A rnA United States
Environmental Protection
'%0	m m Agency
EPA 231 -R-17-001
January 2017
www. e pa. g ov/s ma rtg rowth
SMART GROWTH FIXES FOR
CLIMATE ADAPTATION AND RESILIENCE
CHANGING	LAND USE AND	BUILD
TO PREPARE	FOR
Office of Sustainable Communities
Smart Growth Program

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Acknowledgments
Project manager: Megan M. Susman, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Sustainable
Communities
This project was supported in part by Sarah Thompson under an appointment to the Internship/Research
Participation Program at the Office of Policy, EPA, administered by the Oak Ridge Institute for Science
and Education through an interagency agreement between the U.S. Department of Energy and EPA.
To explore the smart growth code and policy changes that can help communities prepare for and adapt to
climate change, EPA's contractors, CH2M and Farr Associates, convened a panel of national smart
growth and climate adaptation experts in February 2013. This panel identified topics related to local
zoning and building codes that are essential to supporting resilience. Under another contract, MC
Consulting, Inc. and Farr Associates developed an initial draft of this publication.
Members of EPA's Cross-Agency Adaptation Workgroup and EPA's National Water Program Climate
Change Workgroup had the opportunity to review this publication. It was sent to several individuals in
EPA, other federal agencies, and other organizations as well. The following people provided comments:
EPA
Office of Sustainable Communities: Alice Ewen, Susan Gitlin, Adhir Kackar, Chitra Kumar, Michelle
Madeley (Presidential Management Fellow)
Office of Air and Radiation: Dana Hyland, Victoria Ludwig, and Emma Zinsmeister
Office of Children's Health Protection: Kristina Torres and Martha Berger
Office of Environmental Justice: Alyssa Edwards and Jeanine Finley
Office of Water: Katelyn Amraen, Robyn DeYoung, Jeff Peterson, and Jamie Piziali
Region 1: Trish Garrigan, Cynthia Greene, Alyssa Hall, and Rosemary Monahan
Region 2: Irene Nielson
Region 6: Barbara Keeler
Region 7: Amy Shields
Region 9: Karen Irwin and Timonie Hood
Naomi Friedman, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
A.R. Ann Kosmal, FAIA, LEED AP BD+C, U.S. General Services Administration
David Rouse, FAICP, ASLA, American Planning Association
Kenneth Walker, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Photos are courtesy of EPA unless otherwise noted. License information for images used under Creative
Commons licenses appears on p. 84.
Cover images: Clockwise from left: Savannah, Georgia (EPA); Seattle, Washington (EPA); Walter Reed
Community Center, Arlington, Virginia (Arlington County via flickr.com); Alexandria, Virginia (EPA)

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Table of Contents
Executive Summary	i
1.	Introduction	1
2.	Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation	6
3.	Overall Strategies	11
4.	Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation	29
5.	Adapting to Sea Level Rise	43
6.	Adapting to Extreme Heat	52
7.	Adapting to Drought	65
8.	Adapting to Wildfire	73
Appendix: Additional Resources	81

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Municipalities are seeking ways to adapt to current and projected climate change impacts to better protect
lives and property and ensure they can continue to offer a good quality of life and a thriving economy
now and in the future. This publication can help local government officials, staff, and boards find
strategies to prepare for climate change impacts through land use and building policies. The policy
options described here bring multiple short- and long-term environmental, economic, health, and societal
benefits that can not only prepare a community and its residents and businesses for the impacts of climate
change, but also improve everyday life.
This publication aims to help communities address at least some of the expenses and political challenges
of preparing for and adapting to climate change. The strategies outlined here can be worked into a
community's regular processes and policies—for example, through scheduled updates to zoning and
building codes. This approach allows incremental change, which might be easier for some communities
because it costs little or nothing extra compared to "business as usual," and gives communities the
opportunity to adjust codes based on the most up-to-date climate observations and projections.
The effort and political will to make policy and regulatory changes vary by community, and some
communities are already implementing smart growth strategies and/or preparing for climate change. To
help readers determine which policy and code changes might be appropriate for their community's
capacity, desire, and need to make changes, the options in each chapter are categorized as modest
adjustments, major modifications, and wholesale changes. These categorizations are meant as basic
guidance on the effort needed to implement a policy, but conditions will be different in different
communities. What might be a modest adjustment for one town could be a major modification in another.
Many of the strategies in this document can help with multiple climate change impacts. To avoid
redundancy, strategies are generally discussed in one place. Because an important question to determine
in building resilience is resilience of what to what, the publication is divided by impacts that communities
are likely to face as the climate continues to change:
•	Chapter 2: Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation discusses potential social and legal
barriers.
•	Chapter 3: Overall Strategies discusses smart growth strategies that help adapt to multiple
climate change impacts and that can be a foundation for the policies in subsequent chapters.
•	Chapter 4: Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation includes code and policy options
that deal mainly with riverine flooding and managing stormwater to prevent flooding and water
pollution. This chapter includes green infrastructure strategies that can also help communities
cope with extreme heat and other policy options that are relevant to sea level rise.
•	Chapter 5: Adapting to Sea Level Rise includes strategies that are specifically related to higher
storm surges and other impacts from sea level rise.
•	Chapter 6: Adapting to Extreme Heat discusses strategies to protect people from heat waves,
including green building and energy efficiency.
•	Chapter 7: Adapting to Drought includes water conservation strategies for individual buildings
as well as entire communities.
•	Chapter 8: Adapting to Wildfire focuses on smart growth and green building strategies to
protect neighborhoods from fire damage.
Most chapters include quick tips called "practice pointers"; examples of communities implementing the
policies; resources; and a "Guidance and Metrics" section, which references relevant credit summary
language and metrics from up to three community-scale sustainability rating systems.

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Executive Summary
The table below summarizes the strategies discussed in the publication, categorizes them by type of
policy or regulatory change, and indicates other impacts to which a strategy might be relevant. See
https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/smart-growth-fixes-climate-adaptation-and-resilience for a sortable
version of this table.
Level
Type of Policy
Change
Policy Change Actions
Flooding and
precipitation
Sea
level
rise
Extreme
heat
Drought
Wildfire
OVERALL STRATEGIES
Modest
Adjustment
Planning/
Mapping
Use regional climate change, population
demographics, transportation demand, and related
projections to understand where community assets
could be vulnerable.
• Incorporate projections into the comprehensive
plan to show climate adaptation is a priority.







• Mainstream climate change and smart growth
into comprehensive, master, capital
improvement, and hazard mitigation plans.
~
~

~
~


• Update land use maps to identify vulnerable
lands. Designate less-vulnerable areas and
encourage development there.







• Require new municipal buildings to be in well-
connected, safer areas.







• Establish clear annexation policies that take
climate change projections into account.





Modest
Adjustment
Planning/
Mapping
Align land use, hazard mitigation, transportation,
capital improvement, and other plans so all plans
are working toward the same goals.
~
~
~
~
~
Modest
Adjustment
Incentives,
Regulatory
Create a list of desired development elements in
more-vulnerable areas, and encourage or require
developers to implement a certain number of them.
~
~
~
~
~
Modest
Adjustment
Incentives
Evaluate development incentives to see if they
encourage development in particularly vulnerable
areas.
~
~

~
~
Modest
Adjustment
Planning/
Mapping
Conduct a safe growth audit.
~
~

~
~
Modest
Adjustment
Education/
Outreach
Improve public education about the risks of
developing in sensitive areas.
~
~

~
~
Modest
Adjustment
Education/
Outreach
Assess and address the needs of people who might
be particularly vulnerable and/or are likely to be
most affected, especially if they live in higher-risk
areas.
~
~
~
~
~
Major
Modification
Planning/
Mapping
Use scenario planning to inform local planning and
policies.
~
~
~
~
~
Major
Modification
Regulatory
Adopt flexible zoning.
•	Adopt elements of dynamic zoning, or building
flexibility into codes.
•	Adopt a floating zone or overlay zone.
~
~
~
~
~
Major
Modification
Planning/
Mapping
Incorporate fiscal impact analysis into development
review, and make sure it includes costs related to
climate change impacts.
~
~
~
~
~
ii

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Executive Summary
Level
Type of Policy
Change
Policy Change Actions
Flooding and
precipitation
Sea
level
rise
Extreme
heat
Drought
Wildfire
Major
Modification
Regulatory
Allow a mix of uses.
~
~
~
~
~
Major
Modification
Incentives,
Planning/
Mapping
Incorporate into the land use map, comprehensive
plan, and economic development plan locations
where it makes sense to encourage economic
growth. Encourage businesses to locate there.
~
~

~
~
Major
Modification
Collaboration/
Partnership,
Regulatory
Encourage on-site renewable energy and storage:
•	Amend codes or adopt ordinances to allow
renewable energy on individual properties and in
communal installations.
•	Use public-private partnerships to promote
renewable energy.
~
~
~
~

Wholesale
Change
Planning/
Mapping
Incorporate into capital projects features that
enhance resilience and bring multiple other
benefits.
~
~
~
~
~
Wholesale
Change
Planning/
Mapping,
Regulatory
Plan for post-disaster redevelopment before a
disaster strikes.
•	Create a post-disaster redevelopment plan.
•	Adopt a post-disaster redevelopment ordinance.
~
~


~
ADAPTING TO FLOODING AND EXTREME PRECIPITATION
Modest
Adjustment
Pilot Program
Pilot a sustainable streetscape program with green
infrastructure features.
Main
~
~


Modest
Adjustment
Education/
Outreach,
Incentives
Help private property owners better manage
stormwater through education and incentives.
Main




Modest
Adjustment
Land
Preservation
Design open space in flood plains for multiple
amenities.
Main
~



Modest
Adjustment
Regulatory
Require new development or redevelopment to
capture and infiltrate the first 1 or 1.5 inches of rain.
Main




Modest
Adjustment
Regulatory
Update any Clean Water Act Section 402 National
Pollution Discharge Elimination System permits to
consider climate change.
Main




Major
Modification
Planning/
Mapping
Adopt the 500-year flood plain as the "locally
regulated flood plain."
Main
~



Major
Modification
Regulatory
Restrict development in areas buffering water
bodies or wetlands.
Main
~



Major
Modification
Regulatory
Adopt green and complete streets design
standards.
Main

~


Major
Modification
Land
Preservation
Acquire properties at risk of flooding, use the land
for infiltration, and help the property owners resettle
in the community.
Main
~



Major
Modification
Collaboration/
Partnership
Enter into a community-based public-private
partnership to install and maintain green
infrastructure.
Main

~


Wholesale
Change
Pilot Program
Create an overarching framework for water-related
initiatives.
Main
~



Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Adopt a site plan requirement that requires all new
development to retain all stormwater on-site.
Main




iii

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Executive Summary
Level
Type of Policy
Change
Policy Change Actions
Flooding and
precipitation
Sea
level
rise
Extreme
heat
Drought
Wildfire
Wholesale
Change
Education/
Outreach
Develop a municipal stormwater design manual
that illustrates context-appropriate green
infrastructure.
Main
~
~


Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Establish elevation requirements with design
guidelines for streets and infrastructure.
Main
~



Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Create sustainable funding for stormwater
infrastructure.
Main




ADAPTING TO SEA LEVEL RISE
Modest
Adjustment
Planning/
Mapping
Add projected sea level rise to flood zone hazard
maps that are based exclusively on historical
events.

Main



Modest
Adjustment
Land
Preservation
Designate and protect "transition zones" near tidal
marshes.

Main



Modest
Adjustment
Regulatory
Change the definition of "normal high water" for
land adjacent to tidal waters to change regulatory
setbacks.

Main



Major
Modification
Planning/
Mapping,
Regulatory
Incorporate sea level rise impacts into all future
land use planning and regulations using projections
rather than past trends.

Main



Major
Modification
Regulatory
Strengthen building codes in coastal zones by
requiring additional adaptation strategies.
~
Main



Major
Modification
Regulatory
Modify the steep-slope ordinance to account for
slopes exposed to increased moisture due to
changes in precipitation and sea level rise.
~
Main



Major
Modification
Regulatory
Create an overlay district where flood regulations
and standards would apply, or establish context-
sensitive shoreline classifications with appropriate
standards.
~
Main



Major
Modification
Regulatory
Require building-level design for disassembly/
adaptation planning.
~
Main


~
Wholesale
Change
Pilot Program
Designate and protect working waterfronts.

Main



Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Implement rolling development restrictions.

Main



Wholesale
Change
Planning/
Mapping
Begin planning for managed retreat from the
shoreline.
~
Main


~
ADAPTING TO EXTREME HEAT
Modest
Adjustment
Incentives
Offer financial or procedural incentives to use
passive survivability.


Main


Modest
Adjustment
Pilot Program,
Planning/
Mapping
Map "hot spots," and conduct pilot programs in
these places to reduce heat.


Main


Modest
Adjustment
Education/
Outreach
Support the people and neighborhoods that are most
vulnerable and least able to adapt on their own.
•	Designate cooling centers in neighborhoods with
particularly vulnerable populations.
•	Identify vulnerable populations, and develop an
outreach plan for them.


Main


iv

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Executive Summary
Level
Type of Policy
Change
Policy Change Actions
Flooding and
precipitation
Sea
level
rise
Extreme
heat
Drought
Wildfire
Modest
Adjustment
Incentives
Offer incentives to plant and protect trees.
~

Main


Modest
Adjustment
Planning/
Mapping
Include reducing heat island effects as an objective
in complete streets projects.


Main


Major
Modification
Incentives,
Regulatory
Require or encourage green or reflective roofs on
new buildings with little or no roof slope.


Main


Major
Modification
Regulatory
Revise the zoning ordinance to allow urban
agriculture.


Main


Major
Modification
Regulatory
Require shade trees in all municipal projects and
private parking lots.


Main


Major
Modification
Planning/
Mapping
Adopt a tree canopy or urban forest master plan
and implementing ordinances.


Main


Major
Modification
Incentives,
Regulatory
Require or offer incentives for using cool paving in
municipal capital improvement projects and private
parking lots.


Main


Major
Modification
Regulatory
Amend site plan requirements and design
guidelines to encourage light or permeable paving,
shade, green alleys, vegetation, and tree canopy.


Main


Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Adopt an energy conservation code to establish
minimum requirements for energy efficiency in
buildings, or adopt a stretch or reach code.


Main


Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Incorporate passive survivability into the building
code.


Main


ADAPTING TO DROUGHT
Modest
Adjustment
Regulatory
Encourage compact development policies such as
walkable block sizes, transit-supportive density, and
high intersection connectivity.


~
Main
~
Modest
Adjustment
Education/
Outreach
Recommend the use of drought-tolerant plants or
xeriscaping as part of water conservation,
landscaping, and water waste ordinances.


~
Main

Modest
Adjustment
Incentives
Promote the use of WaterSense-rated plumbing
fixtures through incentives.



Main

Major
Modification
Regulatory
Implement a water impact fee that reflects each
property's consumption.



Main

Major
Modification
Incentives
Offer rebates or other incentives to encourage
drought-tolerant plants, residential rainwater
harvesting, water-efficient fixtures, or other water-
saving practices.



Main

Major
Modification
Regulatory
Mandate graywater-ready residential development.



Main

Major
Modification
Pilot Program
Adopt a citywide policy promoting water recycling
for nonpotable uses.



Main

Major
Modification
Regulatory
Require use of water-efficient fixtures through the
building code.



Main

Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Enact a building energy and water benchmarking
ordinance.



Main

v

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Executive Summary
Level
Type of Policy
Change
Policy Change Actions
Flooding and
precipitation
Sea
level
rise
Extreme
heat
Drought
Wildfire
Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Enact a water conservation or water waste ordinance
to restrict the type of landscaping on new
development and public properties.



Main

Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Mandate rainwater harvesting for all new
commercial construction.



Main

Wholesale
Change
Collaboration/
Partnership
Integrate water resource management with land
use plans to make sure the community has enough
water for planned growth.



Main

ADAPTING TO WILDFIRE
Modest
Adjustment
Collaboration/
Partnership
Establish a task force to review building codes,
development patterns, and other relevant issues.




Main
Modest
Adjustment
Planning/
Mapping
Incorporate wildfire scenario planning into local
planning.




Main
Modest
Adjustment
Regulatory
Strengthen requirements for building and roof
materials to be fire-resistant and green.




Main
Modest
Adjustment
Regulatory
Require sites for new emergency facilities to be
outside of high-risk areas, well-connected, and
easy to access.
~
~


Main
Modest
Adjustment
Regulatory
Require new developments to submit a fire
protection plan during site plan review.




Main
Major
Modification
Incentives,
Regulatory
Encourage or require compact development
through comprehensive plans, area plans, and
zoning codes.




Main
Major
Modification
Regulatory
In subdivision regulations, require clustered
development that is well-connected to existing
development and walkable.




Main
Major
Modification
Regulatory
Adopt wildfire hazard overlay districts with
development regulations based on factors like
slope, structure, and fuel hazards.




Main
Major
Modification
Collaboration/
Partnership
Consider adopting the Firewise Communities
Program.




Main
Wholesale
Change
Regulatory
Require subdivisions to have a highly connected
street network with multiple connection points to the
external street network.




Main
Wholesale
Change
Land
Preservation
Acquire and maintain open space between dense
forested areas and residential development.




Main
vi

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Introduction
I. Introduction
Across the country, local governments are
responding to more extreme weather events,
often unlike any their region has
experienced before. Flooding and extreme
precipitation, sea level rise, extreme heat,
drought, and wildfires put lives at risk and
cause billions of dollars in damage every
year. These events are expected to continue
to increase. The 2014 National Climate
Assessment details observed and projected
changes in the U.S. climate (Figure 1).
Municipalities are seeking ways to adapt to
these changing conditions to better protect
lives and property and ensure that they can
continue to offer a good quality of life and a
thriving economy now and in the future.
This publication can help local government
officials, staff, and boards find strategies to
prepare for climate change impacts through
land use and building policies. The smart
growth policy options described here bring
multiple short- and long-term
environmental, economic, health, and
societal benefits.
Why Use Smart Growth
Strategies?
Using the smart growth strategies described
in this document can not only prepare a
community and its residents and businesses
for the impacts of climate change, but also
improve everyday life. Smart growth
approaches offer multiple benefits in
addition to adapting to climate change,
including protecting air and water quality,
saving people money by using energy more
efficiently and offering transportation
options, and creating new economic
opportunities. Figure 2 lists the principles
that underlie smart growth strategies.
Residents and businesses will often see many
further action.
Figure 1: Observed and Projected Climate Change
The 2014 National Climate Assessment reviewed climate
change research and modeling to summarize observed and
project climate change impacts in the United States. Key
findings from the assessment include:
Average precipitation has increased since
1900. Some areas have had increases
greater than the national average, and
some areas have had decreases.
Heavy downpours are increasing nationally,
especially over the last 30 to 50 years.
Extreme precipitation events are projected
to become more frequent and intense in all
U.S. regions.
The intensity, frequency, and duration of
North Atlantic hurricanes, as well as the
frequency of the strongest hurricanes,
have increased since the early 1980s.
Hurricane-associated storm intensity and
rainfall rates are projected to increase.
Global sea level has risen by about eight
inches since 1880. It is projected to rise
another one to four feet by 2100.
Average temperature has increased by
1.3°F to 1.9°F since 1895; most of this
increase occurred since about 1970.
Temperatures are expected to continue to
rise.
Heat waves are projected to become more
frequent and intense, especially in the
West. Droughts in the Southwest are
projected to become more intense.
Cold waves have become less frequent and
intense, a trend that is projected to
continue.
Source: Melillo, Jerry M., Terese (T.C.) Richmond, and Gary
W. Yohe, Eds. Climate Change Impacts in the United
States: The Third National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global
Change Research Program. 2014.
of these benefits quickly, which can build support for


Using smart growth strategies can help communities avoid some common challenges in preparing for
climate change. Some conventional solutions, such as building seawalls or elevating buildings, are
expensive and solve only one problem—e.g., holding back water or raising structures above it. They bring
no other benefits to individuals or the community, they often have drawbacks (e.g., sea walls can increase
I

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Introduction
erosion), and they work only up to a certain
level, at which point they fail, often
catastrophically. The multiple benefits from
smart growth approaches help meet several
community goals with each action.
Political constraints can also make it difficult
for local governments to implement solutions
to climate change-exacerbated challenges. It is
frequently hard to garner support for a policy
that is intended to prevent some future
projected calamity but that might not show any
immediate benefits to the people who have to
pay for it right now. Approaching climate
adaptation through land use and building
policies can implement changes through
regular community processes.
Many communities already have smart growth
policies, but these policies might not make a
community more resilient unless they take into
account current and projected climate
conditions. For example, "direct development
toward existing communities' is a smart
growth strategy, but it is not a climate
adaptation strategy unless it considers
projected impacts, such as which parts of an
existing community will be less vulnerable to
flooding, wildfires, or sea level rise, and
directs growth toward areas that are safer but
still well-connected to existing development.
Smart growth strategies promote a variety of
housing options affordable to people with a
wide range of incomes. When seniors can
afford to stay in their neighborhoods as they
age, friends or relatives can easily check on
them during a heat wave or other extreme
weather event. Smart growth strategies make
walking, bicycling, and transit use easier and
safer; these less-polluting transportation
choices are often more affordable than
driving and help people work regular
physical activity into their daily routines.
These options also provide redundancy in
case of an emergency.
Figure 2: Smart Growth Principles
The Smart Growth Network, a group of more than 40
national organizations representing government,
environmental, real estate, development, historic
preservation, affordable housing, and other issues,
developed 10 smart growth principles in 1996 based on
the experiences of communities around the country:
•	Mix land uses.
•	Take advantage of compact building design.
•	Create a range of housing opportunities and choices.
•	Create walkable neighborhoods.
•	Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong
sense of place.
•	Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and
critical environmental areas.
•	Strengthen and direct development towards existing
communities.
•	Provide a variety of transportation choices.
•	Make development decisions predictable, fair, and
cost effective.
•	Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration
in development decisions.
Figure 3: Downtown Saratoga Springs, New York, creates a
sense of place by restoring and reusing historic buildings. Its
wide sidewalks and tree-lined streets, compact size, and mix
of restaurants, shops, offices, and residences encourage
people to walk around.
One smart growth principle is community involvement in decision-making, which is essential to help
local officials learn who in their community is vulnerable, what their needs and capabilities are, and how
to help them improve their lives now while also helping them prepare for climate change impacts.
2

