United States NATO: Committee on the EPA'400/7-90/005
Environmental Protection Challenges of June 1990
Agency Modern Society
vvEPA Pilot Study On
0 Indoor Air Quality
Managing Indoor
Air Quality Risks
Slfi§|Sf
Report on a Meeting Held in St. Michaels, Maryland
October 25-27, 1989
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BTBLTOGRAPHTC INFORMATION
PB91-145896
Report Nos: EPA/400/7-90/005
Title: Pilot Study on Indoor Air Quality: Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks. Report
on a Meeting Held in St. Michaels, Maryland on October 25~27, 1989.
Date: Jun 90
Performing, Organization: Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.*"NATO
Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, Brussels (Belgium).
Supplementary Notes: Also available from Supt. of Docs. Prepared in cooperation
with NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, Brussels (Belgium).
NTIS Field/Group Codes: 68A, 91A, 43F, 89A, 89G
Price: PC A10/MF A02
Availabi1ity: Available from the National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA. 22161
Number of Pages: 214p
Keywords: *Indoor air pollution, "Meetings, "Houses, "Risk assessment, 'cBui ldings,
Air quality, Regulations, Radon, Formaldehyde, Field tests, Europe, Ventilation,
Standards, Canada, Tables(Data), Graphs (Charts), Construction materials, Air
pollution monitoring.
Abstract: Contents: Quantifying Future Trends Of Indoor Air Quality As A Basis For
Government Policy Plans; Assessing Indoor Air Quality Risks of Pesticides;
Formaldehyde Emission Standards In The Federal Republic of Germany; Orientations
and Actions of the European Community in the Assessment and Prevention of Indoor
Air Pollution; EPA and Indoor Air Quality; The Non-Regulatory Approach to Reducing
Risks from Radon Exposure; U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission; A Builders
Guide to Healthy Homes; WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Europe; The Approach to
Control Indoor Air Quality in Italy; Guidelines - Ventilation Classes; Energy
Consequences of Upgrading Indoor Air Quality; Canada's Guidelines for Residential
Indoor Air Quality: Rationale and Scope; Canadian Ventilation and Venting
Standards; Indoor Air Quality Building Surveys Case Studies; Design of Indoor Air
Quality Studies; Summary Findings of Inter-Ministerial Committee On Indoor Air
Quality (Ontario); The Quebec Approach; Employee Survey EPA Headquarters; Pollution
in Closed Spaces and Its Consequences in Conservation of Works of Art; How
Norwegian Health Authorities Will Handle Indoor Air Quality Problems.
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NATO/CCMS WORKSHOP
Pilot Study
on Indoor Air Quality
Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks
Report on a meeting held in St. Michaels, Maryland
October 25 - 27,1989
This report has been assembled and edited by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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DISCLAIMER
The opinions expressed in these workshop papers arc those of the individual authors
unless specifically indicated otherwise. These papers do not represent the official position of
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society,
or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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Table of Contents
Foreword and Acknowledgments iii
List of Participants v
Section I - Developing Information for Risk Management Decision Making
H.J. Van De Wiel, Quantifying Future Trends Of Indoor
Air Quality As A Basis For Government Policy Plans 1
Section II - Controlling Sources - The Regulatory Approach
Michael Firestone, Assessing Indoor Air Quality Risks of Pesticides 9
Bernd Seifert, Formaldehyde Emission Standards In The Federal
Republic of Germany 13
Bernd Seifert, Orientations and Actions of the European Community in
the Assessment and Prevention of Indoor Air Pollution 25
Section III - Controlling IAQ - The Non-Regulatory Approach
Robert Axelrad, EPA and Indoor Air Quality 41
Lawrence Pratt, The Non-Regulatory Approach to Reducing
Risks from Radon Exposure 55
Sandra Eberle, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission 63
John Spears, A Builders Guide to Healthy Homes 67
Section TV - Indoor Air Pollutant Guidelines
Reiner Tuerck, WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Europe 85
Marco Maroni, The Approach to Control Indoor Air Quality in Italy 95
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Table of Contents (cont'd)
Section V - Ventilation Standards and Guidelines
Olav Bojerseth, Guidelines - Ventilation Classes 103
Gaute Flatheim, Energy Consequences of Upgrading Indoor Air Quality 107
Douglas Walkinshaw, Canada's Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality:
Rationale and Scope 129
Jim White, Canadian Ventilation and Venting Standards 141
Section VI - Solving Problems in Buildings
Tedd Nathanson, Indoor Air Quality Building Surveys Case Studies 145
Edward Light, Design of Indoor Air Quality Studies 157
Gyan S. Rajhans, Summary Findings of Inter-Ministerial Committee On
Indoor Air Quality (Ontario) 163
Jean-Claude Dionne, The Quebec Approach 177
Kevin Teichman, Employee Survey EPA Headquarters 179
Germano Mulazzani, Pollution in Closed Spaces and Its Consequences in
Conservation of Works of Art 193
Finn Levy, How Norwegian Health Authorities Will Handle
Indoor Air Quality Problems 197
ii
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Foreword and Acknowledgments
Professor Marco Maroni, Director of the Pilot Study
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formally established the Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) on November 6, 1969. CCMS' goal was to attack practical
problems already under study at the national level and, by combining the expertise and technology
available in member countries, to arrive fairly rapidly at valid conclusions and to make
recommendations for actions to benefit all member countries. The interchange of practical
applications and of technological and scientific information are of special importance.
In 1988, Italy proposed to the NATO/CCMS a pilot study on indoor air quality. The United
States agreed to participate as co-chair. There are a number of policy and research objectives of
the pilot study:
• The policy objectives are to identify agencies, institutions, and individuals
responsible for establishing policy and regulations; and to examine policy strategies
and propose a range of policy options that could be adopted by NATO nations.
• The research objectives are to identity current research efforts and develop a
registry of contacts; to characterize indoor air quality problems in NATO
countries; to identify problems which pose high risks to human health and
materials; and to identify, study, and recommend mitigation or control methods.
The first plenary meeting for the pilot study was held in Erice, Italy in February 1989; a
tentative schedule of five subsequent workshops was agreed upon:
• Risk Management, USA, October 1989;
• Energy and Building Sciences, Canada, August 1990;
• Risk Assessment and Case Studies, Federal Republic of Germany, February 1991;
• Epidemiological and Clinical Assessment of Indoor-Related Health Effects, United
Kingdom, 1991; and
• Diagnostic Principles and Methods, USA, 1991.
The pilot study will conclude with a final report to the CCMS in the summer of 1992.
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) organized the second meeting, which
focused on "Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks." The workshop, held October 25-27, 1989, in St.
Michaels, Maryland, explored programs and policies designed to resolve indoor air quality problems
in participating countries. Forty participants, representing seven countries shared information about
iii
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regulatory and non-regulatory approaches to controlling indoor air quality. This volume, the
second report of the pilot study, contains the papers that were presented at the workshop.
Special thanks and appreciation is extended to the workshop participants whose knowledge,
cooperation, and enthusiasm were critical to the successful planning and conduct of the workshop
activities. Thanks is also expressed to the staff of EPA's Indoor Air Division, and to ICF
Incorporated, who assisted EPA in providing the logistical support for the workshop and in
preparing and publishing these proceedings.
iv
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NATO/CCMS Pilot Study on Indoor Air Quality1
Managing Indoor Air Quality Risks
St. Michaels, Maryland
October 25 - 27, 1989
Participants
Allegrini, Ivo
National Research Council of Italy
Institute for Atmospheric Pollution
Via Salaria Km 29.3 CP-10
00016 Monterotondo (Rome) Italy
Phone: 39-6-9005349
FAX: 39-6-9005849
Andreoli, Carla
Ufficio Studi - Ministero Ambiente
Piazza Venezia 11
2-187 Roma, Italy
Phone: 39-6-67866293
FAX: 39-6-678-7709
Anversa, Anna
Biologist, Region Lombardia
Department of Health and Hygiene
Via Stresa 24
20125 Milano, Italy
Phone: 39-2-67653359
FAX: 39-2-67653111
Axelrad, Bob*
Director, Indoor Air Division
AN R-445 US EPA
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 202-475-8470
FAX: 202-382-7991
Bacci, Pietro
Senior Scientist
Italian Electricity Board
Thermal & Nuclear Research Center
ENEL - CRTN Via Rubattino 54
20314 Milano, Italy
Phone: 39-2-88473950
FAX: 39-2-88473915
Barbieri, Franco, MD
Visiting Scientist
Environmental Criteria and
Assessment Office
Office of Research & Development
US EPA
Research Triangle Park, NC 2771
Phone: 919-541-4155
FAX: 919-541-5078
Bjorseth, Olav, Ph.D.*
Industrial Hygienist
Foundation for Scientific & Industrial
Research
Norwegian Institute of Technology
University of Trondheim
7034 Trondheim, Norway
Phone: 47-7-593575
FAX: 47-7-593603 or 596995
* Asterisks denote speakers at the conference.
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Bochicchio, Francesco
Physicist
National Institute of Health
Viale Regina Elena 299
00161 Roma, Italy
Phone: 39-6-4990 ext. 97h
FAX: 39-6-492872
Carra, Sergio
Professor
Dipartimento di Chimica Fisica Applicata
Politecnico di Milano
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32
20133 Milano, Italy
Phone: 39-2-23993147
FAX: 39-2-23992206
Crespi-Gonzalez, Maria Alicia
Professor, Department of Environmental
Technology**
Politechnical University
Arroyo Fresno 23
28305 Madrid, Spain
Phone: 3166178-3735136
"(representing DG Medio Ambiente
Ministerio Obras Publicas y Urbanismo)
DeNegri, Enzo
Clinical Chemistry Department
Hospital of Gorgonzola-Melzo
USSL 58
20066 Cernusco S/N Milano
Italy
Phone: 39-2-9513591
FAX: 39-2-9230641
Dionne, Jean-Claude*
IRSST
505 Boulevard de Maisonnevrve Oeust
Montreal, Quebec
Canada H3A 3C24
Phone: 514-288-1551
FAX: 514-288-0998
Fara, Gaetano Maria
Professor of Hygiene & Preventive Medicine,
Chairman
Institute of Hygiene
University La Sapienza
Pie Aldo Moro 5
00185 Roma, Italy
Phone: 39-6-49914510
FAX: 39-6-49914510
Feldman, Elissa
Chief, Implementation Branch
Indoor Air Division
ANR-445 US EPA
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 202-475-8470
FAX: 202-382-7991
Flatheim, Gaute*
Consulting Engineer
Siv. Ing. Gaute Flatheim AJS
Verksgt. 46
4013 Stavanger, Norway
Phone: 47-4-534355
FAX: 47-4-524892
Jacquignon, P.C.
Secretariat d'Etat a 1'Environnement aupres
du Premier Ministre
14 Boulevard du General Leclerc
92524 NeuiJly-sur-Seine, France
Phone: 33-1-47581212 ext. 2324/2325
FAX: 33-1-47450474
Kanitz, Prof. Stefano
Institute of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine
University of Genova
via Pastore 1
(16132) Genova, Italy
Phone: 39-10-3538522
FAX: 39-10-3538504
Lavcssi, Massimo
Coordinatore Amministrivo
Unita Sanitaria Locale 58
Piazza Martini della Liberta 20063
Cernusco Sul Naviglio, Italy
Phone: 39-2-92360341
FAX: 39-2-9230641
vi
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Levy, Finn MD*
Senior Physician
National Institute of Occupational Health
PO Box 8149 Dep.
N 0033 Oslo 1, Norway
Phone: 47-2-466850
FAX: 47-02-603276
Maroni, Marco, MD*
Professor of Occupational Health
Istituto di Medicina del Lavoro
Via San Barnaba, 8
20122 Milano, Italy
Phone: 39-2-55181723
FAX: 39-2-55187172
Monticelli, Lucrezio
Consigliere
Ufficio Legislativo
Ministero Ambiente
Piazza Venezia 11
20187 Roma, Italy
Phone: 39-6-67593205
FAX: 39-6-67593202
Mulazzani, Germano*
Vice Soprintendente al Beni Culturali e
Ambientali della Lombardia
Ministero dei Beni Culturali
Milano, Italy
Phone: 39-2-972509
Nathanson, Tedd*
Senior Engineer
Building Air Quality, Technology
Public Works Canada
Ottawa K1A OM2 Canada
Phone: 613-736-2144
FAX: 613-952-8341
Piermattei, Silvana
Physicist
ENEA/DISP
Via Brancati, 48
00144 Roma, Italy
Phone: 39-6-50072862
FAX: 39-6-5013429
Prather, Jefferson Lt. Col.
Staff Bioenvironmental Engineer
HQ USAF/SGPA
Boiling AFB, DC 20332
Phone: 202-767-1739
FAX: 202-767-6208
Rajhans, Gyan*
Principal Occupational Hygiene
Advisor
Health and Safety Support Services
Ontario Ministry of Labor
400 University Avenue - 7th Floor
Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A1T7
Phone: 416-326-1401
FAX: 416-326-1439
Sarno, Renato
Architetto, Comune di Milano
Via Pirelli 39
Milano, Italy
Phone: 39-2-654738
FAX: 39-2-6552390
Seifert, Bernd*
Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene
Corensplatz 1
1000 Berlin 33
Federal Republic of Germany
Phone: 49-30-8308-2734
FAX: 49-30-8308-2830
Teichman, Kevin*
H8105 US EPA
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 202-382-7669
FAX: 202-252-0106
Tuercfc, Reiner*
Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature
Protection & Nuclear Safety
Bernkastcler Str. 8
PO Box 12 06 29
5300 Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany
Phone: 49-228-3052720
FAX: 49-228-3053524
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Van de Wiel, HJ*
National Institute of Public Health and
Environmental Protection
PO Box 1
3720 BA Bilthoven
The Netherlands
Phone: 31-30-742689
FAX: 31-30-742971
White, Jim H.*
Senior Advisor - Building Science
Research Division
Canada Mortgage & Housing Corporation
682 Montreal Road
Ottawa, Canada K1A OP7
Phone: 613-748-2309
FAX: 613-748-6192
Viegi, Giovanni, MD
CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology
Via Paolo Savi 8
1-56100 Pisa, Italy
Phone: 39-50-592712/554065
FAX: 39-50-553461
Walkinshaw, Douglas"
Indoor Air '90
c/o Canada Mortgage & Housing Corporation
682 Montreal Road
Ottawa, Canada K1A OP7
Phone: 613-748-2714
FAX: 613-748-6192
viii
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Additional Conference Participants
Eberle, Sandra*
Manager, Chemical Hazards Program
US Consumer Product Safety Commission
5401 Westbard Ave., Room 419
Bethesda, MD 20207
Phone: 301-492-6554
FAX: 301-492-6924/6925
Firestone, Michael*
Supervisory Chemist, HED
Office of Pesticides Programs
H-7509C US EPA
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 703-557-0459
Pratt, Lawrence*
Radon Division
ANR-464 US EPA
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 202-475-9617
FAX: 202-475-8347
Schmidt, Anita
Radon Division
ANR-464 US EPA
401 M Street, SW
Washington, DC 20460
Phone: 202-475-9615
FAX: 202-475-8347
Light, Ed*
Manager, Indoor Air Quality
Dames & Moore
7101 Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 700
Bethesda, Maryland 20814-4870
Phone: 301-652-2215
FAX: 301-656-8059
Spears, John W.*
Geomet
20251 Century Blvd.
Germantown, MD 20874
Phone: 301-428-9890
ix
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Section I
tttt.TC4C*X<&X< JWY.-YS&. f. •. X ¦J- fs \ a if ** * ' V , -.
Developing Information for Risk
Management Decision Making
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I
1
Quantifying Future Trends Of
Indoor Air Quality As A Basis
For Government Policy Plans
H. J. Van De Wiel
E. Lebret
H.C. Eerens
L.H. Vaas
National Institute of Public Health
and Environmental Protection
The Netherlands
W.K. Van Der Lingen
Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning, and Environment
The Netherlands
M.J. Leupen
TNO, Division of Technology for Society
The Netherlands
Summary
The home is an important micro-environment for human exposure to air
contaminants. As a basis for policy development, Dutch indoor air quality for the coming
decades has been assessed for "current efforts" and "maximum mitigation" scenarios to
show the range of achievable quality. Air quality is quantified in terms of the percentage
of Dutch homes exceeding pollution levels that correspond to the "maximum allowable
risk." The highest frequencies were obtained for nitrogen dioxide (90 percent), radon (70
- 90 percent), particulate matter and environmental tobacco smoke-related components (60
- 65 percent), and dampness (15 percent) ~ used as an indicator for biological
contamination.
The current percentage of homes that do not exceed any of these levels is negligible.
In the "current efforts" scenario, this percentage increases, to a maximum of five percent
by the year 2010, whereas the percentage reaches 40 percent in the year 2010 in the
"maximum mitigation" scenario.
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2
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I
Introduction
Several aspects of the indoor environment, such as daylight access, ventilation, noise,
and pest control, traditionally have been the province of government. Since the early
1980s, indoor air quality (IAQ) has received increased governmental attention. Iri the
framework of the Netherlands' National Policy Plan for the Environment, an investigation
has been conducted to quantify the present and future IAQ characteristics in terms of the
percentage of Dutch housing stock that exceeds health-related air quality limits. Two
scenarios were used: "current efforts" and "maximum mitigation." The results of the two
scenarios indicate the range of obtainable IAQ in the future.
Health Related Limit Values
In The Netherlands, an important principle of risk management is that man-made
pollution levels should remain below the level of "maximum allowable risk." Because of
the lack of knowledge concerning the effects of a mixture of pollutants, the principle is
applied to each of the agents separately. By definition, the maximum allowable pollution
limit corresponds to the human "no-effect-level" for non-carcinogens, and to an annual
individual cancer risk of 10"6 for carcinogens. Pollutants were screened according to the
criteria given in Figure 1.
Figure 1
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I
Thirteen compounds, all of physical-chemical nature, passed the criteria. A
fourteenth IAQ indicator, dampness, was introduced to cover the potential exposure to
high levels of biological agents, such as housedust mites and mold allergens (Table 1).
Modeling and Estimation
For pollutants emanating from indoor sources, the percentage of homes exceeding
the air quality limit was estimated using the presence of sources in the Dutch housing
stock (broken down into three categories: existing homes, renovated homes, and new
homes), and the probability of passing the air quality limit if one or more sources were
present in a home (Figure 1).
Most of the abundant outdoor pollutants originate from motorized traffic.
Concentrations of pollutants at the house front on busy streets were computed using the
traffic model CAR [5]. The corresponding indoor concentration depends on the
penetration/decay factor, e.g., 1.0 for inert gases, 0.4 for particulates. The occupancy
factor is assumed to be constant. More details are provided in References 6 and 7.
Table 1
Selected IAQ Indicators and
Their Maximum Allowable Concentration
IAQ Indicator
Conc.//Vv. Time
Reference
Radon
1 Bq/m3EER; year
1
Asbestos
4000 - 40,000 F/m3; year
2
Particulate matter
40 /ig/m3; year
2
140 pg/m3; 24 hours
2
Cadmium
10-20 ng/m3; year
1
Benz(a)pyrene
1 ng/m3; year
1
Benzene
12 /ig/m3; year
2
Lead
0.5 fig/m3; year
3
Nitrogen dioxide
300 /ig/m3; 1 hour
3
Carbon monoxide
40 mg/m3; 1 hour
3
10 mg/m3; 8 hours
3
Sulfur dioxide
150 - 200 /ig/m3; 1 hour
1
100 - 120 /xg/m3; 8 hours
1
Formaldehyde
120 pg/'m3; 1 hour
4
Dichloromethane
1.7 mg/m3; 24 hours
2
Housedust mites and
indirect: "dampness"
mold allergens
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I
Present and Future IAQ
Nitrogen Dioxide
The most abundant indoor source of nitrogen dioxide is unvented water heaters
(geisers). Hourly averages as high as 2,000 ^g/m5 have been monitored in Dutch kitchens
[8]. This value is likely to occur in approximately 23 percent of Dutch homes.
Marginal exceedance of the nitrogen dioxide limit will occur in homes in which
gas-ranges are used (approximately 90 percent of Dutch homes). Other sources are not
widely used (unvented kerosene heaters) or will not cause significant increases of nitrogen
dioxide levels to occur (motorized traffic). Unvented geisers are rarely installed in new
homes. Furthermore, there is a trend to combine space heating and water heating in a
single vented heater. Improving burner technology will reduce nitrogen dioxide pollution,
but will not prevent levels in excess of the air quality limit. Further reduction of the
percentage of homes with severe exceedance will only be possible if the indoor sources
are eliminated. The severe exceedances of the nitrogen dioxide limit is likely to decrease
from 23 percent in 1985 to nine percent in 2010.
In the "maximum mitigation" scenario, it is assumed that new unvented geisers will
not be permitted in the new housing stock and that an existing unvented geiser will not
be permitted when moving into an existing home. These additional measures result in
negligible exceedances after 2003.
Gas-fired cooking-ranges will gradually be replaced by electric cooking-ranges and
microwave ovens. However, approximately 65 percent of the homes will still be equipped
with gas-£ired cooking ranges in 2010. Application of low-NO, burners in gas-ranges will
prevent exceedance of the air quality limit. A mitigation scenario similar to the unvented
geiser eliminates exceedances in 2006.
Radon
There are three main sources of radon exposure:
• radon emitted by building materials;
• outdoor radon emitted from the soil; and
• outdoor radon emitted from the soil that leaks indoors through crawl
spaces.
The average radon daughter concentration in Dutch homes is 12 Becquerel equilibrium
equivalent radon per cubic meter (Bq/mJEER). The average outdoor concentration is 2.0
Bq/mJEER.
In practice, radon from conventional building materials and exposure to outdoor
radon cannot be avoided, and therefore is not part of risk management. However, radon
penetration via the crawl space is avoidable by technical means. Only this kind of indoor
radon contamination is considered. This radon contamination contributes to approximately
60 percent of all radon indoors.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I
The percentage of homes passing the air quality limit is 70 - 90 percent. Although
new homes will have much lower air transfer from the crawl space, their beneficial effect
on the total percentage will be counterbalanced by the demolition of leaky old homes.
An additional reduction of the transfer rate will bring the percentage down to
approximately 50 percent in 2010.
Particulate Matter
The dominant source of particulate matter is smoking. Every home-smoked cigarette
raises the daily average concentration of particulate matter by 2 - 5 ng/m3 [8]. The
average daily consumption of 8 - 10 home-smoked cigarettes per smoker is high enough
to raise the annual average above the 40 pg/m3 air quality limit. Without smoking in the
home, exceedance of this limit is improbable. Approximately 60 percent of Dutch homes
have one or more occupants that smoke. The number of smokers is decreasing by two
percent per year. If this reduction rate continues, approximately 39 percent of the
population will smoke in 2010.
The Netherlands has endorsed WHO's target of a 20 percent population of smokers
by 1995. To achieve this target, an annual reduction of smokers by six percent is
necessary. Continuation of such a "discouragement policy" after 1995 will lead to 15
percent total smokers by 2010.
Tobacco smoke contains thousands of constituents. As with particulate matter, the
impact of smoking on the air quality limit exceedance will influence levels of
benz(a)pyrene and, possibly cadmium.
Dampness
Currently, 15 percent of the Dutch housing stock consists of damp homes. Present
regulations on construction and ventilation may reduce this percentage to ten percent
damp new homes and 12 percent damp renovated homes. The impact on the total
percentage of damp homes is small: 15 percent reduction in 1985 and 13 percent
reduction in 2010. There is a general opinion among experts that by implementing stricter
measures, the percentage of new and renovated damp homes will not fall below five
percent and ten percent, respectively. These measures imply stricter regulations on
insulation, ventilation, and moisture penetration, in combination with information programs
for users and producers. If these measures are implemented, the corresponding
percentage of homes in exceedance of the air quality limit will fall to eight percent in
2010.
Miscellaneous
Lead, benzene, benz(a)pyrene, and carbon monoxide from motorized traffic
contribute to the air quality limit indoors exceedance. The increasing use of unleaded
gasoline resulted in negligible exceedance of the lead limit in 1987. Furthermore, the
introduction of the catalyst will eliminate exceedance for other pollutants by the year 2000.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section I
However, evaporation of gasoline remains an important source of indoor benzene.
Additional reduction of car exhaust will be governed by acid deposition and outdoor
pollution objectives. Reductions in car exhaust will speed up improvement of IAQ
marginally.
As with nitrogen dioxide, unvented geisers are the most important source of carbon
monoxide. About 20 percent of these appliances can cause levels of carbon monoxide
beyond an hourly mean of 40 /xg/m5. Results of the scenario studies for carbon monoxide
are comparable to those of nitrogen dioxide.
Dichloromethane, when used as a paint stripper, exceeds the air quality limit in one
to five percent of the homes. Heat guns are expected to replace paint strippers in the
coming decade. Dichloromethane in hairspray may lead to exceedance of the air quality
limit, but only for the users. Dichloromethane exceedance is not considered an IAQ
problem.
A number of pollutants have a negligible percentage of homes in exceedance: sulfur
dioxide, ozone, cadmium, asbestos, and formaldehyde. However, the numerous indoor
sources and the lack of representative data do not allow a quantitative assessment
In summary, the percentage of exceedance due to all of these components adds up
to about 15 percent in 1985 and four percent in 2010. Extra mitigation causes a 50
percent reduction by 2010.
Conclusion
Pollution caused by several sources isn excess of the maximum allowable limit in a
substantia] percentage of the Dutch housing stock. Presently, maximum levels for nitrogen
dioxide are exceeded in 90 percent of Dutch homes. Maximum radon levels are exceeded
in 70 - 90 percent of Dutch homes; particulate matter levels are exceeded in 60 - 65
percent of Dutch homes; and allergens levels are exceeded in 15 percent of Dutch homes.
In the coming decades, there will be a positive trend toward reductions in indoor air
pollution. However, the percentage of "healthy homes" will be small (five percent). A
level of approximately 40 percent will be achievable only if maximum mitigation measures
are taken now.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I
References
1. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Regional Publications, European Series
Nr. 23, Copenhagen, 1987.
2. Criteria Documents on asbestos, fine dust, benzene and dichloromethane. National
Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection, Bilthoven, The Netherlands,
1987.
3. Proposed Guidelines for lead (1984), nitrogen dioxide (1979) and carbon monoxide
(1975). Dutch Health Council, The Hague, The Netherlands.
4. Letter to Parliament Parliament 81/82 Nr. 17100, 1989.
5. K.D. van Hout and H.P. Baars, to be published in: Proceedings of 8th World Gean
Air Congress, The Hague, The Netherlands, 11-15 Sept. 1989.
6. F. Langeweg, Concern for Tomorrow, A National Environmental Survey 1985-2010.
National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection, Bilthoven, The
Netherlands, 1989.
7. H.J. van de Wiel, E. Lebret, W.K. van der Lingen, H.C. Eerens, L.H. Vaas and M.J.
Leupen, Toxicol. Ind. Health, in press.
8. E. Lebret, Air pollution in Dutch homes. Thesis, Agricultural University of
Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1985.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section I
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Section II
Controlling Sources - The
Regulatory Approach
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
9
Assessing Indoor Air Quality
Risks of Pesticides
Michael P. Firestone, Ph.D.
Supervisory Chemist
Non-dietary Exposure Branch
Health Effects Division
Office of Pesticide Programs
US Environmental Protection Agency
Introduction
EPA regulates pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA). When making decisions involving the regulation of pesticides, FIFRA directs
the Agency to weigh the beneficial aspects of a pesticide use versus the risks associated
with such a use. This process is known as risk management. This outline will deal with
the key aspects of the process of exposure and risk assessment.
EPA regulates the use of pesticides through its Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP).
Within OPP, the human exposure and risks associated with pesticides are evaluated by the
Health Effects Division (HED). The following presentation will focus on five topics:
1. Health Effects Division organization;
2. Toxicology data requirements;
3. Data requirements for Residential Post-Application Exposure Monitoring
(proposed);
4. Criteria for requiring exposure data; and
5. Future development.
Health Effects Division (HED)
The Health Effects Division is composed of five branches:
1. Science Analysis and Coordination (SACB)
2. Toxicology - Insecticide, Rodenticide Support (TB-IRS)
3. Toxicology - Herbicide, Fungicide, Antimicrobial Support (TB-HFAS)
4. Dietary Exposure (DEB)
5. Non-Dietary Exposure (NDEB)
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Non-Dietary Exposure Branch (NDEB)
Function: Assess human non-dietary exposure to pesticides resulting from:
• Direct handling, such as mixing/loading and applying pesticides;
• Agricultural reentry and other occupational post-application contact, such
as harvesting and pruning; and
• Residential post-application contact resulting from indoor and lawn
treatment.
Methodology:
• Determination of unit exposure (i.e., exposure per amount of material
handled, per time period, or per exposure incident).
• Integration of unit exposure determination with information regarding the
specific use of the pesticide to yield a comprehensive exposure assessment.
• If exposure and risk are unacceptable, determination of the value of
various risk reduction measures, such as protective clothing, engineering
controls, limiting application rates, limiting the acreage treated in a single
day, watering-in lawn pesticides, etc.
The Other Branches of the Health Effects Division
Toxicology and Coordination Branches/HED
Function:
• Conduct hazard assessment and analyze dose-response relationship; and
• Integrate hazard and exposure assessments to yield a risk assessment.
Biological Analysis Branch/BEAD
Function:
• Develop quantitative use assessment to answer questions related to
amount of material handled, duration of exposure, and number of
treatments per use site per day/season/year;
• Types of mixing/loading and application equipment utilized; and
• Range and distribution of use sites.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
Toxicology Data Requirements (40 CFR 158.340)
Type and amount of data below required depends on the use pattern of the pesticide.
• Acute toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation, eye irritation, dermal irritation and
sensitization);
• Sub-chronic toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation including neurotoxicity
testing);
• Mutagenicity;
• Developmental toxicity and reproductive toxicity;
• Chronic toxicity, including carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, and
immunotoxicity; and
• Other, including metabolism and dermal penetration.
Residential Post-Application Exposure Monitoring Data
Requirements (proposed)
A. Types of data required:
• Foliar residue dissipation;
• Soil residue dissipation;
• Indoor surface residue dissipation;
• Passive dosimetry / dermal exposure; and
• Passive dosimetry / respiratory exposure (note: includes personal or
fixed-site studies in which the dissipation of ambient air levels over time
is monitored.
B. The following should be considered when developing a post-application
exposure monitoring study protocol:
• Data bridging foliar, soil, or indoor surface residue data to potential
dermal and oral exposure for children and adults;
• Ambient air level dissipation data extrapolated to respiratory exposure by
considering the effect of age, sex, and activity patterns variation on
respiration rates;
• Each use site / formulation type combination; and
• Studies reflecting maximum application rates, maximum number of
treatments, minimum intervals between re-treatment, and a variety of use
sites (e.g., for home lawn studies, consider various grass varieties and
geographical locations; for indoor studies, consider various housing or
construction types and ventilation rates).
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
Criteria for Requiring Residential Post-Application Exposure Monitoring
Data
Data will be required if the following toxicity criteria are met:
• The acute dermal toxicity of the technical grade of the active ingredient
(TGAI) is less than 2000 mg/kg (i.e., Toxicity Categories I and II listed
in 40 CFR 162.10).
• The acute inhalation toxicity of the TGAI is less than two mg/liter and the
TGAI has a vapor pressure greater than 10"' mm Hg at 25 °C if used
indoors or 10"3 at 25 °C if used outdoors.
• The TGAI is found to cause developmental toxicity.
• The potential for other adverse health effects exist, including
carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, reproductive effects, immunotoxicity, and
others for which the Agency requires toxicity testing.
• Epidemiological/poisoning incident data indicate that adverse health effects
are resulting from post-application exposure.
Residential Exposure Assessment - Future Developments
• Consumer pesticide use survey;
• Cooperative efforts by various EPA offices (Office of Pesticides and Toxic
Substances and Office of Research and Development) to fund research
on developing a methodology to assess residential post-application
exposure to lawn pesticides and indoor use pesticides; and
• Non-Occupational Pesticide Exposure Study (NOPES) - Results will be
released shortly of a retrospective multi-season monitoring study
conducted in Jacksonville, Florida and Springfield/Chicopee,
Massachusetts.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section II
Formaldehyde Emission
Standards In The Federal
Republic of Germany
Mf. VK s*"- "¦ 4 \Vvyv s
Bernd Seifert
Institute for Water, Soil and
Air Hygiene of the Federal Health Office
Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany
The Initial Events
In 1975, students and teachers of several newly built air-conditioned schools in
Cologne, Federal Republic of Germany, complained about headaches, and eye and throat
irritations. It quickly became clear that these complaints were caused by high concentra-
tions of formaldehyde in the air of the classrooms. The high formaldehyde levels were
mainly traced to special urea-formaldehyde particleboards glued to the ceiling for noise
reduction purposes and, to a lesser extent, to particleboard-based furniture.
Table 1 shows some of the results that were obtained when the air of the respective
rooms was analyzed [1]. The very high levels of formaldehyde were attributed to
inadequate ventilation. This result could be proven by taking measurements in an
otherwise similar, but well-ventilated school building, in which formaldehyde levels about
ten times lower were observed.
The Setting of a Guideline Value
Because complaints similar to those observed in Cologne were reported from other
parts of the Country, the Federal Health Office, in 1977, convened an ad-hoc commission
of experts to discuss setting a limit value for formaldehyde in indoor air. In those days,
not much information was available on potential adverse health effects of formaldehyde
at levels below 1.0 ppm.
Based on toxicological knowledge and the scientific literature, the commission
proposed a guideline value of 0.1 ppm [2]. It is noteworthy that this value was only given
with one significant digit, which implies that it could not be considered as an exact limit
below which any effect would be excluded. When publishing the 0.1 ppm value, the
commission did not determine the conditions under which measurement would have to be
carried out to determine the formaldehyde level in indoor air. In addition, the value was
not linked to a time interval.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
Over the years, the 0.1 ppm value has been adopted by many other European
countries. The World Health Organization, in the recently published "Air Quality
Guidelines for Europe," proposed a value of 100 fig/m3 as a 30 min average [3].
The Consequence of the Guideline Value
The guideline value was used to develop the formaldehyde emission standards for
particleboard because urea-formaldehyde-glued particleboard is one of the basic materials
in the construction of pre-fabricated houses. In 1980, a guideline was issued by the
Committee on Harmonized Technical Prescriptions for Construction [4]. In this guideline,
particleboard was classified into three categories, according to its formaldehyde emission
(see Table 2). The Institute for Building Technology, an institution created by the Federal
States (Lander), which have the responsibility for building codes in the Federal Republic
of Germany, recommended applying the guideline to the Lander.
Although the equilibrium concentration in a large test chamber, as determined under
the conditions given in Table 3, was defined to be the reference, a more simple, derived
test method, namely the "perforator" method, was developed to permit a more practicable
and rapid classification. According to the perforator method, the sample of particleboard
is cut into small pieces and extracted with toluene. The formaldehyde content of the
water used for re-extraction is then determined by iodimetric titration. The full procedure
is explained in the German standard DIN EN 120 [5], the text of which is identical to the
respective European standard, adopted in 1982.
In addition, another derived method was developed which is the so-called "gas
analysis" method [6]. In this method, specified in German standard DIN 52368, a small
piece of particleboard (400 mm x 50 mm) is placed in a special oven at 60 °C. Air with
a relative humidity of two ± one percent is drawn through the oven at about one liter/min
and collected in bubblers filled with water. The formaldehyde content of the water is
determined photometrically using the acetylacetone method. There is a linear correlation
between the perforator and the gas analysis method [7],
According to the ETB guideline [4], only class El particleboard can be used for
construction purposes, but E2 and E3 quality particleboard can be used if it has been
given an appropriate coating to lower the formaldehyde emission to the El level.
However, since some of the adhesives used to fix veneers contain large amounts of
formaldehyde, the coating process does not result in lower formaldehyde emissions in all
cases [7].
In 1985, a guideline was also issued to control formaldehyde emission from
urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) [8]. In this guideline, three classes of UFFI
were defined, as well as the conditions under which the respective foam quality could be
used. To guarantee a formaldehyde concentration of or below 0.1 ppm in the air of the
adjacent room, materials used to separate the respective foam from the atmosphere of the
room were prescribed. The guideline provided detailed conditions under which the
formaldehyde off-gassing of the foam had to be determined. However, it should be
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
mentioned that the actual practical importance of this guideline is low because UFFI is
no longer widely used in the Federal Republic of Germany.
The Shortcomings of Regulation
The classification of particleboard proved to be very useful as a tool for lowering
formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air. However, the shortcomings of the regulation
soon became apparent: because only the use of particleboard for construction had been
regulated, low quality particleboard (increasingly used in the manufacturing of furniture
-- especially imported furniture) was not subject to any regulation. Thus, despite the use
of El quality particleboard in construction, indoor air formaldehyde levels did not
decrease as much as had been expected.
Another critical aspect was that the guideline was misinterpreted. When the 0.1
ppm value was issued in 1977, it was meant as a guideline value. However, over the
years, many people, including judges, considered it to be a standard with resulting legal
implications. This interpretation did not take into account that the guideline had not
provided detailed prescriptions of all the conditions under which the formaldehyde
concentration in the air of a room would have had to be measured (e.g., temperature,
relative humidity, ventilation status, and sampling period).
Furthermore, it appeared that the correlation between the reference method (test
chamber) and the widely used perforator method was not satisfactory for low
formaldehyde contents. This result was due to two effects: on the one hand, for El
particleboard, the results were very close to the detection limit, and on the other hand,
the iodimetric titration, by nature, is not specific for formaldehyde.
The Recent Approach
In October 1986, the Ordinance on Hazardous Substances [9] came into force under
the Chemicals Act [10]. In this ordinance, a number of paragraphs also addressed the
question of formaldehyde. Among other things, the following prescriptions, effective as
of January 1, 1988, were made in §9 with the goal of regulating all wood-based materials,
regardless of their use:
• Wood-based products (particleboard, coated particleboard, blockboard,
veneer plywood, fiberboard) must not be circulated if they lead to an
equilibrium concentration of formaldehyde of more than 0.1 ppm. The
equilibrium concentration is to be determined in a large test chamber
using a test method which corresponds to the scientific and technical
state-of-the-art. The Federal Health Office will publish such a test
method in agreement with the Federal Institute for Materials Research
and Testing, following an expert hearing.
• Furniture must not be circulated if it contains wood-based products which
do not meet these requirements.
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One of the critical points left open in the ordinance was the publication of an
appropriate test method, since measured formaldehyde levels are critically dependent on
a number of parameters, (e.g., temperature and relative humidity). As an example, the
nomogram shown in Figure 1 establishes the link between the formaldehyde concentration
and both temperature and relative humidity [11].
As it is difficult to set values for' these parameters that would be valid for any public
or private space, long and intensive discussions among experts, industry, consumer
associations, and the general public preceded the publication of the test method as
requested in the ordinance.
The parameters that were given most attention in these discussions were relative
humidity, the loading factor, and air velocity:
• Relative humidity could certainly exceed 45 percent under certain
circumstances, especially in the summer.
