsh, and seagrass coverage with accompanying ground-
truthing and mapping (3-6 years). Monitor condition of these habitats every 1-2 years using locally-
developed sensitive biocriteria.
Shoreline modifications-Replace armoured and non-vegetated shorelines with a combination of
vegetative buffer zones and/or living shorelines to improve stormwater quality (removal of toxicants and
suspended solids). Quantify the near-field and far-field benefits or performance of the modifications and
their contribution to the overall ecological condition of the PBS. Determine and validate the dimensions
of local shoreline modifications (community-based and buffer vegetated zones) that provide the
maximum environmental benefits. Determine the cost/ecological benefit ratios for these modifications
needed for effective resource allocations and management.
Climate change-Ensure that the PBS is a climate change-ready estuary by increasing coverage of
biodiversity-building habitats (increases resiliency). Adapt to and minimize expected adverse effects by
incorporation of expected changes in sea level, shoreline configuration, biodiversity (invasive species),
reductions in habitat coverage and condition of seagrass and oyster habitats into resource management
and restoration plans.
Environmental economic analysis-Conduct a thorough economic analysis for the environmental
services and goods provided by the PBS. Refine the economic analysis presented in this summary for
seagrass meadows, oyster reefs, and tidal/salt marshes using validated current coverages and locally-
developed economic evaluations for ecological services and goods. This includes reliable economic
information for annual seafood harvests.
Predictive models-Develop the metadata needed to support development and validation of locally-
sensitive models capable of predicting the current and future effects of different levels of stressors on the
ecological services and goods produced the PBS ecosystem. Examples: RIOS and H20 models
Financial commitment-Provide adequate, long-term, consistent, multi-organizational financial
commitment for information consolidation/communication, research, modelling, habitat restorations,
and resource monitoring.
Environmental education-Increase quality and accessibility of environmental education for students,
public and policy makers. "Good scholars are not encouraged as they ought to be. Science is scarcely
thought to be a subject worthy of conversation. Swarms of children are running about the streets,
improving rapidly in dissipation and vice" (A View of West Florida, J.L. Williams 1827).
119
-------
23 Literature Cited
Adams JK. 1972. A comparative study of phytoplankton primary productivity and related parameters in
two northwestern Florida estuarine bayous. Master Thesis, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL.
Anderson SM, Feldman A, James A, Katin C, Wise WR. 2005. Assessment of coastal water resources
and watershed conditions at Gulf Islands National Seashore (Florida and Mississippi). Technical Report
NPS/NRWRD/NRTR-2005/330, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 198 p.
Baggett, LP, Powers SP, Brumbaugh R, Coen LD, DeAngelis B, Greene J, Hancock B, Morlock S.
2014. Oyster habitat restoration monitoring and assessment handbook. The Nature Conservancy,
Arlington, VA. 96 p.
Barbier EB, Hacker SD, Kennedy C, Koch EW, Stier AC, Silliman BR. 2011. The value of estuarine
and coastal ecosystem services. Ecol. Monogr. 81:169-193.
Barnett E, Gunter J. 1985. Comprehensive shellfish growing area survey Pensacola Bay System,
Pensacola, Florida. Florida Department of Natural Resources. Tallahassee. FL. 146 p.
Baseline Inc. 1973. An assessment of the assimilative capacity of Pensacola Bay for treated sewage
effluent. Consultants in Applied Ecology, Gulf Breeze, FL. 89 p.
Bass DG, Hitt VG. 1977. Ecology of the Blackwater System, Florida. Northwest Streams Research
Project, Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission, Tallahassee, FL.
Bass DG. 1993. North Florida Streams Research Project 1988-1993, Study I, Fish community analysis.
Completion Report, Wallop-Breaux Project F-36. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission,
Tallahassee, FL. 75 p.
Bay Area Research Council, FDEP, FDCA, NOAA. 1998. The Pensacola Bay Watershed Management
Guide: An integrated ecosystem action plan. Florida Department of Environmental Protection.
Tallahassee, FL. 268 p.
Beck MW, Odaya JJ, Banchet J, Bergan B, Keller R, Martin R, Matthews C, Ranseur G. 2000.
Identification of priority sites for conservation in the northern Gulf of Mexico ecoregional plan. The
Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. 47 p.
Beck MW, Brumbaugh RD, Airioldi L, Carranza A, Coen LD, Crawford C, Defeo O, Edgar GJ,
Nancock B, Kay MC, Lenihan HS, Luckenbach MW, Toropova CL, Zhang G, Guo X. 2011. Oyster
reefs at risk and recommendations for conservation, restoration and management. Bioscience 61:107-
116.
Beyer WN, Heinz GH, Redmon-Norwood AW (eds.). 1996. Environmental contaminants in wildlife.
Interpreting tissue concentrations, CRC Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. 494 p.
Bloom NS. 1992. Of the chemical form of mercury in edible fish and marine invertebrate tissue.
Canadian Journal Fisheries and Aquatic Science 49:1010-1017.
120
-------
Boesch DE, Burroughs RH, Baker JE, Mason RP, Rowe CL, Siefert RL. 2001. Marine Pollution in the
United States. Pew Ocean Commission, Arlington, VA. 50 p.
Bohannon BJ. 1971. The occurrence of nitrogen fixation in Escambia Bay and Mulatto Bayou,
Pensacola, Florida. Master's Thesis, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 66 p.
Borton CR. 2007. Florida's Rivers, Pineapple Press, Sarasota, FL. 240 p.
Bream Fisherman Association. 1987. An environmental bibliography for northwest Florida. 1900-1985,
Pensacola, Florida. 314 p.
Brecken-Folse J. 1989. Impact of toxic substances and pesticides on nearshore Gulf of Mexico;
preliminary comparison of 25 estuarine drainage systems based on releases of toxics from industrial
and municipal sites and pesticides run-off from agriculture operations in 1989. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, FL. 50 p.
Brice JJ. 1898. Report on fish and fisheries of the coastal waters of Florida. Reports of the U.S. Fish
Commission 22:263-342.
Bricker S, Longstaff B, Dennison W, Jones A, Boicourt K, Wicks C, Woerner J. 2007. Effects of
nutrient enrichment in the Nation's estuaries: a decade of change. Decision Analysis Series No. 26,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Coastal Ocean Program, National Center for
Coastal Ocean Science, Silver Springs, MD. 322 p.
Brinson ST, Keltner JM. 1981. Water quality and biological assessment of Bayou Chico, Florida: a two
part study-effects of removal on contaminated sediments on water quality and benthos and
characteristics of stormwater. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Tallahassee, FL. 127 p.
Burch T. 1981. Significant environmental investigations in the Northwest Florida Water Management
District: a bibliography. WRSR 81-2, Northwest Florida Water Management District, Havana, FL. 56 p.
Butler PA. 1973. Residues in fish, wildlife and estuaries. Pesticides Monitoring Journal 6: 238-362.
Butts G. 1990a. A special monitoring project basin survey: Santa Rosa Sound, Pensacola Bay,
Escambia River and Bay, 1986-1989, Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Pensacola, FL.
21 p.
Butts G. 1990b. A special monitoring project basin survey: biological and physicochemical assessment
of Escambia River. Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Pensacola, FL. 38 p.
Butts GL, Frydenborg R. 1991. Biological assessment of the Pensacola Naval Air Station, NAS
wastewater treatment plant. Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Pensacola, FL. 26 p.
Butts G, Ray D. 1987. An investigation of upper Escambia Bay during drought conditions. July-August
1986, Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Pensacola, FL.
Butts GL, Frydenborg R. 1992a. Biological assessment of Air Products and Chemicals Inc. Florida
Department of Environmental Regulation, Biology Section, Pensacola, FL. 23 p.
121
-------
Butts GL, Frydenborg R. 1992b. Biological Assessment of Navarre Beach sewage treatment plant.
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Biology Section, Pensacola, FL. 21 p.
Butts GL, Frydenborg R. 1992c. Biological assessment of American Cyanamid. Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation, Biology Section, Pensacola, FL. 21 p.
Butts G, Lewis MA. 2002. A survey for chemical quality, sediment toxicity and macroinvertebrate
community composition in three Florida urbanized bayous. Gulf of Mexico Science 1:1-11.
Butts GL, Ray DH, Donelan LW. 1990. A benthic macroinvertebrate and water chemistry assessment
of the ECUA Main Street discharge into Pensacola Bay. Florida Department of Environmental
Regulation, Pensacola, FL.
Caffrey JM. 2010. Spatial and temporal trends in atmospheric deposition in the Pensacola Bay
watershed. National Water Quality Monitoring Conference, April 25-29, 2010, Denver, CO.
Caffrey JM, Murrell MC. 2016. A historical perspective on eutrophication in the Pensacola Bay estuary
FL, USA. In: Aquatic Microbial Ecology and Biogeochemistry, Gilbert PM and Kana TM (eds.),
Springer International Publishing, Switzeralnd. In Press.
Caffrey JM, Landing WM, Noldk SD, Gosnell KJ, Bagui SS Bague SC. 2010. Atmospheric deposition
of mercury and major ions to the Pensacola (Florida) watershed: spatial, seasonal, and inter-annual.
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10:1-24.
Cantillo AY, Lauenstein GG, O'Connor TP, Johnson WE. 2001. Florida Panhandle. Regional Report
Series 6, National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Services, Silver Springs, MD.
66 p.
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). 2001. Canadian tissue residue guidelines
for the protection of wildlife consumers of aquatic biota. CCME, Publication 1299, Winnipeg, MB. 18
P-
Carlson PR, Madley K. 2007. State of Florida. In: Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of
Mexico: 1940-2002, Handley L, Alteman D, and DeMay R (eds.), U.S. Geological Survey Scientific
Investigations Report 2006-5287, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 855-R-04-003, U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, VA. pp 98-114.