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Introduction
Communities can respond to market demands by using smart growth strategies. Surveys of consumer
preferences consistently show that about half the respondents would like to live in a neighborhood
where they can walk to places like stores, schools, parks, and other community amenities. Demographic
trends suggest that demand for homes in walkable communities will continue to rise.1 By making sure
their smart growth strategies take into account projected climate change, communities can better
prepare themselves to meet the needs of future residents and businesses while helping to protect them
from climate change-related impacts.
Smart growth strategies can help strengthen and diversify local economies. Companies want to locate
offices and shops close to the employees and customers they seek; if the people they want to attract
prefer compact, walkable places, that is where the companies want to be as well. Firms around the
country have been moving offices from distant locations accessible only by car to central districts
where staff and clients can take public transit, walk, or bike.2
Climate change directly affects agriculture and industries that rely on natural resources such as timber,
fishing, and recreation. It can indirectly affect many other industries. For example, drought not only
reduces water supplies but can affect energy generation. Natural disasters can disrupt or even shut
down businesses by damaging property and severing supply chains and transportation networks.
Communities that plan for these impacts might have a competitive advantage compared to those that do
not. Continuity of operations is very important to most businesses, and a community that can show it
understands the risks of climate change and is committed to preparing for them can be attractive to
companies seeking safer locations.
Many smart growth strategies, such as providing a wider array of transportation options and
encouraging compact development and green building practices that use less energy per capita, reduce
the greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change. Reducing our contribution to climate change
ultimately reduces the magnitude of climate change impacts, which makes greenhouse gas reduction an
important adaptation strategy as well as a mitigation strategy. Many of the policy options in this
document reduce greenhouse gases and other pollutants.
What This Publication Is—and Is Not
This publication aims to help communities address some of the expenses and political challenges of
preparing for and adapting to climate change. The strategies outlined here can be worked into a
community's regular processes and policies—for example, through regular updates to zoning and
building codes. This approach allows incremental change, which might be easier for some
communities because it costs little or nothing extra compared to "business as usual," and regular
code updates give communities the opportunity to adjust codes based on the most up-to-date climate
observations and projections.
The information here can help communities evaluate their existing codes and ordinances and apply the
information to better prepare themselves for climate-related impacts. This publication does not include
model language, nor is it intended to provide model codes or ordinances.
This publication is not a compilation of general climate adaptation strategies. It discusses only zoning
and building code changes and related policies that adhere to smart growth and/or green building
principles and bring multiple benefits. These code and policy changes are not sufficient on their own to
prepare a community for the impacts of climate change; communities will still need an overall climate
1 EPA. Smart Growth and Economic Success: Investing in Infill Development. 2014. https://www.epa.aov/smartarowth/smart-arowth-
and-economic-success-investina-infill-development.
For more on how smart growth strategies can help businesses, see: EPA. Smart Growth and Economic Success: The Business
Case. 2013. https://www.epa.aov/smartarowth/smart-arowth-and-economic-success-business-case.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Introduction
adaptation strategy. Once a community has determined its vulnerabilities3 and priorities, this guide can
help it achieve some of its goals.
Nor is this publication a hazard mitigation tool; many guides exist to help communities, developers,
and builders prepare for tornadoes, earthquakes, and other natural hazards. This guide is intended for
communities facing changing conditions and covers natural hazards that are projected to become more
frequent, severe, and/or widespread as the climate changes.
How to Use This Publication
This document is meant for local government staff and officials who are looking for options that will
help them make their communities more efficient, economically stronger, environmentally responsible,
and better prepared for the impacts of climate change. The effort and political will to make policy and
regulatory changes vary by community, and some communities are already implementing smart growth
strategies and/or preparing for climate change. To help readers determine which policy and code
changes might be appropriate for their community's capacity, desire, and need to make changes, the
options in each chapter are categorized as:
•	Modest Adjustments: Options in this category assume the local government will keep its
existing regulations and policies and is looking for relatively modest revisions (e.g., changing
minimum setbacks to maximums) that will help it remove barriers to smart growth development
and climate change adaptation strategies.
•	Major Modifications: Options in this category assume the local government is looking to change
the structure of the existing code or make significant changes to policies. Examples include
creating incentives for smart growth development or creating overlay zones.
•	Wholesale Changes: Options in this category assume the local government wants to create a new
regulatory framework or a new policy.
These categorizations are meant as basic guidance on the effort needed to implement a policy, but
conditions will be different in different communities. What might be a modest adjustment for one town
could be a major modification in another.
Most chapters include a "Guidance and Metrics" section, which references relevant credit summary
language and metrics from up to three community-scale sustainability rating systems: LEED for
Neighborhood Development, STAR Community Rating System, and the Living Community Challenge
(Figure 4). These systems were chosen because they can be applied to entire neighborhoods or
communities, and they cover a wide range of elements, including development location and design,
transportation, and water and energy use. This information is a starting point to consider best practices
and industry-standard metrics. While these rating systems are not code language, their metrics can define
terms such as ""walkability" in a community's plans and codes.
3 Vulnerability in the climate change context means "the degree to which geophysical, biological and socio-economic systems are
susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse impacts of climate change." Parry, M.L., O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der
Linden, and C.E. Hanson (eds). "Section 19.1.2.1 Meaning of 'key vulnerability'." Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and
New York. 2007. https://www.ipcc.ch/publications and data/ar4/wa2/en/ch19s19-1-2.html.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Introduction
Figure 4: Rating Systems Used in "Guidance and Metrics" Section
These rating systems include many more elements that are listed in this publication. Some of the text from these
systems is used verbatim, and some is edited to focus on the most relevant aspects. Please refer to each rating
system for the complete text.
LEED for Neighborhood Development applies to neighborhood-scale development and redevelopment
projects. Text in the "Guidance and Metrics" sections is adapted from LEED v4 for Neighborhood Development,
updated April 5, 2016, available at www.usabc.org/resources/leed-v4-neiahborhood-development-current-version.
In addition, the U.S. Green Building Council has a tool that identifies elements in LEED rating systems that can
build resilience: www.usabc.ora/resources/leed-climate-resilience-screenina-tool-leed-v4-proiects. The tool
estimates that 76 percent of the credits in LEED v4 for Neighborhood Development present opportunities for
adaptation.
The STAR Community Rating System, a certification program for sustainable communities, lets communities
"assess their sustainability, set targets for moving forward, and measure progress along the way." Each objective
includes several outcomes and actions that can earn a community points toward certification. This publication lists
only the most relevant ones. Text is adapted from STAR Community Rating System, Version 2.0, published
October 2016, available at www.starcommunities.ora/ratina-svstem.
The Living Community Challenge is a certification process that planners and developers can use for projects
ranging from a single site to an entire neighborhood. Text is adapted from Living Community ChallengeSM 1.1,
published 2016, available at livina-future.org/lcc.
Most chapters include resources specific to the topics discussed in that chapter. The Additional Resources
appendix lists publications and tools that are more generally about smart growth and green building
strategies, social equity, climate adaptation, and identifying potential climate change impacts.
Many of the strategies can help with multiple climate change impacts. For example, green infrastructure
elements can increase water supplies, absorb precipitation to reduce localized flooding, and lower
ambient air temperatures. To avoid redundancy, strategies are generally discussed in one place. Because
an important question to determine in building resilience is resilience of what to what, the publication is
divided by impacts that communities are likely to face as the climate continues to change:
•	Chapter 2: Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation discusses potential social and legal
barriers.
•	Chapter 3: Overall Strategies discusses smart growth strategies that help adapt to multiple
climate change impacts and that can be a foundation for the policies in subsequent chapters.
•	Chapter 4: Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation includes code and policy options
that deal mainly with riverine flooding and managing stormwater to prevent flooding and water
pollution. This chapter includes green infrastructure strategies that can also help communities
cope with extreme heat and other policy options that are relevant to sea level rise.
•	Chapter 5: Adapting to Sea Level Rise includes strategies that are specifically related to higher
storm surges and other impacts from sea level rise.
•	Chapter 6: Adapting to Extreme Heat discusses strategies to keep people safe during heat
waves, including green building and energy efficiency.
•	Chapter 7: Adapting to Drought includes water conservation strategies for individual buildings
as well as entire communities.
•	Chapter 8: Adapting to Wildfire focuses on smart growth and green building strategies to
protect neighborhoods from fire damage.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation
2. Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation
Introduction
Barriers to implementing climate adaptation strategies can arise from many sources. They might be
specific regulations, fiscal challenges, uncertainty over how to determine the best strategies to pursue,
societal disparities, or differing perceptions about the timeframe of climate change impacts.
The legal framework under which the community governs itself might also present challenges. This
chapter lists some of the primary legal considerations for local governments deciding on land use policy
changes related to climate adaptation.
Regulatory and policy barriers: Communities might have regulations or policies that either do not take
climate change projections into account or actually hinder adaptation to current and future conditions.
Overcoming regulatory barriers requires not just finding the right fix to the regulation, but also working
with stakeholders and the public to educate them about why a fix is needed and get their input on what the
fix should be.
Fiscal barriers: Seeking much-needed tax revenue could be another barrier to adaptation. Communities
might annex unincorporated territories for policy or budget-related reasons, but these annexations could
include land that is more vulnerable to natural hazards. The municipality might unwittingly be taking on
major costs for responding to or rebuilding after a severe event. This publication includes policy options
to help communities make more informed choices about annexation (see Chapter 3).
Communities can use this publication to find strategies that can help them prepare for climate change
incrementally, through many municipal programs and projects, and often less expensively than
undertaking a single major project. While these incremental changes might not be sufficient on their own
to prepare the community for the worst of the projected impacts, they could buy time to pay for larger
projects over a longer period. Smart growth strategies can also use public funds more efficiently—for
example, each increment of infrastructure costs less to build, maintain, and serve in a compactly
developed neighborhood than in a more spread-out one—and they bring multiple benefits, which could
save money by meeting several goals with a single project. These savings could be used to pay for other
climate adaptation projects.
Uncertainty: Climate change projections can be confusing for people who do not work in climate
science. Many people perceive more uncertainty about climate change than actually exists. And, as one
study noted, "politicization of climate change can be directly related to scientific uncertainty/'4 In
addition to potential political ramifications, local government staff might simply not be sure how to get
data on projected impacts that are reliable enough to be a basis for regulatory and policy decisions. One
way to overcome the politicization of the science is to engage scientists to advise policy makers. Data
resources from federal agencies and respected, nonpartisan nonprofit groups can help create a foundation
for decision-making (see the Additional Resources appendix for some helpful resources).
Communities might also think that they need more precise, "higher resolution"' climate change projections
than are actually required. However, these higher-resolution projections can increase the range of
potential impacts that have to be considered. Rather than seeking highly precise projections, local
governments can generally use broader models developed by their state, a reputable nongovernmental
organization, or the federal government to get a range of plausible future climate conditions. Local
governments frequently use demographic, market, and economic estimates for planning future growth,
and this range of plausible climate conditions is similar to those estimates. Putting these projections into a
4 Carlson, Kathleen, and Sabrina McCormick. "American Adaptation: Social Factors Affecting New Developments to Address Climate
Change." Global Environmental Change 35 (2015): 360-367. p. 366.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation
decision-making framework that includes the community's vulnerabilities, strengths, and resources helps
identify policy options that would work reasonably well within this range of future conditions.5
The policy options described in this publication are, for the most part, "no-regrets" strategies—actions
that cost little or nothing more than business as usual, bring benefits regardless of the extent of climate
change impacts, and often have both short- and long-term benefits. One study of U.S. adaptation plans
noted that, "Considering multiple futures and including no-regret strategies in planning are easy ways to
begin managing climate-related uncertainty," adding that when local governments establish a way to
incorporate lessons learned into future planning and implementation, they can ensure that "planning is
adjusting to real-time changes in science and policy."6
Societal disparities: The people who are most vulnerable to and hardest hit by climate change impacts—
because they are elderly, very young, low income, chronically ill or disabled, socially isolated, or
suffering from other health and economic disparities—are also frequently the least able to adapt. Other
populations, such as renters, might be unable to better protect their homes against impacts. Communities
that are predominantly low-income, overburdened,7 and minority have more immediate challenges and
might not have the capacity to plan for climate adaptation.8 Moreover, many people have more urgent
priorities in their daily lives than thinking about how to prepare for projected changes, the worst of which
might not happen for years to come.
To gain public support, one approach is to highlight cost savings, economic development potential, health
benefits, or other tangible benefits of strategies that promote climate resilience and other community
goals. Using a carrot rather than a stick can create support. For example, Albuquerque, New Mexico,
offers incentives to encourage residents and businesses to conserve water (see the case study in Chapter 7
for more details).
Many strategies to help prepare vulnerable populations for climate change can also help improve their
lives now, if designed with their input. Working with trusted messengers in neighborhoods (which might
include houses of worship, local activists, health care facilities, or other community fixtures),
municipalities can learn about the problems residents are facing and the solutions they would like to see
while educating people about why and how they can prepare themselves and their homes. The
municipality and residents can work together to find solutions that improve people's health, create more
jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities, and provide affordable and energy-efficient housing—all things
that make residents' lives better now and will help them prepare for sudden events like a severe storm or
longer-term changes like rising summer temperatures.
Timeframe of impacts: The (perceived) long timeframe of climate change impacts can make it seem less
urgent to many stakeholders who have competing priorities. Elected officials might not see much upside
to taking action now for benefits that might not become apparent during their term in office. Businesses,
particularly small businesses, might be planning their investments on a very different time scale, perhaps
five or 10 years out, and might not see the relevance of long-range projections.
5	Weaver, C.P., R.J. Lempert, C. Brown, J.A. Hall, D. Revell, and D. Sarewitz. "Improving the Contribution of Climate Model Information
to Decision Making: The Value and Demands of Robust Decision Frameworks." WIREs Climate Change 4 (2013): 39-60.
6	Woodruff, Sierra C., and Missy Stults. "Numerous Strategies but Limited Implementation Guidance in US Local Adaptation Plans."
Nature Climate Change. Published online May 2, 2016. p. 4.
1 Overburdened communities are, "Minority, low-income, tribal, or indigenous populations or geographic locations in the United States
that potentially experience disproportionate environmental harms and risks. This disproportionality can be as a result of greater
vulnerability to environmental hazards, lack of opportunity for public participation, or other factors." EPA. EJ 2020 Action Agenda. 2016.
https://www.epa.gov/environmentaliustice/environmental-iustice-2020-action-aaenda. p. 55.
Kaswan, Alice. "Seven Principles for Equitable Adaptation." University of San Francisco Law Research Paper No. 2013-18. 2013.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation
The private sector can be a leader and strong partner in spurring adaptation. Major multinational
companies are preparing for climate change impacts, to both avoid disruption and take advantage of new
economic opportunities, and often their actions extend down their supply chains to smaller companies.9
Development investors are awakening to climate change's potential impacts on their portfolios. CBRE
Research, a real estate market research firm, estimated that commercial property owners could see more
than $1.2 billion in flood damage annually by 2050—well within the lifetime of buildings being
constructed today.1" The annual Emerging Trends in Real Estate survey of property owners, developers,
investors, and others involved in real estate found that some respondents were taking action to reduce
their risk, including "installing backup and on-site power; investing in higher-quality construction to
withstand risks (often above code); avoiding construction in high-risk areas; [and] conducting risk
assessments that incorporate severe weather impacts."11
What Legal Issues Should Communities Consider?12
When a local government seeks to change its policies, zoning ordinances, or other regulations, it should
understand the potential for litigation resulting from its actions. Knowing the legal limits of action can
help a local government decide on policy options.13 Some of the prevailing considerations that can help
communities be aware of the potential for litigation include:
1.	Under what type of authority is the municipality acting?
2.	Is there an existing state or federal law that could preempt local efforts?
3.	When would a zoning ordinance constitute a "taking" of private property?
4.	Will the local action raise issues related to the Americans With Disabilities Act?
1. Under what type of authority is the municipality acting?
Knowing the source of the local government's authority to legislate is key in evaluating the potential for
litigation related to legislation.
• In Dillon Rule states, a local government has authority to act only if the state legislature expressly
grants such authority or such authority can be implied as incident to other powers granted to the
local government. Local governments in a Dillon Rule state often get authority to act
independently through state-issued enabling statutes, which "permit what was previously
prohibited or that [create] new powers."14
For example, the commonwealth of Virginia operates under the Dillon Rule, but local
governments can still zone for some climate change impacts because the Virginia Code grants
broad authority to local governments to consider flood risks in planning and zoning. One analysis
noted, "Localities are urged to consider the 'future requirements of the community' and the
'conservation of natural resources' when drawing zoning ordinances. Sea level rise will increase
flooding, storm surge, and erosion, so considering future projections of sea level rise when
9	Crawford, Meg, and Stephen Seidel. Weathering the Storm: Building Business Resilience to Climate Change. Center for Climate and
Energy Solutions. 2013. http://www.c2es.org/publications/weatherina-storm-buildina-business-resilience-climate-chanae.
10	Eddins, Quinn W. "Rising Vulnerability to Floods Risks Devastating Property Losses in U.S. Cities." CBRE Research. Oct. 22, 2015.
http://f.tlcollect.com/fr2/015/47568/Rising vulnerability ARE Eddins 151022 (1).pdf.
11	PwC and the Urban Land Institute. Emerging Trends in Real Estate"' 2016. 2015. p. 13.
12	The material in this section is included for information only and should not be taken as legal advice. For specific questions about any
legal matter, local governments should consult their attorneys or other legal services providers.
13	Byrne, J. Peter. "The Cathedral Engulfed: Sea-Level Rise, Property Rights, and Time." Louisiana Law ReviewVol. 73 (2012):69-118.
14	The Harvard Law School Food and Policy Clinic. "Good Laws, Good Food: Putting Local Food Policy to Work for Our Communities."
2012. http://www.chlpi.ora/wp-content/uploads/2Q13/12/FINAL-LOCAL-TOOLKIT2.pdf.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation
exercising zoning powers is consistent with the legislature's intent to 'promote the health, safety,
[and] general welfare of the public."'15
• States that follow Home Rule grant municipalities broad authority to decide local matters, as long
as the local government's actions do not directly conflict with state law. Local governments'
powers are limited to those granted to them in their state's constitution or by the legislature.
Generally, the powers delegated to the local level are listed in a Home Rule Charter.
For example, a court confirmed that Lafourche Parish, Louisiana, could adopt FEMA-
recommended advisory base flood elevations because it had the authority under a broad Home
Rule grant to pass zoning ordinances that "promote, protect, and preserve the general welfare,
safety, health, peace, and good order of the Parish...Revising the flood maps was seen as an act
undertaken to protect its residents' future welfare and safety.16
2.	Is there an existing state or federal law that could preempt local efforts?
Even in states where Home Rule authority has been granted to a local government, the state and federal
governments still have preemptive power. Preemption law acts as a tier system, with the federal
government occupying the top tier, followed by state government, then local government.17 Between the
state and local governments, state laws generally act as a floor rather than a ceiling, meaning local
governments might be able to exceed the state law's requirements, but they cannot go below them. A
local government can adopt flood plain regulations that exceed state or federal FEMA standards without
raising an issue of preemption.18
3.	When would a zoning ordinance constitute a "taking" of private property?
Any regulation passed by a local government that changes the zoning of an area, and in so doing might
affect the owners' present enjoyment of the land, must be defensible. If a regulation diminishes the land's
value, the landowner could claim that it is a taking. A regulation that reduces a parcel's economic value is
not automatically a taking; the extent of the reduction is a factor to be considered case by case.
Diminished value would not necessarily render the new regulation or zoning ordinance invalid, but it
might require just compensation to be paid to an owner whose land lost substantial value as a result of the
local government's action.
Regulations adopted in preparation for and as protection from climate change-related impacts are more
likely to be defensible if they can be shown to be rationally related to protecting a genuine public purpose.
Tools such as FEMA mapping and climate change vulnerability assessments can demonstrate the
likelihood of hazards to which at-risk areas might or will be exposed. The information these tools provide,
coupled with the goals of reducing human exposure to climate change-related risks and reducing the
economic toll from climate change impacts, can be used to demonstrate the legitimacy of the new
regulations or zoning ordinances.19
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) seeks to mitigate the socioeconomic impacts caused by
flooding by encouraging communities to adopt and enforce flood plain management regulations, and by
providing affordable insurance to property owners.2" Some landowners are concerned that determinations
15 Gill, Lauren, J.D. The Dillon Rule and Sea Level Rise: An Analysis of the Impact of the Dillon Rule on Potential Adaptation Measures.
Virginia Coastal Policy Clinic at William and Mary Law School. 2013.
http://law.wm.edu/academics/proqrams/id/electives/clinics/vacoastal/documents/march2014reports/dillonrulesealevel.pdf.
Colvan Cattle Co. L.L.C. v. Lafourche Parish Government. Case 2:08-cv-00907-EEF-SS Document 41. U.S. District Court, Eastern
District of Louisiana. 2009.
17	Nelson, Caleb. "Preemption." Virginia Law Review Vol. 86 (2000):225-305.
18	Kusler, Jon A. Common Legal Questions about Floodplain Regulations in the Courts: 2003 Update. Association of State Floodplain
Managers. 2004. http://www.floods.org/NoAdverselmpact/FLOODPLAIN REG IN COURTS 050604.pdf.
19	Grannis, Jessica, et al. A Model Sea-Level Rise Overlay Zone for Maryland Local Governments. Georgetown Climate Center. 2011.
http://dnr2.marvland.gov/ccs/Publication/GCC MD-SLROrdRpt FINALv3 11-2011.pdf.
FEMA. "The National Flood Insurance Program." https://www.fema.gov/national-flood-insurance-proaram. Accessed Dec. 11, 2015.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overcoming Barriers to Climate Adaptation
and rezonings made as a result of the NFIP could decrease their properties" value to the extent that an
unconstitutional taking has occurred. However, courts have "unanimously rejected takings suits based on
NFIP-inspired floodplain ordinances, or similar non-NFIP floodplain ordinances."21
4. Will the local action raise issues related to the Americans with Disabilities Act?
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits discrimination and guarantees that people with
disabilities have the same opportunities as everyone else to participate in the mainstream of American
life—to enjoy employment opportunities, buy goods and services, and participate in state and local
government programs and services.22 It relates to zoning because a municipality might pass zoning
ordinances that have unintended discriminatory effects on disabled persons. For example, if an ordinance
mandates that new construction projects in a flood zone be elevated, it could have the effect of limiting
disabled people's access (unless it also requires modifications such as elevators, ramps, or other ways to
allow disabled people to get into the building).
To combat such unintentional discrimination, the ADA requires local governments to "make reasonable
modifications to policies, practices, or procedures to prevent discrimination on the basis of disability/'23
Because "making zoning decisions is a normal function of a governmental entity.... when a local
government takes an action under its zoning (e.g., reviewing a permit application or taking an
enforcement action), this action triggers an obligation to comply with the ADA/'24 Therefore, considering
how any zoning action might affect disabled persons can help ensure compliance with ADA.
21	Meltz, Robert. Climate Change and Existing Law: A Survey of Legal Issues Past, Present, and Future. Congressional Research
Service. 2013. p. 31.
22	U.S. Department of Justice. "Information and Technical Assistance on the Americans With Disabilities Act."
https://www.ada.aov/ada intro.htm. Accessed Dec. 11, 2015.
U.S. Department of Justice. "The ADA and City Governments: Common Problems." https://www.ada.aov/comprob.htm. Accessed
Dec. 11, 2015.
24 Vermont League of Cities and Towns. "Ask the League: Americans With Disabilities Act and Zoning." VLCTNews, Jul. 2002.
http://vlct.org/assets/News/Newsletter/2002/vlctnews 2002-07.pdf.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
3. Overall Strategies
Introduction
The strategies discussed in this chapter can help communities adapt to multiple climate change impacts.
They could be useful as a foundation to which communities can add other policies that address specific
impacts such as flooding, heat, or wildfires. Communities can consider each strategy in the context of
other adaptation, land use, and related efforts.
Response to the Problem
Developing and implementing land use and building codes and practices that take climate change into
account can promote climate adaptation even in communities where reaching consensus on climate action
can be challenging. Making climate adaptation part of regular processes such as code updates helps
incrementally prepare for climate change. Financial and procedural incentives for individuals, commercial
enterprises, and public entities can be incorporated into policy tools to encourage climate-resilient
development.
Keeping people safe and securing the community's future prosperity are not partisan issues. However, it
can be hard to build political will for adaptation actions, particularly in places where climate change
impacts are not being immediately felt or where climate science is doubted or mistrusted. Understanding a
community's underlying needs and communicating an initiative's multiple benefits that respond to those
needs could help achieve climate resilience without resilience being the primary driver for the initiative.
Figure 5: Atlanta's Historic Fourth Ward Park (left) was designed to capture excess rainfall and reduce downstream
flooding. It saved the city $15 million in infrastructure costs compared to a conventional stormwater facility. Lines on
the park's walls mark the 100-year and 500-year flood heights to help educate residents (right). The park is a
beautiful amenity for the neighborhood, spurring new development nearby.25
25 EPA. 2013 National Award for Smart Growth Achievement. 2013. https://www.epa.aov/smartarowth/2013-national-award-smart-
growth-achievement-booklet.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
Energy conservation and distributed generation26 strategies not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
they can also reduce the number and severity of catastrophic power outages by lowering grid loads.
Reducing greenhouse gases also reduces the potential devastation of flooding, fire, and extreme weather
events, which translates to lower recovery costs and less disruption to people's lives. Finally, climate-
sensitive strategies such as smart growth policies can attract people drawn to vibrant, walkable
communities close to cultural attractions, recreation, and natural beauty as well as their jobs.
Communities are also seeing economic successes by implementing adaptation and resilience projects with
multiple benefits, such as an open space project that creates a new park, uses green infrastructure to
reduce stormwater runoff, reduces ambient air temperatures, and lessens the threat of flooding, which can
encourage private investment in nearby properties.
Potential Benefits
•	Protecting residents" health, safety, property, and livelihoods in the short and long terms.
•	Strengthening the local economy against disruption by helping to protect businesses" property and
continuity of operations, as well as helping individuals and businesses explore new economic
opportunities related to climate change adaptation.
•	Reducing the need to rebuild or the cost of rebuilding after disasters by making properties less
likely to be damaged.
•	Providing predictability for developers, businesses, investors, and property owners by planning
for changing conditions.
•	Using public services (e.g., fire, rescue, police) more efficiently and conserving emergency and
recovery response resources.
•	Creating jobs designing, building, and maintaining adaptation-related elements such as green
infrastructure and energy-efficiency upgrades.
26 Distributed generation refers to technologies that generate electricity close to where it will be used. Distributed generation systems
can include solar panels, wind turbines, and combined heat and power systems. For more information, see: EPA. "Distributed
Generation." https://www.epa.aov/enerav/distributed-generation.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
Implementation Approaches
I. Modest Adjustments
• Use regional climate change projections from a
metropolitan planning organization or council of
governments, as well as projected population
demographics, transportation demand, and
other relevant data, to understand where
housing, transportation, businesses, and services
could be vulnerable to floods, sea level rise,
drought, or wildfire.
o Incorporate the projections into the
comprehensive or master plan to ensure
that climate adaptation is a clear
community priority that should be
included in policies and regulations that
implement the comprehensive plan.
o Mainstream climate change
considerations and smart growth into
comprehensive plans, master plans,
capital improvement plans, and hazard
mitigation plans.
Practice Pointer
Basing policy changes on publicly
available data such as federally provided
climate projections makes the decision-
making process transparent and helps
people understand the need for changes.
Practice Pointer
Engage partners to help gather data,
develop strategies, and reach out to the
public and key stakeholders. Local
colleges and universities, councils of
governments and other regional entities,
regional staff of federal agencies, and
nonprofit groups can be helpful partners
who add credibility and reach different
audiences.
Keene, New Hampshire, developed a climate adaptation action plan and used it
to incorporate climate change considerations into all municipal departments"
planning and operations. See the case study in this chapter for more information.
o Update land use maps to identify land
that is currently vulnerable, or projected
to become more vulnerable, to climate-
related hazards such as fire, flooding,
storm surge, and sea level rise. Consider
also designating areas that are both less
vulnerable and well-connected to existing
development as places where the
community wants to encourage
development. Communities could use these
more vulnerable areas as "sending" zones
in a transfer of development rights
program, with the safer, well-connected
areas being the "receiving" zone.
Practice Pointer
Incorporate smart growth strategies and
climate change projections into planning
for large development or redevelopment
projects, including brownfields
redevelopment, from the start to help
ensure that development is located in
areas that are less vulnerable to hazards
now and in the future. It can also help
developers and communities determine the
most appropriate type of development for
parts of the site that might be more
vulnerable to hazards.
The Southeast Florida Climate Compact suggested that municipal and county
comprehensive plans designate Adaptation Action Areas (the areas most
vulnerable to sea level rise and other impacts and prioritized for investment to
reduce their risk), Restoration Areas (undeveloped areas that are vulnerable to
climate change impacts and that should be prioritized for acquisition to keep
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
them undeveloped), and Growth Areas (areas that are at a higher elevation and
already have infrastructure, where growth should be directed).27
o Require new municipal buildings to be sited in locations that are close to the
people they serve; easy for people to access on foot, by bike, by public transit, or
by car; and in less-vulnerable areas (unless they absolutely must be located in more-
vulnerable areas).
o Establish clear annexation policies or requirements that take into account climate
projections and areas that currently are or are projected to become particularly
vulnerable. These policies can help municipalities better assess the potential costs and
benefits of annexing land, particularly if that land is significantly more or less vulnerable
to climate impacts. Municipalities can also create boundary agreements with adjacent
jurisdictions to outline clear plans for future annexations. Boundary agreements help
neighboring municipalities manage their growth collaboratively and set clear
expectations about the effects of development that can spill over into surrounding areas.
They help ensure efficient capital improvements and infrastructure investments.28
¦ Austin, Texas, shares with surrounding Travis County design review authority
for new development that is outside of the city limits. Because it might someday
annex some of this land, the city wants to make sure that the development is
planned in a way that makes it less vulnerable to wildfires.29
•	Align land use, hazard mitigation, transportation, capital improvement, economic
development, and other relevant plans. All of the community's plans should be working toward
the same goals, and their performance measures, indicators, and policy recommendations should be
aligned. Engaging staff and other experts from different municipal entities to participate in planning
efforts—for example, involving hazard mitigation staff in developing the comprehensive plan—
helps make sure that the plans reinforce each other.
o Albuquerque aligns its Water Resources Management Strategy with its comprehensive
plan and other plans to make sure that new development has adequate water supply and
infrastructure. For more information, see the case study in Chapter 7.
•	Create a list of desired development elements in
more-vulnerable areas, and encourage or
require developers to implement a certain
number of these elements. Elements would be
based on the specific hazard; for example, for
buildings in a highly impervious area, the
municipality might want new development to
include elements to mitigate the heat island effect
and localized flooding. To ensure these elements fit
with the context and achieve the desired results, the
community could create design guidelines illustrating acceptable designs, plant species, and other
specifications. Engaging the public and key stakeholders in selecting desired elements can help
27	Southeast Florida Regional Climate Change Compact Counties. A Region Responds to a Changing Climate. 2012.
http://www.southeastfloridaclimatecompact.Org//wp-content/uploads/2014/09/reaional-climate-action-plan-final-ada-compliant.pdf.
28	For more on smart growth annexation policies, see: EPA. Essential Smart Growth Fixes for Rural Planning, Zoning, and Development
Codes. 2012.
EPA. Essential Smart Growth Fixes for Urban and Suburban Zoning Codes. 2009.
https://www.epa.aov/smartarowth/essential-smart-growth-fixes-communities.
Headwaters Economics. "Austin, Texas: Managing for Growth, Healthy Landscapes, and Wildfire Risk Reduction." 2016.
https://headwaterseconomics.org/wildfire/solutions/lessons-five-cities.
Practice Pointer
Solicit input from residents on desirable
neighborhood amenities. Make particular
efforts to engage low-income, minority, and
overburdened communities, as well as
people at different stages of life, from those
just starting out to families to those who
have retired.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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make sure that what the community wants is
feasible and responds to the concerns of residents
and businesses.
o Seattle created Seattle Green Factor, a
code requirement that applies in certain
districts, to increase and improve
landscaping in new development projects
(Figure 6). Developers have to attain a
minimum score but can select from
several options, such as installing rain
gardens, planting trees, or installing a
green roof, to meet the requirement. '"
The city offers educational materials and
Green Factor worksheets from approved
projects.'1
• Evaluate development incentives to determine
if they are encouraging development in areas
that are particularly vulnerable to floods,
wildfire, and other hazards. Incentives might
be financial, such as tax abatements or publicly
funded infrastructure, or regulatory, such as
expedited approval processes or density bonuses.
If it is not possible to limit development in
particularly vulnerable areas, the local
government can at least remove the incentives
that are encouraging growth there and redirect
' •' " \v	Vs