• A loading factor of 1.0 was believed by many experts, including those of
the Federal Health Office, to be too low for a number of situations
encountered in practice.
• The air velocity in the test chamber also has a pronounced influence on
the formaldehyde level (see Table 2). Indeed, an air velocity of 0.3 m/sec
had been chosen in a large number of test chamber experiments because
of a much better reproducibility of the results. However, as Figure 2
shows, the concentrations obtained under these conditions were higher
by about 15 percent than those that would have been measured in the
field where much smaller air velocities (< 0.1 m/sec) prevail.
Finally, the conditions given in Table 4 were proposed [12]. Air velocity in the test
chamber of 0.3 m/sec was used in order to get more reproducible results. The fact that
the concentration measured in the chamber could be 15 percent too high was accepted
as a kind of safety margin for cases in which relative humidity and/or loading factors were
higher than those given in Table 4.
To account for the differences in coated and uncoated particleboard, the way of
preparing the test specimen was prescribed in detail, taking into account the ratio of
cut-to-total areas. The new proposal also permits testing of pre-formed pieces made of
wood-based products, such as medium-density fiberboard.
The Trend in Formaldehyde Concentrations
In the Federal Republic of Germany, many formaldehyde measurements have been
carried out since 1977 when the guideline value of 0.1 ppm was introduced. However,
many of these measurements have been made by local institutions and the data have
usually not been compiled and published. The Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section II
of the Federal Health Office, between 1984 and 1986, ran three programs to analyze
formaldehyde in a larger number of indoor environments.
In Program I and Program II, measurements were made following complaints of
home dwellers; randomly chosen homes were included in Program III. The homes visited
in Program I were located in Berlin; the homes in Program II were located in the
remainder of the Federal Republic of Germany. Program III included homes in any part
of the country with a response rate of 89 percent. In all three programs, formaldehyde
was determined using passive samplers exposed as duplicates over 48 hours. Table 5 gives
an overview of the sampling. Table 6 summarizes the results of the three programs.
The guideline value of 0.12 mg/m5 (0.1 ppm) was generally met, with averages close
to 0.06 mg (0.05 ppm). In the complaint cases (Programs I and II), the number of homes
exhibiting a concentration level higher than 0.1 ppm was approximately ten percent,
whereas in the random study (Program III), the rate of exceedance was only two percent.
In all programs, the 50th percentile was lower than 50 ^g/mJ.
Since the passive samplers were exposed over 48-hour periods, the results in Table
6 are 48-hour averages. Thus, short-term sampling in the same homes, e.g. over
30-minute periods, may have led to higher concentrations than those reported here. It
should also be mentioned that results obtained by a passive sampling procedure are
generally less reproducible than those of active sampling procedures. For the samplers
used in the studies described above, the relative standard deviation under field conditions
as calculated from the duplicates was approximately 20 to 30 percent at concentration
levels between 50 and 100 ng/m3.
Although the official regulatory abatement strategies have been effective in reducing
formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air, further reductions are possible by additional
control measures. As an example, the local authorities in Nurnberg, FRG, undertook to
achieve formaldehyde levels of less than 0.075 ppm in 320 rooms of more than 100
pre-schools [13]. Table 7 shows the distribution before and after the four-year abatement
program which cost about 1.1 million Deutsche Marks (with about 25 percent spent on
chemical analysis).
One effective control measure was the sealing of all uncoated particleboard edges
in the rooms. In addition, the substantial contributions from cleansing and disinfecting
agents, tobacco smoking, processed cork, and various hobby products was reduced by
more careful selection of products and better education.
The Future
Particleboard is but one, although major, source of formaldehyde in indoor air. In
addition, formaldehyde emissions may result from other products, such as textiles,
carpeting, wallpapers, lacquers, and varnishes. Until now, the contribution of these
products to the final formaldehyde concentration has not been considered in the
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LA.Q: Section II
regulatory processes. Although much progress has been made in the Ordinance on
Hazardous Substances [9] by extending regulation to wood-based products of all kind, the
inclusion of more formaldehyde emitting materials still needs to be reached to guarantee
a 0.1 ppm level under all circumstances. However, even after achieving this level, the
final goal should be to bring the formaldehyde concentration in indoor air down to levels
below 0.1 ppm. The example of the city of Niirnberg shows that this goal can be reach-
ed even without further regulation.
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References
1. Deimel, M.: Erfahrungen Jiber Formaldehyde-Raumluftkonzentrationen in
schulneubauten. In: K. Aurand et al. (Eds.): organische verunreinigungen in der
umwelt (organic pollutants in the environment), pp. 416-427. Erich Schmidt Verlag,
Berlin, 1978.
2. Federal Health office: criteria for formaldehyde in indoor air. Press release No.
19/77, 12 Oct. 1977.
3. World Health Organization: Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Reg. Publ.,
European Series No. 23 Copenhagen, 1987.
4. Ausschuss fur Einheitliche Technische Baubestimmungen (ETB) (Committee on
Harmonized Technical Prescriptions for Construction): Richtlinie uber die
verwendung von Spanplatten hinsichtlich der Vermeidung unzumutbarer
Formaldehydkonentrationen in der Raumluft (Guideline on the use of particleboard
with regard to the avoidance of inacceptable formaldehyde concentrations in indoor
air). Beuth Verlag, Berlin, April 1980.
5. Deutsches Institut fur Normung: Spanplatten. Bestimmung des Formaldehydgehaltes.
Extraktionsverfahren genannt Perforatormethode (Particleboard. Determination of
the formaldehyde content. Extraction procedure called perforator method). DIN EN
120, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, October 1984.
6. Deutsches Institut fiCir Normung: Priifung von Spanplatten. Bestimmung der
Formaldehydabgabe durch Gasanalyse (Testing of particleboard. Determination of
the formaldehyde off-gassing by gas analysis). DIN 52.368, Beuth Verlag, Berlin,
September 1984.
7. Marutzki, R., and A. Flentge: Neuere Erkenntnisse zur Formaldehydabgabe von
Mbbeln (Recent results on the emission of formaldehyde from furniture). WKI-Mitt.
394/1985. WilhelmKlauditz-Institut, Braunschweig, 1985.
8. Ausschuss flir Einheitliche Technische Baubestimmungen (ETB) (Committee on
Harmonised Technical Prescriptions for Construction): Richtlinie zur Begrenzung der
Foriftaldehydemission in die Raumluft bei Verwendung von Harnstoff
Formaldehydharz Ortschaum (Guideline to limit the formaldehyde emission into
indoor air from urea-formaldehyde foam insulation). Beuth Verlag, Berlin, April
1985.
9. Verordnung fiber gefahrliche Stoffe (Gefahrstoffverordnung GefStoffV) vom
26.8.1986 (Ordinance on Hazardous Substances of 26 Aug. 1986). Bundesgesetzblatt
I, 1470-1467, 1986.
10. Gesetz zum Schutz vor gefihrlichen Stoffen (Chemikaliengesetz chemG) vom
16.9.1980 (Chemicals Act of 16 Sept. 1980). Bundesgesetzblatt I, pp. 1718, 1980.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
11. Mehlhorn, L.: Normierungsverfahren fiir die Formaldehydabgabe von spanplatten
(Standardizing procedures for the formaldehyde emission from particleboard).
Adhiision 6/1986, 27-33
12. Bundesgesundheitsamt (Federal Health office): Pridfverfahren fiir Holzwerkstoffe
(Test procedure for wood-based materials). Bundesgesundheitsblatt 32 (6) :256-258,
1989.
13. Pluschke, P., and G. Hantusch: Cost-effective strategies to measure and reduce
formaldehyde concentrations in public buildings. In: L.J. Brasser and W.C. Mulder:
Man and his ecosystem. Proc. 8th World Clean Air Congress, The Hague, 11-15
Sept. 1989, Vol. 1, pp. 357-362, Elsevier, 1989.
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TABLE 1
FORMALDEHYDE CONCENTRATIONS IN 4 COLOGNE SCHOOLS
AS MEASURED DURING THE SUMMER HOLIDAYS (1976)
Formaldehyde concentration (ppm)
School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4
1
0.53
0.97
0.63
0.97
2
0.37
0.47
0.52
0.64
3
0.31
0.56
0.46
1.2
4
0.40
0.48
0.40
1.4
5
0.38
0.31
0.37
1.1
6
0.51
0.63
0.42
1.3
7
0.61
0.58
0.50
1.9
8
0.43
0.73
0.35
1.6
TABLE 2
CLASSIFICATION OF PARTICLEBOARD ACCORDING TO
ITS FORMALDEHYDE EMISSION
Equilibrium concentration
"Perforator value"
Class
in a 40 m3 test chamber
(mg HCHO/100 g dry material)
E 1
<0.1 ppm
< 10
E 2
> 0.1 - 1.0 ppm
>10-30
E 3
> 1.0 - 2.3 ppm
>30-60
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TABLE 3
CONDITIONS FOR THE REFERENCE METHOD TO TEST
PARTICLEBOARD FOR FORMALDEHYDE EMISSIONS (1980)
Size of test chamber 40
Temperature 23 ± 1 °C
Relative humidity 45 ± 3%
Loading 1 m2/mJ
Air exchange 1 ACH
TABLE 4
CONDITIONS FOR THE REFERENCE METHOD TO TEST
PARTICLEBOARD FOR FORMALDEHYDE EMISSIONS (1989)
Size of test chamber
Temperature
Relative humidity
Air exchange
Air velocity
Loading
> 12
23 ± 1 °C
45 ± 5%
1 ± 0.1 ACH
0.3 ±0.1 m/s
1 m2!m3
TABLE 5
OVERVIEW OF MEASURING PROGRAMMES
Distributed samplers
Lost samplers
Unused samplers
Samplers as duplicates
Samplers as "singles"
I II III
188 1,388 740
8 80
2
154 1,158 656
34 147 4
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TABLE 6
RESULTS OF MEASURING PROGRAMMES I - III (/Mg/mJ)
Parameter
1
11
III
Arithmetic mean
60
63
56
Standard deviation
±43
±68
±28
Minimum
N D
ND
ND
Maximum
229
1,240
279
Values exceeding
0.12 mg/m3 (%)
8
8
8
TABLE 7
DISTRIBUTION OF FORMALDEHYDE CONCENTRATIONS IN
320 PRESCHOOL ROOMS BEFORE AND AFTER CONTROL
Formaldehyde
concentration
(ppm)
Before control
After control
<0,04
19
30
0.04 - 0.075
44
65
0.075 - 0.1
18
4.6
0.1 - 0.15
15
0.4
0.15
4
-
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section II
^T.rH = ^23#C.45V,* K [ppm]
2.5
2.0-
1.5-
20" C
1.0-
15" C
0.5-
30
60
80
50
70
90
Relative humidity ['/•]
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section II 25
Orientations and Actions of the
European Community in the
Assessment and Prevention of
Maurizio de Bortoli
Helmut Knoppel
CEC Joint Research Center
Environment Institute
Ispra, Italy
Bernd Seifert
Bundesgesundheitsamt
Institut Fur Wasser Boden und Lufthygiene
Berlin, FRG
Introduction
While various services of the Commission of the European Communities have
developed some interest in certain aspects of IAQ, or will develop such interest, no
comprehensive policy and action is being developed in this area. Research activities of
the Commission have been developed since 1981 by Directorate-General XII (Science,
Research and Development) through its Joint Research Center (Ispra). Various
Commission services are actually or potentially involved in some IAQ policy and
regulatory acts:
• The Directorate-General XI (Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil
Protection) is in charge of "defining and implementing preventive
measures against indoor pollution from a growing number of substances";
• The Directorate-General III (Internal Market and Industrial Affairs) is in
charge of regulating hygienic properties of building materials;
• The Directorate-General V (Employment and Social Affairs) is in charge
of community legislation on smoking prevention; and
« The Consumer Protection Service is preparing its first action program
which may consider the impact of consumer products on indoor air
quality.
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The various activities and tasks of these Commissions are described in the rest of
this paper.
Research Activities
As explicitly stated in the fourth "Policy and Action Program on the Environment
(1987-1992)" of the European Community, approved by the Council of Ministers on
October 19, 1987, scientific research is an essential preparatory activity for almost any
political action in the field of environmental protection. Moreover, under the title "actions
in specific sectors, atmospheric pollution," the program specifies that a major objective of
an overall longer-term strategy to reduce air pollution is "to identify the atmospheric
pollutants (outdoor and indoor) of greatest concern from the standpoint of the protection
of human health."
Research supporting the environmental policy of the Community may be carried out
within three different frameworks:
• In-house or "direct" research performed within the framework of
multi-annual specific research programs of the Joint Research Center or,
on request, of other Commission services;
• Contract or shared-cost research performed in the Member Countries and
co-financed by the Commission within the framework of multi-annual
research action programs; and
• Concerted actions which implement a cooperation at the community level
among national research institutions in specific research areas are also
defined in the multi-annual research action program. The financial
contribution of the Commission to concerted actions usually covers only
expenses for a secretariat and for the organization of meetings.
European non-member countries may participate in the research action program
(shared cost research and concerted actions) via an agreement with the Community.
Member countries also have the option of participating in selected concerted actions in
the COST ("Cooperation Europeenne dans le Domaine de la Recherche Scientifique et
Technique") framework. COST is a cooperation agreement between ail European OECD
Countries and the European Community. Community concerted actions become Category
A COST projects as soon as a COST country which is not an EC member state begins
to participate in it (Category B COST projects are those projects developed and decided
upon within the COST framework and which may or may not be included in the
Commission's research action program).
For the time being, IAQ research has been implemented at the community level as
in-house research and as a concerted action. Both are briefly described below.
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JRC Research
Studies on indoor air pollution by organic chemicals started at the Ispra
Establishment of the Joint Research Center (JRC) in 1981, with the goal of gaining
knowledge on the actual concentrations of these compounds in indoor spaces and of
developing analytical methods adequate for such investigations. This research action is
continuing and is now part of the activity of the JRC's Institute for the Environment.
Presently, it mainly addresses the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from
building furnishing materials and from household products.
The following studies have been performed (relating information may be found in
the publications listed in the Appendix):
• Field Studies: contribution of micro-environments to 24-hour exposure of
a pupil to VOCs (March 1981); analysis of aldehydes and other VOCs
present in different indoor spaces (15 homes, indoors and outdoors, in
1983-84); pentachlorophenol in homes and in a tannery (1985);
semi-volatile and particulate organic matter in a home sample (1985); and
aldehydes and other VOCs in the buildings of the European Parliament
(1986-88).
• Emission Studies: headspace and chamber measurements of aldehydes and
VOCs emitted from building/furnishing materials and household products
(since 1985); aldehydes and ketones in mainstream (active) and sidestream
(passive) cigarette smoke (1987).
• Methods Development: development and testing of analytical and
characterization methods, including the organization of and participation
in inter-laboratory comparisons (determination of aldehydes and ketones,
diffusion or passive sampling of VOCs, characterization of VOC
emissions).
• Biological Effects: bioassays for mutagenicity on bacteria and mice to
determine the genotoxicity of pollutants relevant in indoor air; in vitro and
in vivo measurements in mice to investigate embryotoxic effects of
methylglyoxal and acetaldehyde.
COST Project 613: 'Indoor Air Quality and Its Impact on Man"
The most important activity in the IAQ field at the community level is the concerted
action "Indoor Air Quality and Its Impact on Man," which is part of the Community
multi-annual research program for the protection of the environment (1986-1990) and was
approved in June 1986. The Committee met for the first time in March 1987. The
concerted action became COST project 613/1 through the association of Sweden and
Switzerland; Norway and Finland will soon join the concerted action. The Institute for the
Environment of the Joint Research Center acts as leader of the project.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
The scope of COST Project 613/1 is to determine the human health and comfort
effects caused by air pollution in non-industrial, indoor environments (homes, schools,
offices, etc.). COST Project 613/1 has five objectives:
• Identification and characterization of pollutants and sources;
• Assessment of population exposure;
• Assessment of health effects;
• Development and validation of reference methods;
• Collation, synthesis, and dissemination of data;
Cooperation is implemented through a committee composed of members of all
participating countries, the Secretariat and through working groups (WGs). For the time
being, six WGs have been established:
• WG 1: preparation of a practical guide to "sick building syndrome"
investigations (task achieved);
• WG 2: preparation of the guide, "Sampling Strategy in Indoor Air
Chemical Analysis";
• WG 3: preparation of a guideline for the determination of steady state
concentrations of formaldehyde in test chambers due to emissions from
wood-based materials (task achieved);
• WG 4: preparation of a discussion document on health effects of
indoor air pollution;
• WG 5: preparation of a guideline or standard procedure for the
determination of microbiological pollution; and
• WG 6: preparation of a guideline on ventilation requirements.
In an attempt to overcome the increasing difficulty of having to hand over the
essential information in a concise form, the Committee, through the Secretariat and the
Working Groups, issues summary reports on single pollutants of high priority and on
other topics. Five publications have been issued:
• Report No. I: Radon in Indoor Air
• Report No. 2: Formaldehyde Emission from Wood-Based Materials:
Guideline for the Determination of Steady State Concentrations in Test
Chambers
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NATO CCMS Pilot. Study on LAQ: Section II
• Report No. 3: Indoor Pollution by N02 in European Countries
• Report No. 4: "Sick Building Syndrome" - a Practical Guide
• Report No. 5: Project Inventory
Policy and Regulatory Activities
Before presenting the actual and potential policy and regulatory activities, it is
worthwhile to recall the institutional framework for the implementation of Community
policies and its terminology. Community policy is broken down into sectorial policies
which usually are associated with one of the Directorates-General or Commission Services
assisting the Commission in its task. The Commission defines its policy objectives in
sectorial multi-annual Policy and Action Programs approved by the Council of Ministers.
The regulatory process in the Community starts with a proposal of the Commission
to the Council of Ministers, which is the organization with decision-making authority — the
European Parliament only has an advisory role, with limited budgetary power. There are
three types of legal acts with binding force at the Community level: regulations, decisions,
and directives. Directives are mainly used in the environmental field and define a result
to be achieved, but leave to the Member States the choice of forms and methods. The
Commission also has the task of implementing the approved rules, and verifying their
implementation by the Member States. Besides the three types of acts mentioned above,
the Commission may propose (and the Commission and Council may approve)
recommendations and resolutions which do not have binding force, but are only a
commitment in principle. The Commission and Council may, however, exert a remarkable
pressure on national governments and social forces.
Several sectorial policies of the Commission and, hence, the activity of several
Directorates-General or Commission Services, actually or potentially touch aspects of the
IAQ issue. Directorate-General XI (Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection)
is responsible for the environmental and radiation protection policy of the Commission.
Its fourth "Policy and Action Program on the Environment (1987-1992)," approved by the
Council of Ministers on October 19. 1987, includes as one of the major objectives "an
overall longer-term strategy to reduce air pollution, and "to define and implement
preventive measures against indoor pollution from a growing number of substances."
The presence of radon in indoor air is one of the major causes of concern for those
working to protect human health from indoor pollutants. In 1989, a "recommendation of
the Commission on the protection of the public against indoor exposure to radon" was
drafted and is now under discussion. The recommendation introduces "a reference level
for consideration of remedial action" (not to be used for the purpose of legal regulation)
for existing housing and a "design level" for future housing. The levels, in terms of
effective dose equivalent, are 20 Sv/year for existing homes and ten Sv/year for future
homes. In terms of radon gas concentration, the levels are 400 Bq/mJ for existing homes
and 200 Bq/m3 for future homes.
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As a further preventive measure, an information booklet is under preparation for
the general population on the potential hazards of indoor air pollution and possible
methods to avoid or reduce it. The Directorate-General III (Internal Market and
Industrial Affairs) has prepared the important directive 89/106 "on the approximation of
laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States relating to
construction products," approved by the Council on December 21, 1988. This directive,
issued in order to guarantee the free movement of goods, sets out a framework for
regulations concerning construction products. The directive requires that such products
"must be suitable for construction works which (as a whole and in their separate parts)
. . . satisfy the . . . essential requirements."
One of these requirements concerns "hygiene, health and environment" and specifies:
'The construction work must be designed and built in such a way that it will not be a
threat to the hygiene or health of the occupants or neighbors, in particular as a result of
any of the following: the giving off of toxic gas; the presence of dangerous particles or
gases in the air; or the emission of dangerous radiation.
Limiting the emission of formaldehyde from wood-based materials is presently under
consideration as a first case to safeguard the above mentioned essential requirement. For
this scope, CEN (Commitee Europeen de Normalisation), the organization recognized by
the directive for the certification of technical specifications, has been charged to validate
a method for the determination of formaldehyde emissions from wood-based panels which
previously had been specified by a Working Group of COST Project 613.
A directive regarding asbestos has been issued by the Commission (87/217/CEE, in
force since March 19, 1987). Although it makes no explicit reference to indoor air
pollution, the directive has an indirect impact on indoor air quality. The directive
introduces measures to prevent and reduce air and other environmental pollution by
asbestos, and specifies rules to be observed during removal of asbestos containing
materials from buildings.
The Directorate-General V (Employment and Social Affairs) is in charge of
Community legislation on smoking prevention which is being recognized as the most
important issue of indoor air pollution. In the framework of the program, "Europe against
Cancer," the Council of Health Ministers adopted on May 16, 1989 a resolution banning
smoking in public places, except in clearly defined areas reserved for smokers. A directive
in a very advanced stage of preparation (approval is expected in the Council meeting of
November 13, 1989) concerns the labeling of tobacco products with warning messages
("seriously damages health," "causes cancer," etc.). Two directives are in the discussion
phase: one concerns the maximum tar yield of cigarettes, the other concerns the
limitation of advertising by press and posters.
The Consumer Protection Service is preparing its first action program. The impact
of consumer products on indoor air quality is presently under consideration as a subject
of the program.
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It is interesting to observe that all presently taken or prepared actions follow the
approach of reducing exposure to indoor pollutants through the reduction or appropriate
manipulation of the source. This approach, along with appropriate information on the
population and on selected professional categories, appears the only realistic way of
reducing exposure of the population to pollutants in indoor air.
The European Parliament, in October 1988, adopted a resolution on air quality in
buildings, in which, considering that "more attention should be devoted in Community
environmental policy to the problem of the quality of air in indoor environments,
reiterates the request already made with regard to bans on smoking . . . considers . . .
that the Commission should promote further in depth research into the possible causes
and effects of air pollution inside buildings on human health." Moreover, the resolution
invites the Commission to prepare a directive on the subject, which should include:
• A list of substances whose use in construction works and in cleaning
should be regulated or prohibited;
• Quality standards to be applied to air in indoor environments;
• Rules governing the planning, building, management and maintenance of
air conditioning and ventilation systems; and
• Minimum rules for the maintenance of buildings open to the public, in
order to ensure the highest standard of hygiene and cleanliness."
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Appendix A
Publications by the Environment Institute of the JRC - Ispra
on Indoor Air Quality
M. De Bortoli, H. Knoppel, L. Molhave, B. Seifert, D. Ullrich: "Inter-laboratory
Comparison of Passive Samplers for Organic Vapors with Respect to their
Applicability to Indoor Air Pollution Monitoring: a Pilot Study." Commission of the
European Communities, Report EUR 9450, Brussels-Luxembourg 1984.
M. De Bortoli, H. Knoppel, E. Pecchio, A. Peil, L. Rogora, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt,
and H. Vissers: "Measurements of Indoor Air Quality and Comparison with Ambient
Air: A Study of 15 Homes in Northern Italy'. Commission of the European
Communities, Report EUR 9656, Brussels, Luxemburg 1985.
M. De Bortoli, L. Molhave, M.A. Thorsen, D. Ullrich: 'European Inter-laboratory
Comparison of Passive Samplers for Organic Vapor Monitoring in Indoor Air,"
Commission of the European Communities, Report EUR 10487 EN,
Brussels-Luxemburg 1986.
M. De Bortoli, H. Knoppel, E. Pecchio, A. Peil, L. Rogora, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt ,
and H. Vissers: 'Concentrations of Selected Organic Pollutants in Indoor and
Outdoor Air in Northern Italy." Environ. Int., 12 (1986) 343 - 350.
S. Mahajan, G. Pellegrini, M. Shea, R. Colombo, and M. De Bortoli: "Comparison
between Measured and Model (LBL and BRE) Predicted Infiltration Rates for a
Passive Solar Test Cell"- Int. J. Solar Energy, 4 (1986) 109 - 120.
H. Knoppel: "Sampling and Analysis: Chamber and Field Studies"; Chairman's Summary,
Session V, Symposium on Characterization of Contaminant Emissions from Indoor
Sources. Atmospheric Environment, 21 (1987) 439 - 442.
M. Maroni, H. Knoppel, H. Schlitt and S. Righetti: "Occupational and Environmental
Exposure to Pentachlorophenol." Commission of the European Communities Report
EUR 10795 EN, Brussels, Luxemburg 1987.
L. Clerici: "Acetaldehyde activation of poly(AD-ribose)polymerase in hepatocytes of mice
treated in vivo." In Mutation Research, 227(1989) 47-51.
H. Schlitt and H. Knoppel: "Carbonyl compounds in mainstream and environmental
cigarette smoke." In "Present and future of indoor air quality," C.J- Bieva, Y.
Courtois and M. Govaerts Eds, Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam 1989, 197-206.
H. Knoppel and H. Schauenburg: "Screening of Household Products for the Emission of
Volatile Organic Compounds." Presented at 'Indoor Air 1987', Berlin 17 - 21 August
1987, Environment International 15(1989) in press.
M. Oehme and H. Knoppel: "Analysis of Low Volatile and Particulate Bound Organic
Indoor Pollutants: Assessment of a Sensitive Method and First Results," ibid.
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M. De Bortoli, H. Knoppel, E. Pecchio, and H. Vissers: "Performance of a Thermally
Desorbable Diffusion Sampler for Personal and Indoor Air Monitoring," ibid.
A. Colombo, M. De Bortoli, E. Pecchio, H. Schauenburg, H. Schlitt and H. Vissers:
"Chamber testing of organic emission from building and furnishing materials," The
Science of the Total Environment, in press.
H. Knoppel and M. De Bortoli, "Experiences with indoor measurements of organic
compounds," presented at the Indoor Air Quality International Symposium of the
American Industrial Hygiene Conference, 21-26 May 1989, St. Louis, USA.
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EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES SERVICES
INVOLVED IN POLICY AND REGULATORY ASPECTS
OF INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Directorate - General XI: Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection
Definition and Implementation of preventive measures against Indoor pollution
from a growing number of substances
Directorate - General III: Internal Market and Industrial Affairs
Regulation of hygienic properties of building materials
Directorate - General V: Employment and Social Affairs
Legislation on smoking prevention
Consumer Protection Service
Preparation of an action program considering the impact of consumer products
on indoor air quality
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NATO C-CMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES SUPPORTING
EC ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
In-honse or "Direct" Research
Joint Research Centre, Ispra
Other Commission Services
Contract or Shared-cost Research
Carried out by Member Countries with financial support of EC Commission
(Multi-annual Research Action programmes)
Concerted Actions
Cooperation of member States without financial support of research costs
(Other European OECD countries may participate)
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COST
• Cost projects facilitate work that goes beyond the resources of
individual partners.
• The majority of COST projects operate without any joint funding.
• Most COST projects arc designed to promote basic applied scientific
and technical research in the following areas:
1.
Informatics
2.
Telecommunications
3.
Transport
4.
Oceanography
5.
Metallurgy and Materials Science
6.
Environmental Protection
7.
Meteorology
8.
Agriculture
9.
Food Technology
10.
Social Technology
11.
Medical Research
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section II 37
COST STRUCTURES
• Committee of Senior Officials (CSO)
(Permanent body of representatives of 19 States and EC)
• Committees to prepare COST projects
- Working Party on Legal, Administrative and Technical
Questions (Representatives of all interested parties)
- Ad hoc Working Parties for Special Topics
(Delegates from States with particular interest and EC)
• Committee for the implementation of COST projects
- Concertation Committees
- Management Committees
• COST Secretariat
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
COST 613
Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man
Category A Type cooperation:
The subject is part of the Community program
The secretariat is provided by the EC Commission
Non-Community COST states contribute the extra cost for their participation
History:
Ad hoc working party since 1982
Concerted Action started in 1987
Actual Situation:
As Switzerland and Sweden have joined in, the Concerted Action is now a COST-
Community action, directed by a Community-COST Concertation Committee (CCCC)
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
COST 613
Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man
ACTIVITIES
The COST project has the aim of promoting the scientific cooperation and the
exchange of knowledge in the following fields:
Identification and characterisation of indoor pollutants and sources
Assessment of exposure and health effects
Development and validation of methodologies
The program is implemented through the following activities:
Establishment of working group
Publication of reports on issues of major concern
Organization of scientific symposia and workshops
Liaison with other international organizations (WHO, NATO/CCMS)
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section II
COST 613
Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man
EXISTING WORKING GROUPS
• Strategies for indoor measurements (final draft)
• "Sick Building Syndrome" - A practical guide (final draft)
• Biological effects in man related to indoor air pollution (preliminary draft)
• Determination of formaldehyde emissions in test chambers (interlaboratory test)
• Determination of biological pollutants (work started)
• Guideline on ventilation requirements (work started)
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Section 111
SWK * f A X» 'C s < •< "» t tvwCr'1' At >/ «as, < '\ S. ' v. ¦"¦'A V-. V-. a v f
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Controlling IAQ - The Non-
Regulatory Approach
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section III
EPA and Indoor Air Quality
"" ' v - * * ? •» 0 ?r xoLs vv*
Robert Axelrad
Director, Indoor Air Division
US Environmental Protection Agency
Introduction
In 1970, when the Gean Air Act was passed to address the problems of urbanization,
industrial development, and the increasing use of automobiles, the Act was interpreted as
applying only to the air external to structures. As a result, most Federal programs
concerned with reducing exposure in enclosed spaces (for example, residences, public or
commercial buildings, or transportation vehicles) have singled out only a handful of
individual pollutants for action or control undeT various Federal statutes. To date, no
comprehensive legislation to address many of the issues raised by indoor aiT pollution has
been enacted.
In the early 1970s, formaldehyde was identified by the Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC) as the source of acute irritant reactions and a cancer hazard in
individuals whose homes were insulated with urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI)
or constructed of large amounts of particleboard and/or plywood. Programs to address
another major indoor air pollutant -- asbestos -- have been in operation for some time
and two major laws have been enacted by Congress to provide (1) loans and grants to
schools with severe asbestos hazards and financial need, and (2) a regulatory framework
for asbestos control in schools. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, concern over naturally
occurring radon began to rise and in 1984, when extremely high levels of radon were
found in homes in the Reading Prong geological formation in Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
and New York, radon became a major indoor air pollution program.
In the early 1980s, however, EPA's research program, using the total exposure
assessment methodology, began to demonstrate that for many people, indoor exposures
to pollutants were significantly greater than exposures from outdoor, or ambient, sources.
In addition, studies of a selected number of pollutants in ten buildings demonstrated that
for many pollutants, indoor levels were often higher than outdoor levels. Coupled with
the extremely high percentage of time spent indoors (approximately 90 percent for most
people), concern began to grow that indoor air pollution may pose higher risks to the
population than previously thought.
In 1984, Congress began appropriating approximately $2 million a year for EPA to
conduct indoor air research. However, considerable debate and uncertainty continued
among the various Federal agencies over the appropriate government role in the indoor
air arena.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
In 1986, following years of increasing concern over the potential risks to human
health from pollutants in indoor environments, Congress enacted Title IV of the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) to establish an effective research effort
aimed at characterizing the extent of the indoor air pollution problem and to begin to
take steps to enhance the quality of the indoor air. Title IV (the Radon Gas and Indoor
Air Quality Research Act) gave EPA clear authority for the first time to begin to address
IAQ problems on a more comprehensive basis. Title IV directs EPA to:
• Conduct research on all facets of the IAQ issue;
• Disseminate information on IAQ problems and solutions;
• Establish two advisory committees to assist EPA in carrying out the
mandate of Title IV; and
• Submit two reports to Congress describing, in the first report, EPA's
plans for implementing Title IV, and, in the second report, the
activities carried out under Title TV and whatever recommendations
the Agency deems appropriate.
In June 1987, EPA submitted to Congress the EPA Indoor Air Quality
Implementation Plan, describing the Agency's plans for fulfilling the mandate of SARA
Title IV. In the report, EPA described two overall goals in addressing IAQ problems: to
adequately characterize and understand the risks to human health which pollutants pose
in indoor environments, and to reduce these risks by reducing exposure to indoor
pollutants. The Agency said that it would pursue the two goals through the
implementation of three policy objectives:
1. The Agency will conduct research and analyses to further refine its
assessment of the nature and magnitude of the health and welfare
problems posed by individual air pollutants as well as by pollutant
mixtures indoors.
2. The Agency will identify and assess the full range of mitigation
strategies available to address high priority indoor air problems.
3. For identified high risk, high priority problems, the Agency will
adopt and execute appropriate mitigation strategies. These strategies
may involve one or more of the following:
• Issuing regulations under existing regulatory authorities (e.g. Toxic
Substances Control Act (TSCA), FIFRA, or the Safe Drinking
Water Act);
• Building state, local government, and private sector capability to
address IAQ problems through non-regulatory programs of
information dissemination, technical assistance, guidance, and
training;
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section III
• Referring problems to other ' Federal agencies with appropriate
statutory authority (e.g. CPSC and the Department of Housing and
Urban Development); and
• Requesting separate indoor air regulatory authority from Congress
if deemed necessarv.
*
In 1988 and in 1989, legislation was introduced in both houses of Congress that
would dramatically expand the Federal government's role in carrying out research and
providing technical assistance and information dissemination programs on indoor air
quality.
How Indoor Air is Organized at EM
Many different EPA offices have played and will continue to play significant roles
as EPA continues to develop an effective response to indoor air issues. In part due to
varying statutory mandates and separate development tracks, EPA's various indoor air
activities continue to be decentralized. Major indoor air related activities occur in four
separate Assistant Administratorships. Radon policy is developed and carried out by the
Office of Radiation Programs in the Office of Air and Radiation. Research activities are
conducted by a number of laboratories within EPA's Office of Research and
Development. Asbestos regulatory and grant assistance programs are administered by the
Assistant Administrator for Pesticides and Toxic Substances, as are regulatory activities
related to indoor exposures to pesticides and other chemicals. The Office of Drinking
Water has responsibility for indoor air pollution sources originating with the water supply.
In early 1986, the Office of Air and Radiation established a small, three-person IAQ
staff to begin to identify and fill the gaps in the Agency's response to human exposures
to air pollutants indoors and to provide policy direction in the implementation of SARA
Title IV. Since 1986, additional staff and financial resources have been allocated to
indoor air issues and in September 1988, the indoor air staff was elevated to division
status as part of an office-wide reorganization. The Indoor Air Division is currently
comprised of 11 full-time employees, with an extramural contract budget of $1.37 million.
The Division's functions include the following:
• Evaluate various policy options and develop a national IAQ policy and
program;
• Assist in setting the research agenda to ensure that the research that is
conducted is policy-relevant;
• Coordinate the IAQ activities of the various EPA program offices and
stay abreast of other Federal, state, and local agencies, as well as private
sector activities addressing various facets of the IAQ problem; and
• Develop and disseminate information to the general public, building
owners and managers, architects, health care professionals, state and local
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
government agencies, industry, the public interest community, and other
interested groups.
Indoor Air Program Elements
Over time, the indoor air program will address all of the factors affecting air quality
in all indoor environments. The program is currently comprised of five major elements:
• Policy Development — Studies and analyses to characterize the nature and
extent of IAQ problems and lead to the integration of information into
clear cut policy options;
• Buildings Program — The development of building-related information
and implementation programs for key building management audiences to
encourage prevention, diagnosis, and mitigation of IAQ problems;
• Pollutant/Source Program - Activities to identify and characterize specific
indoor air pollution sources and pollutants, and to devise strategies for
their control;
• Intergovernmental Programs -- Activities designed to ensure that indoor air
activities are coordinated at all levels of government and that specific
program components are designed to enhance the capabilities of other
Federal agencies and state and local governments; and
• Public Information Program ~ Activities to communicate information on
indoor air pollution risks and remedies to the public.
Policy Development
Report to Congress
Among other requirements, EPA was specifically required under Section 403(e) of
Superfund to submit a- Report to Congress describing the activities carried out under
SARA Title IV and make recommendations as appropriate. In August 1989, the Agency
submitted its Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality and concluded: "sufficient
evidence exists to conclude that indoor air pollution represents a major portion of the
public's exposure to air pollution and may pose serious acute and chronic health risks.
This evidence warrants an expanded effort to characterize and mitigate this exposure."
There are three volumes of the report:
• Volume I - Federal Programs Addressing Indoor Air Quality
• Volume II -- Assessment and Control of Indoor Air Pollution
• Volume III -- Indoor Air Pollution Research Needs Statement
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NATO CCMS Pilot Sludy on IAQ: Section III
The report reached a number of conclusions and made several recommendations.
However, the report also indicated that indoor air research and policy programs have not
yet sufficiently characterized IAQ problems and solutions to be able to determine whether
additional regulatory approaches to IAQ problems are needed. Nevertheless, EPA made
a number of recommendations intended to develop the necessary information to make
such determinations:
1. Research to better characterize exposure and health effects of chemical contaminants
and pollutant mixtures commonly found indoors should be significantly expanded.
Although EPA is beginning to devote greater attention to characterizing non-cancer
health effects from various exposure routes, information on exposure in homes and
buildings is limited to a very few pollutants and groups of pollutants. In addition,
virtually nothing is known about cancer and non-cancer health effects caused by
low-level respiratory exposures to multiple chemical contaminants. An expanded
research program in this field is needed to help characterize causes of and solutions
to the "sick building syndrome" and to investigate emerging health issues, such as
multiple chemical sensitivity.
2. A research program to characterize and develop mitigation strategies for biological
contaminants in indoor air should be developed.
EPA's historical experience in addressing environmental hazards has predominantly
focused on chemical contaminants. However, biological contaminants in indoor air
are predominantly responsible for known building-related illnesses, which include
Legionnaires disease and hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and have been increasingly
associated with poor hygienic and maintenance practices in buildings. While both
the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the CPSC
have active research underway, the lack of EPA participation limits the scope and
magnitude of the effort.
3. Research to identify and characterize significant indoor air pollution sources and to
evaluate appropriate mitigation strategies should be significantly expanded.
Source control is the most effective control option when major sources can be
identified and characterized, and it may be the only viable option in some situations.
However, significant resources must be devoted to identifying and characterizing
sources to enable EPA and other Federal agencies to take appropriate control
actions under existing authorities or to advise the public of the health risks from
specific sources as well as actions the public can take to reduce risk. Furthermore,
research into innovative control technologies and evaluation of technologies
developed by the private sector, including air cleaning technologies, should be
significantly enhanced.
4. A program is needed to develop and promote, in conjunction with appropriate
private sector organizations, guidelines covering ventilation, as well as other building
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
design, operation, and maintenance practices for ensuring that IAQ is protective of
public health.
An effective national program to control indoor air pollution will require the
application of generic strategies involving provisions for adequate ventilation, and
provisions to avoid problems through proper building design, operation, and
maintenance. This approach, combined with programs targeted to specific individual
high risk sources and pollutants would provide a comprehensive, but feasible and
cost-effective control strategy. In our view, a pollutant-by-pollutant approach
encompassing target levels for individual pollutants would not resolve the bulk of
IAQ problems.