Carpenter DO. 1998. Polychlorinated biphenyls and human health. International Journal of
Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 11:291-303.
Chapman P. 1990. The sediment quality triad approach to determining pollution-induced degradation.
Science of the Total Environmental 97-98:815-825.
Chapman PM, Fairbrother A, Brown D. 1998. A critical evaluation of safety (uncertainty) factors for
ecological risk assessment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 17:99-108.
Cole M, Lindeque P, Halsband C, Galloway TS. 2011 Microplastics as contaminants in the marine
environment: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62:2588-2597.
122
-------
Collard SB. 1991a. The Pensacola Bay System: Biological Trends and Current Status. Water Resources
Special Report 91-3, Northwest Florida Water Management District, Havana, FL. 181 p.
Collard SB. 1991b. Management options for the Pensacola Bay System: the potential value of seagrass
transplanting and oyster bed refurbishment programs. Water Resources Special Report 91-4,
Northwest Florida Water Management District. Pensacola, FL. 33 p.
Committee on Environment and Natural Resources 2010. Scientific assessment of hypoxia in U.S.
coastal waters. Interagency workgroup on harmful algal blooms, hypoxia, and human health of the joint
subcommittee on ocean science and technology. Washington, D.C. 154 p.
Conklin PJ. 1976. The significance of microalgae in the estuarine system. Master's Thesis, University
of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 70 p.
Cooley NR. 1970. Estuarine Faunal Inventory. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 335, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. pp 12-16.
Cooley NR. 1978. An inventory of the estuarine fauna in the vicinity of Pensacola, Florida. Florida
Marine Research Publications No. 31, Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research
Laboratory, St. Petersburg, FL. 119 p.
Cooper RJ, Sundin G, Cedarbaum SB, Gannon JJ. 2005. Natural resource summary for Gulf Islands
National Seashore. Final Report, University of Georgia, Warnell School of Forest Resources, Athens,
GA. 139 p.
Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., De Groot, R., Faber, S., Grasso, M., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.V.,
Paruelo, J., and Raskin, R.G. 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital.
Nature 387:253-260.
Cross LM. 2014. Gulf Coast Community Handbook-Case studies from Gulf of Mexico communities for
incorporating climate change resiliency into habitat planning and protection. Technical Report #01-14,
Tampa Bay Estuary Program. St. Petersburg, FL. 50 p.
Dawes CJ, Phillips RC, Morrison G. 2004. Seagrass communities of the Gulf coast of Florida: status
and ecology. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Wildlife Institute, the Tampa Bay
Estuary Program, St. Petersburg, FL. 74 p.
Debusk WF, Poyer, I, Herzfeld, I. 2002. Sediment quality in the Pensacola Bay System. Final Report,
University of Florida, Soil and Water Science Department, Gainesville, FL. 163 p.
Derraik JGB. 2002. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine
Pollution Bulletin 44:842-852.
De Sylva D. 1955. Report on pollution and fish mortality in Bayou Chico, Pensacola, Florida. Report
55-31, University of Miami, Marine Lab. 4 p.
Devereux R, Yates DF, Aukamp J, Quarles RL, Jordan SJ, Stanly RS, Eldridge PM. 2011. Interactions
of Thalassia testudinum and sediment biogeochemistry in Santa Rosa Sound, N.W. Florida. Marine
Biology Research 7:317-331.
123
-------
DiDonato GT, Lores EM, Murrell MC, Smith LM, Caffrey JM. 2006. Benthic nutrient flux in a small
estuary in northwestern Florida. Gulf and Caribbean Research 18:15-25.
Duke TW, Lowe JI, Wilson AJ Jr. 1970. A polychlorinated biphenyl (Aroclor 1254) in the water,
sediment and biota of Escambia Bay. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination Toxicology 5:171-180.
Durako MJ, Shup JJ, Delon MF, Daeschner SW. 1995. A bioassay approach to seagrass restoration. In:
Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Ecosystem Restoration and Creation. Webb FJ and
Cannizzaro PJ (eds.), Hillsborough Community College, Tampa, FL. pp 45-55.
Dye LC. 1987. Surface and near surface zooplankton collected during 1973 in Escambia and East Bays,
in Northwest Florida. Master's Thesis. University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 53 p.
E2 Inc. 2010. Third five-year report (2005-2009) for Agrico Chemical Company, Pensacola, Escambia
County, Florida. E2 Inc., Charlottesville, VA. 46 p.
EA Engineering, Science and Technology 2000. Data report and evaluation of dredged material from
Bayou Chico channel, Pensacola Bay, Florida. EA Engineering, Science and Technology/Savannah
Laboratories, 61144.06, August 2000. Sparks, MD.137 p.
Eisler R. 1987. Mercury hazards to fish, wildlife and invertebrates: a synoptic review. Biological Report
85, U.S. Department of the Interior, Laurel, MD. 90 p.
Elder JF, Dresler PV. 1988. Accumulation and bioconcentration of aromatic hydrocarbons in a
nearshore estuarine environment near a Pensacola (Florida) creosote contamination site. Environmental
Pollution 49:117-132.
Engle VD, Summers JK. 1998. Determining the cause of benthic condition. Environmental Monitoring
and Assessment 51:381-397.
Engle VD, Summers JK. 1999. Refinement, validation, and application of a benthic condition index for
northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries. Estuaries 22:624-635.
Engle VD. 2011. Estimating the provision of ecosystem services by Gulf of Mexico coastal wetlands.
Wetlands 31:179-193.
Eubank F. 1975. Escambia, Santa Rosa and Okaloosa Counties: a checklist of selected research 1965-
1975. University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL.
Farber S, Costanza R. 1987. The economic value of wetland systems. Journal of Environmental
Management 24:41-51.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS). 2004. Shellfish harvesting area
classification boundaries and management plans. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services, Tallahassee, FL. 18 p.
FDACS. 2005. Comprehensive shellfish harvesting area survey of the Pensacola Bay System -
Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services,
124
-------
Tallahassee, FL.
FDEP. 2001a. Seagrass management plan for Big Lagoon and Santa Rosa Sound. Florida Department
of Environmental Protection, Pensacola, FL. 44 p.
FDEP. 2001b. Project Green Shores Summary. Florida Department of Environmental
Protection, Northwest District. Tallahassee, FL. 2 p.
FDEP. 2001c. Florida seagrass facts, [accessed 2016 July 13], Florida Department of Environmental
Protection. Seagrass Recovery Resources. 2 p.
FDEP. 2004. Water Quality Status Report: Pensacola Bay. Florida Department of Environmental
Protection, Northwest District, Division of Water Resources Management, Tallahassee, FL. 213 p.
FDEP. 2005. The Pensacola Bay Watershed Management Plan. Florida Department of Environmental
Protection, Tallahassee, FL. 319 p.
FDEP. 2007. Water Quality Assessment Report: Pensacola Bay, Division of Water Resource
Management, Northwest District, Tallahassee, FL. 298 p.
FDEP. 2008. Integrated water quality assessment for Florida 305b report and 303(d) list update.
Tallahassee, FL. 142 p.
FDEP. 2010a. Final verified list of impaired waters for Group 4 Pensacola Bay. [accessed 2016 July
13], Florida Department of Environmental Protection Watershed Assessment. Tallahassee, FL.
FDEP. 2010b. Surface water quality standards. Chapter 62-302, Florida Administrative Code.
Tallahassee, FL. 78 p.
FDEP. 2011. Bayou Chico (Pensacola Basin) Management Action Plan. Florida Department of
Environmental Protection, Tallahassee, FL. 68 p.
FDEP. 2012a. Integrated water quality assessment for Florida: 2012 305(b) report and 303(d) list
update. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Tallahassee, FL. 257 p.do
FDEP. 2012b. Site-specific information in support of establishing numeric nutrient criteria for
Pensacola Bay. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Tallahassee, FL. 55 p.
FDEP. 2012c. Technical support document for USEPA's proposed rule for numeric nutrient criteria for
Florida estuaries, coastal waters and south Florida inland flowing waters. Vol. 1, Estuaries, Tallahassee,
FL. 333 p.
FDEP. 2013a. Final report: mercury TMDL for the State of Florida. Watershed Evaluation and TMDL
Section, Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Tallahassee, FL. 104 p.
FDEP. 2013b. Monitoring Design Document. Division of Environmental Assessment and Restoration,
[accessed 2016 July 14], Florida Department of Environmental Protection Watershed monitoring design
documents. Tallahassee, FL.
125
-------
FDEP. 2014. Integrated water quality assessment for Florida: 2014 sections 303(d), 305(b) and 314
report and listing update. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Tallahassee, FL. 296 p.
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (FDER). 1975. Summer alga blooms and marine
organism problems of Northwest Florida Gulf beach waters. Tallahassee, FL.
FDER Bureau of Water Analysis. 1979. Limiting nutrient algal assays of Pensacola Bay, FL. Florida
Department of Environmental Regulation. 15 p.
FDER Bureau of Water Analysis. 1981. Bioassays of Monsanto Textiles Company and Pensacola Main
Street Sewage Treatment Plant. Pensacola, FL. Florida Department of Environmental Regulation.
FDER Bureau of Water Analysis. 1984. Bioassays of Air Products and Chemicals Inc., American
Cyanamid Fibers Division and Pensacola Naval Air Station sewage treatment. Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation. Pensacola, FL. 14 p. and 26 p.