¦' i "ft.

j£Jr
^ tS::1sL: i

IHRf
. 'I


Figure 6: Chloe Apartments, a 7-story
mixed-use building in Seattle, got Green
Factor credits for preserving mature trees
along the street, among other elements.
those incentives to promote development in safer areas.
Conduct a "safe growth audit" to determine if the community's current development
policies such as the comprehensive plan, zoning, subdivision regulations, and other policies
are allowing growth in hazardous areas.
o The American Planning Association offers a basic safe growth audit. Sample questions are:
¦	Does the comprehensive plan provide enough space for expected growth outside
natural hazard areas?
¦	Is transportation policy used to guide growth to safe locations?
¦	Do subdivision regulations allow density transfers where hazard areas exist?
¦	Do economic development strategies include provisions for mitigating natural
hazards?"
30	City of Seattle. "Seattle Green Factor: What Is the Seattle Green Factor?"
http://www.seattle.aov/dpd/codesrules/chanaestocode/areenfactor/whatwhv. Accessed Jun. 17, 2015.
31	City of Seattle, "Seattle Green Factor: Case Studies."
http://www.seattle.aov/dpd/codesrules/chanaestocode/qreenfactor/backaround/default.htm. Accessed Jun. 17, 2015.
For more on this policy, see section 3-A in EPA. Using Smart Growth Strategies to Create More Resilient Communities in the
Washington, D.C., Region. 2013. http://www.epa.aov/smartarowth/usina-smart-arowth-strateaies-create-more-resilient-communities-
washinaton-dc-reaion.
33 Godschalk, David R., FAICP. "Safe Growth Audits." Zoning Practice, Issue 10, Oct. 2009. American Planning Association.
https://plannina-ora-uploaded-media.s3.amazonaws.com/leaacv resources/zoninapractice/open/pdf/oct09.pdf.
15