5. A program of technical assistance, and information dissemination, similar in scope
to the Agency's radon program, is needed to inform the public about risks and
mitigation strategies, and to assist state and local governments and the private
sector in solving IAQ problems. Such a program should include an IAQ
clearinghouse.
While EPA has joined the ongoing Federal and private sector efforts to disseminate
information on indoor air quality, as our experience with radon has demonstrated,
a program is needed that can keep pace with the needs of state and local
governments, architects, building owners and managers, researchers, the medical and
health communities, building occupants, and others who are seeking reliable technical
and non-technical information. A program to transfer knowledge and develop
capabilities in the public and private sectors would include a variety of technical
assistance and information dissemination activities comparable to those developed to
address the radon problem. An indoor air information clearinghouse is needed to
enhance coordination and access to such information.
6. The Federal government should undertake an effort to characterize the nature and
pervasiveness of the health impacts associated with IAQ problems in commercial
and public buildings, schools, health care facilities, and residences, and develop and
promote recommended guidelines for diagnosing and controlling such problems.
The available literature suggests that IAQ problems are pervasive in a wide spectrum
of buildings, but the prevalence of such problems, the nature of their sources, and
the amount of human exposure attributable to these sources are virtually unknown.
However, an increasing number of complaints are being registered to government
agencies, and a growing number of private sector firms are attempting to respond
to a rapidly emerging market for diagnostic and mitigation services. A major study
is needed to determine the scope and character of such problems, and to develop
recommendations to guide and control the quality of diagnostic and mitigation
services in the private sector.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
Pending Legislation
Two bills, S. 657 and H.R. 1530, were introduced during the 1st Session of the 101st
Congress which, if enacted, would expand Federal IAQ programs. Initially identical in
language, at this writing the Senate version has been substantially modified to correct a
number of problems with the bill identified by a variety of individuals and organizations.
It is anticipated that many, if not all, of the changes in the Senate version may also be
adopted in the House version. At this time, the key provisions of the Senate bill include:
• No new regulatory authority;
• Authorizations of $48.5 million per year for five years;
• Expansion of indoor air research and requirements for special studies on
exposure assessment and characterization of IAQ problems in schools and
child care facilities;
• Development and promotion of building technology management practices,
including a new emphasis on ventilation needs;
• Development of a list of contaminants "...which are known to occur (or
which are expected to occur) in indoor air at levels which may reasonably
be expected to have an adverse impact on human health." The initial list
must include 11 specific pollutants for which EPA must develop health
advisories within three years: benzene, biological contaminants, carbon
monoxide, environmental tobacco smoke, formaldehyde, lead, methylene
chloride, nitrogen oxide, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), and radon.
• Preparation of a National Response Plan, integrating actions to be taken
by the Federal government under its various statutory authorities to
address IAQ risks;
• A Federal Building Response Plan and Demonstration Program;
• A major state grant program to provide assistance to states for IAQ
assessment and mitigation programs;
• A national IAQ information clearinghouse; and
• Expanded roles for a number of other Federal agencies, including NIOSH
and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section III
Other Policy Development Activities
In Fiscal Year 1990, the indoor air program will pursue a number of other policy
development initiatives, including:
• Initiation of a process to establish a consensus-based system for
credentialing private sector IAQ diagnostic and mitigation firms;
• Initiation of an assessment of multiple chemical sensitivity issues to
determine what is currently known, and what research needs to be done
to address indoor air issues relevant to sensitive individuals and
populations (this assessment will be used to develop a long-range research
and analysis agenda); and
• A training needs analysis to aid in the development of a comprehensive,
long-range IAQ training plan.
Buildings Program
Development of targeted guidance programs, information dissemination, and training
tailored to building owners and managers, design engineers, and architects and covering
public and commercial buildings, schools, and residential structures is a high priority. A
number of guidance documents are in development:
• Information to be used by architects, developers, and engineers in the
design and construction of new buildings, including a technical manual on
preventing problems in commercial structures as well as a new home
construction guide geared specifically to builders;
• Information for building owners and managers designed to be used in an
assessment program to identify and correct potential problems in existing
buildings before complaints begin: and
• Information for building owners and managers on how to manage an
existing building-related IAQ problem, including components on
conducting a building investigation, employee relations, use of contractors,
and mitigation techniques.
Another high priority need is for the development of baseline data on the scope of
the indoor air problem nationwide and of appropriate guidelines for conducting building
investigations. An effort to develop such guidelines and protocols is expected to get
underway in 1990.
Pollutant/Source Program
Initially, the pollutant/source program focused on the risks associated with
environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), a known carcinogen and the largest source of
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
particles and mutagens indoors where smoking is permitted. This past year, the Indoor
Air Division wrote and distributed a fact sheet on environmental tobacco smoke,
describing the current state of knowledge about health effects and mitigation. A number
of other significant projects are underway:
• Preparation, in cooperation with EPA's Office of Research and
Development (ORD), of a lung cancer and respiratory disease risk
assessment of environmental tobacco smoke;
• Development, in cooperation with the Department of Health and Human
Services (DHHS), of a policy-makers' guide to mitigation of ETS
exposure; and
• Publication of a compendium of technical information on the
environmental tobacco smoke issue.
The indoor air program is actively involved in a number of Agency working groups
that focus on other indoor pollutants for which primary responsibility is located elsewhere
in the Agency, including radon, asbestos, formaldehyde, chlorinated solvents, and
pesticides.
Intergovernmental Program
Federal Coordination
A number of Federal agencies are involved in IAQ issues and participate with EPA
on the interagency Committee on Indoor Air Quality (CIAQ). As one of four co-chairs
of the CIAQ, EPA provides staff and funding support for the CIAQ and prepares a yearly
compendium of Current Federal Indoor Air Quality Activities.
The Consumer Product Safety Act and the Federal Hazardous Substance Act
provide the CPSC with regulatory authority over consumer products that may contribute
to indoor air pollution. Since many of the sources of indoor air pollution are consumer
products (e.g. household chemicals), CPSC plays a significant role in addressing indoor air
pollution.
The Department of Energy (DOE) has played a major role in IAQ since the 1970s.
The two primary DOE policy goals concerning indoor air quality are: 1) eliminating
potential hazards to the public and the environment from radioactive contamination
remaining at facilities and sites previously used in the nation's atomic energy programs;
and 2) developing information to ensure the maintenance of healthful indoor environments
with continuing use of energy conservation measures in buildings. DOE's IAQ interests
are focused on research and development, the DOE Remedial Action Program, health risk
assessment, and participation in the CIAQ. A significant portion of DOE's efforts in
indoor air are related to radon exposure and health effects research.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
The Department of Health and Human Services is a major contributor to the
identification and resolution of IAQ problems through several of its organizational
components. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health serves as the
DHHS co-chair of the CIAQ and is the primary agency of the Federal government with
extensive experience in conducting building investigations. Since 1971, NIOSH has
conducted approximately 550 IAQ investigations under its Health Hazard Evaluation
Program.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration is charged under the
Occupational Safety and Health Act with protecting the health of workers in the
workplace. Recent interest in IAQ in non-industrial settings has prompted OSHA to
begin development of guidance for its inspectors on identifying non-industrial IAQ
problems.
The General Services Administration is involved in a variety of IAQ activities related
to its responsibilities to manage a significant portion of Federal buildings.
State and Local Governments
EPA recognizes state and local governments as the cornerstone of a long range
strategy to control IAQ problems. Many state and local governments currently address
IAQ concerns through restrictions on smoking in public places, ventilation requirements
in building codes, asbestos inspection and abatement programs, pollutant concentration
and emission standards, problem building evaluations, and research and public information
dissemination activities.
However, most states currently do not have a comprehensive strategy for addressing
indoor air problems. A fundamental component of EPA's long range strategy is to
provide technical assistance to states to implement comprehensive indoor air programs.
Technical assistance will be provided on substantive levels through the provision of
training and technology transfer as well as assisting states in organizing effective indoor air
programs.
Development of model state programs during the next two to three years is a high
priority. A limited number of state pilot grants for IAQ assessment activities will be made
available during this period. Ultimately, the availability of grant assistance for the
development of state IAQ assessment and response programs will be essential in the
development of a strong and independently funded set of state programs necessary to limit
the long-term Federal role in indoor air quality.
International
Internationally, EPA is involved as co-chair of a three year international pilot study
on IAQ under the auspices of NATO's Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society
(NATO/CCMS). Proposed and led by Italy, the outputs from this study will include a
series of proceedings from the bi-annual meetings, an inventory of risk management
activities in the NATO countries and integration of US research activities into the
European Communities' existing database on IAQ research.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section III
Public Information Program
As a predominantly non-regulatory program, developing and disseminating both
technical and non-technical information is the fundamental core of the program. In
addition to providing guidance of a technical nature to audiences such as building owners
and managers, state and local governments, physicians and other health care providers,
there is a need to communicate with the general public about 1AQ risks and risk
reduction strategics.
In 1988, the program published and disseminated The Inside Story -- A Guide to
Indoor Air Quality," which was produced jointly with the Consumer Product Safety
Commission. Through the Public Health Foundation, a Directory of State Indoor Air
Contacts has also been developed and distributed. In addition, EPA has published a
series of fact sheets on various IAQ topics (e.g., "Environmental Tobacco Smoke" and
"Ventilation and Air Quality in Offices").
The indoor air program is continuing to develop public information materials on a
variety of topics. A recently published report of a survey of private sector IAQ diagnostic
and mitigation firms contains listings of more than 1,200 firms which responded to the
survey and which can be used as a directory to assist the public in obtaining IAQ services.
Projects currently underway include:
o Planning for an IAQ information clearinghouse, the objective of which is
to serve as a repository for technical and non-technical information on
IAQ issues which will be accessible to the scientific community, all levels
of government, private sector groups, and the public;
• Production of a videotape version of "The Inside Story — A Guide to
Indoor Air Quality; and
• Publication of a summary of available information on residential air
cleaning devices.
Summary
Although IAQ has not been the focus of major legislative and agency initiatives until
recently, a significant body of scientific evidence indicates that indoor air pollution poses
considerable risks to public health. Currently decentralized in its organization, EPA is
developing an effective program to develop and disseminate information on a broad range
of indoor air issues and to begin to study and analyze some of the most difficult long term
policy questions. An expanded public and private sector effort to characterize IAQ
problems and to evaluate, recommend, and implement risk management strategies is
needed.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
Where Indoor Air Fits in the EPA Organization
Administrator
0(Rm of Air and
Office of n—wch
1
Indoor AkDMsion
-Indoor air poley
^ n n «f# n mM n n
HfQOnlnflOn
dtesemmabon
Radon Action Program
Otic* ot PwtlddM
and Toxic Substances
Office of Toxic
-Asbestos Program
-formaldehyde and
other indoor chemical
Office of Pesticide
-Indoor pesticide exposure
issues
Office ol Water
Office ol
Drinking Water
-Maximum
contaminant lev<
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 53
EPA INDOOR AIR BUDGET
FY 86 FY 87
I Indoor Air Division
FY 88
Year
FY 89 FY 90
Research and Development
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54 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
The Non-Regulatory Approach to
Reducing Risks from Radon
Exposure
Lawrence Pratt
Radon Division
US Environmental Protection Agency
Radon is believed to be the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United
States, causing an estimated 20,000 deaths each year. USEPA's senior scientists have
ranked radon as the top environmental health problem facing the nation. Many leading
health and scientific organizations, including the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and
the U.S. Public Health Service, share this perspective. Estimates of the health risk from
radon exposure are based on strong human and animal data, including studies of
thousands of underground miners. At this time, the United States government has
undertaken an entirely non-regulatory approach to reducing radon risk to the population.
Although radon has been regulated in underground mines in the U.S. since the
1950's, residential radon exposure was not believed to be a problem. In the late 1960's,
several houses in Grand Junction, Colorado were discovered to have highly elevated radon
levels because of the materials used in their construction. The foundations had been
made with mill tailings from a nearby uranium mine. At about the same time, several
houses with elevated radon levels were discovered in Florida. The source was traced back
to reclaimed phosphate lands, again a "man-made" source. Even after these discoveries,
elevated indoor radon was believed to be a purely "man-made" phenomenon.
This belief changed radically in 1985, when a nuclear power plant worker named
Stanley Watras began triggering the plant's radiation safety alarms on his way home from
work each day. The plant managers were puzzled since Mr. Watras' job did not bring
him into contact with any radioactive material. They decided to pass him through the
radiation detectors on his way in to work. He again triggered the alarms. After further
investigation by the State of Pennsylvania, it was determined that the worker's radiation
exposure source was in his home. The source was narrowed to radon gas, exposing the
worker and his family to over 10 working levels.
News of this discovery set off a local panic in areas near the "Reading Prong", as the
large geological formation where Watras' house is located is known. Several Federal
agencies, State governments, universities and private organizations became curious as to
whether elevated radon levels were isolated to this part of the country. As EPA worked
with other States, EPA's concerns about the scope and severity of the problem were
confirmed. Data collected through radon surveys, conducted jointly by EPA and 25 States
to date, have shown that radon is a widespread national health problem, affecting millions
of homes nationwide.
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Elevated radon levels have been found in every State tested thus far. We estimate
that about eight million or 10 percent of the nation's homes could have annual average
radon concentrations above EPA's current action guideline of 4 pCi/L.
Based on this information, the U.S. government has recommended that all homes
below the third floor of a building be tested for radon, and elevated levels lowered. At
the time this recommendation was made, citizens were directed to follow our previously
established guideline or "action level" of 4 pCi/1. Selection of 4 pCi/1, in 1986, was not a
risk-based decision, but rather a decision based on the ability of the current radon
reduction technology. At that time, radon mitigation technology was still fairly new, and
the best available technology could only guarantee results down to 4 pCi/1. In spite of
pressure to be consistent with acceptable risk levels in other EPA programs, we did not
feel that it was appropriate to establish a more protective action level at that time.
EPA's Radon Action Program
The U.S. EPA established its Radon Action Program in 1985 as a non-regulatory
program. A small program was established to undertake a variety of activities designed
to assess the extent of radon risk nationwide, and develop reliable techniques to measure
radon and mitigate elevated levels.
EPA believes that radon risk reduction is best achieved by a concerted effort of
Federal and State expertise and resources. As with many government programs in the
U.S., particularly environmental programs, national level programs are frequently designed
to support State efforts. The USEPA felt this approach would be the most appropriate
for radon risk reduction as well. Different States have drastically different radon
characteristics and needs, and it was believed that the State governments were in the best
position to act appropriately for their citizens. The current USEPA radon program still
works within this framework.
Two important pieces of legislation have charted our course and greatly expanded
our involvement in reducing radon risk. First, the Radon Gas and Indoor Air Quality
Research Act of 1986 (Title IV of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
of 1986, P.L. 99-499) confirmed EPA's direction in surveying, research and technology.
And then, in October 1988, the Indoor Radon Abatement Act (P.L. 100-551) directed
EPA to undertake a broad range of activities to achieve the National goal of making
indoor air as free from radon as outdoor air.
The goal of our program was and continues to be to reduce the public health risks
of radon by 1) forming partnerships with the States and other Federal Agencies, 2) by
informing and educating the public, and 3) by developing the technical capabilities of the
States and private sector.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
State Partnerships
Our initial success in this program is due in large part to the strong partnerships we
developed with the States where radon was first identified as a problem. Early in the
program we recognized that reducing radon risk would require the efforts of Federal and
State government. The basis for this approach is that certain types of activities, such as
research and technical studies, are best done by the Federal government. Other activities,
such as providing day to day advice to the public and detailed analyses of local situations
are best handled by State and local agencies because of their proximity to the problem.
In addition, we have found that State governments play the key role in motivating the
public to act.
EPA has traditionally provided a broad range of technical assistance to States. This
includes assistance in assessing radon potential in the State, designing effective radon
programs including public information strategies, and providing the technical training and
assistance needed by State officials and the fledgling radon industry to meet the needs of
the public.
We have continued to strengthen our partnerships with States in a number of ways.
State Grants
The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988 gave EPA its first authority to make
grants for the purpose of establishing and enhancing radon programs at the State level.
48 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Virgin Islands have asked
for, and will receive, grant assistance. Our goal with this grant program is to develop
continuing capabilities at the State level to respond to the informational and technical
needs of the public.
We have designed a program which allows the States a great deal of flexibility in
choosing the activities that are most appropriate for their States needs. Grant funds will
be used for a wide variety of activities, including: developing State radon strategies,
strengthening State technical capabilities in surveying, measurement and problem
mitigation; providing support for the development of State certification programs for radon
measurement and mitigation firms; and, establishing public information programs targeted
at the State level to supplement Federal efforts. EPA has also made funds available to
several States to develop innovative approaches to radon reduction. These projects
include: a project to demonstrate cost-effective radon reduction techniques in low income
housing, a pilot nationwide radon teleconference, and a project to develop radon
curriculum for junior high and high school science classes.
Other State Activities
In addition to these grant-related activities, we have also undertaken a number of
other activities to assist our State partners, including the development of a national radon
database, design of model State radon programs, and presentation of specialized radon
courses for State public and private sector audiences.
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Public Information and Education
Over the past few years, the public's awareness of the problems caused by radon has
increased. Our goal is to assist States in educating the public about radon risk and the
need for action. EPA's approach has been to develop the highest quality informational
material to distribute to the public.
These materials are designed to ensure that the public has complete and accurate
information for making radon risk decisions. Studies of our materials consistently show
them to be effective, informative documents. However, we now believe that the primary
result of our public information efforts to date has been an increase in public awareness
without a corresponding increase in appropriate and effective actions to reduce radon
risks. Even with this increased radon awareness, we are concerned that only about 3%
of the homes in the United States have been tested. Prior to 1988, approximately 600,000
homes had been tested for radon. Following the government recommendation in
September of 1988 that most homes be tested, an estimated 1.2 million additional homes
were tested. However, nearly 80 million U.S. homes still need to be tested.
In response to the severity of the national radon problem, and the evidence of
limited public action, we began working to identify ways to better motivate the public to
take action. As a result, we began shifting the emphasis of our public outreach materials
from a purely informational tone, to a more motivational message.
We hope to expand our public information and education efforts in the future, and
to find even better ways to increase public action. This challenge has led us to undertake
a number of activities designed to better motivate the public to test for radon and
remediate elevated levels. We are exploring ways to streamline our guidelines to make
risk reduction simpler and more efficient. We have embarked on a national media
campaign to motivate public action. And, we are developing strong relationships with a
number of national organizations which have common interests in radon protection. I will
discuss some our major activities in these areas.
Citizen's Gnide
The Indoor Radon Abatement Act directs us to revise our principal radon policy
document, "A Citizen's Guide to Radon." The original "Citizen's Guide" was designed as
an informational document to distribute to concerned citizens through State and Federal
agencies. Recognizing the mounting evidence of the severity of the radon problem, the
Congress directed EPA to update and revise the guidance contained in the document.
For this revision, we are incorporating what we have learned over the past 4 years
from the public, the States, and from risk communication research which clearly shows
that people are more likely to take effective action to reduce their radon risks if our
instructions provide clear and simple directions for action. We are currently exploring
ways to streamline our testing and mitigation guidance while still ensuring a high level of
technical validity and responsibility. Specifically, we are examining the use of short-term
measurements (those less than 90 days) as decision making tools.
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Advertising Council
We are currently working with the Advertising Council on a national advertising
campaign to encourage radon testing. The goal of the campaign is to increase public
awareness of radon problems and motivate public action. The campaign began in October
of 1989 with television, radio, and print media advertising in 33 States. Included in this
program is a nationwide telephone hotline for the public to call to receive free radon test
information. The Public Service Campaign has been well received across the country.
For example, most television stations in the target areas are airing the television ad.
While we are still in the initial stages of this effort, it is clear that this campaign is
having an effect. The hotline is currently receiving over 2,000 calls per week. We expect
this response to increase as the television, radio, and billboard advertising efforts expand.
National Organizations
We are also working with a number of national organizations to better reach the
public. The American Lung Association is currently designing public information
programs and media campaigns at the State and local level. For the past three years,
EPA has been working with the American Medical Association (AMA) to educate health
professionals about the effects of radon so that they can become community leaders in
reducing radon risk. These activities include: radon seminars, designed specifically for
health professionals, in 14 States; design and distribution of radon related materials for
newsletters and other publications; and, a radon brochure especially designed to explain
radon issues to physicians. We are also a member of a radon and real estate working
group in conjunction with the National Association of Home Builders, and the National
Association of Realtors to develop information and guidance for handling radon issues in
real estate transactions.
Capability Development
The third major area of our program is the development of the technical capabilities
of the States and the private sector. Our goal is to ensure that the public has access to
reliable radon measurement and mitigation services, and that there are knowledgeable and
informed State and local officials to assist them in reducing their risk.
When EPA initiated its radon program, there was only limited experience in radon
measurement and mitigation. The first States to address radon problems turned to EPA
for assistance in assessing the extent of the radon problem, for reliable inexpensive ways
to test for radon, and techniques for reducing elevated levels.
This program area has been the cornerstone of EPA's radon program. EPA has
been a leader in radon technology, including: the development and evaluation of
measurement technology; research, design, testing and demonstration of radon mitigation
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
techniques; educating public and private sector technical personnel; and in ensuring the
proficiency and reliability of private sector measurement and mitigation firms.
We are currently involved in a number of technical activities. For example, we are
working with States to assess the extent of the radon problem at the State and national
level. We are also continuing our research devoted to developing and demonstrating
effective radon mitigation techniques. In response to the new national goal of making
indoor air as free from radon as outdoor air, recent work has emphasized the
development of techniques to reduce radon levels below 4 pCi/L. Other activities include
developing and teaching reliable techniques for reducing elevated radon levels in existing
homes and preventing radon entry into new homes and researching and demonstrating
techniques for protecting school children, teachers and staff from elevated radon levels in
their schools.
One of our highest priorities is the development of model standards for radon
resistant new construction. We have recently completed an interim version of these
standards which we expect to publish this summer. We are now working with the various
building code organizations to speed adoption of these standards into State and local
building codes. Adoption of these techniques is essential to ensure that millions of new
homes are resistant to radon entry, and can be readily adapted to achieve even lower
levels.
Proficiency Programs
EPA is now administering two proficiency programs, the Radon Measurement
Proficiency (RMP) program, and the Radon Contractor Proficiency (RCP) program. The
RMP is a voluntary program established in 1986, to improve State and consumer
confidence in the radon testing industry. The RCP program, established in 1989, performs
a similar function for the radon mitigation industry. Specifically, the programs are
designed to assure homeowners that they can obtain reliable radon measurements, and
receive quality mitigation services. The RMP program has focused on establishing
minimum performance requirements for the industry and for test devices, and on
promoting consistency and quality assurance by all measurement firms. The RCP
emphasizes understanding radon behavior in structures, and tests participants knowledge
of diagnostic and mitigation techniques.
Under both of these programs, we distribute performance results to State
governments to respond to public inquiries about reliable testing and mitigation services.
The RCP currently lists over 600 successful participants. The RMP, which has been in
place since 1986, had almost 5,000 participants in 1989.
Conclusion
Some of the key points for the future of the USEPA Radon Action Program are
listed below.
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Although the Federal role is important, radon is not just a Federal issue. State
radon programs play a vital role in determining which activities are most appropriate for
each State, and for assisting the public in reducing radon risk. Our program will continue
to be a non-regulatory program to support State and private sector capabilities.
Though we have raised public awareness of the radon problem, our future focus will
be to assist States in translating this raised awareness into meaningful risk reduction.
We will continue our public outreach strategies attempt to reach even more
Americans. We believe that large-scale risk reduction is achievable by continuing to find
new and creative ways to inform and motivate the public.
We are also working on a number of activities to prevent radon exposure. We will
continue to develop and promote adoption of radon resistant construction techniques.
We are exploring ways to provide more radon information at the time of home sales. We
are also evaluating appropriate Federal response to address radon exposure in public
buildings and the workplace.
The key to our program in the future will be to empower the public to reduce radon
risk. We believe that we have established an effective non-regulatory framework to give
the public the tools and the confidence to take definitive action to reduce radon risk.
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62 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section III 63
US Consumer Product Safety
Commission**
Sandra Eberle
US Consumer Product Safety Commission
Indoor air quality is an issue that has long been of great importance to the
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). In the past year, the Commission has
renewed its commitment and re-energized its program in indoor air quality. This reflects
to some extent the shift between administrations, and has led to increased Agency
willingness to take action to ensure the safety of the indoor environment.
CPSC is an independent regulatory agency; it is not a part of the presidential cabinet,
nor is it strictly part of the legislative branch, i.e. Congress. The CPSC is headed by
commissioners, who are appointed by the US President but confirmed by the Senate.
The CPSC, therefore, consists of a collegial body of political appointees who direct the
career technical staff.
The Commission came into existence in 1973 and has been involved since the late
1970s in the regulation of products that impact indoor air quality. The Commission is
best known for regulating the safety of toys. The Commission is also responsible for the
labeling of hazardous products, with the exception of pesticides. Other activities include
the labeling on household products. The Commission, therefore, has a broad mandate
and is concerned with everything from the presence of nitrosamines in children's pacifiers
to preventing children from falling into backyard swimming pools.
With such a broad mandate and a limited budget, the Commission has found it very
important to rely on and work with the voluntary standards community. A majority of the
Commission's activities involve, to some extent, the voluntary standards community,
including the American National Standards Institute, the American Society for Testing and
Materials, and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE). In addition, the Commission sometimes works with other groups
This article was prepared by Ms. Eberle in her capacity as an employee of the Consumer Product
Safety Commission. For that reason it is not subject to copyright and may be freely reproduced (see
17 U.S.C. 105). The ideas expressed in this presentation are those of Ms. Eberle and do not reflect
those of the Consumer Product Safety Commission.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section III
that operate outside the traditional consensus organizations but that follow similar standard
making procedures. Many of the standards the commission develops will eventually go to
the International Standards Organization (ISO) for consideration.
With regard to indoor air quality, the specific areas that the Commission has been
working on in the past few years include combustion appliances, such as kerosene heaters,
space heaters, wood stoves, and formaldehyde in compressed wood products. The
Commission was required in 1981 by Congress to consider a voluntary standard whenever
it is considering regulating a product. In other words, when we as a Commission came
to the conclusion in 1983 that kerosene heaters presented an unreasonable risk of injury,
we were required by statute to consider a voluntary standard before we could issue a
mandatory standard.
This requirement has meant that the Commission defers mandatory standard setting
while we work with the voluntary consensus community to see if we can develop an
adequate voluntary standard. That does not mean that we say, "Go out, form a committee
and do good things. Then come back to us with what you have developed." We take a
very active role in this process. We attend meetings, we conduct research, and we conduct
testing. For example, with kerosene heaters, we created a chamber test facility in our own
laboratories for combustion appliances. We developed a test system for using this
chamber, validated the system though field studies in homes, and developed what we felt
was an emissions rate standard based on that chamber testing which would be adequate
to protect health in the indoor air. The voluntary standard system agreed that the test
system and the health effects level were adequate but argued that the research-type test
system was too expensive to be practical. What was needed was a test system that could
be run relatively cheaply and quickly because the voluntary standards system was going to
have hundreds of heaters to test and could not employ Ph.D. chemists and engineers to
run the tests. So, the Commission and the voluntary standards system started to work on
a new certification test system.
The research for that new certification test system has taken the Commission three
years. We think we are almost there. What we have had to do is to develop a hood
testing method, where instead of having a controlled environmental chamber, there was
a more open setup. This setup involved putting a hood over the top of the combustion
appliance and collecting the plume gases inside of the hood. The gases had to be
well-mixed to ensure that what was being measured was an accurate representation of the
emissions of the appliance. This effort has taken our chemists and engineers a
considerable amount of work. They are now correlating the measurements taken with the
hood with those taken from the sophisticated environmental chamber. Once we get the
correlation defined between the two emission test systems, we will be able to go forward
with the voluntary standard based on the health effect level and emission rate. The hood
system has resulted in a test that can be performed relatively cheaply and quickly, and will
ensure that the home appliance would not produce levels of nitrogen dioxide and carbon
monoxide that could adversely affect the health of the occupants.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
The health effect levels we have chosen are scientifically justifiable. Of course, there
are those that say the levels are too high, and others that say the levels are too low. We
are basically looking at avoiding any occurrence of levels exceeding 0.3 ppm of nitrogen
dioxide, and we believe that this level will ensure that the health effects of concern will
be avoided. This level is different than most of the standard nitrogen dioxide levels
because we are not dealing with averages, but rather are seeking to avoid peak exposures.
Most standards are set as averages avoiding the peaks. Because this type of appliance is
turned on for extended periods of time, the Commission felt that this kind of standard was
best to ensure that the appliance's running cycle did not achieve a nitrogen dioxide level
that could have an impact on the respiratory health of the individuals. Once this
certification test method is in place and the emission rate is determined, the Commission
will be able to take it though the consensus process. We are working with the
Underwriters Laboratory, which in the United States is both a voluntary standards writing
body (which takes its standards through the American National Standards Institute process)
and a certification body. In other words, the Underwriters Laboratory will perform the
test for money and allow the use of a seal on the kerosene heaters to demonstrate that
the heaters have indeed met the standard.
This process is all going along reasonably well. If it doesn't work, we would have
the option of issuing an advance notice of proposed rule-making and subsequently issuing
a mandatory standard. We find that the difference between instituting a voluntary
standard versus a mandatory standard is that if we go though the voluntary consensus
process and if the industry is willing to abide by the standard, then the Commission will
avoid a very expensive and messy step that is normally encountered in the United States
- litigation. In the case of litigation, we would go to court and fight over every nuance
of evidence, such as whether the health study, chamber test, and hood test are adequate.
This process takes a long time and is very expensive. Thus, we find that when these
consensus processes can be used and when there is general agreement to an appropriate
health endpoint, the voluntary standard process is a very good process and is, in some
cases, much faster than the mandatory standards process.
In other cases, the voluntary standard process is not faster and does not work. An
example of such a case is pressed wood products. In 1985 and 1986, the Commission had
a recommendation from the staff and a petition from the Consumer Federation of
America, an activist consumer group, to initiate a rule-making on pressed wood products.
The Commission chose in this case to use a voluntary standard approach. While a
voluntary standard has been produced by the pressed wood products industry, it was the
judgement of the staff that the standard was not adequate and did not address any of the
issues that the staff had raised. The standard did not result in uniform labeling on the
product, a test system on the product that could be adequately verified, or a test level that
we believed would adequately protect the health of the consumers living in the homes
where these products are used. In this case, we now have before the Commission the
option of initiating a regulatory process on formaldehyde. I suspect that we will have to
take some additional action to bring these parties to the table and to get a true dialogue
going, but there has to be willingness on both sides to have negotiations proceed.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section III
The Commission has also had an experience in IAQ that did not use a voluntary
standard system, relying instead on what we call a voluntary action. We used a voluntary
action approach with methylene chloride, a chemical widely used in consumer products as
a solvent and flame suppressant. Methylene chloride is a carcinogen in animals. We
believed that it was appropriate to label products that contained methylene chloride in any
substantial amount. The labeling should tell the public that these products should be used
outside or in an area with good ventilation because they contain a possible human
carcinogen. So, the Commission staff sat down with the firms who make the chemical and
the product, and we, along with the Consumer Federation of America and other consumer
representatives developed a label. There were three things we were trying to achieve:
• Reformulation of products that contain methylene chloride where it is not
a necessary ingredient;
• A cancer-warning label; and
• Consumer information to inform the public about the correct use of these
products and the hazards involved.
We were able in four months time to develop a label, a research system for product
reformulations, and the essential message for consumer information. Because of certain
process concerns, the Commission decided that it would start to pursue a mandatory
rule-making process. This decision put the voluntary process off track by about two years.
After the Commission decided that it would discontinue the mandatory process, the
voluntary effort was restarted. We developed the wording for the brochure and six
months ago the industry had 200,000 copies of the brochure printed and distributed. It
is likely that several hundred thousand more copies will be distributed by paint-stripper
companies, who are the major users of methylene chloride, and that widespread product
reformulation away from methylene chloride will occur. We feel that in this situation the
consensus approach, although it did not result in a formal voluntary standard, did result
in significant consumer protection with a minimum resource commitment on the part of
the Federal government.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section III 67
A Builders Guide to
Healthy Homes
John W. Spears
ICF Inc.
Introduction
Over the past decade home builders, home buyers and regulators have become more
aware of potential environmental hazards that may affect the quality of the home
environment. One of the first major home health concerns was with improperly installed
ureaformaldehyde foam insulation (UFI) in the 1970's which led to the demise of the UFI
industry. In recent years, asbestos and lead hazards have caused EPA to ban these
products from use in buildings. More recently, the threat of radon gas has caused
builders to seriously consider modifying their standard construction details to prevent the
entry of this cancer causing agent. The levels of formaldehyde are being controlled by
HUD in products used in mobile homes and many builders are switching to low
formaldehyde emitting products.
The trend to building homes with clean air and water is clear not only from a
regulatory perspective but from a market perspective. Electronic air cleaners have
become a popular feature of modern HVAC systems and builders are beginning to
incorporate central ventilation systems into their homes. In addition, combustion furnaces
and water heaters are beginning to use sealed combustion in an effort to improve energy
efficiency.
As consumers continue to learn more about indoor air quality they will begin to
demand more of the home builder. Many home buyers are already asking about radon
and as consumer awareness grows they will be asking more about indoor air quality in
general.
Some builders have already begun to respond to the increasing consumer demand
for healthy homes. This paper provides a comprehensive look at what is involved in
designing and building healthy homes and how to incorporate a healthy home upgrade
package into a builder's current home line.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section III
The Healthy Home
A healthy home is one that is designed to ensure its inhabitants breathe clean air
and drink clean water. It provides a safe haven from the dangers posed by air and water
pollution from outdoor sources, such as lead, radon, pesticides, and carbon monoxide and
other gases contained in smog. A healthy home reduces the chances of allergic reactions
and asthmatic attacks caused by pollens, dusts, and other outdoor pollutants. A healthy
home is also not a major source of indoor pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), asbestos, combustion products, and microbiological organisms that can cause
respiratory problems.
Maintaining a healthy home depends on the decisions and actions of the inhabitants
once they have moved in — for example, the choice of furnishings, the way in which
combustion, ventilation, and air handling systems are maintained, and attention to
preventing and/or cleaning up water damage.
Whether a home is healthy or not is not easily quantified and some people are more
acutely sensitive to certain indoor air pollutants than are others and require more care in
the construction of a home.
When building a healthy home, there are at least two and sometimes three levels of
protection that can be built into the home. The first level is the minimum level of
protection from the major indoor pollution sources and should probably be standard
practice for all new homes.
The minimum level features include:
• A dry basement, with no mold or mildew problems:
• No elevated radon levels;
• No backdrafting of furnace, domestic water heater, or fireplace;
• No lead paint or solder;
• No asbestos;
• No unvented appliances;
• Humidity maintained at 30 - 50 percent;
• Pesticides applied carefully, if required;
• Kitchen and bathroom exhaust fans.
Beyond the minimum level the builder may choose to offer a Healthy Home upgrade
package which has the potential for significantly improving the indoor environment. The
upgrade package may include the following:
• Whole house ventilation system, with or without a heat recovery system;
• Filtration systems for air and/or water;
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
• Central vacuum system that exhausts house dust outside;
• Care in the use of certain potentially harmful building materials, such
as plywood, particleboard, carpet adhesives, formaldehyde-containing
paneling, cabinets, carpets, underlayment, paints, and finishes; and
• Non-toxic alternatives to pesticides, mildewcides, and formaldehyde.
For some chemically sensitive people even the Healthy Home upgrade package may
not be enough. For these people special care needs to be taken to analyze each product
that is used in the building for potential effects on the chemically sensitive occupant and
extreme care needs to be taken in the construction, operation, and maintenance of the
home.
General Considerations
Most potential indoor air and water quality problems can be effectively prevented
or reduced during the construction process through the proper use of pollutant source
control, ventilation, air cleaning, humidity control, and water filtration.
Source Control — The first line of defense for preventing indoor air quality problems
is reducing or eliminating the source of the pollutants. Many different toxic chemicals
are contained in building materials but most of these chemicals offgas in a short period
of time after construction. Formaldehyde, however, can take a much longer time, even
years, to offgas. Avoid using products that contain high amounts of formaldehyde, such
as urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI), particleboard, chip board, wafer board,
composition board, and medium density fiber board. These products are commonly used
in counter tops, kitchen and bathroom cabinets, floor underlayment, roof and wall
sheathing, shelving, and furniture.
As an alternative, use solid wood or exterior grade plywood, which uses the less
harmful form phenol-formaldehyde. Most oriented strand board (OSB) also uses phenol-
formaldehyde. Most formaldehyde-containing products can also be sealed with alkyl-based
paint or poly-urethane to reduce offgassing.
Mix all paints and finishes outside whenever possible to avoid breathing fumes and
always apply these products in well-ventilated areas and continue to ventilate until all
volatile solvents have evaporated and no odor is detected. If concerned about the toxicity
of paints, solvents, finishes, and other products, you can request a statement of toxicity
from the manufacturer (the Materials Safety Data Sheet, or MSDS). Non-toxic paints,
stains, finishes, and wood preservatives are also available from some manufacturers.
Other important sources include certain consumer products, improper application of
pesticides, high radon levels in the underlying soil, backdrafting furnaces, unvented
appliances and excess humidity.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
Ventilation - Inadequate ventilation or poor air distribution throughout the home is
a major factor affecting indoor air quality. Maintaining good ventilation is necessary both
at the whole house level and in individual rooms, particularly the bathroom, kitchen, and
other localized indoor air pollution sources. The rate at which indoor air is replaced by
outside air is called the air exchange rate, and it is measured in air changes per hour
(ACH). A constant 0.35 ACH minimum should be maintained for the whole house,
although you may need to increase the ventilation rate in the kitchen, bathroom, laundry
room, garage, and workshop during periods of use. Due to the fluctuating natural air
infiltration rate a mechanical ventilation system may be necessary to ensure minimum
ventilation. The simplest ventilation system consists of bathroom exhaust fans and a
kitchen range hood vented to the outside (Figures 1 and 4). Recirculating range hoods
are inadequate for removing pollutants generated in the kitchen. The bathroom exhaust
fan should be quiet (less that 2.5 sones) and capable of exhausting at least 50 cubic feet
per minute (CFM). The kitchen exhaust fan should be capable of exhausting at least 100
CFM.
The fans should be controlled such that at least one fan operates continuously to
provide whole house ventilation. ASHRAE standard 62-89 "Ventilation for Acceptable
Indoor Air Quality" suggests that the ventilation system should have a capability to provide
a minimum of 0.35 ACH for living areas. For a 2,000 square foot home with eight foot
ceilings, the ventilation requirement amounts to an air flow rate of 5,600 cubic feet per
hour or 93 CFM continuous ventilation.