Fisher WS, Oliver LM, Winstead JT, Aswani K, Volety T. 2003. Stimulation of defense factors for
oysters deployed to contaminated sites in Pensacola Bay, Florida. EPA/600/J-03/405, Aquatic
Toxicology 64:375-391.
Flemer DA, Kruczynski WL, Ruth BF, Bundrick CM. 1998. The relative influence of hypoxia, anoxia,
and associated environmental factors as determinants of macrobenthic community structure in a
Northern Gulf of Mexico estuary. Journal Aquatic Ecosystem Stress and Recovery 6:311-327.
Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission. 2012. Florida's State Wildlife Action Plan, A Comprehensive
Wildlife Conservation Strategy. Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission. Tallahassee, FL. 665 p.
Florida Oceans and Coastal Council. 2009. The effects of climate change on Florida's ocean and coastal
resources. A special report to the Florida energy and climate commission and the people of Florida.
Tallahassee, FL. 34 p.
Florida State Board of Health-Bureau of Sanitary Engineering. 1958. Escambia Bay bioassay. April-
May 1958. Florida State Board of Health, Tallahassee, FL. 13 p.
Fodrie FJ, Heck KL, Powers SP, Graham WM, Robinson KL. 2013. Climate-related, decadal-scale
assemblage changes of seagrass-associated fishes in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Global Change
Biology 1:48-59.
Friedmann M, Hand J. 1989. Typical water quality values for Florida's Lakes, streams and estuaries.
Bureau of Surface Water Management, Department of Environmental Regulation, Tallahassee, FL. 23
P-
Geselbracht L, Freeman K, Birch A, Gordon D, Knight A, O'Brien M, Oetting J. 2013. Modeling and
abating the impacts of sea level rise on five significant estuarine systems in the Gulf of Mexico, Final
report to the USEPA-Gulf of Mexico Program, Project# MX-95463410-2. The Nature Conservancy.
Maitland, FL. 132 p.
Glassen RC. 1977. Bayou Chico Restoration Study. Florida Department of Environmental Regulation.
Tallahassee, FL. 47 p.
126
-------
Goerlitz DF, Troutman DE, Godsy EM, Franks BJ. 1985. Migration of wood-preserving chemicals in
contaminated groundwater in a sand aquifer at Pensacola, Florida. Environmental Science Technology
19:955-961.
Goff K. 2009. Final report. PCBs in mullet (M cephalus) in Pensacola Bay System, Florida.
Unpublished report, Florida Department of Health, Division of Environmental Health. Tallahassee, FL.
13 p.
Goldstein J, Birch A, Freeman K, Boudreau D, Arkema K, Wyatt K. 2015. Informing planning for
multiple ecosystem-service benefits in the Perdido and Pensacola Bay watersheds: technical report on
the pilot application of the resource Investment Optimization System (RIOS). The Nature Conservancy,
Natural Capital Project. 60 p.
Goode GB. 1879. Catalogue of a collection of fishes sent from Pensacola, Florida and vicinity by Mr.
Silas Sterns with description of six new species. Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum 2:121-156.
Grabowski JH, Brumbaugh RD, Conrad RF, Keeler AG, Opaluch JJ, Petersen CH, Piehler MF, Powers
SP, Smyth AR. 2012. Economic evaluation of ecosystem services provided by oyster reefs. Bioscience
62: 900-909.
Grigsby ME. 1982. Effects of Diuron, Caparol and Terbacil on three physiological processes of Ruppia
maritima L. M.S. Thesis, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 56 p.
Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force. 2011. Gulf of Mexico Regional Ecosystem Restoration.
119 p. Strategy, [accessed 2016 July 13], EPA Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force.
Gulf of Mexico Program. 1993. Research needs for toxic substances and pesticides in the Gulf of
Mexico-a strategy. Gulf of Mexico Program Office, Stennis Space Center, MS. 93 p.
Gulf of Mexico Alliance. 2009. Governor's Action Plan II for Healthy and Resilient Coasts 2009-2014.
GOMA, Ocean Springs, MS. 35 p.
Gulf of Mexico Alliance. 2013a. White Paper on Gulf of Mexico Water-Quality Monitoring, [accessed
2016 July 13], Gulf of Mexico Alliance Gulf Monitoring White Paper. GOMA, Ocean Springs, MS.
Gulf of Mexico Alliance. 2013b. Gulf monitoring network-monitoring design, [accessed 2016 July 14],
Gulf of Mexico Alliance monitoring design. GOMA, Ocean Springs, MS.
Haburay K, Crooke CF, Hastings RW. 1968.-Tropical marine fishes from Pensacola, Florida. Quarterly
Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 42:213-219.
Hagy J. 2009. Nutrients in Pensacola Bay: inputs, primary and secondary responses and impacts on
designated uses, Florida Department of Environmental Protection Nutrient Criteria Workshop, Gulf
Breeze, FL.
Hagy JD III, Murrell MC. 2007. Susceptibility of a Northern Gulf of Mexico estuary to hypoxia: an
analysis using box models. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 74(l-2):239-253.
127
-------
Hagy JD, Kurtz JC, Greene RM. 2008. An approach for developing numeric nutrient criteria for a Gulf
Coast estuary. EPA/600/R-08/004. Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C. 35 p.
Hall S. 1972. Wastewater discharges into Pensacola Bay, Escambia Bay and River (Excluding
Monsanto, American Cyanamid and Air Products). National Technical Information Service Report PB-
228.
Hall H, Blair S, Martinez, K, Cathy A, Brown M. 2010. The Blackwater River watershed: a technical
report. University of Florida Conservation Clinic, NSF funded Adaptive Management of Wetlands,
Waterways and Watersheds, IGERT, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 59 p.
Han L, Jordan KJ. 2005. Estimating and mapping chlorophyll-a concentration in Pensacola Bay,
Florida using Landsat ETM data. International Journal of Remote Sensing 26:5245-5254.
Handley L, Altsman D, DeMay R. (eds.) 2007. Seagrass status and trends in the northern Gulf of
Mexico: 1940-2002. USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2006—5287, EPA 855-R-04-003, Gulf of
Mexico Program. Stennis, MS. 267 p.
Hannah RP, Simmons AT, Moshiri GA. 1972. Nutrient-productivity relationships in a bayou estuary.
Journal of the Water Pollution Contron Federation 45:2508-2520.
Hansen DJ, Wilson AJ. 1970. Residues in fish, wildlife, and estuaries; significance of DDT residues
from the estuary near Pensacola, Florida. Pesticides Monitoring Journal 4:51-56.
Harvey A, Fugate BL, Kebert K, Bryon D, Heck K, Carlson PR. 2015. Summary report for the
Pensacola region, SIMM Report No. 1.1, In: Seagrass Integrated Mapping and Monitoring Report No.
2, Yarbro L and Carlson PR (eds.), Technical Report TR-17B, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, St.
Petersburg, FL. 14 p.
Hass Center. 2006. Economic Analysis of the Contributions of Choctawhatchee Bay to Okaloosa and
Walton Counties, [accessed 2016 July 14], UWF HAAS Center.
Hayes B. 2010. Ecology of Pensacola Bay, University of West Florida. Pensacola, FL. 38 p.
Heck KL Jr, Sullivan MJ, Zandi JM, Moncreiff CA. 1996. An ecological analysis of seagrass meadows
of the Gulf Island National Seashore-years one, two, and three: seasonal assessment and inventory,
interaction studies and assessment/inventory. Final report to the National Park Service, Marine
Environment Science Consortium, University of South Alabama, Dauphin Island, AL. 88 p.
Heimlich RE, Weibe KD, Claasen R, Gadsy D, House RM. 1998. Wetlands and agriculture: private
interests and public benefits. U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Report 765.10, Resource
Economics Division, ERS, USD A, Washington, D.C. 30 p.
Heinz Center. 2008. State of the Nations Ecosystems, The John Heinz III Center for Science,
Economics and the Environment, Island Press, Washington, D.C. 44 p.
Hemming JM, Brim MS, Jarvis RB. 2003. A survey of dioxin and furan compounds in the sediments of
Florida panhandle bay systems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:491-521.
128
-------
Henderson J, O'Neill LJ. 2003. Economic values associated with construction of oyster reefs by the
Corps of Engineers. EMRRP Technical Notes Collection (ERDC TN-EMRRP-ER-01), U.S. Army
Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS. 10 p.
Henningson, Durham and Richardson Inc., 1975. Bayou Texar restoration study Vol. 1 and 2.
Intergovernmental Office, Pensacola, FL.
Hlady WG, Mullen RC, Hopkins RS. 1993. Vibrio vulnificus from raw oysters. Leading cause of
reported deaths from foodborne illness in Florida. Journal of the Florida Medical Association 80:536-
538.
Hopkins TS. 1973. Marine ecology in Escarosa. Contract No. CCC-03-72.and CCC-14-72, Florida
Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Coordination Council, Tallahassee, FL. 100 p.
Hopkins TS, Schomer NS. 1975. An analysis of selected estuarine ecosystem parameters in Escambia
and East Bays in response to removal of point source effluents. Florida Sea Grant Office, Pensacola,
FL.
Hudson TH. 1990. Pensacola Bay System Oyster Resources Summary. Florida Department of Natural
Resources Shellfish Environmental Assessment, Tallahassee, FL. 13 p.
Hudson TJ, Wiggins DR. 1996. Comprehensive shellfish harvesting area survey of Pensacola Bay
System Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties, Florida. Florida Department of Environmental Protection,
Tallahassee, FL.
Isphording WC, Ismand FD, Flowers GC. 1987. Storm-related rejuvenation of a northern Gulf of
Mexico estuary. Transactions of the Gulf Coast Assocation of Geological Societies 37:357-370.