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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•	Improve public education about the risks of developing in sensitive areas. Residents,
particularly people who have recently moved to a more-vulnerable area, might have unreasonable
expectations that their property will be safe or that they will be swiftly rescued in case of an
emergency. Being clear about the risks of living in more-hazardous areas and the limitations of
the local government's ability to help mitigate those risks can help temper expectations. In
addition, when people better understand the reasons for proposed policies, they are more likely to
support action. For example, when talking about wildfire risks in Missoula, Montana, local
officials focus on saving people's lives instead of on the need for regulations.34
o The University of Rhode Island's Coastal Resources Center and Rhode Island Sea Grant
developed a guide for coastal property owners to help them get answers to 10 key
questions. The guide includes information on how to find out if the property is in a flood
zone according to FEMA maps; whether the property owner has to buy flood insurance
and how much it might cost; how erosion, sea level rise, coastal storms, and flooding
might affect the property; whether the owner will be allowed to rebuild a damaged or
destroyed structure; whether the building meets current design and construction
standards; and how to make the building more resilient.35
o The fire department in Teton County, Wyoming, tells residents of certain subdivisions
that have only one road in and out that it could be too dangerous to fight a fire in those
subdivisions because of the poor access and warns, "If we can defend your home, we
will, but if it is too dangerous, we won't/"6
•	Assess and address the needs of people who
might be particularly vulnerable and/or are
likely to be most affected, especially if they live
in areas that are at higher risk. Those who might
be especially vulnerable include renters who cannot
make changes to their homes, people who do not
speak English well, low-income people, children
and pregnant women, and people who do not have a
vehicle for evacuations. Specific strategies related to flooding and extreme heat are discussed in
the relevant chapters, but generally, local governments can work with communities that are
geographically and/or socially vulnerable to make sure that their plans for hazard mitigation and
climate adaptation include provisions for people who need different types of assistance. In
neighborhoods with many particularly vulnerable residents, the community could designate
locations as emergency shelters or as meeting points for buses that will help evacuate. The local
government could distribute vital information and learn about the residents' needs by working
with messengers trusted by different populations, which might include houses of worship;
community associations; nonprofit groups that work with homeless, low-income, immigrant,
elderly, mothers-to-be, children, and other vulnerable people; and even private businesses that are
popular gathering places for residents. Getting feedback can help the local government ensure
that it knows who is likely to need help in an emergency, what kind of help they need, and who
can provide that help. For example, if some residents cannot travel without assistance, this
engagement lets the government and its partners know where to provide paratransit services or
other transportation.
Practice Pointer
Finding the right, trusted messengers to
reach vulnerable populations is particularly
important for people who might mistrust
government entities.
34	Headwaters Economics. Local Responses to Wildfire Risks and Costs: Case Studies and Lessons Learned. 2014.
https://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/western case studies report.pdf.
35	Manning, Helen, Michelle Carnevale, and Pamela Rubinoff. Rhode Island Coastal Property Guide. Rhode Island Coastal Resources
Council. 2014. http://www.beachsamp.ora/resources/coastalpropertvauide.
36	Headwaters Economics, Local Responses to Wildfire Risks and Costs.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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o During Hurricane
Katrina in 2005, about
100,000 New Orleans
residents could not obey
the mandatory
evacuation order, in
some cases because
they did not have their
own vehicle or had
special needs.
Subsequently, the city
arranged to make
transportation available
for people who need
it.1 In a mandatory
evacuation, residents
and visitors who cannot
leave on their own can
meet at Evacuspots,
marked with a
distinctive statue, to get city transportation to and from shelters (Figure 7).'s
o Fire emergency response vehicles in Kinston, North Carolina, have laptop computers
with GIS data that gives critical information to emergency responders rescuing people
from flooded homes, including how many people live in the home and if any of them
need special assistance. '9
2. Major Modifications
• Use scenario planning to inform local planning and policy development. Scenario planning
lets communities evaluate alternative growth scenarios and their projected environmental and
community impacts. Incorporating a plausible range of climate change scenarios into the growth
scenarios can help a municipality explore how its growth patterns might affect or be affected by
its vulnerability to various climate change impacts.40 Include a "do nothing" scenario that
demonstrates the results of maintaining the status quo.
o The Albuquerque, New Mexico, Mid Region Council of Governments worked with
federal partners to incorporate analysis of strategies to improve resilience to climate
change impacts and reduce greenhouse gas emissions into its transportation and land use
scenario planning. The Climate Change Scenario Planning Project "resulted in a preferred
land use and transportation scenario for the region that accommodates anticipated growth.
By considering future climate change impacts and GFIG emission reduction strategies,
the scenario is more resilient and sustainable than the trend or status quo." The project
37	Reckdahl, Katie. "Why New Orleans' Katriria Evacuation Debacle Will Never Happen Again," Next City, Jul. 9, 2014.
https://nextcitv.ora/dailv/entrv/new-orleans-evacuation-hurricane-katrina-will-never-happen-aaain.
38	City of New Orleans. "Do You Know Where Your Evacuspot Is?" http://www.nola.qoy/ready/evacuspots. Accessed Oct. 6, 2016.
39	FEMA. "Innovative Floodplain Management: Kinston, North Carolina." FEMA Mitigation Case Studies. 2013.
https://www.fema.gov/media-librarv-data/20130726-1515-20490-7614/kinston cs.pdf.
40	Few land use scenario planning tools that also incorporate climate change projections exist, but the Open Planning Tools Group
(www.openplanninatoolsaroup.org') could be helpful to either find suitable tools or learn how to add climate change projections to an
existing tool.
41	Rasmussen, Benjamin K., et al. Integrating Climate Change in Transportation and Land Use Scenario Planning: An Example from
Central New Mexico. Federal Highway Administration. 2015,
https://www.fhwa,dot.gov/environment/climate change/adaptation/publications/scenario, p. i.
Figure 7: Evacuspot statues in New Orleans show residents
and visitors where to meet if they cannot self-evacuate when
the city orders a mandatory evacuation. The city will transport
people to shelters and bring them back when the emergency
is over.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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report also noted, "By integrating climate analysis into the [master transportation plan],
[the council] mainstreamed climate analysis into its transportation planning. Experience
suggests that this is more efficient and effective in meeting climate change-related goals."42
•	Adopt flexible zoning, which could include dynamic zoning or a floating zone.
o Adopt elements of dynamic zoning, or building flexibility into codes to cope with
changing conditions without formal revision.43 With dynamic zoning, the zoning code
includes "triggers" that, when activated, change the code requirements automatically. The
nature of dynamic zoning might be particularly helpful for climate change-related
impacts. Dynamic provisions would let a community pass regulations that fit its current
conditions but will change based on some empirical future condition. One law expert
notes that, "gradual and adaptive regulations... can minimize harms and takings
compensation requirements" while giving property owners some certainty about how
they can expect to use their property once certain thresholds are passed.44
o Adopt in the zoning code a "floating zone" that describes the resilience
characteristics that the community would like to see in new development. The
floating zone is "a zone classification... authorized for future use, but not placed on the
zoning map. Rather, developers of compliant parcels are invited to make an application to
have the zone applied in a particular location."45 The Land Use Law Center at Pace Law
School and the U.S. Green Building Council, which developed the floating zone concept,
note that it is "meant for local governments that desire green development but that are
faced with limited staff, time, and resources. The floating zone approach saves a more
limited municipality time and money, while still creating an incentive mechanism to
further greener, more socially and environmentally responsible development, and while
still allowing the local government to have significant control over the approval
process."46 While the model floating zone focuses on environmentally sustainable
development, communities could include resilience-focused aspects as well.
Communities can also use a standard overlay zone that incorporates resilience features.
For example, Keene, New Hampshire, has a Sustainable Design and Energy Efficient
Development (SEED) overlay zone that promotes compact development and energy
efficiency. See the case study in this chapter for more information.
•	Incorporate fiscal impact analysis into the development review process, and ensure that the
analysis includes the cost of providing services related to extreme weather and how those
costs are likely to change based on projected climate change. For example, if a new
development is proposed for a flood plain, the fiscal impact analysis ought to take into account
not only the standard costs and benefits—the number of residents or employees in the
development, the costs of the public services (e.g., roads, schools, emergency response) they are
likely to need, the tax and other revenue the growth will generate—but also the costs of
strengthening the infrastructure to withstand flooding or repairing it if it is damaged, rescuing or
42	Ibid, p. vi.
43	Elliot, Don. "Towards Dynamic Zoning." Planetizen. Feb. 9, 2009. http://www.planetizen.com/node/36937.
44	Byrne, "The Cathedral Engulfed," pp. 72-73.
45	Blanchard, Jennie Nolon, and John R. Nolon. Neighborhood Development Floating Zone. Land Use Law Center at Pace Law School
and U.S. Green Building Council. 2013. http://www.smartarowthamerica.ora/documents/Neiahborhood-Development-Floatina-Zone-
2012.pdf. p. 6.
46	Ibid p. 5.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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sheltering residents forced from their
homes by flooding, and lost revenue if
businesses in the development are shut
down by a flood.4 '
•	Allow a mix of uses in appropriate
zoning districts, such as downtowns,
town centers, around transit stations,
and in other places where appropriate.45'
Having a mix of uses close together
makes it easier for people to walk, bike,
take transit, or drive shorter distances.
These transportation options reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and give a
neighborhood critical redundancy if an
emergency cuts off a major
transportation route.
•	Incorporate into the land use map,
comprehensive plan, and economic
development plan locations where it
makes sense to encourage economic growth. As part of an overall strategy to promote growth
in safer, well-connected locations, encourage businesses to expand or locate away from
particularly vulnerable areas by offering incentives, whether financial or procedural. For vital
industrial and job centers in areas that might experience increased threats from severe climate-
related events, such as a working waterfront, engage with businesses to create resilience
strategies that prevent or minimize interruption of services and help them find solutions for
proper storage of goods and transportation needs such as supply chains and getting workers and
customers to and from the business.4" This type of resilience planning is especially important in
areas where a major industry must be in a specific location for infrastructure or geographic
reasons, such as ports, or where locally serving businesses are vital to a neighborhood.
Figure 8: In Boise, Idaho, the mix of stores, restaurants,
services, and homes downtown lets people walk, bike, or
take buses to get around.
Figure 9: Climate Resilience for Water Utilities
Ensuring that water infrastructure is prepared for climate-related impacts is a critical part of planning for
economic resilience. EPA's Climate Resilience Evaluation and Awareness Tool (CREAT) is a climate risk
assessment and planning application for water, wastewater, and stormwater utilities. CREAT helps water
utilities understand and adapt to climate change. The tool helps users:
1.	Find out which extreme weather events pose significant challenges to the utility and build scenarios
to identify potential impacts.
2.	Identify critical assets and the actions the utility can take to protect them from the consequences of
ciimate change on utility operations.
3.	Generate reports describing the costs and benefits of risk-reduction strategies for decision-makers
and shareholders.
Find the tool at https://www.epa.aov/crwu/build-climate-resilience-vour-utilitv.
47	For more on fiscal impact analyses that is particularly relevant to small towns and rural places, see: EPA, Essential Smart Growth
Fixes for Rural Planning, Zoning, and Development Codes.
48	For specific actions to promote a mix of uses, see: EPA, Essential Smart Growth Fixes for Urban and Suburban Zoning Codes.
49	For strategies to help businesses build resilience, see: EPA. Planning Framework for a Climate-Resilient Economy. 2016,
https://www.epa.aov/smaitarowth/planning-framework-climate-resilient-economv.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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• Encourage on-site renewable energy generation and storage to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and provide backup power in case of a power outage.
o Amend codes or adopt ordinances to allow solar, solar thermal, wind, and
geothermal energy production on individual properties and in communal
installations. These kinds of ordinances give property owners clear direction on what is
permitted and prohibited, providing them peace of mind that their investment is legal and
alleviating protests from neighbors.
Under the SunShot Solar Outreach Partnership, the U.S. Department of Energy worked
with several partners to develop tools and training to local governments to make it
easier for residents and businesses to use solar energy.5" As part of this initiative, the
American Planning Association developed Planning for Solar Energy, which includes
guidance on how to incorporate solar-friendly provisions into various planning
documents and regulations, examples of places that have solar-supportive plans and
regulations, and a framework to help local governments develop solar regulations that
"that meet the unique needs of each community and are fully integrated within a
community's existing regulations/'51
¦	Aurora, Illinois' Alternative Energy Systems Ordinance clearly defines solar,
wind, and geothermal system generation limits, required setbacks, permitted
system heights, and noise limits for both residential and non-residential parcels.
The ordinance includes easy-to-understand illustrations of these requirements.52
Solar gardens, small community installations that serve local customers who buy or lease
shares, can make good use of lots that would otherwise be difficult to develop.
Community installations like these let residents who cannot install photovoltaic panels on
their homes—for example, because they rent, they live in a multifamily building, their
roofs are unsuitable for solar panels, or the upfront cost of panels is too high—buy solar
power.53 The National Renewable Energy Laboratory estimates that about half of
households and businesses cannot install rooftop solar systems.54 Local governments can
make solar gardens easier to build by defining them as a specific use in the zoning code,
but communities do not necessarily need zoning changes to build solar gardens.55
¦	Fort Collins, Colorado, used a power purchase agreement with Clean Energy
Collective to build a solar garden on the city-owned site of a demolished former
pickle plant (Figure 10). The site lies at the edge of a compact residential
neighborhood, but a railroad running through it as well as contamination from its
industrial past made it impractical to develop.56 The city is incorporating public
art into the installation, known as the Riverside Community Solar Array, to make
50	For materials developed under this initiative, see: Solar Outreach Partnership, http://solaroutreach.ora. Accessed Dec. 10, 2015.
51	Morley, David, AICP, ed. Planning for Solar Energy. American Planning Association. Planning Advisory Service Report 575. 2014.
52	City of Aurora. Zoning Ordinance. Section 4.4-9: Alternative Energy Systems. 2014. https://www.aurora-
il oro/documents/planning/ordinance/appendix a zoning.pdf.
Morley, David. "Planning and Zoning for Solar Gardens." American Planning Association National Planning Conference, Apr. 20,
2015. http://narc.ora/wp-content/uploads/APA-2015-Plannina-and-Zonina-for-Solar-Gardens.compressed.pdf.
54	Feldman, David, et al. Shared Solar: Current Landscape, Market Potential, and the Impact of Federal Securities Regulation. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2015. http://www.nrel.qov/docs/fv15osti/63892.pdf.
55	Morley, "Planning and Zoning for Solar Gardens."
56	Hois, Emily. "Fort Collins Residents Help City Reach Climate Targets While Saving on Electricity." Clean Energy Collective blog. Jul.
24, 2015. http://cleaneneravco.com/bloa/fort-collins-residents-help-citv-reach-climate-taraets-while-saving-on-electricitv.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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it a gateway welcoming people to Fort Collins. " Before ground was even broken
on the array, it was sold out, and its capacity was doubled to meet demand. "
u F	—
-t-	o
O w	£
LL £	^
^ to	o
q	<
Figure 10: Fort Collins' Riverside Solar Array uses a former
industrial site that would have been difficult to develop otherwise.
o Use public-private partnerships to promote renewable energy use. For example, a
purchase power agreement is a financing tool that connects a developer who owns,
operates, and maintains an energy system to a customer who agrees to site the system on its
property and purchase the system's energy output from the provider for a predetermined
period. With any public-private project, it is important to conduct a transparent selection
process through a request for proposals or other procurement mechanism.
¦ Partnering with a private solar company, the town of Carver, Massachusetts,
installed a 99-kilowatt solar array along a highway easement that provides 100
percent of the energy required for the town's water treatment plant. A 20-
year power purchase agreement between the town and SolareAmerica made the
project economically viable for both sides. The project gave the town a reliable
clean energy source and the provider an entry to the Massachusetts solar market.59
3. Wholesale Changes
• Incorporate into capital projects features
that enhance resilience and bring multiple
other benefits. For example, adding trees and
rain gardens along a street beautifies the
neighborhood, cools the air, and makes the
street safer for walking and biking as well as
driving. New or upgraded streets, sidewalks,
and public spaces that are attractive and
distinctive draw people, which in turns draws
private investment.
o In 2009, the town of Normal, Illinois,
built the Uptown Circle, a traffic circle
with a park at its center featuring seating,
a water feature, and an open plaza
(Figure 11). The circle's water feature
doubles as sustainable stormwater
Figure 11: Normal, Illinois' Uptown Circle has
become a vibrant public space, winning EPA's
2011 National Award for Smart Growth
Achievement in the Civic Places category.
57	Gloss, Cameron. "Planning and Zoning for Solar Gardens." American Planning Association National Planning Conference, Apr. 20,
2015. http://narc.orq/wp-content/uploads/APA-2015-Plannina-and-Zoninq-for-Solar-Gardens.compressed.pdf.
58	Hois, "Fort Collins Residents Help City Reach Climate Targets While Saving on Electricity,"
59	Knox, Rob. "Array Gives Carver Clear Shot at Savings." Boston Globe, Aug. 30, 2012.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
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treatment for rainwater that falls in the area, making water treatment visible, tangible, and
educational. It prevents 1.4 million gallons of stormwater from entering the municipal
storm sewer each year. The project's success has generated $140 million in private
development in the area to date, including two hotels, new mixed-use buildings,
commercial infill, a museum, and investment from a nearby university. Property values in
the Uptown tax increment financing district increased by $1.5 million (or 9 percent) from
2009 to 2010, a 31 percent increase from 2004, when planning work started on the
• . 60
project.
• Plan for post-disaster redevelopment before a disaster strikes.
o Create a post-disaster redevelopment plan. This plan can help communities recover
faster and more efficiently and can lay out a vision to help the community build back
better than before. It also helps set expectations and avoid making rebuilding decisions
under duress in the immediate wake of a disaster.
Integrate the post-disaster redevelopment plan with other major governing documents
such as the comprehensive plan and the hazard mitigation plan. Review the plan
regularly; a guide developed by the state of Florida61 suggests an annual review before
hurricane season each year and a major update every five years. Engaging the public in
the initial development of the plan, as well as reviews and updates, helps make sure that
the plan takes into account the needs of the entire community. The guide encourages
communities, when thinking about post-disaster redevelopment opportunities, to consider
how to promote:
¦	"Disaster-resilient land use patterns
¦	Hazard mitigation construction techniques
¦	Energy-efficient buildings
¦	Healthy community design
¦	Affordable or workforce housing
¦	Alternative transportation networks
¦	Environmental preservation and habitat restoration
¦	Sustainable industry recruitment"62
The Palm Beach County Post-Disaster Redevelopment Plan, for instance, notes the need to
have temporary housing and long-term shelters, particularly for low-income residents, to
ensure that people can stay in the neighborhood if they want and to make sure businesses
have employees and customers after a disaster. Actions to meet this goal include allowing
businesses to apply for a permit to let employees live on-site temporarily, making sure
temporary housing sites are near the areas with the most vulnerable housing stock, and
setting up a website to help renters find undamaged rental units.
The plan also emphasizes including affordable housing in redevelopment projects, noting,
"Palm Beach County developed a vision for its land use planning efforts many years back
that revolved around maintaining a diverse community that included urban and rural
communities and all levels of income households. To maintain that vision after a disaster
60 Hoerr Schaudt Landscape Architects. "The New Normal: Sustainability as a Catalyst." Undated. http://70.32.79.30/files/pdfs/Normal-
Landscape-Benefits.pdf. Accessed Nov. 16, 2016.
Florida Department of Community Affairs and Florida Division of Emergency Management. Post-Disaster Redevelopment Planning: A
Guide for Florida Communities. 2010. http://www.floridaiobs.org/docs/default-source/2015-communitv-development/communitv-
planning/pdr/pdrpquide.pdf?sfvrsn=2.
k Ibid, p. 4.
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means that affordable housing must be seriously addressed."63 Actions could include
incorporating post-disaster redevelopment into the county's workforce housing program
to require residential developments and multifamily buildings with significant damage to
include workforce housing when they rebuild.
The guide also suggests convening local staff and stakeholders one year after a major
disaster for an "after-action" assessment of how well the plan worked. Indicators—such
as home occupancy and rental rates, employment resumption statistics, public
engagement measures, and the number of projects started and completed and an estimate
of the number of people who have benefited from these projects—can help communities
assess how well the plan worked.64
o Adopt a post-disaster redevelopment ordinance that sets up temporary post-disaster
regulations, such as building moratoria65 and permits for repairs, and establishes a
redevelopment task force or advisory board.
¦ Hillsborough County, Florida's ordinance sets up a redevelopment task force to
oversee post-disaster reconstruction, advise the county board on redevelopment,
and "identify opportunities to mitigate future damages through the management of
recovery and redevelopment." The task force can also advise the county board on
actions to enhance open space, restore local ecosystems, reduce traffic congestion,
and improve "the long-term economic vitality of the local commercial and
industrial base." The task force includes county staff from a variety of departments
and representatives from cities in the county, the chamber of commerce, utilities,
and trade associations for the building and development industries. The ordinance
also outlines specific guidance on emergency post-disaster repairs, building
moratoria, and requirements for rebuilding damaged structures.66
63	Palm Beach County Division of Emergency Management. Countywide Post-Disaster Redevelopment Plan: Palm Beach County,
Florida. 2006. p. 2-19. http://discover.pbcaov.ora/publicsafetv/dem/Publications/Post-Disaster-Redevelopment-Plan.pdf.
64	Florida Department of Community Affairs and Florida Division of Emergency Management, Post-Disaster Redevelopment Planning.
65	A post-disaster building moratorium can give a community a chance to consider where and how to rebuild, instead of rebuilding
exactly what existed before the disaster.
66	Hillsborough County. Ordinance Number 93-20. Adopted Jul. 29, 1993. https://fl-
hillsborouahcountv.civicplus.com/DocumentCenter/Home/View/1051.
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Resources
•	FEMA's Plan Integration: Linking Local Planning Efforts (2015) demonstrates how to link
hazard mitigation plans to other community planning efforts. The guide includes specific steps,
examples, and checklists: https://www .fema. gov/media-librarv/assets/documents/108893
•	EPA's "Clean Energy Financing Programs" webpage offers resources to help local governments
find financing for clean and renewable energy projects:
https://www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/clean-energy-financing-programs
•	EPA's Local Climate Action Framework: A Step-by-Step Implementation Guide has case studies,
tools, and other resources to help local governments plan, implement, and evaluate climate,
energy, and sustainability projects and programs. The framework's implementation phases
include communications, setting goals and selecting actions, obtaining resources, and tracking
and reporting: https://www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/local-climate-action-framework-step-step-
implementation-guide
•	EPA's Local Government Climate and Energy Strategy Series offers greenhouse gas reduction
strategies related to energy efficiency, transportation, community planning and design, solid
waste and materials management, and renewable energy:
https://www.epa.gov/statelocalclimate/local-government-climate-and-energy-strategv-series
•	EPA's RE-Powering America's Land initiative offers tools to help site renewable energy projects
on contaminated land: https://www .epa.gov/re-powering
•	EPA's Climate Smart Brownfields Manual (2016) helps communities consider climate change
when assessing, cleaning up, or redeveloping brownfield sites. It includes case studies and links
to resources that communities can use as they develop brownfields project plans:
https://www.epa.gov/land-revitalization/climate-smart-brownfields-manual
•	FEMA's "Public Private Partnerships: Building Better Resiliency Together" offers tools to help
start resilience-related public-private partnerships that can take advantage of multiple sectors'
resources: https://www.fema.gov/public-private-partnerships
•	The American Public Health Association has many resources on the health impacts of climate
change: https://www.apha.org/topics-and-issues/climate-change
•	Open Planning Tools Group is a group of scenario planning tool experts who work together to
improve tools and techniques: http://www.openplanningtoolsgroup.org
•	Envision Tomorrow is an open-access scenario planning package of tools that lets users analyze
how current growth patterns and decisions about growth will affect health, environmental, and
fiscal measures: http://envisiontomorrow.org
•	The Federal Highway Administration's 2015 report on Integrating Climate Change in
Transportation and Land Use Scenario Planning: An Example from Central New Mexico
includes guidance that can help other regions integrate climate change considerations into land