Many builders find it more convenient to install one central exhaust fan in the
basement or attic and duct it to each bathroom, the laundry room, and the kitchen. The
central fan will tend to be quieter because it is not in the room and reduces drafts,
particularly in the bathroom, from leaky fan ducts (Figures 2 and 3).
Provision for fresh air intake to the home is an important component of the
ventilation system. With the exhaust fans running, the house will be depressurized and
outside air will be drawn in from all the holes and cracks in the building. This may be
adequate to supply the house with air only if the home uses no combustion equipment
with uses a natural draft chimney and there is very little risk of radon in the soil.
The exhaust system depressurizes the home and competes with a natural draft
chimney for air. This may cause serious backdrafting problems. The depressurization may
also draw in radon through leaks in the slab, floor or basement. To avoid this problem,
dedicated fresh air intakes are recommended to distribute fresh air throughout the house.
The fresh air is generally introduced into the bedrooms, living room, and recreation or
family room.
The fresh air can be distributed in a number of ways. If the home has a ducted
heating and/or cooling system, the fresh air can be introduced directly into the return duct
of the air handler. A four to six inch insulated (R7 with continuous vapor barrier) duct
is run from a screened outside vent to the house return duct ahead of the filter system
(Figures 2 and 4).
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
The fresh air intake can be controlled by either a manual damper or an automatic
control. A manual damper can be a motorized damper controlled by a switch located next
to the thermostat. In this way, a homeowner can operate the heating/cooling system much
like the car air conditioner. The homeowner can choose to recirculate house air or bring
in the desired amount of fresh outside air. Some automatic systems give the homeowner
the option to recirculate house air or bring in zero to 100 percent outside air depending
on outside air conditions. In commercial buildings, this is called an "economizer."
If the home has no heating/cooling duct system, then fresh air can be either brought
in to each room via a dedicated duct system or directly via specially designed "through the
wall" vents. With a dedicated fresh air duct system, the air can be filtered and tempered
before entering the room. In mild climates, "through the wall" vents may be appropriate.
Several manufacturers provide both "through the wall" vents and automatic dampers that
limit the inlet air flow to the desired 10-15 CFM per room as recommended by
ASHRAE, thereby limiting the unnecessary increase in heating and cooling costs associated
with high ventilation rates (Figures 1 and 3).
The vents should be placed so that they provide fresh air to the bedrooms and living
areas. To avoid short circuits, the supply should be located opposite the door, which
should be undercut. Avoid cold drafts by venting through the furnace, and locating vents
so they spread the air across the ceiling. Fresh air vents may also be located in closets
with louvered doors. This has the advantage of helping keep clothes fresh, and reduces
mold and mildew. The outside air intake should be located a minimum of six feet from
exhaust vents, the garage and driveway, dryer exhaust, gas meter, plumbing stacks, and
should be above the snow line.
The exhaust fans are controlled to provide continuous whole house ventilation at the
minimum ventilation rate and boosted ventilation at times of heavy use. The boost mode
can be activated by either a timer switch in the bathroom or can be wired with the
bathroom light. Automatic boost can be accomplished with a dehumidistat which activates
the boost mode when the humidity rises. These controls can also be used in combination.
A heat recovery ventilator (HRV) is a device that transfers the heat of the exhaust
air into the fresh air intake stream thereby recovering otherwise wasted heat (Figure 5).
HRVs can be used as a stand alone ventilation system or be integrated into the existing
ductwork.
The HRV is convenient to use because all of the components of the ventilation
system (exhaust fan, fresh air supply fan, and heat exchanger) are included in the HRV
package. Typical applications of HRV systems are illustrated in Figures 6 and 7. It is
important that HRVs be installed with balanced air flows in and out to avoid excessive
building depressurization.
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72
NATO CCMS Pilot Study oil IAQ: Section III
Figure 1
Decentralized Exhaust Ventilation with Through-Wall Ports
-------
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 73
Figure 2
Central Exhaust System with Forced-Air Heating
Figure 3
Central Exhaust System with Through-Wall Ports
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section [If
Figure 4
Decentralized Exhaust Ventilation with Forced-Air Heating System
Figure 5
Typical Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger Components
Gotten*
Mv'Ci
Manual tm*e*
SIM
-------
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III 75
Figure 6
Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger with Area Heaters
Figure 7
Central Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger with a Forced-Air Heating System
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section III
Air Cleaning -- An effective air cleaning system can remove 99.9 percent of the
particles in the air as well as some odors and gases. The filter supplied with the furnace
is inadequate in removing respirable suspended particles, and should be supplemented with
other types of air cleaners, such as an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or a high efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) filter. Air cleaning systems, under the right conditions, can
effectively remove certain particles and may reduce any associated health effects.
However, some controversy exists about the effectiveness of air cleaners in alleviating the
allergic reactions produced by larger particles, such as pollen, allergens, house dust, some
molds, and animal dander. Larger allergenic particles settle out rapidly from the air.
Because only a small proportion of these allergens are generally suspended in the air, air
cleaners may not be 100 percent effective in their removal.
Air cleaners are usually classified based on the type of equipment they contain for
removing particles of various size from the air. The two general types of in-duct air
cleaners are mechanical filters and electronic air cleaners.
Mechanical filters come in three types: flat, pleated, and electret. Flat filters are
the typical low packing density furnace filter and consist of coarse glass fibers, animal hair,
vegetable fibers, or synthetic fibers. The fibers are often coated with a viscous substance
(e.g., oil) which may act as an adhesive for particles. These filters remove only a small
percentage of particles smaller than one micron and have little effect on the indoor air
quality. They generally are used to keep the inside of the furnace clean and as a pre-
filter for more efficient filters.
Pleated (i.e., extended surface) filters generally attain greater efficiency for removal
of small particles than flat filters. Their greater surface areas allows a decrease in the
fiber size and increased packing density of the filter without a large drop in the air flow
rate. The resistance to air flow is greater with pleated filters, however, than with flat
filters. When designing the HVAC system, the furnace fan must be sized to handle the
increase pressure drop imposed by the filter. The filter could be installed with its own fan
built in. The most efficient pleated filter, the high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter,
has a particulate removal efficiency of nearly 100 percent for 0.03 micron particles.
Electret filters are specifically formulated filters embedded with a permanent static
charge. Particulate material in the air is attracted to the charged fiber.
Electronic air cleaners are devices which trap charged particles using an electrical
field. The most common type of electronic air cleaner is the electrostatic precipitator,
which traps particles on a series of charged flat plates. Electronic air cleaners require
electrical power to operate and must be cleaned regularly to maintain their effectiveness.
Published standards on the rated efficiency or effectiveness or air-cleaning devices
can be used for comparison among different devices. ASHRAE Standard 52-76 and
Military Standard 282 are used to certify the efficiency of in-duct air cleaners in removing
particles. The ASHRAE Standard 52-76 atmospheric dust spot rating is useful in
evaluating the relative efficiency of many air cleaning units. Figure 8 shows typical
applications and limitations of filters rated using this standard and gives a general
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
indication of the types of particles which should be removed by a device with a particular
rating.
Military Standard 282 (i.e., the percentage removal of very small particles of
dioctylphthalate (DOP)) is used to rate high efficiency air cleaners — those with ASHRAE
atmospheric dust spot ratings above about 90 percent. HEPA filters, the highest efficiency
air-cleaning filters, remove almost 100 percent of the DOP particles.
The actual effectiveness of an air cleaning system in a home is dependent on how
well the system mixes the air. Effectiveness may be decreased if air exiting the HVAC
system is not well-mixed with room air before re-entering the system. This can happen
if air supply and return vents are too closely spaced and do not allow the air to sweep the
room.
Figure 8
Filter Applications Based on ASHRAE Atmospheric Dustspot Test
Air Cleaner Efficiency Rating7
10%
20%
40%
60%
80%
90%
•
Used in window
• Used in air
•
Used in heating.
•
Used same as
•
Generally used •
Used same as
air conditioners
conditioners.
air conditioning.
40%, but better
in hospitals and
80%, but
and heating
domestic heating,
and as prefiliere
protection.
controlled areas.
generally rated
systems.
and central air
to high efficiency
using Military
systems.
cleaners.
•
Useful on all
•
Very useful on
Standard 282.
•
Useful on lint.
pollens, majority
parades causing
• Fairly useful on
•
Useful on finer
of particles
smudge and •
Excellent
•
Somewhat useful
ragweed pollen
airborne dust
causing smudge
stain, and coal
protection
on common
(generally over
and pollen.
and stain, and
and oil smoke
against all
ragweed pollen
85%).
coal and oil
particles.
smokepartides
(generallyunder
•
Reduce smudge
smoke particles.
and bacteria.
70%).
• Not very useful
on smoke and
and stain
materially.
•
Partially useful
•
Quite useful on
tobacco smoke.
•
Not very useful
staining parades.
on tobacco
on smoke and
•
Slightly useful
smoke particles.
•
Very useful on
staining particles.
•
on non-tobacco
smoke particles.
Not very useful
on tobacco
smoke particles.
•
Some types
reasonably
useful on
bacteria.
bacteria.
1 Efficiency rating by ASHRAE dust spot test.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section III
Humidity Control -- Very high and very low humidity levels in homes can cause
adverse health effects in the form of respiratory infections and allergies. These health
effects can be minimized by maintaining relative humidity between 30 and 50 percent.
Molds, fungi, bacteria, and house mites proliferate in high humidity (above 60 percent)
and the harmful effects of many chemicals, such as formaldehyde, may be enhanced with
increased humidity. By installing a humidity meter, homeowners will be able to monitor
and maintain the humidity.
High humidity levels can result from a very tight home without adequate kitchen
and bathroom venting, or from water leaking through the roof or in the basement. One
common cause of high humidity in air conditioned homes is an oversized air conditioner,
which cools the house very quickly, but does not run long enough to reduce the humidity.
Make sure that the cooling load is determined accurately and don't oversize the system.
Homes that are built airtight (less than 0.5 ACH) should use mechanical ventilation to
exhaust excess humidity from bathrooms, the kitchen, and the laundry room, and to bring
in drier outside air.
Low humidity is generally a problem in houses with gas or oil furnaces because
the high temperature generated by the equipment dries the air, and in drafty houses
where the outdoor winter air dries the indoor air. Humidifiers can be used to maintain
the relative humidity in the winter. Use a humidistat to control the humidifier so that
the relative humidity of the house does not go above 60 percent. Cool mist or evaporative
humidifiers (these have a reservoir of water) require regular cleaning to prevent the
buildup of fungi and bacteria in the water and on the evaporator pads. Ultrasonic
humidifiers, vaporizers, or steam humidifiers also require maintenance. If a humidifier is
used, be sure that the homeowner is aware of the manufacturer's maintenance
requirements.
Operating the Healthy Home
We can design and build homes that have the potential for being healthy but if
they are not operated properly by the occupants we may have wasted our time and their
money. It is vitally important that the new homeowner understand how to operate the
home to get the maximum benefit from the systems installed.
The best way to accomplish this is to provide the new home buyer with an owner's
manual for the home at the time of sale. The owner's manual should contain important
information about the products and systems in the building, including:
1. Description of how the house works as a system of source control,
ventilation, and air cleaning. A simplified schematic is useful.
2. Maintenance schedules and procedures, for example, for filters, fans, and
humidifiers.
3. Manufacturer's manuals for the equipment used in the house, such as the
furnace, heat recovery ventilator, humidifier, and air cleaner.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section III
4. Phone numbers of whom to contact for service.
The builder should also provide the new homeowner with information about living
in a healthy home. This includes information about consumer products and activities that
affect indoor air quality. The builder may want to give the homeowner a copy of "The
Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality," which is available from the U.S. EPA or
the Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC).
A good time to go over the owner's manual with the homeowner is during the final
walk-through of the home. At this time, the builder can point out the features of the
home and answer any questions the owner may have about operation and maintenance.
At each stage of the construction process, there are different considerations to be
taken into account that will ultimately affect the indoor air quality of the home. Important
considerations for each stage are listed and summarized in Table A.
-------
00
TABLE A
•z
>
H
O
O
o
2
oo
oo
c
a
o
a
O
o
a
Stage of Construction
Potential Problems
Pollutant
Solution
1. Site Selection
Water runoff causing wet
basement
Ground water
contamination
Radon gas in the soil
Biological growth on
damp surfaces causing
allergic reactions.
Choose high ground with
low water table
Variety of water
pollutants including
organic and inorganic
chemicals and
microorganisms
Radon decay products
increase risk of lung
cancer
Test and filter water
Seal slab, 4" gravel under
slab and sub slab vent
Local pesticide use
Highway pollution
Organophosphate
poisoning
Noise, lead in air, smog,
dust, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide
Avoid using
organophosphates or
avoid sites next to were
it is being use regularly
like golf courses
Locate homes away from
busy streets or build a
buffer area
Hazardous waste sites
Numerous toxic wastes
Investigate site before
construction
-------
TABLE A
Stage of Construction
Potential Problems
Pollutant
Solution
2. Site preparation
Poor drainage
Wet basement or floors
causing mold or mildew
Drain site well
Trash in the backfill may
attract termites and
require pesticides
Pesticides
Use termite shields,
clean backfill, natural
predators, non-toxic
pesticides like borax
3.
Foundation
Radon gas leaking into
home
Radon decay products
Good waterproofing, 4"
gravel under the slab.
Radon vent
Moisture from leaky
basement, damp crawl
space or damp floor
Mold, mildew
Good waterproofing and
drainage
4. Building
Concrete additives cause
reactions in some people
Uncontrolled infiltration
and exfiltration causing
backdrafting, radon
entry, termiticide entry
Engine exhaust and
toxins in garage may be
drawn into home
Various pollutants
Combustion products
from backdrafting, radon,
pesticides
Car exhaust, CO, C02,
and various VOCs and
pesticides stored in
garage
Avoid use
Build with air tight
construction techniques
and provide for
mechanical ventilation
Vent garage separate
from the house with an
exhaust fan and seal
from the house
00
-------
TABLE A
z:
5
Stage of Construction
Potential Problems
Pollutant
Solution
o
n
o
sr
Building materials that
contain formaldehyde -
particle board, chip
board, wafer board,
composition board,
medium density
fiberboard
Formaldehyde
Use exterior grade
plywood or low
formaldehyde emitting
boards or seal with alkyl-
based paint or
polyurethane
CO
y.
o
CO
e
a
o
3
£
Q
C/i
Asbestos tiles or shingles
Asbestos
Avoid use and never cut
or sand
G>
a
o
3
Offgassing of paint
finishes and adhesives
Various VOCs
Use non-toxic
alternatives, vent house
well during and
immediately after
applying
Saw dust from treated
lumber
Penta and chromated
copper arsenate
Wear respirator while
cutting
5. HVAC System
Genera] air quality
problems
Various pollutants and
humidity
Install a whole house
ventilation system with
kitchen, bathroom, and
laundry room exhaust
and fresh air intake
Backdrafting of
combustion products
Various combustion
products
Use sealed combustion
or electric appliances or
forced vent or powered
vent systems
-------
TABLE A
Stage of Construction
Potential Problems
Pollutant
Solution
Airborne particles and
mold and mildew from
wet duct liners
Fiberglass, mold, mildew
Avoid duct liners inside
ducts, use exterior
insulation
Excess humidity from
bathrooms and laundry
rooms
Mold, mildew,
bioaerosols
install exhaust fans
Short circuiting of supply
and return vents reduce
effectiveness of air
cleaning and ventilation
Furnace fan-induced
depressurization of
basement or crawispace
Excess humidity from
humidifiers, or
undersized air
conditioners
Mold, mildew and
localized build up of
pollutants
Radon or pesticides
Mold, mildew
Locate vents to sweep
the room and undercut
doors to maintain airflow
with doors closed
Tightly seal return ducts
and supply register in
furnace room
Maintain RH 30-50%,
don't oversize air
conditioners.
Poorly maintained
humidifiers
Bioaerosols
Disinfect humidifiers
regularly
Allergies from dust,
mold, pollen, and other
airborne particles
Suspended respirable
particulates such as
cigarette smoke, dust,
pollen, mold, mildew
Install high efficiency air
filtration system
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TABLE A
Stage of Construction
Potential Problems
Pollutant
Solution
6. Plumbing
Lead from solder in
water
Lead
Use plastic pipe or lead
free solder
7. Appliances
Water pollution from
ground water or central
system
Combustion products
from unvented
appliances
Microorganisms,
particles, organic and
inorganic chemicals
Combustion products
Test water and filter if
necessary
Vent all combustion
equipment
Allergies caused by dust
and bioaerosols during
and after vacuuming
Various suspended
respirable particulates
Use central vacuum
cleaner with outside
exhaust
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Section IV
Indoor Air Pollutant Guidelines
wmmMmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
WHO Air Quality Guidelines
for JEurpjge
Reiner Tuerck*
Ministry for Environment
Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
Federal Republic of Germany
The overall purpose of the World Health Organization is to contribute to the WHO
goal of "health for all by the year 2000." Regional targets were set to achieve this goal
in the European Region, which extends beyond the geographical borders of Europe and
includes Greenland, Israel, and the Asian parts of the Soviet Union and Turkey. Target
21 of the European Regional Strategy deals with control of air pollution. Target 21
requests that "by 1995, everyone in the Region should be effectively protected against
recognized health risk from air pollution." The explanatory text for this target states that
achieving this target will require the introduction of effective legislative, administrative, and
technical measures for the surveillance and control of both outdoor and indoor air
pollution, in order to comply with criteria to safeguard human health. The time schedule
specified in this target is quite ambitious and it is not likely that the target can be met in
time in all parts of the region.
The Air Quality Guidelines project followed on the heels of the Drinking Water
Guidelines, which were jointly developed by the WHO regional office in Europe and the
WHO Headquarters in Geneva. The Drinking Water Guidelines were finalized in 1983.
After those guidelines were published, the Dutch government approached WHO and
suggested that Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) should be developed. In November 1983,
the WHO Regional Office for Europe embarked on the AQG project, which was
generously supported by the government of The Netherlands.
The decision to start the project was based on the consideration that a common basis
for the control of air pollution was needed for the European Region. The only
internationally agreed upon source of information are the environmental health criteria
documents of the International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS). These documents
are scientifically of high value, but unfortunately the time interval between the publication
of these documents may be rather long.
Mr. Tucrck is the former project manager of the World Health Organization air quality guidelines
project.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
One of the main aims of the AQG project was to evaluate many substances during
a relatively short time period. The primary aims of the Guidelines were twofold:
• Protection of public health and thus the elimination or reduction to a
minimum of constituents of air that are known to be hazardous to hunjan
health and well being; and
• To serve as a basis for air quality management and development of
standards, although guideline values are not standards in themselves.
The entire procedure for establishing the Air Quality Guidelines took three and a half
years and consisted of four phases:
• 1st Phase: Planning and Preparation;
• 2nd Phase: Internal Review Process;
• 3rd Phase: External Review Process; and
• 4th Phase: Publication.
A planning meeting in early 1984 decided on content, format, workplan, and
timetable as well as on the chemicals to be included in the project. The selection of
chemicals was based on an established set of criteria:
• Severity and frequency of observed or suspected adverse effects on human
health -- where irreversible effects are of special concern;
• Ubiquity and abundance of the agent in the human environment -- with
emphasis on air pollutants;
• Environmental transformation or metabolic alteration - as these
alterations may lead to the production of chemicals with greater toxic
potential;
• Persistence in the environment — particularly if the pollutant would resist
environmental degradation and accumulate in humans, in the environment,
or in food chains; and
• Population exposed -- concerning the size of exposed population and
special groups at risk.
A list of pollutants selected for study on the basis of the criteria is presented in Exhibit 1.
The planning and preparation phase of the project consisted mainly of a series of
meetings to deal with specific substances or groups of substances. Subsequently, extensive
internal and external review process followed, as well as a final plenary meeting.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 87
Exhibit 1
Organic air pollutants
Inorganic air pollutants
Acrylonitrile
Benzene
Carbon disulfide
1,2-Dichloroethane
Dichloromethane
Formaldehyde
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
Arsenic
Asbestos
Cadmium
Carbon monoxide
Chromium
Hydrogen sulfide
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
(carcinogenic fraction)
Styrene
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
Trichloroethylene
Vinyl chloride
Nickel
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone/photochemical oxidants
Particulate matter
Radon
Sulfur oxides
Vanadium
The entire process was aided by an editorial consultation group ot ten scientists. As
shown in Exhibit 2, working papers were prepared for each of the substances, and
extensive review procedures were conducted. Drafts of the working papers were reviewed
two and three times, and many comments were received.
The WHO guidelines consist of a general part describing the criteria used in
establishing guideline values, a summary of the guidelines, and a description of how to use
the guidelines. A more detailed scientific description of background information on the
individual substances (based on the WHO EHC documents, other reviews, and original
papers) and the derivation of guidelines is given in sections on inorganic and organic
substances.
Exhibit 3 lists the substances and guideline values. The guidelines are divided into
different categories depending on whether their health effects are carcinogenic or
otherwise. Guideline values for non-carcinogenic effects are presented in terms of
concentration (mg or ^g per mJ) and a time-weighted average. It is believed that
inhalation of an air pollutant in concentrations and for an exposure time below a guideline
value will not have adverse effects on health, although compliance with the guideline
values cannot guarantee the absolute exclusion of effects at levels below the guideline
values, e.g., with regard to sensitive groups or in the case of combined exposure. On the
other hand, if situations occur where the guideline values are slightly exceeded, this does
not always mean that adverse health effects will occur.
With the exception of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter, guideline values are
indicated for individual substances. In Exhibit 4, guideline values for the combined
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
exposure to sulfur dioxide and particulate matter are presented, reflecting the knowledge
that health effects are more significant when both pollutants are present. Exhibit 5
presents the rationale and guideline values for substances based on sensory effects or
annoyance reactions. These values are based on an average exposure time of 30 minutes.
Carcinogenic risk estimates are presented in Exhibit 6. Since most of the selected
substances are proven human carcinogens, the estimates are based on human studies
rather than animal studies. The carcinogenic risk estimate is indicated as a unit risk for
lifetime exposure. No assumption was made that there would be a negligible or
acceptable risk at a certain number e.g., 10" or 1Q4. Risk estimates for asbestos and
radon daughters based on different units are presented in Exhibits 7 and 8.
As stated above, the guideline values are not standards in themselves. The values
should not be used without looking at the background information, which explains the
rationale for the guideline values. Furthermore, it should be noted "that the guidelines
do not differentiate between indoor and outdoor exposure" because this distinction does
not "directly affect the basic exposure-effect relationship." With regard to average times,
experts agree that the current state of knowledge is insufficient to delineate concentrations
for all exposure situations. Depending on the action mechanism in the environmental
exposure range, short exposure times are indicated for the more acute type of effect,
whereas long-term exposure times were attributed to substances that have chronic effects,
particularly those which accumulate in the body. Regulators need "to select the most
appropriate and practical standards in relation to the guidelines, without necessarily using
the guidelines directly."
Since the publication of the guidelines, two meetings have been held with air
pollution control experts from countries of the Region, one with experts of southern
Europe and another with experts of eastern Europe. The purpose of these meetings was
to discuss how the guidelines can best be applied by member states. Both meetings
demonstrated a substantial interest from member countries which are ready to replace
values based on historical approaches, with values based on a consensus of international
experts. In conducting surveys of exposure situations, countries can now compare the
results with air quality guidelines and rank substances for air pollution control measures
in terms of importance.
I hope that the WHO Air Quality Guidelines will not only be used for ambient air
pollution control but also for solving indoor air pollution problems.
Air quality guidelines for Europe
Copenhagen: WHO. Regional Office for Europe, 1987
WHO regional publications, European series; No. 23
ISBN 92-890-1114-9
Air/Analysis - Air Pollution/Prevention and Control
A
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
89
Exhibit 2
Procedure in Establishing Air Quality Guidelines
Participants of vorJung group ratings
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90
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
Exhibit 3
Guideline Values for Individual Substances
Based on Effects Other Than Cancer or Odor/Annoyancea
Substance
Time-weighted
average
Averaging time
Cadmium
1 - 5 ng/m3
1 year (rural areas)
10 - 20 ng/m3
1 year (urban areas)
Carbon disulfide
100 /ig/m3
24 hours
Carbon monoxide
100 mg/m36
15 minutes
60 mg/m56
30 minutes
30 mg/m36
1 hour
10 mg/m3
8 hours
1 -2,Diehloroethanc
0.7 mg/m?
24 hours
Dichloromethane
(Methylene chloride)
3 mg/m3
24 hours
Formaldehyde
100 /ig/m3
30 minutes
Hydrogen sulfide
150 /ig/m3
24 hours
Lead
0.5 - 1.0 /xg/ni3
1 year
Manganese
1 /ig/m3
1 year17
Mercury
1 /ig/m3J
1 year
(indoor air)
Nitrogen dioxide
40 /ig/m3
1 hour
150 /ig/m3
24 hours
Ozone
150 - 200 /ig/m3
1 hour
100 - 120 figfm3
8 hours
Styrenc
800 /ig/m3
24 hours
Sulfur dioxide
500 /ig/m3
10 minutes
350 /ig/m3
1 hour
Tetrachloroethylene
5 mg/m3
24 hours
Toluene
8 mg/m3
24 hours
Trichloroethylene
1 mg/m3
24 hours
Vanadium
1 /ig/m3
24 hours
a. Information from this table should not be used without reference to the rationale given in the
chapters.
b. Exposure at these concentrations should be for no longer than the indicated times and should not
be repeated within 8 hours.
c. Due to respiratory irritancy, it would be desirable to have a short-term guideline, but the present
data base does not permit such estimations.
d. The guideline value is given only for indoor pollution, no guidance is given on outdoor
concentrations (via deposition and entry into the food chain) that might be of indirect relevance.
Note: When air levels in the general environment are orders of magnitude lower than the guideline values,
present exposures are unlikely to present a health concern. Guideline values in those cases are directed
only to specific release episodes or specific indoor pollution problems.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
Exhibit 4
Guideline Values for Combined Exposure to Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate Matter0
Gravimetric assessment
Reflectance Total
Averaging Sulfur assessment suspended Thoracic
Time Dioxide black smokcb particulates (TSP)C particles (TP)d
(/xg/rn3) Og/m3) C/xg/m3) (/ig/m3)
Short term 24 hours 125 125 120® 70®
Long term 1 year 50 50
a. No direct comparisons can be made between values for particulate matter in the right- and left-hand
sections of this table, since both the health indicators and the measurement methods differ. While
numerically, TSP/TP values are generally greater than those of black smoke, there is no consistent
relationship between them, the ratio of one to the other varying widely from time to time and place
to place, depending on the nature of the sources.
b. Nominal ^ig/m3 units, assessed by reflectance. Application of the black smoke value is recommended
only in areas where coal smoke from domestic fires is the dominant component of the particulates.
It does not necessarily apply where diesel smoke is an important contributor.
c. TSP measurement by high volume sampler, without any size selection.
d. TP equivalent values as for a sampler with ISO-TP characteristics (having a 50 percent cut-off point
at 10 ^m); estimated from TSP values using site-specific TSP/ISO-TP ratios.
e. Values to be regarded as tentative at this stage, being based on a single study also involving sulfur
dioxide exposure.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
Exhibit 5
Threshold and Guideline Values Based on Sensory Effects
or Annoyance Reactions, Using an Averaging Time of 30 Minutes
Substance
Detection
threshold
Recognition
threshold
Guideline
value
Carbon disulfide in
viscose emissions
20 /ig/m3
Hydrogen sulfide
0.2-2.0 ng/m3
0.6-6.0 /ig/m3
7 /ig/m3
StyTene
70 /ig/m3
210-280 /ig/m3
70 /ig/m3
Tetrachlorocthylcne
8 mg/m3
24-32 mg/m3
8 mg/m3
Toluene
1 mg/m3
10 mg/m3
1 mg/m3
Exhibit 6
Carcinogenic Risk Estimates Based on Human Studies"
IARC Group
Unit riskb
Substance
Classification
Silc of tumour
Acrylonitrile
2A
2 x 10"5
lung
Arsenic
1
4 x 10"3
lung
Benzene
1
4 x lO^5
blood (leukemia)
Chromium (VI)
1
4 x 10'2
lung
Nickel
2A
4 x 10"4
lung
Polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons
9 x 10"2
(carcinogenic fraction)1
lung
Vinyl chloride
1
1 x 10"6
liver and other sites
a. Calculated with average relative risk model.
b. Cancer risk estimates for lifetime exposure to a concentration of 1 /ig/m3.
c. Expressed as benzo(a)pyrene (based on benzo(a)pyrene concentration of 1 /ig/m3 in air as a
component of benzene-soluble coke-oven emissions).
A
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV 93
Exhibit 7
Risk Estimates for Asbestos
Concentration
Range of lifetime risk estimates
500F*/m3(0.0005F/ml)
10"6 - 10"s (lung cancer in a population where 30 percent are smokers)
10"5 - 10"4 (mesothelioma)
Note: F* = fibers measured by optical methods.
Exhibit 8
Risk Estimates and Recommended Action Level
for Radon Daughters
Lung cancer
Recommended level
excess lifetime risk
for remedial action
Exposure
estimate
in buildings
1 Bq/m3EER
(0.7 x 10"*) - (21 x 10-4)
>100 Bq/m3EER
(annual average)
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94 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LA.Q: Section IV 95
The Approach to Control
Indoor Air Quality in Italy
Marco Maroni
Istituto di Medicina del Lavoro
Universita di Milano
Introduction
The expression "Indoor Air Quality" refers to the air quality of non-industrial closed
spaces. The environments covered by such a definition include dwellings, public buildings,
and offices; thus the problems of indoor air quality concern all the general population and,
at least in the developed countries, the greater part of the working people. This accounts
for the growing interest in this issue, the implications of which pertain to public health,
the safety and comfort of the population, industrial production, architectural design and
engineering, commercial regulations, and, in a word, the quality of life in our modern
society.
Concern about indoor air quality was initially raised by occasional episodes of high
pollutant concentrations in public buildings or dwellings, caused by agents such as
formaldehyde, asbestos, and pentachlorophenol. A more systematic approach to the study
of indoor spaces has led to the discovery of multiple sources of pollution and to the
detection of irritants, toxic substances, neurotoxic agents, and proven or suspected
carcinogens -- all of which are frequently present indoors at higher concentrations than
outdoors. These findings, combined with the fact that populations in western countries
spend 80 - 90 percent of their time indoors, have directed great attention to indoor air
quality, comparable to that commanded by atmospheric pollution.
The interest in indoor air quality in Italy is rather recent: this paper provides an
overview of the research experience gained so far in Italy and the activities undertaken by
the public administration.
Characterization of the Sources of Indoor Pollutants and Assessment of
Population Exposure
Organic Substances
During the last few years, the public has become aware of the fact that the pollutant
concentrations observed in the outdoor atmosphere may not be representative of indoor
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96
NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
air, at least for many pollutants and particularly for VOCs. With the exception of
formaldehyde, not much qualitative and quantitative data exists on the indoor occurrence
of VOCs and on the indoor/outdoor concentration ratios. Published data showing
indoor/outdoor concentration ratios greater than 1.0 for many compounds, derived from
northern Europe and the United States, need to be verified as well as their applicability
to other countries analyzed. Such information would aid in identifying pollution sources,
assessing potential health risks, and establishing national or local priorities for action.
Recently, a significant study has been carried out in the northern part of Italy by
scientists of the Joint Research Center of the Commission of the European Communities
in Ispra. The study consists of two parts: (1) a comparison of indoor and outdoor
concentrations of 35 selected VOCs, total VOCs and respirable suspended particulates in
several dwellings; and (2) a detailed analysis of indoor air samples by GC-MS to identify
the single VOCs present. The survey included five apartments and nine detached houses,
located in urban, suburban, and rural areas of Lombardy, that were exposed to high,
moderate, and low traffic densities.
The measurements of the indoor and outdoor concentrations of the 35 VOCs
selected for this study (which included 3 aldehydes, 2 ketones, 6 halocarbons, 8 alkanes,
8 alkylbenzenes, 2 terpenes, naphtalene, and other VOCs) have shown that the VOCs
were nearly always more at higher concentrations indoors than outdoors, often by an order
of magnitude. The mean concentration of total VOCs was about 3 mg/mJ indoors
compared to 0.4 mg/m3 outdoors. Among the substances of major toxicological concern
for humans, elevated concentrations were detected for benzene, toluene, 1,4-
dichlorobenzene, and dichloromethane.
Detailed analysis of air samples by GC-MS led to the identification of a much larger
number of compounds, sometimes more than a hundred for a single sample. Most of the
identified compounds were solvents derived from consumer products rather than from
building materials. Many of these compounds have also been detected in northern Europe
and the United States and are the constituents of paints, wood impregnants, glues, cleaning
agents, liquid waxes, and polishes. Interestingly, this study did not find a significant
correlation between the minimum air exchange rate of the houses and the indoor total
VOC concentrations, thus indicating that the residents' behavior may be a factor prevailing
over ventilation in determining indoor VOC levels.
The interest in consumer products as a possible source of significant indoor pollution
has also led to an investigation of the VOC emissions from some widely used household
products marketed in Italy. Ten commercial products for cleaning and conservation (eight
waxes and two detergents), intended for application to large surfaces, were screened in
laboratory tests for VOC emissions.
The products containing water as a main constituent were found to emit oxygenated
compounds, among which were terpene alcohols and their acetates, aliphatic alcohols and
esters, and alkoxy-alcohols. The products without water essentially emitted hydrocarbons
(alkanes, alkenes, and terpenes). It is interesting to note that, on the whole, more than
90 individual VOCs were detected in only ten products, thus indicating that household
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section IV 97
products may represent a rich and varied source of chemical indoor pollution. Even
though it may be argued that indoor concentrations for most of these compounds are
usually fairly low, it is also true that toxicological information for many of them is very
scarce, especially with regard to the long-term effects these compounds may have on
humans. Since the characterization of emissions from household products can be very
informative regarding the nature of potential indoor pollution, these experimental tests
should be encouraged (though taking into account their reasonable cost). Moreover, their
results can also help industry design better and safer products.
One aspect of particular concern for household products is the occurrence of allergic
reactions among users. This matter is not new, as it was abruptly discovered by the public
when new biotechnologic detergents, possessing extremely powerful sensitizing properties,
were introduced on the market in the 1970s. However, the problem is still acute and can
be viewed as one of the major current "occupational" diseases in housewives. At present,
a multi-focal survey is under way in Italy, in cooperation with the Institute of Occupational
Medicine of Milano and the University of Bari, with the support of Assocasa, the Italian
association of the industrial producers of household products. The two main purposes are
to define the incidence of allergic diseases among housewives, and to identify the main
causative agents. Several thousand subjects will be contacted and screened over two years
to provide a better assessment of the problem as well as specific information for
prevention.
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde is perhaps the most well-known organic indoor pollutant, as can be
deduced by the large quantities of data available on indoor formaldehyde concentrations.
The main sources of formaldehyde pollution are urea-formaldehyde-glued particleboard
and plywood, urea formaldehyde foams used for insulation, moquettes (a type of
upholstery or rug fabric), textiles, adhesives, and cosmetics. The emission rate from these
materials is greatly influenced by air temperature and humidity. Outdoor sources can
also contribute to low-level concentrations in buildings, particularly in cities.
Several countries have set limits for formaldehyde exposure indoors. The current
threshold concentration recommended by a Circular of the Ministry of Health in Italy is
0.1 ppm, which is the same value adopted by the Federal Republic of Germany, The
Netherlands, Denmark, and Finland, and corresponds to the 0.12 ppm value endorsed by
the World Health Organization for the general population.
Formaldehyde is a proven rodent carcinogen, and, as such, is a suspected human
carcinogen. Moreover, a small part of the general population has proven to be hyper-
reactive to formaldehyde exposure, either because of the hypersusceptibility of the airways
mucosa or because of allergic sensitization. These facts may render questionable the
validity of the recommended limits and should encourage a more comprehensive approach
to prevention addressed at limiting exposure as far as feasible.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
Pentachlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a versatile pesticide, mainly used as an inhibitor of
biological degradation in wood treatment, leather tanning, and paper production. Due to
these widespread uses, PCP has become an ubiquitous pollutant of the general
environment. However, concern for population exposure has been raised, particularly for
log-home residents whose houses have been treated with PCP. Studies in the United
States have indicated that log-home inhabitants (particularly infants) may have blood PCP
concentrations two or three orders of magnitude higher than those found in the general
population.
Ln Italy, although log-homes are not popular, it is very common to find wooden
surfaces inside homes. Moreover, the leather industry is very well developed; the three
main clusters of tanneries, located in Lombardy, Veneto and Campania, each consume
about 100 tons of PCP per year.
A survey completed in 1987 investigated the level of occupational and home exposure
to PCP of wood and leather workers, and of selected subjects in the general population.
While occupational exposure has been found to result in very high blood and urine
concentrations of PCP (up to 4,000 - 5,000 /ig/liter), urinary PCP levels in the general
population have been found to vary according to whether wooden surfaces treated with
PCP were present in the house (urinary excretion: 50 - 100 /ig/1) or whether no known
sources were detectable (urinary excretion: 2-15 /ig/1).
It is interesting to note that increased urinary PCP concentrations were also observed
in locations where indoor PCP application had occurred more than ten years before the
study, thus indicating the long persistence of PCP release from the treated wood surfaces.
The comparison of PCP concentrations in house dust and in urine of occupants gave a
correlation coefficient of 0.9 in this study.
Since PCP can be easily absorbed through the skin, another remarkable finding was
that finished leather after tanning as well as leather articles may contain hundreds of ppm
of PCP, which can be transferred and deposited onto human skin by direct contact.
When some commercial PCP products marketed in Italy were analyzed for minor
constituents and impurities, ppm concentrations of total dioxins and trace amounts
(maximum concentration: 0.19 ppb) of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin were detected.
These findings account in part for the concern associated with indoor PCP pollution and
human PCP exposure.
Inorganic Gases
Several inorganic gases have been recognized as possible indoor pollutants. Carbon
monoxide, which can be released by combustion appliances, especially in the case of
malfunction, is particularly insidious because it does not have warning properties and can
easily lead to acute poisoning and fatalities. In Italy, due to the extensive use of open-
A
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
flame heating systems, such accidents are not rare, and a sustained effort would be
desirable for preventing these casualties.
Besides acute effects, concern has been growing that low-level inorganic gas
concentrations in confined living spaces may be responsible for long-term adverse effects
in residents, notably in their respiratory systems. Nitrous oxides (NOr), sulfur oxides (SOx),
and ozone are the agents most likely to be involved in such effects.
A map of indoor pollution and an assessment of the indoor population exposure to
inorganic gases in Italy is not available. Exposure to these gases at low concentrations
may affect a great portion of the population, while only a minority of the population is
exposed to higher NO^. concentrations, and an even smaller number of people are exposed
to SO, and ozone in higher concentrations. SOr and NO, concentrations are regularly
monitored outdoors in the large metropolitan areas, and these measurements have often
shown critical values resulting from intensive traffic congestion and, particularly in the past,
extensive use of fuel oil (instead of methane) for domestic heating.
The contribution of indoor sources to overall exposure to inorganic gases has not yet
been characterized, however, some research projects on this subject have been planned.
