EPA-400/R-16/001 | November 2016
www.epa.gov/radiation/protective-action-guides-pags
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
AEPA
PAG Manual:
Protective Action Guides
and Planning Guidance
for Radiological Incidents
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EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy signed this guidance document on
December 1, 2016. This copy is being provided to inform the public about
EPA's intentions, and will be replaced with the official document upon its
publication in the Federal Register.
PAG Manual
Protective Action Guides
and Planning Guidance for
Radiological Incidents
November
Final revision: supersedes 1992 Manual
Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
Radiation Protection Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
This document is a prepubiication version, signed by Administrator Gina McCarthy on 12/01 /2016. We have taken steps to ensure
the accuracy of this version, but it is not the official version.
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LIMITS ON SCOPE
This guidance does not address or impact site cleanups occurring under other statutory authorities such as
the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund program, the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission's (NRC) decommissioning program, or other federal or state cleanup programs.
As indicated by the use of non-mandatory language such as "may," "should" and "can," this Manual only
provides recommendations and does not confer any legal rights or impose any legally binding
requirements upon any member of the public, state, tribe, locality, or any federal agency.
Protective Action Guides and Planning Guidance for Radiological Incidents
This document is a prepubiication version, signed by Administrator Gina McCarthy on 12/01/2016.
the accuracy of this version, but it is not the official version.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIMITS ON SCOPE ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW 1
1.1 PLANNING GUIDANCE AND PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES 1
1.2 APPLICABILITY 1
1.3 BACKGROUND ON THE UPDATED PAGS 2
1.3.1 Legal Basis 2
1.3.2 Interaction with Federal Radiation Council (FRC) Reports No. 5 and 7 3
1.3.3 Technical Basis 3
1.3.4 Changes in Scenarios since the Issuance of the 1992 PAG Manual 3
1.3.5 Key Changes to PAGs in this Updated Manual 4
1.4 RADIOLOGICAL INCIDENT PHASES AND APPLICABILITY OF PROTECTIVE
ACTIONS 5
1.4.1 Implementation of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions 7
1.4.2 Early Phase Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions 7
1.4.3 Intermediate Phase Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions 8
1.4.4 Late Phase 9
1.4.5 Precaution built into the PAGs 10
KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 1 - OVERVIEW 12
CHAPTER 2. EARLY PHASE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES 13
2.1 EXPOSURE PATHWAYS DURING THE EARLY PHASE 13
2.1.1 Exposure Pathways from Airborne Releases 13
2.1.2 Establishment of Exposure Patterns 14
2.2 THE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES AND PROTECTIVE ACTIONS FOR THE EARLY
PHASE: EVACUATION, SHELTERING-IN-PLACE, AND ADMINISTRATION OF
POTASSIUM IODIDE 15
2.2.1 Thyroid Based Evacuation 15
2.2.2 Evacuation vs. Sheltering-in-Place 16
2.2.3 Considerations for Potassium Iodide (KI) 20
2.2.4 PAGs and Nuclear Facilities Emergency Planning Zones (EPZ) 22
2.3 DOSE PROJECTIONS 23
2.3.1 Dose Projection during the Early Phase 24
2.3.2 Duration of Exposure 24
2.3.3 Derived Response Levels and Dose Parameters 25
2.3.4 Higher PAGs for Special Circumstances 26
2.4 CONTAMINATION LEVELS AND MONITORING OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND
POPULATIONS 26
2.4.1 Surface Contamination Control 27
2.4.2 Priorities for Control of Contaminated Areas 27
2.4.3 Recommendations for Emergency Screening in Areas Not Qualifying as Low
Background Areas 28
2.4.4 Recommendations for Screening in Low Background Areas 29
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2.5 BASIS FOR EARLY PHASE PAGS 29
KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 2 - EARLY PHASE 32
CHAPTER 3. EMERGENCY WORKER PROTECTION 33
3.1 CONTROLLING OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE AND DOSES TO EMERGENCY
WORKERS 34
3.1.1 Maintaining the ALARA Principle 34
3.1.2 Understanding Dose and Risk Relationships 34
3.2 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY REGULATIONS FOR RADIOLOGICAL
EMERGENCY RESPONSE 37
KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 3 - EMERGENCY WORKER PROTECTION 39
CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE PHASE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES 40
4.1 EXPOSURE PATHWAYS DURING THE INTERMEDIATE PHASE 40
4.2 THE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES AND PROTECTIVE ACTIONS FOR THE
INTERMEDIATE PHASE: RELOCATION AND DOSE REDUCTION 41
4.2.1 Removal of the 50 Year Relocation PAG 42
4.2.2 The Population Affected 43
4.2.3 Areas Involved 43
4.2.4 Priorities 45
4.3 SEQUENCE OF EVENTS 45
4.3.1 Establishment of Isodose-Rate Lines 46
4.3.2 Dose Projections 46
4.3.3 Projected External Gamma Dose 47
4.3.4 Exposure Limits for People Reentering the Relocation Area 48
4.4 PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDANCE FOR FOOD AND DRINKING WATER 48
4.5 LONGER-TERM OBJECTIVES OF THE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES FOR THE
INTERMEDIATE PHASE 48
4.6 REENTRY MATRIX FOLLOWING A RADIOLOGICAL INCIDENT OR ACCIDENT 49
4.7 BASIS FOR INTERMEDIATE PHASE PAGs 53
KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 4 - INTERMEDIATE PHASE 54
CHAPTER 5. PLANNING GUIDANCE FOR THE LATE PHASE 55
5.1 LATE PHASE CLEANUP PROCESS 55
5.1.1 Transitioning from Intermediate to Late Phase Cleanup 55
5.1.2 Characterization and Stabilization 56
5.1.3 Goals and Strategies 56
5.1.4 Implementation and Reoccupancy 58
5.1.5 Stakeholder Involvement 59
5.1.6 Cleanup Process Implementation and Organization: An Example 59
5.2 DISPOSAL OF LARGE VOLUMES OF RADIOLOGICAL WASTE 63
5.2.1 General Considerations for Waste Disposal Options and Waste Volumes 64
5.2.2 Existing Disposal Options 65
5.2.3 Planning and Coordination among Federal and State Entities for Disposal Options .... 68
5.2.4 Considerations for Modified Use of Existing Disposal Options 68
5.2.5 Potential Federal Properties to Develop New Disposal Capacity 70
KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 5 - LATE PHASE 72
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APPENDIX A - REFERENCES 73
APPENDIX B - GLOSSARY 78
APPENDIX C - LIST OF ACRONYMS 82
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1. Summary Table for PAGs, Guidelines, and Planning Guidance for Radiological Incidents 6
Table 2-1. PAGs and Protective Actions for the Early Phase of a Radiological Incident 16
Table 2-2. Threshold Thyroid Radioactive Exposures and Recommended Doses of KI for Different Risk
Groups 21
Table 3-1. Emergency Worker Guidelines 35
Table 3-2. Acute Radiation Syndrome 36
Table 3-3. Regulations for Worker Protection 38
Table 4-1. PAGs and Protective Actions for Exposure to Deposited Radioactivity during the Intermediate
Phase of a Radiological Incident 42
Table 4-2. Reentry Matrix: Quick Reference to Operational Guidelines 50
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1. Exposure Reduction from External Radiation from Nuclear Fallout as a function of Building
Type and Location 19
Figure 4-1. Generalized Protective Action Areas for NPP Incident 44
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the accuracy of this version, but it is not the official version.
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CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
1.1 PLANNING GUIDANCE AND PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed this Manual to assist public officials in
planning for emergency response to radiological incidents. For purposes of this document, a radiological
incident is an event or a series of events, deliberate or accidental, leading to the release or potential
release into the environment of radioactive materials in sufficient quantity to warrant consideration of
protective actions. This Manual provides radiological protection criteria for application to all incidents
that would require consideration of protective actions.
During an incident with an uncontrolled source of radiation, protection of the public from unnecessary
exposure to radiation may require some form of intervention that will disrupt normal living. Such
intervention is termed a protective action. Examples of protective actions include:
¦ Evacuating an area;
¦ Sheltering-in-place within a building or protective structure;
¦ Administering potassium iodide (KI) as a supplemental action;
¦ Relocation;
¦ Acquiring an alternate source of drinking water; and
¦ Interdiction of food/milk.
This Manual provides recommended numerical protective action guides (PAGs) for the principal
protective actions available to public officials during a radiological incident. A PAG is defined for
purposes of this document as the projected dose to an individual from a release of radioactive material at
which a specific protective action to reduce or avoid that dose is recommended. (See Section 2.3 for a
discussion of projected dose.) PAGs are guides to help officials select protective actions under emergency
conditions during which exposures would occur for relatively short time periods. They are not meant to be
applied as strict numeric criteria, but rather as guidelines to be considered in the context of incident-
specific factors. PAGs do not establish an acceptable level of risk for normal, non-emergency conditions,
nor do they represent the boundary between safe and unsafe conditions. The PAGs are not legally binding
regulations or standards and do not supersede any environmental laws. For information on roles,
responsibilities and authorities during emergency response and recovery, please refer to the National
Response Framework: http://www.fema.gov/national-response-framework (FEMA 2008a) and
specifically for radiological incidents, the Nuclear Radiological Incident Annex:
http://www.fema.gov/pdf/about/divisions/thd/IncidentNucRad.pdf (FEMA 2008b).
Some protective actions are not associated with a numerical PAG. For example, the control of access to
areas is a protective action implemented in concert with other protective actions; it does not have its own
PAG. Any reasonable action to reduce radiation dose is encouraged even if it is not associated with a
PAG, such as recommending that individuals use ad hoc respiratory protection with a handkerchief or
piece of folded cloth. In areas where PAGs are not exceeded, but airborne radioactivity is present, people
might be asked to stay indoors to the extent practicable to reduce their exposures. To further develop
radiological emergency plans, brief planning guides have been provided for reentry to relocation areas,
the cleanup planning process, and considerations for radioactive waste disposal (see Sections 4.6,
5.1 and 5.2).
1.2 APPLICABILITY
Protective actions may be recommended for a wide range of incidents, but generally apply to incidents
involving relatively significant releases of radionuclides. Radiological incidents with potential for
significant releases include:
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¦ A fire in a major facility such as a nuclear fuel manufacturing plant;
¦ An accident at a federal nuclear weapons complex facility;
¦ An accident at a commercial nuclear power plant (NPP);
¦ A transportation accident involving radioactive material; and
¦ A terrorist act involving a radiological dispersal device (RDD) or yield-producing improvised nuclear
device (IND).
Each type of incident would pose a unique threat to public health and should be planned for and managed
accordingly. Emergency response planning for a given facility or scenario should consider:
¦ The radionuclides involved;
¦ The dynamics of the release, including size and magnitude;
¦ The feasibility of specific protective actions; and
¦ The timing of notification, response, and protective action implementation.
The decision to advise members of the public to take a protective action during a radiological incident
involves a complex judgment in which the radiological risk must be weighed against the action's inherent
risks. This decision may have to be made under emergency conditions, with limited information and little
time to analyze options. Advance planning reduces the complexity of the decision-making process during
an incident. The planning process can identify the viability of responses to various incidents, the courses
of action that can be set in motion in advance and the decisions that can only be made during an actual
emergency. While many aspects of protective actions can be considered well in advance of an emergency,
the situations and conditions that exist at the time of emergency must be considered if the most effective
action is to be selected.
The unpredictable locations of certain radiological incidents make advance planning challenging. For
example, an RDD could detonate anywhere and spread radiological contaminants over a wide variety of
surfaces and terrain. Emergency planners should be prepared to apply PAGs to a wide scope of facilities
and circumstances.
1.3 BACKGROUND ON THE UPDATED PAGS
This Manual updates the "Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions for Nuclear
Incidents" (EPA-400-R-92-001, May 1992), published by EPA (EPA 1992b) (hereinafter referred to as
the "1992 PAG Manual"). The guidance in this Manual was developed cooperatively with the Federal
Radiological Preparedness Coordination Committee (FRPCC), with representation from the EPA; the
Department of Energy (DOE); the Department of Defense (DoD); the Department of Homeland Security
(DHS) Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA); the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC);
the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), including the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA); and the Department of Labor (DOL).
1.3.1 Legal Basis
The historical and legal basis of EPA" s role in developing this guidance begins with Reorganization Plan
No. 3 of 1970, in which the Administrator of EPA assumed all the functions of the Federal Radiation
Council (FRC), including the charge to ".. .advise the President with respect to radiation matters, directly
or indirectly affecting health, including guidance for all federal agencies in the formulation of radiation
standards and in the establishment and execution of programs of cooperation with states" (Reorg. Plan
No. 3 of 1970, sec. 2(a) (7), 6(a) (2); § 274.h of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended (AEA),
codified at 42 U.S.C. § 2021(h)). Recognizing this role, FEMA, in its Radiological Emergency Planning
and Preparedness Regulations, directed EPA to "establish Protective Action Guides (PAGs) for all aspects
of radiological emergency planning in coordination with appropriate federal agencies" (44 Code of
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Federal Regulations (CFR) §351.22(a)). FEMA also tasked EPA with preparing "guidance for state and
local governments on implementing PAGs, including recommendations on protective actions which can
be taken to mitigate the potential radiation dose to the population" (44 CFR §351.22(b)). All of this
information was to "be presented in the EPA Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions
for Nuclear Incidents" (44 CFR §351.22(b)).
Additionally, section 2021(h) charged the Administrator with performing "such other functions as the
President may assign to him [or her] by Executive Order." Executive Order 12656 states that the
Administrator shall "develop, for national security emergencies, guidance on acceptable emergency levels
of nuclear radiation...." (Executive Order No. 12656, sec. 1601(2)). EPA's role in the development of
PAGs was also recognized in the "Nuclear/Radiological Incident Annex of the National Response
Framework" of June 2008 (FEMA 2008b).
1.3.2 Interaction with Federal Radiation Council (FRC) Reports No. 5 and 7
In the 1960s, the Federal Radiation Council (FRC) defined PAGs and established limiting guides for
ingestion of strontium-89, strontium-90, cesium-137, and iodine-131 (FRC 1964; FRC 1965). That
guidance applied to restricting the use of food products that had become contaminated as the result of
release of radioactivity to the stratosphere from weapons testing. Since the 1960s, experience with other
exposure scenarios such as accidents and terrorism made more guidance necessary. During the period
immediately following an incident at any domestic nuclear facility, when the critical source of exposure is
expected to be a nearby airborne plume, the principal protective actions are evacuation or sheltering. The
PAGs developed here thus do not supersede previous guidance, but provide additional guidance for
promptly addressing exposure pathways specific to a domestic nuclear incident.
1.3.3 Technical Basis
The FRC introduced the concept of a PAG in a series of recommendations issued in the 1960s. A key
concept about PAGs is that the decision to implement protective actions should be based on the projected
dose that would be avoided if the protective actions were implemented. Developers of the EPA PAGs
considered the following three principles in establishing exposure levels for the PAGs—
1. Prevent acute effects.
2. Balance protection with other important factors and ensure that actions result in more benefit
than harm.
3. Reduce risk of chronic effects.
These principles apply to the determination of any PAG. Principles 1 and 2 have been proposed for use by
the international community as essential bases for decisions to intervene during an incident. Principle 3
has been recognized as an appropriate additional consideration (IAEA 2002). Although it is important
during emergency planning to consider a range of source terms to assess the costs associated with their
implementation, the PAGs are pre-determined for use in emergencies without regard to the magnitude or
type of radiological release.
1.3.4 Changes in Scenarios since the Issuance of the 1992 PAG Manual
EPA's 1992 PAG Manual provided emergency management officials at the federal, state, tribal and local
levels with the technical basis to plan responses to radiological emergencies. The 1992 PAG Manual was
written to accommodate the worst release scenario deemed likely at the time - a major accident at a
commercial NPP that would result in a significant off-site release of radioactive material. ("Site" and "off-
site" in this Manual refer to locations where the radiological incident occurs and are not limited to
facility-type incidents.) Certain characteristics typify NPPs, including: fixed locations at which an
accident might occur; a known suite of radionuclides on site, the dose from which is dominated by short-
lived radioisotopes; tight regulatory controls and requirements; skilled operational personnel who plan for
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and exercise emergency responses; state and local involvement in emergency planning; well-developed
and zoned emergency evacuation plans and routes; and advance notice (generally hours to days) from
deteriorating plant conditions prior to accidental release of radioactive material into the environment.
Therefore, the 1992 PAG Manual provided decision-makers with radiation dose-based PAG values for
various exposure pathways (such as whole body, skin dose, and food ingestion) and associated protective
actions that were adapted to the mix of radionuclides and operational environments associated with
commercial NPPs.
In late 1991, EPA conducted a symposium titled "Implementing Protective Actions for Radiological
Incidents at Other Than Nuclear Power Reactors," to evaluate PAGs for incidents other than accidents at
NPPs and concluded that the PAGs could be applied to all radiological incidents (EPA 1992a). Since
then, new radiological and nuclear scenarios involving terrorist use of radioactive materials have gained
status in radiological emergency response planning.
In 2008, DHS published "Planning Guidance for Protection and Recovery Following Radiological
Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) Incidents" (DHS 2008). An RDD is a
device or mechanism that is intended to spread radioactive material from the detonation of conventional
explosives or other means. An IND is a crude, yield-producing nuclear weapon fabricated from diverted
fissile material. Incidents like these may occur anywhere with little or no warning. The DHS guidance,
developed cooperatively with EPA, DOE, DoD, DOL, HHS, Department of Commerce, and the NRC,
affirms the applicability of existing 1992 EPA PAGs to terrorist acts, while acknowledging that the PAGs
were inadequate for early response planning needs specific to an IND. To address this gap, "Planning
Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation" (NSS 2010) was subsequently published.
This Manual substantively incorporates late phase cleanup guidance provided in the 2008 DHS document
and refers readers to additional planning resources.
1.3.5 Key Changes to PAGs in this Updated Manual
This updated Manual applies PAGs and protective actions to an expanded range of sources of potential
radiological releases, including commercial nuclear power facilities, uranium fuel cycle facilities, nuclear
weapons facilities, transportation accidents, radiopharmaceutical manufacturers and users, space vehicle
launch and reentry, RDDs and INDs.
Dosimetry for all the PAGs was updated using the International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP) Publication 60 series (ICRP 1991). The PAGs in this Manual may be implemented using
calculated, measurable values contained in the Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center
(FRMAC) Assessment Manuals,1 though using other incident-specific dose assessment methodologies is
encouraged, where appropriate. EPA anticipates that radiological assessment methods will be periodically
updated as improved models and methods become available. Therefore, readers are encouraged to review
the current version of the FRMAC Assessment Manual to understand the most current, default
radiological assessment methods. For simplicity, specific organ dose thresholds for evacuation and
sheltering were removed from the Manual.
While most of the PAGs and corresponding protective actions from the 1992 PAG Manual remain
unchanged, this Manual incorporates several related guidance documents published subsequent to the
1992 guidance, including FDA's 1998 update of the PAGs for interdiction of food. This Manual also
incorporates FDA's 2001 guidance to lower the PAG for administration of potassium iodide (KI) to 5 rem
(50 millisieverts (mSv)) projected child thyroid dose. In addition to guidance on KI, this updated Manual
includes references to other FDA-approved medical countermeasures potentially useful in mitigating
effects associated with radiation emergencies. Such countermeasures include the radioisotope de-
1 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecuritv/homelandsecmitv/frmac/manuals.aspx.
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corporation agents calcium-DTPA, zinc-DTPA, and Prussian blue, and the leukocyte growth factors
filgrastim and pegfilgrastim. This update removes the intermediate phase relocation PAG of 5 rem (50
mSv) over 50 years to avoid confusion with long-term cleanup.
Recommended limits of exposure for emergency workers also remain unchanged from the 1992 PAG
Manual. The emergency worker guidelines in this manual are consistent with federal and state
regulations. To further develop radiological emergency plans, brief planning guides have been provided
for reentry to relocation areas, a cleanup planning process, and considerations for radioactive waste
disposal. In this Manual, the term reentry is used for emergency workers and members of the public going
into relocation areas temporarily, under controlled conditions. Table 1-1 (see below) presents PAGs with
their principal associated protective actions and also presents related guidelines, and planning guidance.
1.4 RADIOLOGICAL INCIDENT PHASES AND APPLICABILITY OF
PROTECTIVE ACTIONS
Emergency planners divide responses to radiological incidents into three phases of activity—
¦ Early Phase — The beginning of a radiological incident for which immediate decisions for
effective use of protective actions are required and must therefore be based primarily on the status
of the radiological incident and the prognosis for worsening conditions. When available,
predictions of radiological conditions in the environment based on the condition of the source or
actual environmental measurements may be used. Protective actions based on the PAGs may be
preceded by precautionary actions during the period. This phase may last from hours to days.
¦ Intermediate Phase — The period beginning after the source and releases have been brought
under control (has not necessarily stopped but is no longer growing) and reliable environmental
measurements are available for use as a basis for decisions on protective actions and extending
until these additional protective actions are no longer needed. This phase may overlap the early
phase and late phase and may last from weeks to months.
¦ Late Phase — The period beginning when recovery actions designed to reduce radiation levels in
the environment to acceptable levels are commenced and ending when all recovery actions have
been completed. This phase may extend from months to years. A PAG level, or dose to avoid, is
not appropriate for long-term cleanup.
The phases cannot be represented by precise periods of time - and may even overlap - but to view them
in terms of activities, rather than time spans, can provide a useful framework for emergency response
planning.
In the early phase, sheltering-in-place and evacuation are the principal protective actions. These actions
are meant to avoid inhalation of gases or particulates in an atmospheric plume and to minimize external
radiation exposures. Administration of prophylactic drugs may be employed depending on the specific
radionuclides released; in particular, KI, also called "stable iodine," may be administered as a
supplementary protective action in incidents involving the release of significant quantities of radioactive
iodine, such as NPP incidents. Some protective actions may begin prior to the release of radioactive
material when there is advance notice.
Planning considerations for reentry and relocation are suggested and basic planning guidance for late
phase cleanup is provided in Chapters 4 and 5.
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Table 1-1. Summary Table for PAGs, Guidelines, and Planning Guidance for Radiological Incidents3
Phase
Protective Action Recommendation
PAG, Guideline, or Planning Guidance
Early Phase
Sheltering-in-place or evacuation of the
publicb
PAG: 1 to 5 rem (10 to 50 mSv) projected dose over
four days0
Supplementary administration of
prophylactic drugs - KId
PAG: 5 rem (50 mSv) projected child thyroid dose6
from exposure to radioactive iodine
Limit emergency worker exposure (total
dose incurred over entire response)
Guideline: 5 rem (50 mSv)/year (or greater under
exceptional circumstances/
Intermediate
Phase
Relocation of the public
PAG: > 2 rem (20 mSv) projected dose0 in the first
year, 0.5 rem (5 mSv)/year projected dose in the
second and subsequent years
Apply simple dose reduction techniques
Guideline: < 2 rem (20 mSv) projected dose0 in the
first year
Food interdiction8
PAG: 0.5 rem (5 mSv)/year projected whole body
dose, or 5 rem (50 mSv)/year to any individual organ
or tissue, whichever is limiting
Alternative drinking water
PAG: pending finalization of proposal
Limit emergency worker exposure (total
dose incurred over entire response)
Guideline: 5 rem (50 mSv)/year
Reentry
Guideline: Operational Guidelines'1 (stay times and
concentrations) for specific reentry activities (see
Section 4.6)
Late Phase
Cleanup1
Planning Guidance: Brief description of planning
process (see Section 5.1)
Waste Disposal
Planning Guidance: Brief description of planning
process (see Section 5.2)
a This guidance does not address or impact site cleanups occurring under other statutory authorities such as the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund program, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC)
decommissioning program, or other federal or state cleanup programs.
b Should begin at 1 rem (10 mSv); take whichever action (or combination of actions) that results in the lowest exposure for the
majority of the population. Sheltering may begin at lower levels if advantageous.
c Projected dose is the sum of the effective dose from external radiation exposure (e.g., groimdshine and plume submersion) and
the committed effective dose from inhaled radioactive material.
d Provides thvroid protection from radioactive iodines onlv. See the complete 2001 FDA auidance. "Potassium Iodide as a
Thvroid Blockina Aaent in Radiation Emergencies." Further information is also available in "KI in Radiation Emergencies.
2001 - Ouestions and Answers" 2002, and "Freauentlv Asked Ouestions on Potassium Iodide (KI)."
e Thyroid dose. See Section 1.4.2. For information on radiological prophylactics and treatment other than KI, refer to
http://www.fda.2ov/Dru2s/Emer2encvPreparedness/BioterrorismandDru2Preparedness/ucm063807.htm,
https://www.emer2encv.cdc.20v/radiation, and www.0rau.20v/reacts.
1 When radiation control options are not available, or, due to the magnitude of the incident, are not sufficient, doses to
emergency workers above 5 rem (50 mSv) may be unavoidable and are generally approved by competent authority. For
further discussion see Chapter 3, Section 3.1.2. Each emergency worker should be fully informed of the risks of exposure
they may experience and trained, to the extent feasible, on actions to be taken. Each emergency worker should make an
informed decision as to how much radiation risk they are willing to accept to save lives.
8 For more information on food and animal feeds guidance, the complete FDA guidance may be found at
http://www.fda.2ov/downloads/MedicalDevices/DeviceRe2ulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocuments/UCM094513.pdf.
h For extensive technical and practical implementation information please see "Preliminary Report on Operational Guidelines
Developed for Use in Emergency Preparedness and Response to a Radiological Dispersal Device Incident" (DOE 2009).
1 This cleanup process does not rely on and does not affect any authority, including the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. and the National Contingency Plan (NCP), 40
CFR Part 300. This document expresses no view as to the availability of legal authority to implement this process in any
particular situation.
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1.4.1 Implementation of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions
Immediately upon becoming aware that an incident is about to occur or has occurred that may result in
exposure of the population, responsible authorities should make a preliminary evaluation to determine the
nature and potential magnitude of the incident. This evaluation should determine whether conditions
indicate a significant possibility of a major release and, to the extent feasible, determine potential
exposure pathways, populations at risk, and projected doses. The incident evaluation and
recommendations should then be presented to emergency response authorities for consideration and
implementation.
During the early phase, the sequence of events includes evaluation of conditions at the location of the
incident, notification of responsible authorities, prediction or evaluation of potential consequences to the
general public, recommendations for action and implementation of actions for the protection of the public.
In the intermediate phase, dose projections used to support decisions about protective actions may be
based on measurements of actual levels of environmental radioactivity and refined dose models, reducing
the need for worst-case scenarios. When conditions warrant relocation of populations, the collection of
extensive radiological and cost-of-cleanup data will be necessary to form the decision basis for cleanup
and recovery of the affected areas.
1.4.2 Early Phase Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions
In the early phase, there may be little or no data on actual releases to the environment and responders may
have to rely on crude estimates of airborne releases. Decision time frames are short and preparation is
critical to make prudent decisions when data are lacking or insufficient.
The principal protective actions for the early phase are evacuation and sheltering-in-place. These
protective actions would be taken if whole body doses are projected to exceed 1 to 5 rem (10 to 50 mSv)
over four days. The decision to evacuate must weigh the anticipated radiation dose to individuals in the
affected population against the feasibility of evacuating within a determined time frame and the risks
associated with the evacuation itself. For example, evacuating a population of 50,000 carries with it a
statistical risk of injury or death from transportation hazards or increased exposure. Evacuation also takes
time. In the case of an accident at an NPP, there will likely be time for an orderly and relatively safe
evacuation. In the case of a fire or explosion of an RDD in an urban area, evacuating a large group of
people could leave them exposed to the plume and actually increase radiation dose. Sheltering-in-place
may be warranted in situations where evacuation poses a greater risk of exposure or physical harm.