use and transportation scenario planning:
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/climate change/adaptation/publications/scenario
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
Guidance and Metrics
LEED for Neighborhood Development
Smart Location and Linkage Prerequisite: Smart Location
Locate the project on an infill site, next to already-developed land that has at least 90 intersections per
square mile within one-half mile of the project, on a site with existing or planned transit service, or near a
variety of existing uses. Locate the project on a site served by existing water and wastewater
infrastructure, or locate it within a planned water and wastewater service area and provide new
infrastructure.
Neighborhood Pattern and Design Prerequisite: Compact Development
Build residential components at a density of at least seven dwelling units per acre and nonresidential
components at a density of 0.50 or higher floor-area ratio (FAR) for the available land, with higher
densities within walking distance of transit service.
Neighborhood Pattern and Design Prerequisite: Mixed-Use Neighborhoods
Ensure that at least half of the project's dwelling units are within 0.25 miles walking distance of a variety
of uses.
Green Infrastructure and Buildings Credit: Solar Orientation
Orient blocks and buildings for optimal solar exposure.
Green Infrastructure and Buildings Credit: Renewable Energy Production
Incorporate on the site nonpolluting, renewable energy generation with capacity to provide at least 5
percent of the project's annual electrical and thermal energy.
STAR Community Rating System
Built Environment Objective 3: Compact & Complete Communities
Demonstrate that the community achieves thresholds for residential and nonresidential density, diverse
uses, public transit availability, and walkability. Demonstrate that plans and policies support compact,
mixed-use development. Identify areas appropriate for compact, mixed-use development on the future
land use map.
Climate & Energy Objective 1: Climate Adaptation
Conduct a local climate risk and vulnerability assessment. Adopt building or land use codes or ordinances
that address specific climate impacts in the community. Require or encourage residents and businesses to
change behaviors to prepare for climate change impacts. Prepare infrastructure throughout the community
for climate change impacts.
Climate & Energy Objective 2: Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
Demonstrate incremental progress toward reducing communitywide greenhouse gas emissions by 28
percent by 2025 and/or 80 percent by 2050.
Climate & Energy Objective 3: Greening the Energy Supply
Demonstrate that the community gets some of its electricity from renewable energy sources. Remove
restrictions on residential and small business renewable energy installations.
Equity & Empowerment Objective 1: Civic Engagement
Work with businesses, nonprofits, and neighborhood organizations to improve community engagement in
decision-making. Establish regular opportunities for local government staff and officials to meet with
residents to answer questions and listen to concerns.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
Equity & Empowerment Objective 4: Equitable Services & Access
Demonstrate that neighborhoods with the highest percentage of low-income residents and people of color
have increased access to community facilities, services, and infrastructure.
Health & Safety Objective 3: Emergency Management & Response
Encourage residents to develop emergency kits and evacuation plans, or distribute kits or supplies to low-
income and vulnerable residents.
Health & Safety Objective 6: Hazard Mitigation
Reduce overtime the number of homes below code standards that are in high-risk areas or the percentage
of residents living in high-risk areas. Develop a post-disaster plan that covers long-term redevelopment.
Adopt land use regulations that limit development in areas highly vulnerable to hazards.
Living Community Challenge
Imperative 1: Limits to Growth
Projects can be built only on previously developed sites that are not on or adjacent to sensitive ecological
habitats, including wetlands or the 100-year flood plain.
Imperative 6: Net Positive Energy
Supply 105 percent of the community's energy needs by renewable energy generated in the community,
do not use combustion-based energy, and provide local energy storage for resilience.
Imperative 10: Resilient Community Connections
Incorporate design features, strategies, and community-based programs to ensure resilience through
infrastructure, community resources, and social interactions, including: creating, annually maintaining,
and disseminating to all residents a disaster response plan that identifies emergency contacts and shelter
locations and gives guidance on what to do in specific types of emergencies; designating local block or
building captains trained in emergency response; depending on the community context, providing places
out of the flood plain where residents can safely gather; requiring all facilities except single-family homes
to have a generator or battery backup for emergency power located above the flood plain; and ensuring
that critical infrastructure and facilities are out of the flood plain.
Imperative 16: Universal Access to Community Services
Incorporate access to basic community services and amenities that support the health, dignity, and rights
of all people.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
Case Study: Keene, New Hampshire
In 2005, Keene, New Hampshire, received more than 11.5 inches of rain in less than 48 hours.67 The rain
caused Kee lie's brooks to overflow, flooding some homes with as much as 7 feet of water.68 In response
to the floods and other observed climate change effects, Keene, working with ICLEI-Local Governments
for Sustainability, developed a Climate Adaptation Action Plan, which the city council approved in 2007.
The plan, one of the first of its kind adopted in the United States, presented land use planning and
design recommendations to reduce the city's vulnerability to extreme weather events. The plan outlined
potential impacts of climate change on three sectors: the built environment, the natural environment,
and the social environment. For each sector, the plan developed adaptation goals and recommended
actions to achieve those goals.
•	Built environment: Goals included increasing buildings' resilience to extreme weather events
and promoting smart growth initiatives. Strategies included creating new design standards for
buildings to fit projected climate conditions, identifying a 200-year flood plain and managing
development in that area, offering incentives to developers and homeowners to update buildings,
and adopting smart growth principles to encourage infill development. Stormwater management
strategies included developing a regional stormwater management plan, implementing green and
complete streets programs, incorporating sustainable stormwater design in all new development
plans, and adopting a net zero runoff site plan requirement for all new development.
•	Natural environment: Goals included protecting wetlands that naturally recharge aquifers and
absorb stormwater runoff and increasing the city's water storage to guard against drought.
Strategies included educating the public about the benefits of wetlands, preserving wetlands
through the comprehensive plan and a wetlands management strategy, creating a watershed
management plan, and using graywater systems. The plan also discussed protecting agricultural
land, creating local markets and business opportunities for agricultural products, and developing a
food security plan.
•	Social environment: Goals included helping people who lose their jobs because of climate
change, educating the public about health impacts of climate change, improving emergency
services, and creating a climate-appropriate local economy. Strategies included creating loan
programs for residents to adapt their businesses, preparing for people migrating to Keene from
coastal areas because of sea level rise, and making it easier for people to find and get to
emergency shelters even if they do not have a car.69
Following city council's adoption of the plan, the city institutionalized adaptation efforts by putting a
"climate lens" over all departments' operations.7" In 2009, the council passed a hillside development
ordinance, amending the zoning ordinance to better protect ridgelines, slopes, and other sensitive land
areas from development. The ordinance also adopted low-impact development site plan regulations to
lessen stormwater impacts.71
67	Personal communication with Rhett Lamb, Planning Department, City of Keene, on Sep. 20, 2016.
68	Quinton, Amy. "Keene Plans for Climate Change." NHPR, May 30, 2007. http://info.nhpr.org/node/13005.
69	City of Keene. Adapting to Climate Change: Planning a Climate-Resilient Community. 2007.
http://www.ci.keene.nh.us/sites/default/files/Keene%20Report ICLEI FINAL v2 1.pdf.
70	Byrne, Kristina. "Spotlight: Sustainable City Planning." Security & Sustainability Forum, Jun. 1, 2012.
http://securitvandsustainabilitvforum.ora/spotliaht-sustainable-citv-plannina-2808.
City of Keene. Code of Ordinances. Chapter 102, Zoning Ordinance. 2009.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Overall Strategies
The city also incorporated climate change issues in its comprehensive master plan, which the city council
unanimously adopted in 2010.11 The master plan encourages infill development to bring more amenities
downtown and protect open space for flood mitigation.7!
To encourage redevelopment downtown, in 2010, the city created the Sustainable Design and Energy
Efficient Development (SEED) overlay zone. In the SEED zone, which covers the city's core, property
owners who build a building that meets certain national green building standards can get reduced parking
requirements and more height and density.74
The master plan directed the city to explore stormwater management strategies, and in 2013, the planning
board adopted development standards that require commercial developments and large residential
developments to use low impact design techniques such as green roofs, porous pavement, vegetated
swales, and cisterns to reduce, slow, and filter runoff75 According to the city, the "key to responsibly
managing stormwater is integrating development into the natural landscape," and the city plans to "ensure
that development considers its effects on the entire [natural] system.""0
Keene adopted a complete streets policy in
2015 and developed design guidelines for the
various types of streets in the community:
slow streets, gateway streets, bicycle streets,
neighborhood streets, and rural streets. The
guidelines outline sidewalk width, pedestrian
crossings at every intersection, plantings and
street furniture, lighting, bike lanes, and
parking, among other elements. The
guidelines direct the city to consider using
pervious pavement for parking areas and
sidewalks on all street types except for rural
streets, which have no on-street parking or
sidewalks. On gateway streets, which are
major roads that connect downtown to state
routes, the city is to consider using bioswales
or rain gardens to infiltrate stormwater.
Despite its small size and limited resources, the city used strong mayoral leadership, academic and
institutional partnerships, and support from a variety of city departments to integrate climate change into
all city activities. Although flooding remains a problem in Keene—in 2012, the city experienced floods
reminiscent of those in 2005—the city plans to continue its adaptation efforts by adopting additional
building and zoning code amendments, aligning its capital improvement program and budget with the
master plan, implementing smart growth policies, and creating stormwater management plans.
More information on Keene's climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts is available at
www. ci. keene. nh. u$faustainabilits$.climate-chcmge-action.
Figure 12: Keene's downtown is a pleasant place to
walk, with interesting shops and street design that
protects pedestrians.
72	Byrne, Kristina, "Spotlight: Sustainable City Planning."
73	City of Keene. "The Six Vision Focus Areas." http://www.ci.keene.nh.us/departments/plannina/keene-cmp-2010/communtiv-vision/six-
vision-focus-areas. Accessed Jan. 4, 2013.
724 City of Keene. Code of Ordinances. Chapter 102, Article XIII. 2010. 'ittp://www.ci.keene.nh.us/sites/default/files/SEED%20Reas.pdf.
75 City of Keene. Development Standards. Section 1: Drainage. Amended Nov. 25, 2013.
http://www.ci.keene.nh.us/sites/default/files/2014 02 24 Planning Board Standards Adopted FINAL.pdf.
70 Daley, Beth. "Small N.H, City Takes on Global Warming Challenge." Boston Globe, Dec. 16, 2007.
http://archive.boston.com/news/local/new hampshire/articles/2007/12/16/small nh city takes on global warming challenae/?paae=full.
77 City of Keene. Keene Complete Streets Design Guidelines. 2015.
https://www.ci.keene.nh.us/sites/default/files/Complete%20Streets%203 Keene%20Desian%20Guidelines.pdf.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
4. Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
Introduction
Average annual precipitation across the United States has increased by about 5 percent since 1900, but the
increase has been much larger in some regions, while other regions have seen a decrease. The increase
has been particularly high in recent decades in the Northeast, Midwest, and southern Great Plains.
Seasonal variation varies by region; the northern part of the country is projected to see wetter conditions
in the winter and spring while the Southwest is expected to be drier, and most of the contiguous United
States is projected to see drier summers.78
In addition, in most of the country, "the heaviest rainfall events have become heavier and more
frequent/'79 The largest increases in heavy rain have been in the Northeast and Midwest, causing more
floods, while floods have decreased in the Southwest. The trend of heavier rainfall events is projected to
continue, even in regions such as the Southwest where overall precipitation is projected to decrease.8"
Most communities rely on FEMA's flood risk maps, which use the 100-year flood plain.81 The
boundaries of that flood plain are changing due to precipitation and flooding trends, but most maps are
still based on historical trends that no longer accurately predict future conditions. As a result,
development is happening in places where flood risks are not accurately assessed or priced.
Development in these more-hazardous areas puts more people, structures, and infrastructure in harm's
way. New development in the flood plain and along stream banks also exacerbates flooding by causing
erosion, sedimentation, and ecosystem damage.
Development often converts pervious surface (such as soil), which might have previously absorbed
rainfall or a flooding creek, to impervious surface (such as concrete or pavement), which increases
stormwater runoff. That runoff picks up pollutants, debris, and sediment as it flows into waterways. Rain
can also collect in streets, parking lots, and other areas, creating localized flooding. Flooding also affects
combined sewers, which handle both sanitary sewage and stormwater runoff in the same system. When
these systems overflow because of heavy precipitation, they discharge untreated effluent into local
waterways, which can threaten public health and the environment. Many older cities in particular have
combined sewer systems, and most are working to reduce the number of overflow events, often under
enforcement agreements with EPA or state environmental agencies.
Sea level rise also contributes to flooding. Chapter 5 covers strategies specific to that impact but does not
repeat the flooding-related strategies covered here, many of which are also relevant to sea level rise.
78 Walsh, J., et al. "Chapter 2: Our Changing Climate." Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate
Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, 19-67. 2014. http://nca2014.alobalchanae.aov/report/our-chanaing-
climate/introduction.
'a Ibid, p. 36.
80	Ibid.
81	The 100-year flood plain is the area that is expected to be inundated in a flood that has a 1 percent chance of "being equaled or
exceeded in any given year." The 500-year flood has a 0.2 percent chance of occurring in a given year. FEMA. "Flood Zones."
https://www.fema.gov/flood-zones. Accessed Aug. 2, 2016.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
Response to the Problem
Communities are responding to the threat of storms and floods by better managing stormwater runoff
from new development and encouraging growth in already-developed areas. Green infrastructure
strategies mimic natural processes by using vegetation, permeable pavement, and other elements to
capture, slow, filter, and infiltrate stormwater runoff on-site. Redeveloping already-developed sites can
replace impervious cover with pervious surfaces, reducing stormwater runoff.
Land use planning and design can reduce a community's long-term vulnerability to flooding and other
extreme weather events. Policies can encourage compact development in less-vulnerable locations and
divert development pressure away from areas near natural flood protection features such as wetlands,
stream buffers, and salt marshes. These natural areas and adjacent uplands also create green space that
people can use for recreation and that can provide habitat for wildlife and ecological services such as
capturing and filtering stormwater runoff.
Potential Benefits
•	Protecting and improving water quality, aquatic ecosystems, and public health.
•	Maintaining stormwater infrastructure capacity by limiting runoff from new development and
using green infrastructure to infiltrate
runoff on-site.
•	Accruing economic benefits, including
increased property values and lower
capital costs for water infrastructure.
•	Beautifying neighborhoods and creating
new amenities such as parks.
•	Protecting natural flood "sponges" such
as wetlands or marshes that also provide
wildlife habitat, recreational open space,
and aesthetic value.
•	Protecting property and structures from
flood damage and reducing the need for
rebuilding.
•	Reducing the need for evacuation and
emergency response in more hazardous
areas.
•	Using government resources more
efficiently and effectively.
•	Creating predictability for developers,
residents, and businesses.
•	Reducing property owners" flood
insurance premiums (Figure 13).
Figure 13: Community Rating System
FEMA's National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) offers
the Community Rating System (CRS), an incentive
program that recognizes and encourages community
flood plain management activities that exceed minimum
NFIP requirements. The CRS rates a community based
on a point system; the community earns points by
enacting one or more of 18 flood plain management
activities. The more points a community earns, the
higher the discount its property owners can receive. The
most flood-resilient communities can earn as much as a
45 percent discount on flood insurance premiums.82
Activities that earn discounts include:
•	Adopting regulatory maps that delineate flood
plains at a higher standard than required by FEMA
(e.g., mapping the 500-year flood rather than just
the 100-year flood or using projections instead of
historical data).
•	Preserving open space in flood plains, including
prohibiting development in certain areas,
implementing a transfer of development rights or
similar incentive program, or establishing
clustering or setback rules.
•	Requiring new development and redevelopment
to use green infrastructure or low impact
development techniques to manage stormwater
runoff. 3
82	FEMA. National Flood Insurance Program Community Rating System: A Local Official's Guide to Saving Lives, Preventing Property
Damage, Reducing the Cost of Flood Insurance. 2015. http://www.fema.gOv/media-librarv/assets/documents/16104.
83	FEMA. National Flood Insurance Program Community Rating System Coordinator's Manual. 2014. https://www.fema.gov/media-
librarv/assets/documents/8768.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
Implementation Approaches
I. Modest Adjustments
• Pilot a sustainable streetscape program that installs features that infiltrate stormwater on-site
while creating other benefits such as reducing ambient air temperatures, beautifying streets and
sidewalks, reducing localized flooding, and making roads safer and more appealing for
pedestrians, bicyclists, and drivers. Features might include slotted curbs, pervious paving, rain
gardens, and tree pits that are designed to absorb and filter runoff. The pilot program can
demonstrate the benefits of green streets to build public and political support, which can lead to
making the program permanent.
o Chicago created a Green Alleys pilot program in 2006, starting with six initial locations.
The alleys use permeable pavement to allow rainwater to seep through the pavement and
filter into the ground, and light-colored pavement to reduce the heat island effect. The
program helped the city learn how to adapt these materials and techniques to get the best
performance while also demonstrating the benefits of green alleys to nearby residents.84
Over the first four years of the program, more than 100 green alleys were installed. "
Figure 14: Creative, artistic rain barrels
eari add character to a street.
foundation funded the program. Capturing rain in barrels instead of letting it run into the
combined sewer system will help keep the sewers from overflowing during heavy rain.8 7
o Buffalo, New York, gave 1,000 down spouts and
rain barrels to residents, which the Buffalo
Sewer Authority delivered and installed. A local
84 Fiegel, Erin. "Green Alleys: How Chicago's Pilot Program Seeks to Alleviate Flooding." Undated. LandscapeOnline.com.
http://www.landscapeonline.com/research/article.php/11357. Accessed Nov. 9, 2016.
35 City of Chicago. "Green Alleys," https://www.cityofchicaao.ora/citv/en/depts/cdot/provdrs/street/svcs/green allevs.html. Accessed Jun.
9,2015.
86	Chesapeake Bay Trust. "Prince George's County Rain Check Rebate."
http://www.cbtrust.Org/site/c.miJPKXPCJnH/b.9146461/k.6D3F/Prince Georqe8217s Rain Check Rebate.htm. Accessed Jan. 14,
2016.
87	Schulman, Susan. "Buffalo Offering 1,000 Free Down Spouts, Rain Barrels to City Residents." Buffalo News, Apr. 20, 2015.
http://buffalonews.com/2015/04/20/buffalo-offerina-1000-free-down-spouts-rain-barrels-to-citv-residents.
Help private property owners better manage stormwater using education and incentives.
By educating property owners about the benefits of
green infrastructure solutions, teaching them how to
properly maintain stormwater-absorbing and -filtering
features, and providing financial or procedural incentives
to convert impervious surfaces to pervious areas,
communities can expand green infrastructure beyond
streets, parking lots, and publicly owned land.
o To encourage property owners to install
stormwater treatment elements such as rain
barrels, rain gardens, permeable pavement, and
green roofs, Prince George's County,
Maryland's Rain Check Rebate Program
provides up to $4,000 for single-family
residential projects and up to $20,000 for
multifamily dwellings; commercial and
nonprofit projects; and homeowner,
condominium, and civic association projects.80
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
•	Design open space in flood plains to
provide everyday amenities, but
preserve its ability to absorb or redirect
flood waters.
o Boulder, Colorado, has the
nation's second-highest
percentage of bicycle
commuters. When Boulder
Creek floods, however, the
popular bike paths along the
creek are blocked off to serve
as channels that convey water
downstream, away from the
central city.88
o After decades of Cedar River
flooding, Charles City, Iowa,
used the FEMA buyout
program to acquire flood plain land and create an engaging riverfront park (Figure 15).89
•	Require new development or redevelopment to capture and infiltrate the first 1 or 1.5
inches of rain from the impervious portion of the development site, which could be
accomplished by replacing a percentage of impervious paved area with permeable paving or by
requiring the reduction of paved surfaces in planned developments.
o Philadelphia's stormwater regulations require development or redevelopment projects
that disturb more than 15,000 square feet to infiltrate at least the first 1.5 inches of runoff
from impervious areas. If on-site infiltration is feasible, the project must infiltrate all of
the runoff. To encourage developers to use green infrastructure to reduce runoff, the
water department will expedite review of the post-construction stormwater management
plan for projects that include elements such as green roofs, porous pavement, and trees.9"
•	Update any Clean Water Act Section 402 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
permits to consider climate change aspects, including strategies like increased use of green
infrastructure, which can improve water quality while often also providing additional green
spaces and recreational opportunities, enhanced ecosystem services, improved air quality,
increased property values, energy savings, economic development, reduced ambient air
temperatures, and job creation opportunities. In addition to helping to adapt to climate change
impacts, green infrastructure can be a climate mitigation strategy because plants and soils
sequester carbon dioxide.91
Figure 15: Charles City's Riverfront Park disguises
stormwater management features as amenities, including a
fountain and ravine play area, that slow water flow and trap
sediment before it enters the river.
^ Doig, Will. "You Can't Stop Urban Flooding." Next City, Jan. 27, 2014. https://nextcitv.ora/features/view/vou-cant-stoD-urban-floodina.
89	EPA, 2013 National Award for Smart Growth Achievement.
90	Philadelphia Water. Stormwater Management Guidance Manual V3.0. Updated 2015. http://www.pwdpianreview.ora/manual-
info/guidance-manual.
91	EPA. "Integrating Green infrastructure into Federal Regulatory Programs," https://www.epa.aov/areen-infrastructure/intearatina-green-
infrastructure-federal-reaulatory-proarams. Accessed Oct. 4, 2016.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
2. Major Modifications
•	Adopt the 500-year flood plain boundary as the
"locally regulated flood plain" that exceeds the
typical FEMA-recognized 100-year flood plain. This
action does not affect flood insurance requirements,
as FEMA requires flood insurance based on the 100-
year flood boundary and flood elevations. It can earn
the community CRS credits (see Figure 13).
o Cedar Falls, Iowa, adopted the 500-year
flood plain boundary as its locally regulated
flood plain. Within this boundary, structures
have to be raised 1 foot above the 500-year
flood elevation and no new lots can be
established for development. Critical facilities such as "hospitals, municipal government
buildings, schools and residential facilities for elderly or infirmed/handicapped persons"
cannot be located within the 500-year flood plain.92
•	Restrict development activities in areas buffering waterbodies and wetlands that would have
an adverse impact on the area's flood control or water quality.
o After suffering flooding from multiple tropical storms, Alachua County, Florida, adopted
low-impact development wetland buffer protection requirements in 2011, mandating an
average 75-foot buffer or a 150-foot buffer for areas of Outstanding Waters (areas
requiring special protection due to their natural vulnerability). No development activities
are allowed in wetland or wetland buffer areas that would have an adverse impact on
flood control or water quality.94
o Kansas City, Missouri's Stream Setback Ordinance, part of a larger strategy to reduce
flash flooding, creates a stream buffer with three specified zones based on distance from
the water body. Development is more restricted closer to the stream, but developers who
build in the zone farthest from the stream can get density bonuses and other flexibility.95
See the case study in this chapter for more information on the program.
•	Adopt green and complete streets design standards to make streets safe and comfortable for
pedestrians, drivers, bicyclists, and transit users. Green and complete streets incorporate green
infrastructure such as street trees, permeable pavement, curb inlets, and planter boxes to
capture, slow, filter, and absorb stormwater runoff. These green features beautify the street and
cool the air as well. Green and complete streets are designed to make walking and biking easier
and more appealing, which reduces pollution from vehicles, helps people incorporate physical
activity into their daily routines, and gives more transportation options to people who cannot or
choose not to drive.
Practice Pointer
Although the term "100-year flood" is widely
used, it does not give people a good sense
of the true risk of flooding in a given year.
Some experts suggest instead talking about
floods that have a 1 percent chance of
happening in a given year (a 500-year flood
is one that has a 0.2 percent chance of
occurring in a given year). Noting that a
parcel of land has a 26 percent chance of
flooding over the life of a 30-year mortgage
can give homeowners a more concrete
sense of the risk.93
92 Cedar Falls, Iowa. Code of Ordinances. Sec. 29-156 - F-F floodway fringe overlay district. Adopted Jul. 11, 2011.
https://www.municode.com/librarv/ia/cedar falls/codes/code of ordinances.
National Research Council. Levees and the National Flood Insurance Program: Improving Policies and Practices. "Ch. 7:
Understanding and Communicating Flood Risk Behind Levees, and Appendix E: Flood Zone Designations." National Academies Press.
2013. https://www.nap.edu/cataloa/18309/levees-and-the-national-flood-insurance-proaram-improving-policies-and.
94 Alachua County. Alachua County Comprehensive Plan 2011 -2030. Adopted 2011. https://growth-
manaaement.alachuacountv.us/planning.
Kansas City. "Stream Setback Ordinance Fact Sheet." Undated.
http://ww4.kcmo.org/planning/devmgmt/zoningord/Stream%20setback%20fact%20sheet.pdf. Accessed Nov. 29, 2016.
33