Jones WK, Cason JH, Bjorklund R. 1992. A literature-based review of the physical, sedimentary and
water quality aspects of the Pensacola Bay System. Water Resources Special Report 92-5, Northwest
Florida Water Management District, Havana, FL. 58 p.
Jordan DS, Gilbert CH, 1882. Notes on fishes observed about Pensacola, Florida and Galveston, Texas
with description of new species. Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum 5:241-307.
Jordan DS 1884. Notes on the collection of fishes from Pensacola, Florida, obtained by Silas Sterns
with description of two new species (Exocoetus volador and Gnathypops mystacinus), Proceedings of
the U.S. National Museum 7:33-40.
Jordan DS 1885. Description of three new species {Prionotus stearnsi, Prionotus ophyras and Anthias
vivanus) collected at Pensacola, Florida, by Mr. Silas Stearns. Proceedings of the U.S. National
Museum 7:541-545.
Jordan DS 1886. Notes on some fishes collected at Pensacola by Mr. Silas Stearns with description of
one new species (Chaetondon aya). Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum 9:225-229.
Juhl AR, Murrell MC. 2005. Interactions between nutrients, phytoplankton growth, and
microzooplankton grazing in a Gulf of Mexico estuary. Aquatic Microbial Ecology 38:147-156.
129
-------
Juhl AR, Murrell MC. 2008. Nutrient limitation of phytoplankton growth and physiology in a
subtropical estuary (Pensacola Bay, Florida). Bulletin of Marine Science 82:59-82.
Kannan K, Smith RG, Lee RF, Windom HL, Heitmuller PT, Macauley JM, Summers JK. 1998.
Distribution of total mercury and methylmercury in water, sediment and fish from south Florida
estuaries. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 34:109-118.
Karouna-Renier ND, Snyder RA, Allison JG, Wagner MG, Rao KR. 2007. Accumulation of organic
and inorganic contaminants in shellfish collected in estuarine waters near Pensacola, Florida:
contamination profiles and risks to human consumers. Environmental Pollution 145:474-488.
Keltner JM. 1979. A hydrographic survey in Pensacola Bay. Master's Thesis, Florida State University,
Tallahasse FL. 117 p.
Keltner JM. No date. Bayou Chico-a water resource restoration study. Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation, Northwest District, Pensacola, FL. 66p.
Kilgen RH, Dugas RJ. 1989. The ecology of oyster reefs of the northern Gulf of Mexico: an open file
report. Open File Report 89-03, NRWC, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 113 p.
Kimbrough KL, Johnson WE, Lauenstein GG, Christensen JD, Apeti DA. 2008. An assessment of two
decades of contaminant monitoring in the Nations coastal zone. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS
NCCOS, Silver Springs, MD. 105 p.
Kimbrough KL, Johnson WE, Lauenstein GG, Christensen JD, Apeti DA. 2009. An assessment of
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments and bivalves of the U.S. coastal zone. Technical
memorandum NOS NCCOS 94, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Springs,
MD. 87 p.
Kish SA, Donoghue JF. 2013. Coastal response to storms and sea-level rise: Santa Rosa Island,
northwest Florida. Journal of Coastal Research 63:131-140.
Knight CR. 2003. Annual and triennial reevaluation of the Pensacola shellfish harvesting area (# 02),
Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties from July 1, 2001 thru June 30, 2002. Florida Department of
Agriculture and Consumer Services, Tallahassee, FL. 48 p.
Koch MS, Schjopmyer SA, Kyhn-Hansen C, Madden CJ, Peters JS. 2007. Tropical seagrass species
tolerance to hypersalinity stress. Aquatic Botany 86:14-24.
Kroeger T. 2012. Dollars and sense: economic benefits and impacts from two oyster reef restoration
projects in the northern Gulf of Mexico. The Nature Conservancy, [accessed 2016 July 14], The Nature
Conservancy Oyster Restoration study by Kroeger.
Kurz H. 1953. Vegetation of Northwest Florida Tidal Marshes. ONR Contract NR 163-117, Florida
State University, Tallahassee, FL. 85 p.
Kusel K, Pinkhart H, Drake HL, Devereux R. 1999. Acetogenic and sulfate reducing bacteria inhibiting
the rhizoplane and deep cortex cells of the seagrass Halodule wrightii. Applied Environmental
Microbiology 65:5117-5123.
130
-------
Kusel K, Pinkhart H, Drake HL. 2001. Physiological ecology of Clostridium glycolicum RD-1 an
aerotolerant acetogen isolated from seagrass roots. Applied Environmental Microbiology 67:4734-
4741.
Kwok KWH, Leung KMY, Lui GSG, Chu VKH, Lam PKS, Morritt D, Maltby L, Brock TCM, Van
den Brink PJ, Warne MSJ, Crane M. 2007. Comparison of tropical and temperate freshwater animal
species' acute sensitivities to chemicals: implications for deriving safe extrapolation factors. Integrated
Environmental Assessment Management 3:49-67.
Landing WM, Caffrey JM, Noek SD, Gosnel KJ, Parker WC. 2010. Atmospheric deposition of mercury
and other trace elements in Pensacola, Florida. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10:4867-4877.
Landry GC. 1974. Analysis of certain aspects of sea foam. Master Thesis, University of West Florida,
Pensacola, FL. 62 p.
Lasorsa BK, Allen-Gil SM. 1995. The methylmercury to total mercury ratio in marine, freshwater and
terrestrial organisms: an overview. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 41:2745-2749.
Lewis T. 1986. The Pensacola Bay System, An analysis of estuarine degradations and their
relationships to land management practices. Florida Department of Community Affairs. Tallahassee,
FL. 132 p.
Lewis FG. 2010. East Bay/Blackwater Bay/lower Yellow River preliminary baseline resource
characterization. Water Resources Special Report 2010-02, Northwest Florida Water Management
District, Havana, FL. 99 p.
Lewis MA. 1992. Periphyton photosynthesis as an indicator of effluent toxicity: relationship to effects
on animal test species commonly used in effluent toxicity evaluations. Aquatic Toxicology 23:279.
Lewis MA, Weber, DE 1998. Point source contamination in the Gulf of Mexico: comparative
toxicology and chemical quality of ten effluents discharged to Gulf of Mexico near-coastal areas.
Water Environment Research 70:1108-1117.
Lewis MA, Weber DE, Albrecht B. 2000. Sediment chemical quality and toxicity in Gulf of Mexico
coastal areas below ten wastewater discharges. Environmental Toxicology Chemistry 19:192-203.
Lewis MA, Weber DE, Stanley RS, Moore JC. 2001a. Dredging impact on an urbanized Florida
estuary: benthos and algal-periphyton. Environmental Pollution 115:161-171.
Lewis MA, Foss SS, Harris S, Stanley RS Moore JC. 2001b. Sediment chemical contamination and
toxicity associated with a coastal golf course. Environmental Toxicology Chemistry 20:1390-1398.
Lewis MA, Weber DL, Moore JC. 2001c. Trace metal bioavailability below near coastal wastewater
discharges using periphyton. Dimensions of Pollution (India) 1:77-94.
Lewis MA, Weber DE, Stanley RS, Moore JC. 2001d. The relevance of rooted vascular plants as
indicators of estuarine sediment quality. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
40:25-34.
131
-------
Lewis MA, Goodman LR, Patrick JM, Moore JC, Weber DE. 2001e. The effects of urbanization on the
spatial and temporal chemical quality of three tidal estuaries in the Gulf of Mexico. Water, Air and Soil
Pollution 127:65-91.
Lewis MA, Weber D, Roush T, Quarles R, Dantin D, Stanley R. 2002a. In-situ phytoassessment as an
indicator of nutrient enrichment from ten wastewaters discharged to Gulf of Mexico near-coastal areas.
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 43: 11-18.
Lewis MA, Boustany R, Dantin D, Quarles R. 2002b. Effects of a coastal golf course complex on water
quality and nutrient bioavailability to the Gulf of Mexico. Ecotoxicity and Environmental Safety
53:154-162.
Lewis MA, Scott G, Bearden D, Quarles R. 2002c. Fish tissue quality near coastal areas of the Gulf of
Mexico impacted by point source discharges. Science of the Total Environment 284:249-261.
Lewis, MA, Quarles RL, Dantin DD, Moore, JC. 2004. Evaluation of a coastal golf complex as a source
of bioavailable contaminants. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48:254-262.
Lewis MA. 2005. Sediment habitat assessment for targeted near-coastal areas. In: Estuarine Indicators,
Bortone, SA (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. pp 79-98.
Lewis MA, Daniels CB. 2006. Pore water genotoxicity as an indicator of non-point source
contamination in near-coastal sediments. Environmental Toxicology 21:193-204.
Lewis MA, Harris P, Campbell J, Dantin D, Foss S, Quarles R, Moore JC. 2006. Field characterization
of potential reference areas in the Gulf of Mexico: sediment chemical and biological quality. Journal of
Soil and Sediment Contamination 21:193-204.
Lewis MA, Dantin D, Abel K, Lewis C. 2007. Florida seagrass habitat evaluation: A comparative
survey for chemical quality. Environmental Pollution 146:206-218.
Lewis MA, Devereux, R, Bourgeois P. 2008. Seagrass distribution and habitat quality for the Pensacola
Bay System, northwest Florida. Gulf and Caribbean Research 20:21-28.
Lewis MA, Chancy CA. 2008. Total mercury concentrations in near-coastal flora and fauna near
common contaminant sources in the Gulf of Mexico. Chemosphere 70:2016-2024.
Lewis MA, Devereaux R. 2009. A synoptic review of the fate and effects of anthropogenic chemicals in
seagrass ecosystems. Environ. Tox. Chem. 28:644-661.