The indoor concentrations of inorganic gases, particulate, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons
resulting from combustion appliances is being investigated in the Milan area under the
initiative of the city gas supplying company (AEM), with the support of the Centra
Informazioni Studi Esperienze (CISE) research staff. Another large survey has been
planned by the National Board of Electricity (ENEL) and the National Research Council
(NRC) in Emilia-Romagna, in an agricultural area around the coal-fired power plant of
Porto Tolle and in the town of Pisa. This study is geared towards understanding the
qualitative and quantitative importance of indoor pollution, in terms of exposure allocation
between indoors and outdoors for the general population.
Asbestos and Man-Made Mineral Fibers
After recognizing the carcinogenic potential of asbestos in working environments,
the public has been alerted to the possibility that a similar risk may also exist in living
environments where asbestos has been extensively applied without long-lasting effective
protection. This concern has prompted many surveys, primarily in the United States, and
specific preventive actions were undertaken by EPA, particularly for schools and other
public buildings in the late 1970s.
In Italy, testing for asbestos fiber concentrations in schools started in 1984 in the
province of Milano and was soon after extended to other schools, hospitals, and some
other public buildings of the Milan area. The bad condition of sprayed asbestos and/or
the relatively high airborne fiber concentrations led. in many occasions, to the removal of
asbestos and its substitution with other materials, or to the treatment of the asbestos
surfaces with specifically developed encapsulants.
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100 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section IV
In 1985, the Administration of the Lombardy Region issued a Circular requesting
systematic inspections for asbestos of schools and hospitals, and prescribing technical
guidelines for action and for safe execution of the asbestos decontamination activities.
The subsequent year, a national Circular was issued by the Ministry of Health, extending
the same regulations, with some modifications, to the whole country.
At present in Italy, indoor asbestos pollution has been highlighted to the public
attention but it is far from being a solved problem since remedial actions have been
undertaken only in few regions and because of the difficulties in finding the necessary
economic resources. The preventive campaign against asbestos, although incomplete, has
achieved good results, namely characterization of indoor pollution of some buildings,
development of decontamination procedures, standardization of the methods of
measurement, and education of the public health officials.
Despite the intense research activity carried out in several countries on indoor
asbestos, two main scientific questions are still unsolved: the occurrence of health effects
at low levels of exposure (less than 0.1 fibers/ml), and the health significance of the ultra-
small asbestos fibers that can be revealed and quantified only by electron microscopy.
Another field requiring further study is the toxicity to humans of man-made mineral
fibers (MMMFs), such as glasswool and ceramic fibers. These fibers are being increasingly
utilized and are becoming very popular as asbestos substitutes.
Radioactive Pollutants
Exposure of the population to natural radiation has become a prominent issue
because of two main reasons: (1) natural radiation accounts for about 80 percent of the
average effective annual dose equivalent received by the general population, and (2)
according to some estimates, up to five percent of the observed lung cancer frequency in
the general population might be associated with indoor radiation exposure.
Surveys of natural radiation exposures have been carried out in many European
countries. The general results of these studies have shown that mean indoor radon
concentrations range between 20 and 50 Bq/m3, which correspond to effective dose
equivalents in the order of 0.5 to 1.3 mSv/year. These values are more or less the same
order of magnitude as the average doses delivered by external penetrating radiation of
terrestrial or cosmic origin. In contrast to penetrating radiation doses that show a narrow
distribution around the mean value, indoor radon concentrations and their related doses
have been found to be log-normally distributed in the population, with small groups of
people receiving hundred-fold greater doses than the median values.
Indoor radon pollution in Italy has been studied by research groups of the Istituto
Superiore di Sanita (National Institute of Health), ENEA (the National Committee for
Research and Development of Nuclear Energy and Alternative Energies), the Institute of
Physics of the University of Milan, and CISE. About 330 houses have been investigated
in Milano and in the Umbria region, and more than 1,000 in a national survey based on
randomly selected dwellings. The regional as well as the national studies have generally
A
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found average exposure values comparable to those measured in other European countries,
with a national median value of 25 Bq/m' and a maximum value of 154 Bq/mJ'
In the study performed in Umbria, an area of higher exposure was detected in the
town of Orvieto, with effective dose equivalents of 9.0 mSv/year. It is interesting to note
that 90 percent of the houses in this town are made of tufa, a porous rock. Further
studies have been planned to better characterize this area.
At present, a large national survey on radon exposure is underway in Italy under the
coordination of the National Institute of Health and ENEA/DISP. This study plans to
measure radon concentrations in several thousand houses throughout the country, selected
with a random criterion. The first regional results of this survey will be available in 1990.
Strategies for Prevention and Control
Strategies for prevention and control of indoor pollution can be developed at
different levels: educational, technical, and regulatory. Of course, each strategy level does
not exclude the others, although different sources or agents may respond more or less
favorably to each of these levels. A typical example of a source requiring an intensive
action at the educational and social level is tobacco smoke; education may also be
appropriate for other pollutants that are associated with bad habits or particular behaviors
of the indoor occupants.
Intervention at the technical level is nearly always necessary and represents the
effective completion of actions at regulatory or educational levels. Technical aids are
necessary to develop safer building materials or products to be used indoors as well as to
design proper buildings, appropriate heating or ventilation systems, and appliances having
specific technical requisites.
Finally, regulatory action is often viewed as the principal instrument available to
public administrators to set air quality standards and uniform criteria for verification as
well as to establish means of surveillance and enforcement. However, it should also be
recognized that the regulatory approach has some limitations, including inflexibility and
difficulty of verifying compliance, particularly in the case of ubiquitous pollutants.
Recently, the Minister of the Environment of Italy has appointed a National Scientific
Committee for Indoor Pollution, in order to review the state-of-the-art technology and to
recommend actions to be undertaken by the Administration. The Committee, comprised
of a Health Advisory Group and a Technical Advisory Group, is expected to prepare an
extended document that should be released by the end of 1990.
Other activities have been planned at the local level, including a Project on Indoor
Pollution Control launched by the Administration of the Municipality of Milano. This
project will focus primarily on checking and controlling indoor air quality in school
buildings and in other major buildings for public use that are owned by the Municipality.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section IV
Plans for Research
The current level of IAQ knowledge is not adequate to answer all the questions that
concern community administrators and the public." The information collected so far, either
by direct investigations or by extrapolation from related disciplines, is enough to indicate
that indoor air quality is an emerging problem for health and human welfare, but many
aspects of indoor air quality are not yet very well known, and the question of human
health risks in particular remain open to investigation for many agents and conditions of
exposure.
Several countries, including the United States, the Federal Republic of Germany, and
France, have established nationally coordinated IAQ research programs. All these
programs contain many points in common but differ in terms of local priorities and
specific agents or sources studied. At the international level, groups active in indoor air
quality are present in the World Health Organization and the Commission of the
European Communities, where a Concerted Action on "Indoor Air Quality and its Impact
on Man" was started in 1987 by initiative of the Environment Directorate of the
Commission of the European Community.
In Italy, LAQ investigations have started only recently, but some results are already
available and several groups have shown interest and strong research capabilities. An
inventory made in 1989 by the European Concerted Action recorded 15 research profiles
underway in Italy. Future plans include two major national indoor air research programs
that will be coordinated by the National Research Council (NRC) of Italy. The first
program will last three years, starting in 1990, and is part of a comprehensive National
Research Plan for Atmospheric Environment supported by a joint effort between the
National Board for Electricity (ENEL) and NRC. Here, research activity on the indoor
environment is seen as a complement to outdoor studies to allow a better understanding
of the effects of atmospheric pollution. The program is funded with about $25 million
(SUS).
The second program is a general National Plan for Research on Environment
coordinated by the NRC, currently being considered for approval by the National
Parliament. The plan includes ten major fields of research, one of which is "Urban Areas
and Indoor Environment." If approved, this plan will last five years and will support
research activities for a total amount of about $100 million ($US).
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Section V
Ventilation Standards and
Guidelines
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
Guidelines - Ventilation
Classes
Olav Bjoerscth
Division of Work Science (SINTEF)
Norwegian Institute of Technology
University of Trondheim. Trondheim, Norway
The Indoor Air Climate Institute in Sweden has proposed three ventilation classes,
based upon PPD-indices (predicted percent dissatisfied).
• Class A: Very good thermal comfort, good air quality
• Class B: Good thermal comfort, acceptable air quality
• Class C: Acceptable thermal comfort, acceptable air quality
Five standards were used in developing the classes:
• ISO 7730 "Moderate Thermal Environments - Determination of PHV and
PPD indices"
• ISO 7726 "Thermal environments - instruments and methods for
measuring physical quantities"
ASHRAE 62-1981 "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality"
• ASHRAE 55-1981 'Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy"
• NKB 40 1981 "Guidelines for Indoor Air Climate"
Each class is divided in two parts, according to individual regulation of temperature
and/or air flow (e.g., Class A - IR means that the temperature and/or the air flow can be
regulated individually in each room). In class A, recycled air is not allowed. In classes
B and C recycling is allowed under certain circumstances. Table 1 provides the PPDs in
the different classes. Table 2 provides the operative temperature in each class. The air
velocity (based upon a three minute mean value) is given in Table 3. The vertical
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
temperature differences and the acceptable floor temperatures are presented in Tables 4
and 5.
The lowest acceptable air flow in rooms where smoking is not permitted is given by:
Class A: Q = 0.75 (8N + E )
• Class B and C: Q = 0.35 (8N + E )
Q = air flow (liter per m2 floor)
N = number of persons per floor
E = emission factor
E^ = 1 (for low emitting materials [up to 40 per m2/h])
EB = 2 (for medium emitting materials [up to 80 per m2/h])
Ec = 4 (for high emitting materials [up to 160 ^g per m2/h])
The proposed guidelines reflect both person load and emission from building materials in
the flow rate calculation. The capacity of the ventilation system in the different classes
is given in Table 6. This allows for variation in the air flow in the different rooms if the
person load is changed, or if there is an increase in heat emitting equipment.
The guidelines are now being evaluated in Sweden. Some minor changes will come,
but so far the main idea seems to be accepted. More details about emission test
standards and other issues will be further discussed before the guidelines become official.
Norway is also trying to adopt these guidelines.
For more details, contact Ulf Rengholt, The Indoor Air Climate Institute,
Hantverkargatan 8, 11221 Stockholm, Sweden or Olav Bjoerseth.
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Table 1: PPD in Different Quality Classes (%)
Class A Class B Class C Remarks
Thermal comfort 5 - 7
10
10
10% = ISO 7730
Sensory perception 10
20
20
20 = ASHRAE 62-1981
Inconvenience
reactions 0 - 1
5
5
Mucous membrane
reactions 0-1
10
10
Odor
10
50
50
Table 2: Operative Temperature In The Different Classes ("C)
Class A
Class B
Class C
Winter
20-22
19-23
18-25
Summer
23-25
22-26
21-27
Table 3: Maximum Air Velocity In The Different Classes (m/s)
Class A
Class B
Class C
Winter
0.08
0.11
0.15
Summer
0.10
0.14
0.22
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Table 4: Maximum Vertical Temperature Difference (°C per m)
Class A Class B Class C
Summer and Winter 2.5 3.0 3.0
Table 5: Floor Temperature (°C)
Class A Class 8 Class C
Summer and Winter 22 - 26 19 - 28 16 - 32
Table 6: Capacity of the Ventilation System (%)
Class A Class B Class C
Total system
CAV
100 - 110
100 - 105
100
VAV
40 - 115
40 - 100
40-100
Separate room
60 - 140
80 - 120
80-120
CAV system: ventilation system with constant air flow
VAV system: ventilation system with variable air flow
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
Energy Consequences of
Upgrading Indoor Air Quality
Gaute Flatheim
Consulting Engineer
Siv. Ing. Gaute Flatheim A/S
Stavanger, Norway
Background And Description of the Situation
Energy Technology
Following the oil embargo of the 1970s, energy and conservation of energy have
understandably received considerable attention. Some progress has been achieved in
limiting the expected increase in energy requirements. Energy technology has become a
field of its own, embracing energy production, energy supply, energy consumption, and
energy conservation.
The pattern of energy consumption in modern office buildings has also been altered.
Improved insulation standards, reduced infiltration, heat recovery, and other approaches
have reduced heat loss. Increased use of computer equipment, paper handling equipment,
fax machines, and other office equipment has affected work procedures in buildings and
increased internal heat loads. Exploitation of passive solar heat technologies and
increased use of glass have also become popular. Collectively, these efforts have led to
an increase in surplus energy in buildings and a turn towards electricity as a main source
of energy. Information concerning this trend is of considerable importance for planning
expansions in energy supplies, including the potential for district heating.
Indoor Climate
The consequences of energy technology for the indoor climate have not received
much attention. New developments in energy technology and the use of new materials in
buildings have created buildings with indoor climate problems (e.g., sick building
syndrome). Simultaneously, health, well-being, and productivity have become factors to
which greater attention has been paid during debates about developments in society.
When calculating the annual costs of a building, it is not only the financial costs that
count, but also the value of occupants' well-being, health, and productivity.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LA.Q: Section V
The problem of the indoor climate can now be documented through inquiries in
which people give their opinion about the indoor situation. Key complaints mentioned
include the following:
• Drafts;
• Dust or dry air;
• Humming and noise from ventilators and other machinery;
• Heavy air, headaches, nausea, dry throats, tiredness and stinging eyes; and
• Air that is too cold or too warm.
Many individual cases also point towards conditions being worse in buildings that
have small ventilation volumes. The minimum requirements of the building regulations
often do not contain adequate reserve capacity for the following factors that can affect
indoor air quality:
• Processes in the building (the work being performed in the building);
• Geaning and cleaning agents;
• Copying equipment, computers, terminals, and printers;
• Degassing from furniture and fittings;
• Textile fibers;
• Floor adhesives;
• Other "hairy" surfaces;
• Rock-wool fibers and other man-made mineral fibers (MMMFs);
• Fall-out from paneled ceilings (especially MMMFs) & dust;
• Textile fibers from staff; and
• Dust in the duct network.
Hypotheses
A Norwegian research project has developed four working hypotheses regarding
indoor air quality:
1. The present-day indoor climate in Norwegian office buildings must be
improved.
2. Such an improvement will best be attained by changing the materials used
and by upgrading the air standards.
3. Modern office buildings contain considerable surplus energy - enough
to heat the extra ventilation air.
4. The value of health and well-being must be included in a concept of total
annual costs -- increased IAQ investment will result in the lowest total
annual costs.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
These hypotheses have already been confirmed by the massive frequency of
complaints from a large number of buildings, forming some of the background for the
research and development project.
How Do We Define Air Quality?
Can Air Quality be Measured?
Everyone who has tried to measure air quality, either in the laboratory or in actual
buildings, has had difficulty in identifying the substances in the air which correlate with
people's notions of good or bad air quality. This difficulty may be related to the existence
of thousands of chemical compounds in the air, most of which are in extremely small
concentrations - it is very difficult to measure such low concentrations, and we have no
knowledge of how human beings react to each substance or to combinations of several
substances.
This difficulty is the chief reason why Professor P.O. Fanger [1] points out that the
human sense of smell is the best "instrument" for judging air quality. He has, therefore,
developed a technique for determining the necessary volume of air, which uses a person's
ability to judge air quality. This technique can be readily compared with sampling in the
food industry or to wine-tasting.
"Olf1 - a New Unit for Indoor Pollution
The human being has traditionally been considered the chief source of pollution in
office buildings. Pioneering research by Pettenkofer [2] and Yaglou [3] expresses the
volume of pollution introduced per person. Pollution from human beings is well studied
and familiar, and can therefore be used as a reference. Fanger [1] has consequently
introduced the olf unit (from the Latin "olfactus" for sense of smell), which is the emission
rate of air pollution from a standard person (Fig. 1). Any other pollutant source can be
expressed in olfs (i.e., the number of standard persons that emits a subjectively equivalent
amount of pollution), since it will lead to the same dissatisfaction with air quality under
otherwise equal conditions.
The olf-values for some sources of pollution are:
• Sedentary person 1 olf
• Active person 8 olf
• Smoker, while smoking 25 olf
• Smoker, on average 6 olf
• Materials in an office 0 - 0.5 olf/m2
Since sense of smell is the "measuring instrument" used for judging air pollution,
groups of people will have to be established who are trained to use their sense of smell
to determine olf values from different pollutant sources. These "smell-detection panels"
will also need to be able to determine the degree of satisfaction with air quality in a room
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LA.Q: Section V
with given volumes of ventilation. Fanger has taken such a group of people to different
buildings. The statistical results of this study are shown in Figure 2.
Ventilation Volume per Olf
A common ventilation volume used nowadays is 3 liters/second (1/s) per olf. At this
level as much as 35 percent of the "smell detection panel" will consider the air to be
unsatisfactory. In order to reduce this number to five percent, the air volume will need
to be increased to as much as 15 1/s per olf.
Even the Ventilation System Pollutes
The visit of the "smell-detection panel" to many diverse buildings has also revealed
that the ventilation system itself pollutes, as determined by carrying out smelling tests in
the same building, with and without operation of the ventilation system. Figure 3 shows
an average olf-load in 20 investigated official buildings.
This frightening picture shows that there is a challenge for the heating, ventilation,
and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry to design and operate ventilation systems in such
a way that the systems do not adversely affect the indoor climate. At the same time, it
offers a challenge to the architect who must select materials and methods that release the
smallest possible amounts of pollution into the indoor air. In Scandinavia, the notion of
"low-olf buildings" has become a building objective. This objective requires a building
pollution load of 0.2 olf/m2. Present-day buildings, in which smoking is permitted, have
a load of perhaps 0.7 olf/m2.
Energy Requirements in Office Buildings
The energy required for heating modern office buildings has been reduced in recent
years. This reduction has occurred because the need for energy conservation has resulted
in buildings with improved insulation, triple glazing, reduced air infiltration, and reduced
ventilation volumes.
Despite this trend, we often see that modern office buildings have large total energy
requirements, perhaps just as large as before the trend began. We also see that the
energy requirements, to a greater extent than previously, must be met by electricity
because buildings are now filled with electrical equipment, such as computer equipment,
printing and copying equipment, and general office equipment. Large data processing and
communication centers are also common. All this equipment produces excess heat which
needs to be cooled by the air-conditioning system, which also requires electricity.
A low energy consumption in modern office buildings is only possible if the
air-conditioning system is designed in such a way that transferred heat can be exploited
to cover heat losses. Figure 4 shows the "energy flow" in a modern building. Heat loss,
ventilation loss, and domestic hot water requirements, determine the thermal energy
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
requirement. At the same time, we have a great need for electric power to run
equipment.
If the heat excess from equipment operation, the sun, and human beings can be
recovered and used to meet the thermal energy requirements, then the necessary input of
thermal energy will be merely a balancing item. This "superfluity" of thermal energy in
our office buildings offers us possibilities for upgrading the indoor climate without
especially significant consequences for energy consumption.
Energy Requirements in an Actual Building
To put this into a more tangible form, we looked at a building planned for an oil
company in Norway. The building has a total floor space of approximately 25,000 m2 and
serves the needs of approximately 750 office jobs. We assumed that the building has
present-day standard materials, and smoking is permitted, representing a pollution load of
approximately 0.7 olf per m2 in the work-place area. A separate electronic data
processing department is attached to the building, requiring 300 kW of energy to operate
the data processing equipment. The building has a combined cooling unit, which cools the
electronic data processing machines, office ceilings, and summer ventilation air. The
excess heat is transferred to a water-based heating system. This energy can thereby be
exploited to meet a substantial portion of the thermal requirements.
We will first calculate the energy requirement of such a building having a ventilation
volume in the office space corresponding to 3 1/s per olf (2 1/s per m2), which is a very
common figure today. Figure 2 shows that we can expect 35 percent of the building
occupants to complain about the air quality. Subsequently, we will calculate the energy
requirement if the air volume is increased to 4 I/s per olf and 6.5 1/s per olf. In the last
case, we can expect approximately 20 percent of the occupants to complain about the air
quality.
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Energy Requirements per Square Meter
Figure 5 shows the energy requirements per square meter of this building, with the
three different demands on air quality. We see that the need for electric power for
lighting, operating equipment, and other needs is greater than the need for thermal energy
for air conditioning. Furthermore, exploiting possibilities for recovering heat from electrical
equipment, the sun, and other sources will significantly reduce the actual supply of thermal
energy. If we want to improve the air quality in this building by increasing the air
volume, we see that it results in only marginal increases in total energy consumption. To
reduce the expected number of complaints from 35 percent to 20 percent calls for an
increase from 226 to 244 kWh/m2 per year, or approximately eight percent will be
necessary.
This calculation confirms hypothesis 3, that there is a large amount of excess energy
present in modern office buildings. When there is an increase in energy consumption with
increases in air volume, this increase is largely related to increased energy for operating
fans.
Financial Consequences of Increased Ventilation
In this case, an eight percent increase in energy consumption means that operating
costs will increase by approximately NOK 315 ($45 US) per year for each employee.
The consequences for investments are apparently larger. A doubling of the air volume,
which is what we are talking about here, means an increase of investment of
approximately NOK 15,000 ($2,143 US) per employee. With a real interest rate of six
percent per year and depreciation over 15 years, this value translates into NOK 1,500
($214 US) per year for each employee. With an air volume of 4 I/s per olf, the figures
for increased energy consumption and capital costs increase by about one-third.
Performance and Well-Being
Status
Pollution in the external environment, primarily air and water, is the central
environmental theme with which politicians and the media are preoccupied. The fact that
people are mostly indoors is rarely pointed out. The reason seems to be that we have not
considered it a health hazard to be indoors at home and places of work, except for at a
few industrial work-places.
Nowadays in Scandinavia, there seems to be a change in attitude. More and more
people are realizing that the internal environment is also important for public health.
Professional building owners have long since realized that investment in a good indoor
climate is an investment in the well-being of employees and in increased productivity [4].
In our project, it is not our goal to carry out a broad investigation of the relationship
between air quality and productivity. Such a study would demand too many resources.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
We nonetheless believe that information available from official statistics and related
research projects can illustrate such a connection [5] and [6].
The Effect on Health of an Adverse Indoor Climate
Problems related to the indoor climate seem largely to arise from the irritating effect
of pollutants on the skin and on the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory
passages. The irritation is chiefly felt as a sensation of "dry air" and results from the
combined effect of irritants in the internal environment. Smell also plays an important
role in our perception of our surroundings, and may be a stress factor. Formaldehyde is
a common indoor irritant arising from building materials and smoking. In addition to eye
irritation, changes in the mucous membranes of the nose have been demonstrated with
exposure to high formaldehyde concentrations.
Hyperactivity may result from irritation of mucous membranes, (and intensified by
infections) which in turn reduces resistance to infections and increases risks for developing
allergies. Epidemiological data suggest that internal climatic conditions may be important
causes of a large proportion of allergies, respiratory ailments, and diseases. There seems,
therefore, to be a very large preventive potential in improving these conditions, on health
as well as economic grounds. In view of the data available, it is not unreasonable to
assume that half the respiratory ailments and diseases in our population can be attributed
to factors in the indoor environment. Several studies have also revealed considerable
tiredness and occurrence of headaches, particularly where there are damp areas. This
discovery opens the question of whether the central nervous system is also affected, or
whether it is a form of allergic reaction.
Rock-wool fibers, glass fibers and other MMMFs from construction materials and
insulation are another cause of discomfort. Other significant fiber-induced health effects,
such as itching and irritation, have not been documented, but major studies dealing with
this problem are underway.
Productivity
Through controlled laboratory investigations using test subjects, Wyon [7] has studied
how indoor temperature extremes affect achievement capabilities of human beings. Wyon
has shown that productivity is a function of finger temperature. It is important, therefore,
to be aware of the factors affecting this temperature. When it is cold, the hands quickly
become cooler because blood circulation to peripheral parts of the body is reduced. This
will rapidly reduce ability to work efficiently with the hands, or perform similar tasks (see
Figure 6). Movement and clothing also affect Finger temperature. Figure 6 also shows
accident proneness and mental performance at various air temperatures.
Wyon has also examined the interaction between thermal stress and other stress
factors, such as noise and light. Relationships with air quality have not, however, been
investigated. Nevertheless, there is reason to believe that stress caused by poor air quality
will also result in reduced achievement levels. Figure 6 shows that extremely small
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
departures from an optimal indoor climate will quickly reduce productivity by five to ten
percent for some individuals.
Official statistics [8] show that males have, on average, 31 days a year with reduced
activity due to illness; the corresponding value for females is 46 days. Moreover, we know
that approximately one-fourth of these values results from diseases of the eyes, ears and
respiratory system. This finding suggests that there is room for improvement.
Proposals for Remedial Measures
To solve the problems of poor air quality by merely increasing the air volume is not
technically and economically acceptable. We must, therefore, do whatever is possible to
reduce the pollutant concentration. The aim must be to achieve "low-olf buildings."
Smoking
Smoking often creates the most serious pollutant concentrations in the indoor
climate. In practice, smoking will demand such large amounts of air that it is impossible
to dilute the air to an acceptable level. With a consumption of one to two cigarettes an
hour, a smoker will pollute the air as much as would six people who do not smoke. If
smoking indoors is to be permitted, it must take place in separate smoking rooms with
separate ventilating systems.
Buildings Materials and Processes
Evaporation of pollutants from construction materials, interior walls, floors, ceilings,
and other sources may result from many factors. In new buildings, evaporation can take
place from hardening materials, including paints, adhesives, and wallboard. This
evaporation can lead to a need for increased ventilation in the initial phases, perhaps as
long as one year after occupation. The half-life for evaporation may vary from several
weeks to four months. This evaporation rate can be partially reduced by knowledge about
and sensible use of construction materials. For example, damp wallboard may give off
formaldehyde, drying adhesives and paints release solvents or fission products from plastics
and hardeners.
Failing to clean the building before it is brought into use, particularly in places
where users cannot see, can cause poor indoor air quality. The building must therefore
be thoroughly cleaned before being used.
The accumulative or storage effect of pollution in the materials increases with
increasing surface area and thus is greater on "hairy" surfaces. This effect can support
a strong argument against carpeted floors. The negative effects of carpeted floors are
increased by damp conditions, condensation on cold floors, heavy wear, and inadequate
cleaning. Proper everyday cleaning can reduce indoor air problems. Vacuuming, however,
may pollute the air with large quantities of fine particles. This problem can be alleviated
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by installing a central vacuum-cleaning system. It is theoretically possible to filter the air,
but vacuum cleaners with "allergy filters" have not been adequately tested so far.
Photocopying machines, paper-shredding equipment and other frequently used paper
handling machines should be situated in areas with separate exhaust zones. Use of impact
paper can lead to problems because of the release of chemical exhaust steam. Paper dust
and pollutants can be prevented by using enclosed shelving and files, and by having these
extend to the ceiling, thus avoiding unnecessary dust-traps.
More investigation needs to be conducted to learn whether using lower paneled
ceilings leads to problems with the indoor climate because of the large horizontal surface
areas which are inaccessible for cleaning. If this hypothesis is confirmed, lowered ceilings
should be avoided.
Other Precautions
• Concrete must be well dried before painting and carpeting to avoid fungal
growth and bad odors.
• Rock-wool and glass fiber insulation-products must be sealed to avoid
MMMFs from entering occupational zones.
• All particle board, including that in furniture, must be coated to avoid
formaldehyde emissions.
• Glues and paints must be tested for emissions.
• Avoid plastic materials which emit odors.
Ventilation Installations
Ventilation installations must be cleaned before the building is brought into use and
must be kept clean. Failure to do so can cause IAQ problems. Ducts should be
degreased, and delivered to the site where they will be used with caps on the ends to be
removed prior to fitting. Deposition of dust and other pollutants in the installations can
also cause IAQ problems. Recirculated air must not be permitted anytime.
Induction units permit local recirculation in the room and lead to reduced air quality,
both because dust is recirculated and because substantial quantities of pollutants quickly
build up in the unit itself. Additional problems can occur when cooling takes place
because it can result in condensation in the unit, which provides favorable conditions for
mites, fungi, and bacteria to develop when food particles are present in the unit.
Induction units must therefore be avoided.
Hygroscopical, rotating, heat recovery units can also develop water-soluble impurities.
All rotating heat recovery devices recover cooking fumes. There is still some uncertainty
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116 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
as to whether they also recover other pollutants, but it is clear that nnn-hygroscopical heat
recovery units become hygroscopical and recover pollutants when their surfaces become
contaminated [9]. These units must therefore be easily accessible for inspection and
cleaning.
Heat recovery units must also be installed in such a way that leakages and excess
pressure do not occur from the used air side. The installations must be checked for
leakages both on delivery and during subsequent follow-ups.
Poorly located inlet openings can result in large numbers of insects entering the air
inlet plant and causing unacceptable air quality and the development of allergies and
asthma. Dampness in the plant also leads to undesirable biological activity.
Humidification should generally be avoided. If humidification takes place in the plant,
technology must be used which safeguards against this sort of development. Intermediate
storage of water can also promote biological development. Even though this water is
subsequently boiled in a steam humidifier, the organic material produced in the
intermediate storage tank may lead to undesirable effects. Intermediate storage tanks
should therefore not be used. There is also a risk of condensation precipitation in the
ducts.
Use of contaminated materials in the ventilation installation must be avoided. When
sound absorbers made of fiberglass and rock wool are being installed, ensure that the
plant is cleaned after fitting and use materials that do not allow fibers to be introduced
into the air handling system. This principle applies to internal surfaces from the air inlet
through and including the supply valves. The installations must be accessible for
inspection and cleaning; this must be written into the contract, and be verified on
acceptance.
Annual Costs and Optimal Indoor Climate
The annual costs of a building consist of capital costs, administrative, operating, and
maintenance costs. It has become more and more common to use annual costs as a
decision-making tool when new buildings are being planned. The reason for this practice
is because the costs during the operating phase increase relatively, particularly labor and
power costs. The annual costs are often evaluated per square meter floor space.
Obviously, the costs should be as low as possible.
Employees are at the Center of the Stage
All modern businesses stress the fact that their staff is their most important resource
and the most significant production factor. Therefore, it is only natural that investments
and operating costs related to the health and well-being of the employees be viewed in
relation to productivity and annual costs.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
What is the Value of Improved Productivity?
It is difficult to give an unambiguous answer to this question with regard to office
workers. One approach may he to examine wage-related costs. In Figure 7, the value of
improved productivity is shown for different wage levels.
Can the Indoor Climate Influence Productivity?
There are strong indications that the indoor climate can influence productivity. The
best figures demonstrate the connection between performance and thermal indoor climate.
Apart from this, we must resort more to assumptions and assessments of the influence
that the person with the complaint has on productivity, and whether the number of days
absent through illness can be reduced. In extreme cases, we have seen health authorities
threatening to close buildings whose indoor climate has obviously been the cause of
people's absence (e.g., sick building syndrome). It is, therefore, not unreasonable to
assume that an improvement in air quality indoors can help promote a productivity
improvement of up to three percent.
Is there an Optimal Air Quality?
In Figure 7, we have included a scale for air quality, measured in air volume per olf
which suggests that an improvement in air quality from 3 to 6 1/s per olf will result in
productivity improvements of up to three percent. In the same figure, we have included
bars showing increased capital costs and energy costs when air quality is upgraded by
increasing air volume. Increased energy costs account for only a small portion of this total
increase. It is likely that some of these relationships may differ somewhat. But the
margins seem to be so large that the main conclusion is clear: it is very profitable to
upgrade air quality.
How do we Upgrade Air Quality?
A good principle for HVAC engineers has always been to first eliminate the source,
and then dilute; the same principle applies here. The correct approach must be to carry
out measures to reduce the sources of pollution in our buildings, but it is also necessary
to increase air volumes. The short-term objective must be to obtain fewer than five
percent complaints about the indoor climate from users, as opposed to the present 35
percent.
Total Costs - Office Building
I would again like to focus on the connection between building-related and
employee-related costs in a building. A perfect indoor environment is the goal, and low
energy consumption is a must, but not if energy conservation interferes with the indoor
environment. Total costs are far more than investments, energy, maintenance, and
cleaning.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
Costs such as these are related to the building characteristics and its operating
practices. But why do we put up a building in the first place? It is, of course, because we
have some work to be done, and this can be accomplished in a less expensive way if
productivity is high. A good indoor environment is one of the most important methods
of improving the efficiency of any staff. This is elementary - but do we in the building
industry or the building owners act as we should? I am afraid not, and therefore I have
started to develop an extended expression for total costs. Total costs must be related to
the sum of wage-related costs and building costs. Let's look at an example:
The task is putting up a new office building for 150 employees; size: 300 sq. ft. per
employee; equivalent to 45,000 sq. ft.
ALT. I ALT. II
Normal IAQ ($US) "IAQ top" ($US)
Average costs/sq. ft. $130 143
Total costs (millions) $5.85 6.43
Office costs pr. year
(7%, 15 years) $3.9 4.3
Running costs/year $850 900
Wage-related costs $53.0 53.0
TOTAL COSTS $57.75 58.2
House rental in
percentage 3900 + 850 * 100 = 8,2 4300 + 900 * 100 = 8,9.
57750 58200
Difference: 0.7%
Conclusions
By means of a current research project in Norway, we intend to find out how to
upgrade the air quality indoors, and at the same time discover the consequences of doing
so. The need for such an upgrading is recognized through the ever-increasing numbers
of complaints from persons in modern office buildings. Even though the research is at an
early stage and more information needs to be collected and systematized, we can draw the
following conclusions:
• All substances, materials, fittings, and equipment must be looked upon
as sources of pollution.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
We need to develop methods for characterizing IAQ. Training groups of
people to use their noses to judge air quality seems to be a useful way
of accomplishing this characterization. All architects and planners must
be made conscious of the need to minimize the pollution load. It is
always cheapest in the long run to make the right decisions before
beginning any drawings. All offices and electronic data processing
equipment in our office buildings produce a heat surplus which can be
exploited for heating. The air-conditioning systems must be designed in
such a way that heat recovery is possible. This practice, however, leads
towards using more electricity and less thermal energy in order to meet
the energy requirements. In upgrading the air quality, we can scarcely
avoid increasing the air volume above the small volumes that have been
implemented due to the energy conservation drive.
Optimal air quality is capable of increasing productivity. With regard to
the thermal indoor climate, a five to ten percent reduction in productivity
has been shown to occur with only small departures from an optimal
climate. Moreover, we know that of registered cases of illness,
approximately one-fourth are related to the eyes, nose, and the respiratory
system. We assume that productivity can be readily increased by up to
three percent by improving the air quality. Even a productivity
improvement of only one percent would more than cover the increased
costs of upgrading the IAQ. These increased costs include energy costs
and capital costs.
Increased energy consumption as a result of upgrading the air quality
may be as much as eight percent. This increase has little financial
significance for the individual employer or owner-builder. Any increase
in energy consumption is undesirable from the viewpoint of society at
large. A marginal increase for upgrading the air quality must,
nevertheless, be looked upon from the viewpoint that demands for energy
conservation have for a long time taken place at the expense of air
quality.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
References
1. P.O. Fanger: "A solution to the sick building mystery" Proceedings of the 4th
International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Berlin (Vest), 17.-21.
Aug. 1987.
2. M.V. Pettenkofer: "Uber den Luftwecksel in Vohngebauden." Munchen 1958.
3. C.P. Yaglou, E.C. Riley, D.I. Coggins: "Ventilation requirements." ASHRAE
Transactions, von. 42, 1936.
4. J.P. Haukenes: "Annual costs. Investments - operating cost productivity." Annual
refresher-course days at the Technical University of Norway, Trondheim, 4.-6. Jan.
1989 (In Norwegian).
5. "Indoor Climate and Energy Saving." Publication no. 5. The Committee for Health,
Well-being, and Indoor Environment of the Norwegian Society of Chartered
Engineers, 1988 (In Norwegian).
6. "After Indoor Air '87." Publication no. 4. The Committee for Health, Well-being, and
Indoor Environment of the Norwegian Society of Chartered Engineers, 1988 (In
Norwegian).
7. W. Wyon: "Indoor Climate and Productivity." Annual refresher-course days at the
Technical University of Norway, Trondheim, 1985.
8. Statistical Yearbook 1988. Central Bureau of Statistics of Norway.
9. Khoury G-A- et. al: "An Investigation of Reentrainment of Chemical Fume Hood
Exhaust in a Recovery Unit." Am.Ind.Hyg. Assoc.J.49(2) 61-65 (1988).
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NATO CCMS Pilot Sludy on 1AQ: Section V 121
FIGURE 1
Fig: One olf is the pollution from
a standard person
Professor P. Ole Fanger, DTH Copenhagen
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
15 irini'h
FIGURE 2
4 5
!ML-JiM
Cell-Office
Btoeffluaflts
from paopte
s
40% return air
eompind to
Sfrinfct
40% return
a* 20-
comparta to
1SnMh
1
Supply o? nitaraa outside air
paHoyaHM|
15 20 25 30 35
54 72 90 108 126
fWiE
parte
Fig: Dissatisfi
at
when using one olf
ventilation volumes
P. OS® Fangtr, DTH Copenhagen
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 123
FIGURE 3
Quantified pollution
Occupants 42 olf
Space 58 olf
System 62 olf
Total
162 on
Fig: Mean values of pollution sources quantified in
20 offices and assembly halls in Copenhagen
Professor P. Ole Fanger, OTH Copenhagen
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124 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
FIGURE 4
Supply of
renergy from
'sun, people, etc
Heat
loss
Vent. <
P
Domestic
hot water
^ht
J Demand of
|Comp. electricity
rJScW* ec^uiP-
i Demand ^ec°
thermal
Supply of
electrical
energy
energy
Combustion losses1
Supply of
thermal
energy
Fig: Power flow of energy in
an office building
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 125
FIGURE 5
250-1 kWh/m2per year
200H
I150"
a
3100H
«
§»
S 50-
c
Ul
1
§
* 50-
S100H
•
C
UJ
150J
Electrical
Thermal
^3?
244
*
8%
Electrical Electrical
Thermal
_ Thermal
3 4 6,5
Air quality l/s per olf
Fig: Energy demand
and supply in a
25.000 m2 office
building located in
Trondheim, Norway,
for different
ventilation volumes
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126 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
FIGURE 6
150
Accidents
Men
Accidents
Non-sedentary
(0,6 clo)
Fig: Indoor climate
accidents, wort
efficiency and
complaints
(simplified)
%wn Dr. David Wyon
Sedentary <1,0 ck»)
h So *c
Mental
achhrement
ork apeed
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NATO CCMZ Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 127
FIGURE 7
rjf
&
,10-
r
3
T
4
T
5
Productivity
movement versus
g»sf of upgrading
indoor air quality
trough increasing
the ventilation
volume
.^Jucttvtty
l«i|HWwn«nt
* ,f. 1 ^9 Ventilation
7 8 (l/t p®: fell) v0*um®
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128 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section V
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
Canada's Guidelines for
Residential Indoor Air Quality:
Rationale and Scope
Victor C. Armstrong
M.E. (Bette) Meek
Douglas S. Walkinshaw
Department of National Health and Welfare
Environmental Health Centre
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Introduction
In Canada, responsibility for developing and implementing measures to protect public
health resides largely with the provincial governments. At the federal level, the
Department of National Health and Welfare provides advice to the provinces on matters
relating to public health and, through a federal/provincial committee structure, endeavors
to establish health-based standards or guidelines in a consistent manner. Figure 1 shows
the reporting relationships for committees involved in LAQ-related work: other committees
have been convened to deal with health-related issues, such as drinking water quality,
recreational water quality, noise, and risks posed to the pregnant worker.