In addition, there are actions that are advisable, but not associated with a numerical PAG. For example,
individuals should be instructed to cover airways (nose and mouth) with available filtering material when
airborne radionuclides may be present. Decontamination is another protective action that may be utilized
in the early phase and may include washing of contaminated individuals, removing contaminated clothing,
and decontaminating surfaces of critical areas and objects. Further, in areas where airborne radioactivity
is present but PAGs are not exceeded, officials can consider asking people to stay indoors to the extent
practicable. In such cases, individuals are not prevented from carrying out necessary tasks (e.g., seeking
medical care, purchasing food). Similar to actions used in major cities on high pollution days, these
measures can be effective to reduce radiation doses when prolonged releases occur, as was the case for
the Fukushima accident in Japan.
In cases where significant quantities of radioiodine may have been released, administration of the
radioprotectant KI should be considered as a supplementary protective action if the projected child thyroid
dose exceeds 5 rem (50 mSv). This PAG is lower than the 1992 guidance. The lower dose, which FDA
adopted in 2001, is for protection of children based on early studies of Chernobyl exposure data. Of the
age groups in ICRP 60 series (ICRP 1991), the one-year old age group is expected to be limiting for
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thyroid dose projections. Therefore, it is recommended that the one-year old age group thyroid dose be
projected when considering the administration of prophylactic KI.
The choice of protective action will be based on the status of the incident site and the prognosis for
worsening conditions. In the early phase, precautionary actions based on worst-case scenarios may be
used before implementation of protective actions based on PAGs. For example, in the case of RDD
detonation, governments may instruct affected populations to shelter-in-place as a precautionary action
while radiation levels are being measured to determine appropriate PAG-based protective actions.
Officials should plan for rapid broadcast and dissemination of protective action orders to the public.
When available, predictions of radiological conditions in the environment based on an estimate of the
source or actual environmental measurements may be used. Nuclear facilities, for example, have
continuous, real-time radioactive effluent monitoring capabilities to monitor radioactive material released
to the environment and may have a network of off-site measurement stations.
1.4.3 Intermediate Phase Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions
Intermediate phase activities are intended to reduce or avoid dose to the public, to control worker
exposures, to control the spread of radioactive contamination, and to prepare for late phase cleanup
operations. During the intermediate phase, relocation is the principal protective action against whole body
external exposure from deposited radioactive material and internal exposure from inhalation of
radioactive particulates. People may need to be relocated for weeks or months.
It is necessary to distinguish between evacuation and relocation. Evacuation is the urgent removal of
people from an area to avoid or reduce high-level, short-term exposure from the plume or deposited
radioactivity. Relocation is the removal or continued exclusion of people (households) from contaminated
areas to avoid chronic radiation exposure. Site-specific conditions may allow some groups evacuated in
an emergency to return, while others may have to relocate. In other cases, some groups that were not
previously evacuated may have to relocate (see Section 4.2.3 for more details).
Intermediate phase PAGs are based on doses projected in the first several years. The PAG for relocation
of the public is 2 rem (20 mSv) in the first year and 0.5 rem (5 mSv) in any subsequent year. (Note:
Relocation PAGs are treated separately from food and water ingestion. That is, projection of intermediate
phase doses should not include these ingestion pathways. In some instances, however, where withdrawal
of food and/or water from use would, in itself, create a health risk, relocation may be an appropriate
alternative protective action. In this case, the ingestion dose should be considered along with the projected
dose from deposited radionuclides via other pathways, for decisions on relocation.) When projected doses
are less than the relocation PAG of 2 rem (20 mSv) in the first year, focused environmental
decontamination and cleanup may be able to reduce doses to populations that are not relocated.
Decontamination and focused cleanup techniques can range from simple actions such as the scrubbing
and flushing of surfaces with uncontaminated water to the removal and disposal of soil and contaminated
debris.
Keeping projected doses below the 0.5 rem (5 mSv) PAG - in the second and subsequent years - may be
achieved through the decay of shorter half-life radioisotopes (as in the case of an accident at an NPP),
through environmental decontamination and cleanup efforts or through other means of controlling public
exposures, such as limiting access to certain areas. Information on food and animal feeds protective action
guidance is contained in FDA's "Accidental Radioactive Contamination of Human Food and Animal
Feeds: Recommendations for State and Local Agencies" (FDA 1998). Workers and members of the
public may be allowed to re-enter a relocation area for tasks related to critical infrastructure and key
resources, to care for animals and to assess the condition of closed zones. By the intermediate phase when
relocation has been implemented, it is likely that no more lifesaving missions would be needed. Some
critical infrastructure/key resources or lifesaving missions may arise in later phases, however, for which
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the emergency worker guides in Chapter 3, Section 3.1.2 would apply. Reoccupancy may be allowed
under dose constraints acceptable to the community. In this Manual, the term reoccupancy refers to
households and communities moving back into relocation areas where the cleanup process is still
ongoing, based on radiation levels acceptable to those communities.
As data are obtained from monitoring, officials should benchmark observed concentrations against default
derived response levels (DRLs) in FRMAC Assessment Manual Appendix C or incident-specific DRLs
that account for nuclide mix present, release patterns, and decay. Officials would then be in a position to
make informed decisions about the need to implement protective actions.
During the intermediate phase, government officials may convene to discuss late phase cleanup and site
restoration strategies. All actions taken during the early and intermediate phases should be considered
with respect to the impact they may have on late phase remediation, such as avoiding the use of fixatives
that could hinder surface decontamination at a later date.
1.4.4 Late Phase
The late phase, as used in this Manual, is the period beginning when cleanup and recovery actions have
begun and ending when all recovery actions have been completed. This phase may extend from months to
years.
The late phase cleanup process, as described in this guidance, begins sometime after the commencement
of the intermediate phase and proceeds independently of intermediate phase protective action activities.
The transition is characterized by a change in approach, from strategies predominantly driven by urgency,
to strategies aimed at both reducing longer-term exposures and improving living conditions. The late
phase involves the final cleanup of areas and property at which contamination directly attributable to the
incident is present. It is in the late phase that final cleanup decisions are made and final recovery efforts
following a radiological incident are implemented.
During the late phase of a radiological incident, decision-makers will have more time and information
allowing for better data collection, more complex modeling, stakeholder involvement, and options
analysis. Community members will influence decisions such as if and when to allow people to return
home to contaminated areas. There will be populations, who were not relocated or evacuated, living in
contaminated areas where efforts to reduce exposures will be ongoing. Implicit in these decisions is the
ability to balance health protection with the desire of the community to resume normal life.
Radiation protection considerations must be addressed in concert with health, environmental, economic,
social, psychological, cultural, ethical, political and other considerations. Many federal, state, and local
agencies have important roles to play. It is recognized that experience from existing programs, such as the
EPA's Superfund program, the NRC's process for decommissioning and decontamination to terminate a
nuclear facility license, and other national recommendations may be useful for designing cleanup and
recovery efforts that could apply to a radiological incident. The cleanup process described in Chapter 5,
however, does not rely on and does not affect any authority, including the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq., and the National
Contingency Plan (NCP), 40 CFR Part 300. For information on roles, responsibilities and authorities
during emergency response and recovery please refer to the National Response Framework:
http://www.fema.gov/national-response-framework (FEMA 2008a) and specifically for radiological
incidents, the Nuclear Radiological Incident Annex:
http://www.fema.gov/pdf/about/divisions/thd/IncidentNucRad.pdf (FEMA 2008b).
The late phase or cleanup process described in Chapter 5 consists of multiple steps, namely:
1) characterization and stabilization; 2) development of goals and strategies; and 3) implementation and
reoccupancy. Meaningful stakeholder involvement should be integrated throughout the process.
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While radioactive waste handling and disposal will be an ongoing endeavor during the entire emergency
response, brief planning guidance is provided in Chapter 5, the late phase. This guidance addresses two
types of disposal locations - those that may be identified and regulated by state and local officials, and
locations owned by the federal government - and lists criteria for evaluating their suitability for disposal,
as well as actions that can be taken to facilitate their use. Legal and other considerations are also
discussed. This guidance assumes that on-site disposal at a location affected by the incident, where
appropriate, will be one of the locations of choice. Though recommended as the first consideration for
discussion post-accident or attack, this guidance assumes that existing non-federal radioactive waste
disposal capacity that is available to impacted states and their regions is overwhelmed or otherwise
eliminated from consideration, which drives the need to identify other disposal options or develop new
disposal capacity.
1.4.5 Precaution built into the PAGs
As noted above, a PAG is defined for purposes of this document as the projected dose to an individual
from a release of radioactive material at which a specific protective action to reduce or avoid that dose is
recommended. PAGs do not establish an acceptable level of risk for normal, non-emergency conditions,
nor do they represent the boundary between safe and unsafe conditions.
As described in Sections 2.5 and 4.7, a risk-benefit balancing process, designed to prevent acute effects,
balance protection with other important factors and ensure that actions result in more benefit than harm,
and reduce risk of chronic effects was used to derive the PAGs. Such a risk-benefit balancing incorporates
a level of precaution into the PAGs.
Assumptions made to generate default parameters and derived response levels in the FRMAC Assessment
Manual, Volume 1, Appendix C,2 include some worst-case assumptions to ensure PAGs are appropriate
emergency guides for all members of the public, including sensitive subpopulations such as young
children. For example, early phase derived levels are based on the assumption that a person is outdoors 24
hours a day for four days being exposed to the plume. Intermediate phase derived levels also
conservatively do not account for shielding provided by being indoors part of each day of the projection
year. People are assumed to remain in the contaminated area during the entire time (not going to work or
school in an uncontaminated area, for instance.) Another example of conservatism is assuming that
radionuclides are in the chemical and physical form that yields the highest dose (e.g., the particle size is
one micrometer mean aerodynamic diameter). These conservatisms allow dose assessors to project whole
body doses or total effective dose (TED) to a reference person, for simplicity, and then decision-makers
can make protective action decisions that apply to entire communities including children, adults and the
elderly.
Radiological assessors are encouraged to utilize realistic inputs when site- or source-specific information
is available to limit the amount of conservatism built into the calculations. For example, if the
radionuclide does not exist in a chemical or physical form or particle size that yields the highest dose,
then assessors should use appropriate inputs to avoid overly conservative dose estimates that may lead to
unnecessary protective actions.
Other incident-specific factors that should be considered include: the nuclide mix released; the rate and
timing of dispersion/deposition; the rate of natural attenuation in specific media; and realistic intake
parameters, for example.
Certain guidelines that lend themselves to different PAGs for different subpopulations are the PAGs for
KI (potassium iodide), food, and water. These guidelines provide age-specific recommendations because
of the radiosensitivity of the thyroid and young children with respect to ingestion and inhalation doses in
2 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecuritv/homelandsecmitv/frmac/manuals.aspx.
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particular. Taking protective actions like use of KI, avoiding certain foods, or using alternative sources of
drinking water can be relatively simple to implement by the parents of younger children. Clear public
messages can convey which age groups should take which action, unlike how an evacuation or relocation
order should apply to entire households or neighborhoods.
EPA evaluated the dose consequences to several age groups across many radiological scenarios and, for
the early phase including the plume, child whole body doses are typically no more than 15 percent higher
than adult whole body doses. That margin is well within the conservatism discussed above, so that
separate PAGs or projections need not be required. Therefore, basing evacuation, shelter-in-place, and
relocation dose projections on an adult is appropriate for all age groups. Sensitive age groups should be
evaluated separately for KI, food, and water decisions. Keeping calculations and decision-making simple
in the face of a disaster can enable timely actions to protect communities.
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KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 1 - OVERVIEW
¦ A PAG is the projected dose to an individual from a release of radioactive material at which a
specific protective action to reduce or avoid that dose is recommended. PAGs are guides to help
officials select protective actions under emergency conditions when exposures would occur over
relatively short time periods.
¦ EPA provides the PAG Manual to assist public officials with their radiological emergency
response planning activities. The PAG Manual is a guidance document, not a legally binding
regulation and does not affect or supersede any environmental laws. The PAG recommendations
do not represent the boundary between safe and unsafe conditions.
¦ PAGs may be implemented to protect the public in a wide variety of radiological emergencies,
including terrorist incidents and accidents involving nuclear power plants (NPPs), transportation,
and the space program.
¦ PAGs are appropriate for implementation in the early and intermediate phases of radiological
incidents. The early phase—lasting hours to days—is the period beginning at the projected (or
actual) initiation of a release when immediate decisions for effective use of protective actions are
required and must therefore be based primarily on the status of the release and the prognosis for
worsening conditions. Little environmental data may be available in the early phase. The
intermediate phase—lasting weeks to months—is the period beginning after the source and
releases have been brought under control and environmental measurements are available for use as
a basis for decisions on protective actions.
¦ Reentry and reoccupancy decisions will be made using incident-specific circumstances and the
Operational Guidelines (DOE 2009).
¦ Cleanup and waste disposal decisions may be informed by planning guidance provided in
Chapter 5.
¦ What's new in this updated Manual—
o The PAGs in this Manual are implemented using the calculations and methods in the FRMAC
Assessment Manual. Dosimetry in that Manual has been updated using the ICRP Publication
60 series (ICRP 1991).
o EPA adopts the FDA guidance issued in 2001 that recommended lowering the projected
thyroid dose at which the administration of KI is warranted as a supplementary protective
action.
o EPA adopts the 1998 FDA Food PAGs.
o Planning guidance has been provided for reentry, late phase cleanup, and waste disposal.
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CHAPTER 2. EARLY PHASE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES
Decisions regarding protective actions for workers and the public during radiological incidents are risk
management decisions and the recommendations in this Manual are provided in that context. Rapid action
may be required to protect members of the public in the event of an incident involving a large release of
radioactive materials into the environment. In all cases, all practical and reasonable means should be used
to reduce or eliminate exposures.
This chapter presents PAGs for use in the early phase of a radiological incident. A PAG is the projected
dose to an individual from a release of radioactive material at which a specific protective action should be
taken to reduce or avoid that dose. The early phase begins at the actual or projected start of a release—
most likely before ambient environmental and radiological data become available for quantitative risk-
based actions. The exact duration of the early phase depends upon site conditions, but one should plan to
project doses for four days.
Many radiological emergency scenarios would involve airborne releases, so this chapter provides
guidance for estimating projected doses from exposure to an airborne plume of radioactive material and
for implementing protective actions. Dose calculations for implementing the PAGs are made using the
dose parameter (DP) and derived response level (DRL) methods referenced in the FRMAC Assessment
Manuals.3 Note that FRMAC refers to dose parameters in emergency response dose assessment methods
to avoid confusion with dose coefficients and dose conversion factors published for radiation protection in
general. Other calculation methods to implement PAGs may be appropriate.
2.1 EXPOSURE PATHWAYS DURING THE EARLY PHASE
To make decisions about rapid actions to protect the public in a radiological emergency, it is important to
understand exposure pathways from airborne releases. It may also be necessary to make estimates
about exposure patterns to make initial dose projections and determine whether protective actions are
needed, before environmental monitoring is complete.
2.1.1 Exposure Pathways from Airborne Releases
During the early phase of an incident, there are three main exposure pathways from airborne releases—
¦ Direct exposure to radioactive materials in an atmospheric plume. The contents of such a plume
will depend on the source of radiation involved and conditions of the incident. For example, in the
case of an incident at an NPP, the plume may contain radioactive noble gases, radioiodines, and
radioactive particulate materials. Many of these materials emit gamma radiation that can expose
people in the vicinity of the passing plume.
¦ Inhalation of radionuclides from immersion in a radioactive atmospheric plume and inhalation of
ground-deposited radionuclides that are resuspended into a breathing zone. Inhaled radioactive
particulates, depending on their solubility in body fluids, may remain in the lungs or move via the
bloodstream to other organs, prior to elimination from the body. Some radionuclides become
concentrated in a single body organ, with only small amounts going to other organs. For example,
a significant fraction of inhaled radioiodines will move through the bloodstream to the thyroid
gland.
* Deposition of radioiodine and particulates from a radioactive plume. Deposited materials can
continue to emit ""groundshine" (e.g., beta and gamma radiation) after the plume has passed
causing continued exposure to skin and internal body organs.
3 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecuritv/homelandsecmitv/frmac/manuals.aspx.
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A plume may deposit materials on surfaces, posing a risk of longer-term exposures via ingestion, direct
external exposure, and inhalation pathways. If the release contains large quantities of radioactive iodines
or particulates, the resulting long-term exposure to this ""groundshine" can be more significant than
external exposure from the passing plume if the exposure time to the ground contamination is long in
comparison to the plume passage time. The early phase PAGs assume four days of exposure to ground
contamination to address this possibility. Doses from groundshine can be readily measured by field
monitoring teams dispatched at the onset of a significant radioactive release. Holding a detector probe
horizontal and three feet (approximately one meter) above the contaminated surface provides a direct
measurement that can be used to approximate groundshine dose. Such assessments can confirm dose
projections based upon effluent release data and the adequacy of protective actions in the early phase.
More detailed analyses (e.g., isotopic) would be needed to support long-term dose projections in the
intermediate phase. Doses for groundshine can be calculated during the intermediate phase (see Chapter
4). Exposure pathways that contribute less than 10 percent to the total dose incurred need not be
considered during the early phase.
2.1.2 Establishment of Exposure Patterns
It is unlikely that sufficient environmental data will be available for accurate dose projections during and
immediately following the early response to a radiological incident. Dose projections are needed to
determine whether protective actions should be implemented in additional areas during the early phase.
For dose projections in the early phase there are two sources of data: current data from initial
environmental measurements or estimates of the source term and estimated data using modeled or
historical atmospheric transport data. Source term measurements, or exposure rates or concentrations
measured in the plume at a few selected locations, may be used to estimate the extent of the exposed area
in a variety of ways, depending on the types of data and computation methods available. The most
accurate method of projecting doses is through the use of an atmospheric diffusion and transport model
that has been verified for use at the site in question or for similar site conditions. A variety of computer
software packages can be used to estimate dose in real time, or to extrapolate a series of previously-
prepared isopleths for unit releases under various meteorological conditions. The latter can be adjusted for
the estimated source magnitude or environmental measurements at a few locations during the incident. If
the model projections have some semblance of consistency with environmental measurements,
extrapolation to other distances and areas can be made with greater confidence. If projections using a
sophisticated site-specific model are not available, a simple but crude method is to measure the plume
centerline exposure rate4 at ground level measured at approximately three feet (one meter) height at a
known distance downwind from the release point and then to calculate exposure rates at other downwind
locations by assuming that the plume centerline exposure rate is a known function of the distance from the
release point.
The following relationship can be used for this calculation:
D2 = Dj (Ri/R2)y
where / )/ and Di are exposure rates at the centerline of the plume at distances Ri and lh from the release,
respectively and y is a constant that depends on atmospheric stability. For stability classes5 A and B, y =
2; for stability classes C and D, y = 1.5; and for stability classes E and F, y = 1. Classes A and B
(unstable) occur with light winds and strong sunlight and classes E and F (stable) with light winds at
4 The centerline exposure rate can be determined by traversing the plume at a point sufficiently far downwind that it has
stabilized (usually more than one mile from the release point) while taking continuous exposure rate measurements.
5 Pasquill stability classes categorize atmospheric turbulence into six stability classes named A, B, C, D, E and F, class A being the
most unstable or most turbulence and class F the most stable or least turbulence. Pasquill, F. 1961. Hie Estimation of the
Dispersion of Windbome Material. The Meteorological Magazine 90, No. 1063, 33-49.
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night. Classes C and D generally occur with winds stronger than about 10 mph. This method of
extrapolation is risky because the measurements available at the reference distance may be
unrepresentative, especially if the plume is aloft and has a looping behavior. In the case of an elevated
plume, the ground level concentration increases with distance from the source and then decreases,
whereas any high-energy gamma radiation from the overhead cloud continuously decreases with distance.
For these reasons, this method of extrapolation will perform best for surface releases or if the point of
measurement for an elevated release is sufficiently distant (usually more than 1 mile or 1.61 kilometers
(km)) from the point of release for the plume to have expanded to ground level. The accuracy of this
method will be improved by the use of measurements from many locations averaged over time.
2.2 THE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES AND PROTECTIVE ACTIONS FOR
THE EARLY PHASE: EVACUATION, SHELTERING-IN-PLACE, AND
ADMINISTRATION OF POTASSIUM IODIDE
The principal protective actions for the early phase are evacuation or sheltering-in-place. Evacuation is
the urgent removal of people from an area to avoid or reduce high-level, short-term exposure from the
plume or deposited radioactivity. Sheltering-in-place is the action of staying or going indoors
immediately. The administration of KI (potassium iodide) to partially block the uptake of radioiodines by
the thyroid is a supplemental protective action.
In addition, washing the body and changing clothing as soon as possible after significant exposure to a
radioactive plume of any composition may be recommended protective actions. Changing of clothing is
recommended to provide protection from particulate materials deposited on the clothing, as well as to
minimize the spread of contamination.
The PAGs and corresponding protective actions for response during the early phase of an incident are
summarized in Table 2-1. Evacuation or sheltering-in-place will be justified when the projected dose to an
individual is 1 rem (10 mSv) projected over four days. This conclusion is based primarily on EPA's
determination concerning acceptable levels of risk of health effects from radiation exposure in an
emergency situation, while weighing costs and risks associated with any protective action.
2.2.1 Thyroid Based Evacuation
This revised PAG Manual does not include a footnote from the 1992 PAG Manual early phase PAG table,
which noted that "thyroid and skin may be 5 and 50 times larger, respectively." That footnote effectively
provided organ dose-based evacuation thresholds in addition to the whole body dose PAG range of 1 to 5
rem (10 to 50 mSv). Because of the factors described above, these organ dose-based early phase PAGs
are not necessary.
Regarding sensitive subpopulations, child thyroid doses typically are about twice as high as adult thyroid
doses. The former range recommended for thyroid dose-based evacuation (5 to 25 rem adult thyroid dose)
is well covered by projections of whole body dose, with evacuation recommended at 1 to 5 rem (10 to 50
mSv) adult TED. The conservatism built into the PAG levels when they were set results in an appropriate
level of dose avoidance for the whole community, including all age groups, for an emergency. Planners
should consider instituting public messaging templates in advance to address concerns the public may
have about how protective the PAG recommendations are for all members of an impacted community.
The PAG Manual is guidance, and intentionally not prescriptive. This set of recommendations does not
preclude an emergency manager from setting local or state protective action guidelines for actions based
on specific organ or age group dose levels, as warranted by specific needs of that community.
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Table 2-1. PAGs and Protective Actions for the Early Phase of a Radiological Incident3
Protective Action
Recommendation
PAG
Comments
Sheltering-in-place or evacuation of
the publicb
PAG: 1 to 5 rem (10 to 50 mSv)
projected dose over four days0
Evacuation (or, for some situations,
sheltering-in-place) should be
initiated when projected dose is 1
rem (10 mSv).
Supplementary administration of
prophylactic drugs - KId
PAG: 5 rem (50 mSv) projected
child thyroid dosee from exposure to
radioactive iodine
KI is most effective if taken prior to
exposure. May require approval of
state medical officials (or in
accordance with established
emergency plans).
a This guidance does not address or impact site cleanups occurring under other statutory authorities such as the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfimd program, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC)
decommissioning program, or other federal or state cleanup programs.
k Should begin at 1 rem (10 mSv) if advantageous except when practical or safety considerations warrant using 5 rem (50 mSv);
take whichever action (or combination of actions) that results in the lowest exposure for the majority of the population.
Sheltering may begin at lower levels if advantageous.
c Projected dose is the sum of the effective dose from external radiation exposure (e.g., groundshine and plume submersion)
and the committed effective dose from inhaled radioactive material.
^Provides thyroid protection from radioactive iodines only. The complete FDA guidance may be found at
http://www.fda.2ov/downloads/Dru2s/GuidanceComphanceRe2ulatorvInformation/Guidances/ucm080542.pdf. Further
information is also available:
http://www.fda.2ov/downloads/Dru2s/GuidanceComphanceRe2ulatorvInformation/Guidances/ucm080546.pdf and
http://www.fda.2ov/Dru2s/Emer2encvPreparedness/BioterrorismandDru2Preparedness/ucm072265.htm.
e Thyroid dose. For information on radiological prophylactics and treatment other than KI, refer to
http://www.fda.20v/Dru2s/Emer2encvPreparedness/BioterrorismandDru2Preparedness/ucmO638O7.htm,
https://www.emer2encv.cdc.20v/radiation, and www.0rau.20v/reacts. The one-vear old a2e 2roup is expected to receive the
largest dose to the thyroid from exposure to radioactive iodine. Therefore, it is recommended that the one-year old age group
is considered when considering the administration of prophylactic KI.
2.2.2 Evacuation vs. Sheltering-in-Place
Evacuation and sheltering-in-place provide different levels of dose reduction from the principal exposure
pathways: direct gamma exposure and inhalation. Both sheltering-in-place and evacuation may be
implemented during the same response in different areas or timeframes. Evacuation, if completed before
plume arrival, can be 100 percent effective in avoiding radiation exposure. A decontamination station,
with simple decontamination actions, may need to be collocated at shelters during the pre-evacuation
period. This may reduce the spread of contamination and provide for greater protection during evacuation.
Medical stations should also be collocated at shelters during the pre-evacuation period to ensure simple
triage capabilities are met and to manage the distribution of prophylactic drugs. The effectiveness of
evacuation will depend on many factors, such as how rapidly it can be implemented and the nature of the
incident. For incidents where the principal source of dose is inhalation, evacuation could increase
exposure if it is implemented during the passage of a short-term plume, because the air inside a vehicle
rapidly equalizes with the outside air even when all of the windows and vents are closed (DOE 1990).
When dose projections are at levels less than 1 rem (10 mSv) over the first four days, evacuation is not
recommended due to the associated risks of moving large numbers of people.
Sheltering-in-place is a low-cost, low-risk protective action that can provide protection with an efficiency
ranging from zero to almost 100 percent, depending on the type of release, the type of shelter available,
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the duration of the plume passage, and climatic conditions. Because of these advantages, planners and
decision-makers may consider implementing sheltering-in-place when projected doses are below 1 rem
(10 mSv) over the first four days. More guidance on the unique challenges posed by an IND can be found
in the "Planning Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation" (NSS 2010).6
Sheltering-in-place may be preferred for special populations (e.g., those who are not readily mobile) as a
protective action at projected doses of up to 5 rem (50 mSv) over four days. When environmental,
physical, or weather hazards impede evacuation, sheltering-in-place may be justified at projected doses up
to 5 rem (50 mSv) for the general population (and up to 10 rem (100 mSv) for special populations). It is
also comparatively easy to communicate with populations that have sheltered-in-place. Dose projections
use a four-day exposure duration, but sheltering-in-place duration is intentionally not specified. Incident-
specific decisions must be made to determine how long people should shelter-in-place.
Selection of evacuation or sheltering-in-place is far from an exact science, particularly in light of time
constraints that may prevent thorough analysis at the time of an incident. The selection process should be
based on realistic or "best estimate" dose models and should take into account the unavoidable dose
incurred during evacuation and potential failure scenarios for sheltering-in-place (e.g., leaking ventilation
system).