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
o Washington, D. C.' s complete
streets policy promotes streets
that "ensure that all users,
especially the most vulnerable
can travel safely, conveniently
and efficiently" and that consider
"environmental enhancements"'
including reducing storm water
runoff and prioritizing space for
trees.96
Acquire properties at risk of flooding,
use the land for infiltration, and help
the property owners resettle in the
community. Some FEMA hazard
mitigation programs provide funds that
communities can use to buy vulnerable
properties from willing sellers.97 This
open space can become an everyday
community amenity in addition to helping to prevent flooding. Helping businesses and property
owners find new locations in the community can help maintain social cohesion, support local
businesses, protect jobs, and ensure that people can stay in the community if they want.
Figure 16: Fourth Street SW in Washington, D.C., is a
green and complete street, with a bike lane, a wide
sidewalk, and planting areas.
o After a devastating flood in 1993, Cherokee, Iowa, used money from FEMA's Hazard
Mitigation Grant Program, along with funds from the city and state, to buy 187 homes that
had been damaged. Most of the homes were demolished, but 31 were relocated to higher
ground. 8 The city bought and platted land on higher ground for the relocated homes and
upgraded the houses" basements and foundations. The city helped residents whose houses
were demolished find new homes, most of them within the city. Cherokee also offered
down payment assistance to low-income residents to help them afford a new home. '
o Grand Forks, North Dakota, suffered a devastating flood in 1997 that flooded three-
quarters of the town and destroyed 9,000 homes and 751 commercial buildings. The city
used funds from HUD's Community Development Block Grant and FEMA's Hazard
Mitigation Grant programs to buy and demolish nearly 1,500 structures, meeting
regularly with residents to keep them informed.
96	District of Columbia, Department of Transportation. "DDOT Complete Streets Policy." Departmental Order No. 06-2010, Oct. 18,
2010. https://comp.ddot.dc.aov/Documents/Complete%20Streets%20Policv.pdf.
97	FEMA. "Hazard Mitigation Assistance." https://www.fema.qov/hazard-mitiaation-assistance. Accessed Nov. 29, 2016.
98	FEMA. "Cherokee's Hazard Mitigation Measures Pay Off." Secure & Prepared, Vol. 7, Issue 2. Jan. 28, 2011. Iowa Homeland
Security & Emergency Management Division, http://homelandsecuritv.iowa.gov/documents/newsietters/2011/S&P 012811 .pdf.
99	Siders, Anne. Managed Coastal Retreat: A Legal Handbook on Shifting Development Away From Vulnerable Areas. Columbia Law
School Center for Climate Change Law. 2013. https://web.iaw.columbia.edu/sites/defauit/files/microsites/climate-
chanae/files/Publications/ManagedCoastalRetreat FINAL Qct%2030.pdf.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
The land from the
buyout properties
became the Grand
Forks Greenway,
more than 2,000
acres of parkland
along the Red River
that is now a valued
community amenity
(Figure 17). Along
with other flood
protection measures,
the green space
helped the city
weather a 2006 flood tFi9urf 17"7he, Grf £ Forks Greenway attracts residents and
.	,	tourists while also buffering the city from floods,
that was nearly as
high as the 1997
flood with no major damage.1""
Grand Forks has used the greenway to help revive its downtown. It used some of the
recovery funding and activities to reconnect the street grid, rebuild downtown, and create
a new public plaza. It gave downtown businesses grants to help them fix damaged
structures.101 The city and county also showed a public commitment to downtown by
• •	* *	• •	102 103	*	*
building new municipal buildings there. " 3 As one analysis of the city's recovery
noted, "The Greenway and other flood protection measures facilitated Grand Forks"
recovery in two crucial ways. First, with the risk of future flooding high, Grand Forks had
to rebuild in such a way that stakeholders would feel their investments, particularly in the
downtown area, were protected. Second, the Greenway, as one of Grand Forks" main
amenities for recreation and tourism, helped anchor new development in the city's
downtown."1"4
• Enter into a community-based public-private partnership to install and maintain green
infrastructure and other nature-based stormwater controls. These partnerships are similar to
conventional public-private partnerships but focus on investing in green infrastructure to spur
economic growth and improve quality of life in underserved communities. An EPA guide to
creating these partnerships notes, "A major benefit of [community-based public-private
partnership] structures is that through greater private involvement and use of market forces (e.g.,
competition, efficiencies, flexibility, economy of scales), urban retrofits can be made more
affordable, technology can improve, and overall costs can be reduced."105
100 HUD. "Preparing for the Next Disaster: Three Models of Building Resilient Communities." Evidence Matters, Winter 2015.
https://www.huduser.ora/portal/periodicals/em/winter15/hiahlight3.html.
u'! Ibid.
102	City of Grand Forks. "Milestones: 1997-2007." Undated. http://www.arandforksaov.com/home/showdooument?id=514. Accessed
Nov. 29, 2016.
103	Davies, Phil. "Who Needs Downtowns, Anyvyay?" Fedgazette. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Sept. 1, 2006.
https://www.minneapolisfed.ora/publications/fedaazette/who-needs-downtowns-anvwav.
("4 HUD, "Preparing for the Next Disaster: Three Models of Building Resilient Communities."
105 EPA Community Based Public-Private Partnerships and Alternative Market-Based Toois for Integrated Green Stormwater
Infrastructure: A Guide for Local Governments. 2015, p. 25. https://www.epa.aov/waterfinancecenter/communitv-based-public-private-
partnerships.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
o Prince George's County, Maryland,
next to Washington, D.C., lies in the
Chesapeake Bay watershed, which
is under a federal plan to reduce
pollution flowing into the bay. The
communities in the watershed have
agreed to implement stonnwater
management controls by 2025.
Prince George's County must
convert 15,000 acres, or almost 5
percent of its land area, into surfaces
that will absorb or treat rainwater,
which translates to adding 46,000
stormwater devices and creating
"tens of thousands of l ittle
ecosystems/'106
The county is working with a
private company, Corvias Solutions^
to install the green infrastructure
elements while also creating social
and economic benefits. Under this
public-private partnership, known as the Clean Water Partnership, Corvias agreed to
"ensure that 30 percent of the project's workforce in year one consists of local
businesses, to be increased at a rate of 5 percent in years two and three. The company has
also committed to ensuring that local residents will comprise 15 percent of the workforce
in year one and will reach 50 percent by the end of year three. [Within less than a year,
the company had ] exceeded that goal, currently [as of November 2015] tracking 85
percent."1'"
By working on multiple projects at once, the company gains efficiencies, and this
partnership has spurred other governments to ask about partnering with Corvias on other
projects. In addition, Corvias will also handle maintenance once the projects are done,
which will bring the company more revenue but cost less overall than if the county
government maintained the projects itself.108 In addition to saving money, the county
benefits from the immediate jobs created as well as career training and mentoring that
will help residents learn valuable skills. The partnership creates an Urban Watershed
Restoration Contractor Training Course offered at the county community college to teach
people how to build, operate, and maintain stonnwater management practices 109 Corvias
has a "contractor concierge service" that gives design and general contractor firms
coaching and support to help them better compete for the project's subcontracts.110
106	Vock, Daniel C. "A New P3 Model for Building Green Infrastructure." Governing, May 27, 2015.
http://www.aovernina.com/topics/transportation-infrastructure/aov-tappina-private-sector-build-green-infrastructure.html.
107	Littleton, Peter, Clean Water Partnership operations manager, quoted in "NCPPP Exclusive: A Conversation With Corvias Solutions'
Clean Water Partnership Team." National Council for Public-Private Partnerships. Nov. 11, 2015. http://www.ncppp.org/ncppp-
exclusive-a-conversation-with-corvias-solutions-clean-water-partnership-team.
iU3 Vock, "A New P3 Model for Building Green Infrastructure."
109	Prince George's County Department of the Environment. "White House and EPA Recognize County's Stormwater Retrofit Public-
Private Partnership (P3) Among Most Innovative in the Nation." Press release, Apr. 3, 2015.
http://www.princeaeoraescountvmd.aov/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/ltem/707.
110	Washington, David, Clean Water Partnership operations director, quoted in "NCPPP Exclusive: A Conversation With Corvias
Solutions' Clean Water Partnership Team" op cit.
Figure 18: Prince George's County residents benefit
from the jobs created in installing green infrastructure
elements.
36

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
This partnership's direct benefits will largely be seen in economically disadvantaged
neighborhoods. The county's environmental director, Adam Ortiz, noted, 'This is less a
federal regulatory program and more of a community development program. We're
talking about streetscapes and green and lush elements in asphalt- and concrete-laden
neighborhoods. That's a tremendous opportunity and investment in capital dollars that
many of these neighborhoods would not otherwise see."111
3. Wholesale Changes
•	Create an overarching framework for water-related initiatives dealing with stormwater
management, sewer overflows, and infrastructure improvements. A central coordination
point can help avoid duplication, control costs, and achieve objectives such as protecting water
quality and reducing flooding. Kansas City's Wet Weather Solutions Program is one example; see
the case study in this chapter for more information.
•	Adopt a site plan requirement that requires all new development to retain all stormwater
on-site. The community could also create a stormwater runoff credit-trading program that allows
new development projects to purchase credits and ensure offsite mitigation that still results in a
net-zero new runoff.
o Washington, D.C., offers Stormwater Retention Credits. Property owners who install
green infrastructure can sell the credits to large development sites, which can use the
credits to meet up to half of their regulatory stormwater reduction requirements. The city
also buys some credits, as paying private property owners to install green infrastructure is
more cost-effective than if the city government built the green infrastructure itself.112
•	Develop a municipal stormwater design manual that illustrates context-appropriate green
infrastructure strategies for new development and redevelopment to allow these practices to be
easily incorporated into site plans for private development and capital improvement plans for
public projects. Engage subject matter experts, including design and stormwater management
professionals, in developing the manual.
o Working with Mecklenburg County Stormwater Services, Huntersville, North Carolina,
published a Water Quality Design Manual to establish stormwater management
requirements and controls to prevent new development from degrading surface water
quality. The manual provides the information and design tools necessary to comply with
the stormwater requirements of
Huntersville's Post-Construction
Ordinance.113
•	If elevation is necessary, establish elevation
requirements for street grade, building first floor,
and infrastructure to exceed current municipal,
state, and FEMA standards, but that also include
design guidelines or form-based standards to
promote accessibility and street life.
Practice Pointer
Elevating buildings is a complicated issue.
It is expensive and can create a false
sense of security. People with limited
mobility might have difficulty getting into
elevated buildings. Design guidelines such
as those in New York City can ensure
elements like ground-floor transparency
that keep streets where building elevation
will be used pleasant for pedestrians.
111	Vock, "A New P3 Model for Building Green Infrastructure."
112	District Department of Energy and the Environment. "DOEE Announces $12,750,000 for Innovative program to Incentivize Cost-
Effective Green Infrastructure." Press release, May 10, 2016. http://doee.dc.aov/node/1160582. More information about the program is
available on the Stormwater Retention Credit Trading Program page at http://doee.dc.gov/src.
113	Mecklenburg County Storm Water Services, Water Quality Program. Town of Huntersville Water Quality Design Manual. Town of
Huntersville. 2008.
http://www.huntersville.ora/Portals/0/Departments/Plannina/Documents/Misc/Huntersville%20Water%20Qualitv%20Desian%20Manual
June%202013%20Edition.pdf.
37

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
o After flooding and other damage from Superstorm Sandy, New York City passed zoning
code updates to make new construction and retrofitted buildings more resilient to floods
The city recognized that "FEMA and Building Code standards for flood-resistant
construction require new or substantially improved buildings in flood zones to be
elevated or flood proofed above projected flood levels. However, elevating buildings
more than a few feet above the sidewalk can have negative effects on streetscape,
building access, ground floor activity, architectural quality, and neighborhood
character;'1 4 The city planning department and advisors from the architecture and design
community developed principles for designing elevated, flood-resilient buildings (Figure
19). In 2013, the New York City Council adopted a flood resilience amendment to the
zoning code that incorporated these design principles.11"
Inviting access: Making sure that people with
limited mobility can still easily get in and out of
the building.
Neighborhood character: Integrating elements
of the existing neighborhood design when
rebuilding or building new construction.
Figure 19: New York City's "Designing for Flood Risk: Urban Design Principles."
Visual connectivity: Maintaining architectural
elements such as doors, porches, stoops, and
windows along the street.
Fagade articulation: Ensuring that elevated
buildings have interesting elements along the
street instead of a blank wall.
114	NYC Planning. "Designing for Flood Risk: Urban Design Principles." 2013. http://www1.nvc.Qov/assets/planninq/download/pdf/pians-
studies/sustainable-communities/climate-resilience/urban design principles.pdf.
115	New York City Council. "Flood Resilience Text Amendment." Article VI, Chapter 4. Enacted Oct. 9, 2013.
http://www1.nvc.aov/ass8ts/planninci/downioad/pdf/plans/flood~resiliencv/final texi.pdf.
38

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience	Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
Create sustainable funding for stormwater infrastructure. Many communities assess a
stormwater fee based on the measurement of a property's impervious ground coverage and
stormwater runoff contribution. Compactly developed lots incur smaller fees, as do parcels that
use green infrastructure techniques such as permeable paving and rain gardens to reduce runoff
and impervious coverage. Stormwater fees can be controversial; to gain public acceptance, clearly
link the fee to preventing or paying for impacts to water quality and flooding, and encourage
green infrastructure by reducing fees if the property owner installs cisterns, rain gardens,
permeable paving, and similar features.
o Dubuque, Iowa, formed a stormwater utility that calculates a stormwater runoff fee
determined by the measurement of a property's impervious ground coverage. This
ensures that those who contribute more runoff must also contribute more to its
management. Single-family homes with 1,471 to 4,375 square feet of impervious
surface are charged one billing unit called a Single Family Unit. Homes with less
impervious area are charged half a unit, while homes with more are charged 1.5 units.
The city charges non-residential properties a set fee for every 2,917 square feet of
impervious area.116
Resources
•	EPA's Flood Resilience Checklist (2014) can help a community assess its preparedness for
flooding and determine areas for improvement: https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/flood-
resilience-checklist
•	Green infrastructure projects are eligible for Clean Water State Revolving Funds, and several
states offer incentives to encourage them. Local governments can contact their state Clean Water
Revolving Fund program to learn about specific incentives and financing mechanisms for green
infrastructure projects. For general information on these funds, see EPA's Clean Water State
Revolving Fund webpage: https ://www. epa. gov/cwsrf
•	EPA's "Green Infrastructure for Climate Resiliency" webpage offers information about how
green infrastructure practices can help communities prepare for and manage various climate
change impacts: https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/green-infrastructure-climate-resiliencv
•	EPA's "Learn About Green Streets" webpage links to green and complete streets resources:
https://www.epa.gov/G3/learn-about-green-streets
•	EPA's Flood Resilience: A Basic Guide for Water and Wastewater Utilities (2014) is an interactive
guide that outlines simple measures water utilities can take to become more resilient to flooding,
along with funding options for communities: https://www.epa.gov/waterutilitvresponse/flood-
resilience-basic-guide-water-and-wastewater-utilities
•	The American Society of Landscape Architects' "Resilient Design" webpages have landscape
planning solutions to help communities with drought, extreme heat, fire, and floods, among other
challenges: https://www.asla.org/resilientdesign.aspx
•	FloodSafety.gov has a useful chart showing the relative risk of a flood happening in the next year
compared to other events such as being in a car accident, being a crime victim, and a residential
fire: http://floodsafetv.com/national/propertv/risk
116 City of Dubuque. "Stormwater Utility." http://www.citvofdubuaue.ora/877/Stormwater-Utilitv. Accessed Apr. 15, 2015.
39

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
Guidance and Metrics
LEED for Neighborhood Development
Smart Location and Linkage Prerequisite: Floodplain Avoidance
Projects must either locate on a site that is entirely out of the 100-year flood plain as designated by the
locality or state, or, if any parts of the site lie within the 100-year flood plain, projects must comply with
either the American Society of Civil Engineers standard or the National Flood Insurance Program
requirements for developing those portions. If the project includes construction of any critical facility, the
facility must be designed and built so as to be protected and operable during a 500-year event.
Smart Location and Linkage Prerequisite: Wetland and Water Body Conservation
Locate development away from lands within 50 feet of wetlands or within 100 feet of water bodies, or earn
the Rainwater Management credit and minimize development of land buffering the water body or wetland.
Green In frastructure and Buildings Credit: Rainwater Management
Use green infrastructure or low impact development techniques to manage on site at least 80 percent of
the runoff from the development.
STAR Community Rating System
Climate & Energy Objective 1: Climate Adaptation
Adopt building codes or land use ordinances that address specific climate change impacts. Require or
encourage residents and businesses to change their behaviors to prepare for climate change impacts.
Health and Safety Objective 6: Hazard Mitigation
Reduce overtime the number of homes below code standards that are located in designated high-risk
areas or the percentage of residents living in designated high-risk areas. Adopt land use regulations that
limit development in areas highly vulnerable to hazards.
Natural Systems Objective 1: Green Infrastructure
Demonstrate that 35 percent of the jurisdiction's land area has green infrastructure or that no more than
65 percent of the land area is covered with impervious surface. Create a communitywide green
infrastructure plan that is integrated with other relevant local plans. Adopt design criteria and codes to
require green infrastructure in new developments. Offer incentives to encourage property owners to install
green infrastructure elements.
Living Community Challenge
Imperative 1: Limits to Growth
Projects can be built only on previously developed sites that are not within the 100-year flood plain.
Imperative 5: Net Positive Water
All stormwater and water discharge must be treated and managed at the community scale through reuse, a
closed loop system, or infiltration.
40

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
Case Study: Kansas City, Missouri
Kansas City, Missouri, is on the Missouri and Kansas rivers, putting parts of the city at a high risk of
flooding from rivers and streams. The city's 100-year flood plain contains more than 2,000 buildings, and
some businesses experience flooding of up to 10 feet every five years.117 Additional development in the
flood plain and on stream banks could exacerbate flooding by causing erosion, sedimentation, and
destruction of ecosystems. In addition, the city's sewers are aging and poorly equipped to handle high
volumes of stormwater; sewer overflows annually discharge 6.5 billion gallons of untreated sewage into
nearby water bodies.118 Protecting flood plains and streams and reducing sewer overflows were crucial to
preventing or reducing damage from flooding.
In 2003, the mayor created a Wet Weather Community Panel, which developed the goals and guiding
principles for the Wet Weather Solutions Program. From 2003 to 2008, the panel held numerous public
meetings, presentations, and "wet weather fairs" to engage and educate residents.119 In 2005, in part
thanks to the extensive engagement effort, residents approved a $500 million bond for water and sewer
initiatives.12"
Practice Pointer
Create implementation plans for programs with
benchmarks for accomplishments, such as number of
green infrastructure projects completed, after one,
five, 10, and 20 or more years. Communicate the
short-term achievements to the public and elected
officials. People respond to initiatives with quick
results that can be leveraged into long-term,
substantial outcomes.
The Wet Weather Solutions Program was
conceived as an ambitious, 25-year plan to upgrade
street and sewer infrastructure, improve water
quality, and prevent flood damage. Multiple city
departments participate in the program, and the
city works closely with regional and federal
agencies to implement it. The Overflow Control
Plan, one element of the program, encourages
green infrastructure and design upgrades and
recommends amendments to the city's zoning
ordinance to prevent development in the flood
plain and stream buffer zones.121
The Overflow Control Plan focuses on quick fixes for the first 10 years and major structural and
infrastructure changes for years 11 through 25. Its goals include not only preventing as much stormwater
as possible from entering the city's sewer system, but also implementing a citywide "comprehensive
green solutions initiative."122 The plan outlines several land use planning, zoning, design, and
infrastructure-related activities, including integrating native landscaping and green infrastructure such as
permeable pavements or curb extensions into strcctscapcs.12' By targeting infrastructure improvements
and regulations at the same time, the program provides a comprehensive framework for managing the
city's water risks.
The city has made major infrastructure and land use planning changes, including adopting the American
Public Works Association standards for stormwater facility design124 and best management practices, an
ordinance to integrate green water solutions in all city planning and development processes, and a stream
117	City of Kansas City. "Wet Weather Solutions Program - Flooding." Web page no longer available. Accessed Dec. 30, 2012.
118	EPA. "Kansas City, Missouri, Clean Water Act Settlement." May 18, 2010. https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/kansas-citv-missouri-
clean-water-act-settlement.
"a City of Kansas City. "Wet Weather Solutions Program - Public Participation." Web page no longer available. Accessed Dec. 30,
2012.
120	City of Kansas City. "Wet Weather Solutions Program - FAQs." Web page no longer available. Accessed Dec. 30, 2012.
121	Kansas City, Missouri, Water Services Department. Overflow Control Plan. Revised Apr. 20, 2012.
https://www.kcwaterservices.ora/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Qverflow Control Plan Apri302012 FINAL.pdf.
Kansas City, Missouri, Water Services Department, Overflow Control Plan, p. 12-2.
123 City of Kansas City. "Water, A Vital and Valuable Natural Resource: Green Solutions Position Paper." 2007.
http://www.nwk.usace.armv.mil/Portals/29/docs/civilworks/blueriver/GreenSolutions PositionPaper.pdf.
American Public Works Association, Kansas City Metropolitan Chapter. Section 5600: Storm Drainage Systems and Facilities. 2011.
http://kcmetro.apwa.net/content/chapters/kcmetro.apwa.net/file/Specifications/APWA5600.pdf.
41