In the fall of 1980, the conference of Deputy Ministers of Health approved the
establishment of the Federal-Provincial Working Group on LAQ to consider "a definition
of acceptable air quality," the need for "objective and/or maximum acceptable
concentrations for substances," and a "specification of ventilation rates, or recirculation
criteria" for housing. The scope of the work was to be restricted to "domestic premises,"
with recommendations being developed to protect the general public, assuming continuous
exposure to residential indoor air. It was not expected that economic factors be
accounted for in arriving at the recommendations.
The Working Group, comprising members from eight of Canada's provinces, was
convened in September 1981 and, over the subsequent four years, reviewed the scientific
literature on 17 substances or groups of substances (those listed in Tables I and II as
well as relative humidity and formaldehyde). Technical support, including the preparation
of criteria documents, was provided by the Federal Department of National Health and
Welfare. Radon was also included initially, but assessment of this element was
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
subsequently referred to the Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Radiation Surveillance
because of its specialized knowledge on radioactivity.
The Working Group presented its recommendations to the Federal-Provincial
Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health in September 1985; the
Advisory Committee slightly amended some of these recommendations based on an
assessment of economic factors and practicability, after which the report was approved by
the Conference of Deputy Ministers of Health. Since all of the provinces are represented
on these two senior committees, the guidelines, in effect, are endorsed by all provincial
agencies which have an interest in indoor air quality.
Figure 1
Organizational Structure For Developing
Exposure Guidelines In Canada
CONFERENCE OF
DEPUTY MINISTERS
OF HEALTH
FEDERAL-PROVINCIAL
ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON
ENVIRONMENTAL AND
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
WORKING GROUP
WORKING GROUP SUBCOMMITTEE
OTHER
ON INDOOR AIR
ON INDOOR AIR ON RADIATION
COMMITTEES/
QUALITY IN THE
QUALITY SURVEILLANCE
WORKING
OFFICE ENVIRONMENT
(RESIDENTIAL) GROUPS
TECHNICAL
SECRETARIAT
Methodology Used in Setting the Residential Guidelines
Selection of Contaminants
The Canadian Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality were
formulated with the objective of protecting the health of the vast majority of the general
public, including susceptible populations, such as the very young, the elderly, and persons
with pre-existing health problems. These groups are especially of interest with respect to
indoor air quality since they often spend most of their time indoors. Two broad objectives
were set:
• To develop guidelines for the concentrations of selected contaminants of
residential indoor air, taking into account such factors as the sensitivity of
groups at special risk, and the sources and mechanisms of action of
contaminants; and
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
• To develop, where practicable, other guidelines or recommendations for
measures that will preserve or improve air quality in domestic premises.
Individuals at special risk were defined as "those whose physiological processes are
either not fully developed or are deteriorating or for whom pathological or physiological
changes impair the ability to surmount the adverse effects of exposure to a pollutant."
The Working Group recognized that the exposure guidelines may not provide complete
protection for the allergic or hypersensitive portion of the population. The second
objective was established 011 the basis that lifestyle factors and actions taken by the
homeowner or occupants can have a significant impact on the quality of residential indoor
air.
The 17 substances (or groups of substances) were chosen for inclusion in the
guidelines because of their potential to adversely affect health and because they were
considered to be representative of the categories of pollutants that might be present in the
home. In part, the selection was based on the availability of information from which
recommendations could be formulated. The list did not fully represent the range of
compounds found in the home; guidelines for additional substances will be developed as
new data become available.
An important consideration in deriving exposure guidelines for air quality is the
possibility of interactive effects, since many pollutants are likely to be present
simultaneously in the home environment. Where possible, the potential for synergistic and
additive effects was considered in deriving the guidelines. However, in most cases, there
was insufficient data to adequately address this aspect.
Selection of Studies to Support Guidelines
Despite the recent widespread interest in indoor air quality, reliable information on
the health effects of exposure to the low levels and mixtures of contaminants found in the
indoor environment is still inadequate. In most cases, the results of laboratory
experiments using animals, clinical studies with human volunteers, and epidemiological
investigations of populations in the urban and occupational environments were used as a
basis for developing the numerical guidelines. The principles followed in the evaluation
of the results of these different types of studies as a basis tor the recommended LAQ
guidelines are outlined below.
Epidemiological Studies - Most of the relevant epidemiological studies of populations are
observational (non-experimental) in nature and are either of the descriptive
(cross-sectional) or analytical (cohort and case-control) type. The results of these studies
were evaluated against the following features of study design:
• Estimation of Exposure - In most observational studies of populations
exposed to air pollutants, data on exposure are usually obtained from one
or several outdoor monitoring stations. Exposure, however, can vary
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
greatly between individuals living in the same neighborhood, because of
local climatic conditions and special features of the indoor environment,
e.g., use of unvented combustion appliances.
• Role of Confounding Variables - In observational studies of populations
exposed to air pollutants, a host of confounding variables (e.g.,
socioeconomic status, smoking, occupational exposure, meteorological
factors), many of which have greater effects than air pollution, must be
considered.
• Measurement of Outcome - There is substantial variation in the method of
measurement of many of the health-related parameters in the studies
conducted to date; such parameters include lung function, hospital
admissions and frequency of symptoms. In many of the studies, outcome
(e.g., frequency of symptoms) is determined by questionnaire, and
responses may be subject to bias.
For these reasons, the epidemiological studies considered most relevant for
developing the guidelines were longitudinal investigations in which (1) there was adequate
control of appropriate confounding factors; (2) objective health outcomes were
determined; and (3) there was some attempt to take into account individual variations in
exposure.
The results of epidemiological investigations of effects in the general population were
considered more relevant than those of occupationally exposed populations for deriving
the exposure guidelines since the young, the elderly, and other high-risk groups are not
normally represented in the workforce. Moreover, exposure periods and the mixture of
pollutants present in the occupational environment generally vary considerably from those
in the general environment.
Clinical Studies: Clinical studies provide the most reliable data from which to derive
exposure-response relationships that form the basis for air quality standards. However,
these studies are restricted for ethical reasons to the examination of mild, temporary
effects of short-term exposures to one or a few pollutants in a limited number of subjects.
As such, clinical studies are most suitable for developing short-term exposure limits.
The clinical studies considered most relevant for the derivation of the exposure
guidelines were those in which there were appropriate control groups and in which
subjects were randomly allocated into control and treatment groups. Studies in which
both the investigator and subjects were "blind" (i.e., unaware of which subjects were
exposed) in order to minimize bias were also preferred.
Animal Studies: Although numerous studies of the effects of airborne pollutants in animal
species have been conducted, levels of exposure have, in general, been much higher than
those in ambient air. Extrapolation of these results in order to predict the risks to
humans is complicated by the distinct anatomical differences between the respiratory tracts
of animals and humans. In addition, studies are frequently confined to unusually high
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
concentrations of no more than one or two pollutants, rather than to the low
concentrations and mixtures of substances general found in the home. However, the
results of such studies were used mainly to clarify the toxicity mechanism and to assess
carcinogenicity, particularly with regard to formaldehyde.
The reliability of carcinogenesis bioassays in animal species was evaluated on the
basis of several features of the design and the results of the study. These features
included the size of the experiment (i.e., the numbers of exposed and control animals); the
influence of environmental factors (e.g., diet); the route and method of exposure; the
doses administered; the species, strain and sex of the animals: the type, site, incidence and
time to development of tumors; and the nature of the exposure-response relationship.
Information concerning kinetics, metabolism, and the mechanism of action was also
considered in assessing the relevance of the results of carcinogenesis bioassays for man.
Derivation of Numerical Guidelines
Non-carcinogenic Substances: For some types of adverse health effects that result from
exposure to toxic substances, it is assumed there is a threshold level of exposure below
which it is believed that adverse effects will not occur. For such effects, the exposure
guidelines were derived by division of the "lowest" or "no-observed adverse effect level"
documented in epidemiological or clinical studies by uncertainty factors; the size of these
factors varied depending on the adequacy of the available data, the nature and severity
of the effect, and variations amongst individuals.
Based on these principles, the guidelines listed in Table I were developed. In order
to take into consideration the possible effects of both prolonged exposures and
shorter-term, higher-level exposures, two types of guidelines were established, provided
that adequate data were available:
• Acceptable Long-Term Exposure Range (ALTER) - the concentration range
to which it is believed from existing information that a person may be
exposed over a lifetime without undue risk to health: and
• Acceptable Short-Term Exposure Range (ASTER) - the concentration range
to which it is believed from existing information that a person may be
exposed over the specified time period without undue risk to health.
The World Health Organization has used a factor of two to account for uncertainties
in data from observational studies in deriving guidelines for daily and annual exposure to
air pollutants; this value was adopted in deriving the upper limit of the ALTERs for
carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. It must be
stressed that the guideline for carbon dioxide was developed to protect against undesirable
changes in acid-base balance and consequential adaptive changes, such as the release of
calcium from the bones. The establishment of a more stringent guideline for carbon
dioxide on the basis that it would serve as a surrogate for adequate ventilation was not
recommended by the Working Group.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study oil LAQ: Section V
Table I:
Contaminants With Numerical Exposure Guidelines
Contaminant
Health Effects3'
Acceptable Range ^g/mJ (ppm)
ASTER ALTER
Aldehydes
Eye, nose, throat
c/Q < 1- 5min
irritation
Carbon dioxide
Acidosis
<6300 (<3500)
Carbon monoxide
Adverse effects on
(
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V 135
Table II. Contaminants for which Numerical Guidelines were not set
Contaminant
Possible Health Effects"
Biological Agents
Infectious disease; allergies
Consumer Products^
system;
- chlorinated hydrocarbons
- pest control products
- product aerosols
Damage to central nervous
allergic reactions
Fibrous Materials
Lung cancer; skin irritation
Lead
Learning impairment;
neurological
disorders
Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Lung cancer
Tobacco Smoke
respiratory
Lung cancer; sensory and
irritation
a Health effects considered are described in relevant sections of reference 1.
b Data on the three subgroups were
considered separately,
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
concentrations of about 960 tig/m3 [3,4]. However, it was not possible to identify the level
at which no adverse effects occur; in addition, no data were available from clinical studies
for children, a sensitive subgroup. Therefore, an uncertainty factor of two was applied to
derive the ASTER for this substance. Because of the wide variation in individual
susceptibility to the irritant effects of aldehydes, the ASTERs for acrolein, acetaldehyde,
and formaldehyde were derived by applying a factor of five to the lowest concentration
reported to cause a significant increase in symptoms of irritation. The guideline is
expressed for total aldehydes to account for the possible presence of more than one of
the aldehydes.
Carcinogenic Substances: It is generally accepted that carcinogenesis is a non-threshold
phenomenon; therefore, it is assumed that there is a probability of harm at any level of
exposure. While exposure to known or suspected carcinogens should therefore be avoided,
it is not possible to eliminate certain carcinogens from the environment. Moreover, the
incremental risks associated with exposure to the low levels of carcinogens present in the
environment may be sufficiently small so as to be essentially negligible in comparison with
other risks encountered in society.
Available data indicate that formaldehyde may be carcinogenic to man. This
substance was found to be carcinogenic in two strains of rats, producing a high incidence
of nasal squamous cell carcinomas (38 -50 percent) following exposure to a formaldehyde
concentration of approximately 18 mg/m5 (15 ppm) [5,6]. Formaldehyde was also found
to be genotoxic in a number of assays and weakly mutagenic in cultured human cells as
well as in other mammalian cells, Drosophila, fungi, and bacteria.
Although the epidemiological studies conducted to date provide little convincing
evidence that formaldehyde is carcinogenic in human populations, this possibility could not
be excluded by the Working Group because of limitations of the data. Therefore, the
long-term exposure guidelines for formaldehyde were set as low as possible taking into
account the feasibility of remedial measures. The guidelines, are expressed both in terms
of an ''action level" of 120 //g/m5 (0.10 ppm), the lowest concentration considered to be
feasible at the present time, and a longer term "target level" of 60 ^tg/m3 (0.05 ppm). The
guidelines also state "that in the future, and where remedial measures are taken, every
effort be made to reduce (formaldehyde) concentrations to below the target level."
Based on a model which takes into account some of the mechanistic toxicological
data, the maximum risk of cancer for continuous lifetime exposure to the levels specified
in the guidelines is in the range of 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 100,000. It seems likely that these
calculated risks are overestimated because of the conservative assumptions upon which the
mathematical model is based, and the lack of understanding of the mechanisms by which
formaldehyde may induce cancer.
Relative Humidity: Extremes of humidity are primarily associated with sensations of
discomfort or annoyance. The Canadian Working Group on IAQ, however, developed its
relative humidity (RH) guidelines to protect occupants from health hazards that might
arise indirectly from too much or too little humidity. Several species of bacteria and
viruses survive best at low or high, rather than intermediate, levels of humidity.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on [AQ: Section V
Condensation of water on cold surfaces (e.g., on windows in winter, and on basement
floors and plumbing in the summer) can also promote the growth, and hence potential
for airborne dispersion, of mites and allergenic or mycotoxin-producing molds.
Furthermore, the behavior of other pollutants, notably the release of formaldehyde from
wood products and insulation, can be affected by humidity levels. Two guidelines were
therefore specified; 30 - 80 percent RH for the non-heating season, and 30 - 55 percent
RH for the heating season. In the latter case, a provision was allowed to relax the lower
limit so that condensation on windows does not occur.
Guidance Respecting Other Indoor Contaminants
Table II lists other contaminants or groups of contaminants which are likely to be
present in residential indoor environments and which are potentially hazardous to human
health. The development of quantitative exposure guidelines for these parameters was,
however, considered to be inappropriate for the following reasons:
• For some groups of substances, individual components have widely
differing toxicological properties - the complexity of the mixtures
precluded establishing a guideline for each constituent or for the group
as a whole;
• Limiting airborne concentrations was not considered to be the appropriate
strategy for effectively reducing intake, especially where inhalation is not
the most significant route of exposure; and
• Available scientific data were inadequate.
For these substances, information on possible sources in residential indoor air and
potential adverse health effects was provided; in addition, recommendations that should
help to eliminate or reduce exposure were given.
Application of the Residential Guidelines
In Canada, no single agency or organization has sole responsibility for investigating
and controlling the potential health impacts of indoor air pollutants. Moreover, in the
case of residential buildings, involvement by government may, on the one hand, be viewed
as an intrusion and, on the other, as a necessity. The complexity of the situation is well
illustrated by the wide variety of approaches that are possible for controlling exposure to
airborne pollutants that may be present in indoor environments. These approaches
include:
• Ventilation;
• Source removal or substitution;
• Source modification;
• Source avoidance;
• Air purification;
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
• Restrictions on the use of potentially hazardous chemicals in the home;
• Certification programs for builders and trades people;
• Mandatory courses for engineers and building designers; and
• Educational programs for the general public.
These approaches need not be mutually exclusive and corrective measures could
involve a balanced application of several or all of them. The extent to which controls
need to be exercised should be determined to a large degree by specifications or criteria,
which define a quality of air that is conductive to good health and comfort. It was for
this reason that the "Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality" were
developed. Although these guidelines have been approved by government departments
across the country, they are neither mandatory nor enforceable as standards. It is
expected, however, that the guidelines will assist individuals and public health agencies in
making consistent judgments about the need for remedial measures. In the longer term,
it is anticipated that the national guidelines will be used as a basis for developing or
modifying building codes, product standards for construction materials and furnishings, and
ventilation requirements. In this regard, the committee, which participated in the revision
of ASHRAE 62-1981, proposed that the Canadian guidelines be included in an appendix
of the new standard.
It must be stressed that the Canadian exposure guidelines are not intended to apply
to other indoor environments, such as office building or other work places where factors
such as multiple occupancy may be important.
Related Programs
Residential Guidelines for Radon
The development of a guideline for radon in Canadian housing has been under
review since 1985 by the Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Radiation Surveillance and
the Federal-Provincial Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health.
Inhalation of radon and radon daughters leads to exposure of the bronchial tissue
of the lungs to radioactive substances with a resultant risk of cancer. More than 95
percent of the radiation dose results from the deposition of the radon daughters. The
increased risk of lung cancer among uranium miners exposed to radon and radon
daughters has been well documented in a number of epidemiological studies. Therefore,
since radon is a documented human carcinogen, indoor levels should be reduced as much
as possible.
The Federal-Provincial Subcommittee on Radiation Surveillance initially proposed
that a single "action level" of 800 Bq/mJ be adopted as an exposure guideline for radon
in Canadian housing. The subcommittee recommended this level as the annual average
concentration above which remedial measures should be initiated in existing homes. This
proposal is under review by the federal and provincial governments, and it is likely that
a more stringent "target level" will also be specified. The target level, in effect, would be
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
a long-term goal that should encourage both the development of technology that would
enable or facilitate the implementation of remedial measures, and attainment of lower
levels in new buildings in the future. The approach would thus be similar to that followed
in developing the long-term exposure guidelines for formaldehyde.
Guidelines for the Office Environment
As a result of an increasing number of complaints about air quality in Canadian
office buildings, the Conference of Deputy Ministers of Health approved, in February
1987, the establishment of a Working Group to assess the problem of air quality in the
office environment and to develop recommendations for actions to deal with this issue.
The Federal-Provincial Working Group on Air Quality in the Office Environment
subsequently met twice and concluded that complaints about office air quality should be
addressed by developing a standard investigation protocol. The protocol should involve
various levels of investigation and include a walk-through inspection; measurement of
contaminant levels, ventilation rates, and thermal comfort; and an assessment of the
prevalence of symptoms of ill-health and discomfort. It is likely that this approach will be
examined in further detail by a working group under the auspices of the Federal-Provincial
Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section V
References
1. Health and Welfare Canada, Exposure Guidelines for Residential Indoor Air Quality:
Supporting Documentation, unpublished report.
2. World Health Organization, Sulfur Oxides and Suspended Particulate Matter.
Environmental Health Criteria 8, Geneva, 1979.
3. T.J. Kulle, Air Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides, Elsevier Scientific Publishing company.
Amsterdam, 1982, pp. 477-486.
4. H.D. Kerr, T.J. Kulle, M.L. Mcllhany and P. Swidersky, "Effects of nitrogen dioxide
on pulmonary function in human subjects: an environmental chamber study," Env.
Res. 19: 392 (1979).
5. W.D. Kerns, K.L. Pavkov, D.J. Donofrio, EJ. Gralla and J.A. Swenberg,
"Carcinogenicity of formaldehyde in rats and mice after long-term inhalation
exposure." Cancer Res. 43: 4382 (1983).
6. A.R. Sellakur, C.A. Snyder, J.J. Solomon, R.E. Albert, "Carcinogenicity of
formaldehyde and hydrogen chloride in rats," J. Toxicol. App. Phamacol.
81: 401 (1985).
7. World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, Indoor Air Quality
Research. EURO Reports and Studies 103, World Health Organization, Copenhagen,
1986.
8. Committee on Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Health Risks of
Radon and Other Internally Deposited Alpha-Emitters . BEIR VI, National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C., 1988.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
Canadian Ventilation and
Yenting Standards
Jim H. White
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation
Introduction
Field, laboratory, and theoretical research has shown a strong relationship between
ventilation practices and venting problems with combustion appliances. The ventilated
house can become a much better competing chimney than the designated combustion
appliance venting system, causing the supposedly vented appliance to spill combustion
products into the house, sometimes completely and in a totally stable mode. Even in
leaky houses, this situation is undesirable, because of the total volume of combustion
products that can be released each year. As a result of this research, new test equipment,
products, and procedures, have been developed. In addition, building and installation
codes for appliances, as well as equipment and component standards, are being modified.
The Codes and Standards System
The Associate Committee for the National Building Code (ACNBC) revises its model
document on a five-year cycle. The next revision will take effect in 1990 [revisions have
been completed].
The code is used for Federal buildings arid for the territories, but the provinces have
the direct responsibility for housing and health matters. The provinces may choose to
adopt the model code unchanged, or may amend it, by addition or deletion, to suit their
unique requirements and/or perceptions. Most municipalities are given the authority and
responsibility for enforcing the codes. The provinces arrange for inspections in areas
which do not have their own capability. The code may reference standards developed by
Standards Writing Organizations (SWOs), or may select specific requirements from those
standards (or from their own requirements, based on local experience) for incorporation
into their provincial codes.
Coordinating Committee on Combustion Venting of the ACNBC
The ACNBC has authorized the establishment of this new committee to coordinate
the interrelated requirements for venting of combustion products and ventilating indoor
spaces. The committee is composed of representatives of the many ventilation and
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
venting code and standards groups and committees, and their associated industries. The
committee's task is to ensure that a coordinated set of requirements, and changes in
requirements, is submitted for the 1995 revision of the code, especially as they pertain to
Part 9. The development of CSA F326, "Residential Ventilation Requirements," is
intended to set the stage for this coordination, but other codes and standards will require
amendment.
The 1990 Code Requirements
Continuous mechanical ventilation, at 0.3 air changes per hour averaged over any 24-
hour period, must be installed, subject to Part 6 of the code, if the system installed is
not a simple, exhaust-only system; and subject to prescriptive requirements of Section
9.33, for simple systems. The prescriptive requirements include incorporation of make-up
air openings, if appliances susceptible to pressure-induced spillage are installed, unless
testing shows excessive depressurization is not a problem. A table of sizes of make-up air
openings is provided, based on a depressurization limit of five Pascals. An Appendix to
the Code Requirements provides an extensive commentary and examples.
CSA F326 on Residential Mechanical Ventilation Requirements
CSA F326 is essentially an interpretation of ASHRAE 62-1989 for single-family
dwelling units under normal occupancy conditions. CSA F326 is designed so that the
system can supply the greater of a room rate summation of flows or 0.3 ACH (but can
be switched off by the occupant). The system can be a supply-only, exhaust-only, or
nominally balanced mechanical system. CSA F326 ignores uncontrolled ventilation.
Pressurization is limited to ten Pa, or to a flow of 0.12 1/s/nr of envelope area to limit
forced-outflow condensation. Depressurization is limited to ten Pa (only for the
ventilation system). For a system with a clothes dryer, with the two largest exhaust
devices operating, CSA F326 provides for five Pa if spill or backdraft sensitive appliances
are installed; ten Pa if only induced draft appliances are installed; or 20 Pa if only sealed
(or not any) combustion appliances are used.
CSA documents and status are as follows:
• F326.1 Requirements (preliminary standard issued)
• F326.2 Installation Requirements (in printing)
• F326.3 Performance Verification (drafted)
• F326.4 Design Guidelines (under preparation)
Appliance Installation Codes
Some effort is underway to revise all of the major installation codes and appliance
standards. The installation codes (plus one equipment standard) include:
• CSA B139 - Installation Code for Oil Burning Equipment
• CGA B149 - Natural Gas Installation Code
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• CSA B365 - Installation Code for Solid Fuel Burning Appliances and
Equipment
• CSA A405 - Design and Construction of Masonry Chimneys and
Fireplaces
CSA 6139 - Installation Code for Oil Burning Equipment
The committee is preparing a major revision, after many years of inaction. The
new version will include revised sizing requirements for vents, plus a minimum allowable
chimney-base gas temperature, designed to eliminate steady-state condensation. The
version incorporates sizes of newly-designed liners which incorporate mechanical alignment
(spigots, rabbets, etc.), with sizing based on a flue gas velocity range (one to two m/s).
Gas temperatures at the chimney base are designed to prevent the liner temperature at
the exit from going below 60"C. This change may lead to radical redesign of chimneys,
with more effective insulation values, and more reliable venting.
CGA 6149 - Natural Gas Installation Code
The committee is awaiting a major, system-level study of sizing and insulation
requirements for depressurized house conditions. The committee has already
recommended downsizing of vents from historical levels. The next major revision is
due in 1991. The changes should result in more reliable venting, even in competitive
situations.
CSA B365 - Solid Fuel Burning Equipment Installation Code
CSA B365 is presently under a significant revision program, under which fresh air
intakes will be given much more prominence. Flue sizing recommendations are being
redeveloped, and may result in significant downsizing. Coordination with CSA A405 on
masonry chimneys and fireplaces is assured through multiple common memberships.
CSA A405 - Design and Construction of Masonry Chimneys and Fireplaces
A405 is being significantly revised, with the intent of having it become more of a
stand-alone document, and better justified by theory as well as laboratory and field
testing, so that CSA A405 can be used by more local authorities. Sizing recommendations
are being developed by CMHC for use with oil appliances (as per B139), and by Energy,
Mines and Resources Canada, CCRL, for fireplaces. In both cases, recommended sizes
will be smaller and insulation will be required. Much more research must be done
before all important questions have been addressed.
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144 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section V
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Section VI
Solving Problems in Buildings
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Indoor Air Quality Building
Surveys Case Studies
Tedd Nathanson
Senior Engineer
Building Air Quality Technology
Public Works Canada
In view of the general principle that a provincial legislature or municipal council
cannot bind the Parliament of Canada, the Government of Canada has the exclusive
responsibility to take such measures as may appear necessary or advisable to protect the
property of Canada, and to provide safe and healthful working conditions and procedures
for all persons who occupy or visit this property.
The Canada Labor Code, Pan II, Occupational Safety and Health states that in the
undertaking of any federal work and for companies under inter-provincial charter every
employer shall:
• Ensure that the safety and health at work of every person employed is
protected [124];
• Ensure that all permanent and temporary buildings and structures meet
the prescribed standards [125(a)];
• Ensure that the levels of ventilation, lighting, temperature, humidity,
sound and vibration are in accordance with prescribed standards [125(n)];
and
• Ensure that all hazardous substances in the workplace are controlled in
accordance with prescribed standards [125.1(a)].
The Canada Labor Code authorizes the Department of Labor to prescribe and
enforce concentration limits of chemical, biological, and physical agents in the workplace.
Canada Occupational Safety and Health Regulations specify that the limit shall be less
than the threshold limit value (TLV) adopted by the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACG1II). Unfortunately, ACGIH threshold limit
values are set for industrial workplaces and not for office environments. As a result, the
TLV may be several orders of magnitude higher than office workplace levels.
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NATO CC'MS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Treasury Board Personnel Management Manual Chapter 3, also deemed part of
collective agreements with civil service unions, cites that, to the "extent practicable,"
ASHRAE standards should be applied in the workplace environment. To the extent
practicable, the environmental conditions to be maintained in office buildings shall
conform to the requirements specified in ASHRAE Standard 55-1981, "Thermal
Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy" and ASHRAE Standard 62 -1981,
"Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality."
ASHRAE Standard 62-1981 has been revised to 62-1989 and prescribes two methods
for ensuring acceptable IAQ. One method, the Ventilation Rate Procedure, provides a
ventilation rate in liters per second (1/s) per person chosen to control CO, and other
contaminants. For offices, 10 1/s per person is prescribed, which is equivalent to
approximately 800 ppm CO,.
The other method, the IAQ procedure, provides a direct solution by restricting the
concentrations of certain contaminants to some specified acceptable level. This method
recognizes that there may be strong sources of contaminants irrespective of occupant
density (e.g., C02). Examples of such sources are: processes (such as a printing shop);
building materials or furnishings; cleaning and maintenance materials; and improper
building system operation and maintenance.
While the ASHRAE standard is a good one, it does not mitigate the need for expert
help and judicious interpretation. Certainly a CO, reading of under 800 ppm does not
guarantee a good environment. In addition, ventilation is simply a process of dilution:
contamination levels are decreased by increasing ventilation. More expedient (and
cheaper) methods of insuring good indoor air quality include removing the contaminant
source (if possible), directly exhausting the contaminant, and selecting a less toxic
contaminant substitute.
While the regulatory aspects of indoor air quality are based on ACGIH and
ASHRAE standards, there are certain shortcomings in this approach:
• ASHRAE's definition of acceptable air quality is very broad: "Air in
which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations
determined by cognizant authorities and with which a substantial majority
(80 percent or more) of the people exposed do not express
dissatisfaction."
• Exposure limits are designed for use in industrial occupational
environments, where there is exposure to high concentrations of a small
number of pre-identified compounds. The existing occupational health
standards rely only on studies addressing one compound at a time, and
do not reflect the possible additive or synergistic effect of multiple
exposures in office spaces. In fact, office workers are exposed to a broad
spectrum of contaminants, present at very low concentrations relative to
permissible exposure levels.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
• Only a fraction of the possible number of contaminants in indoor air
have an exposure limit. New materials, products, office equipment, and
processes generate tens of thousands of chemicals, especially organic
compounds. Buildings cultivate and disseminate a multitude of
micro-organisms, including fungi, spores, mold, and bacteria.
Epidemiological studies and limits on exposure to these contaminants,
some of which are mycotoxic or carcinogenic, have not yet emerged.
• Occupational standards do not seem to apply to office requirements. The
composition of the work forces is also different and perhaps a
contributing factor: there are more healthy, younger males in industrial
workplaces. Neither does the standard address the hypersensitive
individual nor the differences in "environmental expectations" between
industrial and office workers.
It is clear that a lot more research and study is needed before adequate and
complete IAQ standards are available.
This discussion on IAQ standards and regulations may appear rather daunting;
however, in the majority of problem building cases, a solution is found. According to the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (see Table 1) studies, no cause
could be determined in only 12 percent of the buildings.
In conducting an IAQ survey, a standard protocol should be followed:
1. Preliminary discussions and interviews to establish the possible
problem areas, a walkthrough and inspection of the building systems,
and a review of the drawings, control logic, and other pertinent
documentation;
2. Simple measurement of selected parameters, such as CO,, CO,
temperature, humidity, presence of microbials, and air movement;
3. More complex measurement of volatile organic compounds (pump,
charcoal tube, GC/MS or photoionization detector), particulates
(pump, filter or light-scatter detector), radon (alpha etch detector,
sniffer), air velocity (hot-wire anemometer), air volume (flow hood),
and ventilation effectiveness and circulation (tracer gas, GC).
In many cases, the problem (and possible solution) becomes apparent during the
walkthrough, and simple measurements may be taken to confirm the hypothesis.
Finally, why do we care about comfort criteria? Because poor indoor air lowers
productivity and increases absenteeism costs! Over a 50-year span, building capital costs
two to four percent, building operating costs six to eight percent, and salaries cost 88 - 92
percent of the total building expenditure.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAO: Section VI
TABLE 1
NIOSH IAQ INVESTIGATIONS (1979 - 1986)
Problem Type
Completed
Percent
Inadequate Ventilation
232
52
Contamination (inside)
75
17
Unknown
54
12
Contamination (outside)
50
11
Contamination (microbial)
22
5
Contamination (building fabric)
13
3
TOTAL:
446
100
Complaint
Percent of Buildings
Eye Irritation
81
Dry Throat
71
Headache
67
Fatigue
53
Sinus Congestion
51
Skin Irritation
38
Shortness of Breath
33
Cough
24
Dizziness
22
Nausea
15
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CASE STUDY - A
Description
Large downtown office building, 25 floors with a four-story underground garage. Floor
area of 26,000 square meters.
Problem
Complaints of headaches, lethargy, and fainting spells from personnel in the 3rd floor
conference translation booths. A study has been previously done, sampling six sites for
CO^ temperature, and humidity (at a cost of $1,350). All measurements were found to
be within ASHRAE standards. Recommendations were made to increase the outdoor air
supply.
Measurements
CO
co2
Temperature
Humidity
Formaldehyde
Total VOCs
Observations
• Boards placed to close to garage fresh air louvers;
• Garage heating system shut off;
• Main humidification boiler shut off;
• Humidistats and controllers defective and/or disconnected;
• Air handling filtering system and mixing plenums dirty and in disrepair; and
• Roll filter system not operating, frames damaged.
Recommendations
• Open and operate garage ventilation/heating system. ASHRAE CO standards are
9 ppm (8 hours) and 50 ppm (1 hour).
• Monitor garage attendant booth for CO levels, pressurize if required.
• Operate at a minimum humidity level of 20 percent RH; calibrate humidity controls.
• Repair, clean, and maintain air handling and filtering systems.
8 ppm booth (10:00 a.m.)
12 ppm corridor (2:30 p.m.)
16 ppm stairwell (2:30 p.m.)
170 ppm garage (5:00 p.m.)
450 - 500 ppm
20.5 - 21.2°C
12 - 19% RH
0.05 ppm
2.13 - 4.20 mg/m? (hydrocarbons)
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
• Implement operating and maintenance guidelines for building systems operation.
Notes
• A meeting was required prior to survey due to the questions and concerns of
employees, union, management, and the building owner.
• A court injunction was obtained against landlord to unblock and operate garage
ventilation system.
• Volatile organic compounds sampling was conducted but analysis was not required.
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CASE STUDY - B
Description
Rectangular, two-story multi-purpose office building, 32,500 square meters, facing a ten
lane road. Occupancy between 800 - 1,200 employees. Built in 1955.
Problem
Belief that vehicle emissions were entering building fresh air intake situated at ground
level, facing the road. Complaints of headaches and general lack of well-being.
Measurements
CO 0-4 ppm (7 ppm outside)
C02 375 - 650 ppm
Lead not detected (sampled by pump and filter; analyzed by X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy)
Temperature 22 - 24.5°C
Humidity 24 - 34% RH
Formaldehyde less than 0.1 ppm
Total VOCs 17.98 mg/m5 (toluene 3.7 mg/mJ, n-decane 2.8 mg/m3,
methylcyclohexane 1.6 mg/m?)
Observations
• Three offset printers in print shop unvented (except via return air);
• Improper storage of solvents and disposal of cleaning rags;
• Poor maintenance and housekeeping;
• Ceiling tiles missing, broken or soiled, dirty and cluttered hallways, storage of boxes,
racks, and other items in hallways; and
• Humidity control for each system achieved by measurement of the supply air
humidity level (by probe and gauge) and then by manual adjustment of the
humidifier.
Recommendations
• Install a dedicated exhaust system for the offset printers.
• Install an approved vented paint and solvent storage cabinet and refuse container.
• Repair and paint ceiling tiles.
• Increase housekeeping efforts and schedule day-shift cleaning.
• Remove all items stored in hallways.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
• Automate humidity control.
Notes
• A total volatile organic compound (TVOC) level of 17.98 mg/mJ is way above
expected values. Although no standard or guidelines currently exist for TVOC levels,
research by Molhave of Denmark suggests that complaints of sensory irritation and
dryness in nose and eye, which are frequently symptoms of sick building syndrome,
occur at concentrations above 2.0 mg/mJ (ASHRAE Transactions 1986 V.92). The
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) proposed a TVOC guideline of 5.0
mg/m3 (approximately one ppm) at the 1987 IAQ Berlin Conference. ACGIH
TLVs exist for toluene (375 mg/m5) and for methylcyclohexane (1,600 mg/mJ). The
measured values are 1/100 and 1/1,000 of the TLV respectively, underscoring the
problem of using industrial workplace standards in the office environment.
Public Works building TVOC samples have ranged from 0 to 6 mg/mJ. Clearly
more investigation is required, especially in the related areas of material off-gassing,
"bake-off of new buildings, and building commissioning, retrofit, and re-carpeting.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 153
CASE STUDY - C
Description
A twin-tower, 11-story downtown office building, containing three interconnected
commercial floors and an 11-story atrium in each tower. Built in 1976, each floor is 3,000
square meters, containing both open plan and enclosed offices.
Problem
Non-specific occupant complaints concerning poor IAQ and temperature variations.
Multi-disciplinary studies (lighting, thermal comfort, ventilation, acoustics, functional space
analysis, and air quality) were conducted.
Measurements
CO
co2
Outdoor C02
Temperature
Humidity
Formaldehyde
Total VOCs
Particulates
Observations
• Fresh air supply C02 levels indicate an external pollutant source;
• Inspection on roof confirmed re-entrainment of exhaust air (25 percent by
calculation); and
• High levels of formaldehyde and TVOCs due to new fit-up of space (off-gassing of
furnishings, partitions and carpeting) and re-entrainment of exhaust air.
Recommendation s
• Redesign two exhaust systems to eliminate re-entrainment into the fresh air intakes,
and operate ventilation system continually (24 hours per day) in retrofit areas to
reduce VOC emission.
• Increase humidity to a minimum of 25 percent RH.
0 - 0.5 ppm
525 - 750 ppm
(fresh air supply 380, 420, 425 ppm and 400, 450, 475 ppm in two
mechanical rooms)
370 ppm
21.4 - 24"C
19 - 22% RH
0.15 - 0.22 ppm (ASHRAE 0.1 ppm)
0.12 - 5.77 mg/m5 (13 samples)
10 jig/nr3 (respirable)
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Notes
• Eight out of 13 sampling sites had TVOC concentrations greater than 2.0 mg/m3,
including two locations greater than 5.0 mg/m5. Individual compounds were
measured between 0.015 - 0.004 percent of the TLVs.
No other major environmental problems were noted in the other disciplines.
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CASE STUDY - D
Description
A four-story, "E" shaped building, 12.000 square meters, consisting of office space and a
cafeteria. Six HVAC systems condition the interior environment. Built in 1955.
Sick building symptoms, complaints of discomfort such as allergic reactions at work, which
disappear on weekends. Streaking of ceiling adjacent to air diffusers.
Measurements
Observations
• Microbial count of 807 colony forming units too high (perhaps 60 - 70 times normal)
and penicillium viridicatum fungus is hazardous because it can produce mycotoxins.
Although microbial guidelines are sketchy at this point, a count of over 100 CFU
indicates that the species should be identified, and a count of over 500 CFU
indicates a problem. Clearly, a problem existed. Fortunately, during the
walk-through, a non-maintained water spray humidifier system and blocked drainage
tank were noted. The system was unblocked on day one, cleaned with undiluted
Javex on day two and subsequent days, and all associated ducts, diffusers, carpets,
drapes and surfaces were cleaned on the following weekend.
Further sampling resulted in counts of 6 CFU in the affected areas, indicating that
the fungal contamination had been eliminated. Monitoring will continue every three
months for a year. The summer may produce other possible fungal "amplifiers" to
reactivate the microbial growth. The humidification system has been drained and
shut down pending a decision whether to replace it with a steam unit or reactivate
the existing system.
To quote the laboratory research scientist: "People in casual contact with the office
in the past are in no risk. People who worked in the office may have acquired an
allergy and possibly suffered other discomfort if the fungus is toxigenic, or if mild
hypersensitivity pneumonitis occurred. It is unlikely that any permanent health
problems have been caused."
Problem
co2
Temperature
Humidity
Particulates
Formaldehyde
Total VOCs
Microbials
575 - 725 ppm
21.3 - 23.8°C
21.3 - 28.6% RH
ND - 0.14 mg/m3 (no metals or fibers)
ND - 0.02
0.108 - 0.387 mg/m3 (10 samples)
6 - 807 colony forming units/m3 (CFU) (five samples)
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• New computer control and monitoring system for all six HVAC systems had recently
been installed;
• High readings of CO, (600 - 720 ppm) at 8:30 a.m. indicates that there is possibly
no overnight flushing of the building;
• Pipe insulation slightly damaged in the mechanical rooms; analysis indicates 50 - 75
percent composition of chrysotile asbestos;
• Presence of desk fans and evidence of occupant tampering with the ventilation
supply highlight possible air balancing problem; and
• Changes to the building's mechanical systems have not been recorded completely;
building operating and maintenance manuals did not exist.