Lewis MA, Goodman LR, Chancy CA, Jordan SJ. 2010. Fish assemblages in three Northwest Florida
urbanized bayous pre-and post-two hurricanes and an entanglement ban. Journal Coastal Research
27:35-45.
Lewis MA, Harwell LM, Chancy CA, Jordan SJ, Fulford RS, Harwell MC. 2015. Integral analyses of
water quality and fish assemblages for northern near-coastal Gulf of Mexico: summary of National
Coastal Assessment 2000-2004. Draft Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology
Division, Gulf Breeze, FL.
132
-------
Lewis MA, Harwell L. 2015. Contaminant bioaccumulation in near-coastal fish and shrimp from
northern Gulf of Mexico with significance to organism susceptibility and consumption guidelines. Draft
report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology Division, Gulf Breeze, FL.
Liebens J, Mohrherr CJ, Rao KR, Houser CA. 2006. Pollution in an urban bayou: magnitude, spatial
distribution and origin. Water, Air, Soil Pollution 174:235-263.
Liebens J, Mohrherr CJ, Rao KR. 2007. Sediment pollution pathways of trace metals and petroleum
hydrocarbons in a small industrialized estuary: Bayou Chico, Pensacola, Florida. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 54:1529-1539.
Liebens J, Mohrherr CJ, Karouner-Renier NK, Snyder RA. 2011. Associations between dioxins/furans
and dioxin-like PCBs in estuarine sediment and blue crab. Water Air Soil Pollution 222:403-419.
Liebens J, Mohrherr CJ. 2015. DDT, dioxins and PCBs in sediments in a historically polluted estuary
along the Gulf of Mexico. Environmental Practice 1:1-13.
Little EG. 1973. Reestablishment of destroyed oyster reefs. Florida Department of Natural Resources
(NO A A 74022629). Tallahassee, FL. 4 p.
Little EG, Quick JA. 1976. Ecology, resource, rehabilitation and fungal parasitology of commercial
oysters Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) in Pensacola estuary, Florida. Marine Research Publication 21,
Florida Department of Natural Resources, Marine Research Lab, St. Petersburg, FL. 89 p.
Livingston RJ. 1971. The effects of dredging and eutrophication on Mulat-Mulatto Bayou (Escambia
Bay, Pensacola, Florida). Report for Florida Department of Transportation, Research No. 111308016,
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. 40 p.
Livingston RJ. 1976. Diurnal and seasonal fluctuations of organisms in a north Florida estuary.
Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science 4:373-400.
Livingston RJ. 1977. Time as a factor in biomonitoring estuarine waters with reference to benthic
macrophytes and epibenthic fishes and invertebrates. Biological Monitoring: Water and Effluent
Quality, Cairns J Jr., Dickson KL, and Westlake GF (eds.), ASTM STP 607, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
pp 212-234.
Livingston RJ. 1999. Pensacola Bay System environmental study. Vol. 4, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. FDER, Tallahassee, FL. Unpublished Report.
Livingston RJ. 2000. Eutrophi cation Processes in Coastal Systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 352 p.
Livingston RJ 2001. Eutrophication Processes in Coastal Systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 352 p.
Livingston RJ. 2003. Trophic Organization in Coastal Systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 388 p.
Livingston RJ. 2005. The Pensacola Bay System, In: Restoration of Aquatic Systems, Chapter 6,
Livingston RD (eds.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. pp 195-207.
133
-------
Livingston RJ. 2010. Long-term (1988-2007) response to trophic organization of an estuary (Perdido)
and effects on secondary production. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 23 p.
Livingston RJ. 2014. Climate Change and Coastal Ecosystems—Long-Term Effects of Climate Change
and Nutrient Loading on Trophic Organization. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 572 p.
Long ER, Morgan LJ. 1990. The potential for biological effects of sediment-sorbed contaminants tested
in the National Status and Trends Program. Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 52, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA. 175 p.
Long ER, Roberson A, Wolfe DA, Hameedi J, Sloane G. 1996. Estimates of the spatial extent of
sediment toxicity in major U.S. estuaries. Environmental Science & Technology 30:3585-3592.
Long ER, Sloane G, Carr, S Scott, J, Thursby G, Grecelius E, Peven C, Windom H, Smith R,
Loganathon B. 1997. Magnitude and Extent of Sediment Toxicity in Four Bays of the Florida
Panhandle: Pensacola, Choctawhatchee, St. Andrew and Apalachicola, Technical Memorandum NOS
ORCA 117, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Springs, MD. 219 p.
Long ER, Field LJ, MacDonald DD. 1998. Predicting toxicity in marine sediments with numerical
sediment quality guidelines. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 17:714-727.
Long ED, MacDonald DD. 1998. Recommended uses of empirically-derived sediment quality
guidelines for marine and estuarine ecosystems. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 4:1019-1093.
Long ER, Ingersoll CG, MacDonald DD. 2006. Calculation and uses of mean sediment quality
guideline quotients: a critical review. Environmental Science & Technology 40:1726-1736.
Lores EM, Pasko J, Patrick RL, Quarles J, Campbell J, Macauley, J. 2000. Mapping and monitoring of
submerged aquatic vegetation in Escambia Bay, Florida. Gulf of Mexico Science 19:161-164.
Lores EM, Specht DT. 2001. Drought-induced decline of submerged aquatic vegetation in Escambia
Bay, Florida. Gulf of Mexico Science 19:161-164.
Lores E, Lewis MA, Maleab Z. 2002. Seasonal and spatial variation in zooplankton community
dynamics in three Florida tidal estuaries. Gulf and Caribbean Research 14:1-10.
MacDonald DD, Carr RS, Calder FD, Long ER, Ingersoll CG. 1996. Development and evaluation of
sediment quality guidelines for Florida coastal waters. Ecotoxicology 5:253-578.
Macauley JM, Clark JR, Price WA. 1988. Seasonal changes in the standing crop and chlorophyll
content of Thalassia testudinum Banks ex Konig and its epiphytes in the northern Gulf of Mexico.
Aquatic Botany 31:277-287.
Macauley J, Smith LM, Ruth BF. 2005. The ecological condition of the Pensacola Bay System,
Northwest Florida. EPA-620/R-05/002. Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Pensacola/
USEPA, Gulf Ecology Division, Gulf Breeze, FL. 38 p.
Mahadevan S, Spinkel J, Heatwole D, Wooding DH. 1984. A review and annotated bibliography of
benthic studies in the coastal and estuarine areas of Florida. Florida Sea Grant program (SRG 66), Mote
134
-------
Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL. 576 p.
Margalef R. 1958. Information theory in ecology. General Systematics 3:6-71.
McAfee RO. 1986. Pensacola Bay water quality monitoring program review and assessment. Escambia
County Utilities Authority, Water Quality Laboratory, Pensacola, FL. 97 p.
McCall RK. 2005. The importance of seagrass epiphytes in Big Lagoon, Florida, with emphasis on the
diatoms. (Bacillariophyceae). Paper 531, Dissertations, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg,
MS. [accessed 2016 July 13], Aquila Thesis Dissertations.
McNulty JK, Lindall WN, Sykes JE. 1972. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study,
Florida: Phase I, area description. Technical Report NMFS CIRC-368, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA. 127 p.
Middaugh DP, Hemmer MJ. 1992. Reproductive ecology of the Inland Silverside, Menidia beryllina,
(Pisces: Atherinidae) from Blackwater Bay, Florida. Copeia 1:53-61.
Moberg F, Ronnback P. 2003. Ecosystem services of the tropical seascape: interactions, substitutions
and restoration. Ocean & Coastal Management 46:27-46.
Mohrherr CJ, Liebens J, Lepo JE, Rao KR. 2005. Profiles of selected pollutants in Bayou Texar,
Pensacola, Fl. University of West Florida. 72 p. [accessed 2016 July 14], Liebens Pollutants in Bayou.
Texar Final Report.
Mohrherr CJ, Liebens J, Rao KR. 2006. Sediment and water pollution in Bayou Chico, Pensacola, FL.
Center of Environmental Diagnostics and Bioremediation, University of West Florida. Pensacola, FL.
201 p. [accessed 2016 July 13], http:/uwf.edu/liebens/report_chico_withmaps.pdf.
Mohrherr CJ, Liebens J, Rao KR. 2008. Environmental assessment of sediments and water in Bayou
Grande, Pensacola, FL. University of West Florida, Center of Environmental Diagnostics and
Bioremediation, Pensacola, FL. 162 p.
Mohrherr CJ, Liebens J, Rao KR. 2009. Screening of selected contaminants in sediments of Escambia
Bay, Pensacola, FL. Report., University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 132 p.
Mohrherr CJ, Liebens J, Rao KR. 2012. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) profiles, degradation and
Aroclor origin in sediments of Escambia Bay, Florida. Environmental Forensics 13:164-174.
Morgan JP, Stone GW. 1989. Recommendations for dredging at the mouth of Bayou Texar. Institute for
Coastal and Estuarine Research Series 89-2, University of West Florida. 2 Vols.
Moshiri GA. 1981. Study of selected water quality parameters in Bayou Texar, Final report on Contract
No. DACW-01-80-0252, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL.
Moshiri GA, Crumpton WG. 1978a. Some aspects of redox trends in the bottom muds of a mesotrophic
bayou estuary. Hydrobiologia 57:155-158.
Moshiri GA, Crumpton WG. 1978b. Certain mechanisms affecting water column-to-sediment
135
-------
phosphate exchange in a bayou estuary. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation 50:392-394.
Moshiri GA, Elewad S. 1990. Physical, biological and environmental studies of Bayou Texar,
Escambia County Vol. II: physical-chemical and biological characteristics of the water column and
sediments. Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Research, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL.