Advance planning and exercises can facilitate the decision process.
In a commercial NPP incident, early decisions should be based on
information from the response plans for the emergency planning
zone (EPZ) and on actual conditions at the nuclear facility. For
transportation accidents, RDDs, INDs and other incident scenarios
for which EPZs are not practicable, best estimates of dose
projections should be used for deciding on evacuation, sheltering-
in-place or a combination thereof.
The following is a summary of planning guidance for evacuation and sheltering-in-place—
¦ Evacuation may be the only effective protective action close to the plume source.
¦ Evacuation will be most effective if it is completed before arrival of the plume.
¦ Evacuation may increase exposure if carried out during the plume passage.
¦ Evacuation is appropriate for protection from groundshine in areas with high exposure rates from
deposited radioactive materials when suitable shelter is not available.
¦ Sheltering-in-place may be appropriate for areas not designated for immediate evacuation—
o It may provide protection equal to or greater than evacuation for rapidly developing releases
(e.g., RDDs) if followed by evacuation,
o It positions the public to receive additional instructions.
o Since it may be implemented rapidly, sheltering-in-place may be the protective action of choice
(followed with evacuation when feasible) if rapid evacuation is impeded by:
• severe environmental conditions (e.g., severe weather or floods);
• uncertainty about contamination levels along routes;
• health constraints (e.g., patients and workers in hospitals and nursing homes);
• long mobilization times that may be associated with certain individuals, such as industrial
and farm workers, or prisoners and guards; or
• physical constraints to evacuation (e.g., inadequate roads or blockage due to debris).
¦ If a major release of radioiodine or particulate materials occurs, inhalation dose may be a
controlling criterion for protective actions—
Sheltering-in-place should be
preferred to evacuation
whenever it provides equal or
greater protection.
Sheltering-in-place followed
by informed evacuation may be
most protective.
' See https://www.remm.nhn.gov/PlaimingGuidaiiceNuclearDetonation.pdf.
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o Breathing air filtered through common household items (e.g., folded handkerchiefs or towels)
may help reduce exposures,
o After confirmation that the plume has passed, continued sheltering-in-place should be
re-evaluated. People should remain sheltered until receiving official notice about leaving high
exposure areas to avoid exposure to deposited radioactive material. Shelters may be opened to
vent any airborne radioactivity trapped inside.
Advance planning is essential to identify potential problems that may occur in an evacuation. An NRC
case study cites the following aspects of planning as contributing to efficiency and effectiveness of
evacuation (NRC 2005)—
¦ High level of cooperation among agencies.
¦ Use of multiple forms of emergency communications.
¦ Community familiarity with alerting methods, the nature of the hazard, and evacuation procedures.
¦ Community communication.
¦ Well-trained emergency workers.
The NRC 2005 study included an evaluation of 50 incidents of public evacuation involving 1,000 or more
people. The evacuations studied were initiated in response to natural disasters, technological hazards, and
malevolent acts occurring between January 1, 1990 and June 30, 2003. The report indicated that public
familiarity with alerting methods and door-to-door notification were statistically significant factors for the
efficiency of evacuation. The report also indicated that many communities are making improvements to
response capabilities by modernizing communication systems, improving traffic flow, local education
awareness, and developing interagency and cross-boundary coordination plans.
Large or small population groups can be evacuated effectively with minimal risk of injury or death. In the
NRC report, only six of the 50 cases studied involved deaths from the hazard and of those six, only one
involved death from the evacuation itself (NRC 2005).
However, in 2005, not long after this report was published, the gulf coast of the United States was hit by a
series of hurricanes that resulted in the evacuation of approximately 5 million people. During the
evacuation that accompanied Hurricane Rita in Houston, Texas, at least 106 people were reported to have
died as a direct result of the evacuation. It is estimated that at least two-thirds of the evacuees did not need
to evacuate but did so because of poor communication, fear, and poor traffic management (NRC 2008).
In a study of 230 mass evacuations in the U.S. ("Identification and Analysis of Factors Affecting
Emergency Evacuations" NUREG/CR-6864, 2004) only six cases involved deaths from the hazard itself,
and of these six, only one case involved deaths during the evacuation itself. Only two cases involved
injuries during the evacuation. Traffic issues, such as traffic congestion, were reported in 28 percent of
the evacuation cases studied. However, traffic accidents occurred in only 8 percent of the cases.
During the tsunami and nuclear disaster response in Japan in 2011, over 1,000 deaths occurred during
evacuations, primarily among elderly hospital patients being moved from areas without power.
Compounded disaster conditions including aftershocks, widespread power outages, and radiation releases
led to prolonged transit along routes extended to avoid hazards.
The emergency planning process for radiological incidents should include effective traffic management
plans and communications plans, including pre-scripted messages, provisions for evacuation of special
needs populations, such as children in schools and child care facilities, people in institutions, and people
who have impaired mobility or lack personal transportation.
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The degree of protection provided by structures is affected by factors such as attenuation of gamma
radiation (shielding) by structural components (the mass of walls, ceilings, etc.) and outside/inside air
exchange rates (see Figure 2-1). The use of large structures, such as shopping centers, schools, churches
and commercial buildings, as collection points during evacuation mobilization will generally provide
greater protection against gamma radiation than use of small structures. As with evacuation, delay in
taking shelter during plume passage will result in higher exposure to radiation.
Figure 2-1. Exposure Reduction from External Radiation from Nuclear Fallout as a function of
Building Type and Location
The numbers represent dose reduction factors. A dose reduction factor of 10 indicates that a person in that area
would receive l/10th of the dose of a person in the open. A dose reduction factor of 200 indicates that a person
in that area would receive l/200th of the dose of a person out in the open.
Figure taken from "Planning Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation," Second Edition, National
Security Staff, Interagency Policy Coordination Subcommittee for Preparedness and Response to Radiological
and Nuclear Threats, June 2010, courtesy of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The protection factors
in this figure are specific to nuclear detonation fallout, but the variations in factors throughout typical buildings
may be informative for other airborne radiological releases.
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2.2.3 Considerations for Potassium Iodide (KI)
FDA updated its guidance on the use of KI, also called "stable iodine," as a thyroid blocking agent during
7 8
radiological emergencies in 2001 (FDA 2001 and FDA 2002 ). FDA based these dose recommendations
on a review of the thyroid cancer data from the Chernobyl reactor accident of April 1986 and the
experience of Poland in administering KI following the Chernobyl release (FDA 2001).
However, FDA understands that a KI administration program that sets different projected thyroid
radioactive exposure thresholds for treatment of different population groups may be logistically
impractical to implement during a radiological emergency. In such cases, FDA recommends that KI be
administered to both children and adults at the lowest intervention threshold (i.e., >5 rem (50 mSv)
predicted internal thyroid exposure in children (FDA 2002). The one-year old age group thyroid dose is
expected to be limiting. Therefore, it is recommended that the one-year old age group thyroid dose is
projected when considering the administration of prophylactic KI. See Table 2-2 for a summary of
recommended doses of KI for different risk groups.
Regarding dosage of KI, FDA's guidance adheres to principles of minimum effective dose and therefore
recommends graded dosing according to age (and thus, in effect, body size). There is ample evidence that
the recommended doses, as well as higher doses (e.g., up to 130 milligram), will effectively block
thyroidal uptake of radioactive iodine if taken in advance of exposure. Furthermore, particularly among
school-age children, higher milligram (mg) doses are extremely safe. However, FDA continues to
emphasize attention to KI dosing in infants. Excess iodine intake can lead to transient iodine-induced
hypothyroidism. Individuals who are intolerant of KI at protective doses, as well as neonates (i.e., a
newborn infant, especially an infant less than one month old) and pregnant or lactating women, should be
given priority with regard to other protective measures (i.e., sheltering, evacuation, and control of the
food supply). In summary, if local emergency planners conclude that graded dosing is logistically
impractical, FDA believes that for populations at risk for radioiodine exposure, the overall benefits of
taking up to 130 mg of KI instead of the lower doses recommended for certain age groups far exceed the
small risks of overdosing. However, where feasible, adherence to FDA guidance should be attempted
when dosing infants (FDA 2002).
Note that KI is effective only against uptake of radioiodine, and is best taken prior to or just after
exposure. The protective effect of a single dose of KI lasts approximately 24 hours. It should be
administered as directed by state/local health officials until the risk of significant exposure to radioiodine
(either by inhalation or ingestion) no longer exists (i.e., once the plume has passed). KI is a supplemental
action, secondary to evacuation or sheltering. It should not be used as a substitute for evacuation or
sheltering-in-place. Many communities do not use KI.
It should be noted that adults over 40 years of age need to take KI only in the case of a projected large
internal radiation dose to the thyroid (>500 rem (5 Sv)) to prevent hypothyroidism which could lead to
lifelong dependence on thyroid hormone replacement therapy. Thyroid irradiation in adults over 40 years
of age is associated with an extremely low incidence of cancer (FDA 2001).
Some people should not take KI. As a rule, individuals with known allergy to iodine or with pre-existing
thyroid disease (e.g., Graves' disease, thyroid nodules, Hashimoto's thyroiditis) that might predispose
7 Food and Drug Administration [FDA], Notice: Guidance on Use of Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation
Emergencies. Federal Register, 66, 64046: 2001. Published as "Guidance: Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in
Radiation Emergencies." FDA, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. Procedural, December 2001.
8 Food and Drug Administration [FDA], "Guidance for Industry: KI in Radiation Emergencies — Questions and Answers." FDA,
Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Procedural, Revision 1, December 2002.
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them to adverse reactions should avoid KI. Allergies to iodine and to shellfish are not related. People
allergic to shellfish need not worry about cross reactions with KI.9
Table 2-2. Threshold Thyroid Radioactive Exposures
and Recommended Doses of KI for Different Risk Groups
Predicted
Thyroid gland
exposure (cGy)
(1 cGy = 1 rem)
KI dose (mg)
Number or
fraction of
130 mg
tablets
Number or
fraction of
65 mg tablets
Adults over 40 years
>500
Adults over 18 through 40 years
> 10
130
1
2
Pregnant or lactating women
Adolescents, 12 through 18 years3
65
1/2
1
Children over 3 years through 12 years
>5
Children over 1 month through 3 years
32
Use KI oral
solution13
1/2
Infants birth through 1 month
16
Use KI oral
solution13
Use KI oral
solution13
a Adolescents approaching adult size (> 150 pounds) should receive the full adult dose (130 mg).
Potassium iodide oral solution is supplied in 1 ounce (30 mL) bottles with a dropper marked for 1, 0.5, and 0.25 mL
dosing. Each mL contains 65 mg potassium iodide.
Source: FDA, "Guidance: Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation Emergencies" (December 2001):
http://www.fda.gOv/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatorvInfonnation/Guidances/UCM080542.pdf and
FDA, Frequently Asked Questions on Potassium Iodide (KI):
http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/EmergencvPreparedness/BioterrorismandDrugPreparedness/ucm072265.htm (Last Updated:
10/27/2014).
Pregnant women should be given KI for their own protection and for that of the fetus, as iodine (whether
stable or radioactive) readily crosses the placenta. However, because of the risk of blocking fetal thyroid
function with excess KI, repeat dosing with KI of pregnant women should be avoided.
Lactating females should be administered KI for their own protection, as for other young adults, and
potentially to reduce the radioiodine content of the breast milk, but not as a means to deliver KI to infants,
who should be administered KI directly. As for direct administration of KI, stable iodine as a component
of breast milk may also pose a risk of hypothyroidism in nursing neonates. Therefore, repeat dosing with
KI should be avoided in the lactating mother, except during continuing severe contamination. If repeat
dosing of the mother is necessary, the nursing neonate should be monitored.
Once the plume has passed, protective actions such as evacuation and/or sheltering-in-place and food
control measures to limit exposure to radioiodine should be implemented and the administration of KI
should be suspended. Food control measures include providing the public with non-contaminated food
supplies while awaiting the eventual radioactive decay of contaminated food. Consumption of
contaminated food may be permitted on a case-by-case basis after surveying the foodstuffs and
determining the level of contamination consistent with FDA food and animal feeds guidance. As a result
9 More information is available at: http://www.foodallergv.org/allergens/shellfish-allergv and
http://www.acaai.org/allergist/Resources/ask-allergist/Pages/Is Shellfish Allergy Related to Iodine.aspx.
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of radioactive decay, grain products and canned milk and vegetables from sources affected by radioactive
fallout will not present a risk from radioiodine if they have been stored for weeks to months after
production.
An RDD is not likely to contain radioiodine, so administration of KI would not be necessary in such
incidents. The administration of other prophylactic drugs should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis
depending on the nature of the event and the radioisotopes involved. For more information on radiological
prophylactics and treatments, see:
http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/EmergencvPreparedness/BioterrorismandDrugPreparedness.
2.2.4 PAGs and Nuclear Facilities Emergency Planning Zones (EPZ)
Under NRC regulations, before a nuclear power reactor may be issued a license, the NRC must find that
licensee, state and local emergency plans are adequate and that they can be implemented. For nuclear
power reactors, there is a plume exposure EPZ within a 10 mile (16.1 km) radius of the plant and for a
separate ingestion pathway EPZ within a 50 mile (80.5 km) radius. The sizes of these EPZs were
developed by the NRC/EPA Task Force Report on Emergency Planning, NUREG-0396/EPA 520/1-78-
016 (NRC and EPA 1978) and are based, in part, on the numerical values of the PAGs for the plume
exposure and ingestion pathway EPZ. The licensee develops and maintains a detailed emergency plan for
its facility while state and local authorities within the EPZ develop and maintain detailed emergency
response plans for their respective jurisdictions. Guidance to these licensees, states and local agencies for
developing these emergency response plans, including guidance on arrangements for implementing
immediate protective actions is primarily contained in NUREG-0654/FEMA-REP-l (NRC 1980)1" and
supplemented with other guidance issued by NRC (for licensees) and FEMA (for off-site response
organizations).
Planning for incidents at other types of nuclear facilities should be developed using similar
considerations. Emergency preparedness requirements for non-power reactors (e.g., test and research
facilities) are provided in 10 CFR Part 50 Appendix E with supporting guidance in NRC Regulatory
Guide 2.6, "Emergency Planning for Research and Test Reactors" (NRC 1983). Emergency preparedness
requirements for fuel cycle and materials facilities are provided in 10 CFR Parts 30, 40, and 70 with
supporting guidance in NRC Regulatory Guide 3.67, "Standard Format and Content for Emergency Plans
for Fuel Cycle and Materials Facilities" (NRC 2011). Because of the relatively limited number and
diverse nature of these facilities, the size of the EPZ is determined, if needed, on a case-by-case basis for
reactors with an authorized power level less than 250 megawatt thermal.
Within an EPZ, an area should be pre-designated for immediate response based on specified plant
conditions prior to a release, or, given a release, prior to the availability of information on quantities of
radioactive materials released. The shape of this area will depend on local topography, as well as political
and other boundaries. Additional areas of the EPZ, particularly in the downwind direction, may require
evacuation or sheltering-in-place, as determined by dose projections. The size of these areas will be based
10 Immediate protective actions based on in-plant conditions and EPZs established by NUREG-0654/FEMA-REP-l are not
applicable to naval nuclear propulsion plants. The largest naval reactors are rated at less than one-fifth of a large U.S. commercial
NPP. In addition, since reactor power is directly linked to propulsion requirements, naval nuclear propulsion plants typically
operate at low power when the ship is close to shore where high speeds are not required and are normally shut down when in
port. Prototype reactor plants are typically operated at low power because of their training mission. Therefore, less than about one
percent of the radioactivity contained in a typical commercial NPP could be released from a naval nuclear propulsion plant,
limiting the possible dose to the general public and the size of the area of potential concern. Therefore, there is no need for towns
and cities to have special emergency response plans such as those required for cities near commercial NPPs. Instead, existing all-
hazards emergency response plans for responding to natural and industrial disasters are adequate to protect the public in areas
around facilities where naval nuclear propulsion plants are located. However, the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program (NNPP)
maintains close relationships with civil authorities to ensure that communications and emergency responses are coordinated, if
required. Periodic exercises are conducted with all States and Guam where U.S. nuclear-powered warships are homeported and
NNPP facilities are located.
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on the potential magnitude of the release and on an angular spread determined by meteorological
conditions and any other relevant factors.
The pre-designated areas for immediate protective action may be reserved for use only in the most severe
incidents and in cases when the facility operator cannot provide a quick estimate of projected dose based
on actual releases. For lesser incidents, or if the facility operator is able to provide prompt off-site dose
projections, the area for immediate protective action may be specified at the time of the incident instead
of using a pre-designated area. Regardless of the basis for the initial protective action, radiological
assessments need to continue through the duration of the event, and if warranted, the initial protective
actions extended into additional geographical areas.
Such prompt off-site dose projections may be possible when the facility operator can estimate the
potential off-site dose based on information at the facility, using relationships developed during planning
that relate abnormal plant conditions and meteorological conditions to potential off-site doses. After the
release starts and the release rate is measurable, or when plant conditions or measurements can be used to
estimate the characteristics and rate of the release, then these factors, along with atmospheric stability,
wind speed, and wind direction, can be used to estimate integrated concentrations of radioactive materials
as a function of location downwind. Although such projections are useful for initiating protective
action, the accuracy of these methods for estimating projected dose will be uncertain prior to confirmatory
field measurements because of unknown or uncertain factors affecting environmental pathways,
inadequacies of computer modeling, and uncertainty in the data for release terms.
The EPZs should be large enough to cover affected urban and rural areas and accommodate the various
organizations needed for emergency response. "Although the size of the EPZ is based on the maximum
distance at which a PAG might be exceeded, the actual boundary of an EPZ should be demarcated by
features readily identifiable by people within that area. Such boundaries generally include major
topographical features (e.g., rivers, roads, transmission line corridors, rail rights of way) and political
boundaries. The EPZ should be further subdivided, using similarly identifiable features, to facilitate
implementing protective actions when the entire EPZ is not affected. Maps, showing the boundaries of the
EPZ and the sub-areas and evacuation routes, should be provided to the public within the EPZ on a
periodic basis in a format that will likely be available if the emergency occurs (e.g., inserted sections in
local phone directories, wall calendars, etc.).
2.3 DOSE PROJECTIONS
The PAGs in this chapter are specified in terms of the projected whole body dose. This projected dose is
the sum of the effective dose from external exposure to the plume and the committed effective dose from
inhaled radionuclides. Guidance is also provided on the thyroid equivalent dose. Further references to
effective or organ dose equivalent refer to these two quantities, respectively. The FRMAC Assessment
Manuals12 provide detailed methods for estimating projected dose. These methods require knowledge of,
or assumptions for, the intensity and duration of exposure and make use of standard assumptions on the
relation, for each radioisotope, between exposure and dose. Exposure and dose projections should be
based on the best estimates available. The FRMAC methods and models may be modified as necessary for
specific sites for improved accuracy. Emergency response organizations are encouraged to use the most
current, applicable tools and methods for implementing PAGs, understanding that differing approaches
and assumptions will produce results with minor differences.
11 The development of EPZs for nuclear power facilities is discussed in the NUREG-0396 (NRC 1978).
12 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecuritv/liomelandsecuritv/frmac/manmls.aspx.
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2.3.1 Dose Projection during the Early Phase
PAGs are expressed in terms of projected dose. The calculation of projected doses should be based on
realistic dose models, to the extent practicable. Public protection decisions should be based upon the
dose that can be avoided (i.e., avoidable dose) by taking some protective action (e.g., evacuation,
sheltering-in-place). Unavoidable dose or doses incurred before the start of the protective action being
considered generally should not be included in evaluating the need for protective action. Similarly, doses
that may be incurred at later times than those affected by the specific protective action should not be
included. As noted earlier, the projection of doses in the early phase needs to include only those exposure
pathways that contribute a significant fraction (i.e., more than 10 percent) of the dose to an individual.
In the early phase of an incident, parameters other than projected dose may provide a more appropriate
basis for decisions to implement protective actions. When a facility is operating outside its design basis
and a substantial release to the environment has started, or is imminent but has not yet occurred, data
adequate to directly estimate the projected dose may not be available. Emergency response plans should
anticipate specific conditions at the source of a potential release and the possible consequences off-site.
Emergency response plans for NPPs and facilities should make use of emergency action levels (EALs),
based on in-plant conditions, to trigger notification and initial protective action recommendations to off-
site officials.13 Once the initial protective actions have been implemented, accident assessment should
continue. Although initial assessments may be uncertain, the subsequent assessments will be less
uncertain as additional information on facility condition and prognosis, effluent radiation monitoring data
and environmental data become available. The results of these continuing radiological assessments,
including dose projections, should be used as the basis for refining the initial protective actions. In the
case of transportation accidents, an RDD or IND, or other incidents that are not related to a facility, it may
not be practicable to establish EALs.
Doses that may be incurred from ingestion of food and water, long-term radiation exposure (i.e., longer
than four days), radiation exposure to deposited radioactive materials, or long-term inhalation of
resuspended materials are chronic exposures for which neither emergency evacuation nor sheltering-in-
place are appropriate protective actions. PAGs for the intermediate phase cover these exposure pathways
(see Chapter 4).
2.3.2 Duration of Exposure
The projected dose for comparison to the early phase PAGs is calculated for exposure during the first four
days following the anticipated (or actual) start of a release. The objective is to encompass the entire
period of exposure to the radioactive plume and deposited material prior to implementation of any further,
longer-term protective action such as relocation. For planning purposes, the four-day period is chosen as
the duration of exposure during the early phase because it is a reasonable estimate of the time necessary to
make measurements, reach decisions, and prepare to implement further protective actions (such as
relocation) if necessary. However, officials at the site at the time of the emergency may decide that a
different time frame is more appropriate.
For example, doses incurred through ingestion pathways or long-term exposure to deposited radioactive
materials take place over a longer time period. Protective actions for such exposures should be based on
guidance addressed in Chapter 4.
The projected dose from each radionuclide in a plume is proportional to the time-integrated concentration
of the radionuclide in the plume at each location. This concentration will depend on the rate and the
duration of the release and meteorological conditions. Release rates will vary with time and this time-
13 Immediate protective actions based on in-plant conditions are not applicable to naval nuclear propulsion plants. See Footnote
10 for additional information. In addition, because of differences in design and operation, EALs based on in-plant conditions are
not applicable to naval nuclear propulsion plants.
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dependence cannot usually be predicted accurately. In the absence of more specific information, the
release rate may be assumed to be constant.
Another factor affecting the estimation of projected dose is the duration of the plume at a particular
location. For purposes of calculating projected dose from most pathways, exposure will start at a
particular location when the plume arrives and will end when the plume is no longer present. Exposure
from deposited materials will continue for an extended period as long as people are present. Other factors
such as the aerodynamic diameter and solubility of particles, shape of the plume, and terrain may also
affect estimated dose and may be considered on a site- or source-specific basis.
Prediction of time frames for releases is difficult because of the wide range associated with the spectrum
of potential incidents. Therefore, planners should consider the possible time periods between an initiating
event and arrival of a plume and the duration of releases in relation to the time needed to implement
competing protective actions (i.e., evacuation and sheltering-in-place). Analyses of commercial nuclear
power reactors (NRC 1975) have shown that some incidents may take several days to develop to the point
of a release while others may begin as early as a half hour after an initiating event. Furthermore, the
duration of a release may range from less than one hour to several days, with the major portion of the
release likely occurring within the first day.
Wind speed also influences radiological exposure rates from a plume. As a general rule, air concentration
is inversely related to the wind speed at the point of release. Concentrations are also affected by the
turbulence of the air, which tends to increase with wind speed and sunlight and by wandering of the
plume, which is greater at the lower wind speeds. This results in higher concentrations generally being
associated with low winds near the source and with moderate winds at larger distances. Higher wind
speed also shortens the travel time of the plume. Planning information on time frames for releases from
nuclear power facilities may be found in references NRC 1978 and EPA 1978(a, b). Time frames for
releases from other facilities will depend on the characteristics of the facility.
2.3.3 Derived Response Levels and Dose Parameters
A Derived Response Level (DRL) is a level of radioactivity in an environmental medium that would be
expected to produce a dose equal to its corresponding PAG. Depending on the exposure pathway, many
factors such as ground roughness, weathering, and resuspension may be required to calculate the Dose
Parameter (DP) that converts an environmental measurement into a projected dose over a given time
period (e.g., early phase).
The FRMAC Assessment Manuals14 provide guidance in calculating DRLs and DPs based on the ICRP
dosimetry models (currently the ICRP 60 series). In addition, the FRPCC encourages the use of
computational tools such as DOE's Turbo FRMAC and NRC's Radiological Assessment System for
Consequence Analysis (RASCAL) as well as other appropriate or more current tools to implement the
PAGs.
In the early phase, for precautionary reasons, it is recommended that default DRLs provided in the
FRMAC Assessment Manual, Appendix C, be used. These defaults allow local entities to make decisions
quickly in the event of a radiological emergency. They include worst-case or most likely assumptions.
Further into the intermediate phase when incident characteristics have been assessed, more realistic
incident-specific factors may be considered by local decision makers in projecting risks and adapting
mitigation measures.
14 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecimtv/homelandsecmitv/frmac/manuals.aspx.
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2.3.4 Higher PAGs for Special Circumstances
Hazardous environmental conditions (e.g., severe weather or a competing disaster) could create
transportation risks from evacuation that would be higher than normal. It is therefore appropriate to allow
higher projected doses for evacuation decisions under these circumstances. In the absence of any
definitive information on such higher risks from evacuation, one should assume that it would be
appropriate to increase the recommended projected dose for evacuation of the general population under
hazardous environmental conditions up to a factor of five higher than that used under normal
environmental conditions.
It is also recognized that people who are not readily mobile are at higher risk from evacuation than are
average members of the population. It would be appropriate to adopt higher PAGs for evacuation of
individuals who would be at greater risk from evacuation itself than for the typically healthy members of
the population, who are at low risk from evacuation. In the absence of definitive information on the
higher risk associated with the evacuation of this group, one should assume that it is appropriate to adopt
PAGs a factor of five higher for evacuation of high risk groups under normal environmental conditions. If
both conditions (high risk groups and hazardous environmental conditions) exist, projected doses up to
ten times higher than the PAGs for evacuation of the general population under normal conditions may be
justified.15
2.4 CONTAMINATION LEVELS AND MONITORING OF THE ENVIRONMENT
AND POPULATIONS
Areas under the plume can be expected to contain deposited radioactive materials if aerosols or
particulate materials were released during the incident. In extreme cases, individuals and equipment may
be highly contaminated and monitoring stations will be required for emergency monitoring,
decontamination of individuals, and medical evaluations. Equipment should be checked and
decontaminated as necessary to avoid the spread of contamination to other locations. This monitoring
service would be required for only a few days following plume passage until all have been evacuated.
Guidance on surface contamination levels for use at such monitoring stations is provided below.
Adults may reenter restricted (limited access) areas under controlled conditions in accordance with
occupational exposure standards. The need for monitoring stations should be evaluated along highways,
which serve as the major evacuation or transportation routes, to control surface contamination at exits
from the more highly contaminated areas. Decontamination and other measures should be implemented to
maintain low exposure rates at monitoring stations.
As a general rule, contaminated items should not be released to an unrestricted area. Based on incident
and locality specific considerations, it may be acceptable to release contaminated materials if the level of
surface contamination is below acceptable release criteria. As an alternative to decontamination,
contaminated items (i.e., not people or animals) may be retained in the restricted area while the
radiological contamination decays.