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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Flooding and Extreme Precipitation
setback ordinance.1 The stream setback ordinance could limit development on approximately 12 percent
of the city's undeveloped land, 8 percent of which lies in the 100-year flood plain, and an additional 4
percent of which will be preserved as permanent open space. Developers must submit stream buffer
plans for projects where the stream setback ordinance is in effect.1'7 Many aspects of the ordinance use
smart growth strategies, including density bonuses, smaller lot sizes, and flexible design standards.
In 2011, under the Overflow Control Program, the
city began construction on green infrastructure
projects that are estimated to reduce stormwater
runoff flow for a 1.4 inch storm event by
approximately 80 percent.128 The city also completed
a pilot capital improvement project in the Middle
Blue River Basin that included green infrastructure
solutions like rain gardens, porous pavements,
pavers, curb extensions, and bioretention basins
(Figure 20), which improved the area's
streetscapes.12 By the end of the Overflow Control
Program, the city estimates that the current 6.4
billion gallons of citywide sewer overflow will be
reduced to 1.4 billion gallons.10
The actions Kansas City took will help preserve open
space and natural habitats, create greener and better-
designed neighborhoods, and protect public health by
improving water quality. Officials also anticipate economic benefits, such as increased property values
and over $10 million in savings on capital costs through the use of green infrastructure.
Kansas City's Overflow Control Program ties climate change adaptation efforts to city beautification on a
wider scale. While the installation of green infrastructure helps reduce and prevent flooding, it also
revitalizes and beautifies neighborhoods. Similarly, stream setbacks not only protect structures from water
damage, they also preserve natural habitat and open space. The city has challenges going forward,
including finding funds. But strong support from city officials and residents will help the city implement
the program—the largest capital improvement project in Kansas City's history—and help better prepare
the city for flooding in the future.
More information on Kansas City's Overflow Control Program is available at
https://www.kcwaterservices.0r2/pr02rams/0cp.
Figure 20: This rain garden in Kansas City's
Marlborough neighborhood was built as part of the
improvements in the Middle Blue River Basin.
125 Cahail, Scott A. "Green Solutions for Kansas City." Sustainable Communities Conference, Mar. 10, 2008.
http://www.cleanairinfo.com/sustainableskvlines/documents/Presentations/Track%205/Session%204%20-
%20Stormwater%20Mitiaation%20lssues%20and%20Strateaies%20Part%201/03%20-%20Scott%20Cahail%20EPA%20Dallas%203-
10-09.pdf.
.|2* 1
^ City of Kansas City, "Stream Setback Ordinance Fact Sheet."
127	City of Kansas City. "Stream Buffer and Setback Regulations - Preliminary and Final Buffer Plan Requirements Checklist." Dec. 30,
2008.
128	Dods, David, and Jessi Veach. "Kansas City's Green Solutions Pilot Project Brings Success to the Surface for Combined Sewer
Overflows." Stormwater, Sep. 25, 2012.
129	KC Water Services. "Green Infrastructure: Middle Blue River Basin Green Solutions Pilot Project."
lttps://www.kcwaterservices.orq/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Proieet Overview MBR Piiot Project 1126131.pdf. Accessed Nov. 29,
2016.
130	Kansas City, Missouri, Water Services Department, Overflow Control Plan.
131	Dods and Veach, "Kansas City's Green Solutions Pilot Project Brings Success to the Surface for Combined Sewer Overflows."
132	City of Kansas City, "Stream Setback Ordinance Fact Sheet."
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
5. Adapting to Sea Level Rise
Introduction
Sea levels are rising globally due to ocean water expanding as it absorbs atmospheric heat and glaciers
and ice sheets melting. The National Climate Assessment notes that global sea level has risen by about 8
inches since 1880, and levels could plausibly rise 1 to 4 more feet by 2100. " In some places, sea level
rise is exacerbated by land subsidence. One study estimated that 6.8 million homes along the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts are currently at ri sk of being flooded by storm surge, a number that will increase as the sea
level rises.1"4
For vulnerable coastal communities, rising sea levels and the associated higher storm surges can threaten
lives and cause serious damage to properties, infrastructure, and ecosystems. Saltwater intrusion into
water sources can raise water treatment costs. Damage from a major storm surge can force residents to
evacuate and businesses to close or relocate, straining finances and mental health. The local economy will
feel the impact of even temporary business closures as well as the costs of rebuilding.
Even without a major
storm, sea level rise is
resulting in higher tides.
Communities such as
Norfolk, Virginia, and
Miami regularly see
some streets flood at the
highest tides, known as
king tides. While some
people might dismiss it
as "nuisance flooding,"
the saltwater damages
infrastructure and
property, disrupts travel,
and can infiltrate into
aquifers that supply
drinking water. In the
long term, the sea will
permanently inundate
some coastal areas.
Sea level rise affects property rights in several ways. As the sea rises, high tides and storm surges cover
more land, effectively reducing property owners' land. As the impacts of sea level rise become more
obvious, "it will affect littoral land's market price, generally lowering it. Such land may become
uninsurable."1 Many property owners see a threat from government action reducing or eliminating their
use of the land, but "the economic effects of the regulation must be distinguished from the economic
effects of sea-level rise itself."1'6
How High Will the Sea Rise?
The marker In front of you shows several
scenarios for sea level rise above the current
Mean High Water mark.
6 m (19 feet 8 inches): sea level if Greenland
Ice Cap melts (if the ice at both poles melted, the
ocean would reach the road deck of the Golden
Gate Bridge}
2.9 m (9 feet, 6 inches): 100-year flood level
with a 1.4 m rise in sea level and a storm surge
1.4 m (4 feet, 7 inches): high end of predated
sea l°vel rise by 2100
1.0 m (3 feet, 3 inches); moderate estimate
of predicted sea level rise by 2100 (approximately
todays 100-year flood level)
0.5 m (1 foot 8 inches): low end of predicted
s by 2100
-A
Figure 21: This marker along the San
Francisco Bay educates people about
sea level rise, giving them a sense of
how it might look.
133	Walsh et al, "Chapter 2: Our Changing Climate," Climate Change Impacts in the United States, p. 44.
134	Botts, Howard, et al. 2016 CoreLogic Storm Surge Report. CoreLogic. 2016. http://arcq.is/1 MspBNv.
135	Byrne, "The Cathedral Engulfed," p. 81.
136	Ibid.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
Response to the Problem
Coastal communities are adapting to this threat by more accurately assessing which areas are currently or
are projected to be flooded by king tides (especially high tides), storm surges, and sea level rise. They are
preserving undeveloped land where possible to buffer against rising seas, or limiting development
intensity or uses in more-vulnerable areas to minimize the risk to lives and property.
Where it is not possible to prohibit or remove development, communities use zoning ordinances and
building codes to make sure that structures are safer. Some places are preparing to gradually move
development away from the coast as the sea level rises.
Potential Benefits
•	Protecting lives by reducing the number of people in harm's way.
•	Reducing or eliminating property damage through safer zoning ordinances and building codes in
high-risk areas.
•	Protecting future development by limiting growth in areas that are particularly vulnerable to
higher storm surges and sea level rise.
•	Creating predictability for coastal property owners, developers, and businesses and allowing
gradual transition of development as sea levels rise, which reduces sudden impacts or changes.
•	Maintaining mobility by better protecting transportation infrastructure.
•	Preserving natural coastal areas, habitats, and beaches for public enjoyment and ecological value.
•	Using government funds more efficiently by not in vesting in hazardous areas.
Implementation Approaches
I. Modest Adjustments
•	Add projected sea level rise to flood zone hazard
maps that are based exclusively on historical
events. This action would not affect flood insurance
requirements, which would continue to use FEMA-
created flood zone hazard maps. Mapping sea level
rise projections can help a community start now to
plan for future conditions. New maps should
identify civic facilities that are vulnerable to storm
surge and sea level rise, paying special attention to
those critical to protecting life, property, or the
environment. Use these maps to create or update an extended coastal flood hazard zone to
delineate potential inundation areas, critical emergency facilities, evacuation routes, road
elevation projects, and culvert replacements.
Practice Pointer
Use a minimum 50-year planning horizon
that assumes a specific, plausible range of
sea level rise projections during that time,
taking into account land subsidence and
uplift as well as other locally specific
conditions.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
•	Designate and protect "transition
zones" near tidal marshes between
more-vulnerable areas and
developed areas, and prohibit
incompatible land uses in these
zones. Protecting the transition zones
gives marshes room to migrate
inland as the sea level rises. Local
governments can protect these lands
through easements or outright
acquisition that would also allow the
public to enjoy these areas.
•	Change the definition of "normal
high water" for land adjacent to
tidal waters to change regulatory
shoreline setbacks. This amendment effectively changes the setback without having to change
the setback size itself.
o Ogunquit, Maine, amended its definition of "normal high water" to account for sea level
rise. "The highest annual tide predicted for the region is generally about 7 feet above
mean high water. By amending its definition of 'normal high water' to 11 feet above
mean sea level, the town includes a margin of about 4 feet for sea level rise, which is also
2 feet higher than the FEMA 100-year designated floodplain."'1'
2. Major Modifications
•	Using projections rather than historical trends, incorporate sea level rise impacts like
coastal erosion, higher storm surge, and shoreline change in all future land use planning,
building regulations, and capital improvement projects.
o The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission's San Francisco
Bay Plan manages shoreline development in the San Francisco Bay. The plan was
amended in 2011 to address climate change' " and now requires that, "When planning
shoreline areas or designing larger shoreline projects, a risk assessment should be
prepared by a qualified engineer and should be based on the estimated 100-year flood
elevation that takes into account the best estimates of future sea level rise and current
flood protection and planned flood protection that will be funded and constructed when
needed to provide protection for the proposed project or shoreline area. A range of sea
level rise projections for mid-century and end of century based on the best scientific data
available should be used in the risk assessment.''
•	Strengthen building codes in coastal zones by requiring additional adaptation strategies, such as
restricting the construction of basements, and, below grade, requiring buildings to be moveable or
137	Schechtmari, Judd, and Michael Brady. Cost-Efficient Climate Adaptation in the North Atlantic. Connecticut Sea Grant College
Program. 2013. http://seaarant.uconn.edu/CEANA. p. 27.
138	San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission. "Climate Change Bay Plan Amendment." 2011.
http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/proposed bay plan/bp amend 1-08.html.
139	San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission. San Francisco Bay Plan. As amended Oct, 2011.
http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/plans/sfbav pian.html.
Figure 22: Tidal marshes, such as this one in Delaware, will
need room to migrate inland as sea levels rise.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
raised (e.g., manufactured homes or pin foundations, which are precast foundations designed to
avoid the need to excavate or fill and to be moved easily).14"
•	Modify the steep-slope ordinance to account for
coastal slopes exposed to increased moisture due
to changes in precipitation patterns and sea level
rise. These conditions can increase the risk of
landslides or coastal bluffs collapsing, which can
destroy property and threaten lives (Figure 23).
Shoreline residential development, including
accessory structures and uses, should be set back
from steep slopes and shorelines vulnerable to
erosion far enough that structural improvements,
including bluff walls and other stabilization
structures, are not required to protect these
structures and uses.
•	Create an overlay district where flood
regulations and standards would apply, or
establish context-sensitive shoreline classifications
with appropriate development standards for each.
o The Georgetown Climate Center developed
a model sea level rise ordinance that
"extends the boundaries of the regulated
floodplain to protect development that will
become increasingly vulnerable to impacts
as [sea level rise] drives flooding further
inland" and designates two sub-districts:
¦	The Floodplain Conservation District, for land that is very vulnerable and has
sensitive natural resources. In this sub-district, the model ordinance limits
development to "low -density and low-intensity uses" and smaller structures,
increases setbacks, and restricts rebuilding storm-damaged buildings.
¦	The Floodplain Accommodation District, for land that could continue to be
developed but still is vulnerable to sea level rise. This sub-district would include
increased setbacks and structure elevations, limit development of critical
facilities, and allows only small structures.141
o King County, Washington, updated its Shoreline Master Program land use policies to
include eight new shoreline classifications that fit the varied shoreline. New development
regulations for the classifications reflect a range, from very low-impact development for
sensitive lands to flood prevention measures in areas where higher levels of development
are appropriate. These classifications are incorporated into the county's comprehensive
plan
•	Require building-level design for disassembly/adaptability planning (also known as design
for deconstruction) to reduce the environmental impacts of buildings that must be moved or
140	Northwest EcoBuilding Guild. "Pin Foundations for Low Impact - Clearwater Commons." http://www.ecobuildina.org/code-
innovations/case-studies/pin-foundation-for-low-impact-development-at-clearwater-commons. Accessed Nov. 18, 2016.
141	Grannis et al, A Model Sea-Level Rise Overlay Zone for Maryland Local Governments.
142	King County. "Shoreline Management in King County, Washington." http://kinacountv.aov/environment/water-and-
land/shorelines.asp;:. Accessed Jul. 27, 2016.
Figure 23: These homes on a coastal bluff in
California illustrate how erosion exacerbated
by sea level rise can threaten property.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
disassembled due to sea level rise (Figure
24). Buildings designed for disassembly
can be cost-effectively deconstructed
rather than demolished. Training
disadvantaged community members to
deconstruct buildings helps train them for
jobs in construction and related fields.
The building materials can be reused,
which saves resources and lets people buy
these materials at a lower cost than new
materials. Designing for adaptability
makes it easier to disassemble and move
buildings if needed or reconfigure
structures to fit a site better if the
environmental conditions change.
3. Wholesale Changes
•	Designate and protect existing working
waterfronts. Make these areas part of the
local and regional economic development
strategies. Preserving these working
waterfronts protects a sense of place and
community history, and clusters similar industries together, which can spur innovation and
collaboration. However, be careful of concentrating noisy, polluting industries in low-income
neighborhoods. Also, consider resilience provisions that protect active working waterfronts from
pollution releases in a storm surge or temporary inundation. Measures might include elevated
material storage or redundant flood protection measures to avoid exposing nearby populations or
ecosystems to pollution releases.
o Portland, Maine, has a historic working waterfront but found it challenged by aging
infrastructure and the threat of sea level rise. The city needed to find funding to keep
infrastructure in good repair and prepare it for the rising sea. An overlay zone, adopted in
2010, allows compatible non-marine uses to locate in certain places on the working
waterfront. The city also encourages incremental improvements where possible to
prepare for sea level rise.143
•	Implement rolling development restrictions. These restrictions "move landward, or 'roll," as
the tide line moves landward."144 These rolling restrictions help property owners by allowing
them to use their land under the regular, applicable land use laws up until the sea level rises to the
point that it affects the safety of land uses in that area. Because this movement will be relatively
gradual, property owners will have some predictability about how they can use their land for the
short and long terms. Rolling restrictions are directly linked to a measurable impact—the level of
the sea—so their goal and result is more clear. The restrictions might take the form of an
easement that prohibits development on the seaward side of a certain line, or they could require
less intensive uses within a certain distance of the landward side of that line.145
Figure 24: Key Principles of Designing for
Disassembly/ Adaptability
•	"Document materials and methods for
deconstruction.
•	Select materials using the precautionary principle.
•	Design connections that are accessible.
•	Minimize or eliminate chemical connections.
•	Use bolted, screwed, and nailed connections.
•	Separate mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
systems.
•	Design to the worker and labor of separation.
•	Simplicity of structure and form.
•	Interchangeability.
•	Safe deconstruction."
Source: Guy, Brad, and Ciarimboli, Nicholas. Design
for Disassembly in the Built Environment: A Guide to
Closed-Loop Design and Building.
http://www.lifecvclebuildina.ora/docs/DfDseattle.pdf.
Accessed Sep. 15, 2016. p. 6.
143	National Working Waterfront Network. "Case Study: Portland, Maine: Balancing Maritime Uses and Waterfront Diversification
Through Municipal Zoning." Aug. 19, 2015. http://www.wateraccessus.com/case studv.cfm?ID=32.
144	Byrne, "The Cathedral Engulfed," p. 109.
145	Byrne, "The Cathedral Engulfed."
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
• Begin to plan for managed retreat away from
the shoreline where appropriate. Managed retreat
involves gradually moving structures and
infrastructure away from an area that has become
too hazardous. Education is essential to make sure
that property owners understand the risks of
remaining in these areas and the benefits and trade-
offs of moving. Tools such as restricting rebuilding
a repetitively damaged structure, implementing
setbacks and rolling easements that take into
account sea level rise and erosion, and acquiring
land can help move development away from the
shore.146
Practice Pointer
For initiatives with long timelines that can
expect to see multiple political leadership
changes along the way, a strong
community engagement process can set a
guiding framework to be carried out by
multiple administrations. A steering
committee made up of diverse community
members can help keep long-term plans
on track.
If necessary, relocate people and facilities in extremely vulnerable areas. A community might
determine that certain areas are so potentially hazardous that, over the long term, it would be
preferable to relocate the people and/or structures in these areas to ensure their safety. Whether
before or after a disaster, the decision to relocate is difficult and emotional and often
disproportionately affects people in areas that are already experiencing social equity or
environmental justice issues. People are reluctant to leave their homes or to give up a business
location they have enjoyed for many years.147
Local governments can work with residents who choose to relocate to help them understand the
need to move, learn about their needs, and find new homes in safer areas of the community.148
Some residents might want to move away from risky areas but cannot afford to do so on their
own. To help people voluntarily relocate, the local government could buy properties at high risk,
offer low- or no-interest loans for moving expenses or a down payment, or help find a new home
in the community. Assistance is particularly important for renters, who do not have properties to
sell and thus fewer options to fund a relocation. If new development is needed to house the
displaced people, the local government has the opportunity to encourage or require energy-
efficient, mixed-use neighborhoods that will be safe, appealing, and cost-effective for residents.
o Kinston, North Carolina, was flooded by three hurricanes in the 1990s: Fran in 1996 and
Dennis and Floyd in 1999. Most residents in the flood plain were African-African, and
many were elderly and/or low-income. Kinston used FEMA funding to buy repetitively
flooded properties; 97 percent of eligible property owners accepted the buyout. Almost
all of the bought-out property owners relocated to neighborhoods in Kinston. Because the
homes outside the flood plain were generally more expensive than the bought-out homes,
the state created a State Acquisition Relocation Fund that covered the difference between
the buyout price and the cost of a new home. This fund also gave renters money to move
out of flood-damaged properties.149
146	Siders, Managed Coastal Retreat.
147	EPA, Using Smart Growth Strategies to Create More Resilient Communities in the Washington, D.C., Region.
148	Siders, Managed Coastal Retreat.
149	University of North Carolina Institute for the Environment. "Floodplain Buyout Case Study: Kinston, North Carolina." Environmental
Law Institute. 2016. https://www.eli.ora/research-report/floodplain-buvout-case-studv-kinston-nc.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
Resources
•	EPA's Rolling Easements (2011) is a primer that explains tools communities could use to
implement rolling easements: https://www.epa.gov/cre/climate-readv-estuarie s-rolling-
easements-primer
•	The Georgetown Climate Center's Adaptation Tool Kit: Sea Level Rise and Coastal Land Use
(2011) analyzes land use tools to help communities prepare for sea level rise:
http://www.adaptationclearinghouse.org/resources/adaptation-tool-kit-sea-level-rise-and-coastal-
land-use.html
•	The Lifecycle Building Challenge website offers specific language used in green building rating
systems to encourage designing for disassembly: http://lifecvclebuilding.org/rating-svstems .php
Guidance and Metrics
LEED for Neighborhood Development
Smart Location and Linkage Prerequisite: Floodplain Avoidance
Projects must either locate on a site that is entirely out of the 100-year flood plain as designated by the
locality or state, or, if any parts of the site lie within the 100-year flood plain, projects must comply with
either the American Society of Civil Engineers standard or the National Flood Insurance Program
requirements for developing those portions. If the project includes construction of any critical facility, the
facility must be designed and built so as to be protected and operable during a 500-year event.
Smart Location and Linkage Prerequisite: Wetland and Water Body Conservation
Locate development away from lands within 50 feet of wetlands or within 100 feet of water bodies, or
earn the Rainwater Management credit and minimize development of land buffering the water body or
wetland.
STAR Community Rating System
Health and Safety Objective 6: Hazard Mitigation
Reduce overtime the number of homes below code standards that are located in designated high-risk
areas or the percentage of residents living in designated high-risk areas. Adopt land use regulations that
limit development in areas that are highly vulnerable to hazards. Adopt local building codes or enforce
state building codes that have higher standards for buildings in areas that are highly vulnerable to hazards.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
Case Study: Seahrook, New
Hampshire
Seabrook, a town of about 9,000 residents along
the New Hampshire coast, has a high risk of
flooding due to higher storm surge and tides from
sea level rise because almost all of the town is
less than 60 feet above sea level. In addition,
coastal New England is experiencing land
subsidence of about 6 inches per century. 50 The
town's wastewater treatment plant and
elementary-middle school could be affected by
flooding as the sea level rises.151 Flooding also
threatens residents, who could be displaced if
their homes are damaged by a flood or flooded
daily by rising tides. The town's municipal
drinking water wells could be affected in the future by
Figure 25: Seabrook sits on the saltwater marsh of the
Hampton-Seabrook Estuary,
saltwater intrusion.152
The Rockingham Planning Commission, Seabrook's regional planning agency, completed a pilot study In 2009
that explored the town's vulnerability to flooding. The study included recommendations such as revisions to
the town's zoning and building codes and encouraged Seabrook to incorporate climate change adaptation
strategies into its planning. Some of the commission's specific recommendations on land-use planning, zoning,
and building code revisions included:
•	Incorporate sea level rise impacts in the development of all future land use planning, building
regulations, and capital improvement projects.
•	On existing and future land use maps in the master plan, identify areas that are currently flood prone
and those that are likely to be inundated as the sea rises and, "as much as possible, locate future
development, infrastructure and essential facilities" outside of these areas.
•	Define and protect land near tidal marshes, called "transition zones," and explore ways to permanently
protect undeveloped coastal land.
•	In coastal and transition zones, develop a comprehensive planning and zoning policy that takes into
account vulnerability to sea level rise and saltwater intrusion.
•	Create an Extended Coastal Flood Hazard Overlay District for areas that will be subject to tidal
flooding and storm surges if sea level rises as projected. In this district, new or reconstructed buildings
and public infrastructure would need to be elevated by 1 to 5 feet above the base flood elevation.
•	Establish new street grade and first-floor elevation requirements that exceed current local, state, and
FEMA standards.1
In 2010, Seabrook and two nearby coastal communities, Hampton and Hampton Falls, were part of an EPA-
funded project to determine the economic impact of sea level rise on major assets.154 Working with the New
Hampshire Coastal Adaptation Workgroup, a group of entities helping coastal New Hampshire communities
prepare for climate change impacts, the towns used the Coastal Adaptation to Sea Level Rise Tool, or COAST,
an interactive tool that helps coastal communities evaluate the costs and benefits of adaptation planning. Using
150	Rockingham Planning Commission. Adaptation Strategies to Protect Areas of Increased Risk from Coastal Flooding due to Climate
Change, Seabrook, NH. 2009. http://des.nh.gov/oraanization/divisions/water/wmb/coastal/documents/seabrook adaptation.pdf.
151	McDermott, Deborah. "Planners Urge Preventive Action as Sea Levels Rise." Seacoastonline.com. Jun. 29, 2012.
http://www.seacoastonline.com/article/20120629/NEWS/20629Q398.
152	Rockingham Planning Commission. Adaptation Strategies.
153	Ibid.
154	McDermott, "Planners Urge Preventive Action as Sea Levels Rise."
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Sea Level Rise
COAST, the workgroup estimated the cost of
protecting critical public facilities against
projected sea level rise to range from $1.6 million
to $4.2 million—far lower than the estimated
$39.4 million to $40.4 million of damage if no
adaptation action is taken.155
When the town released its 2011 -20 master plan,
it included the 2009 adaptation plan as an
attachment, noting that "as Seabrook continues to
grow and change there will be new issues to
consider in the planning process," particularly sea
level rise. As the master plan is implemented over
the next five to 10 years, Seabrook's goal is to
"preserve and protect its natural and beach/estuarine environment in balance with recreational, economic,
business and employment opportunities for its citizens."1'"
In 2015, the Rockingham Planning Commission completed the Tides to Storms vulnerability assessment of
seven Atlantic municipalities, including Seabrook, to identify the vulnerability of their roads, critical facilities,
infrastructure, and natural resources to sea level rise and storm-related Hooding.1 The study recommended
using at least a 50-year planning horizon that assumes a 0.6 to 2.0-foot sea level rise by 2050 and a 1.7 to 6.3-
foot sea level rise in 100 years. The project was funded by New Hampshire's Homeland Security and
Emergency Management through a grant from FEMA. The planning commission is working with towns to
incorporate information from the assessment report into hazard mitigation plans as they are updated.
The lack of uniform building codes in the coastal zone and the abundance of older development not built to
recommended standards are major challenges in planning for sea level rise and regulating development in the
flood plain.158 Seabrook is starting to reconsider its zoning codes, master plan, and land protection strategies to
better adapt to sea level rise. Adaptation steps that Seabrook has taken include:
•	Partnering with the Piscataqua Region Estuaries Partnership, the Southeast Land Trust, and the
Rockingham Planning Commission to identify and preserve "transitional" lands near the salt marshes
that are especially susceptible to flooding.
•	Evaluating an amendment to the zoning ordinance to incorporate an extended flood hazard overlay
zone, per the adaptation plan's recommendations.1
•	Preparing a "Coastal Risks and Adaptation" chapter for the master plan (in draft as of September
2016, planned to be adopted by the end of 2016). This project was completed as part of the Tides to
Storms 2—Adaptation Implementation project funded by the Northeast Region Ocean Council.160
More information on Seabrook's adaptation planning is available on the Rockingham Planning Commission
website at M'WM'.rvc-rh.ors/regional-commiiritv-pIarrirg/climate-charse/resources.
Figure 26: Homes on Seabrook Beach sit on a strip of
land between the ocean and the salt marsh.
155	The COAST model generates these estimates to help communities make decisions about land use, but the estimates are not meant
as concrete projections of costs. Merrill, S., et al. COAST in Action: 2012 Projects from New Hampshire and Maine. New England
Environmental Finance Center Series Report #12-05. 2012. http://efc.muskie.usm.maine.edu/docs/cre coast final report.pdf.
156	Seabrook Master Plan Steering Committee. Town of Seabrook 2011-20 Master Plan. 2011.
167 Rockingham Planning Commission. Tides to Storms: Assessing Risk and Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surge: A
Vulnerability Assessment of Coastal New Hampshire. 2015. http://wvw.rpc-nh.org/reaional-communitv-plannina/climate-
chanae/resources.
A ff 4 ' '			
LaBranche, Julie. "Floodplain Regulation: Challenges and Opportunities in Preparing for Climate Change." Georgetown Climate
Center webinar, Dec. 6, 2012. http://www.aeoraetownclimate.ora/articles/floodplain-reaulation-challenaes-and-opportunities-in-
preparing-for-climate-chanqes-webinar.html.
- Ibid.
160 Personal communication with Julie LaBranche, Senior Planner, Rockingham Planning Commission, on Sep. 19, 2016.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
6. Adapting to Extreme Heat
Introduction
The National Climate Assessment notes, "Heat waves have generally become more frequent across the
U.S. in recent decades" and "the number of extremely hot days is projected to continue to increase over
much of the United States."161 If global greenhouse gas emissions keep growing, "the same summertime
temperatures that ranked among the hottest 5% in 1950-1979 will occur at least 70% of the time by 2035-
2064." "2 Hot days are exacerbated by the heat island effect, in which built-up areas are hotter than less-
developed areas because buildings, roofs, and pavements absorb the sun's heat. Nighttime offers little
relief, as these surfaces release heat slowly after dark. The heat island effect can make a city several
degrees warmer than surrounding rural areas, raising cooling costs, exacerbating health risks, and
increasing greenhouse gases.163
Extreme heat threatens people's health, putting them at greater risk for heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and
heat-related death. It can exacerbate chronic illnesses such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The
elderly, children, pregnant women, people with underlying health problems, homeless people, those who
work outdoors, and people who cannot afford to cool their homes are particularly at risk.164 High
temperatures exacerbate ground-level ozone, which harms respiratory health.165 During heat waves,
emergency services are often overextended as responders struggle to keep up with increased demand.
High temperatures can also overtax water and power supplies, resulting in brownouts, blackouts, and
water shortages.
Extreme heat can also damage infrastructure and the environment. It can cause roads to crack or buckle
and can harm native plants and wildlife. Economically, it can affect industries that involve outdoor
work, such as construction, by delaying schedules because of unsafe work conditions. It can also affect
outdoor activities and tourism if people prefer not to spend time outside because of the heat and
associated air pollution.
Response to the Problem
Communities are encouraging or requiring developers and builders to use shade trees, permeable
pavement, and roofs that incorporate vegetation or highly reflective materials. The same strategies can be
incorporated into public infrastructure improvements such as green streets and green alleys. Lower
parking requirements also help to reduce heat gain by reducing the amount of pavement. Many green
building strategies reduce the energy needed to keep buildings at a comfortable temperature. Green
building standards align well with passive survivability measures—passive survivability means that a
building can maintain "critical life-support conditions in the event of extended loss of power or water; or
in the event of extraordinary heat spells, storms, or other extreme events."166 Many of the elements that
give a building survivability, such as a highly efficient thermal envelope, ventilation, passive heating and
cooling, daylighting, rainwater harvesting, and on-site renewable energy generation, are also green
building elements included in LEED and other green building standards. If a community has already
161	Walsh et al, "Chapter 2: Our Changing Climate," Climate Change Impacts in the United States, pp. 38-39.
162	Ibid, p. 39.
163	EPA. "Learn About Heat Islands." https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/learn-about-heat-islands. Accessed Jul. 28, 2016.
164	Sarofim, M.C., et al. "Ch. 2: Temperature-Related Death and Illness." The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United
States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program. 2016. https://health2016.globalchange.gov/temperature-
related-death-and-illness.
165	EPA. "Heat Island Impacts." https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/heat-island-impacts. Accessed Oct. 13, 2016.
166	New Jersey Green Building Manual. Version 1.0. "Passive Survivability," New Commercial section. Updated Apr. 28, 2011.
http://greenmanual.rutgers.edu/newcommercial/strategies/survivabilitv.php.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
adopted a green building code or a net-zero-energy standard, it might already be promoting passive
survivability.167
Green infrastructure elements such as street trees and vegetation, discussed in Chapter 4, also help cool
ambient air temperatures. Philadelphia's Green City, Clean Waters, a program to protect water quality by
greening approximately 20 square miles of what is now impervious cover, estimates that the green
infrastructure it installs could lower temperatures enough to reduce up to 140 deaths caused by extreme
heat over the next 45 years.168 Local public health departments and health practitioners can be valuable
partners; in addition to their traditional role in preparing to respond to heat emergencies, many are helping
promote green infrastructure to reduce heat issues over the longer term. Public health practitioners can
bring in different audiences and resources than planners.
The design of a neighborhood affects how its residents cope with extreme heat in less obvious, indirect
ways as well. In the 1995 Chicago heat wave that killed more than 700 people, neighborhoods with
similar percentages of African-American residents and elderly residents, and similar levels of poverty,
unemployment, and crime, had very different death rates.169 Research found that the neighborhoods with
lower death rates in the heat wave had stores and restaurants where elderly residents felt safe, meaning
they could easily get to nearby places with air-conditioning. These commercially healthier places also
built more social capital by drawing more residents out onto the sidewalks. By contrast, in the
neighborhoods with higher death rates, the businesses largely consisted of liquor stores and check-cashing
shops, and elderly residents likely did not feel safe leaving their homes.17" A thriving, walkable
neighborhood with amenities that bring people together can help build a sense of community that can
encourage residents to check on each other in emergencies—not to mention its everyday quality of life
benefits for everyone in the community.
Potential Benefits
•	Protecting vulnerable people from heat-related illnesses and death.
•	Developing a sense of community.
•	Saving money on energy bills.
•	Providing a more reliable energy supply.
•	Protecting air and water quality.
•	Beautifying neighborhoods with trees and plants.
•	Creating jobs installing and maintaining green or cool roofs and weatherizing buildings.
167	EPA, Using Smart Growth Strategies to Create More Resilient Communities in the Washington, D.C., Region.
168	Philadelphia Water Department. Green City, Clean Waters (Amended). City of Philadelphia. 2011.
http://www.phillvwatersheds.ora/doc/GCCW AmendedJune2011 LOWRES-web.pdf.
169	Klinenberg, Eric. "Adaptation." The New Yorker, Jan. 7, 2013.
170	Browning, Christopher R., et al. "Neighborhood Social Processes, Physical Conditions, and Disaster-Related Mortality: The Case of
the 1995 Chicago Heat Wave." American Sociological Review 71.4 (2006): 661 -678.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
Implementation Approaches
I. Modest Adjustments
•	Offer financial or procedural incentives to encourage builders to use passive survivability
measures in new construction or retrofits. Techniques such as daylighting and allowing natural
ventilation can lower daily building energy use while also helping to keep the building at a
reasonably comfortable temperature if it loses external power.
o Austin, Texas, offers builders incentives to include green roofs on their projects. For
example, green roofs can help meet certain open space and green building requirements.
The city also offers a density bonus: 1 square foot of vegetated roof cover can earn a
developer as much as 7 additional square feet of ""bonused" floor area, depending on the
percentage of the roof that is vegetated, whether the roof is publicly accessible, and
whether it meets the city's standards for a downtown public plaza.171
•	Map "hot spots"—areas where temperatures are particularly high because of large
expanses of dark, paved surfaces or a lack of vegetation—and conduct pilot projects in
these places to reduce ambient air temperatures by adding trees and other vegetation and
reflective, light-colored, and/or permeable pavement, which can also help reduce stormwater
runoff. The pilot projects can help the community figure out which materials and techniques work
best for different types of sites such as parking lots, alleys, and streets.
o As part of its climate adaptation actions, Chicago mapped its hot spots and directs its
efforts on cooling and energy efficiency to those places. The city also "overlaid a map of
311 and 911 calls regarding heat-related emergencies to assess the correlation between
urban heat islands and heat stress-related issues/'172
•	Support the people and neighborhoods that are most vulnerable and least able to adapt on
their own.
o Designate, establish, or improve cooling
centers in neighborhoods with
particularly vulnerable populations such
as the elderly, chronically ill, pregnant
women, and children. Mapping hot spots in
vulnerable neighborhoods can help
prioritize locations for cooling centers.
Cooling centers can be civic buildings such as libraries, community centers, or public
pools; in some cases, private businesses might agree to let people spend the hottest hours
of the day in their buildings. Because many of the people most vulnerable to health
impacts from extreme heat are also likely to have limited mobility because they cannot
drive, afford a vehicle, or walk long distances, cooling centers should be easy to reach—
for example, in or close to apartment complexes with many elderly residents or next to
public transit stops. The local government should work with vulnerable communities to
find the best places for cooling centers, clearly mark these centers, and do ongoing
outreach to make sure residents know where they are and how to reach them.
Many cooling centers might also be able to act as emergency shelters in severe storms or
other natural disasters, or their convenient location might make them a good rendezvous
171 City of Austin. "Existing Credits for Green Roof Projects in Austin." 2014.
https://www.austintexas.gov/sites/default/files/files/Sustainabilitv/GR Existing Credit Fact Sheet Revised 2014.pdf.
Chicago Climate Action Plan. "Adaptation." http://www.chicagoclimateaction.org/pages/adaptation/49.php. Accessed Jul. 28, 2016.
Practice Pointer
Make sure that communication materials
are available in the languages that the
vulnerable populations speak.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience	Adapting to Extreme Heat
point in case of a city- or neighborhood-wide evacuation. Having a single location in the
neighborhood would be easier for residents to remember, so local governments might
want to consider strengthening cooling centers to withstand high winds, seismic damage,
and flooding, as well as locating them outside of areas that are at high risk of flooding or
wildfires. They should also ensure the cooling centers either have backup power or use
passive survivability measures that will keep the building at a safe temperature if the
power goes out.
c/5
CD
O
i—
o
o
I
>
o
CD
O
o
Figure 27: Washington, D.C., provides a map on its city website showing the locations of cooling centers, spray
parks, and pools so that residents can find a safe place to spend a hot day.
o Identify vulnerable populations such as the elderly, people with chronic illnesses,
pregnant women, children, residents without air conditioning, outdoor workers, and
the homeless and develop an outreach plan for communicating with them before
and during extreme heat periods, as well as in other emergencies. This outreach plan
might include finding the most appropriate messenger to reach different populations; for
example, houses of worship, community groups, or health clinics.
o Baltimore created a preparedness campaign called "Make a Plan, Build a Kit,
Help Each Other." At neighborhood events, city staff sat down with residents to
help them learn about hazards, build an emergency kit, and build their
neighborhood's resilience. The city distributed cards that say ""Help" in orange on
one side and "Safe" in green on the other. In an emergency, residents can put
these cards in their windows to let their neighbors know if they need help.'7*
173 Baja, Kristin. "Building Community Conversations Around Preparedness in Baltimore." Climate Access. Aug. 7, 2014.
http://www.climateaccess.org/bloa/buildina-communitv-conversations-around-preparedness-baltimore.
I3ldi!rti4|>ur&
DC Cooling Centers for 2015
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
•	Offer incentives to plant and protect trees. The hot-spot mapping can help identify areas where
more tree canopy is particularly needed; in these places, the community could do more targeted
outreach about its incentives or perhaps offer higher incentives. In low-income neighborhoods
where people might not be able to afford to pay upfront to plant trees, even if they will receive a
rebate, the local government could find ways to plant trees for free, perhaps working with the
local utility, nonprofits, or private companies willing to donate trees and/or labor.
o Several communities offer rebates (sometimes called "tree-bates") to encourage
homeowners to plant trees. Roseville, California, offers a rebate of up to $50 for planting
shade trees. The city's publicly owned utility also offers free consultations with urban tree
experts and guidance on planting trees to shade a home without blocking solar panels.17"
o Tree Baltimore, a city program that works with the local, state, and federal governments
and nonprofit partners, gives away trees to be planted on private property. It offers a tool
to help people determine the best location for the tree and guidance on how to plant and
care for the tree.175
•	Include reducing heat island effects as an objective in complete streets projects. Evaluate
options to use cool pavement strategies such as permeable pavement in sidewalks and on-street
parking areas, using light-colored materials in the pavement or for the pavement seal coat or
overlay, and planting canopy shade trees in the median and sidewalks.
o Boston's complete streets
design guidelines have
guidance on using street
trees, green walls (walls
that have plants growing
on them), light-colored
pavement treatments, and
planted areas in medians
and curb extensions to
reduce heat island
impacts.11(1
o California's Green
Building Standards Code,
which can be a model for
local green building codes,
includes voluntary
standards for reducing the
heat island effect in areas
such as sidewalks,
driveways, and other
paved areas. It suggests at least a 0.3 solar reflectance value.177
Figure 28: Green walls, such as this one in downtown
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, can help reduce the heat island effect.
174	City of Roseville. "Roseville Shade Tree Program." http://roseville.ca.us/electric/shade tree/default.as; . Accessed Oct. 4, 2016.
175	TreeBaltimore. "Get a Tree for My Yard." http://treebaltimore.Org/aei:-a-free-tree/aet-a-tree-for-mv-vard. Accessed Nov. 14, 2016.
176	Boston Transportation Department. Boston Complete Streets: Design Guidelines. 2013. http://bostoncompletestreets.org.
177	California Building Standards Commission. 2013 California Green Building Standards Code. Jul. 1, 2015 supplement. Appendix A4,
Section A4.106.7,
http://codes.iccsafe.ora/app/book/toc/2015/CALIFORNIA/2013%20CALIFORNIA%20GREEN%20BUILDING%20STANDARDS.%20SU
Pi! ,_EMENT%2Q-JULY%202015/index.html.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
Practice Pointer
Measure the success of cool roof initiatives
by the number of projects and the square
footage of roofs incorporating cool roof
technology.
2. Major Modifications
•	Require or encourage green or reflective roofs
on new buildings with little or no roof slope.
These roofs help reduce a building's heat gain
while also insulating it, which reduces energy
needed for cooling. In addition, green roofs can be
pleasant places for building residents or workers to
have lunch or just relax. Green building rating
systems and model codes, including the
International Green Construction Code,lls include provisions for cool roofs.
o Philadelphia amended its building code in 2010 to require low-slope roofs (with a slope
of less than 2:12) over conditioned spaces to be Energy Star®-rated as highly reflective.
The requirement applies to new buildings and additions to existing buildings.179
o Washington, DCs RiverSmart Rooftops Program offers rebates of up to $15 per square
foot for any property that installs a green roof. Properties with a roof area of less than
2,500 square feet can also get a rebate toward structural engineering.18" Properties with
green roofs can also apply for discounts on their stormwater fee and their water bill.181
•	Revise the zoning ordinance to allow urban agriculture. The trees and plants help cool the air.
Community gardens and other urban agriculture make productive use of vacant land, which can
help revitalize blighted neighborhoods, and bring neighbors together. People can grow their own
healthy, fresh food, or they can start food-based businesses. The soil should be tested for
contamination first to ensure that produce grown in the garden will be safe to eat.182
o Chicago's climate action plan identified urban agriculture as one way to help reduce the
heat island effect, as well as beautify neighborhoods and provide food. In 2011, the city
changed its zoning ordinance to allow urban agriculture projects, such as community
gardens and urban farms, in certain parts of the city.183
Require shade trees to be incorporated in all
municipal projects and private parking lot
projects. Update municipal design or landscape
manuals, if they exist, to include the shade tree
policy.
o Fayetteville, Arkansas, offers a manual to
help developers comply with its tree
preservation and landscaping requirements.
Practice Pointer
Measure the success of shade tree
initiatives by the number of projects that
incorporate the shade tree standard and
the number of trees planted.
178	The International Green Construction Code is available at: International Code Council. "Overview of the IgCC."
http://www.iccsafe.ora/codes-tech-support/codes/2015-i-codes/iacc.
179	City of Philadelphia. Bill 090923: Amendment to Philadelphia Building Construction and Occupancy Code. Enacted 2010.
http://leaislation.phila.gov/attachments/10096.pdf.
Anacostia Watershed Society. "RiverSmart Rooftops." http://www.anacostiaws.org/areen-roofs. Accessed Jul. 28, 2016.
181 District Department of Energy and Environment. "RiverSmart Rewards and Clean Rivers IAC Incentive Programs."
http://doee.dc.aov/riversmartrewards. Accessed Jul. 28, 2016.
For more information on testing for contamination and resources on urban agriculture, see: EPA. "Urban Agriculture Frequent
Questions." https://www.epa.aov/brownfields/urban-aariculture-freauent-guestions. Accessed Sep. 20, 2016.
183 City of Chicago. "Urban Agriculture FAQ." https://www.citvofchicago.org/citv/en/depts/dcd/supp info/urban agriculturefag.html
Accessed Jan. 10, 2013.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
The manual gives concrete guidance on how to submit a plan, what the required
minimum tree canopy is, and acceptable tree species. It also encourages developers to
meet with the city's urban forestry team before submitting plans.184
Adopt a tree canopy or urban forest master plan and implementing ordinances to enforce it.
These plans typically include an inventory of existing trees; identification of places with
stormwater runoff and heat island problems; and goals for adding tree canopy by a certain
percentage, keeping trees healthy, protecting parks, or creating pilot programs to increase green
infrastructure. If the community is in a region that sees many strong wind stonns, it will also need
to consider how to increase its tree canopy while also preventing as much as possible falling trees
and tree limbs from bringing down power lines, damaging property, and harming people.
o Miami, Florida: The city's Tree Master Plan
sets a policy to restore and enhance the city's
tree canopy with benchmark goals by 2020,
including:
¦	Identify the city's tree canopy needs
and target areas that require the most
attention for reforestation.
¦	Track all tree plantings to quantify
contributions to the tree canopy.
¦	Develop public-private partnerships
to maximize and leverage community
resources and funding.
¦	Develop a public education and
awareness campaign to inform
residents and businesses about the
city's tree canopy needs.
¦	Establish professional development
standards to ensure trees are planted
and maintained properly.185
Figure 29: Miami's Tree Master Plan helps
protect and improve the city's tree canopy.
o Atlanta's tree ordinance enforces its goal of no net loss of trees in the city. It applies to
private and public property. Elements include requiring parking lot owners to get the city
arborist's approval of plans to meet minimum landscaping requirements; creating a tree
trust fund, funded by private property owners who remove healthy trees legally or
illegally, to pay for tree planting and maintenance; and prioritizing tree planting along
streets and other heat islands and in erosion-prone areas.18'1
• Require or offer incentives for using reflective, light-colored, and/or permeable pavement in
municipal capital improvement projects and private parking lots. Consider passing a cool paving
ordinance to require cool paving technologies.
184 City of Fayetteville. Tree Preservation and Landscape Manual. 2016. http://www.favetteville-ar.aov/3106/Tree-Preservation-and-
Landscape-Manual.
TOT	 	
Miami Green Commission. City of Miami Tree Master Plan. Undated. http://miami-
dade.ifas.ufl.edu/pdfs/disaster/Hurricane%20Preparation%20files/Citv%20of%20Miami%20Master%20Pian.pd . Accessed Sep. 20,
2016.
18° City of Atlanta. Code of Ordinances. Chapter 58, Article II: Tree Protection. Nov. 10, 2016.
https://www.municode.com/librarv/qa/atlanta/codes/code of ordinances?nodeld=COORATGEVOII CH158VE ARTIITRPR.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
o Chula Vista, California's climate adaptation
plan recommended using cool pavements to
help reduce the heat island effect. The city
has conducted studies to evaluate
appropriate cool paving technologies and
has had some success in using cool paving
for municipal projects where applicable. It
is working to identify funding for a more
complex test of various technologies to
showcase the feasibility to developers and
create an ordinance to incorporate cool
pavmg into projects that include streets and
parking lots.187 See the case study in this
chapter for more information on Chula
Vista's policies.
Amend the city's site plan requirements and
design guidelines to better adapt hardscape
areas to extreme heat. Specific strategies include:
o Design to reduce surface temperatures with
light paving, permeable paving, and
increased shading, including requiring a
minimum amount of light or permeable
pavement in hardscape areas.
o Require green alleys and other site
infrastructure that provides infiltration.
o Preserve and expand planted areas.
Practice Pointer
Measure the success of cool paving
initiatives by tracking the square footage
of surfaces that use cool paving
techniques and the temperature reduction
of those surfaces.