Moshiri GA, Hannah RP, Landry GC. 1972. Determination of a nitrogen-phosphorus budget for Bayou
Texar Pensacola, Florida, Publication No. 17, Florida Water Resources Research Center. 27 p.
Moshiri GA, Crumpton WG, Aumen NG. 1979. Dissolved glucose in a bayou estuary: possible sources
and use by bacteria. Hydrobiologia 62:71-74.
Moshiri GA, Aumen NG, Swann WG III. 1980. Water quality studies in Santa Rosa Sound, Pensacola,
Florida. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Ecology Division, Gulf Breeze, FL. 71 p.
Moshiri GA, Brown DP, Conklin PJ, Gilbert D, Hughes M, Moore M, Ray D, Robinson L. 1974.
Determination of a nitrogen-phosphorus budget for Bayou Texar, Pensacola, Florida. Res. Ctr. Publ. 29,
University of Florida Water Resources Research Center, Gainesville, FL. 86 p.
Moshiri GA, Crumpton WG, Brown DP, Barrington PR, Aumen NG 1976. Interrelationships between
certain microorganisms and some aspects of sediment-water nutrient exchange in two bayou estuaries.
Publication No. 37, University of Florida, Florida Water Resources Center, Gainesville, FL. 45 p.
Moshiri GA, Crumpton NG, Aumen NG, Gaetz CT, Allen JE, Blaylock DA. 1978a. Water column and
benthic invertebrate and plant associations as affected by the physicochemical aspects in a mesotrophic
bayou estuary, Pensacola, Florida. Publication No. 41, University of Florida, Florida Water Resources
Research Center, Gainesville, FL. 160 p.
Moshiri GA, Crumpton WG, Blaylock DA. 1978b. Algal metabolites and fish kills in a bayou estuary:
an alternative to the dissolved oxygen controversy. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation
50:20143-2046.
Murdock JF. 1955. An evaluation of pollution conditions in the lower Escambia River. Report 55-28,
University of Miami, Marine Lab, Miami, Fl. 7 p.
Murrell, MC, Stanley RS, Lores EM, DiDonato GT, Flemer DA. 2002a. Linkage between
microzooplankton grazing and phytoplankton growth in a Gulf of Mexico estuary. Estuaries 25:19-29.
Murrell MC, Stanley RS, Lores EM, DiDonato GT, Smith LM, Flemer DA. 2002b. Evidence that
phosphorus limits phytoplankton growth in a Gulf of Mexico estuary: Pensacola Bay, FL. Bulletin of
Marine Science 70:155-167.
Murrell, MC. 2003. Bacterioplankton dynamics in a subtropical estuary: evidence for substrate
limitation. Aquatic Microbial Ecology 32:239-250.
Murrell MC, Lores EM. 2004. Phytoplankton and zooplankton seasonal dynamics in a subtropical
estuary: importance of cyanobacteria. Journal Plankton Research 26:371-382.
Murrell M, Caffrey JM. 2005. High cyanobacterial abundance in Gulf of Mexico. Gulf and Caribbean
136
-------
Research 17:95-106.
Murrell M, Hagy JD III, Lores EM, Greene RM. 2007. Phytoplankton production and nutrient
distributions in a subtropical estuary: importance of freshwater flow. Estuaries and Coasts. 30:390-402.
Murrell MC, Campbell JG, Hagy JD, Caffrey JM. 2009. Effects of irradiance on benthic and water
column processes in a Gulf of Mexico estuary: Pensacola Bay, FL. Estuarine, Coastal Shelf Science
81:501-512.
National Biological Survey. 1995. Freshwater mussel museum records for the Escambia, Blackwater,
Yellow and Choctawhatchee Rivers in Alabama and Florida. Progress Report, National Biological
Survey, Southeastern Biological Science Center, Gainesville, FL.
National Park Service. 2014. Final general management plan/ environmental impact statement. Gulf
Islands National Seashore, Gulf Breeze, FL. 418 p.
National Research Council. 1995. Review of EPA's environmental monitoring and assessment
program. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 164 p.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1990. Estuaries of the United States- Vital statistics
of a natural resource base. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service,
Rockville, MD. 79 p.
Nature Conservancy. 2014. Pensacola Bay Community-Based Watershed Plan. The Nature
Conservancy in Florida, Altamonte Springs, FL. 133 p.
Neckles HA. 1994. Indicator development: seagrass monitoring and research in the Gulf of Mexico.
EPA/620/R-94/022, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. 80 p.
Nimmo DR, Wilson PD, Blackman RR, Wilson AJ Jr. 1971a. Polychlorinated biphenyl absorbed from
sediments by fiddler crabs and pink shrimp. Nature 231:50-52.
Nimmo DR, Blackman RR, Wilson AJ Jr., Forester J. 1971b. Toxicity and distribution of Aroclor 1254
in the pink shrimp Penaeus duorarum. Marine Biology 11:191-197.
Nimmo DR, Bahner LH. 1974. Some physiological consequences of polychlorinated biphenyl and
salinity stress in penaeid shrimp. IN: Pollution and Physiology of Marine Organisms. Vernberg FJ and
Vernberg WB (eds.), Academic Press, NY. pp 427-443.
Northwest Florida Water Management District (NWFWMD). 1988a. Stormwater evaluation for the
restoration of Bayou Texar. Water Resources Special Report 88-3, NWFWMD, Havana, FL.
NWFWMD. 1988b. Surface water improvement and management program, Pensacola Bay System.
Program Development Series 89-2, Technical Appendix. NWFWMD, Havana, FL.
NWFWMD. 1991a. Surface Water Improvement and Management Program (SWIM): Point source
assessment of the Pensacola Bay System, Water Resources Special Report 91-2, NWFWMD,
Tallahassee, FL. 173 p.
137
-------
NWFWMD. 1991b. Surface Water Improvement and Management Program (SWIM): ThePensacola
Bay System biological trends and current status, Water Resources Special Report 91-3, NWFWMD,
Tallahassee, FL. 181 p.
NWFWMD 1993. Stormwater assessment of the Bayou Chico watershed. Water Resources Special
Report 93-7. NWFWMD, Havana, FL. 218 p.
NWFWMD. 2001. Shoreline protection and restoration-a homeowner's guide. Public Information
Bulletin 01-2. NWFWMD, Havana, FL. 11 p.
NWFWMD 2006. Marsh shoreline protection and wetland mitigation plan, Biological Research
Associates, NWFWMD, Havana, FL. 18 p.
Norton BL, Lewis MA, Mayer FL. 1999. Storage duration and temperature and the acute toxicities of
estuarine sediments to Mysidopsis bahia and Leptocheirus plumulosus. Bulletin of Environmental
Contamination and Toxicology 63:157-166.
Ogren LH, Brusher HA. 1977. The distribution and abundance of fishes caught with a trawl in the St.
Andrew system, Florida. Northeast Gulf Science 1:83-105.
Olinger LW, Rogers RG, Fore PL, Todd RL, Mullins BL, Blisterfeld T, Wise L. 1975. Environmental
and Recovery Studies of Escambia Bay and the Pensacola Bay System, Florida. EPA 904/9-76-016
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV, Atlanta, GA. 407 p.
Oliver LM, Fisher WS, Volety AK, Malaeb Z. 2003. Greater hemocyte bactericidal activity in oysters
(Crassostrea virginica) from a relatively contaminated site in Pensacola Bay, Florida. Aquatic
Toxicology 64: 363-373.
Oliver JD. 2005. Vibrio vulnificus. In: Oceans and Health: Pathogens in the Marine Environment,
Belkin S, Colwell R (eds.), Springer, NY. pp 253-276.
Overstreet RM. 1988. Aquatic pollution problems, Southeastern U.S. coasts: histopathological
indicators. Aquatic Toxicology 11:213-239.
Patrick R. et al. 1953. Stream survey of the lower Escambia River, Florida. Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia, PA. 165 p.
Pendleton LH. 2009. The economic and market value of coasts and estuaries: what's at stake? Restore
America's Estuaries, Arlington, VA. 175 p. [accessed 2016 August 1], Restore America's Estuaries.
Pielou EC. 1975. Ecological Diversity. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. 165 p.
Poor JP, Pessagno KL, Paul RW. 2007. Exploring the hedonic value of ambient water quality: a local
watershed-base study. Ecological Economics 60:797-806.
Pratt TR, Weiland PG, Cason JH, Starnes-Smith JM, Jones WK, Cairns DJ, Simoneaux LP. 1990.
Pensacola Bay System SWIM Plan: a comprehensive plan for the restoration and preservation of the
Pensacola Bay System. Program Development Series 91-2, Tallahassee, FL. 174 p.
138
-------
Prytherch HF. 1933. Extensive oyster investigations in Northwest Florida. Unpublished report, U.S.
Bureau of Fisheries. 9 p.
Rai 2009. Heavy metal phytoremediation from aquatic ecosystems with special reference to
macrophytes. Critical Reviews for Environmental Science and Technology 39: 697-753.
Rakocinski CF. 2011. Evaluating macrobenthic process indicators in relation to organic enrichment.
Ecological Indicators 13:1-12.
Ralston NVC. 2005. Physiological and environmental importance of mercury-selenium interactions. In:
Proceedings of the 2005 National Forum on Contaminants in Fish, EPA-823-R-05-006, Office of
Water, Washington, D.C. pp 2-50.
Ralston NVC. 2008. Selenium health benefit values as seafood safety criteria. EcoHealth 5:442-455.
Ralston NVC, Berry MJ. 2008. Mercury toxicity mitigating role of selenium. EcoHealth 5:456-459.