In some extreme cases, decontamination may be impractical. Evacuating a large area requires resources,
and decontamination may conflict with priority use of those resources. Screening and decontamination
can slow egress, which could result in increased dose to the evacuees. Emergency managers should
consult with their state radiation control authority to establish proposed radiation screening criteria. Refer
to CDC's "Population Monitoring in Radiation Emergencies: A Guide for State and Local Public Health
Planners" (CDC 2014)16 for additional in-depth discussion in Appendix D on radiological screening
criteria for external contamination. These simple initial screening guides from CDC are more general than
15 These doses are expected to satisfy Principle 4 without violating Principles 1 and 3. Although they violate Principle 2,
Principle 4 becomes, for such cases, the overriding consideration. See Section 2.5 for more information about these principles.
10 See: http://emergencv.cdc.gov/radiation/pdf/population-monitoring-guide.pdf. (CDC 2014)
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FEMA REP-21 (FEMA 1995) and FEMA REP-22 (FEMA 2002) on use of handheld instruments and
portal monitors for screening the public.
2.4.1 Surface Contamination Control
Surface contamination must be controlled both before and after evacuation protective actions are
implemented. The contamination level for screening people, animals and objects for surface
contamination at monitoring stations should be influenced by the potential for the contamination to be
ingested, inhaled or transferred to other locations. The principal exposure pathways for loose surface
contamination on people, clothing and equipment are:
¦ Internal doses from ingestion by direct transfer;
¦ Internal doses from inhalation of resuspended materials;
¦ Beta dose to skin from contaminated skin or clothing or from nearby surfaces;
¦ Dose to the whole body from external gamma radiation; and
¦ Internal doses from absorption of contamination into wounds.
It is not practical to set surface contamination screening levels significantly lower than residual
contamination levels in uncontrolled areas. Although the contamination levels recommended in this
Manual are accordingly set high, consideration should be given as the incident progresses to using lower
contamination screening levels (and more sensitive monitoring instruments) once people are removed
from areas causing high external doses. Such efforts will minimize cross-contamination of people located
outside of the affected areas. For incidents involving fixed nuclear facilities, some evacuation reception
centers or shelters will have walk-through portal monitors.
The recommended "2x existing background" level for screening for surface contamination at monitoring
stations is merely a simplified basis for responders to set their own instrument trigger levels based on
practical circumstances at the time and location of each screening center. Local and state officials may
choose to establish a screening level expressed in measurement units (e.g., cpm, (.iR/h) that are compatible
with radiation detection instruments being used and appropriate for local conditions, taking into account
the number of people in need of screening and available resources.17 The following guidance documents
from the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) provide more detailed
information about initial screening levels:
¦ "Population Monitoring and Radionuclide Decorporation Following a Radiological or Nuclear
Incident," (NCRP Report No. 166), Bethesda, MD, 2011. (NCRP 2011)
¦ "Responding to a Radiological or Nuclear Terrorism Incident: A Guide for Decision Makers," (NCRP
Report No. 165), Bethesda, MD, 2010. (NCRP 2010)
¦ "Management of Persons Contaminated with Radionuclides: Scientific and Technical Bases," (NCRP
Report No. 161, Vol. II), Bethesda, MD, 2010. Chapter 5: Performing Surveys and Controlling
Personnel and Area Contamination. (NCRP 2008)
¦ "Management of Persons Contaminated with Radionuclides: Handbook," (NCRP Report No. 161,
Vol. I), Bethesda, MD, 2008. (NCRP 2008)
2.4.2 Priorities for Control of Contaminated Areas
The following priorities are recommended—
¦ Do not delay urgent medical care for decontamination efforts or for time-consuming protection of
attendants, such as donning of additional anti-contamination clothing.
17 See: http://emergencv.cdc.gov/radiation/pdf/population-monitoriiig-guide.pdf. (CDC 2014)
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¦ In early phase scenarios where it might not be practical or would interfere with other lifesaving and
public health protection priorities, do not waste effort trying to contain contaminated wash water but
be sure to notify sewage treatment plants.
¦ Do not allow monitoring and decontamination to delay an ordered evacuation.
¦ When early screening is needed after a major incident — After plume passage, it may be necessary to
establish emergency contamination monitoring stations in areas not qualifying as low background
areas. These monitoring stations should be used only during the early phase after major atmospheric
releases to monitor people emerging from possible high exposure areas. The stations should be set up
to provide simple (rapid) decontamination if needed and to evaluate whether affected people should
undergo more extensive decontamination or other special care. Section 2.4.3 provides guidance on
surface contamination levels for use, if such emergency contamination monitoring stations centers are
needed.
¦ Establish screening to control surface contamination — Establish monitoring and decontamination
(e.g., bathing) facilities at evacuation centers or other locations in low background areas (less than 0.1
mrem (1 (iSv) per hour gamma exposure rate). Section 2.4.4 provides surface contamination guidance
for monitoring stations in low background areas. These surface contamination screening levels are
examples derived primarily on the basis of easily measurable radiation levels using portable
instruments. The background may be elevated because of the incident, so these screening levels refer
to a "2x existing background" level in a low radiation area.
¦ Encourage self-decontamination — Encourage evacuated people who were exposed in areas where
release of particulate materials would have warranted evacuation to change and bag the clothes they
were wearing and store them in an area away from people and pets until authorities provide further
instructions on their disposition, to wash other exposed surfaces such as cars and trucks and their
contents, and then report to evacuation centers or other established locations for monitoring.
¦ After the evacuation area has been established, consider the need to set up monitoring and
decontamination stations at exits from the more highly contaminated parts of the area. Low levels of
contamination may be undetectable because of high background radiation levels at these locations.
Monitoring should be done at lowest practical background levels. Nevertheless, these individuals
should be advised to bathe and change clothes at their first opportunity—no later than within the next
24 hours. If, after decontamination, people still exceed the surface contamination screening levels for
the station, they should be sent for further decontamination or for medical or other special attention.
2.4.3 Recommendations for Emergency Screening in Areas Not Qualifying as Low
Background Areas
This section provides the recommended surface contamination screening levels for emergency screening
of people and objects at monitoring stations in areas with elevated background radiation (exceeding 0.1
mR/h or 1 (iSv/h gamma exposure rate). Monitoring stations in such high exposure rate areas are for use
only during the early phase of an incident involving major atmospheric releases of particulates (otherwise
see Section 2.4.4). For such emergency screening at monitoring stations, recommended actions for a
detection instrument reading at either less than or greater than 2x existing background are outlined below.
¦ Before Decontamination:
o If <2x existing background — Recommended action: Release for further screening outside
affected area.
o If >2x existing background — Recommended action: Perform gross decontamination (carefully
remove outer layer of clothing) and/or simple decontamination (examples include washing
hands and face, wiping of exposed skin, washing feet or soles of shoes). Equipment may be
stored for decay, reuse, or disposal in the same area, as appropriate.
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¦ After Decontamination:
o If <2x existing background — Recommended action: Release for further screening outside
affected area.
o If >2x existing background — Recommended action: Continue to decontaminate or refer to low
background monitoring and decontamination station. Equipment may be stored for decay,
reuse, or disposal in the same area, as appropriate.
2.4.4 Recommendations for Screening in Low Background Areas
This section provides the recommended surface contamination screening levels for people and objects at
monitoring stations in low background radiation areas (<0.1 mR/h or 1 (iSv/h gamma exposure rate).
People reporting to monitoring stations in low background radiation areas have been previously instructed
to change and bag clothes, wash other exposed surfaces such as cars and their contents, and then report to
these centers for monitoring. Levels higher than 2x existing background (not to exceed the meter reading
corresponding to 0.1 mR/h) may be used to speed the monitoring of evacuees in very low background
areas. For screening at monitoring stations in low background areas, recommended actions for a detection
instrument reading at either less than or greater than 2x existing background are outlined below.
¦ Before Decontamination:
o If <2x existing background — Recommended action: Unconditional release,
o If >2x existing background — Recommended action: Perform gross decontamination (carefully
remove outer layer of clothing) and/or simple decontamination (examples include washing
hands and face, wiping of exposed skin, washing feet or soles of shoes).
¦ After Simple Decontamination Effort:
o If <2x existing background — Recommended action: Unconditional release,
o If >2x existing background — Recommended action: Full decontamination.
¦ After Full Decontamination Effort (Changing clothes and/or showering are examples of a full
decontamination effort. Washing or gentle scrubbing with soap or other mild detergent followed
by flushing is another example of a full decontamination effort.):
o If <2x existing background — Recommended action: Unconditional release,
o If >2x existing background — Recommended action: Continue to decontaminate people.
¦ After Additional Full Decontamination Effort:
o If <2x existing background — Recommended action: Unconditional full release,
o If >2x existing background — Recommended action: Send people for further evaluation.
The recommended "2x existing background" level for screening for surface contamination at monitoring
stations is merely a simplified basis for responders to set their own instrument trigger levels based on
practical circumstances at the time and location of each screening center. Local and state officials may
choose to establish a screening level expressed in measurement units (e.g., cpm, (.iR/h) that are compatible
with radiation detection instruments being used and appropriate for local conditions, taking into account
the number of people in need of screening and available resources.18
2.5 BASIS FOR EARLY PHASE PAGS
For a full description of the risk-benefit analysis used to set the PAG levels, refer to the 1992 PAG
Manual, Appendices B, C and E. The 1992 PAG Manual is available online in a searchable format. Below
is a short summary of the basis for the early phase evacuation/sheltering PAG of 1 to 5 rem (10 to 50
mSv) projected over four days.
18 See: http://emergencv.cdc.gov/radiation/pdf/population-monitoriiig-guide.pdf. (CDC 2014)
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PAGs are intended to apply to all individuals in a population. However, there may be identifiable groups
that have different average sensitivity to radiation or, because of their living situation, will receive higher
or lower doses. In addition, some groups may be at greater risk from taking a given protective action.
Special circumstances and age groups (e.g., fetal dose) were considered, when appropriate, in establishing
values for the PAGs.
The following four principles provided the basis for establishing values for Protective Action Guides:
1. Acute effects on health (those that would be observable within a short period of time and which
have a dose threshold below which they are not likely to occur) should be avoided.
2. The risk of delayed effects on health (primarily cancer and genetic effects, for which linear non-
threshold relationships to dose are assumed) should not exceed upper bounds that are judged to be
adequately protective of public health, under emergency conditions, and are reasonably
achievable.
3. PAGs should not be higher than justified on the basis of optimization of cost and the collective
risk of effects on health. That is, any reduction of risk to public health achievable at acceptable
cost should be carried out.
4. Regardless of the above principles, the risk to health from a protective action should not itself
exceed the risk to health from the dose that would be avoided.19
EPA considered the acceptable range of costs for avoiding a statistical death from pollutants other than
radiation and using a rounded value from the BEIR III risk of 0.0003 cancer deaths per person-rem.2"
Further evaluation of thyroid, skin, and fetal dose consequences was conducted as well.
Costs of evacuation:
Based on a prior published study (EPA 1987a), evaluating evacuation options for several accident types,
an analysis focused on the smallest category of fuel melt accident yielding effective dose equivalents
during the first four days of exposure that are greater than 0.5 rem outside the assumed 2-mile evacuation
circle for all stability classes. For that scenario, total and incremental costs were calculated for several
different sized evacuation areas. Data on costs versus dose avoided for several meteorological stability
classes and evacuation options (sizes) were summarized in tables in the 1992 PAG Manual, Appendix C.
For a risk of 0.0003 cancer deaths per person-rem, the range of evacuation costs can be compared to the
marginal cost-effectiveness (dollars per person-rem) of evacuation over an angle of 90 degrees. The
resulting ranges of upper bounds on dose are found in tables in the 1992 PAG Manual, Appendix C, for
three different accident scenarios. The maximum upper bounds (based on minimum costs for avoiding
risk) range from 1 to 10 rem, with most values being approximately 5 rem. The minimum upper bounds
(based on maximum costs for avoiding risk) range from 0.15 to 0.8 rem, with 0.5 rem dose incurred being
representative of most situations.
From these data we conclude that, based on the cost of evacuation, a PAG larger than the range of values
0.5 to 5 rem would be incompatible with Principle 3.
Based on comparison of exposures from evacuation versus the presumed alternative of sheltering in
various building types for several timeframes, the dose actually avoided by evacuation is one half of the
projected dose.
19 These four principles were used in developing the 1992 PAG Manual; now presented as three principles.
20 For more information on BEIR III risk, see the 1992 PAG Manual. BEIR III refers to the 1980 report from the Committee on
the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), National Research Council,
The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR III (NAS 1980).
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Risk from evacuation:
Principle 4 requires that the risk of the protective action not exceed the risk associated with the dose that
will be avoided. Risk from evacuation can come from several sources, including: 1) transportation
incidents for both pedestrians and vehicle passengers; 2) exposure to severe weather conditions or a
competing disaster; and 3) in the case of immobile persons, anxiety, unusual activity, and separation from
medical care or services. While all these factors must be considered, transportation incidents is the only
category for which the risk has been quantified.
Conformance to Principle 1 (avoidance of acute health effects) is assured by the low risk required to
satisfy Principle 2 (acceptable risk of delayed health effects), and thus requires no additional
consideration. Based on Principle 2, evacuation of the general population is not justified below 0.5 rem.
This represents a risk of about 0.0002 of fatal cancer. Maximum lifetime risk levels considered acceptable
by EPA from routine operations of individual sources range from 0.000001 to 0.0001. Risk levels that are
higher than this must be justified on the basis of the emergency nature of a situation. In this case, we
judge that up to an order of magnitude higher combined risk from all phases of an incident may be
justifiable. The choice of 0.5 rem avoided dose as an appropriate criterion for an acceptable level of risk
during the early phase is a subjective judgment that includes consideration of possible contributions from
exposure during other phases of the incident.
Principle 4 (risk from the protective action must be less than that from the radiation risk avoided) supplies
a lower bound of 0.03 rem on the dose at which evacuation of most members of the public is justified.
The lower bound was derived from the risk of death from traffic accidents in emergency evacuations,
using the factor of 0.0003 cancer deaths per person-rem. Finally, under Principle 3 (cost/risk
considerations) evacuation is justified only at values equal to or greater than 0.5 rem. This will be limiting
unless lower values are required for purely health-based reasons (Principle 2). But this is not the case.
In summary, we have selected the value 0.5 rem as the avoided dose which justifies evacuation, because:
1) it limits the risk of delayed effects on health to levels adequately protective of public health under
emergency conditions; 2) the cost of implementation is justified; and 3) it satisfies the two bounding
requirements to avoid acute radiation effects and to avoid increasing risk through the protective action
itself.
The value of the PAG for evacuation of the general public is therefore chosen as one rem projected total
effective dose from inhalation of radionuclides and exposure to external radiation.
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KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 2 - EARLY PHASE
¦ The principal protective actions for the early phase are evacuation or sheltering-in-place.
Evacuation is the urgent removal of people from an area to avoid or reduce high-level, short-term
exposure from the plume or deposited radioactivity. Sheltering-in-place refers to the use of a
readily available structure that will provide protection from exposure to the plume.
¦ The PAG for evacuation or sheltering-in-place is a projected whole body dose of 1 to 5 rem (10 -
50 mSv) total effective dose (TED) over four days.
¦ Evacuation is appropriate when its risks and secondary effects are less severe than the risk of the
projected radiation dose. Evacuation will be most effective in avoiding dose if completed before
plume arrival.
¦ In general, sheltering-in-place should be preferred to evacuation whenever it provides equal or
greater protection. After confirmation that the plume has passed, continued sheltering-in-place
should be re-evaluated by public officials.
¦ The administration of KI to partially block the uptake of radioiodines by the thyroid is a
supplemental protective action. The PAG for administration of KI is 5 rem (50 mSv) projected
child thyroid dose.
¦ Dose calculations for PAGs are made using the dose parameter (DP) and derived response level
(DRL) calculation methods referenced in the FRMAC Assessment Manuals. Emergency response
organizations are encouraged to use the most current, applicable tools and methods for
implementing the PAGs.
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CHAPTER 3. EMERGENCY WORKER PROTECTION
The emergency worker guidelines in this chapter were developed for a wide range of possible radiological
scenarios, from a small transportation accident that may impact a single roadway to an IND that could
potentially impact a large geographic region. Therefore, the 5, 10 and 25 rem (50, 100 and 250 mSv)
guidelines (see Table 3-1, Section 3.1.2) should not be viewed as inflexible limits applicable to the range
of early phase emergency actions covered by this guidance. For instance, by the intermediate phase when
relocation has been implemented, it is likely that no more lifesaving missions would be needed. Some
critical infrastructure/key resources or lifesaving missions may arise in later phases, however, for which
the emergency worker guides in Section 3.1.2 would apply.
Because of the range of impacts and case-specific information needed, it is impossible to develop a single
turn-back dose level for all responders to use in all events, especially those that involve lifesaving
operations. Indeed, with proper preparedness measures (training, personal protective equipment (PPE),
etc.) most radiological emergencies addressed by this document, even lifesaving operations, may be
manageable within the 5 rem (50 mSv) occupational limit.21 Moreover, incident commanders should
make every effort to employ the "as low as reasonably achievable" (ALARA) principle after an incident.
Still, in some incidents doses above the annual occupational 5 rem (50 mSv) dose limit may be
unavoidable. For instance, in the case of a catastrophic incident, such as an IND, incident commanders
may need to consider raising the lifesaving and critical infrastructure (i.e., necessary for public welfare)
emergency worker guidelines in order to prevent further loss of life and prevent the spread of massive
destruction. It is essential that emergency workers have full knowledge of the associated risks prior to
initiating emergency action and receive medical evaluations after such exposure.
Worker and public protection guidance and standards for normal operations are developed through risk
management approaches and are implemented in federal and state regulations (e.g., 10 CFR Part 20; 10
CFR Part 835; 29 CFR Part 1910.1096). However, many factors or decision criteria in a radiological
emergency differ from those in normal operations. Standards for normal operations provide a margin of
safety that is greater than that in guidelines for emergency response because that margin can be provided
in a manner that ensures no significant increase in public health risk or detriment to the public welfare.
Currently, the development of standards and guidelines for normal operations is done in a manner that
provides reasonable assurance that implementation of the standards will not cause more risk than it averts.
Response organizations need to develop plans and protocols that address radiation protection during a
radiological incident and that ensure appropriate training is provided to responders and decision-makers.
Detailed reports on radiation risk, risk management decision-making, training and public communication
should be consulted in the development of plans, protocols and training materials and may be obtained
from organizations such as ICRP, NCRP, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the American
Nuclear Society (ANS), and the Health Physics Society (HPS). Detailed information on the risks of
radiological emergency response and worker protection procedures can be found in the FRMAC
"Radiological Emergency Response Health and Safety Manual" (DOE 2012) and the NCRP's
"Management of Terrorist Events Involving Radioactive Material, Report No. 138" (NCRP 2001) and
"Responding to a Radiological or Nuclear Terrorism Incident: A Guide for Decision Makers, Report No.
165" (NCRP 2010).
21 See 29 CFR Part 1910.1096 (Ionizing Radiation) for OSHA's occupational limit. Under the OSHA Ionizing Radiation
standard, the annual occupational limit for whole body radiation exposure for adults (age >18 years) is 5 rem (50
mSv). Employers must comply with all applicable OSHA requirements, including worker dose limits for ionizing radiation,
during emergency response and recovery operations.
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3.1 CONTROLLING OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE AND DOSES TO
EMERGENCY WORKERS
This section provides guidance on occupational doses of radiation during an emergency response. In
many radiological incidents, actual exposure of workers, including emergency responders, may be
controlled to low doses when proper precautions are taken. During some emergencies, radiation exposures
to responders may be unavoidable and may have the potential to exceed limits used for normal operations.
However, even in emergency conditions, every reasonable effort should be made to control doses to levels
that are as low as practicable (consider NCRP 13822 and NCRP 16523 for recommendations that support
ALARA).
3.1.1 Maintaining the ALARA Principle
To minimize the risks from exposure to ionizing radiation, employers of emergency workers (or incident
commanders, who may or may not be the same) should prepare emergency response plans and protocols
in advance to keep worker exposures ALARA, an acronym for "as low as reasonably achievable," which
means making every reasonable effort to maintain exposures to radiation as far below the dose limits as is
practical consistent with the purpose for which the activity is undertaken. Plans and protocols should
include the following health physics and industrial hygiene practices to the maximum extent possible—
¦ Minimizing the time spent in the contaminated area.
¦ Maximizing the distance from sources of radiation.
¦ Shielding of radiation sources.
¦ Tailoring of hazard controls to the work performed.
¦ Properly selecting and using respirators (see 29 CFR Part 1910.134) and other PPE.
¦ Using prophylactic medications, where medically appropriate, that either block the uptake or
reduce the retention time of radioactive material in the body.
The incident commander's staff should be prepared to identify, to the extent possible, all hazardous
conditions or substances and to perform appropriate site hazard analysis. Emergency management plans
need to include protocols to control worker exposures, establish exposure guidelines in advance, and
outline procedures for worker protection. Emergency procedures need to include provisions for exposure
monitoring, worker training commensurate with the hazards involved in response operations, ways to
control those hazards, and medical monitoring.
3.1.2 Understanding Dose and Risk Relationships
Emergency worker guidelines are based on cumulative dose constraint levels. These are based on an
assumption that doses acquired in response to a radiological incident would be "once in a lifetime" doses
and that future radiological exposures would be substantially lower.
Recommendations in this Manual provide a guideline level of 5 rem (50 mSv) for worker protection and
alternative emergency worker guidelines (see Table 3-1) for certain activities where doses above 5 rem
(50 mSv) cannot be avoided. For most radiological incidents, radiation control measures (e.g., minimizing
time, maximizing distance, using shielding) will prevent doses from reaching the 5 rem (50 mSv)
occupational exposure guideline while performing typical emergency response activities such as
transportation, firefighting and medical treatment of contaminated victims at hospitals. However, in those
situations in which victims are injured or trapped in high radiation areas or can only be reached via high
radiation areas, or for protection of critical infrastructure, exposure control options may be unavailable or
insufficient and doses above 5 rem (50 mSv) may be unavoidable.
22 "Management of Terrorist Events Involving Radioactive Material, Report No. 138" (NCRP 2001).
23 "Responding to a Radiological or Nuclear Terrorism Incident: A Guide for Decision Makers, Report No. 165" (NCRP 2010).
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Decisions to take response actions that could result in doses in excess of 5 rem (50 mSv) can only be
made at the time of the incident, under consideration of the actual situation. In such situations, incident
commanders and other responders need to understand the risk posed by such exposures in order to make
informed decisions. The emergency worker guidelines for life and property saving activities in Table 3-1
are provided to assist such decision-making. These guidelines apply to doses incurred over the duration of
an emergency and are assumed to be once in a lifetime. After the early phase, it is likely that no more
lifesaving missions would be needed. However, some critical infrastructure/key resources or lifesaving
missions may arise in the intermediate phase, where these guidelines would apply.
Emergency personnel may be exposed to increased radiation during the unique catastrophic event of an
IND detonation resulting in firestorm and widespread destruction of structures. The emergency
intervention needed to prevent further destruction and loss of life may result in increased exposure.
Exceeding the emergency worker guidelines in Table 3-1 may be unavoidable in responding to such
events. For all exposures, emergency workers must be fully informed of the risks of exposure they may
experience, including numerical estimates of the risk of delayed health effects, and must be trained, to the
extent feasible, on actions to be taken. Each emergency worker should make an informed decision as to
how much radiation risk they are willing to accept to complete a particular mission.
Table 3-1. Emergency Worker Guidelines
Guideline
Activity
Condition
5 rem (50 mSv)
All occupational exposures
All reasonably achievable actions
have been taken to minimize dose.
10 rem (100 mSv)a
Protecting critical infrastructure
necessary for public welfare (e.g., a
power plant)
Exceeding 5 rem (50 mSv)
unavoidable and all appropriate
actions taken to reduce dose.
Monitoring available to project or
measure dose.
25 rem (250 mSv)b
Lifesaving or protection of large
populations
Exceeding 5 rem (50 mSv)
unavoidable and all appropriate
actions taken to reduce dose.
Monitoring available to project or
measure dose.
>25 rem (250 mSv)
Lifesaving or protection of large
populations
All conditions above and only for
people fully aware of the risks
involved (see Tables 3-2 and 3-3)
a For potential doses >5 rem (50 mSv), medical monitoring programs should be considered.
k In the case of a very large incident, such as an IND, incident commanders may need to consider raising the property and
lifesaving emergency worker guidelines to prevent further loss of life and massive spread of destruction.
This guidance does not address or impact site cleanups occurring under other statutory authorities such as the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund program, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC)
decommissioning program, or other federal or state cleanup programs.
The 25 rem (250 mSv) lifesaving emergency worker guidelines provide assurance that exposures will not
result in detrimental deterministic health effects (i.e., prompt or acute effects). However, it could increase
the risk of stochastic (chronic) effects, such as the risk of cancer. Response actions that could cause
exposures in excess of the 25 rem (250 mSv) emergency worker guideline should only be undertaken with
an understanding of the potential acute effects of radiation to the exposed responder (see Table 3-2) and
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only when the benefits of the action (i.e., lifesaving or critical infrastructure/key resource protection)
clearly exceed the associated risks.
Table 3-2. Acute Radiation Syndrome3
Feature or
Illness
Effects of Whole Body Absorbed Dose from External Radiation or Internal Absorption,
by dose range in rad (Gray)
0-100
(0-1 Gy)
100-200
(1-2 Gy)
200-600
(2-6 Gy)
600-800
(6-8 Gy)
>800
(>8 Gy)
Nausea,
Vomiting
None24
5-50%
50-100%
75-100%
90-100%
Time of Onset
3-6 lir
2-4 lir
1-2 lir
< 1 lir to
minutes
Duration
< 24 lir
<24 lir
<48 lir
<48 lir
Lymphocyte
Count
Unaffected
Minimally
Decreased
<1000 at 24 lir
< 500 at 24 lir
Decreases within
hours
Central Nervous
System Function
No
Impairment
No Impairment
Cognitive
impairment for
6-20 lir
Cognitive
impairment for
>20 lir
Rapid
incapacitation
Mortality
None
Minimal
Low with
aggressive
therapy25
High
Very High:
Significant
neurological
symptoms
indicate lethal
dose
a Percentage of people receiving whole body doses within a few hours expected to experience acute health effects.
Source: Medical Management of Radiological Casualties, Second Edition, Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute.
Bethesda, MD, April 2003 (DoD 2003).
Higher doses could be received by emergency workers performing what NCRP Report No. 165,
"Responding to a Radiological or Nuclear Terrorism Incident: A Guide for Decision Makers" calls
"Time-Sensitive Mission-Critical" activities that could result in radiation doses higher than 25 rem (250
mSv) (NCRP 2010). NCRP Report No. 165 expands the discussion on a Decision Dose of 50 rad
(approximately 50 rem or 500 mSv). A Decision Dose can be used by the incident commander as a tool to
address the need to and the consequences of exposing emergency workers to higher doses to accomplish
Mission Critical actions. This is especially important in an IND incident.
The estimated excess risk of fatal cancer26 for workers exposed to 10 rem (100 mSv) is slightly less than
the corresponding general population risk of 0.6 percent (6 cases per thousand exposed). Workers exposed
to 25 rem (250 mSv) have an estimated excess risk of fatal cancer of 1.5 percent (15 cases per thousand
24 A small number of exposed individuals may experience symptoms such as nausea and vomiting at doses between 50 and 100
rad (0.5 and 1 Gy).