Recommendations
• Carefully monitor microbial levels every three months.
• Establish an operating procedure and maintenance schedule.
• Ceiling areas near diffusers had particulate buildup consistent with 30-year old
systems. The areas should be cleaned and painted, the ducts and the mechanical
rooms, which serve as mixing plenums, should be vacuumed.
• The kitchen exhaust system should be removed from the mechanical room to stop
the migration of cooking odors to the supply air.
• The amount of fresh air should be determined. Either ten liters per second per
person or a minimum amount of 15 percent should be maintained.
• Ventilation rate should be checked and system re-balanced if necessary.
• Damaged pipe insulation should be repaired and encapsulated.
• Higher humidity levels (25 - 30 percent RH) should be maintained.
Notes
• Due to the unfamiliarity with microbial contamination, it was difficult to mount a
coordinated and concerted clean-up, and no single knowledgeable contractor existed.
Workers were not informed of the risks and no protective clothing or face masks
were provided.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Design of Indoor Air Quality
Studies
Edward N. Light, C.I.H.
Manager, Indoor Air Quality
Dames and Moore
7101 Wisconsin Avenue
Bethesda, MD 20814
Procedures currently used by environmental investigators to assess the quality of air
in buildings vary widely and can result in contradictory conclusions. With vaguely defined
goals and no widely accepted standard protocol available, many IAQ complaint
investigations fail in terms of either not identifying the cause of building-related symptoms
or falsely accusing the wrong "suspect." The most common reasons that IAQ investigations
arrive at such misleading conclusions are (1) an overemphasis on sampling, (2) an
underemphasis on deductive reasoning (common sense), and (3) a tendency to blame the
obvious (e.g., dirty ducts) when the most critical factors are more subtle. The purpose of
this paper is to summarize general guidelines for conducting such studies in a systematic
manner.
Over the past several years, IAQ studies have increasingly been conducted for
non-research purposes. Such investigations can be categorized as follows:
• Investigation of occupant complaints or suspected problems;
• Pre-occupancy consultation; or
• Baseline surveys (sometimes with periodic follow-up).
The interior building environment represents a dynamic and complex "eco-system."
An understanding of how key factors change over space and time within the building and
how they interact is critical to the success of any IAQ study.
Sources of indoor air pollutants have been characterized in the technical literature
and often sensationalized in the popular press. Interior pollutants may commonly
originate from building occupants and their activities, equipment emissions, new
furnishings, contaminated building materials, or outside sources drawn into the building.
Ventilation is often the single most important factor determining whether these emissions
present a problem. Air movement determines which building areas are actually affected
by any given source. With an absence of IAQ standards, the bottom line for exposure
often is whether a complaint situation exists. A building-related complaint could include
anything from an acute health problem, to a health risk perceived as unacceptable, to
false allegations originating from disgruntled employees.
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158 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
General Strategies
In a complaint situation, allegations should be characterized as objectively as possible
to determine if there are any patterns which tend to implicate or rule out actual building
conditions. The most conclusive data are generated by medical exams and statistically-
based epidemiology. Complaint data for most IAQ studies are constrained by project
limitations to interviews or qualitative epidemiology. Such evaluations should be designed
to spot, at a minimum, any consistent symptoms which suggest general syndromes and any
special times, locations, or conditions where they appear to be most notable.
The early stages of any IAQ study should also include a characterization of potential
sources. While pollutant measurements are only a "snapshot" in time, a source
characterization should ideally include a description of the range of potential emissions
including worst case conditions and affected areas. Background information can be
obtained from building plans and interviews with operating personnel. Historical
descriptions of past episodic events are of particular interest. On-site inspection should
document any indicators of source emissions, such as unusual odors, excessive dust, or
staining.
Similarly, an IAQ assessment should include a general evaluation of HVAC systems.
Critical observations relate to ventilation rate, ventilation efficiency, pathways for
contaminant movement, and equipment sanitation. Not only should conditions at the
time of inspection be checked, but the range of conditions expected over a typical year
should also be considered.
Ideally, air sampling should not be initiated until most of the preceding information
is available. Because air quality can fluctuate widely over space and time within any
building, a successful sampling strategy should be based on a comprehensive understanding
of how the building operates, the nature of the complaints and any visual or odor
observations resulting from the inspection. The minimum goal of sampling should be to
reflect both average and worst case conditions. At each sampling site, key factors that
determine air quality should be documented. Although most samples are generally
collected in the occupants' breathing zone, diagnostic samples (to locate sources and
potential pathways for contaminant movement) may also be needed. Routine parameters
commonly used to characterize indoor air include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
respirable suspended particulates, temperature, relative humidity, and smoke tube
observations. Other parameters should be carefully selected based on specific building
concerns.
A scientific approach to resolving IAQ problems should include formulating and then
testing a series of hypotheses. Information generated from building inspections and
interviews and sampling data should then be compared to an hypothesis. If a consistent
pattern is not demonstrated, then other hypotheses should be considered, not necessarily
limited to IAQ issues.
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A series of hypotheses may necessitate an increasingly detailed evaluation to resolve
complex 1AO problems. This process can be conducted in phases, beginning with an
initial, in-house effort to document obvious conditions. The next phase often consists of
a comprehensive screening by specialized investigators. In such a screening, the number
and types of air samples are generally limited. The final phase, if needed, includes
detailed, quantitative studies designed to evaluate specific issues.
Special Considerations
The outcome of an IAQ study can be easily prejudiced by the selection of study
boundaries. A common client request is to study the IAQ complaint in only one room.
Ideally, an IAQ study should include the entire building in order to evaluate all factors
and put them into perspective. At a minimum, an investigation should include the
complaint area, adjacent areas, any other potential sources, related air handling
equipment, and a control site (e.g., similar area without complaints).
A standard protocol for the assessment of asbestos-containing material (ACM)
involves dividing the building into homogeneous areas where similar suspect material is
present. Representative bulk samples are then collected and the results applied to the
entire area. While the number of variables present in an IAQ investigation is much
greater, a similar approach can be applied by dividing the building into homogeneous
areas, based on the key factors identified in the initial building inspection and interviews.
Examples of how a building might be divided include:
• Individual HVAC zones;
• Types of HVAC zones (i.e., interior vs. perimeter);
• Complaint vs. non-complaint areas;
• Complaint types; and
• Relationship to major sources (i.e., spaces directly, indirectly or not
impacted by smoking areas).
Although each area may not be identical, the key factor within any grouping should
be similar. Test sites can then be selected to represent complaints, controls, and potential
sources with a reasonable number of samples.
The most effective control for an intermittent IAQ problem is to schedule IAQ
investigators on-site, full-time. If the odor or symptoms only occur occasionally, they
inevitably do not occur during the scheduled IAQ study. An intermittent odor or illness
situation may be very difficult to track down in one or two visits (i.e., "You should have
been here last week!"). One cost-effective approach to this type of problem is for the
IAQ investigator to assign appropriate building personnel to document changes over time.
For example, if an odor episode occurs, the building engineer could inspect the air
handler and intake area while the building manager walks by three potential sources.
Obvious odors detected at this critical time may identify the source. In another approach,
occupants could keep a daily diary, noting symptoms and building conditions.
Simultaneously, the building engineer could record the daily status of HVAC systems and
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suspect sources. A correlation (or lack thereof) could help resolve the complaint.
Building conditions can also be manipulated to recreate worst case situations during the
scheduled on-site IAQ investigation (i.e., arrange for the trash truck to idle at the loading
dock or HVAC intake dampers to be manually set at minimum). Finally, tracers can be
used to estimate where emissions would travel during worst-case conditions. For example,
peppermint oil released at a roof top exhaust or flushed down a drain might identify
important source/receptor relationships. Similar observations of smoke tubes can also
define areas affected by intermittent emissions.
In addition to the routine IAQ indicators noted above, numerous other chemical,
microbiological, and physical parameters may be included in a building assessment. These
parameters should be selected very carefully with advance consideration as to how the
data will be interpreted. Ideally, additional test parameters should only be included where
potential source problems are observed or symptoms suggest a certain agent is present in
the environment. When clients insist on "testing for everything," efforts must be made to
provide appropriate controls and present information on normal background levels.
Traditional industrial hygiene procedures may not be optimal for an IAQ assessment.
Care must always be given in selecting a meaningful detection limit and averaging time for
the IAQ setting.
Where specific exposure problems are documented, the development of remedial
measures may require more detailed diagnostic testing to locate major sources. For
example, the control of microbial or pesticide contamination may involve surface or bulk
sampling. Sites with the highest residues can be highlighted for cleanup efforts.
Diagnostic testing may also involve the use of tracers to locate pathways of contaminant
movement.
One last issue important to the design of IAQ studies is the degree of detail. The
quickest and cheapest way to resolve a relatively simple IAQ complaint is a qualitative
study in which sampling is kept to a minimum. At the other extreme, a statistically-based
study design presenting quantitative epidemiology and sampling results may be needed
where there are complex technical or legal issues. In all cases, realistic study goals should
be determined initially, with a corresponding study design based on cost, time, and
practical constraints on the project.
Interpretation of Data
Unlike the more regulated environmental program areas, there are no IAQ
standards defining whether test results are acceptable. Guidelines, available for some
parameters, are subject to conflicting opinions among experts and should be tempered by
site-specific considerations. IAQ data can also be interpreted by comparing elevated
readings to control areas or to the expected background range for buildings without
perceived IAQ problems. In a complaint investigation, unusual readings should be
evaluated further for possible associations with symptom patterns. In a baseline study,
elevated readings might highlight the need for revised operations and maintenance
procedures which could improve air quality. As emphasized earlier, IAQ studies should
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attempt to define worst-case conditions. In this regard, sampling results can be
extrapolated (at least qualitatively) to estimate worst-case occupant exposure.
Absolute or relative air quality concentrations may not provide the solution in an
IAQ complaint investigation. These readings comprise only a part of the data base
needed to develop possible associations between building conditions and symptom
patterns. This process should also take into account how air quality changes in the
building over time and space. If unusual exposure conditions are generally consistent with
major complaints, then a positive association can be tentatively concluded. A "perfect fit"
is very rare, due to mobility of building occupants, varying sensitivities, and psychosomatic
complaints. A general inconsistency between building conditions and complaints can form
the basis of a negative finding. Failure to show either a positive or negative association
may indicate the need for more diagnostic data, or a trial and error approach (i.e.,
eliminate or modify one building factor at a time).
Positive associations should be clarified as to whether they represent hypersensitive
individuals only or suggest risk to the general population. Identified air quality problems
should also be classified as to whether they are primarily due to excessive source
emissions or to inadequate ventilation.
In addition to looking for specific associations, IAQ results can be reviewed for
unusual findings which suggest a potential risk to health. Positive conclusions may result
where readings are considered to be elevated or emission sources and general indicators
(e.g., odors) are suspect. Positive findings from an IAQ investigation should be presented
in perspective with efforts to differentiate between minor and major problems.
Conversely, air quality concentrations within a pre-determined background range or HVAC
operation within ASHRAE standards may be considered negative findings.
A detailed assessment of indoor air quality in a facility should rarely result in simple,
uniform conclusions. Care should be taken to distinguish between differences in various
occupant groups, building areas, and time periods. For example, a positive association
with microbial contamination may be found, but only with allergic individuals in zones A
and D during the cooling season. At the same time, potential ventilation problems could
be found in zones B and C.
In summary, an IAQ investigation is much more than the simple collection of data
evaluated for compliance with "standards." A multi-disciplinary study team with an
understanding of the unique technical and practical aspects of IAQ is a prerequisite to the
successful implementation of the protocols outlined in this paper.
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162 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section VI
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Summary Findings of the
Inter-Ministerial Committee
On Indoor Air Quality
(Ontario)
Gyan S. Rajhans
M.Sc. (Eng.), CIH
Principal Occupational Hygiene Advisor
Occupational Health and Safety Division
Toronto, Canada
Preface*
The environmental awareness of the 1960s and 1970s has spilled over into other
areas. One new area of concern is the indoor environment of our homes, offices, and
schools. The indoor environment has received increasing attention from the occupants,
ventilation engineers, and other specialists. Not only do people spend on average 70 - 90
percent of their time indoors, but most new jobs in Ontario are created in the service
sector and these employees are usually located in modern offices.
The energy crisis of the early 1970s prompted building owners to construct energy
efficient buildings. Building owners achieved this by constructing "air tight" buildings in
which air infiltration and exfiltration were reduced. However, as buildings become more
energy efficient, occupants' complaints of "stuffiness" or "stale air" increased. Several
terminologies are used to describe these complaints such as sick building syndrome (SBS),
tight building syndrome (TBS), and closed building syndrome (CBS).
The Ontario Ministries of Labor (MOL), Health, Education, and Government
Services (MGS) and local health units have investigated more than 2,000 indoor air
complaints since 1976. Most complaints concerned air-tight, multi-story buildings equipped
with central HVAC systems, with some complaints from schools with or without HVAC
systems. In many cases, the causes of the symptoms could not be found.
* This article summarizes the key findings of the report entitled, "Report of the
Inter-Ministerial Committee on Indoor Air Quality, Ontario Ministry of Labor." Tables,
figures, and appendices referred to in this article are contained in the original report,
which may be obtained from the author.
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LAO complaints will likely persist in the future and the Ontario Government needs
a guideline for defining indoor air parameters and a uniform protocol for investigating
"sick building" complaints. This concern is shared by many ministries. On March 30,
1987. at the second meeting of the Deputy Ministers' Committee on Occupational and
Environmental Health, a decision was made to set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee to
review and evaluate potential health hazards from buildings and to develop a protocol for
investigations of "sick building" complaints. The committee was established and named the
Inter-Ministerial Committee on Indoor Air Quality (henceforth, referred to as the
Committee).
The Committee met for the first time on July 14, 1987. During its initial
deliberations, the Committee sought an approval from the Deputy Ministers' Committee
to exclude residential buildings from its deliberations because:
• A recently released Federal-Provincial report (April 1987) defines
acceptable indoor air quality in residential buildings;
• The Ministry of Housing alone has jurisdiction in regulating construction
and provision of ventilation methods in residential buildings; and
• Legislative authority with regard to IAQ in residential buildings is not
clearly defined.
The Committee also sought approval to exclude deliberations on second-hand cigarette
smoke exposure because the committee expected a Government-wide policy on this issue.
At their February 2, 1988 meeting, the Deputy Ministers agreed that the
Committee's scope would be limited to commercial and institutional buildings, and would
exclude residential and industrial buildings. However, the Deputy Ministers asked the
Committee to reconsider its decision regarding second-hand smoke exposure. The general
opinion of the Deputy Ministers' Committee was that it was neither appropriate nor
realistic to exclude the consideration of cigarette smoke because in many cases, it is the
most easily identifiable and most easily remedied cause of LAQ problems. The Committee
reconsidered their position on second-hand smoke at their March 1988 meeting and
agreed to address second-hand smoke in their terms of reference. Thus, the final terms
of reference agreed upon were as follows:
• Define the terms related to indoor air quality.
• Review and evaluate health hazards related to IAQ.
• Develop a uniform protocol for investigating IAQ concerns and a protocol
for field measurements.
• Recommend acceptable criteria for IAQ including second-hand smoke
exposure.
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During the period from July 1987 to August 1988, the Committee met 11 times to
discuss and review the scientific literature as well as reports on indoor air quality in view
of the terms of reference, and to develop a uniform protocol for the investigation of IAQ
complaints. In addition, several Canadian and American governmental personnel working
on IAQ problems were also contacted to obtain their views on LAQ standards.
While the review of the IAQ literature helped the Committee arrive at the
guidelines and recommendations made in its report, the protocol for investigating IAQ
concerns, including the detailed questionnaire, was developed by the Committee with input
from MOL hygienists, medical consultants, and a statistician. The Committee's protocol
is reactive rather than proactive. The Committee did not develop a recommendation for
radon because another inter-ministerial committee has dealt with this issue. Asbestos,
lighting, and noise are discussed briefly because the regulations dealing with these agents
are either in existence (e.g., asbestos) or in the development stage (e.g., noise and
lighting).
The Committee has prepared its report to guide government inspectors, occupational
health professionals, building design professionals, and property managers in recognizing
IAQ problems in non-residential and non-industrial buildings and in recommending
remedial measures to address these problems. It is also hoped that the report will lead
to a formal IAQ policy by the Government of Ontario.
The Committee is fully cognizant that, in spite of all the work being done, the
understanding of indoor air quality and its health hazards is still incomplete because of the
many contaminants involved, the low concentrations of contaminants, and the
non-specificity of the reported symptoms. As knowledge grows, the information contained
in the report will need updating.
Executive Summaiy
The Committee recommends adoption of uniform definitions of IAQ terminologies
and a uniform protocol of IAQ investigations. Details are given in the report. A portion
of the recommended protocol is a comprehensive questionnaire and its analysis.
Because the sources of indoor pollutants cannot be avoided in most cases, the
Committee proposes that adequate fresh air supply is the single most effective solution to
IAQ problems, provided that HVAC systems are properly designed, operated, and
maintained. For buildings without a complete mechanical ventilation system, full
advantage should be taken of the ventilation provided by openable windows.
The Committee also presents IAQ guidelines, which provide reference points for
assessing the extent of remedial measures in buildings.
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The Committee was unable to find any regulatory IAQ standards specifically
established for children in schools. However, the guidelines proposed in the report are
stringent enough to protect the health of school children.
The Committee recommends adoption of a non-smoking policy by Ontario Ministries
due to the presence of several known or probable carcinogens as well as other toxins in
"mainstream" and "sidestream" cigarette smoke. Until such time as the non-smoking policy
is adopted, buildings should be provided with designated smoking areas with a separate
exhaust and ventilation system.
The Committee recommends that appropriate changes be made to the Building Code
to reflect the findings of this report.
Introduction
In the last number of years, IAQ problems became common when energy
conservation measures were introduced for buildings. These measures caused buildings
to be more tightly sealed and to have less fresh air circulated. The complaints and
symptoms of illness are the same in most of these buildings. The symptoms are usually
not specific, therefore, likely causes of the problems are not easily identified.
IAQ Issues
The Committee identified seven IAQ issues to address. The first issue was defining
the IAQ terms. Since several terminologies exist to describe "non-specific IAQ
complaints" (e.g., sick building syndrome and tight building syndrome), it was necessary to
first define indoor air quality and then to choose and define appropriate terms to
characterize the common complaints associated with IAQ problems (e.g., eye and upper
respiratory irritation, headache, dizziness, nausea, fatigue and perceived stuffiness in the
air). Likewise, it was necessary to define "health" before developing the protocol for
investigating IAQ complaints.
The second issue was to design a protocol for IAQ investigations which provides
consistency in the investigative approach throughout the province. A portion of the
protocol is a comprehensive questionnaire and its analysis. The purpose of the
questionnaire is to allow the investigator to (1) establish whether IAQ problems exist, (2)
establish to what extent the problem exists, and (3) determine the possible sources of
contamination. We believe that our protocol will help the investigator in identifying easy,
low cost, energy effective solutions if the prescribed three stages are carefully followed.
The third issue was to group the sources of contaminants causing IAQ problems into
broad categories. The enormous number of contaminants that have so far been isolated
from indoor air were reviewed and categorized according to whether they originate from
"internal" sources or from "outdoor" sources. Internal sources were classified as building
components, the HVAC system, people, furniture, office supplies and equipment, and
parking garages. External sources were defined in terms of ambient air infiltration.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 167
Common to both types of sources were temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, formaldehyde, micro-organisms, organic solvents, and odor. Noise, radiation,
asbestos, as well as ergonomic and working conditions, were excluded from both groups.
The fourth issue was to develop a list of offices and buildings which may encounter
IAQ problems due to sealed windows and the presence of HVAC systems. In developing
this list, only those buildings which have extended occupancy periods, such as buildings in
which people are present all day, were considered as opposed to intermittent occupancy
buildings, such as underground concourses. This decision was necessary because places
with intermittent occupancy cannot be properly evaluated using our protocol.
The fifth issue was to determine factors affecting indoor air quality and propose IAQ
guidelines. In Chapter 4 of the report, IAQ guidelines** are given, which provide
reference points for assessing the extent of remedial measures in buildings. The
committee did not find any IAQ standards established for children in schools. It has been
reported that factors related to younger age groups include a higher respiration rate per
unit body weight and less ability to comprehend and communicate adverse health effects.
Another factor to be considered is aggravation of pre-existing diseases in children. The
guidelines developed for residential buildings by a Work Group of the Federal/Provincial
Advisory Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health (see Chapter 4 of the
report) appear to be stringent enough to protect the health of adult office workers as well
as school children, hence the recommendation for its adoption.
The sixth issue was to recommend remedial measures for IAQ problems. Adequate
fresh air supply appears to be the single most effective solution to IAQ problems, both
in office buildings and schools, because the sources of an indoor pollutant in most cases
cannot be avoided or reduced. Properly filtered air, free from CO?, bacteria, and tobacco
smoke, is the primary means of control of air contaminants in occupied spaces. ASHRAE
Standard 62-81R prescribes the rates of outdoor air intake to achieve acceptable indoor
air quality. The Committee has reviewed and accepted these rates as sufficient to dilute
contaminants that are generated internally to acceptable levels. These prescribed rates
correspond to the MOL and MGS experience, especially where these rates control C02
to a concentration of 1,000 ppm or less. C02 is used as a surrogate measure for other
contaminants, including odors.
The seventh issue was exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke. This topic has
captured public attention over the past several years. The most serious health hazard is
demonstrated by the fact that second-hand smoke exposure, in an office where many
people smoke, is equivalent to one to five cigarettes per day, and that approximately 5,000
persons in the USA die annually from lung cancer caused by exposure to second-hand
smoke. Children exposed to second-hand smoke have been shown to have an increased
** These guidelines are contained in Table 4.8 of the Interministerial Report.
These guidelines are also contained in Table 1 of Doug Walkinshaw's presentation on
page 134.
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NATO CC.MS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section Vf
incidence of respiratory illness. Nevertheless, no single satisfactory method is available to
measure the amount of cigarette smoke present in a workplace.
Definitions
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ): IAQ refers to the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of indoor air in non-residential workplaces (with no internal industrial
processes or operations) which can affect the comfort or health of the occupant.
Tight Building Syndrome (TBS): TBS refers to non-specific symptoms of discomfort and
ill-health, such as eye, nose and throat irritation, mental fatigue, headaches,
unspecific hypersensitivities, and other similar complaints, in a significant number of
occupants of non-industrial workplaces (mainly offices with HVAC systems).
Health: Health refers to a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Population at Risk
The Committee derived a list of those buildings and offices in which the work
population may encounter IAQ problems (Table 4.5 of the report). The list is based on
the Ministries' experience and by no means is all inclusive. Building types are subdivided
in the list and the groupings are based on the nature of the occupancy.
Cost Implications
The report does not address the capita] and operating costs of introducing
recommended amounts of outdoor air into non-residential buildings. The Committee did
not consider this to be part of their terms of reference. However, the Committee refers
readers to a conclusion of the Federal-Provincial Work Group on Indoor Air Quality,
which was contained in the first report to the Advisory Committee on Environmental and
Occupational Health. According to the Work Group, implementing their recommended
ventilation requirements for offices will have minimal energy cost implications for large
offices. In addition, it should be possible to provide 200 cfm (cubic feet per minute) of
ventilation for each person without significant building modifications. As far as schools
and especially portables are concerned, no similar energy cost estimates are available in
the published literature.
Protocol for Indoor Air Quality Investigations
Introduction
The protocol for IAQ investigations first requires the acquisition of useful
information at the least effort and cost. The protocol is based on investigating the
building and, if necessary, the symptoms of the workers; both of these may be needed to
identify the causes of indoor air problems before remedial measures are applied.
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The protocol for LAO investigations developed by the Committee has four stages:
Stage 1. Preliminary Assessment
Stage 2. Questionnaire
Stage 3. Simple Measurements
Stage 4. Complex Measurements
In the Preliminary Assessment, physical factors and chemicals and their sources that
cause IAQ problems may be identified. The Questionnaire amplifies this process and
provides for the evaluation of workers' responses to poor IAQ. The Simple and Complex
Measurements should be undertaken if the results of the Preliminary Assessment and the
Questionnaire do not identify the causes of the problems, or if the remedial measures that
have been taken do not alleviate them. The Questionnaire can also be used to check the
effectiveness of any remedial measures taken in Stage 1. For each stage of the
investigation, a separate decision should be made based on the information available.
Stages 3 or 4 of the investigation should not be conducted without a clear indication that
the problem cannot be identified at Stage 1 or after the administration of the
Questionnaire.
Preliminary Assessment
The preliminary assessment stage does not use instruments, but relies on an
inspection and the collection of information on the building. The information comes from
observations made in the building, knowledge of the operation of the HVAC system, and
details of the complaints.
Two activities are involved in the preliminary assessment: collection of information
about the building (the Building Checklist), and interpretation of this information to
provide evidence for or against the various causes of the problems. For a complete
inspection, the Building Checklist, given in Appendix A of the report, should be used.
The checklist is a questionnaire to be filled in with information about the building. Note
that whenever possible, ventilation systems should be visually checked to ensure that they
are performing in a satisfactory manner,.
The Building Checklist is divided into five parts:
• Carbon Monoxide - Combustion Byproducts;
• Other Pollutant Sources;
• HVAC Operations;
• Maintenance and Design; and
• Complaint Area Observation Sheet.
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Once information has been collected, the second activity in this stage is to interpret
the results. Guidance on how to use the Building Checklist information to identify
probable causes of problems is given in Part 6 of the report, the Assessment Summary.
The report from the preliminary assessment should include assessment of information
collected and recommendations for eliminating the problem. If the cause of the problem
is not identified, the Questionnaire should then be administered.
Questionnaire and Analysis
Overview of the Questionnaire
A comprehensive questionnaire has been developed as part of the protocol for LAQ
investigations. The questionnaire is given in Appendix B of the report and it is based on
questionnaires that were developed by the Ministries of Labor and Health, and by J.D.
McDonald of McGill University. Drafts of this questionnaire were reviewed by
participating ministries' staff and, where applicable, their suggestions have been
incorporated by the Committee.
The purpose of the questionnaire is to gather information on the problems that are
experienced in the indoor environment. The questionnaire is designed to allow one to
establish whether, and to what extent, LAQ problems exist, and to determine the possible
sources of contamination.
Questions have been defined which indicate symptoms typically associated with IAQ
complaints. In addition, the questionnaire investigates the incidence of the more general
complaints regarding exposure to physical conditions in the working environment, such as
those relating to noise, lighting, humidity, temperature, and air movement. The format
and language of the questionnaire is simple to allow individuals to complete it without
assistance.
The questionnaire results can also be analyzed in conjunction with the results of the
contaminant measurements carried out in Stages 3 and 4. Among the contaminants which
can be assessed are: VOCs; carbon monoxide, ozone, particulates, microorganisms, and
formaldehyde. Indicators of exposure to carbon dioxide, which itself is not regarded as
a major contaminant, suggest the presence of ventilation problems. The questionnaire
also assesses indicators of exposure and symptoms related to tobacco smoke.
Questionnaire Analysis
The analysis of the questionnaires for each IAQ investigation case is performed in
three stages: (1) analysis of each questionnaire; (2) compilation of the results for all
questionnaires; and (3) interpretation of the results. The responses (health symptoms) of
highest frequency are determined. If responses are only directed to specifically one or a
few health symptoms, it may be easy to infer a cause. If responses are directed at many,
non-specific health symptoms, then this finding may indicate the effects of "tight building
syndrome" and the lack of fresh air.
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For each contaminant, questions relating to symptoms indicate the presence of
complaints typically associated with the contaminant under review. The higher the
symptom's score, the greater the likelihood/severity of the symptoms associated with the
contaminant in question. To simplify matters, it is assumed that each indicator of
symptoms or exposure will have equal weighting. It is important to note that only
symptoms which manifest themselves during regular working hours are of significance. For
each contaminant, exposure levels for individual responses are estimated in the same
manner. High total exposure scores indicate a greater likelihood of exposure to the
contaminant in question.
A series of worksheets are developed to assist in the analysis of the questionnaire
(Appendix D). The "Lotus 1-2-3" software package is used in simplifying the analysis
(Appendix E). A summary table for individual questionnaires will provide information
about each contaminant and severity of exposure (Appendix F). Summary results of all
questionnaires, for both symptoms and exposures, for different contaminants are compiled
in a single table (Appendix F).
To compare scores for all individuals in an investigation case, exposure and symptom
scores can be plotted in the form of a frequency distribution chart (Appendix F). This
chart provides information on the extent to which individual responses (relating to
exposure and symptoms) vary among individuals in the survey. If high exposure and
symptom scores are observed for only a small minority of individuals in the survey, the
frequency distributions will reveal this.
Some indoor air problems are more severe at times in the day and/or week when
the rate of fresh air distribution is lower and/or when contaminants have had an
opportunity to reach a higher concentration. A frequency distribution for days of the
week may assist in identifying the source of the problem (Appendix F).
The exposure and symptom scores can be compared for individual responses. High
exposure and symptom scores may suggest that symptoms are indeed linked to the
presence of a particular contaminant. If many of the responses in the survey exhibit the
same pattern of high symptom scores associated with high exposure scores, then this result
would further suggest that there may be a widespread problem with a particular
contaminant. A contingency table can be constructed and tests of significance can be
performed (Chi Square) to determine whether or not there is a significant relationship
between indicators of exposure and symptom intensity (Appendix F).
In the long term, the analysis of different IAQ investigation cases will provide
information on some of the trends, such as the relationship of IAQ problems to the sex
of the respondents, type of office occupied, impact of stress and other factors.
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Stage 3 - Field Measurements with Simple Instruments
The third stage of the investigation involves simple instruments to take the following
measurements:
• Temperature;
• Relative humidity;
• Carbon dioxide;
• Formaldehyde;
• Carbon monoxide; and
• Air movement.
This stage is needed only if Stage 1 does not identify the problem and Stage 2 indicates
prevalence of certain symptoms.
In Stage 3, it is important that the above measurements be taken in the proper
location and appropriate time of the year, week, and day. The tables in Appendix G
indicate the suitable locations (including "control" locations) and time for measuring
pollutants.
Because the types of measurements made are unfamiliar to most people, the Data
Assessment Table in Appendix H provides ranges of acceptable and unacceptable values
for various pollutants. The measurement results can be compared against these ranges.
The measurements can also be used in conjunction with the health symptoms from the
Questionnaire.
A list of simple pieces of equipment, which are often used for the monitoring of
some basic pollutants, is given in Appendix I. The measurements should be easy, quick
to perform, and are designed to be used by non-specialists who have received a minimum
of training, for example, a building operator, property manager, or safety officer.
It is expected that the data collected will prove or disprove the presence of
hazardous levels of air pollutants in some cases, but not necessarily all cases. It may be
necessary to go to Stage 4 to measure other potential pollutants which require complex
measurement techniques.
Stage 4 - Field Measurements with Complex Instruments
If the problem is not identified in Stage 3 and it is suspected that the air
contamination is occurring from specific sources within or outside the building, or in the
event that harmful chemicals, dust, or microorganisms are suspected, it is necessary to use
complex instruments to carry out further measurements of other pollutants:
• Microorganisms;
« Respirable suspended particulates;
• Organic vapor;
• Ozont;
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• NO^.; and
• Asbestos.
The complex measurement techniques are more time consuming and expensive to
conduct than simple measurement techniques. The techniques also require an experienced
consultant or specialized organizations, such as the Ministry of Labor or the Ministry of
Health. These measurements are usually only used after Stage 1, 2, and 3 evaluations
have failed to resolve the situation. The measurements can also be used in an analysis
with the health symptoms from the questionnaire (see Section 5.4 of the report).
Interpretation of Field Measurements
Stage 3 and 4 measurements should be compared with Appendix H which gives
ranges of acceptable and unacceptable values for carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and physical factors. The guideline levels for
microorganisms in Chapter 4 of the report can be used to make comparisons against
measurements of microorganisms.
Several situations are possible:
• If all control and test location data fall in the normal outdoor and indoor
ranges, any problems suspected are not due to this cause/pollutant.
• If control locations yield numbers in the normal ranges and one or more
test locations yield numbers in the "do not exceed" range, there arc
problems to be corrected.
• If control location data is in the normal range and one or more test
locations yield numbers in the "possible problem" range, more detailed
testing may be necessary.
• If test and control locations yield numbers in the "possible problem"
range, the problem may have been caused by outdoor air or the the
testing equipment.
Recommendations
The Inter-ministerial Committee on Indoor Air Quality recommends the following for
consideration of the Deputy Minister's Committee on Occupational and Environmental
Health.
Existing Buildings
• The "Protocol for Indoor Air Quality Investigation," including Questionnaire and
Analysis, should be adopted to provide consistency throughout the province.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section VI
• A minimum of 15 cubic feet per minute per person of outdoor air should be
provided so that carbon dioxide (an indicator of adequate fresh air) does not exceed
1,000 ppm. For buildings without a complete mechanical ventilation system, full
advantage should be taken of openable windows.
• Air velocity of an average of 30 (within a range of 20 to 50) feet per minute should
be provided at the work station.
• Winter temperatures should be between 19.5 °C and 24.6°C, and summer
temperatures between 22.6°C and 27.2°C.
• Pollutants (e.g., copy machines, odors) should be removed at their source.
• The levels of pollutants should be below the levels specified in Tables 4.7, 4.8, and
4.10.
¦ Viable organisms should not exceed 1.000 CFU/m3 in indoor air.
New Buildings
For new buildings, the opportunity exists to design to ensure adequate indoor air
quality. Items (B), (C), (D), (E), (F), and (G) listed above are pertinent. Reference is
usually made to ASHRAE as good engineering practice. In addition to the above
combinations, the following items require careful attention in new building design:
• In areas where openable windows are not provided, mechanical ventilation
throughout the occupied zone should be provided at a minimum of 15 cubic feet per
minute per person and air velocity provided at the work station of approximately 30
feet per minute on average.
• Fresh air intakes should be located to avoid contamination, e.g., from street traffic.
• HVAC systems and materials should be designed to minimize the opportunity for
growth of microorganisms, such as having self-draining pans to avoid standing water.
• The building design should provide for readily accessible inspection and maintenance.
• The building design should provide for pollutant removal at the source.
• Where practical, materials should be used that are low in pollutant emissions, e.g.,
using drywall instead of particleboard, and using tile instead of carpeting.
• The above changes should be incorporated in the Building Code.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Second-Hand Smoke
These recommendations are based on the premise that second-hand smoke is a
potential health hazard.
• All building areas normally occupied by the working population should be classified
as non-smoking.
• Until such time as the previous recommendation can be implemented, buildings
affected should be provided with designated smoking areas. In designated smoking
areas, at least 60 cfm of outdoor air per person should be provided and exhaust air
from these areas should not be recirculated to other areas. However, in existing
buildings, this level may be economically impractical.
Future Recommendations
• The Deputy Minister's Committee on Occupational and Environmental Health should
continue to review, assess, monitor and coordinate IAQ issues.
• The Deputy Minister's Committee should support the formation of a national body
to review these issues and to carry out applied research towards resolving these
issues.
• The Deputy Minister's Committee should support the development of maintenance
guidelines for new and existing buildings by the HVAC industry.
NOTE: To obtain a copy of the original report, please contact: G.S. Rajhans, Health
and Safety Support Services Branch, Ontario Ministry of Labor, 400 University
Avenue, Toronto, Canada, M7A177, Canada (416) 326-1401.
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176 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section VI 177
The Quebec Approach
Jean-Claude Dionne
IRSST- Montreal (Quebec)
The number of complaints related to indoor air pollution in different work places
(excluding industrial milieu) has increased in the province of Quebec during the last few
years, as in other industrial societies. In order to solve a high percentage of these
problems, we have developed an innovative, proactive strategy.
The Institut de Recherche en Sante et en Securite du Travail du Quebec (IRSST)
conducted a study in three office buildings. The goals were to understand the
phenomenon of tight building syndrome and to develop different tools, for example:
sampling techniques and strategies, analytical techniques, observation sheets,
questionnaires, and so on. In a second step, 12 governmental buildings selected by the
employer and union representatives were fully studied by a multi-disciplinary team in a
very comprehensive manner. A document "Strategy for Studying Air Quality in Office
Buildings" was then written by two members of the team.
This guide has been developed for building owners, managers, employers, and
workers who must solve air quality problems in their buildings. The guide is an action
tool allowing problems related to the physical performance of a building and its HVAC
system to be identified, evaluated, and controlled.
The proposed procedure has been developed for air quality studies in office
buildings. Cases related to other non-industrial work environments, such as hospitals,
schools, and day-care centers, present more complex problems and require adapted
strategies. Nevertheless, the same steps (understanding the environment, evaluating
suspected problems, and implementing corrections at the source) apply to all these
environments.
The factors included in the procedure are ventilation, comfort, chemical
contaminants, bioaerosols, and work environments. Different tables (observation
questionnaire on the ventilation system, contaminant-emission sources, noise and lighting;
sampling strategy for chemical contaminants and bioaerosols; summary of concentrations
of chemical contaminants and bioaerosols measured in the air of the 15 office buildings
by a team from the IRSST) are also included.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section VI
In 1988, I convinced the Association Quebecoise pour la Maitrise de L'energie
(AQME) and the Bureau de L'efficacite Energetique to work on a guide for HVAC
systems operators. A working group was mandated by AQME to construct this guide,
which was published in French and in English in September 1989.
This "Practical Maintenance Manual for Good Indoor Air Quality" does not attempt
to solve all of the problems; however, it will allow the technical personnel involved to
make the necessary verifications when a problem arises. Above all, it will help prevent
such problems from arising by suggesting proper and regular equipment maintenance
steps, thus efficiently managing energy. It is important to keep in mind that good indoor
air quality is not contrary to an efficient energy management program. Indoor air quality
and energy management are not only compatible, but one benefits from the other.
This document is unique; it is the first of its kind in North America. Furthermore,
AQME will organize training workshops in many cities across Quebec. The workshops
will help users to better understand and use the procedures outlined in the manual,
therefore ensuring a better application.
During the last three years, we have held many LAQ seminars and conferences in
different cities of the province. The Commission de la Sante et de la Securite du Travail
du Quebec (CSST) has developed a manual titled "Guidance for Indoor Air Quality
Investigations" and information sessions for inspectors. IRSST has a few ongoing research
studies, in particular, techniques of decontamination in hospital ventilation systems, and
the use of C02 probes to control fresh air entry. Finally, a report of a preliminary IAQ
study in six day-care centers in Montreal will be published in two weeks. The study was
conducted by Dr. J. Soto (from a community health department) and myself.