Ralston NVC, Ralston CR, Blackwell JL, Raymond LJ. 2008. Dietary and tissue selenium in relation to
methylmercury toxicity. Journal of Neurology 29:802-811.
Raney DC. 1980. Study of methodology for evaluating water quality problems at Bayou Texar, Florida.
Report No. 2630-112, University of Alabama, Bureau of Engineering Research, Tuscaloosa, AL. 155 p.
Reynolds, Smith and Hills Inc. 2014. Pensacola Bay Bridge Project Development and Environment
(PD&E) Study. Essential fish habitat assessment. Financial Project ID No. 409334-1, Federal Aid
Project No. 4221-078-P. [accessed 2016 July 13], Pensacola Bay Bridge. Jacksonville, FL.
Rezayi M, Esmaeli AS, Valinasab T, Alavi J. 2012. Selenium health benefit values (SEHBV) in
selected fish from Persian Gulf. (Khuzestan Shores) International Journal of Environmental Protection
2:30-35.
Rider SJ, Adams DH. 2000. Mercury concentration in spotted trout (Cynoscion nebulosus) from
Northwest Florida. Gulf of Mexico Science 2:97-103.
Roberts W. 1763. An account of the first discovery and natural history of Florida. Univ. Press Florida,
Gainesville, FL, 1976. 102 p.
Rodriguez G, Hunner WC. 1994. Water quality sampling data report of Pensacola Bay for March 1993-
February 1994. Technical File Report 94-4, Northwest Florida Water Management District, Havana,
FL. 392 p.
Rodriguez AB, Fodrie FJ, Ridge JT, LindquistNL, Theuerkauf EJ, Coleman SE, Grabowski JH,
Brodeur MC, Gittman RK, Keller DA, Kenworthy MD. 2014. Oyster reefs can outpace sea level rise.
Nature Climate Change 4:493-497.
Rogers RG. 1974. Seagrass re-vegetation in Escambia Bay, Florida. In: Proceedings of the First Annual
Conference on Restoration of Coastal Vegetation in Florida, Tampa, FL. pp 21-25.
Rogers RG, Blisterfield FT. 1975. Loss of submerged vegetation in the Pensacola Bay System 1949-
139
-------
1974. Proceedings of the Second Annual Conference on Restoration of Coastal Vegetation in Florida,
In: Lewis RR (eds.), Hillsborough Community College, Tampa, FL. pp 36-50.
Ross LT, Jones DA. 1979. Biological aspects of water quality in Florida part 1-Escambia, Perdido,
Choctawhatchee, Apalachicola, Aucilla, Ochlockonee, St. Marks and Suwanee River drainage basins.
Technical Series Vol.4, No. 3, Department of Environmental Regulation, Tallahassee, FL. 516 p.
Rostad CE, Pereira WE. 1987. Creosote compounds in snails obtained from Pensacola Bay, Florida
near an on-shore hazardous waste site. Chemosphere 16:2397-2404.
Science Applications International Corporation. 1996. Northeastern Gulf of Mexico Coastal and marine
Ecosystem Program: data search and synthesis, annotated bibliography. Biology. OCS Study NBS 96-
01 and MMS 96-0019, U.S. Department of Interior, National Biological Service Gulf of Mexico, OCS
Region, New Orleans, LA. 161 p.
Schwenning L, Bruce T, Handley LR. 2007. Pensacola Bay System. In: Gulf of Mexico Seagrass Status
and Trends, Handley L, Altsman D, DeMay R (eds.), U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations
Report 2006-5287, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 855-R-04-003, U.S. Geological Survey,
Reston, VA. pp 129-142.
Seal TL, Calder FD, Sloane GM, Schropp, SJ, Windom HL. 1994. Florida Coastal Sediments
Contaminants Atlas: A summary of coastal sediment quality surveys. Florida Department of
Environmental Protection. Tallahassee, FL.
Shaffer RN. 1995. Freshwater linkages: effects of salinity changes on the distribution and survival of
seagrasses and emergent marsh vegetation in the Gulf of Mexico: a literature review. Completion
Report, Project No. DW13936612-01-0, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Marine
Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Panama City, FL. 52 p.
Shannon CE and Weaver W. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois
Press, Urbana, IL. 116 p.
Short FT, Neckles HA. 1999. Review: The effects of global climate change on seagrasses. Aquatic
Botany 63:169-196.
Simmons AT. 1972. The dynamics of nitrogen and phosphorus in a bayou estuary (Bayou Texar).
Master's Thesis, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 15 p.
Simpson EH. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature 163:4148.
Smith AC, Kostka JE, Devereux R, Yates DF. 2004. Seasonal composition and activity of sulfate-
reducing prokaryotic communities in seagrass bed sediments. Aquatic Microbonial Ecology 37:183-
195.
Smith KA, Caffrey JM. 2009. The effects of human activities and extreme meteorological events on
sediment nitrogen dynamics in an urban estuary, Escambia Bay, Florida, USA. Hydrobiologia 627:67-
85.
Snyder R, Lewis M, Nocker A, Lepo J. 2005. Chapter 9. Microbial biofilms as integrative sensors of
140
-------
Environmental quality in near-coastal areas. IN: Estuarine Indicators, Bortone S (ed.), CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL. pp 111-127.
Snyder RA, Rao R. 2008. Bioaccumulation of chemical contaminants in fishers of Escambia Bay.
Report submitted to USEPA Region 4 and the Florida Department of Health, Center for Environmental
Diagnostic and Bioremediation, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 12 p.
Snyder RA, Karouna-Renier N. 2009. Accumulation of pollutants in fish and shellfish from the
Northwest Florida Region. Final Report, Center for Environmental Diagnostics and Bioremediation,
University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL. 100 p.
Spalding MD, Ruffo S, Lacambra C, Meliane I, Zeitlin H, Shepard CC, Beck MW. 2014. The role of
ecosystems in coastal protection: adapting to climate change and coastal hazards. Ocean and Coastal
Management 90:50-57.
Stith L, Barkuloo J, Brim MS. 1984. Fish and wildlife resource inventory for Escambia navigation
project, Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties, Florida. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of
Ecological Services, Panama City, FL. 44 p.
Stevenson CST. 2007. Enhancement of recruitment and nursery function by habitat creation in
Pensacola Bay, Florida. Master's Thesis, University of West Florida, Pensacola. 40 p.
Stone GW, Morgan JP. 1989. Recommendations for extension of the jetty at the mouth of Bayou Texar.
Paper Series 89-1, University of West Florida, Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Research, Pensacola,
FL. 11 p.
Stone GW, Morgan JP. 1990. Physical, biological and environmental studies of Bayou Texar. Vol. 1:
sedimentation, bathymetric changes, and tidal variability in Bayou Texar, Paper Series 90-02,
University of West Florida, Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Research, Pensacola, FL. 36 p.
Stone GW, Morgan JP. 1991. Heavy metal concentrations in subsurface sediments, Bayou Chico,
Pensacola, Florida. Rep-05:12-02-91, University of West Florida, Institute for Coastal and Estuarine
Research, Pensacola, FL. 33 p.
Stone GW, Morgan JP. 1992. Recent sediment flux and bathymetric changes in the entrance channel to
Bayou Texar, Escambia County, Florida. Report 02:06-29-92. University of West Florida, Institute for
Coastal and Estuarine Research, Pensacola, FL.
Stone GW, Morgan JP, Moshiri GA, Elewad S. 1990. Physical, biological and environmental studies of
Bayou Texar, Escambia County, Florida: Vol. 5: conclusions and recommendations for environmental
improvement in Bayou Texar. University of West Florida, Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Research,
Pensacola, FL. 8 p.
Stone GW, White D, Morgan JP, Moshiri GA. 1991. Sedimentation rates and macroinvertebrate
distribution in Bayou Texar, Escambia County, Florida. Report 02:09-30-91, University of West
Florida, Wetlands Research Laboratory, Pensacola, FL. 18 pages plus appendices.
Swingle HA. 1971. Biology of Alabama estuarine areas-cooperative Gulf of Mexico inventory.
Alabama Marine Resources Bulletin 5:1-123.
141
-------
Swingle HA, Bland DG. 1974. A study of fishes of the coastal water courses of Alabama. Alabama
Marine Resources Bulletin 10:17-102.
Tagatz ME, Borthwick RW, Cook GH, Coppage DL. 1974. Effects of ground application of malathion
on salt marsh environments in northwest Florida. Mosquito News 34:309-315.
Tampa Bay Estuary Program 2014. Economic Evaluation for Tampa Bay. www.tbrpc.org.
Teehan WH, Barnett E. 1989a. Comprehensive shellfish harvesting survey, Blackwater Bay, Florida.
Florida Department of Natural Resources, Shellfish Environmental Assessment Section, Tallahassee,
FL.
Teehan WH, Barnett E. 1989b. Comprehensive shellfish harvesting survey, Santa Rosa Sound, Florida,
Florida Department of Natural Resources, Shellfish Environmental Assessment Section, Tallahassee,
FL.
Terrebonne RP. 1973. The economic losses from water pollution in the Pensacola area. The Florida
Naturalist 165:21-26.
Thatcher CA, Brock JC, Pendelton EA. 2013. Economic vulnerability to sea-level rise along the
northern U.S. gulf coast. Journal of Coastal Research 63:234-243.
Thorpe P, Bartel R, Ryan, P, Albertson K, Pratt T, Cairns D. 1997. Pensacola Bay System-Surface
Water Improvement and Management Plan (SWIM). Program Development Series 97-2, Northwest
Florida Water Management District, Havana, FL. 146 p.