25 The LD 50/60 or the lethal dose with NO medical intervention to 50 percent of the population after 60 days is between 320 and
450 rad or 3.2 - 4.5 Gy.
20 Risk per dose of a fatal cancer is assumed to be about 6x10"4 per rem (6xl0"5 per mSv). Cancer incidence is assumed to be
about 8xl0"4 per rem (8xl0"5 per mSv). (EPA 1999)
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exposed). Because of the latency period of cancer, younger workers face a larger risk of fatal cancer than
older workers (e.g., when exposed to 25 rem (250 mSv), 20 to 30-year-olds have a 9.1 per thousand risk
of premature death, while 40 to 50-year-olds have a 5.3 per thousand risk of premature death).27
More specific risk determinations can be made when there is adequate information about the contaminants
and the potential for human exposure. EPA's Federal Guidance Report #13 (EPA 1999) and Health
Effects Assessment Summary Tables (EPA 1997) have risk factors for specific radionuclides.
Prior to the 5 rem (50 mSv) guideline being exceeded, workers should be provided the following—
¦ Site-specific training, if no prior training was available, with respect to the risk associated with
exposure to ionizing radiation (incident commanders and responders should consider having
someone on each team with radiation safety experience).
¦ A thorough explanation of the latent risks associated with receiving exposures greater than 5 rem
(50 mSv).
¦ After this training and thorough explanation of the risks, each emergency worker should make an
informed decision as to how much radiation risk they are willing to accept when undertaking a
particular mission.
If the 5 rem (50 mSv) guideline is exceeded, workers should be provided with a medical follow-up and
monitoring should be considered.
In addition, these guidelines represent dose constraint levels (e.g., when this level of dose is accumulated,
the responder should not take part in the later stages of the response that may significantly increase their
dose). The FRMAC "Radiological Emergency Response Health and Safety Manual" (DOE 2012)
provides detailed information. Additional resources for advance planning are available on the Radiation
Emergency Medical Management (REMM) website: http://www.remm.nlm.gov/.
3.2 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY REGULATIONS FOR RADIOLOGICAL
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
The Occupational Safety and Health Act requires employers to be responsible for the health and safety of
their employees during routine and emergency operations. The primary occupational safety and health
standard for emergency response is the Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response
(HAZWOPER) standard (29 CFR Part 1910.120). Information about how the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) applies HAZWOPER and other OSHA standards to emergency responses
and cleanup operations is available at www.osha.gov.
Many U.S. states operate their own OSHA-approved state plans, which are required to be "at least as
effective as" Federal OSHA standards and may impose additional or more stringent requirements.28 Some
states operate "complete" plans that cover both the private sector and state and local government
employees, while others cover state and local government employees only. EPA's Worker Protection
Standard (40 CFR 311) applies the HAZWOPER standard to state and local government workers in states
that do not have occupational health and safety plans.
27 The numerical estimate of cancer risk presented above (from Federal Guidance Report #13) was obtained by linear
extrapolation using the nominal risk estimates based on data from human exposures at high doses and high dose rates. Other
methods of extrapolation to the low-dose region could yield higher or lower numerical estimates of cancer deaths. Studies of
human populations exposed at low doses are inadequate to demonstrate the actual magnitude of risk at low doses (about 0.1 Sv or
10 rem and below). There is scientific uncertainty about cancer risk in the low-dose region below the range of epidemiological
observation and the possibility of no risk cannot be excluded. (EPA 1999)
28 For a list of state plans, see: http://www.osha.gov/dcsp/osp/index.html.
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In addition to OSHA, several federal agencies (DOE and NRC) and Agreement States issue occupational
radiation safety standards (see Table 3-3). The occupational standards are not guidelines but instead are
regulatory limits that cannot be exceeded except under certain conditions. These occupational limits allow
workers to receive radiation exposure during the course of performing their jobs.
Some federal and state radiation safety standards may allow workers to exceed dose limits in order to take
critical lifesaving actions. However, even during emergency response and recovery operations, OSHA
standards always apply. During the initial emergency response following a nuclear detonation, OSHA
will likely operate in a technical assistance and support mode, pursuant to the National Response
Framework, rather than issuing citations for workplace violations. OSHA retains its enforcement
authority under the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act of 1970.
Table 3-3. Regulations for Worker Protection
Agency
Regulatory Requirement
Title
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration3
29 CFRPart 1910.120
Safety and Health - HAZWOPER
29 CFRPart 1910.1096
Ionizing Radiation
Environmental Protection Agency3
40 CFRPart 311
Occupational Radiation Protection
Nuclear Regulatory Commission13
10 CFR Part 20
Standards for Protection Against Radiation
Department of Energy0
10 CFR Part 835
Radiation Protection Regulations
a Worker safety and health is regulated in all states by federal OSHA or by respective state regulations under an OSHA-
approved state plan. 40 CFRPart 311 applies the OSHA HAZWOPER standard (29 CFR 1910.120) to public-sector workers
in states that do not operate their own occupational safety and health programs.
k It is the NRC's position (56 FR 23365) that dose limits for normal operations should remain the primary guideline in
emergencies to the extent practicable. However, in accordance with 10 CFR 20.1001(b), conformance with such dose limits
should not hinder an NRC licensee from taking actions that may be necessary to protect public health and safety in an
emergency.
c These requirements apply to all DOE employees and contractors (except for Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program (NNPP))
who may be exposed to ionizing radiation as a result of their work for DOE, including work relating to emergency response
activities. The NNPP has established requirements consistent with those contained in 10 CFR Part 835.
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KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 3 - EMERGENCY WORKER PROTECTION
Emergency worker guidelines of 5, 10 or 25 rem (50, 100 or 250 mSv) are based on the urgency of
activities and knowledge of the risks involved.
Worker safety is key to a successful emergency response.
Incident commanders are responsible for balancing the individual risks and public benefits of each
worker action.
Emergency workers should be adequately informed of, and have an adequate understanding of, the
risks they may experience during any missions they accept, including the risk of short-term and
long-term health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation.
Emergency workers should have relevant training, personal protective equipment (PPE), and
monitoring instruments so they are able to protect themselves and others.
Since there is assumed to be no threshold below which there is not an associated risk from
radiation dose, workers who are reasonably expected to receive more than 25 percent of the
occupational dose limit should be properly trained and monitored.
Emergency workers should be trained, to the extent feasible, on actions to be taken. All reasonable
steps should be taken to provide appropriate protection during the emergency activity.
Worker protection regulations are listed in Table 3-3.
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CHAPTER 4. INTERMEDIATE PHASE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES
This chapter presents PAGs for the intermediate phase and provides guidance for the implementation of
corresponding protective actions. A PAG is the projected dose to an individual from the release of
radioactive material at which a specific protective action should be taken to reduce or avoid that dose. The
intermediate phase is defined as the period beginning after the source and releases have been brought
under control and environmental measurements are available for use as a basis for decisions on protective
actions and extending until these protective actions are terminated. The intermediate phase may last from
weeks to months but is projected for one year for calculation purposes.
During the early phase, decisions must be made and implemented quickly by state and local officials
before federal assistance may be available. In contrast, many decisions and actions during the intermediate
phase may be taken after federal resources are present, as described in the "Nuclear/Radiological Incident
Annex of the National Response Framework" (FEMA 2008 a, b). Decisions will be made during the
intermediate phase concerning whether particular areas or properties from which people have been
evacuated will be decontaminated and reoccupied or the occupants relocated for an extended period.
This chapter provides the PAGs and corresponding protective actions for use by state and local officials in
developing their radiological emergency response plans to protect the public from exposure to radiation
from deposited radioactive materials. Due to the wide variety of types of radiological incidents and
radionuclide releases that could occur, it is not practical to provide implementing guidance for every
possible situation.
This chapter also provides guidance for translating radiological conditions in the environment into
projected doses that serve as the basis for decisions to take appropriate protective actions and basic
planning guidance on reentry as informed by the Operational Guidelines (DOE 2009).
4.1 EXPOSURE PATHWAYS DURING THE INTERMEDIATE PHASE
During the intermediate phase, the following are the principal exposure pathways for the public
occupying areas contaminated with deposited radioactive materials—
¦ External exposure to radiation from deposited radioactive materials (groundshine). External
gamma radiation is the expected dominant pathway for NPP incidents and incidents involving
RDDs and INDs. Typically, the health risks from other pathways are expected to be minor in
comparison to the risks from external gamma radiation.
¦ Internal exposure from the inhalation of resuspended materials. Although normally expected to
be of only minor importance for NPP incidents, the inhalation pathway would contribute additional
doses to internal organs. Inhalation dose, however, would be an important exposure pathway for
radiological incidents with significant fractions of pure beta emitters or alpha emitters.
¦ Internal exposure from the ingestion of food and water. In rare cases, where food or drinking
water are contaminated to levels above the PAG for ingestion, and withdrawal of food and/or
water from use would, in itself, create a health risk greater than that from the radiation dose, the
committed effective dose from ingestion should be added to the dose from the above pathways for
comparison to the relocation PAG.
Other potentially significant exposure pathways include exposure to beta radiation from surface
contamination (e.g., beta dose to skin) and direct ingestion of contaminated soil. These pathways are not
expected to be controlling for NPP incidents (Aaberg 1989).
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4.2 THE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES AND PROTECTIVE ACTIONS FOR
THE INTERMEDIATE PHASE: RELOCATION AND DOSE REDUCTION
The principal protective actions for reducing exposure of the public to deposited radioactive materials are:
¦ Relocation;
¦ Decontamination;
¦ Shielding;
¦ Time limits on exposure; and
¦ Control of the spread of surface contamination.
The most effective of these actions is relocation—the removal or continued exclusion of people
(households) from contaminated areas to avoid chronic radiation exposure. Relocation is highly disruptive
and therefore only implemented when the dose is sufficiently high to warrant it. The PAG for relocation is
2 rem (20 mSv) projected over the first year of exposure. After the first year, the PAG for relocation is 0.5
rem (5 mSv) per year.
The PAG level for relocation applies to doses that can be avoided by relocation; doses already incurred
prior to relocation are not included in the calculations. PAGs for protection from deposited radioactivity
during the intermediate phase are summarized in Table 4-1. The decision to relocate will be considered on
a case-by-case basis. Efforts to decontaminate and remediate the contaminated area and the shielding
offered by buildings and the residency factor attributable to the building, must be considered to see if
either relocation PAG will be exceeded.
It may be difficult to avoid exceeding the relocation PAGs for the radionuclides most likely associated
with RDDs because of their longer half-lives. If these radionuclides are released, it may be necessary to
relocate people in the affected areas even if exposure is less than 2 rem (20 mSv) in the first year,
provided decontamination and remediation measures during the first year are unsuccessful.
In most scenarios, relocation decisions will be based on doses from external exposure to the whole body
from deposited radioactive materials and internal exposure from inhalation of resuspended deposited
material.
Food and milk ingestion dose should be considered separately with decisions based on the FDA PAGs.29
The FRMAC Assessment Manuals3" provide guidance in calculating Ingestion Derived Response Levels
(DRLs) that indicate the levels of deposited radioactive materials that may result in food exceeding the
FDA PAGs.
Other protective actions, such as simple dose reduction techniques, can be applied in areas where levels of
deposited radioactivity are not high enough to warrant relocation. Dose reduction actions can range from
the simple—scrubbing or flushing surfaces, removal and disposal of small spots of highly contaminated
soil (e.g., from settlement of water), and spending more time than usual in lower exposure rate areas (e.g.,
indoors)—to the difficult and time consuming processes of removal, disposal and replacement of
contaminated surfaces. The simple processes would probably be most appropriate in contaminated areas
outside the relocation area. Many of these can be carried out by the residents with support from officials
for monitoring and guidance on appropriate actions and disposal. The more difficult processes will be
appropriate for recovery of areas where contamination is fixed (not removable) and from which the
population is relocated.
29 Accidental Radioactive Contamination of Human Food and Animal Feeds: Recommendations for State and Local Agencies,
FDA 1998, available online:
http://www.fda.gov/downloads/MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocuments/UCM094513.pdf.
30 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecuritv/homelandsecuritv/frmac/manuals.aspx.
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Access to and/or activities within large areas may have to be restricted under these PAGs. As the land area
increases, protective actions become more difficult and costly to implement, especially when the affected
area is densely populated. There may be situations where full implementation of early and intermediate
phase protective actions is impracticable (e.g., a release in a large city). Informed judgment must be
exercised to assure priority of protection for individuals in areas having the highest exposure rates.
Table 4-1. PAGs and Protective Actions for Exposure to Deposited Radioactivity during the
Intermediate Phase of a Radiological Incident3
Protective Action
Recommendation
PAG or Guideline
Comments
Relocation of the publicb
PAG: > 2 rem (20 mSv) projected
dosec in the first year,
0.5 rem (5 mSv)/year projected dosec
in the second and subsequent years
Projected dose over one year of
exposure.
Apply simple dose reduction
techniques'1
Guideline: < 2 rem (20 mSv)
projected dosec in the first year
These protective actions should be
taken to reduce doses to as low as
practicable levels.
Food interdiction12
PAG: 0.5 rem (5 mSv)/year projected
whole body dose, or 5 rem (50
mSv)/year to any individual organ or
tissue, whichever is limiting
Reentry
Guideline: Operational Guidelinesf
(stay times and concentrations) for
specific reentry activities (see Section
4.6)
a This guidance does not address or impact site cleanups occurring under other statutory authorities such as the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund program, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC)
decommissioning program, or other federal or state cleanup programs.
k People previously evacuated from areas outside the relocation area defined by this PAG may return to occupy their
residences. Cases involving relocation of people at high risk from such action (e.g., patients under intensive care) may be
evaluated individually.
c Projected dose refers to the dose that would be received, by default, in the absence of shielding from structures or the
application of dose reduction techniques. These PAGs may not provide adequate protection from some long-lived
radionuclides (see Section 4.5). Incident-specific factors should be considered.
^ Simple dose reduction techniques include scrubbing or flushing hard surfaces, minor removal of soil from spots where
radioactive materials have concentrated, and spending more time than usual indoors or in other low exposure rate areas.
e For more information on food and animal feeds guidance, the complete FDA guidance may be found at
httD://www.fda.aov/downloads/MedicalDevices/DeviceReaulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocmnents/UCM094513.Ddf.
f
For extensive technical and practical implementation information please see "Preliminary Report on Operational Guidelines
Developed for Use in Emergency Preparedness and Response to a Radiological Dispersal Device Incident" (DOE 2009).
4.2.1 Removal of the 50 Year Relocation PAG
For simplicity, the 1992 relocation PAG of 5 rem (50 mSv) over 50 years has been removed from this
Manual. It is rarely, if ever, the driver for extending a relocation area beyond that prompted by the first or
second year relocation PAGs in scenarios that have been analyzed. Additionally, dose projections over 50
years after a radiological incident for various age groups show no significant differences for individuals
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exposed at 3 months of age versus adult. A response organization may wish to project 50-year doses to
inform decision-making, but should consider weathering, decay, credit for time spent indoors, and to the
extent it can be predicted, dose reduction from mitigation activities. To keep emergency management
decisions as simple as possible, the recommended relocation PAGs are 2 rem (20 mSv) projected over the
first year, and 0.5 rem (5 mSv) projected over any subsequent year.
4.2.2 The Population Affected
The PAGs for relocation are intended for use in establishing the boundary of a relocation area within an
area where radioactive materials have been deposited. The relocation PAGs have been established at a
level that will provide adequate protection for the general population, including higher risk groups such as
children and fetuses. People residing in contaminated areas outside the relocation area will be at some risk
from radiation dose. Therefore, guidance on the reduction of dose during the first year to residents outside
this zone is also provided. Monitoring and simple dose reduction efforts are recommended in these areas
to reduce doses to the extent practical. Such actions are unlikely to be practical where the dose reduction
achieved is less than 10 percent.
Affected populations may perceive that intermediate phase protective actions are not consistent with those
taken in the early phase. Early-phase decisions on sheltering-in-place and evacuation may have been
implemented prior to verification of the path of the plume. Therefore, some people may have been
evacuated from areas where validated doses are much lower than were projected. Others who were in the
path of the plume may have been sheltered or not protected at all. During the intermediate phase of the
response, dose projections may be revised based on environmental measurements. People should be
relocated from areas where the projected dose exceeds the PAG for relocation without regard to prior
evacuation status.
4.2.3 Areas Involved
Figure 4-1 provides a generalized example of the areas affected by different protective actions. Area 1
represents the plume deposition area. (In reality, variations in meteorological conditions would almost
certainly produce a more complicated shape, but the same principles would apply.)
In situations such as an NPP accident, where early warning is given prior to a release of radioactive
materials, people may already have been evacuated from Area 2 and sheltered in Area 3. People who have
been evacuated from Area 2 or sheltered in Area 3 may go home if environmental monitoring verifies that
their residences are outside the plume deposition area (Area 1).
Area 4 is the relocation area where projected doses are equal to or greater than the relocation PAG. People
residing just outside the boundary of the relocation area may receive a dose approaching the PAG for
relocation if decontamination or other dose reduction efforts are not implemented.
Area 1, with the exception of the relocation area, represents the area of contamination that may continue
to be occupied by the general public during the intermediate phase. Nevertheless, there will be
contamination levels in this area that will require continued monitoring and dose reduction efforts other
than relocation. Incident-specific levels below the PAGs may be used to control exposure to
contamination. The relative positions of the boundaries shown in Figure 4-1 depend on areas evacuated
and sheltered and the radiological and meteorological characteristics of the release. For example, Area 4
(the relocation area) could fall entirely inside Area 2 (area evacuated), so that the only people to be
relocated would be those residing in Area 4 who were either missed in the evacuation process or who,
because of mobility constraints for their evacuation, had remained sheltered-in-place during plume
passage.
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Establishing the boundary of a relocation area creates three groups of affected people—
¦ People who have already been evacuated from an area that is now designated as a relocation area
and who now must be assigned relocation status.
¦ People who were not previously evacuated, but who reside inside the relocation area and should
now relocate.
¦ People who were previously evacuated, but reside outside the relocation area and may now return
home. A staged and deliberate return is recommended.
Small adjustments to the boundary of the relocation area established based on the PAG may be justified
based on ease of implementation. For example, the use of a convenient natural boundary could be a
logical reason for adjustment of the relocation area. However, such decisions should be supported by
demonstration that exposure rates to people not relocated can be promptly reduced by methods other than
relocation to meet the PAG, as well as the longer-term dose guidelines addressed in Section 4.6.
Figure 4-1. Generalized Protective Action Areas for NPP Incident
Approx. 2 miles
¦4 Direction of wind
AREA 1: Plume travel
and deposition area
AREA 2: Area from which
population is evacuated
AREA 3: Area in which
population is sheltered
| AREA 4: Area from which population
is relocated (relocation area)
The relocation PAGs apply principally to personal residences but may impact other facilities as well. For
example, it could impact work locations, hospitals and park lands as well as the use of highways and other
transportation facilities. For each type of facility, the occupancy time of individuals should be taken into
account to determine the criteria for using a facility or area. It might be necessary to avoid continuous use
of homes in an area because radiation levels are too high. However, a factory or office building in the
same area could be used because occupancy times are shorter. Similarly, a highway could be used at
higher contamination levels because the exposure time of highway users would be considerably less than
the time spent at home.
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4.2.4 Priorities
In most cases, protective actions during the intermediate phase will be carried out over a relatively long
period of time (e.g., months). Setting priorities will be important, especially when the affected area is so
large that it is impractical to relocate members of the public from areas that barely exceed the relocation
PAGs. The following priorities are appropriate—
¦ First, protect all people from doses that could cause acute health effects from all exposure pathways,
including previous exposure to the plume.
¦ Conduct radiological surveys to verify or adjust estimates of radiological impacts.
¦ Recommend that affected people reduce their exposures by using simple decontamination techniques
and remaining indoors.
4.3 SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
The high-priority decisions on whether to relocate people from high exposure rate areas requires exposure
rate measurements and dose analyses. Monitoring and dose assessment will be an ongoing process, with
priority given to the areas with the highest exposure rates.
Following passage of the airborne plume, a number of tasks must be accomplished for the timely
protection of the public. The general sequence of events is itemized below, but the time frames will
overlap.
1. Determine the areas where the projected first-year dose will exceed the 2 rem (20 mSv)
relocation PAG and relocate people from those areas, with priority given to people in the
highest exposure rate areas.
2. Allow previously evacuated people to return as quickly as possible to areas where field
measurements indicate that exposure rates are near normal background levels. If there is a
possibility that particles from high deposition areas could drift into the occupied areas, establish
a buffer zone to restrict residential use until radiological measurements and assessments confirm
that it is no longer necessary. Buffer zones are set with the understanding that conservatism is
inherent in the PAGs.
3. Based on isodose-rate boundary (see Section 4.3.1), assign any evacuees who reside within the
relocation area to be relocated. Evacuated people whose residence is in the area between the
boundary of the plume deposition and the boundary to the relocation area may return gradually
as dose projections allow.
4. Evaluate the dose reduction effectiveness of simple decontamination techniques and of
sheltering-in-place in response to exposure from partial occupancy of residences and
workplaces. Results of these evaluations may influence recommendations for reducing exposure
rates for people who are not relocated from areas near, but outside, the relocation area.
5. Control access to and egress from the relocation area. This would be accomplished through
control points at roadway accesses to the relocation area.
6. Establish monitoring and decontamination stations to support control of the relocation area.
7. Implement simple decontamination techniques in contaminated areas outside the relocation
area, giving priority to areas with higher exposure rates.
8. Collect data needed to establish long-term radiation protection criteria for decontamination and
dose reduction and data to determine the effectiveness of various decontamination or other dose
reduction techniques.
9. Begin operations to clean up and recover contaminated property in the relocation area.
10. If not already done, evaluate whether foods grown or produced within the plume deposition area
need to be interdicted per the FDA PAGs and evaluate drinking water systems within the plume
deposition area. Provide guidance on planting or harvesting specific agricultural products.
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4.3.1 Establishment of Isodose-Rate Lines
As soon as federal or other assistance is available for aerial and ground monitoring, a concentrated effort
should begin to establish isodose-rate lines on maps and identify boundaries of the relocation area.
Standard maps should be developed on which all response organizations would record monitoring data.
Records on monitoring and decontamination of the public and workers should also be collected.
Aerial monitoring can be used to collect data for establishing general patterns of radiation exposure rates
and may form the primary basis for the development of dose lines out to the limit of aerial detectability.
Initially during the early phase, detectability is limited to exposure rate changes of a few times natural
background levels. Later during the intermediate phase, more sensitive measurements detect levels of
radioactivity that are a small fraction of the natural background. Periodic air sample measurements will
also be needed to verify the contribution to dose from inhalation of resuspended materials.
Gamma exposure rates measured at approximately three feet (one meter) will vary within a very small
area because different surfaces have different deposition rates (e.g., smooth surfaces versus heavy
vegetation). Rinsing or precipitation could also reduce levels in some areas and raise levels in others (e.g.,
where runoff settles). In general, where exposure rates vary within designated areas, dose projections
should be estimated using an appropriate average exposure rate.
4.3.2 Dose Projections
The FRMAC Assessment Manuals31 provide detailed guidance for dose projection and calculating DRLs
and DPs. The FRMAC Assessment Manuals incorporate the ICRP dosimetry models (currently the ICRP
60 series). In addition, the FRPCC encourages the use of computational tools such as DOE's Turbo
FRMAC and NRC's RASCAL or other appropriate tools and methods to implement the PAGs.
The primary dose of interest in the intermediate phase is the sum of the effective dose from external
exposure and the committed effective dose from inhalation. The exposure periods of interest are the first
year and subsequent years after the incident. Other pathways should also be evaluated and their
contributions considered, if significant. For example, any time alpha-emitting radionuclides are involved,
the inhalation of resuspended material must be considered. Although beta exposure will contribute to skin
dose, its contribution to the overall risk of health effects from the radionuclides expected to be associated
with reactor incidents should not be controlling in comparison to the whole body gamma dose (Aaberg
1989). However, the skin beta dose may be important for particulates deposited or transferred to the skin,
as may be the case for an RDD that contains Strontium-90.
The dominant intermediate phase exposure pathway for incidents involving alpha-emitters (e.g., a
weapons accident) is inhalation of resuspended material. For these incidents, dispersal of alpha-emitting
material must be monitored carefully using proper measurement techniques. It is possible that there will
be little or no associated gamma radiation or beta activity.
Calculation of the projected gamma dose from measurements will require knowledge of the principal
radionuclides contributing to exposure and their relative abundances. Radiological characteristics can be
compiled either through the use of portable gamma spectrometers or by radionuclide analysis of
environmental samples. Several measurement locations may be required to determine whether any
selective radionuclide deposition occurred as a function of meteorology, surface type, distance from the
point of release, or other factors. In accordance with the "Nuclear/Radiological Incident Annex to the
National Response Framework," DOE, EPA and other federal agencies have the capability to assist state
31 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecimtv/homelandsecmitv/frmac/manuals.aspx.
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officials in performing environmental measurements, including determination of radiological
characteristics of deposited materials (FEMA 2008 a, b).
The gamma exposure rate may decrease rapidly if deposited materials include a significant fraction of
short-lived radionuclides. Therefore, the relationship between instantaneous exposure rate and projected
first- and second-year annual doses will change as a function of time. These relationships must be
established for the particular mix of deposited radioactive materials present at the time of the gamma
exposure rate measurement. Overtime, residual doses from gamma emitters will depend largely upon the
half-lives of the radionuclides involved and could potentially remain significant over many years. It
should be noted that natural attenuation as well as nuclear decay can affect long-term dose assessments.
Because intermediate phase public protection decisions (e.g., relocation, reentry) have less urgency than
early phase decisions and the contamination is better characterized in the intermediate phase, it may be
possible to improve the public protection decisions by modifying dose estimates with more realistic
inputs. For example, the external dose reductions provided by building structures and dose reductions
resulting from partial occupancy in the contaminated zone, which accounts for routine time spent outside
the contaminated zone (e.g., work, school, shopping), may be included in the dose projections to make
improved public protection decisions.
Projected dose considers exposure rate reduction from radioactive decay and, generally, weathering.
When one also considers the anticipated effects of shielding from normal part time occupancy in homes
and other structures, people who are not relocated are likely to receive a dose substantially less than the
projected dose. For commonly assumed reactor source-terms, it is estimated that 2 rem (20 mSv)
projected dose in the first year will be reduced to about 1.2 rem (12 mSv) by this factor. The application of
simple decontamination techniques shortly after the incident can be assumed to provide a further 30
percent or more reduction so that the maximum first year dose to people who are not relocated is expected
to be less than 1 rem (10 mSv). Taking account of decay rates assumed to be associated with releases from
NPP incidents (SNL 1982) and shielding from partial occupancy and weathering, a projected dose of 2
rem (20 mSv) in the first year is likely to amount to an actual dose of 0.5 rem (5 mSv) or less in the
second year. The application of simple dose reduction techniques would reduce the dose further.
Calculations supporting these projections are summarized in Table E-6 of the 1992 PAG Manual.32
Keeping below the 0.5 rem (5 mSv) PAG for subsequent years—the second year and beyond—may be
achieved through natural decay of shorter half-life radioisotopes, through decontamination efforts, or
through other means of controlling public exposures (such as limiting access to certain areas). In the case
of an RDD, in which a longer half-life radioisotope would likely be utilized, reductions in dose may prove
difficult to achieve without longer-term measures (see Chapter 5).