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NATO CCMS Pilol Study on IAQ: Section VI
Employee Survey:
EPA Headquarters
Kevin Teichman
Office of Research and Development
US Environmental Protection Agency
Introduction
EPA's Office of Research and Development is conducting a number of IAQ and
work environment studies in four large office buildings in Washington, DC: the three
EPA headquarters buildings and the Library of Congress Madison Building. The studies
include two components: (1) administering a survey questionnaire to all building
employees, requesting information on health symptoms, comfort concerns, and other
background factors; and (2) conducting pollutant and ventilation measurements in selected
building locations. A number of organizations are participating in the design and
execution of this comprehensive study: EPA, the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH), the J.B. Pierce Foundation of Yale University, and the
National Institute of Standards and Technology.
The initial results of the studies, i.e., the descriptive reporting of the building survey
results, were not available at the time of the meeting. The EPA study is now available
through the Office of Administration Resource Management of EPA. The Library of
CongTess study will not be available until after the summer of 1990 through the Publishing
Office of the Library of Congress, Room LM602, Phone Number (202) 707-5093.
Subsequent reports will present the results of the monitoring data and attempt to correlate
the survey responses with the monitoring results.
Background
In recent years, employees at the three headquarters buildings of the EPA have
expressed their concerns about indoor air pollution and work environment discomforts.
Because of the difficulties encountered in determining the "actual" causes of such concerns
about building environments, EPA has undertaken a systematic study of the nature and
spatial distribution of employee health symptoms and comfort concerns in an attempt to
determine if associations exist between employee responses and specific work place
conditions.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
This paper summarizes the first of three volumes of a report that investigates the
perceived and actual quality of indoor air at EPA headquarters. Volume I documents the
design of the study and the results of the detailed survey of all EPA employees that was
conducted in February 1989. Three work complexes were surveyed: Waterside Mall and
the Fairchild Building in Washington, DC, and Crystal Mall in Arlington, Virginia.
Volume II presents a descriptive summary of the survey data. Results of the
environmental monitoring will be presented in Volume II; multi-variate analyses of both
sets of study results will be presented in Volume III.
The research effort at EPA was integrated with a parallel study at the Library of
Congress Madison Building. Both the EPA and the Library of Congress surveys made use
of common study designs and survey instruments, although separate reports have been
prepared for each agency. While certain features of the study are specific to the
particular buildings involved, the survey was designed to be applicable to any building
suspected of environmental problems.
Information continues to be obtained by both labor and management on the health
symptoms of EPA employees and the quality of indoor air at EPA headquarters. For
example, both the National Federation of Federal Employees Local 2050 and the
American Federation of Government Employees Local 3331 have accumulated information
on the illnesses experienced by EPA employees. This information is provided in a
supplement to Volume I entitled, "Additional Employee Adverse Health Effects
Information."
Study Design
Because of the lack of prior information on employee health that could be used as
benchmark data, and because of the spatial variability of ventilation, thermal factors, and
other conditions that influence health and comfort, a comprehensive survey of all EPA
employees at each of the three headquarters locations was required. A self-administered
questionnaire was distributed to all employees in February 1989, asking for information
about health symptoms and comfort concerns, along with data on background health and
demographic characteristics. Among the topics covered in the questionnaire were:
• Location of workstation (to detect associations between the survey and
monitoring data);
• Description of workstation, both current and changes over the previous
year;
• Amount of time spent at workstation;
• Health symptoms experienced while in the building, both in the previous
week and in the previous year;
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on 1AQ: Section VI
• Other health characteristics and risk factors: (e.g., wearing of contact
lenses and eyeglasses, smoking, allergies, and asthma);
• Eye, nose, throat, or respiratory irritation from tobacco smoke or other
chemicals during the previous year;
• Gynecological problems during the previous year;
• Comfort issues (e.g., temperature, humidity, air movement, noise, dust,
light, odors, and furniture use during last year);
• Job characteristics, including job satisfaction and job stress; and
• Education, job pay plan and grade, and job classification.
To increase participation in the survey, both management and unions were given the
opportunity to review the draft questionnaire, and their endorsements were communicated
to all employees prior to the survey. Stringent measures were taken to ensure the
confidentiality of all responses.
Findings from the employee survey were used to rank all rooms in the building on
the basis of a health symptom index, and then to select approximately 100 locations for
environmental monitoring and physical measurements. Environmental monitoring was
conducted three weeks after the employee survey. All locations were monitored for
temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. A subset of
locations was also sampled for nicotine, biological contaminants, particles, formaldehyde
and other aldehydes, other volatile organic compounds, and pesticides. In addition,
ventilation parameters were measured.
While the monitoring was in process, a supplemental questionnaire was also
administered to all employees near the environmental equipment. This questionnaire
provided a basis of comparison between air measurements and employee experiences on
the same day.
Results of the Survey
The overall response rate for the survey questionnaire across all three buildings was
81 percent, with 3,955 of an estimated 4,900 EPA employees completing the survey.
More than 1,400 employees also took the opportunity to volunteer additional comments
in the "essay" question provided at the end of the survey form. Key results are reported
below, first for health symptoms and then for comfort issues. It is important to note that
the health symptoms and comfort issues reported in the survey are self-reported by the
respondents, and the study did not attempt to verity the symptoms by a physician's
diagnosis. No attempt is made in this report to associate health or comfort outcomes with
possible risk factors in the building. These analyses will be the focus of Volume III.
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NATO CC.MS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section VI
Health Symptoms of the Building
The most frequently occurring health symptoms reported by respondents were
roughly similar across the three buildings — headaches, contact lens problems (among
contact lens wearers), stuffy nose, dry/itchy skin, dry/itchy/tearing eyes, strained eyes, and
sleepiness.
To focus the findings on health symptoms that are potentially building-related, the
report uses the concept of "cases." Each case represents an employee who reported
experiencing a health symptom "often" or "always" in the previous year and whose health
symptom reportedly got better when the employee left work. The use of "cases" is
intended to focus on symptoms that are recurring rather than occasional and that appear
to be connected in some way to the building.
As Exhibit ES-1 shows, the highest percentages of cases were reported for the same
top seven symptoms across all three buildings (although ranked in different orders in each
building):
• headache;
• stuffy nose/sinus congestion;
• dry, itching, or tearing eyes;
• sore/strained eyes;
• unusual fatigue or tiredness;
• sleepiness or drowsiness; and
• contact lens problems (among contact lens wearers).
Each of these symptoms was experienced "often" or "always" by at least ten percent
of respondents and was reported to improve after the employee left work. Another view
of the same data is provided in Exhibit ES-2, which groups the symptoms into three
categories:
• Indoor air quality symptoms, typically associated with acute discomfort,
such as headache, runny nose, stuffy nose/sinus congestion, dry, itching or
tearing eyes, burning eyes, dry throat, fatigue, and sleepiness.
• Respiratory or flu-like symptoms, which may be manifested in clinically
defined illnesses that may require prolonged recovery times after leaving
the building. Such symptoms include cough, wheezing, shortness of
breath, chest tightness, fever, and aching muscles or joints.
• Ergonomic symptoms, which include back pain or stiffness, and pain or
numbness in the shoulder, neck, hands, or wrists.
As Exhibit ES-2 shows, the predominant symptoms reported in each building are
those associated with poor indoor air quality. Headache, fatigue, and symptoms associated
with mucous membrane irritation have often been reported in published IAQ evaluations.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section VI
The use of "cases" may be considered by some as representing a conservative
estimate of symptoms experienced by respondents. For example, it may be useful to
consider the prevalence of symptoms reported by respondents "sometimes," in addition to
"often" or "always." Therefore, for comparison, Exhibit ES-3 provides the percent of all
respondents who had symptoms "sometimes," "often," or "always," and who "got better
upon leaving work." In addition, it is recognized that certain symptoms that may be
building-related do not improve upon leaving work (e.g., muscle pains, hypersensitivity
reactions, and immune responses). The main body of the report includes exhibits that
eliminate the "got better upon leaving work" criterion.
About a third of respondents (28 - 38 percent) in each of the three buildings
indicated that their symptoms reduced their ability to work at least some of the time.
About a quarter of respondents indicated that their symptoms resulted in having to stay
home or leave work early "sometimes" or "often" in the past year (22 - 25 percent at each
building).
Among Waterside Mall employees, 62 percent of respondents associated one or
more of their symptoms with their work building, compared to 56 percent of Crystal Mall
respondents and 49 percent at the Fairchild Building. Of those employees reporting that
they "often" or "always" experienced symptoms, the percentage who reported that their
symptoms improved when they left the budding generally ranged between 60 and 70
percent.
More employees in Waterside Mall than in the other buildings reported that both
the frequency and duration of their infections had increased since they began work in
their building. At Waterside Mall, 39 percent of respondents reported more frequent
infections (compared to 31 percent for Crystal Mall and 23 percent for the Fairchild
Building), and 36 percent of Waterside Mall respondents reported longer lasting infections
since beginning work at the building (compared to 31 percent for Crystal Mall and 23
percent for the Fairchild Building).
Paint and tobacco smoke were among the top four irritants in all three buildings,
for nine listed possible sources of eye, nose, throat, and respiratory irritation. At
Waterside Mall, fumes from new carpeting, paint fumes, and tobacco smoke were
mentioned as the three leading sources of irritation. Crystal Mall respondents were more
likely to identify paint fumes, tobacco smoke, and fumes from copy machines. Fairchild
Building respondents pointed primarily to new carpeting, tobacco, smoke, and fumes from
new drapes and paint. About one third of all respondents reported that they consider
themselves especially sensitive to the irritants mentioned.
Health Symptoms at the Waterside Mall Sectors
A fairly clear pattern of health symptoms emerges when one breaks down the
Waterside Mall complex into six separate "sectors." A greater prevalence of the problems
reported in Waterside Mall are associated with the second floor Mall, third floor Mall,
and Southeast Mall sectors. Respondents in these three sectors were also more likely to
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
report that their symptoms reduced their ability to work and they perceived a stronger
association of their symptoms with the building than respondents in other sectors.
Exhibit ES-4 shows data on cases reported for each of the six sectors of Waterside
Mall. The same seven symptoms noted above were associated with most cases. The
second and third floors of the Mall and the Southeast Mall report the highest percentages
of problems, with 20 percent or more of respondents reporting cases of stuffy nose/sinus
congestion (third floor Mall); dry, itching, or tearing eyes (second floor Mall and Southeast
Mall); sore/strained eyes (second floor Mall); and sleepiness or drowsiness (Southeast
Mall). Among respondents who wear contact lenses at work, the percentage who reported
problems with their lenses reached 45 percent in the second floor Mall and 38 percent on
the third floor Mall.
Health Symptoms Reported Last Week
Respondents were asked on how many days in the previous week they experienced
the individual symptoms while working in the building. This question was intended to
provide a more immediate, and perhaps more accurate, measure of the extent of symptom
occurrence since the recall period was much more recent. In addition, this question was
used to select sampling locations. The results reported in Exhibit ES-5 show the
percentage of respondents experiencing the symptom at least one day on the previous
week; also shown are the number of days respondents experienced the symptom in the
previous week.
In general, the results appear consistent with the relative ranking of cases in the
previous year (Exhibit ES-1), although the percentages reporting symptoms are much
higher. This result is not surprising, however, since the percentages of symptoms
experienced during the past year represented only those who responded "often" or "always"
and whose symptoms got better when they left work. Forty percent or more of
respondents in each building reported experiencing headaches, stuffy nose, fatigue, or
sleepiness in the week before the survey. Respondents indicated an average duration of
between two and three days for most symptoms.
Comfort
Overall, respondents were generally satisfied with their immediate physical
workstations (e.g., chair comfort and lighting). This finding may be due to employees'
ability to adjust these factors. For example, desk lamps are used regularly by 42 - 46
percent of respondents. Dissatisfaction with building-related factors, however, was
reported in each building, and at somewhat higher levels in Waterside Mall than in the
other two buildings.
As one measure of dissatisfaction, for example, last year 48 percent of Waterside
Mall respondents reported bringing in portable fans to their offices, compared to 45
percent at Crystal Mall and 36 percent at the Fairchild Mall. Waterside Mall respondents
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
also regularly made use of portable heaters in substantial numbers (22 percent). As
Exhibit ES-6 shows, 40-51 percent of respondents "often" or "always" wanted to adjust
air movement, and between 38 - 55 percent of respondents "often" or "always" wanted to
adjust the temperature.
In all three buildings, respondents reported the air to be often or always too dry
rater than too humid, with too little as opposed to too much air movement. For example,
in Crystal Mall, 38 percent reported the air to be "too dry" as opposed to eight percent
who reported the air to be "too humid," and 48 percent reported having too little air
movement as opposed to three percent who reported too much air movement. The desire
to adjust temperature was seasonally dependent in all three buildings, with respondents
wanting to adjust temperature more during winter and summer. For example, over
two-thirds of all respondents in Waterside Mall reported wanting to adjust temperature
during winter and summer months.
Exhibit ES-7 breaks down these responses by Waterside Mall sector. A need for
adjustments in air movement and humidity was reported most by respondents on the 2nd
and 3rd floors of the Mall and the Southeast Mall. Temperature adjustments were
desired most in the 2nd and 3rd floors of the Mall, West Tower, and Southeast Mall.
Volume I also outlines the findings of the survey regarding respondent background
characteristics - including employee demographic characteristics, health factors not related
to the building, job satisfaction and sources of stress, and the physical work environments
in which employees work. These factors will be used in the Volume III analyses as
background variables to help explain patterns of health symptoms and comfort problems.
These analyses will provide a more detailed context in which to understand the differential
health and comfort problems experienced by different types of employees, and employees
in different buildings and sectors. The analyses will thus help to determine to what extent
the health and comfort symptoms described in this report can be attributed to building
conditions and to what extent they can be attributed to other independent factors.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Exhibit ES-1: Percent of All Respondents Who Had Symptoms Often or Always Last Year that
Got Better Upon Leaving Work, by EPA Headquarters Building
SYMPTOM
BUILDING
WATERSIDE
MALL
CRYSTAL
MALL
FAIRCHILD
Headache
16%
11%
16%
Nausea
1%
1%
1%
Runny nose
8%
9%
7%
Stuffy nose/sinus congestion
16%
17%
15%
Sneezing
7%
7%
8%
Cough
4%
5%
4%
Wheezing or whistling in chest
1%
1%
2%
Shortness of breath
2%
1%
2%
Chest tightness
2%
1%
2%
Dry, itching, or tearing eyes
17%
12%
15%
Sore/strained eyes
16%
12%
18%
Blurry/double vision
4%
3%
5%
Burning eyes
10%
8%
11%
Sore throat
4%
3%
4%
Hoarseness
3%
2%
1%
Dry throat
10%
7%
9%
Unusual fatigue or tiredness
15%
14%
11%
Sleepiness or drowsiness
15%
19%
13%
Chills
5%
1%
2%
Fever
1%
1%
0%
Aching muscles or joints
4%
4%
2%
Problems with contact lenses*
28%
19%
27%
Difficulty remembering things
2%
2%
2%
Duziness/Iightheadedness
3%
2%
1%
Feeling depressed
5%
5%
4%
Tension or nervousness
10%
11%
8%
Difficulty concentrating
7%
6%
5%
Dry or itchy skin
6%
4%
6%
Pain or stiffness in upper back
6%
6%
6%
Pain or stiffness in lower back
6%
6%
4%
Pain or numbness in shoulder/neck
6%
5%
5%
Pain or numbness in hands or wrists
2%
2%
2%
'These percentages are based upon onhr (he people who wear contact lenses at work 'sometimes, often or always" (Pan II,
Question l a), as opposed to 2]] respondents in the building.
Reference; Part II, Question 7.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 187
Exhibit ES*2: Percent of All Respondents Who Had Symptoms Often or Always Last Year that
Got Better Upon Leaving Work, by EPA Headquarters Building and by Group of
Symptoms
SYMPTOM
BUILDING
WATERSIDE
MALL
CRYSTAL
MALL
FAIRCHILD
Headache
16%
11%
16%
Runny note
8%
9%
7%
Stufly note/sinus congestion
16%
17%
15%
Dry, itching, or tearing eyes
17%
12%
15%
Burning Byes
10%
8%
11%
Dry throat
10%
7%
9%
Unusual fatigue or tiredness
15%
14%
11%
Sleepiness or drowrinwi
15%
19%
13%
Remtratoiv or FTu-like Swimtomi
Cough
4%
5%
4%
Wheeling or whistling in chest
1%
1%
2%
Shortness of breath
2%
1%
2%
Chest tightness
2%
1%
2%
Fever
1%
1%
0%
Aching muscles or joints
4%
4%
2%
Ersonomie Svmocoms
Pain or siiTness in upper back
6%
6%
6%
Pain or stiffness in lower back
6%
6%
4%
Pain or numbness in shoukfcr/ne£
6%
5%
5%
Pain or numbness in hands or wrists
2%
2%
2%
Reference: Part ~, Question 7.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Exhibit ES-3: Percent of All Respondents Who Had Symptoms Sometimes, Often or Always
Last Year and that Got Better Upon Leaving Work, by EPA Headquarters
Building
SYMPTOM
BUILDING
WATERSIDE
MALL
CRYSTAL
MALL
FAIRCHILD
Headache
41%
30%
42%
Nausea
10%
7%
19%
Runny nose
20%
18%
15%
Stuffy nose/sinus congestion
29%
26%
29%
Sneezing
22%
20%
20%
Cough
14%
12%
12%
Wheezing or whistling in chest
4%
3%
2%
Shortness of breath
7%
5%
6%
Chest tightness
6%
12%
6%
Dry, itching, or tearing eyes
35%
29%
34%
Sore/strained eyes
37%
35%
40%
Blurry/double vision
12%
8%
14%
Burning eyes
27%
22%
27%
Sore throat
14%
12%
11%
Hoarseness
10%
6%
8%
Dry throat
23%
18%
23%
Unusual fatigue or tiredness
34%
32%
32%
Sleepiness or drowsiness
41%
42%
40%
rsnit
16%
10%
11%
Fever
4%
3%
3%
Aching muscles or joints
10%
7%
9%
Problems with contact lenses*
47%
38%
46%
Difficulty remembering things
10%
8%
8%
Dizziness/lightheadedness
15%
17%
9%
Feeling depressed
19%
17%
15%
Tension or nervousness
32%
33%
28%
Difficulty concentrating
27%
27%
23%
Dry or itchy skin
12%
11%
11%
Pain or stiffness in upper back
16%
14%
18%
Pain or stiffness in lower back
16%
15%
19%
Pain or numbness in shoulder/neck
14%
12%
16%
Pain or numbness in hands or wrists
7%
6%
7%
*These percentages are based upon ontv the people who wear contact lenses at work 'sometimes, often or always" (Part II,
Question l.a), as opposed to |]] respondent* in the building.
Reference: Pan II, Question 7.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Exhibit ES-4: Percent of All Respondents Who Had Symptoms Often or Always List Year that Got
Better Upon Leaving Work, by Sector in Waterside Mall
SYMPTOM
WATERSIDE MALL SECTOR
EAST
TOWER
WEST
TOWER
MALL
2ND FLOOR
MALL
3RD FLOOR
NE
MALL
SE
MALL
Headache
14%
13%
18%
19%
16%
18%
Nausea
1%
1%
1%
2%
2%
14%
Runny nose
7%
9%
9%
10%
8%
8%
Stuffy nose/sinus congestion
15%
13%
16%
21%
16%
16%
Sneezing
6%
7%
7%
8%
7%
6%
Cough
4%
5%
6%
6%
4%
2%
Wheezing or whistling in chest
1%
1%
1%
2%
1%
2%
Shortness of breath
1%
2%
3%
3%
3%
2%
Chest Hght-nwm
1%
1%
3%
2%
2%
2%
Dry, itching or tearing eyes
14%
15%
21%
18%
13%
20%
Sore/strained eyea
15%
14%
22%
18%
14%
19%
Blurry/double vision
4%
4%
7%
3%
3%
3%
Burning eyes
9%
10%
13%
11%
9%
10%
Sore throat
3%
3%
7%
5%
3%
9%
Hoarseness
3%
3%
5%
3%
2%
4%
Dry throat
8%
9%
15%
12%
8%
14%
Unusual fatigue or tiredness
12%
15%
17%
17%
12%
15%
Sleepinc&s or drowsiness
13%
14%
18%
17%
14%
20%
Chills
2%
5%
5%
5%
6%
4%
Fever
4%
0%
0%
1%
1%
5%
Aching muscles or joints
3%
4%
5%
5%
4%
6%
Problems with contact lenses*
24%
25%
45%
38%
31%
29%
Difficulty remembering things
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
1%
Dirrinraw/lightheadedness
3%
2%
5%
4%
3%
4%
Feeling depressed
5%
5%
4%
5%
6%
5%
Tension or nervousness
9%
10%
12%
10%
9%
12%
Difficulty concentrating
6%
6%
10%
10%
6%
10%
Dry or itchy skin
6%
6%
8%
8%
6%
5%
Pain or stiffness in upper back
4%
8%
5%
7%
6%
4%
Pain or stiffness in lower back
4%
7%
4%
6%
7%
6%
Pain or numbness in shoulder/neck
4%
5%
6%
7%
6%
4%
Pain or numbness in hands or wrists
2%
2%
4%
2%
1%
2%
"These percentage* are based upon only the people who wear contact lenses at work "sometime*, often or alwiyi" (Pari II, Question
La), u oppoaed to ||| respondents in the building.
Reference: Part II, Question 7.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section VI
Exhibit ES-5: Percent of All Respondents Reporting One or More Days of Symptom and Average
Symptom Days Last Week, by EPA Headquarters Building
SYMPTOMS
WATERSIDE MALL
CRYSTAL MALL
FAIRCHD-D
% 1+ Days*
Avg. Days
% 1+ Days*
Avg. Days
% 1 ~ Days*
Avg. Day;
Headache
53%
2.0
47%
2.0
49%
22
Nausea
13%
1.7
12%
1.7
13%
1.6
Runny Nose
42%
2.7
36%
2.8
36%
2.7
Stuffy Nose
51%
2.9
47%
3.0
51%
2.8
Sneezing
40%
23
38%
23
40%
2.4
Cough
31%
2.6
30%
25
30%
25
Wheezing
8%
2.5
7%
2.6
8%
3.0
Shortness of Breath
11%
2.4
10%
2.6
9%
2.4
Chest Tightness
9%
23
11%
2.4
9%
23
Dry, Itching, or Tearing Eyes
41%
2.6
35%
2.7
40%
2.6
Sore/Strained Eyes
41%
2.6
37%
25
44%
2.6
Blurry/Double Vision
16%
2-5
13%
2.6
17%
2.7
Burning Eyes
28%
2_5
23%
16
29%
25
Sore Throat
25%
22
22%
22
22%
2.1
Hoarseness
15%
23
13%
25
14%
2.1
Dry Throat
31%
2.6
25%
2.7
26%
2.6
Unusual Fatigue
44%
2 A
40%
2.7
43%
2-5 j
Sleepiness
50%
2.4
49%
2.6
48%
2.4
Chills
18%
2.4
9%
22
15%
2.2
Fever
8%
1.9
6%
2.6
8%
1.9
Aching Muscles
26%
25
26%
2.7
21%
2.4
Problems w/ Contact Lenses'*
46%
2.8
39%
2.6
44%
2.3
Difficulty Remembering Things
21%
2.4
18%
22
19%
1.9
D izziness /Lightheadedness
18%
2.0
13%
22
15%
1.8
Feeling Depressed
27%
22
26%
2.4
26%
2.3
Tension or Nervousness
37%
23
39%
2.6
35%
2.4
Difficulty Concentrating
33%
23
33%
23
32%
2.0
Dry or Itchy Skin
36%
33
30%
32
34%
3.1
Pain in Upper Bade
23%
25
22%
2.6
24%
2.6
Pain in Lower Back
27%
25
25%
2.7
24%
23
Pain in Shoulder/Neck
21%
2.6
21%
2.6
19%
2.5
Pain in Hands or Wrist
11%
2.6
11%
2.6
10%
2.6
Based on the total number of responding employees.
* These percentages are based upon only the people who wear contact lenses at work (Part II, Question l.a), as opposed
lo all responding employees.
Reference: Part II, Question 7.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI 191
Exhibit ES*& Namber and Percent Reporting Often or Always Wanting to Adjust Environmental
Comfort Last Year, by EPA Headquarters Building
WATERSIDE MALL
CRYSTAL MALL
FAIRCHILD
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
Adjust Air Movement
1,574
51%
210
46%
164
40%
Adjust Temperature
1,708
55%
174
38%
162
40%
Adjust Humidity
1,077
35%
160
35%
131
32%
Reference: Part m. Questions lc, If and 1L
Exhibit ES-7: Number and Percent Reporting Often or Always Wanting to Adjust Environmental
Comfort Last Year, by Waterside Mall Sector
WATERSIDE MALL SECTOR
EAST
TOWER
WEST
TOWER
MALL
2ND FLOOR
MALL
3RD FLOOR
NE
MALL
SE
MALL
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Adjust Air Movement
759
45%
581
49%
392
61%
489
58%
432
51%
216
58%
Adjust Temperature
765
52%
594
59%
394
62%
491
59%
431
54%
221
57%
Adjust Humidity
756
33%
589
34%
392
40%
484
41%
429
33%
217
42%
Reference: Part III, Questions lc, If and li.
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192 NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Pollution in Closed Spaces and
Its Consequences in
Conservation of Works of Art
Germano Mulazzani
Art Historian of the Ministero per I Beni Culturali
Milan, Italy
The concept of pollution, as it relates to conservation of works of art in closed
spaces, differs from the one used for human environments. In this context, pollution may
be defined as anything that damages the physical integrity of a work of art, by modifying
its original and/or best condition, either in the case of a work which still stays in the place
where it was made (e.g., art in churches and monumental buildings), or in the case of a
work which has been moved (e.g., to a museum).
The latter case, studied using the science called museography, is the best known
because in many countries, especially in those without an ancient history, museums are the
only place where people can have a direct exposure to works of art. In addition, the
problems pertinent to museums are rather well-known, and not only among specialists.
The factors which must be considered in planning or in re-planning a museum are as
follows.
Museum Factors which Affect Art
Temperature and Humidity. The ideal values for art conservation (especially paintings
and, in particular, panel paintings), are 18 - 20°C and 50 - 60 percent humidity. In order
to reach and maintain these values, most important museums install air-conditioning
systems. In Italy, on the contrary, only a few museums have air conditioning systems,
because an air-conditioning system is very expensive to install and operate, and its
installation is often incompatible with the building architecture, since almost all Italian
museums are placed in historical buildings.
The air conditioning system must be operated continuously because its temporary
inactivity can cause serious damage. Studies have demonstrated that sudden variations
of temperature and humidity can harm works of art, although gradual variations may not.
Dust. Dust caused by plaster and floors can be eliminated by avoiding the use of
materials or buildings systems that produce dust, for instance, cement plasters or tiled
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
floors. In order to reduce the dust brought in by visitors, the entrance of the museum
must be preceded by a long covered passage. Dust produced by atmospheric pollution
can be eliminated by the air-conditioning system or by an air-filtering system.
Lighting (natural and artificial lighting). Museums must avoid the use of lighting that
damages works of art. The infrared and UV rays in both natural and artificial light can
harm works of art: the most sensitive works of art are drawings and prints, followed by
textiles (e.g. carpets and tapestries) and paintings. Therefore, it is necessary to employ
filters that eliminate these dangerous rays, and it is also useful to avoid lighting when the
museums are closed. For small works, such as drawings, prints, books, illuminations and
other objects that are kept in glass show-cases, it is also necessary to avoid lights that
generate heat.
Case Studies of Art Conservation in Enclosed Spaces
The Ministero per I Beni Culturali began to pay attention to the problems caused
by pollution (especially air pollution) 20 years ago. We were struck by the damage to
stone and marble sculptures placed in open air. We have carried out many studies and
conservation activities and have reached a good level of knowledge and practice
concerning open air art.
Studies in the conservation of works placed in enclosed spaces started much later.
These studies especially concern a kind of painting typical of Italian art mural painting,
in particular fresco painting. Italian art of this type was painted from the 13th to 18th
centuries, and is important and well-known, for example, the frescoes by Giotto at Assisi
and Padua; by Piero della Francesca at Arezzo; by Michelangelo and Raphael in Rome;
by Tiepolo and other Venetian painters all over Europe.
Fresco painting has been popular due to its durability, but it is vulnerable to air
pollution, especially in the presence of airborne sulfurous anhydride. Fresco painting,
which is prevalently made of calcium carbonate (CaC05), when it contacts sulfurous
anhydride (S02), tends to transform itself into gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) and
then disintegrate. To address this problem, brilliant solutions have been recently found:
for example, it is possible to recreate the film of calcium carbonate by using compresses
of ammonium carbonate. Two important examples illustrate the reasons for the
degradation of fresco mural paintings.
Leonardo da Vinci, Last Supper, Milan, Refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle
Grazie, 1495-1497.
In the refectory of the Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, a
room of nine by 36 meters, Leonardo painted, probably at the request of the Duke of
Milan, Ludovico Sforza, between 1495 and 1497, a large painting representing the Last
Supper with Christ and the Apostles. In the same year, 1495, a minor painter from
Milan, Donato Montorfano, painted on the opposite wall a Crucifixion. This other
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Scciion VI
painting was made with fresco technique and, except for some damage caused by the
1943 bombing, is perfectly well-preserved.
Leonardo did not carry out his work a fresco but with the tempera (distemper)
technique. Fresco painting requires a quick execution, does not allow corrections
fpentimenti"), and requires very light colors, without light and shade or relief effects.
Leonardo, for aesthetic reasons, wanted to employ for this mural painting the same
technique that in the Italian Renaissance was employed for panel paintings. With the
tempera technique, pigments are mixed with water and an organic glue (e.g., egg, animal
glue, gum-arabic, or milk). With this system, the actual painting process could take as
long as was necessary. The painting could be changed during its execution, and could
have a much richer palette and more realistic effects of relief and chiaroscuro (light and
shade). The wall chosen for the Last Supper (the wall is on the north side of the
refectory) was covered with a preparation coat (the imgrimitura) made of gypsum and
glue. Leonardo painted on this coat for about two years, sometimes working night and
day, sometimes staying in complete inactivity. He could also correct the picture as he
liked.
Leonardo was, from an aesthetic point of view, entirely successful. From a technical
point of view, however, the painting was a true failure. By 1517, it was apparent that the
Last Supper was going to deteriorate. The main reason for the painting's deterioration
is that it was painted on a wall facing northward. The wall was the coldest one and
therefore attracted all the dampness produced in the room, which must have been
considerable, because friars had their meals at least twice a day in the refectory.
Dampness caused the increased production of gypsum (a high hydroscopic substance)
contained in the preparation coat, and this increase caused a loss of color in the painted
coat.
Restorations of the Last Supper have been documented since the 18th century, but
they were merely overpaintings to reverse the color loss. The scientific approach to the
environmental conditions, the main reason for the damage, was started at the beginning
of the 20th century. A very simple but efficacious remedy was adopted: the little room
behind the painted wall was heated; the wall was no longer the coldest point in the room
and the deterioration began to slow.
In 1943, the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie was almost completely destroyed
by war-time bombing. Leonardo's painting was miraculously saved (it had been protected
by sand sacks), and a short time afterwards it was restored for the first time according to
the modern concepts of art conservation. A new restoration, carried out with strictly
scientific methods, was started in 1978. The restoration is not yet complete but it has
given rise to many surveys that have studied every aspect of the painting and its
conservation. The surveys have studied the humidity and temperature conditions in the
refectory, the pollutants in the indoor air, the materials employed by Leonardo (pigments
and glues), the microorganisms on the painting's surface, and the characteristics of the
painted wall.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
Almost all the studies have been published, but almost none has had practical
consequences. The condition of the refectory is still as it was before the beginning of the
restoration -- not only because the Italian state government pays little attention to its
artistic inheritance, but also because the studies themselves had indicated that the situation
is not so dangerous. The only measures to be adopted will be a filtering air system and
a longer closed passage for the visitors before entering the refectory.
Hieronymus Bosch (attr.), Christ before Pilate. Milan, Chiaravalle Abbey, approx. 1499.
This painting is a precious fragment I discovered in a little chapel of the ancient
abbey of Chiaravalle near Milan. This fragmentary picture was made with the fresco
technique, but it is extremely rare because it is a work of a Flemish painter, whom I
believe to be Hieronymus Bosch. Flemish painting of the 15th and 16th centuries is
known almost exclusively through panel paintings, therefore this fragment must be
considered as an unicum ~ so we paid a considerable amount of attention to it after its
discovery. The fresco, Christ before Pilate, has been studied by the technicians of the
Opificio delle Pietre Dure of Florence. Their inquiries have clarified that it is a real
fresco painting, although it is made in a quite different manner from Italian frescoes.
They have also determined the causes of deterioration of the painting, now that it is no
longer protected by the plaster that had hidden it previously. The damage is due to the
presence of salts within the wall; the salts can leach out (in the direction of the painting)
when the internal temperature is higher than the external temperature. The wall is
particularly rich in salts (especially nitrates) because it rests on soil which is also rich in
salts, derived from the decomposition of organic substances.
To prevent further degradation, we have excavated a deep trench behind the wall.
This trench helps the evaporation of water, which otherwise have been absorbed by the
wall. We have also avoided any internal heating. At the end of the restoration, we will
install an air-filtering system, because tests have revealed the presence of airborne
sulfurous anhydride.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
How Norwegian Health
Authorities Will Handle Indoor
Air Quality Problems
Finn Levy, MD
Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and
National Institute of Occupational Health
Oslo, Norwav
Introduction
The awareness of the increasing number of complaints regarding indoor air quality
and the adverse health effects thereof, even in new, well-insulated and energy efficient
buildings, has made maintaining the indoor environment a task for the Norwegian health
authorities as well as for those technically in charge of building construction and use. In
Norway, the responsibility for the indoor environment resides in five Ministries:
• The Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, represented by the Directorate
of Health, assisted by the National Institute of Public Health, the National
Institute of Radiation Hygiene and the National Council on Smoking and
Health;
• The Royal Ministry of Local Government and Labor, represented by the
Directorate of Labor Inspection and the National Office of Building
Technology and Administration;
• The Ministry of the Environment, represented by the State Pollution
Control Authority;
• The Ministry of Consumers Affairs and Government Administration
assisted by the Consumer Council; and
• The Ministry of Petroleum.
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LA.Q: Section VI
Research Institutes
Research institutes are working on parts of the indoor environmental factors:
• Norwegian High School of Technology in Trondheim (ventilation, testing
of materials);
• National Institute of Building Research (ventilation);
• National Institute of Occupational Health (indoor environment problems
in offices and industrial workplaces);
• National Institute of Public Health (infectious diseases);
• National Institute of Radiation Hygiene (radon, electromagnetic fields);
• Central Institute of Industrial Research (microbiological growth in building
materials); and
• Norwegian Institute of Air Research (air pollution).
The coordination of responsibility and labor and the communication between the
different organizations has not been optimal. This finding was the conclusion of a report
"Who Does What" (in the indoor environment) based on two seminars arranged by
HK-HTT (the Central Committee for Health and Indoor Environment, an interdisciplinary
committee appointed by the Norwegian Society of Chartered Engineers) in 1987-88.
Policy and Regulations
The work of the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs in the indoor environmental
sector is warranted under the Law on Municipal Health Services enacted in 1982. The
law's goal states that the Norwegian population shall be protected against known adverse
health effects due to environmental pollution, indoor as well as outdoor, by the year 1995.
The responsibility is delegated to the local health authorities who are encouraged to
initiate projects on indoor climate. Most projects up to now have been performed in
kindergartens. However, very few physicians and hygienists have updated knowledge and
experience with regard to indoor air quality and sick building syndrome.
Indoor Air Quality Guidelines - Work Group
At present, no official indoor air quality guidelines exist in Norway. Different
practices are used in the evaluation of air quality, mainly based on subjective
interpretation of various measurements. It is agreed upon that the norm for the industrial
environment (TLV) is not applicable for residential and non-industrial workplaces, nor for
kindergartens, schools and health-institutions. With regard to formaldehyde; the TLV in
the work environment has been reduced from 1.2 mg/m3 to 0.6 mg/m5 in 1989. The
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on LAQ: Section VI
recommended maximum level for C02 in public place schools and kindergartens is 1,200
ppm (0.12 percent). C02 is used as an indicator of ventilation efficiency. This
concentration is often exceeded and the air quality- is regarded as sub-optimal.
The Directorate of Health financially supported the publication "Indoor Climate - a
Guide" in 1986 (published only in Norwegian). The same year, a Working Group was
appointed by the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs to prepare "criteria documents"
that should serve as bases for health-based recommendations on indoor air quality with
regard to air contaminants. The Working Group selected the following components as
most relevant for Norwegian indoor air quality: CO, CO,, formaldehyde, VOCs, ETS,
particles (combustion products other than ETS), MMMFs, and biological particles
(primarily allergenic and irritant-like mites and molds, but, if possible, infectious biologicals
as well). The drafts should be ready in April 1990.
A separate criteria document on asbestos has not been developed. Asbestos is
regarded as a carcinogenic substance and by law (1986) prohibited from use in new
construction. Hence, asbestos is not acceptable in the indoor environment.
The first draft of a "Radon Guide" was prepared by the Forum for Technical
Hygiene and the National Institute of Radiation Hygiene, and is being circulated for
comments. The Radon Guide recommends an action level of 800 Bq/m3 radon gas (not
radon daughter products) in existing homes (one-year average), and moderate remedial
action in the case of levels between 200 and 800 Bq/m3. In new construction, the goal
is an average annual radon level of less than 200 Bq/m3.
Tobacco Regulations
Tobacco advertising is prohibited by law ("Act relating to prevention of the harmful
effects of tobacco" - an English translation is available from the National Council on
Smoking and Health). The Act was extended in July 1988 to protect non-smokers from
ETS exposure. Smoking is prohibited in public rooms and indoor workplaces. Alternative
facilities must be provided for smokers. Smoking is also prohibited on national airplane
flights, and beginning November 1, 1989, on intra-Scandinavian flights. The "Norway
smoke-free year 2000" goal was presented by the Norwegian Medical Association in 1986.
Official Responsibility
In October 1989, the Directorate of Health of the Department of Preventive Health
began to coordinate LAQ efforts between the different Ministries, including the Directorate
of Labor Inspection. The latter has the responsibility for the Norwegian TLVs
("Administrative norms of air pollution in workplace atmosphere") in industrial as well as
non-industrial indoor workplaces, and published guidelines for office climate in 1983.
The National Office of Building Technology and Administration is continually revising
the building regulations. The recent edition (1987) states that "the indoor air quality shall
be satisfactory," without stating specifically the air exchange, temperature, and humidity in
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NATO CCMS Pilot Study on IAQ: Section VI
the regulations. These levels are, however, mentioned in an appendix. A common Nordic
basis will be used for the new Norwegian building regulations planned for 1992.
Activities initiated by the State Pollution Control Authority include the following:
• Work with regulations for formaldehyde emissions from materials
(chipboards),
• "Datasheet" on toxic materials that are used in building materials and for
surface treatment, and
• Composition of water-based paints with regards to emissions that may
cause adverse health effects.
~ U S- GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE' 1990 -2 6 1 -0 6 9 2 >1 i 3 5
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