Twilley RR, Barron EJ, Gholz HL, Harwell MA, Miller RL, Reed DJ, Rose JB, Siemann EH, Wetzel
RG, Zimmerman RJ. 2001. Confronting climate change in the Gulf Coast region. Prospects for
sustaining our ecological heritage. Union of Concerned Scientists and the Ecological Society of
America. 82 p. Available from UCS Publications, Cambridge, MA. 82 p.
URS. 2012. Annual report Agrico site, Pensacola, Florida. EPA ID: FLD 980221857, URS
Corporation, Tallahassee, FL. 120 p.
U.S. Department of the Interior (USDOI). 1970. Effects of pollution on water quality: Escambia River
and Bay, Florida. Federal and Water Pollution Control Administration, Southeast Water Laboratory,
Technical Services Program. Athens, GA. 177 p.
USDOI. 1989. The ecology of oyster reefs of the northern Gulf of Mexico. NWRC Open File Report
898-03, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 113 p.
USDOI. 1996a. Northeastern Gulf of Mexico coastal and marine ecosystem program: Data search and
synthesis, annotated bibliography, Appendix E: Biology. OCS Study MMS 96-0019, NBS 96-01, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico Region, New Orleans, LA.
161 p.
USDOI. 1996b. Northeastern Gulf of Mexico Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Program: Data search and
Synthesis, Annotated Bibliography, Appendix F, Part 1: Socioeconomics. OCS Study MMS 96-0020,
142
-------
NBS 96-01, U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico Region,
New Orleans, LA. 55 p.
USDOI. 2014. Final general management Plan/ Environmental Impact Statement for Gulf Islands
National Seashore-Florida and Mississippi. National Park Service, Ocean Springs, MS. 537 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1973. Effects of heated discharges from Gulf Power
on the temperature regime and biota of the lower Escambia River. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Surveillance and Analysis Division, USEPA, Region IV, Atlanta. 71 p.
USEPA. 1976. Quality Criteria for Water 1976. GPO #055-001-01049-4, Office of Water and
Hazardous Materials, Washington, D.C.
USEPA. 1979. Publications-Gulf Breeze Laboratory, EPA-600/3-79-036, Gulf Breeze, FL. 32 p.
USEPA. 1991. Final Report: Pensacola Harbor, Florida, OMDS benthic communities, EPA Contract
No. 68-C8-0105, prepared by Barry Vittor and Associates, Mobile, AL. 34 p.
USEPA. 1997. Mercury study report to Congress, Vols. 1-8, Washington (DC): Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards and Office of Research and Development. Report EPA-4521-R-97-005,
Washington, D.C. 376 p.
USEPA. 2000a. Estuarine and coastal marine waters: bioassessment and biocriteria technical guidance,
EPA-822-B-00-024. Office of Water, Washington, D.C. 300 p.
USEPA. 2000b. Guidance for assessing chemical contamination data for use in fish advisories. Vol. 2:
risk assessment and fish consumption limits Third edition. USEPA-823-B-008, Office of Water,
Washington, D.C. 383 p.
USEPA. 2001. Water quality criterion for the protection of human health: methylmercury. EPA-823-
R01-001, Office of Water, Washington, D.C. 227 p.
USEPA. 2003. Elements of a state monitoring and assessment Program. EPA 841-B-03-003,
Assessment and Watershed Protection Division and Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watershed,
Washington, D.C. 14 p.
USEPA. 2007. Sediment Toxicity Evaluation (TIE)-Phases I, II and III Guidance Document.
EPA/600/R-07/080, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C. 14 p.
USEPA. 2008. White paper: aquatic life criteria for contaminants of emerging concern Part 1. General
challenges and recommendations. 46 p. [accessed 2016 July 14], USEPA White Paper Report.
USEPA. 2009. Valuing the protection of ecological services and systems. A report to the EPA Science
Advisory Board. Washington, DC.
USEPA. 2012. National Coastal Condition Report IV. EPA 842-R-10-003, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, D.C. 334 p.
USEPA. 2013a. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in fish: polybrominated diphenyl ethers
143
-------
(PBDEs). EP A-820-F -13-003, Office of Water, Washington, D.C. 4 p.
USEPA. 2013b. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in fish: perfluorinated compounds (PFCs).
EPA-820-F-13-005, Office of Water, Washington, D.C. 3 p.
USEPA. 2014. National recommended water quality criteria-aquatic life criteria table, USEPA, Office
of Science and Technology. Washington, D.C.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1965. Effects of pesticides on fish and wildlife. 1964
research findings. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Circular 226, Washington, D.C. 77 p.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). 2011. Guidance for industry: action levels for poisonous
or deleterious substances in human food and animal feed, [accessed 2016 July 14], FDA Guidance for
Industry document.
U.S. Geological Survey, Gulf of Mexico Program. 2004. Seagrass habitat in the northern Gulf of
Mexico: degradation, conservation and restoration of a valuable resource. EPA-855-R-04-001, Gulf of
Mexico Program Office, Stennis Space Center, MS. 25 p.
Van der Meer J. 1997. Sampling design of monitoring programs for marine benthos: a comparison
between the use of fixed versus randomly selected stations. Journal of Sea Research 37:167-179.
Von Appen LA, Winter PA. 2000. Biological monitoring in the Pensacola Bay System. Master's
Thesis, University of West Florida, Northwest Florida Water Management District, Pensacola, FL. 216
P-
Wagner ME. 2006. Spatial patterns of phytoplankton and periphyton growth as indicators of estuarine
condition in Escambia Bay, Florida. Master's Thesis, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL.
Waller WT et al. 1998. Development and evaluation of diagnostic indicators of ecological condition of
the Gulf of Mexico bayous: Bayou Chico statistical summary and assessment framework. Report, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, FL. 232 p.
Walsh GE. 1991. Plant toxicity testing with sediment and marsh soils. Technical Report
NPS/NRWRD/NRTR-91/03, U.S. Department of Interior, Washington, D.C. 133 p.
Wear D, Sullivan MJ, Moore AD, Millie DF. 1999. Effects of water-column enrichment on the
production dynamics of three seagrass species and their epiphytic algae (Big Lagoon, Florida, USA).
Marine Ecology-Progress Series 179:201-213.
Weis J, Weis P, Lores E. 1993. Uptake of metals from chromated-copper-arsenates (CCA) treated
lumber by epibiota. Bulletin of Marine Pollution 26:428-430.
Weitzel RL (ed.) 1979. Methods and measurements of periphyton communities: a review, ASTM STP
690, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. 183 p.
West Florida Regional Planning Council, Bay Area Research Council, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. The Pensacola Bay
Watershed Management Plan. An integrated action plan. Cooperative publication of U.S.
144
-------
Environmental Protection Agency, Bay Area Research Council, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, the West Florida Regional Planning Council, Pensacola, FL. 324 p.
WFRPC Bayou Texar Foundation. 2002. Bayou Texar Repair Kit-Rx for a Healthy Bayou. Funded by
Florida Department of Community Affairs, Florida Coastal Management Program. Pensacola, FL. 8 p.
Williams JL. 1976. A view of west Florida. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 184 p.
Williams DR. 1981. Marine grass beds inventory, North Florida coast (October 1980). TS-AMD-
80099, Prepared by the USEPA for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, USEPA, Cincinnati, OH. 89 p.
Wilson AJ, Forester J. 1978. Persistence of Aroclor 1254 in a contaminated estuary. EPA-600/J-78-068.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 19(5):637-640.
Windom HL, Schropp SJ, Calsu FD, Ryan JD, Smith RG, Burney LC, Lewis FG, Rawlinson CH. 1989.
Natural trace metal concentrations in estuarine and coastal marine sediments of the southeastern United
States. Environmental Science & Technology 23:314-320.
Winter PA. 1978. Evaluation of seagrass resources, Santa Rosa Island, Florida. Final report to the Army
Corps of Engineers, Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Pensacola, Fl. 25 p.
Wood KA, Bartel RL. 1994. Bayou Chico sediment and water quality report. Technical File Report No.
94-3, Northwest Florida Water Management District, Havana, FL.
Woodward RT, Wui YS. 2001. The economic value of wetland services: a meta-analysis. Ecological
Economics 37:257-270.
Woodward and Clyde Associates. 1997. Environmental studies in Escambia Bay and Perdido Bay
systems. Final report, Project No. 97F299, Prepared for Champion International Corporation,
Tallahassee, FL. 210 p.
Wright T, Tomlinson J, Schueler T, Cappiella K, Kitchell A, Hirschman D. 2006. Direct and indirect
impacts of urbanization on wetland quality. Prepared for USEPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans and
Watersheds, Center for Watershed Protection, Ellicot City, MD. 93 p.
Yabro LA, Carlson PR. 2013. Seagrass integrated mapping and monitoring program mapping and
monitoring report No. 1. FWRI Technical Report TR-17, Florida Fish and Wildlife Research Institute,
St. Petersburg, FL. 126 p.
Young WT. 1986. Waterbloom of Prorocentrum cf. icans in Little Sabine Bay and Santa Rosa Sound.
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Northwest District, Pensacola, FL.
Zervas C. 2009. Sea level variation of the U.S. 1854-2006. Technical Report NOS CO-OPS 053,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, [accessed 2016 July 14], NO A A Sea Level
Variations of the U.S. Report. Silver Springs, MD. 71 p.
Zwick PD, Carr MH. 2006. Florida 2060-A population distribution scenario for the State of Florida,
University of Florida, GeoPlan Center, Gainesville, FL. 25 p.
145
-------
oEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
PRESORTED STANDARD
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
EPA
PERMIT NO. G-35
Office of Research and
Development (8101R)
Washington, DC 20460
------- |