Exposure from ingestion of food and water is considered independently of decisions for relocation and
decontamination. In rare instances, however, where withdrawal of food or water from use would pose a
health risk in itself, relocation may be an appropriate protective action against exposure via ingestion. In
this case, the dose from ingestion should be considered along with the projected dose from other exposure
pathways for decisions on relocation.
4.3.3 Projected External Gamma Dose
Projected whole body external gamma doses at approximately three feet (one meter) height at particular
locations during the first year and second year after the incident are the parameters of interest (DOE
1988). Measurements made at 1 meter to project whole body dose from gamma radiation should be made
with instruments of the "closed window" type to avoid the detection of beta radiation. The environmental
32 The 1992 PAG Manual is available as a historical reference online at: http://www.epa.gov/radiation/protective-action-guides-
pags.
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information available for calculating these doses is expected to be the current gamma exposure rate at 1
meter height and the relative abundance of each radionuclide contributing significantly to that exposure
rate. Calculation models are available for predicting future exposure rates as a function of time with
consideration of radioactive decay and weathering.
Relocation decisions can generally be made on the basis of the first year projected dose. However,
projected doses during the second year are needed for decisions on protective actions for people who are
not relocated. Conversion factors are therefore needed to convert environmental measurements to
projected dose during the first year and second year following the incident (see FRMAC Assessment
Manuals).33 Of the many types of environmental measurements that can be made to project whole body
external gamma dose, gamma exposure rate in air is the easiest to make and is the most directly linked to
gamma dose rate. However, analyses of a few environmental samples (particularly soil samples) must be
coupled with the gamma exposure rate to properly project decreasing dose rates.
In addition, measurements should be conducted to determine the dose reduction factors associated with
simple, rapid, decontamination techniques so that these factors can be used in calculating dose to people
who are not relocated. However, assumptions about these factors should not be included in calculating
projected dose for decisions on relocation. Only dose reductions already accomplished should be
considered.
4.3.4 Exposure Limits for People Reentering the Relocation Area
After the relocation area is established, people will need to reenter for a variety of reasons, including
recovery activities, retrieval of property, security patrol, operation of vital services and, in some cases,
care and feeding of farm and other animals. It may be possible to quickly decontaminate access ways to
vital institutions and businesses in certain areas so that they can be occupied by adults either for living
(i.e., institutions such as nursing homes and hospitals) or for employment. Clearance for occupancy of
such areas will require dose reduction to meet exposure limits (EPA 1987b). Dose projections should
include both external exposure from deposited material and inhalation of resuspended deposited material
for the duration of the planned exposure. People working in areas inside the relocation area should operate
under the controlled conditions established for occupational exposure (EPA 1987b). The emergency
worker dose limitation does not need to include ongoing doses received from living in a contaminated
area outside the relocation area. It is also not necessary to consider dose received previously from the
plume or groundshine during the early phase of the radiological incident. See the Reentry Matrix in
Section 4.6, Table 4-2. It provides a quick reference for public and emergency worker dose guidelines and
considerations for decontamination ongoing during this phase.
4.4 PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDANCE FOR FOOD AND DRINKING WATER
Information on food and animal feeds protective action guidance is contained in FDA's "Accidental
Radioactive Contamination of Human Food and Animal Feeds: Recommendations for State and Local
Agencies" (FDA 1998).
The EPA is developing drinking water guidance on a separate timeline. The Agency has proposed a
drinking water PAG for public comment. The intention is to add it as a section in the Intermediate Phase
chapter of the PAG Manual and reissue the PAG Manual once complete.
4.5 LONGER-TERM OBJECTIVES OF THE PROTECTIVE ACTION GUIDES
FOR THE INTERMEDIATE PHASE
It is an objective of the PAGs to ensure that doses in any single year after the first year will not exceed 0.5
rem (5 mSv). For source terms from NPP incidents, the PAG of 2 rem (20 mSv) projected dose in the first
33 See FRMAC Assessment Manuals at http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecimtv/homelandsecmitv/frmac/manuals.aspx.
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year is expected to meet this longer-term objective through radioactive decay, weathering, and normal
part-time occupancy in structures. If the release contains long-lived radionuclides, decontamination of
areas outside the relocation area may be required during the first year to meet these objectives. For
situations where it is impractical to meet these objectives through decontamination, relocation should be
considered even if the projected first-year dose is lower than the relocation PAG.
Based on the relocation PAGs, reentry guidance can be found in the Reentry Matrix in Section 4.6, as well
as in the "Preliminary Report on Operational Guidelines Developed for Use in Emergency Preparedness
and Response to a Radiological Dispersal Device Incident" (DOE 2009),34 referred to as "Operational
Guidelines." After the population has been protected in accordance with the PAGs for relocation,
reoccupancy of the relocation areas should be governed on the basis of cleanup criteria and late phase
cleanup activities should proceed. Refer to the Operational Guidelines manual for more information on
how to implement the reentry guides in emergency plans.
4.6 REENTRY MATRIX FOLLOWING A RADIOLOGICAL INCIDENT OR
ACCIDENT
During the intermediate phase, people will need to enter the relocation area to collect their belongings,
maintain or repair critical infrastructure, and to work on preliminary recovery activities. The Reentry
Matrix in Table 4-2 provides a quick reference for public and worker dose guidelines and considerations
for decontamination ongoing during this phase.
The "Preliminary Report on Operational Guidelines Developed for Use in Emergency Preparedness and
Response to a Radiological Dispersal Device Incident" (DOE 2009), referred to as "Operational
Guidelines," includes detailed numeric guidance, developed by a multi-agency working group as a
follow-up to the RDD/IND Planning Guidance (DHS 2008). That work focused specifically on response
and recovery for an RDD event; however, that work can be expanded to include isotopes from a variety of
incident types.
The Operational Guidelines are informative for this guidance, specifically the discussions about
applicable dose-based limits, timeframes and pathways of exposure related to reentry tasks. The term
reentry is used for emergency workers and members of the public going into radiologically contaminated
areas, temporarily, under controlled conditions. Food and agriculture guides use FRMAC methods and
models as well as the Operational Guidelines for implementation. These tools allow derivation of
decontamination thresholds for the early and intermediate stages of a response.
As part of the U.S. response to the Japanese Fukushima accident, scientists performed dose calculations to
ensure that passengers and workers on train trips through contaminated areas do not exceed doses
typically received from cosmic radiation during an international flight. DOE's Argonne National
Laboratory scientists utilized the RESRAD-RDD tool and hand calculations to approximate doses from
the NPP radionuclides.35
34 The Operational Guidelines were developed by federal agencies and published by DOE in February 2009 DOE/HS-0001;
ANL/EVS/TM/09-1, online at http://web.ead.ani.gov/resrad/documents/ogt manual doe hs 0001 2 24 2009c.pdf. (DOE 2009)
35 RESRAD Family of Codes; Environmental Science Division of Argonne National Laboratory, online at
https://web.evs.anl.gov/resrad.
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Table 4-2. Reentry Matrix: Quick Reference to Operational Guidelines3
PHASE
ACTIVITY
SUGGESTED LEVELS
CLEANUP ACTIONS'3
Early
Phase
Sheltering or
Evacuation
for the
Public
Public: 1-5 rem (10-50 mSv)
projected over four days (see
Chapter 2). A decision to
evacuate weighs anticipated
dose against feasibility of
evacuating within a
determined time frame, along
with the risks associated with
the evacuation itself.
It is too early for organized cleanup, due to chaos of
the situation and higher priorities such as lifesaving
activities and clearly identifying shelter and
evacuation zones. Any cleanup or decontamination
information should focus on personal
decontamination. It is doubtful any large-scale
effort could change evacuation or shelter
recommendations during this period (first 4 days).
Once evacuation is completed, there are simple
actions that cities can implement themselves:
rinsing roofs and streets, street sweeping. The
objective of these actions is to move the bulk
amounts of contamination away from occupied
areas or areas where reoccupation is a priority.
These actions should be based on measured
amounts of contamination and priority of the
location.
Workers may face high dose levels and will need
health physics support.
Emergency
Worker
Protection
Emergency Worker: 5/10/25
rem (50/100/250 mSv)
incurred over the response
duration. The higher limits are
based on task (e.g., protecting
large populations or critical
infrastructure or lifesaving).
Emergency worker doses will
be tracked with dosimeters.
Emergency workers have
knowledge of the risks
associated with radiation
exposure, training to protect
themselves, and dosimeters to
track their doses (see
Chapter 3).
Inter-
mediate
Phase
Relocation
for the
Public
Public: 2 rem (20 mSv)
projected first year, 0.5 rem (5
mSv) per year projected in
subsequent years (see
Chapter 4).
In this phase, scientists run
dose calculations with
RESRAD-RDD or Turbo
FRMAC; the user can choose
sensitive age groups, or enter
lower guidelines, if desired.
Additionally, local decision-
makers can adapt the
guidelines with incident-
specific considerations and
implement variations as
needed.
Early cleanup efforts should focus on the removable
portion of the contamination: vacuuming, washing,
vegetation removal.
¦ Vacuuming has the advantage of collecting
removable contamination without water or
surface impact, but is limited by equipment
availability and can also expose the
operators to high dose levels as the
vacuums collect the contamination.
¦ Washing and rinsing are simple to
implement, but only move the
contamination to less-populated areas and
may move contamination deeper into
porous surfaces.
¦ For unpaved areas, vegetation removal can
effectively reduce the amount of
contamination present, but is labor
intensive and can produce a large amount
of waste.
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Table 4-2. Reentry Matrix: Quick Reference to Operational Guidelines3
PHASE
ACTIVITY
SUGGESTED LEVELS
CLEANUP ACTIONS'3
Inter-
mediate
Phase
Reentry
For Use of
Critical
Infra-
structure
Public: 2 rem (20 mSv) in
first year (Preliminary Report
on Operational Guidelines
Developed for Use in
Emergency Preparedness and
Response to a Radiological
Dispersal Device Incident,0
Operational Guidelines Group
C). Dosimeters could be
considered for the public.
Having addressed the removable part of the
contamination, later efforts can focus on fixed
contamination.
¦ Paved surface removal is very effective, but
requires specialized equipment and trained
operators.
¦ Surface sealing is easier, but leaves the
contamination in place, making it viable only in
locations where the dose rates are low enough
for occupation, or in low-occupancy areas.
¦ Repaying roads, lots and other paved surfaces
is easy to implement, but can generate
significant waste volumes.
¦ Unpaved areas can be further remediated by
soil skimming (surface removal), deep plowing
(turning the top foot or so of soil over), and
appropriate chemical soil amendment methods
like liming or chelating.
As the intermediate phase progresses, knowledge
and experience increases and these methods can be
re-applied, refined or customized for problem areas.
Decisions about more difficult areas will benefit
from professional judgment, additional analyses,
and application of more sophisticated technologies.
Emergency
Worker
Protection
Emergency Worker
Protection: (dose not to
exceed) 5 rem (50 mSv) per
year (Radiation Protection
Guidance to Federal Agencies
for Occupational Exposure,
EPA 1987).
Emergency workers have
knowledge of the risks
associated with radiation
exposure, training to protect
themselves, and dosimeters to
track their doses (see
Chapter 3).
During an incident response,
workers (police, waste
handlers) needed in
contaminated areas could be
trained and given dosimeters.
The guidance for emergency
workers applies throughout the
response.
Reentry
For Use of
Roads and
Walkways
Public: 2 rem (20 mSv) first
year, 0.5 rem (5 mSv) per year
in subsequent years
(Operational Guidelines,
Group E).
While the dose values here are
similar to those for Use of
Critical Infrastructure above,
the derived concentrations
measured as triggers are
different because the exposure
conditions are different.
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Table 4-2. Reentry Matrix: Quick Reference to Operational Guidelines'1
PHASE
ACTIVITY
SUGGESTED LEVELS
CLEANUP ACTIONS
Inter-
mediate
Phase
Reentry
For Access to
the
Relocation
Zone
"Stay time "
is a term of
art used in
the radiation
safety field.
Stay times
are the
amount of
time a person
may access
the
contaminated
area. These
times vary
based upon
site-specific
factors or
incident
character-
istics such as
indoor or
outdoor
work,
sensitive
populations,
and level of
radioactivity.
Public: 0.5 rem (5 mSv) over
one year for temporary access
with stay times (see definition
below) dependent on reentry
tasks and site-specific
conditions (Operational
Guidelines, Group D).
Section 7.1 of the Operational
Guidelines, "Worker Access
to Businesses for Essential
Actions," provides tables and
graphs of stay times at various
limiting concentrations (see
adjacent graph and table). For
example, if the maximum
surface street concentration of
Cesium-137 is 3.00E+09
pCi/nr (1.11E+08 Bq/m2),
people limited to 0.5 rem
(5 mSv) should be in the
contaminated area less than
four 8-hour days if staying
outdoors.
This may apply to individuals
retrieving belongings from
homes or to workers providing
security patrols, or even to
people reopening businesses in
the area. As contamination
levels are reduced during
cleanup, stay times can be
extended and total doses
reduced.
These graphics below are examples based on
Operational Guidelines.0 Please refer to the full
report for tables and graphics for use in emergency
preparedness.
(Mlllnc I inirt li w * *-1 J f-i V.-.fVi I s i)u4ta>
Operational Guidelines for 0.5 rem Annual Dose:
Residents Access to Houses (Indoor Exposure)
Surface Street Concentration
(pCi/m-)
Radionuclide
1 Day
4 Days
12 Days
Am-241
7.51E+07
2.86E+07
1.59E+07
Cf-252
3.50E+08
1.32E-08
7.13E+07
Cm-244
1.27E+08
4.82E+07
2.68E+07
Co-60
2.72E+09
6.87E-08
2.33E+08
Cs-137
1.14E+10
2.94E-09
1.01E+09
Ir-192
9.93E+09
2.54E+09
S.92E+0S
Po-210
1.17E+09
3.86E-08
1.74E+08
Pu-238
6.56E+07
2.50E-H57
1.39E+07
Pu-239
6.01E+07
2.29E+07
1.27E+07
Ra-226
6.08E+08
2.10E-08
9.97E+07
Sr-90
2.48E+10
7.70E-09
3.18E+09
Operational Guidelines provide stay times and concentrations for seveml dijferent sets of assumptions about the exposure.
Residents retrieving, possessions may spend most of their time indoors, where stay times are longer than they are for outdoor
tasks. Stay time recommendations can be used to guide decisions about allowing entry into the contaminated area for a limited
time and dose reduction techniques like wearing dust masks, cleaning shoes and car tires upon exit, and using time wisely to
keep radiation exposure "ALARA"below the Operational Guideline.
aThis guidance does not address or impact site cleanups occurring under other statutory authorities such as the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Superfund program, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC)
decommissioning program, or other federal or state cleanup programs.
b This cleanup process does not rely on and does not affect any authority, including the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. and the National Contingency Plan (NCP), 40
CFR Part 300. This document expresses no view as to the availability of legal authority to implement this process in any
particular situation.
cThe Operational Guidelines were developed by federal agencies and published by DOE in February 2009 DOE/HS-0001;
ANL/EVS/TM/09-1, online at http://web.ead.anl.gov/resrad/docmnents/ogt manual doe hs 0001 2 24 2009c.pdf. (DOE
2009)
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4.7 BASIS FOR INTERMEDIATE PHASE PAGs
For a full description of the risk-benefit analysis used to set the PAG levels, refer to the 1992 PAG
Manual, Appendices B, C and E. The 1992 PAG Manual is available online in a searchable format. Below
is a short summary of the basis for the intermediate phase relocation PAGs.
In a prior section (see Section 2.5) for early phase (evacuation) PAGs, analysis was provided for the risks
of health effects as a function of dose (Principles 1 and 2). Considerations for selection of PAGs for the
intermediate phase of a radiological incident differ from those for selection of PAGs for the early phase
primarily with regard to implementation factors (i.e., Principles 3 and 4). Specifically, they differ with
regard to cost of avoiding dose, the practicability of leaving infirm people and prisoners in the restricted
zone, and avoiding dose to fetuses. Although sheltering is not generally a suitable alternative to
relocation, other alternatives (e.g., decontamination and shielding) are suitable.
For several assumed cumulative annual doses, the cost per day divided by the risk of fatality avoided by
relocation was plotted for a radionuclide mixture from a hypothetical NPP accident. The cost per day of
relocation is assumed to be constant, but with some nuclides decaying rapidly, the cost-effectiveness of
relocation diminishes overtime. Drawing only general trends from this, the cost analysis supports
relocation at doses as low as 1 rem (10 mSv) for the first week and 2 rem (20 mSv) for up to 25 days after
an accident.
Based on the avoidance of acute effects alone (Principle 1), relocation of the general population and
fetuses at 50 rem and 10 rem (500 and 100 mSv), respectively, is justified. However, on the basis of
control of chronic risks (Principle 2), a lower upper bound is appropriate. Five rem (50 mSv) is taken as
an upper bound on acceptable risk for controllable lifetime exposure to radiation, including avoidable
exposure to accidentally deposited radioactive materials.
Analyses based on Principle 3 (cost/risk) indicate that considering cost alone would not drive the PAG to
values less than 5 rem (50 mSv). Analyses in support of Principle 4 (risk of the protective action itself)
provide a lower bound of 0.15 rem (1.5 mSv) for the relocation PAGs. Based on the above, 2 rem (20
mSv) projected committed effective dose equivalent from exposure in the first year is selected as the PAG
for relocation. Implementation of relocation at this value will provide reasonable assurance that, for a
reactor accident, a person relocated from the outer margin of the relocation zone will, by such action,
avoid an exposure rate which, if continued over a period of one year, would result in a dose of about 1.2
rem (12 mSv). This assumes that 0.8 rem (8 mSv) would be avoided without relocation through normal
partial occupancy of homes and other structures.
Contrary to the situation for evacuation during the early phase of an incident, it is generally not practical
to leave a few people behind when most members of the general population have been relocated from a
specified area for extended periods of time. It will usually be practicable to reduce these risks by
establishing a high priority for efforts other than relocation to reduce the dose in cases where pregnant
women reside near the boundary of the restricted zone.
The implementation of simple dose reduction techniques will further reduce dose to people who are not
relocated from contaminated areas. In the case of non-reactor accidents, decay and weathering effects
differ, and it may be necessary to base relocation decisions on the second and subsequent year dose
projections.
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KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 4 - INTERMEDIATE PHASE
¦ The principal protective actions for reducing exposure of the public to deposited radioactive
materials are relocation, decontamination and time limits on exposure. The PAG for relocation is 2
rem (20 mSv) over the first year of exposure. After the first year, the PAG for relocation is 0.5 rem
(5 mSv) per year.
¦ Boundaries of relocation areas should be established based on the relocation PAGs and site-
specific geographical features such as rivers, mountains or roadways.
¦ Projections should be based on incident-specific monitoring and modeling, taking into account
realistic dose assessment factors.
¦ Exposure limits must be set for people who must enter the relocation area to perform vital services.
¦ Other protective actions, such as focused decontamination and time limits on exposure, are applied
to people in areas where levels of deposited radioactivity are not high enough to warrant
relocation.
¦ Protective action guidance for food is contained in FDA's "Accidental Radioactive Contamination
of Human Food and Animal Feeds: Recommendations for State and Local Agencies" (FDA 1998).
¦ To inform temporary reentry into relocation areas, use the Operational Guidelines (DOE 2009).
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CHAPTER 5. PLANNING GUIDANCE FOR THE LATE PHASE
This chapter provides planning guidance for the long-term cleanup process for the late phase. As used in
this Manual, the late phase is the period beginning when cleanup and recovery actions have begun and
ending when all recovery actions have been completed. This phase may extend for months to years. This
chapter also provides brief planning guidance and discusses options for radioactive waste disposal for a
large-scale radiological incident.
5.1 LATE PHASE CLEANUP PROCESS
This section describes the remediation cleanup process for the late phase of a nationally significant
radiological incident, such as a disaster at an NPP, an RDD or an IND. It should be noted that the extent
and scope of contamination as a result of an NPP, RDD or IND incident may be at a much larger scale
than a site or facility decommissioning or remedial cleanup. This process identifies the late phase
remediation or cleanup process steps, including factors for decision-makers to consider in determining
final cleanup actions while emphasizing opportunities to involve key stakeholders in providing sound,
cost-effective cleanup recommendations. For information on roles, responsibilities and authorities during
emergency response and recovery, please refer to—
¦ National Response Framework: http://www.fema.gov/national-response-framework (FEMA
2008a), and
¦ Nuclear Radiological Incident Annex, specifically for radiological incidents:
http://www.fema.gov/pdf/about/divisions/thd/IncidentNucRad.pdf (FEMA 2008b).
5.1.1 Transitioning from Intermediate to Late Phase Cleanup
The late phase cleanup process begins sometime after the commencement of the intermediate phase and
proceeds independently of intermediate phase protective action activities. The transition is characterized
by a change in approach, from strategies predominantly driven by urgency, to strategies aimed at both
reducing longer-term exposures and improving interim living conditions. At this point, the extent of
radiological contamination will be very well characterized. The late phase involves the final cleanup of
areas and property at which contamination directly attributable to the incident is present. It is in the late
phase that final cleanup decisions are made and final recovery efforts following a radiological incident
are implemented.
Unlike the early and intermediate phases of a radiological incident, decision-makers will have more time
and information during the late phase to allow for better data collection, stakeholder involvement and
options analysis. Generally, early (or emergency) phase decisions will be made directly by elected public
officials, or their designees, with limited stakeholder involvement due to the need to act within a short
timeframe. Longer-term decisions should be made with stakeholder involvement and can also include
incident-specific technical working groups to provide expert advice to decision-makers on impacts, costs
and alternatives. Community members will influence decisions such as if and when to allow people to
return home to contaminated areas. There will be people living in contaminated areas, outside the
evacuation and relocation zones, where efforts to reduce exposures will be ongoing.
Because of the extremely broad range of potential impacts that may occur from NPP incidents, RDDs and
INDs (e.g., light contamination of one building to widespread destruction of a major metropolitan area), a
process should be used to determine acceptable cleanup criteria based on the societal objectives for
expected land uses and the options and approaches available. Implicit in these decisions is the ability to
balance health protection with the desire of the community to resume normal life. Radiation protection
considerations should be addressed in concert with health, environmental, economic, social,
psychological, cultural, ethical, political, and other considerations. It is recognized that experience from
existing programs, such as the EPA's Superfund program, the NRC's process for decommissioning and
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decontamination to terminate a nuclear facility license, and other national recommendations may be
useful in planning cleanup and recovery efforts.
Consistent with the "Framework for Environmental Health Risk Management," mandated by the 1990
Clean Air Act Amendments and published by the Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk
Management in 1997 (CRARM 1997), the late phase cleanup process consists of multiple steps,
including: 1) characterization and stabilization; 2) development of goals and strategies; and
3) implementation and reoccupancy. Stakeholder involvement should be integrated throughout the
process. Characterization in this phase consists of delineation, in detail, of the nature and extent of
contamination in areas impacted by the incident. Stabilization is intended to reduce the spread of
contamination to clean areas, the airborne inhalation hazards, and the volume of radioactive waste
generated. Establishment of cleanup goals and strategies should consider overall community health,
along with a variety of factors described further below; they are based upon anticipated land use and a
variety of selection criteria. Key to these steps is the involvement and acceptance of the impacted state
and local community. These steps are discussed in more detail below.36
5.1.2 Characterization and Stabilization
The first step in the late phase remediation or cleanup process is characterization, or the comprehensive
mapping and monitoring of the distribution and level of radioactive contamination. Characterization
activities are necessary in the preparation for and verification of a successful remediation or cleanup
effort. The late phase characterization work is designed to define, in detail, the nature and extent of the
contamination and to provide information needed to develop and evaluate cleanup alternatives.
The characterization performed in support of the late phase will be much more detailed and
comprehensive than the earlier characterization work to support PAG decisions made during the early and
intermediate phases. It delineates the nature of any actual threat posed to human health or the
environment and defines the extent of that threat.
Stabilization techniques are designed to immobilize radioactive contamination on soils, buildings, roads
and equipment. This becomes paramount in a large-scale radiological incident where the spread of
contamination can occur from natural weathering effects to human and animal interactions with the
environment. Stabilization reduces chronic low-level exposures to residual radiation, airborne hazards,
and volumes of secondary waste. These reductions can result in significant benefits to the long-term
recovery in terms of time-to-normalcy and economic recovery.
5.1.3 Goals and Strategies
After late phase characterization and stabilization activities are accomplished, areas impacted by
radioactive contamination are documented and defined to the best extent possible. At this point, decision-
makers should establish cleanup goals and strategies for moving forward. The development of goals and
strategies marks the second step in the late phase remediation or final cleanup process. As part of an
ongoing iterative process, cleanup goals are informed by the feasibility of cleanup strategies and specific
cleanup strategies adjust as experience is gained. That is, risk management goals may be refined as
decision-makers and stakeholders gain appreciation for what is feasible, the costs and benefits of
alternative strategies, and the effectiveness of such strategies in reducing exposures and risks to human
and ecological health.
30 This cleanup process does not rely on and does not affect any authority, including the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq. and the National Contingency Plan (NCP), 40 CFR
Part 300. This document expresses no view as to the availability of legal authority to implement this process in any particular
situation.
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As cleanup levels for areas are determined, many factors come into play in decision-making, such as
balancing risk reduction with other societal goals and tolerance for voluntary versus involuntary risk.
Determining these levels will require consideration of a number of factors—
¦ The types of contamination including nuclide mix and chemical form, as well as risk from non-
radiological hazards.
¦ The technical feasibility, cost, timeliness and effectiveness of decontamination measures; and the
availability and cost of options for the disposal of wastes.
¦ The size and character of the areas that are contaminated; past and projected future uses for these
areas; and the preservation or destruction of places of historical, economic, national, or regional
significance.
¦ Site-specific natural and anthropogenic background levels of radioactivity.
¦ Estimates of the impacts of both contamination and options for decontamination, on human health,
communities, the economy, ecosystems and ecosystem services.
¦ Public acceptability and intergenerational equity.
Community involvement and sentiment are vital to this process. The stress from both the incident itself as
well as the longer-term effects of separation from home will be important factors as overall community
health is considered. In the United States, a range of one in a population of ten thousand (10"4) to one in a
population of one million (10~6) excess cancer incidence outcomes is generally considered protective for
both chemical and radioactive carcinogenic contaminant exposures. This range is the regulatory standard
generally used in the context of EPA Superfund response actions. The NRC's decommissioning and
decontamination process outcomes are usually in or near this range as well. A similar risk range may be
an appropriate goal for radiological events that affect areas of comparable size. However, such risk ranges
may not be practically achievable for major incidents that result in the contamination of very large
geographical areas or impacts on the economy. Every incident is unique. In making decisions about
cleanup goals and strategies for a particular event, decision-makers should balance the desired level of
exposure reduction with the technical feasibility, timing and cost of the measures that would be necessary
to achieve it, in an effort to maximize overall human welfare.
While it may take many years to achieve final cleanup levels, a timely return to normalcy, including
reoccupancy and a viable community, will require a cleanup process that is flexible, iterative and
inclusive. Decisions should be made on a site-specific basis and should reflect the interim risks that are
reasonable and acceptable to the affected community while active remediation, radioactive decay, and
natural weathering move the site toward long-term cleanup goals.
Cleanup strategies are adopted as decision-makers and stakeholders gain an understanding of all relevant
factors. Tradeoffs between alternatives should be considered and balanced so that the best options are
chosen. Local acceptance will be a key component of a fully transparent approach to long-term
remediation and cleanup. Factors to consider in determining cleanup actions include evaluating:
¦ Areas impacted (e.g., size, location relative to population);
¦ Actions already taken during the early and intermediate phases;
¦ Ability of a remedy to maintain reliable protection of overall human health and the environment
overtime;
¦ Assessing the relative performance of treatment technologies on the toxicity, mobility or volume of
contaminants;
¦ Success or effectiveness of the cleanup or remediation as the cleanup progresses (contaminant
removal);
¦ Adverse impacts on human health and the environment that may be posed in the time it takes to
implement the remedy and achieve the community-based remediation goals;
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¦ Impacts of alternative cleanup levels on the local and regional economy (e.g., job loss due to
closed businesses, job creation due to decontamination and waste handling operations) and on
residents" sense of place (e.g., continued limited access to one's home and community until
cleanup levels have been reached);
¦ Preservation or destruction of places of historical, national or regional significance;
¦ Technical and administrative feasibility of the remedy, including the availability of materials and
services needed to implement each component of the option in question;
¦ Cost of each alternative, including the estimated capital and operation and maintenance costs and
net present value of capital and operation and maintenance costs;
¦ State concurrence with the remedy; and
¦ Community support for the remedy.
This may be an iterative process. As experience is gained, adjustments may be required to achieve
long-term goals.
5.1.4 Implementation and Reoccupancy
To implement cleanup actions in each community, measurable quantities associated with cleanup goals
should be derived taking into account exposures from all potential pathways and through all
environmental media (e.g., soil, ground water, surface water, sediment, air, animals or plants). These
values typically are derived considering reasonably anticipated future land use, dietary habits, and
commerce patterns. If meeting acceptable cleanup levels based upon the reasonably anticipated post-
incident land use is not practicable and cost-effective, decision-makers can look to more restrictive land
uses through institutional and engineering controls. This approach is based on the belief that early
community involvement focusing on desired post-incident uses of the property will result in expedited,
cost-effective and publicly-supported cleanups. Overall community health, including stress factors from
the initial event and separation from home or family is a necessary consideration.
In some situations, a site or area may reasonably be anticipated to support a range of uses, so cleanup
goals may be different for different subareas of the impacted area. Although it may take years to achieve
the final cleanup goals for all land uses, reoccupancy of the affected area will be possible when interim
cleanup can reduce short-term exposures to acceptable levels during the time it takes to achieve the long-
term goals. There may be institutional or engineering controls placed on some portions of the site to
prevent excessive exposures until further active remediation, radioactive decay, or natural weathering
allow the site to meet cleanup goals. An example of an institutional control might be a restriction on
planting vegetable gardens to avoid ingesting radionuclides that may be taken up by the plant roots from
the soil. An example of an engineering control to limit exposures might be adding a layer of pavement or
cement over gamma emitting radionuclides that have become fixed in place by sorbing onto the street and
sidewalks.
In complex cases such as the situation represented by a wide-area NPP, RDD or IND event, cleanup and
reoccupancy are likely to occur subarea by subarea in order of priority and community assessments.
Critical infrastructure is likely to have been restored to some level of functionality and further
remediation of the infrastructure should be evaluated against the cleanup goal. A community-based and
transparent development of priorities would follow, resulting in sequential actions, whereby areas (e.g.,
residential, commercial) would be remediated and reoccupied utilizing temporary cleanup levels that
would be considered acceptable for an interim period of time prior to final cleanup goals being achieved.
Land use may need to be changed in a subarea where it is not feasible with a combination of remediation
with engineering and institutional controls to support the pre-incident land use in a manner that protects
human health. In all cases, an appropriate population health monitoring program should be implemented
proportionate to the potential or estimated health risk.
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5.1.5 Stakeholder Involvement
Generally, early (or emergency) phase decisions will be made directly by elected public officials, or their
designees, with limited stakeholder involvement due to the need to act within a short timeframe. With
additional time and an increased understanding of the situation, there will be opportunities to involve key
stakeholders in providing sound, cost-effective cleanup recommendations that are protective of human
health and the environment.
Affected citizens should be involved in all phases of cleanup planning and long-term remediation of their
communities. Early in the process, decision-makers should bring together a broad group of stakeholders
(e.g., residents, local business owners, local government officials and others) interested in the processes
that will be required to restore their communities. The credibility of a community group is a function of
its inclusiveness. It should represent all stakeholder interests to ensure it is a voice for the entire
community rather than a few interested parties. Empowering individuals to assist in the process is
important and effective. The affected local community will need to be involved until the site remediation
activities are complete and possibly beyond that if institutional and engineering controls are placed on
some subareas of the site.
5.1.6 Cleanup Process Implementation and Organization: An Example
This example, adapted closely from the "Planning Guidance for Protection and Recovery Following
Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) Incidents" (DHS 2008),
describes a hypothetical organization to integrate federal cleanup support activities with state and local
governments and the public. In particular, it addresses a scenario where the federal government is
expected to be the primary funding entity for cleanup and recovery activities. For some radiological
scenarios, states might take the primary leadership role in cleanup and contribute significant resources
toward recovery of the site. This example does not address such a scenario, although states may choose to
follow a similar process.
5.1.6.1 Cleanup Implementation
This approach describes how federal departments and agencies may coordinate during a response with
state and local government counterparts and the public, consistent with the National Response Framework
(NRF) (FEMA 2008a) and the National Disaster Recovery Framework (NDRF) (FEMA 2016). The
approach does not attempt to provide detailed descriptions of state and local roles and expertise. It is
assumed those details will be provided in state and local level planning documents that address
radiological/nuclear terrorism incidents.
During the intermediate phase, site cleanup planners should begin the process described below, under the
direction of the on-site incident command or unified command (IC/UC) and in close coordination with
federal, state and local officials. After early and intermediate phase activities have come to conclusion and
only long-term cleanup activities are ongoing, the IC/UC structure may continue to support planning and
decision-making for the long-term cleanup. The IC/UC may make personnel changes and structural
adaptations to suit the needs of a lengthy, multifaceted and highly visible remediation process. For
example, a less formal and structured command, more focused on technical analysis and stakeholder
involvement, may be preferable for extended site cleanup than what is required under emergency
circumstances.
Radiological and nuclear incidents cover a broad range of potential scenarios and impacts. This example
assumes that the incident is of sufficient size to trigger a state request for federal assistance and that the
federal government is the primary funding agent for site cleanup. In particular, the process described for
the late phase cleanup assumes an incident of relatively large size. For smaller incidents, all of the
elements in this section may not be warranted. The process should be tailored to the circumstances of the
particular incident. Decision-makers should recognize that for some radiological/nuclear incidents, states
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will take the primary leadership role and contribute significant resources toward cleanup of the site. This
section does not address such a scenario, but states may choose to use the process described here.
5.1.6.2 Cleanup Activities Overview
As described earlier in the document, radiological/nuclear emergency responses are often divided roughly
into three phases: 1) the early phase, when the plume is active and field data are lacking or not reliable;
2) the intermediate phase, when the plume has passed and field data are available for assessment and
analysis; and 3) the late phase, when long-term issues are addressed, such as cleanup of the site. For
purposes of this example, the response to a radiological or nuclear incident is divided into two separate,
but interrelated and overlapping, processes. The first is comprised of the early and intermediate phases of
response, which consists of the immediate and near-term on-scene actions of state, local and federal
emergency workers under the IC/UC. On-scene actions include incident stabilization, lifesaving activities,
dose reduction actions for members of the public and emergency workers, access control and security,
emergency decontamination of people and property, "hot spot" removal actions, and resumption of basic
infrastructure functions.
The second process pertains to environmental cleanup, which is initiated soon after the incident (during
the intermediate phase) and continues into the late phase. The process starts with convening stakeholders
and technical subject matter experts to begin identifying and evaluating options for the cleanup of the site.
The environmental cleanup process overlaps the intermediate phase activities described above and should
be coordinated with those activities. This process is interrelated with the ongoing intermediate phase
activities and the intermediate phase protective actions may continue to apply through the late phase until
cleanup is complete.
Cleanup planning and discussions should begin as soon as practicable after an incident to allow for
selection of key stakeholders and subject matter experts, planning, analyses, contractual processes, and
cleanup activities. States may choose to pre-select stakeholders for major incident recovery coordination.
These activities should proceed in parallel with ongoing intermediate phase activities and coordination
between these activities should be maintained. Preliminary remediation activities during the intermediate
phase—such as emergency removals, decontamination, resumption of basic infrastructure function, and
some return to normalcy in accordance with intermediate phase PAGs—should not be delayed for the
final site remediation decisions.
A process for addressing environmental cleanup is presented below. This is a flexible process in which
numerous factors are considered to achieve an end result that considers local needs and desires, health
risks, costs, technical feasibility and other factors. The general process outlined below provides decision-
makers with input from both technical experts and stakeholder representatives and also provides an
opportunity for public comment. The extent and complexity of the process for an actual incident should be
tailored to the needs of the specific incident; for smaller incidents, the workgroups discussed below may
not be necessary.
The goals of the process described below are: 1) transparency—the basis for cleanup decisions should be
available to stakeholder representatives and to the public at large; 2) inclusiveness—representative
stakeholders should be involved in decision-making activities; 3) effectiveness—technical subject matter
experts should analyze remediation options, consider established dose and risk benchmarks, and assess
various technologies in order to assist in identifying a final solution that is optimal for the incident; and
4) shared accountability—the final decision to proceed will be made with input from federal, state and
local officials.
Under the NRF and NDRF, FEMA may issue mission assignments to the involved federal agencies, as
appropriate, to participate in the overall recovery process. Additional funding may be provided to
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state/local governments to perform response or recovery activities through other mechanisms. The
components of the process are described below:
5.1.6.3 General Management Structure
Planning for the long-term cleanup should begin during the intermediate phase and at that time, a
traditional National Incident Management System (NIMS) response structure should still be in place.
However, NIMS was developed specifically for emergency management and may not be the most
efficient response structure for long-term cleanup. If the cleanup will extend for years, the IC/UC may
decide to transition at some point to a different long-term project management structure.
Under the NRF and NIMS, incidents are managed at the lowest possible jurisdictional level. In most
cases, this will be at the level of the IC/UC. The IC/UC directs on-scene tactical operations. Responding
local, state and federal agencies are represented in the IC/UC and Incident Command Post (ICP) in
accordance with NIMS principles regarding jurisdictional authorities, functional responsibilities, and
resources provided. For a wide-area radiological incident, multiple ICPs may be established to manage the
incident with an Area Command or Unified Area Command supporting the ICPs and prioritizing
resources and activities among them. If the incident happens on a federal facility or involves federal
materials, the representatives in the UC may change appropriately and the response will be conducted
according to the applicable federal procedures.
Issues that cannot be resolved at the IC/UC or Unified Area Command level may be raised with the Joint
Field Office (JFO) and JFO Unified Coordination Group for resolution. The JFO coordinates and
prioritizes federal resources and when applicable, issues mission assignments to federal agencies under
the Stafford Act. Issues that cannot be resolved at the JFO level may be raised to the DHS National
Operations Center senior-level interagency management groups and the White House Homeland Security
Council and National Security Council.
Day-to-day tactical management, planning and operations for the cleanup process will be managed at the
IC/UC level, but for large-scale cleanups involving significant federal resources, it is expected that the
JFO Unified Coordination Group and national level federal officials will review proposed cleanup plans
and provide strategic and policy direction. The federal agency(s) with primary responsibility for site
cleanup should be represented in the JFO Unified Coordination Group. The IC/UC will need to establish
appropriate briefing venues as the cleanup process proceeds, including the affected mayor(s) and
governor(s).
The discussion below assumes a traditional NIMS IC/UC structure; if the IC/UC transitions later to a
different management structure for a longer-term cleanup, the IC/UC would need to determine the
appropriate way to incorporate the workgroups described below into that structure.
This environmental cleanup process will be managed by the IC/UC, who ultimately determines the
structure and organization of the ICP, but the discussion below provides one recommended approach for
managing the cleanup process within a NIMS Incident Command System (ICS) response structure. The
ICP Planning Section has the lead for response planning activities, working in conjunction with other
sections and would have the lead for development of the cleanup options analysis, working closely with
the Operations Section. The NIMS describes the units that make up the Planning Section and allows for
additional units to be added depending on site-specific needs. NIMS states that for incidents involving the
need to coordinate and manage large amounts of environmental sampling and analytical data from
multiple sources, an Environmental Unit may be established within the Planning Section to facilitate
interagency environmental data management, monitoring, sampling, analysis, assessment and site
cleanup, and waste disposal planning. Radiological incidents would involve the collection of not only
large amounts of radiological data, but also data related to other environmental and health and safety
hazards and therefore would likely warrant the establishment of an Environmental Unit in the Planning
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Section. Planning for FRMAC radiological sampling and monitoring activities will be integrated into the
Planning Section and coordinated with other Situation and Environmental Unit data management
activities.
The IC/UC may assign the Environmental Unit the responsibility for coordinating the development of the
cleanup options analysis. For large incidents requiring more complicated tradeoffs or the evaluation of
cleanup goals with broad implications, the IC/UC may choose to establish a separate unit in the Planning
Section (e.g., a Cleanup Planning Unit) to coordinate the development of the cleanup options analysis.
The IC/UC may then convene a technical working group and a stakeholder working group, managed by
the Environmental or Cleanup Planning Unit, to analyze cleanup options and develop recommendations.
The Environmental or Cleanup Planning Unit would coordinate working group processes and interactions
and report the results of the cleanup options analysis and workgroup efforts to the IC/UC through the
Planning Section Chief.
The development and completion of the cleanup options analysis is expected to be an iterative process
and for large incidents, the cleanup will likely proceed in phases, (e.g., from the periphery of the
contamination toward the most contaminated areas). The extent of the cleanup options analysis and
process used to develop it would be tailored to the needs of the specific incident, but the following
working groups may be convened by the IC/UC to assist decision-makers in the cleanup options analysis
process, particularly for large or complex cleanups.
5.1.6.4 Technical Working Group
A technical working group should be convened as soon as practicable, ideally within days or weeks of the
incident. The technical working group would be managed by the Planning Section Unit that is assigned
responsibility for the cleanup options analysis. The technical working group may or may not be physically
located at the ICP. The group may review data and documents, provide input electronically, and meet
with incident management officials. The group may also be asked to participate in meetings with the JFO
Unified Coordination Group if needed.
Function: The technical working group provides multi-agency, multi-disciplinary expert input on the
cleanup options analysis, including advice on technical issues, analysis of relevant regulatory
requirements and guidelines, risk analyses, and development of cleanup options. The technical working
group would provide expert technical input to the IC/UC; it would not be a decision-making body.
Makeup: The technical working group should include selected federal, state, local and private sector
subject matter experts in such fields as environmental fate and transport modeling, risk analysis, technical
remediation options analysis, cost, risk and benefit analysis, health physics and radiation protection,
construction remediation practices, and relevant regulatory requirements. The exact selection and balance
of subject matter experts is incident-specific. The Advisory Team for Environment, Food and Health is
comprised of federal radiological experts in various fields that may warrant representation on the
technical working group, therefore, the Team or some of its members may be incorporated into this group
as appropriate.
5.1.6.5 Stakeholder Working Group
The stakeholder working group should be convened as soon as practicable, ideally within days or weeks
of the incident. The stakeholder working group would be managed by the Planning Section Unit that is
assigned responsibility for the cleanup options analysis. The IC/UC may direct the Public Information
Officer (PIO) (who would coordinate with the Joint Information Center (JIC)) to work with the group,
including establishing a process for the group to report out its recommendations. How and where the
stakeholder working group would meet to review information and provide its input would need to be
determined in conjunction with the group members. The stakeholder working group may also be asked to
participate in meetings with the JFO Unified Coordination Group, if needed.
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Function: The function of the stakeholder working group is to provide input to the IC/UC concerning local
needs and desires for site recovery, proposed cleanup options, and other recommendations. The group
should present local goals for the use of the site, prioritizing current and future potential land uses and
functions, such as utilities and infrastructure, light industrial, downtown business and residential land
uses. The stakeholder working group would not be a decision-making body.
Makeup: The stakeholder working group should include selected federal, state and local representatives,
and local non-governmental representatives as well as local and regional business stakeholders. The exact
selection and balance of stakeholders is incident-specific.
5.1.6.6 Activities: Cleanup Planning and Recommendations
The IC/UC directs the management of the cleanup options analysis through the Planning Section.
Technical and stakeholder working groups assist in performing analyses and developing cleanup options
and provide input to the IC/UC and may be asked to participate in meetings with the JFO Unified
Coordination Group. The IC/UC reviews cleanup options analyses and selects a proposed approach for
site cleanup in close coordination with federal, state and local officials. Again, depending on the incident
size, it may be necessary to conduct the cleanup in phases. Thus, decisions on cleanup approaches may
also be made in phases. As appropriate for the magnitude of the cleanup task, the IC/UC would brief
relevant federal, state and local government officials on proposed cleanup plans for approval. This may
involve the office of the affected mayor and governor. At the federal level, it may involve the JFO Unified
Coordination Group and higher-level officials.
5.1.6.7 Public Review of Decision
The IC/UC should work with the PIO and JIC to publish a summary of the process, the options analyzed,
and the recommendations for public comments. Public meetings should also be convened at appropriate
times. Public comments should be considered and incorporated as appropriate. A reconvening of the
stakeholder or technical working group may be useful for resolving particular issues.
5.1.6.8 Execution of Cleanup and Peer Review
Assuming a Presidential declaration of a major disaster or emergency, FEMA may issue mission
assignments to the federal departments and agencies that have the capability to perform the required
cleanup, remediation, or debris removal activities. Cleanup activities should commence as quickly as
practicable and allow for incremental reoccupation of areas as cleanup proceeds. For significant
decontamination efforts, the IC/UC may choose to employ a technical peer review advisory committee to
conduct a review of the effectiveness of the cleanup. The technical peer review committee would evaluate
pre- and post-decontamination sampling data, the decontamination plan, and any other information key to
assessing the effectiveness of the cleanup.
5.2 DISPOSAL OF LARGE VOLUMES OF RADIOLOGICAL WASTE
If a large-scale radiological incident were to occur in the United States, the complexity of radiological
waste disposal would depend on the magnitude of the release and the decisions related to site cleanup,
both of which will determine the amount and types of waste requiring disposal. Primary responsibility for
waste management decisions falls to state and local officials.
This section provides a short introduction to the issue, a summary of the types of available disposal
options, a more detailed discussion of each disposal option, including disposal capabilities, and discussion
of roles and responsibilities. Although not addressed explicitly in this section, the need to prepare for and
conduct safe and environmentally protective storage of waste generated during remediation will also
present a significant challenge, as illustrated by the challenges that Japan faced in the aftermath of the
Fukushima accident. Many of the considerations for siting disposal facilities will also be applicable to
storage sites.
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Planners and decision-makers need to view the long-term remediation and recovery as a comprehensive
process in which waste management and disposal needs are considered from the earliest stages. For
example, the selected decontamination and remediation approach should involve consideration of a
number of viable alternatives with regard to potential treatment and disposal options. The precise mix of
treatment and disposal options employed would depend on the nature of the specific incident (e.g.,
location, waste volumes). The suitability of using any individual facility would depend on a number of
factors, including but not limited to the toxicity, mobility and volume of radioactively-contaminated
wastes (these would be evaluated as part of the characterization process), possible treatment technologies
(e.g., volume reduction technologies at the incident location, thermal treatment, neutralization), cost-
effectiveness, and existing federal and state (and possibly local) legal requirements governing waste
disposal.
5.2.1 General Considerations for Waste Disposal Options and Waste Volumes
As noted above, the complexity of radiological waste disposal decisions would depend on a number of
factors, including the magnitude of the release and the decisions related to site cleanup. Consideration of
these factors will determine the amount and types of waste requiring disposal. While disposal in a licensed
low-level radioactive waste (LLRW) disposal facility may be the preferable first choice, there are a
limited number of such facilities and not all states have access to all licensed commercial disposal
facilities. If there is a limited radiological incident with relatively small waste volumes, existing capacity
is available and may be sufficient to address waste disposal. However, waste resulting from a large-scale
radiological incident, such as the event at the 2011 incident at the Fukushima nuclear facility, would
likely overwhelm current disposal capacity. For large waste volumes, supplements to existing commercial
radioactive waste disposal facilities would need to be considered, such as a combination of hazardous
waste landfills, solid waste landfills, DOE disposal facilities, and potentially, the construction of a new
disposal facility. Organizational and administrative issues related to federal and state government
coordination and preparation are also important.
Discussions of waste disposal options often involve comparisons of estimated waste generation and
available disposal capacity. The amount of waste generated is related to the cleanup approach, the selected
approach to decontamination and remediation, as well as the long-term cleanup goals, and can affect the
volume of waste actually requiring disposal. The projected amounts of wastes for a large-scale
radiological incident may range from tens to hundreds of million cubic feet (or several million metric
tons). Some of the waste may contain high radioactivity, especially at the incident's origin; however, most
of the waste is expected to be only slightly contaminated, though in large quantities. The volume of
contaminated soil in Japan resulting from the Fukushima incident is estimated to exceed one billion cubic
feet.
As a point of comparison, roughly 28 million cubic feet of LLRW were disposed of at licensed
commercial disposal facilities during the period 2002-2011. DOE disposed of approximately twice that
volume in commercial facilities during the same period, in which it was involved in significant large-scale
site cleanups.37 Thus, over that ten-year period, an average annual volume of less than ten million cubic
feet was disposed of in commercial facilities. Volumes from the non-governmental sector are not
expected to increase significantly until the current fleet of NPPs is decommissioned. DOE generated
additional waste volumes that were disposed of at DOE sites. For example, from 2000-2010, DOE
disposed of approximately 20 million cubic feet of LLRW at the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS,
formerly the Nevada Test Site). As it continues site cleanups, DOE projects generation of approximately
150 million cubic feet of LLRW for the period 2010-2015, most of which will be disposed of at the site of
origin or other designated DOE sites.
37 Information on disposal in commercial disposal facilities provided by the Manifest Information Management System (MIMS),
operated by the DOE at http://mims.apps.em.doe.gov.
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Managing the large volumes of waste resulting from a large-scale radiological incident, such as with the
Fukushima accident, would likely overwhelm existing capacity in the U.S. and thus require an overall
strategy employing all available types of disposal facilities and integrating federal, state, local and private
sector assets. For example, consider the following—
¦ At the beginning of 2016, more than 150 million cubic feet of capacity was licensed at commercial
disposal facilities. An incident could consume all remaining licensed commercial LLRW disposal
capacity, which would affect waste generators in the energy, industrial, research and medical
sectors for whom the capacity was originally licensed. While there may be remaining property at
the facilities that could be developed, there is no guarantee that additional capacity can be licensed
or that states will allow all capacity to be consumed.
¦ Estimated waste volumes are comparable to projected generation from the entire DOE complex
over the next several years, which includes DOE's large-scale site cleanups. While DOE is
somewhat less constrained than non-DOE disposal sites in adding additional disposal capacity at
its sites, displacement of projected DOE disposal with incident-related waste has the potential to
interfere with ongoing cleanup activities, leading to extended on-site storage, slower cleanups, and
controversial efforts to expand disposal capacity at other DOE sites. Further, there is at present no
mechanism to provide access to DOE disposal sites for disposal of incident-related waste.
5.2.2 Existing Disposal Options
An effective response to a large-scale radiological incident will involve consideration of the entire range
of potential disposal options. The precise mix of disposal options employed will depend on the nature of
the specific incident (e.g., location, waste volumes). The process selected to plan and conduct the long-
term decontamination and remediation should identify and make provisions for using the different
available disposal options.
Each of these potential disposal alternatives is discussed in more detail below. There may also be some
remaining wastes that might require special consideration based on factors such as level of contamination,
waste form, lack of access, or capacity or presence of other hazardous or toxic contaminants. These
wastes could include those containing both hazardous and toxic constituents (e.g., mercury and PCBs—
polychlorinated biphenyls), animal carcasses, or contaminated vehicles (where dismantling the vehicle
may represent a greater potential for dispersal of contaminants and exposure of workers).
5.2.2.1 Commercially Licensed LLRW Disposal Facilities
Given that the bulk of the waste resulting from the release of radionuclides from a nuclear facility or a
deliberate action will contain radionuclides commonly contained in LLRW, licensed commercial disposal
facilities would be the most appropriate and publicly acceptable option for disposal if the volumes of
waste from the incident were relatively small. It would be anticipated that the waste would be mostly at
the lower end of radionuclide concentrations. Thus, these facilities will be capable of handling all but the
most problematic waste types, if the amounts were limited. At present, all commercial LLRW disposal
facilities are licensed by states (through agreements with NRC, referred to as "Agreement States").
As described earlier, available capacity and access are significant concerns in relying on commercial
LLRW disposal facilities. Further, even if a facility would be generally available to all waste generators
and it is found that all but a small portion of the waste would meet that facility's disposal criteria, it is
possible that there may be objections to accepting all waste from an incident outside the state, even if the
facility's capacity was sufficient.
Access to other facilities generally unavailable to the state(s) affected by the incident might be feasible in
an emergency situation under NRC regulations, but it should not be expected that large volumes of waste
will be accepted under these provisions. There is also the possibility that the affected state could construct
a disposal facility to provide additional capacity. Several states conducted extensive studies of their
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geology in anticipation of constructing disposal facilities and these studies may be of use in such
situations.
5.2.2.2 Solid and Hazardous Waste Landfills
Most states are authorized by the EPA under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) to
operate their own hazardous waste management programs in lieu of the federal Subtitle C program.38
Management of non-hazardous solid wastes is governed by RCRA Subtitle D, which is administered
largely by the states. Compared to the number of licensed LLRW disposal facilities in the U.S., there are a
greater number of commercial landfills operating under Subtitle C and many more operating under
Subtitle D of RCRA for disposal of hazardous and solid wastes, respectively. It would not be expected
that all of these facilities (particularly those operating under Subtitle D) would be appropriate disposal
options. However, some of the hazardous waste landfills have accepted some radioactive material for
disposal and a few have received the necessary state approvals to do so on a routine basis. Historically,
most of the radiological waste streams accepted by hazardous waste landfills contain naturally-occurring
radionuclides not regulated by NRC, such as wastes from the oil and gas or other resource extraction
industries, as well as water treatment residuals. However, both NRC and DOE, in coordination with state
regulators and facility operators, have approved disposal of radioactive waste in RCRA landfills on a
case-by-case basis. Thus, there is reason to believe that one or more hazardous waste landfills could
contribute to the disposal capacity for incident-related waste. The use of any particular RCRA facility for
the disposal of radioactive contaminants or mixed contamination would require that the unit is well
designed and managed appropriately. The uniform design and engineering requirements applicable to
hazardous waste landfills would facilitate such an evaluation; by contrast, not all solid waste landfills are
constructed to the same specifications. Further, the evaluation would include consideration of the waste
characteristics, site characteristics, waste acceptance criteria, and other facility attributes.
RCRA hazardous and solid waste landfills may also offer the advantage of disposal capacity suitable for
large volumes of lightly-contaminated material (e.g., soil).39 In addition, these facilities are more likely to
be located near the incident location, which can facilitate their use if deemed appropriate by federal, state
and local officials. However, use of these facilities for disposal of radionuclides typically found in low-
level radioactive waste, even if it contains very low concentrations of those radionuclides, may generate
public concern if the facilities have not been previously approved for this type of disposal. Therefore,
additional effort by state and local officials would be necessary to ensure the facility can manage the
waste in a protective manner, including technical modification, if appropriate.
5.2.2.3 Potential Use of Federal Properties for New Disposal Capacity
DOE facilities could potentially be a disposal alternative that may be most appropriate for limited
volumes of waste for which there is no other disposal outlet (such as high-activity waste, certain mixed
wastes, or other problematic waste streams). Waste disposed at DOE sites must meet the waste
acceptance criteria for those sites. DOE does not generally accept non-DOE-owned or generated waste for
disposal at its sites. In addition, DOE has significant ongoing remediation at a number of sites that will
generate large volumes of waste over the coming years. Diverting DOE disposal capacity to incident-
related waste may interfere with those efforts. DOE has also utilized commercial LLRW disposal
facilities, primarily for bulk waste streams from cleanups, and this potential disposal alternative may also
be affected by a large-scale radiological incident.
38 Alaska, Iowa, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa and the Trust Territories and Northern Marianas Islands do not
have authorized RCRA programs as of the date of this publication.
39 EPA reports that about 132 million tons of municipal solid waste were landfilled in 2009, comparable to the rate over the past
two decades. The 2009 figure represents about 54 percent of total generation. (EPA 2010)
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DOE's primary disposal site serving the DOE complex is the NNSS. DOE/NNSS continues to excavate
additional disposal capacity as needed and estimates that significant additional capacity could be
developed at NNSS.
DOE's other designated site for complex-wide disposal is Hanford, WA; however, DOE has an agreement
with the State of Washington that it will not bring waste from other sites until certain remediation
milestones have been met. Overall, DOE anticipates that most of its waste generated in the coming years
will be disposed at the site of generation. Sites other than NNSS and Hanford are designated for disposal
of waste generated at those sites, although exceptional situations may allow for disposal of waste
generated off-site and development of some additional disposal capacity. Additional disposal capacity
would likely be dependent upon agreement from the state in which the facility is located.
In order to provide cleanup managers the use of all potential disposal capacity there are some issues that
would need to be addressed, such as waste acceptance criteria for waste sites that have not been evaluated
for radioactive material disposal. However, based on an understanding of the types of waste involved and
the capabilities of existing disposal facilities, a generalized discussion of the attributes of the different
disposal options, with qualifiers, can be developed and these attributes are discussed below.
COMPARISON OF ATTRIBUTES OF EXISTING DISPOSAL OPTIONS
¦ Licensed Commercial LLRW Disposal Facilities—
o Can manage most anticipated waste types within license conditions,
o Highest degree of public acceptance,
o Significant bulk disposal volume possible.
o Access restrictions may require special approval for waste from certain states,
o Management of mixed radioactive and hazardous waste will need to ensure proper
disposal and long-term groundwater monitoring.
¦ Solid and Hazardous Waste Landfills—
o May offer local disposal option for expected large volumes with limited contamination,
o May offer a disposal option at hazardous waste landfills for mixed wastes (mixtures of
hazardous and radioactive wastes); hazardous waste landfills have specified construction
and engineering requirements,
o Need to consider the location of the units in proximity to large or sensitive populations,
sensitive ecosystems, and sole source aquifers,
o May require design modifications to ensure that the waste can be managed protectively
over time.
o Difficulty in obtaining public acceptance, although some hazardous waste landfills have
accepted waste with limited radionuclide content with state approval,
o Requires additional demonstration of suitability to ensure protectiveness for radiological
material (e.g., groundwater monitoring, additional engineering controls); many solid
waste landfills have not been evaluated for disposal of radioactive material and may not
be suitable for radiological material,
o May require longer-term/special monitoring, as well as institutional controls.
¦ DOE Disposal Sites—
o Could potentially handle high-activity waste if insufficient commercial access or capacity,
o May be suitable for some problematic waste types (e.g., whole vehicles),
o DOE disposal facilities generally accept only DOE-owned or DOE-generated waste.
Disposal of non-DOE waste requires additional review and agreements involving the host
state, consistent with DOE's authorities, particularly where existing agreements limit
DOE's waste disposal activities.
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5.2.3 Planning and Coordination among Federal and State Entities for Disposal
Options
A number of federal and state agencies may have important roles to play in making decisions on final
disposal, depending on the extent of the waste. A framework for coordination with these various federal
and state agencies should be an element of the process selected for long-term decontamination and
remediation.
States should be intimately involved ahead of time in planning for a large-scale radiological incident and
the resulting waste disposal. The following authorities regarding waste disposal may exist within affected
states—
¦ All existing commercial LLRW disposal facilities are licensed by Agreement States.
¦ Many, but not all, states have formed regional compacts (as authorized by Congress) to site and
operate LLRW disposal facilities; compacts control access to these sites.
¦ Although statutorily required4" to provide disposal capacity for low-level waste generated within
the compact boundaries (with certain exceptions), states are under no obligation to accept waste
from outside their compacts. States that are not members of compacts do not have the statutory
protection to prohibit disposal of out-of-compact waste.
¦ Many DOE disposal sites have agreements with the host State regarding the extent of long-term
disposal or acceptance of off-site waste. States hosting DOE disposal sites should participate in
planning for the potential disposal of incident-related off-site waste at DOE sites.
¦ States regulate hazardous waste landfills (when authorized by EPA) and solid waste landfills that
may be used for disposal of waste with very low concentrations of radioactivity (see Section
5.2.2.2). In planning for disposal of incident-related waste, states should take into account any
restrictions placed on the disposal of radionuclides in these facilities.
¦ It is anticipated that on-site disposal at a location affected by the incident, where appropriate, will
be one location of choice and that an affected state could approve construction of a new disposal
facility for that purpose.
Depending on the circumstances, coordination with numerous federal agencies would be necessary. Of
particular note:
¦ EPA is the coordinating agency for long-term remediation and cleanup, as designated by the
National Response Framework (FEMA 2008a) and has federal authority for hazardous waste
disposal;
¦ DOE is "owner" of federal sites that may be used for waste disposal;
¦ NRC is the federal authority for commercial LLRW disposal; and
¦ USDA provides technical assistance for agricultural materials contaminated by the release,
including animal carcasses.
5.2.4 Considerations for Modified Use of Existing Disposal Options
Depending on the circumstances, it may be appropriate to create additional disposal capacity. This
decision would most likely need to involve extensive discussion between the federal government and the
affected state(s) where an incident occurred. Generally, there are two options for additional disposal
capacity—
¦ On-site disposal. As a result of evaluating available options, it may be advantageous to develop
disposal capacity on-site (e.g., build a large disposal facility within the property boundaries where
the facility causing the release is located), if the site is suitable.
40 Pursuant to the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act of 1980 (LLRWPA) and the 1985 LLRWP Amendments Act of
1985.
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¦ Off-site disposal. An additional option would be for a state or the federal government to build a
disposal site on suitable public lands. The federal or state government could use the provisions of
eminent domain to condemn property contaminated by a radiological incident and subsequently,
then use it for waste disposal.
If it is determined that constructing a new disposal facility is the appropriate action, the proposed site(s)
should be evaluated for suitability. Although the contemplated disposal actions would be taken in event of
a national emergency, every effort should be made to ensure the protection of public health and the
environment. Appropriate regulatory standards should be considered in developing a specific disposal
plan. The disposal plan and site suitability should take into account the radiological characteristics of the
waste. As discussed above, some slightly radioactive materials may be disposed in hazardous waste
landfills if they are permitted for it. More radioactive materials may be sent to sites licensed as LLRW
disposal facilities, though less contaminated materials may also be sent to LLRW disposal facilities. A
small amount of waste from a radiological incident may have concentrated radioactivity, but most of the
waste generated in a large-scale radiological incident would likely be contaminated with low levels of
radioactivity. The different radiological characteristics of the waste would have a bearing on the
stringency of containment required of a waste disposal facility. All waste sites would need to have
appropriate controls to protect public health and the environment for any level of radioactive
contamination, but more highly radioactive materials would need more robust controls than slightly
contaminated material.
The physical/geographic characteristics of the site and the availability of land will be important in
determining the appropriateness of a potential disposal site. Sites with limited rainfall, high
evapotranspiration, deep water tables, and soil characteristics that limit migration of radionuclides have
been found to be best suited for disposal of radioactive waste, although waste management and
engineering can be applied to improve performance at sites with less favorable characteristics (e.g.,
controls on the waste form or level of allowable radioactivity, addition of liners, cover requirements, or
through construction of concrete bunkers or vaults). Other characteristics, such as location in a high risk
area (e.g., flood plain or seismic zone) or sensitive ecologic area, should also be considered. A disposal
cell for 1 million cubic feet of waste will occupy 1 acre or more of surface area, assuming disposal to a
depth of about 30 feet (9 meters). Large-scale disposal operations may also require extensive surface
facilities.
Additional factors to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages among potentially suitable sites may
include:
¦ Proximity to the incident: it may be useful to consider sites in different regions of the country to
limit transportation demands;
¦ Proximity to residential areas or commercial districts: the potential for disposal activities to affect
nearby populations or commercial activities, whether located within the site boundaries or on
adjacent property, should be considered;
¦ Proximity to transportation: access to timely and direct transportation that can accommodate large
shipments is desirable—action to facilitate: construction of transportation infrastructure (e.g.,
direct rail lines);
¦ Experience in waste disposal: waste disposal sites will have infrastructure, procedures and trained
personnel that can make most efficient use of the site—action to facilitate: development of
infrastructure, training, construction of disposal cells and engineered containment (e.g., vaults or
bunkers); and
¦ Level of existing contamination: areas that are unlikely to be remediated in the near future or
unlikely to be released for public use may be more acceptable for disposal.
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5.2.5 Potential Federal Properties to Develop New Disposal Capacity
In addition to criteria for siting new disposal facilities, the federal government has control of a large
amount of land throughout the U.S. that could be repurposed, or could offer assistance to support state
governments in developing new facilities.
5.2.5.1 DOE Sites
DOE has decades of experience in radioactive waste management. In considering the primary selection
criteria described above, DOE sites in the western U.S. generally have more favorable characteristics and
readily available property compared to those in the eastern U.S. However, DOE has successfully
implemented disposal at the eastern sites, often with some engineering enhancements. DOE has several
categories of sites for consideration, beginning with the most suitable—
¦ Active disposal or cleanup sites in the western U.S.
¦ Active disposal or cleanup sites in the eastern U.S.
¦ Closed sites with disposal areas.
¦ Closed uranium milling sites.
¦ Other long-term stewardship sites.
Considerations: Some DOE sites have agreements with states or other stakeholders regarding further
disposal or cleanup activities. Current disposal sites have waste acceptance criteria governed by DOE
policy or statute. Closed and long-term stewardship sites may not have large amounts of additional
property available for disposal.
5.2.5.2 DoD Installations
DoD maintains some installations with large land areas, primarily in the western U.S. Many of these sites
have been contaminated through extensive training or other activities. DoD likely has more sites in the
eastern U.S. than does DOE. Categories of sites that could be considered suitable include:
¦ Bombing and firing ranges;
¦ Chemical weapons demilitarization and storage sites;
¦ Ammunition plants and arsenals; and
¦ Surplus properties (e.g., BRAC - base realignment and closure, FUDS - formerly used defense
site).
Considerations: Section 2692 of title 10, United States Code, "Storage, Treatment and Disposal of
NonDefense Toxic and Hazardous Materials," generally states that the Secretary of Defense may not
permit the use of an installation of the DoD for the storage, treatment, or disposal of any material that is a
toxic or hazardous material and that is not owned either by the DoD or by a member of the armed forces
(or by a dependent of the member) assigned to or provided military housing on the installation.
Radiological waste resulting from either a nuclear accident or a terrorist attack may fall under this
prohibition. The Secretary of Defense may grant exceptions to this restriction when "essential to protect
the health and safety of the public from imminent danger." A determination of whether or not radiological
waste meets the "imminent danger" threshold would be required.
Additionally, some DoD properties, including ranges in the western U.S., are on "withdrawn" lands,
which are part of the public domain supervised by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Withdrawn
land statutes permit DoD to use the property for specific military mission needs. The use of withdrawn
lands to manage radiological waste would violate those statutes.
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5.2.5.3 Other Federal Properties
Agencies such as the Department of Interior or USDA own large properties that could be considered
suitable for disposal, many of which are in the western U.S. These properties may be administered by
discrete entities within the cabinet-level departments, such as the National Park Service, BLM, or Forest
Service. Some properties may be in proximity to DOE or DoD lands.
Considerations: Properties may be designated for public use or for protection (e.g., wilderness areas or
preserves). Many properties are also in rugged terrain with difficult access or border tribal lands.
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KEY POINTS IN CHAPTER 5 - LATE PHASE
¦ Numeric PAGs will not be used to guide restoration and recovery of areas impacted by a
radiological incident; rather, planning activities should include a process to involve stakeholders in
setting priorities and determining actions. Such a process should be flexible to adapt to a variety of
situations.
¦ Planning considerations for worst case scenarios are provided. Smaller radiological incidents may
be well addressed by existing emergency response and environmental cleanup programs at local,
state, tribal and federal levels.
¦ Reoccupying households and businesses should be considered in balance with progress made in
reducing radiation risks through decontamination, radioactive decay, and managing contaminated
waste.
¦ Exposure limits that lead to excess lifetime cancer incidence in a range of one in a population of
ten thousand (10 4) to one in a population of one million (10~6) are generally considered protective,
though this may not be achievable after a large-scale radiological incident. In making decisions
about cleanup goals and strategies for a particular event, decision-makers must balance the
acceptable level of excess lifetime cancer incidence with the extent of the measures that would be
necessary to achieve it.
¦ Incidents that result in large volumes of waste from a large-scale radiological incident would likely
overwhelm existing radioactive waste disposal capacity in the U.S.
¦ Following a nuclear accident, the states bear primary responsibility to identify and provide waste
management options, including disposal capacity; in the event of a terrorist attack, the federal
government can offer a range of assistance to states to identify and implement waste management
options.
¦ Safely managing and disposing of radioactive waste will require advance planning at all levels of
government and careful coordination with stakeholders at all stages of the decision-making
process.
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APPENDIX A - REFERENCES
Aaberg 1989 Aaberg, R. Evaluation of Skin and Ingestion Exposure Pathways. EPA 520/1-89-016.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., (1989).
CDC 2014 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], Department of Health and
Human Services. Population Monitoring in Radiation Emergencies: A Guide for
State and Local Public Health Planners. Second edition. Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, (2014).
CRARM 1997 The Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk
Management [CRARM], Framework for Environmental Health Risk Management.
Washington, D.C., (1997).
DHS 2008 Department of Homeland Security [DHS], Federal Emergency Management
Agency. Planning Guidance for Protection and Recovery Following Radiological
Dispersal Device (RDD) and Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) Incidents. Federal
Register. 70. 45029; August 1, 2008.
DoD 2003 Department of Defense [DoD], Military Medical Operations, Armed Forces
Radiobiology Research Institute. Medical Management of Radiological Casualties,
Second Edition. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute, Department of
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DOE 1988 Department of Energy [DOE], External Dose-Rate Conversion Factors for
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APPENDIX B - GLOSSARY
Acute health effects: Health problems caused by high radiation doses received in a short period of time.
Examples of acute effects include erythema (reddening of skin), blistering, epilation (hair loss), and
vomiting.
ALARA: Acronym for "as low as reasonably achievable" means making every reasonable effort to
maintain exposures to radiation as far below the dose limits in this part as is practical consistent with the
purpose for which the activity is undertaken.
Alpha radiation: Alpha radiation comes from the ejection of alpha particles from the nuclei of some
unstable atoms. An alpha particle is identical to a helium nucleus and consists of two protons and two
neutrons. Alpha particles are highly energetic, but can only travel a few centimeters in air. They have low
penetrating power and can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Alpha particles generally cannot even penetrate
the layer of dead cells on the skin, but can pose a health risk when inhaled or ingested.
Avoided dose: The radiation dose saved by implementing a protective action.
Beta radiation: Beta radiation comes from the emission of beta particles during radioactive decay. Beta
particles are highly energetic and fast-moving. They carry a positive or negative charge and can be
stopped by a layer of clothing or few millimeters of a solid material. Beta particles can penetrate the skin
and cause skin burns, but tissue damage is limited by their small size. Beta particles are most hazardous
when inhaled or ingested.
Centigray (cGy): One cGy is equal to one hundredth of a gray (O.OlGy). See Gray. One cGy is
equivalent to one rad. See Rad.
Cloudshine: Gamma radiation emitted from an airborne plume overhead.
Committed effective dose: The sum of the committed equivalent doses following intake (inhalation or
ingestion) of a radionuclide to each organ multiplied by a tissue weighting factor.
Contamination: Radionuclides on a surface or in the environment as a result of an accidental release.
Concentration: Radionuclide activity per unit of mass.
Chronic effects: Health problems caused by radiation doses delivered over a long period. Examples of
chronic effects include cancer and genetic mutations.
Derived Intervention Level (DIL): Concentration derived from the intervention level of dose at which
introduction of protective measures should be considered. (FDA 1998)
Derived Response Level (DRL): A level of radioactivity in an environmental medium that would be
expected to produce a dose equal to its corresponding Protective Action Guide.
Dose: The amount of radiation exposure a person has received, calculated considering the effectiveness of
the radiation type (alpha, beta, gamma), the timeframe of the exposure, and the sensitivity of the person or
individual organs.
Dose parameter (DP): Any factor that is used to change an environmental measurement to dose in the
units of concern.
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Dose projection: A calculated future dose that an individual might receive; also the process of making
these calculations.
Dose reduction factor: A factor by which a decontamination technique or protective action reduces the
radiation dose to a person.
Dosimetry: The system for assessing radiation doses from external radiation exposures and from intakes
of radionuclides using biokinetic models and dosimetric quantities developed by the ICRP and the
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU).
Early phase: The beginning of a radiological incident for which immediate decisions for effective use of
protective actions are required and must therefore be based primarily on the status of the radiological
incident and the prognosis for worsening conditions. This phase may last from hours to days.
Effective dose: The sum of organ equivalent doses weighted by ICRP organ weighting factors.
Emergency Planning Zone: A designated zone around a commercial nuclear power plant for which
radiological response plans must be maintained under Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations.
Emergency worker: Anyone with a role in responding to the incident whether a radiation worker
previously or not, who should be protected from radiation exposure.
Evacuation: The urgent removal of people from an area to avoid or reduce high-level, short-term
exposure, from the plume or from deposited radioactivity. Evacuation may be a preemptive action taken in
response to a facility condition rather than an actual release.
Gamma radiation: Gamma radiation comes from the emission of high-energy, weightless, chargeless
photons during radioactive decay. Gamma photons are pure electromagnetic energy and highly
penetrating—several inches of lead or a few feet of concrete may be required to attenuate them. External
exposure to gamma rays poses a health threat to the entire body. Inhalation and ingestion of gamma
emitters also poses a health threat.
Graves' disease: An autoimmune disorder that leads to the over activity of the thyroid.
Gray (Gy): International unit of absorbed radiation dose. One Gy is equivalent to 100 rad. See Rad.
Groundshine: Gamma radiation emitted from radioactive materials deposited on the ground.
Half-life: The time required for half the atoms of a given radioisotope to transform by radioactive decay.
Hashimoto's thyroiditis: An autoimmune disorder that leads to underactive thyroid with bouts of over
activity.
Improvised Nuclear Device (IND): A crude, yield-producing nuclear weapon fabricated from diverted
fissile material.
Intermediate phase: The period beginning after the source and releases have been brought under control
(has not necessarily stopped but is no longer growing) and reliable environmental measurements are
available for use as a basis for decisions on protective actions and extending until these additional
protective actions are no longer needed. This phase may overlap the early phase and late phase and may
last from weeks to months.
Isodose-rate line: A contour line that is used to connect points of equal radiation dose rates.
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Late phase: The period beginning when recovery actions designed to reduce radiation levels in the
environment to acceptable levels are commenced and ending when all recovery actions have been
completed. This phase may extend from months to years. A PAG level, or dose to avoid, is not
appropriate for long-term cleanup.
Latency period, cancer: The time elapsed between radiation exposure and the onset of cancer.
Microsievert (juSv): One millionth of a Sievert. See Sievert. One ten-thousandth of a rem. See Rem.
(1 (j,Sv = 0.1 mrem (millirem))
Millirem (mrem): One thousandth of a rem. See Rem.
(1 mrem = 0.00001 Sv (sievert) = 0.01 mSv (millisievert) = 10 (j,Sv (microsievert))
Millisievert (mSv): One thousandth of a sievert. See Sievert.
(1 mSv =100 mrem (millirem) = 0.1 rem)
Noble gases: A group of elemental gases that are tasteless, odorless, and that do not undergo chemical
reactions under natural conditions. The noble gases consist of Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar),
Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and Radon (Rn).
Off-site: Areas outside the controlled border of a facility, such as a nuclear power plant. For an incident
not involving a facility, this term may also be used to refer to areas impacted by contamination.
On-site: Areas inside the controlled border of a facility, such as a nuclear power plant. For an incident not
involving a facility, this term may refer to areas controlled during a response.
Potassium iodide: A salt of stable, non-radioactive iodine in medicine form. The administration of
potassium iodide saturates the thyroid with non-radioactive iodine, so it does not absorb radioactive
iodine released into the environment from a radiological incident.
Projected dose: The prediction of the dose that a population or individual could receive.
Protective actions: An activity conducted in response to an incident or potential incident to avoid or
reduce radiation dose to members of the public.
Protective Action Guide (PAG): The projected dose to an individual, resulting from a radiological
incident at which a specific protective action to reduce or avoid that dose is warranted.
Prophylactic: A treatment or medication designed to prevent exposure to radiation.
Rad (radiation absorbed dose): A basic unit of absorbed radiation dose. It is being replaced by the "gray,"
which is equivalent to 100 rad. One rad equals the dose delivered to an object of 100 ergs of energy, per
gram of material.
Radioactive: Quality of a material that emits alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, or neutrons.
Radiological dispersal device (RDD): A device or mechanism that is intended to spread radioactive
material from the detonation of conventional explosives or other means. An RDD is commonly known as
a "dirty bomb."
Radiopharmaceutical: A radioactive chemical used for diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention of
diseases.
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Recovery: The phase after response when efforts focus on remediation, or the process of reducing
radiation exposure rates and concentrations of radioactive material in the environment to levels acceptable
for unconditional occupancy or use.
Reentry: Workers or members of the public going into relocation or radiological contaminated areas on a
temporary basis under controlled conditions.
Release: Uncontrolled distribution of radioactive material to the environment.
Relocation: The removal or continued exclusion of people (households) from contaminated areas to
avoid chronic radiation exposure. Not to be confused with evacuation.
Reoccupancy: The return of households and communities to relocation areas during the cleanup process,
at radiation levels acceptable to the community.
Rem (roentgen equivalent man): The product of the absorbed dose in rads and a weighting factor which
accounts for the effectiveness of the radiation to cause biological damage; a conventional unit for
equivalent dose. One rem equals 0.01 Sv.
Release rate: The measure of the amount of radioactive material dispersed per unit of time.
Return: Permanent resettlement in evacuation or relocation areas with no restrictions, based on
acceptable environmental and public health conditions.
Roentgen (R): A conventional unit for exposure. For x-ray and gamma radiation, Rad ~ rem ~ Roentgen
(R). A handheld survey meter that reads in R/hr can be used to measure exposure rates.
Shelter-in-place: The action of staying or going indoors immediately.
Sievert (Sv): International unit of equivalent dose. One sievert equals 100 rem.
(1 Sv = 1,000 mSv (millisieverts) = 1,000,000 (j,Sv (microsieverts) = 100 rem = 100,000 mrem (millirem))
Source term: The amount of a contaminant available in a scenario or actually released to the
environment.
Stay time: Term of art used in the radiation safety field. Stay times are the amount of time a person may
access the contaminated area. These times vary based upon site-specific factors or incident characteristics
such as indoor or outdoor work, sensitive populations, and level of radioactivity.
Total Effective Dose (TED): The sum of the effective dose (for external exposures) and the committed
effective dose; also referred to in this Manual as whole body dose. See Section 2.3.
Whole Body Dose: See Total Effective Dose.
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APPENDIX C - LIST OF ACRONYMS
AEA
Atomic Energy Act
ALARA
As Low as Reasonably Achievable
ANS
American Nuclear Society
BEIR
Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) of the
National Academy of Sciences
BLM
Bureau of Land Management
Bq
Becquerel (measurement unit)
CDC
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CERCLA
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CFR
Code of Federal Regulations
cGy
Centigray (measurement unit)
Ci
Curie (measurement unit)
cpm
Counts per minute (measurement unit)
DHS
Department of Homeland Security
DIL
Derived Intervention Levels
DoD
Department of Defense
DOE
Department of Energy
DOL
Department of Labor
DP
Dose Parameter
DRL
Derived Response Level
DTPA
Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid or Pentetic acid
EAL
Emergency Action Level
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
EPZ
Emergency Planning Zone
FDA
Food and Drug Administration
FEMA
Federal Emergency Management Agency
FRC
Federal Radiation Council
FRMAC
Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center
FRPCC
Federal Radiological Preparedness Coordination Committee
h
Hour
Gy
Gray (measurement unit)
HAZWOPER
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response
HHS
Department of Health and Human Services
HPS
Health Physics Society
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
ICP
Incident Command Post
ICRP
International Commission on Radiological Protection
ICRU
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
IC/UC
Incident Command/Unified Command
ICS
Incident Command System
IND
Improvised Nuclear Device
JFO
Joint Field Office
JIC
Joint Information Center
KI
Potassium Iodide
km
Kilometer
LLRW
Low-level radioactive waste
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LLRWPA
Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act
mg
Milligram (measurement unit)
MIMS
Manifest Information Management System
mL
Milliliter (measurement unit)
nR
Microroentgen (measurement unit)
(iSv
Microsievert (measurement unit)
mSv
Millisievert (measurement unit)
mrem
Millirem (measurement unit)
mR
Milliroentgen (measurement unit)
NAS
National Academy of Sciences
NCP
National Contingency Plan
NCRP
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
NIMS
National Incident Management System
NNPP
Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program
NNSS
Nevada National Security Site
NPP
Nuclear Power Plant
NRC
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRF
National Response Framework
NDRF
National Disaster Recovery Framework
NSS
National Security Staff
NUREG
NRC technical report designation (Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PAG
Protective Action Guide
pCi
Picocurie (measurement unit)
PIO
Public Information Officer
PPE
Personal Protective Equipment
R
Roentgen (measurement unit)
RASCAL
Radiological Assessment System for Consequence Analysis
Rem
Roentgen equivalent man (measurement unit)
REMM
Radiation Emergency Medical Management
RESRAD
RESidual RADioactivity (computer code developed by Argonne National
Laboratory)
RCRA
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDD
Radiological Dispersal Device
SNL
Sandia National Laboratories
Sv
Sievert (measurement unit)
TED
Total Effective Dose
USDA
United States Department of Agriculture
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v>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air and Radiation
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. (6101A)
Washington, DC 20460
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300
EPA 400/R-16/001
November 2016
www.epa.gov/radiation/protective-action-guides-pags
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