Figure 30: Chula Vista is evaluating cool
paving technologies, such as the asphalt chip
seal shown here.
o Require landscaped islands in parking lots with plantings that create shade and capture
runoff.
o Increase tree canopy cover through street tree planting.
¦ Glenview, Illinois, has design guidelines for trees and other vegetation in parking
lots to clearly show what is acceptable. It includes guidance on tree placement,
species, and maintenance, among other things.15"
3. Wholesale Changes
• Adopt an energy conservation code to establish minimum design and construction
requirements for energy efficiency in buildings, such as the International Green Construction
Code. Consider adopting a "stretch"' code (also known as a reach code), which sets more stringent
energy-efficiency goals and promotes innovative practices. The stretch code would be voluntary,
but projects that build to its standards could have a faster approval process or get other incentives.
Massachusetts has a stretch code that many towns in the state have adopted.1
187	Personal communication with Cory Downs, LEED-Green Assoc., City of Chula Vista, on Nov. 23, 2016.
188	The Village of Glenview. Parking Lot Landscaping Ordinance and Design Guidelines. Undated.
http://alenview.il.us/aovernment/Documents/Parking Lot Landscaping.;: . Accessed Sep. 7, 2016.
189	Massachusetts Executive Office of Public Safety and Security. "Stretch Energy Code - Information."
http://www.mass.qov/eopss/consumer-prot-and-bus-lic/license-tvpe/csl/stretch-enerav-code-information.html. Accessed Nov. 23, 2016.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
•	Incorporate passive survivability into building codes; require it for all new or reconstructed
buildings that serve as emergency shelters, and encourage it for other buildings, particularly
affordable housing.
o Seattle offers Priority Green Expedited permitting for buildings that meet the Passive
House Institute US standards. Under this program, permits are issued on average a month
faster than if they did not meet the standard.19"
o LEED Building Design and Construction: New Construction v. 4 offers a pilot credit for
"Passive Survivability and Functionality During Emergencies."191
Resources
•	EPA's Heat Island Program maintains a database of community actions, including code changes,
demonstration projects, and other actions: https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/heat-island-
communitv-actions-database
•	EPA's Heat Island Program also offers the guidebook Reducing Urban Heat Islands: A
Compendium of Strategies, which gives an overview of heat islands, describes key heat island
reduction strategies, and discusses voluntary and policy efforts undertaken by state and local
governments to mitigate heat islands: https://www.epa.gov/heat-islands/heat-island-compendium
•	The Georgetown Climate Center's Adapting to Urban Heat: A Tool Kit for Local Governments
(2012) has detailed information, including policy tools, to help communities prepare for more
heat emergencies: http://www.adaptationclearinghouse.org/resources/adapting-to-urban-heat-a-
tool-kit-for-local-governments.html
•	Cool Policies for Cool Cities: Best Practices for Mitigating Urban Heat Islands in North
American Cities (2014), developed by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy
and the Global Cool Cities Alliance, describes the policies, programs, and practices implemented
by 26 cities to reduce the heat island effect: http://aceee.org/research-report/u 1405
•	Enterprise Green Communities' Ready to Respond: Strategies for Multifamily Building Resilience
(2015) offers detailed strategies for owners of affordable multifamily housing to protect their
buildings from extreme weather and flooding, adapt buildings to changing climate conditions
such as higher temperatures, keep buildings safe and habitable if power or other services are lost,
and encourage a sense of community so residents will support each other in an emergency:
http://www.enterprisecommunitv.org/resources/readv-respond-strategies-multifamilv-building-
resilience-13356
•	The National Integrated Heat Health Information System has heat forecasts, tools, case studies,
and other resources to help communities cope with extreme heat:
https ://toolkit.climate. gov/nihhis
190 Seattle Department of Construction & Inspections. "Priority Green Expedited."
http://www.seattle.aov/dpd/permits/areenbuildinaincentives/prioritvareenexpedited/default.htm. Accessed Aug. 11, 2016.
U.S. Green Building Council. "Passive Survivability and Functionality During Emergencies." Undated.
http://www.usabc.org/credits/passivesurvivabilitv. Accessed Sep. 7, 2016.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
Guidance and Metrics
LEED for Neighborhood Development
Neighborhood Pattern and Design Credit: Tree-Lined and Shaded Streetscapes
Provide street trees on both sides of at least 60 percent of streets (new and existing) at intervals of no
more than 50 feet, or use trees or permanent structures to provide shade along at least 40 percent of
sidewalks. All projects must get a determination from a landscape architect that trees are planted in a way
that ensures their long-term health.
Neighborhood Pattern and Design Prerequisite: Mixed-Use Neighborhoods
Ensure that at least half of the project's dwelling units are within 0.25 miles walking distance of a variety
of uses.
Green Infrastructure and Buildings Credit: Heat Island Reduction
For roofs, use roofing materials that have a Solar Reflective Index (SRI) appropriate for roof slope (low
slope at least 64 SRI; steep slope at least 32 SRI) for at least 75 percent of the roof area, or install a green
roof for at least 75 percent of the roof area.
For non-roof paving, such as sidewalks, courtyards, or roads, on at least 50 percent of the non-roof paved
area, provide shade with trees or structures, plant vegetation, use paving materials with an SRI of at least
0.28, or install an open-grid pavement system that is at least 50 percent pervious.
STAR Community Rating System
Equity & Empowerment Objective 1: Civic Engagement
Partner with businesses, nonprofits, and neighborhood organizations to engage the community in
decision-making. Establish regular opportunities for local government staff and officials to meet residents
to answer questions and listen to concerns.
Equity & Empowerment Objective 4: Equitable Services & Access
Demonstrate that neighborhoods with the highest percentage of low-income residents and people of color
have increased access and proximity to community facilities, services, and infrastructure.
Health & Safety Objective 3: Emergency Management & Response
Encourage residents to develop emergency kits, or distribute emergency kits or supplies to low-income
and vulnerable residents.
Health & Safety Objective 6: Hazard Mitigation
Build or renovate to higher building code standards public facilities that will be used as shelters.
Natural Systems Objective 1: Green Infrastructure
Demonstrate that 85 percent of the population lives within one-third of a mile of green infrastructure
features that provide localized cooling. Assess the community's urban forest.
Living Community Challenge
Imperative 2: Urban Agriculture
Integrate opportunities for agriculture appropriate to the community's scale and density.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
Case Study: Chula Vista,
California
In California, from 1991 to 2006, heatwaves
claimed more lives than all other disasters
combined —partly due to prolonged and more
frequent heat waves caused by climate change,
exacerbated by the heat island effect.19 Chula
Vista, a city 10 miles south of downtown San
Diego with a population of approximately
250,000, is responding to this threat. In 2010, the
city adopted 11 Climate Adaptation Strategies to
combat climate change effects like sea level rise,
extreme heat, and wildfires 194 Under the first
three strategies—cool paving, shade trees, and
cool roofs—the city's Climate Change Working
Group recommended amending the city's
building codes, land use policies, and design
ordinances to better prepare for the effects of
extreme heat.
7.	Extreme heat plans.
8.	Open space management.
9.	Wetlands preservation.
10.	Sea level rise land development codes.
11.	Green economy.195
The Chula Vista city council approved the
Climate Adaptation Strategies on May 3, 2011.
The 11 strategies propose:
1.	Cool paving.
2.	Shade trees.
3.	Cool roofs.
4.	Local water supply and reuse.
5.	Storm water prevention pollution and reuse.
6.	Education and wildfires.
Figure 31: Trees planted under Chula Vista's shade tree
policy not only help cool the air but also beautify streets.
The Climate Adaptation Strategies outline timelines, costs, performance metrics, and action items for each
strategy. According to the report, the total cost of implementing the strategies is $554,000 for each of the first
three years (2011 to 2014) and $337,000 annually after that. These efforts were anticipated not to add new
costs to the city's general fund but rather to be integrated into existing city programs.196
192	The San Diego Foundation. San Diego's Changing Climate: A Regional Wake-Up Call. 2008. https://www.sdfoundatiQn.orq/wp-
content/uploads/2015/10/2Q09-Focus2050glossvSDF-ClimateReport.pdf.
193	City of Chula Vista. Climate Adaptation Strategies Implementation Plans. 2011.
http://www.chulavistaca.gov/home/showdocument?id=5443.
194	Searle, Robert. "A Tree Grows in Chula Vista." Stanford Social Innovation Review, Sep. 21, 2012.
https://ssir.Org/articles/entrv/a tree grows in chula vista.
195	Kershner, Jessi. "Climate Change Adaptation Planning in the City of Chula Vista, California." CAKE - Climate Adaptation Knowledge
Exchange. Dec. 17, 2010. http://www.cakex.org/case-studies/climate-change-adaptation-planning-citv-chula-vista-california.
190 Searle, "A Tree Grows in Chula Vista."
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
The first three strategies focus on using land use planning and building code amendments to adapt to extreme
heat. The report outlines the following recommendations and performance metrics for each strategy:
•	Cool paving: Develop an ordinance to incorporate reflective pavement, or "cool paving" technologies,
into all municipal capital improvement and private parking lot projects over a certain size. The city
can measure the strategy's success by the square footage of paved surfaces using cool paving
technologies and the temperature reduction they create.
•	Shade trees: Adopt a shade tree policy that requires incorporating shade trees in all municipal projects
and private parking lot projects. The report also suggests amending the municipal landscape and
design manuals to comply with the new policy. The strategy's success would be measured by the
number of new projects incorporating the shade tree standard.
•	Cool roofs: Amend the city's municipal building codes to include cool roofs in new residential
developments with air conditioning systems three years before required by state code. The amendment
would make the state of California's voluntary CalGreen cool roof building code standard197
mandatory in Chula Vista. The strategy's success would be measured by the number of new units
incorporating cool roofs and Energy Star® cool roof technology.198
The remaining strategies target other climate change effects, such as decreased water availability, sea level
rise, and wildfires. Strategy 7, "Extreme Heat Plans," recommends incorporating extreme heat into the city's
emergency response and hazard mitigation plans but does not propose any land use changes.199
The San Diego Foundation's 2008 report, San Diego's Changing Climate: A Regional Wake-Up Call,
prompted Chula Vista city officials to begin thinking about climate change mitigation and adaptation. The
report, based on the research of over 40 climate experts from universities, local government, nonprofit
agencies, and private-sector organizations, examines how the San Diego region might look in 2050 if climate
trends continue along current trajectories.2"" In addition to laying out the risks posed by future climate change
impacts, the report provides "a level of detail that makes it possible for local leaders to have some idea of what
action to take" to adapt to climate change.2"1
The report warns of the potentially devastating effects of increased temperatures and more frequent heat waves,
including increasing peak energy demand, which could grow by more than 70 percent by 2050, putting a strain on
the region's energy supplies. Extreme heat can also affect public health, increasing the likeliness of illness and
death, poor air quality, wildfires, the spread of infectious diseases, and demand on emergency and health
services.2"2 According to the report, "The cost of 'no action' could be significant in the long term through public
and private infrastructure damages, public safety and health issues, and energy and water shortages."2"3
Taking a bottom-up approach to climate change adaptation planning, in 2009, the city established the Climate
Change Working Group. The group held 11 public meetings to examine the city's adaptation priorities.
Experts from utilities, construction firms, colleges, public health groups, environmental organizations, and
local foundations made presentations to help identify climate change impacts and evaluate data. The group also
hosted two public presentations during which attendees voted on the issues and strategies they felt were the
most important. In 2010, the group presented the 11 recommended adaptation strategies to city council, which
approved the strategies in 2011.204
The Climate Adaptation Strategies were supported by multiple city departments, perhaps in part because they do
not affect the city's general fund. Adamant that the strategies not disrupt business as usual, the working group
197	The current versions of the residential and nonresidential California Green Building Standards Code can be found on the California
Building Standards Commission website at http://www.bsc.ca.aov/Home/CALGreen.aspx.
198	City of Chula Vista, Climate Adaptation Strategies Implementation Plans.
199	Ibid.
200	The San Diego Foundation, San Diego's Changing Climate.
201	Searle, "A Tree Grows in Chula Vista."
202	The San Diego Foundation, San Diego's Changing Climate.
203	City of Chula Vista, Climate Adaptation Strategies Implementation Plans, p. 3.
204	Kershner, "Climate Change Adaptation Planning in the City of Chula Vista, California."
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Extreme Heat
recommended that any additional funding needed to implement the strategies should come from outside
sources.205 The California Public Utilities Commission, for example, funds many of Chula Vista's adaptation
efforts that also improve energy efficiency, such as the cool roof requirements. By building on established efforts,
the city not only saves on costs, it also "mainstreams" climate change adaptation into existing policies and plans.
As of November 2013, 63 percent of the actions outlined in the Climate Adaptation Strategies were completed,
and another 33 percent were underway. For example, the city:
•	Completed a cool paving study to evaluate pavement options and is formulating cool paving standards
for new development.2"6
•	Completed a formal shade tree policy that requires 50 percent shade cover of all parking stalls in the
city within 15 years and street trees on new public and private streets. It allows the use of cool
pavement where tree cover is not possible.2"7 The city updated its design manual to include the shade
^.	I• 208
tree policy.
•	Established formal standards to incorporate cool roofs into building codes, three years before it was
required by the state, requiring all new low-rise residential units to use cool roofs.2"9 The city
estimates that implementing the cool roof policy will cost $75 per unit and that energy savings will
pay back that amount in three years.21"
Chula Vista's implementation of its Climate Adaptation Strategies brought additional economic,
environmental, educational, and civic benefits, including emergency response and hazard mitigation plans,
more community awareness of extreme heat issues, and creating a notification system for poor air quality and
extreme heat. The city's work on climate change mitigation and adaptation has also led to more focus on smart
growth and compact development.
Chula Vista is helping other local and regional municipalities prepare for climate change. In 2012, the city
helped launch the San Diego Regional Climate Collaborative in partnership with the city of San Diego, the
county of San Diego, the Port of San Diego, the San Diego Association of Governments, the San Diego
Foundation, the University of San Diego, and San Diego Gas & Electric. The collaborative brings together
representatives from a range of interests to help local governments in the region share information and learn
about how to meet the challenges of climate change.211
Chula Vista has been praised for incorporating climate change adaptation efforts into its ""normal operations,
without adding materially to local budgets," demonstrating that climate change adaptation need not require
massive public spending.212 Additionally, the city's inclusive planning process allowed residents; public
officials; and representatives of the nonprofit, private, and institutional sectors to help form the climate change
adaptation goals and strategies. By streamlining activities and prioritizing public engagement, the city has
made significant changes to its land use policies and building codes, helping prepare for a hotter future.
More information on Chula Vista's Climate Action Planning is available at
www.chiilavistaca.sov/departments/piiblic-works/environmental-fiscal-sustainabilitv/conservation/climate-
action-plan.
205	City of Chula Vista, Climate Adaptation Strategies Implementation Plans.
206	City of Chula Vista. Climate Action Plan Implementation Progress Report. 2013.
http://www.chulavistaca.qov/home/showdocument?id=5441.
207	City of Chula Vista. Council Policy 576-19 (Shade Tree Policy). Effective May 22, 2012.
http://www.chulavistaca.aov/home/showdocument?id=8093.
City of Chula Vista, Climate Action Plan Implementation Progress Report.
209	City of Chula Vista. Ordinance No. 3227. Adopted Mar. 27, 2012. http://38.106.5.202/home/showdocument?id=5479.
210	Searle, "A Tree Grows in Chula Vista."
211	San Diego Regional Climate Collaborative. "US EPA Honors San Diego Regional Climate Collaborative With National Award." Press
release, Feb. 25, 2015. http://sdclimatecollaborative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/2015-EPA-Award-Climate-Collab-
release FINAL.pdf.
Searle, "A Tree Grows in Chula Vista."
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Drought
7. Adapting to Drought
Introduction
Although precipitation has increased across the United States on average since 1900, seasonal and
regional variations, as well as rising temperatures that speed up evaporation, mean that drought is also
increasing in many parts of the country.213
Dry spells and increased surface temperatures dry up rivers and reservoirs, reducing water supply for
drinking, energy production, irrigation, wildlife habitat, and other uses. Population growth compounds the
problem, further increasing water demand in areas already strained. Drought can also increase the risk of
wildfires.
Response to the Problem
Some land use regulations and development ordinances require water-conserving landscaping and low-
flow appliances, such as EPA Water Sense-rated fixtures. Guidelines for new residential development can
encourage graywater reuse (where allowed by state law). New commercial development can be required
to capture rainwater and use it to irrigate landscaping, which preserves potable water.
Long-term land use strategies can promote or require development patterns, such as compact
communities, that use less water per household and reduce the burden on existing water supply
infrastructure, making water delivery more efficient. Shorter pipes mean less opportunity for leaks, and
water pumped shorter distances does not have to be pumped as forcefully, which also reduces leakage. In
addition, smaller lots use less water outdoors because they have less lawn to irrigate.214
In extreme cases, some communities have stopped all development because of concerns about adequate
water supply. While this action helps protect current residents and businesses in a drought, it also can
reduce the housing supply, which makes homes more expensive.215 Lower-income people might have
trouble finding a home they can afford. Developing compactly in areas well-connected with existing
infrastructure can help a community continue to grow and meet housing demand.
Potential Benefits
•	Letting a community continue to grow without straining its water supplies.
•	Beautifying and cooling neighborhoods by planting appropriate vegetation.
•	Conserving city- or utility-delivered water for drinking by harvesting rainwater or graywater216 to
use for irrigation and other non-drinking uses.
•	Giving communities more options in a drought by diversifying and conserving water resources.
•	Using taxpayer money more efficiently by cutting water waste.
213	Walsh et al, "Chapter 2: Our Changing Climate," Climate Change Impacts in the United States.
214	EPA. Growing Toward More Efficient Water Use: Linking Development, Infrastructure, and Drinking Water Policies. 2006.
https://www.epa.aov/smartarowth/arowina-toward-more-efficient-water-use.
Gittelsohn, John. "Drought Dogs Developers in California's Soaring Housing Market." Bloomberg Business, Sep. 10, 2015.
https://www.bloombera.eom/news/articles/2015-09-10/drouaht-doas-developers-in-california-s-soarina-housina-market.
Graywater is "water from showers, bath tubs, washing machines, and bathroom sinks... that contains some soap but is clean enough
to water plants." San Francisco Water Power Sewer. "Graywater." http://sfwater.org/index.aspx?paae=100. Accessed Dec. 14, 2016.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Drought
Implementation Approaches
1.	Modest Adjustments
•	Encourage compact development policies such as smaller block sizes and transit-supportive
density (generally seven or more dwelling units per acre) to use water more efficiently.217
Flexible design standards are important in compact development. A comprehensive strategy
including a variety of elements like density bonuses, mixed use, smaller lot sizes, and permitted
accessory dwelling units makes it possible for incremental increases to occur across designated
zoning districts.
•	Recommend the use of drought-tolerant plants
as part of water conservation, landscaping, and
water waste ordinances.218 Recommend using
native plants when possible if they are drought
resistant, and creating drought-resistant soils with
compost and mulch. Using compost as a soil
amendment can increase permeability and water-
holding capacity and reduce the need for irrigation;
organic mulch applied to exposed surfaces can
reduce evaporation.
o The San Diego County Water Authority
created a guide to help homeowners convert turf areas into a WaterSmart landscape. The
guide includes tips on evaluating the site, designing the landscape and irrigation,
selecting plants, and installing and maintaining the landscape. It lists plants that are
native or from similar climatic regions and require low or moderate water use.219
•	Promote the use of EPA WaterSense-rated or other water-efficient fixtures through incentive
programs or giveaways.
o Titusville, Florida, a WaterSense partner community, offers rebates to replace older
toilets with high-efficiency models and free replacement showerheads and faucet
aerators.22"
2.	Major Modifications
•	Implement a water impact fee that reflects each property's consumption based on the
building type and size. Municipalities can also work with water utilities to explore ways to price
water to encourage conservation and reflect the actual costs of providing service. Strategies might
include changing prices seasonally or by time of day to charge more for water used during peak
demand periods, or increasing the rate as the amount of water used increases.221
•	Offer rebate programs or other incentives to encourage the use of native, drought-tolerant
plants; planting, irrigating, or caring for climate-appropriate trees; installing rainwater
harvesting equipment; buying water-efficient fixtures; or other water-saving practices.
217	EPA, Growing Toward More Efficient Water Use.
218	A water waste ordinance generally prohibits using water in a way that causes it to pool on a paved area or flow steadily across a
paved area for an extended period. For a sample definition and sample ordinances, see: Southern Nevada Water Authority. "Water
Waste Ordinances." https://www.snwa.com/consv/waste ordinances.html. Accessed Jul. 22, 2015.
219	San Diego County (CA) Water Authority. A Homeowner's Guide to a WaterSmart Landscape. 2015.
http://www.watersmartsd.ora/content/homeowners-guide-watersmart-landscape.
220	City of Titusville. "Retrofitting Older Homes." http://www.titusville.com/Paae.asp7NavlD=843. Accessed Oct. 12, 2016.
221	EPA. "Pricing and Affordability of Water Services." https://www.epa.gov/sustainable-water-infrastructure/pricina-and-affordabilitv-
water-services. Accessed Oct. 4, 2016.
Practice Pointer
Offer clear, plain language guidance for
residents and businesses interested in
implementing strategies on their
properties. For example, many cities with
xeriscaping or low-water-use turf
requirements or incentives provide a list of
appropriate plants. See the Resources
section in this chapter for examples.
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Adapting to Drought
o New Braunfels Utilities, in Texas, offers a rainwater harvesting rebate of 50 cents per
gallon of water storage installed.	
o The Southern Nevada Water Authority offers Las Vegas-area homeowners and
businesses a rebate to convert grass lawns to xeriscapes (landscaping that needs little or
no irrigation): $2 per square foot up to 5,000 square feet and $1 per square foot after that.
The authority also offers free
landscape designs and plant
lists.22' It estimates that
converting 15,000 square feet
of grass can save 825,000
gallons of water per year."24
o Chula Vista, California, lets
homeowners and commercial
property owners finance
water- and energy-efficiency
upgrades through a PACE
(Property Assessed Clean
Energy) program. Property
owners pay back the initial
financing through their
225
property taxes.
• Mandate graywater-ready residential
development (where state law allows graywater
reuse). This regulation does not require
homeowners to install a graywater system; it only
requires the builder to include graywater "stub-
outs" in the plumbing system. The community
might need to offer incentives such as technical
assistance or rebates to encourage homeowners to actually install the graywater system.
o Tucson, Arizona's City Ordinance No. 10579, known as the Residential Gray Water
Ordinance, requires developers to include a portion of the plumbing needed to facilitate
the use of graywater in all residential construction. Two drains for each laundry hook-up
are required; laundry drains must exit the home and be accessible to irrigate landscaping.
Lavatory, shower, and bathtub drains must be separate from all other drains serving the
residence and must extend at least three feet from the house's foundation. These drains
will require connection to a tank and distribution system before they can be used. These
measures allow a homeowner to install the plumbing necessary to use graywater later,
without having to disturb the existing plumbing system. '2" :1
222	New Braunfels Utilities. "Rain Barrel Rebate."
http://www.nbutexas.com/Conservation/Rebates/WaterConservationRebates/RainBarrelRebate.asp:. Accessed Nov. 29, 2016.
223	Southern Nevada Water Authority. "Water Smart Landscapes Rebate." https://www.snwa.corn/rebates/wsl.html. Accessed Oct. 7,
2016.
224	Southern Nevada Water Authority, "Water Smart Landscape Rebate for Business." https://www.snwa.com/biz/rebates wsl.html.
Accessed Oct. 7, 2016.
225	City of Chula Vista. 'Water Conservation & Reuse." http://www.chulavistaca.aov/departments/public-works/environmental-fiscal-
sustainabilitv/conservation/water-conservation-reuse. Accessed Nov. 29, 2016.
220 City of Tucson. Ordinance No. 10579. Adopted 2008. https://www.tucsona2.qov/files/aqdocs/20080923/sept23-08-527a.pdf.
227 Ramos, Raphael F. "Tucson Implements New Rainwater And Graywater Ordinances," Quarles & Brady, LLP. Apr. 23, 2009
http://www.quarles.com/publications/tucson-implements-new-rainwater-and-qravwater-ordinances.
Home ICarbon
Upgrade I Downgrade
Figure 32: Chula Vista's water-saving initiatives also include
educating residents about water conservation and reuse.
Practice Pointer
Verify that using nonpotable water for toilet
flushing or laundry is legal in your state.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Drought
•	Adopt a citywide policy that promotes water
recycling for nonpotable uses. Recycled water is
wastewater that has been treated to be safe for uses
such as irrigation.
o As part of Redwood City, California's
Recycled Water Project, the city adopted an
ordinance that requires recycled water to be
used for nonpotable uses in the designated
Recycled Water Service Area wherever
feasible.228 The city also provides recycled
water free to residents to use on their landscaping; it gave out 437,000 gallons in 2015.~y
•	Require the use of water-efficient fixtures, such as EPA WaterSense-rated fixtures, for new
construction through the building code. Green building rating systems and the International
Green Construction Code include provisions for water-efficient fixtures.
3. Wholesale Changes
•	Enact a building energy and water benchmarking ordinance. Benchmarking programs
provide solid data on energy and water use that help municipalities set a baseline and determine
progress toward reducing energy and water use. If communities choose not to pass an ordinance,
they can still encourage building owners to use a benchmarking program by emphasizing the cost
savings of using energy and water more efficiently and by offering incentives.
o New York City Benchmarking Local Law 84 of 2009 has helped reveal infrastructure
leaks and water loss in New York City.23" Since 2010, building owners have been
required to annually record energy and water use through Portfolio Manager®, an Energy
Star® online reporting system.231 The city then makes this information public.
o Denver's voluntary Watts to Water program encourages commercial buildings to use
Portfolio Manager® to measure their energy and water use. The building owners get free
technical support and educational programs, public recognition, and access to rebates and
other programs to help improve building operations.232 In 2014, 170 properties
participated in the program and reported savings of 9.3 million gallons of water,
equivalent to a year's supply for 40,000 people.233
•	Enact a water conservation, landscaping, and/or water waste ordinance to restrict the type
of landscaping that can be used on new development and public properties. For example,
require residential and commercial builders to install xeriscaping or green infrastructure rather
than turf grass or water-intensive plants for newly constructed homes or businesses. Where turf
grass is permitted, require builders to select from an approved list of drought-tolerant varieties.
o Adopted in 2007 and updated in 2014, San Antonio, Texas' Conservation
Ordinance requires residential and commercial builders to install turf grass from an
approved list of drought-tolerant varieties for newly constructed homes or businesses.
228	City of Redwood City. Ordinance No. 2235. Adopted 2008. http://www.redwoodcitv.orq/home/showdocument?id=1628.
229	Redwood City. "Programs." http://www.redwoodcitv.orq/departments/public-works/water/recvcled-water/proarams. Accessed Dec.
22, 2015.
230	City of New York. New York City Local Law 84: Benchmarking Report. 2014.
http://www.nvc.gov/html/planvc/downloads/pdf/publications/2014 nvc II84 benchmarking report.pdf.
Energy Star. "Portfolio Manager." https://www.eneravstar.aov/buildinas/facilitv-owners-and-manaaers/existina-buildinas/use-portfolio-
manager. Accessed Aug. 3, 2016.
Watts to Water. "What Do I Get?" http://www.wattstowater.org/what-do-i-aet.php. Accessed Aug. 3, 2016.
233 Personal communication with Amanda Timmons, LEED AP, Ampajen Solutions LLC, on Dec. 9, 2016.
Practice Pointer
Explore partnering with large institutions
such as universities that are interested in
investing in cutting-edge projects that can
cut their water use to install graywater
and/or reclaimed water demonstration
projects. Educational signs can help teach
building visitors about the systems.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Drought
The approved grass varieties were chosen for their ability to survive with very little or no
water for extended periods.
•	Mandate rainwater harvesting for all new
commercial construction.
o Tucson's City Ordinance No. 10597,
known as the Commercial Rainwater
Harvesting Ordinance, mandates the use of
captured rainwater to meet at least 50
percent of a new commercial development's
landscape water needs.234 Implementation
of this requires developers to submit site plans that include a rainwater harvesting plan, a
landscape water budget, details on metering outdoor water use, and plans for irrigation
controls that respond to soil moisture conditions as part of the rainwater harvesting
235
requirements."
•	Integrate water resource management with land
use plans to ensure that the community has enough
water for the growth it has planned, and that the
growth happens in places that make the best use of
the community's investments in water
infrastructure.
o Albuquerque, New Mexico: In 2004, the
city and county adopted the "Planned
Growth Strategy," which prioritizes
development in existing communities,
concentrates growth in areas where infrastructure already exists, and protects the natural
environment.236 The city coordinates with the water authority to help ensure that growth
aligns with the water supply. See the case study in this chapter for more information on
Albuquerque's policies.
Resources
•	EPA's Drought Response and Recovery Guide: A Basic Guide for Water Utilities (2015) relays
lessons learned from seven diverse drought-impacted small- to medium-sized water systems and
their communities. The interactive guide features worksheets, best practices, and overview videos
to build short- and long-term drought resilience:
https://www.epa.gov/waterutilitvresponse/drought-response-and-recoverv-guide-water-utilities
•	The Alliance for Water Efficiency has useful comparisons and summaries of green building
standards that include water-conservation elements. The "National Efficiency Standards and
Specifications for Residential and Commercial Water-Using Fixtures and Appliances" and
"Water-Efficient Indoor Products and Systems - U.S. Green Standards, Codes, and Voluntary
Initiatives" papers (both updated in 2014) are particularly relevant to the material in this
publication:
http://www.allianceforwaterefficiencv.org/Background on Green Building Specifications.aspx
Practice Pointer
Verify that rainwater harvesting is legal in
your area. Some jurisdictions prohibit
harvesting to keep local watersheds
healthy or due to water rights conflicts with
downstream entities.
Practice Pointer
Many communities' water is managed by
water authorities or utilities. Municipalities
would need to work with those entities to
encourage water efficiency. Having
municipal planning staff participate in water
planning activities and vice versa can help
align growth plans and water supply.
234	City of Tucson. Ordinance No. 10597. Adopted 2008.
https://wrrc.arizona.edu/sites/wrrc.arizona.edu/files/COT Commercial%20Water%20Harvesting%200rdinance.pdf.
235	Ramos, "Tucson Implements New Rainwater And Graywater Ordinances."
236	City of Albuquerque. "Planned Growth Strategy." 2004. https://www.caba.gov/council/proiects/completed-proiects/2004/planned-
growth-strategy.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Drought
• Examples of resources that give clear guidance on strategies include:
o EPA's WaterSense Program maintains a "What to Plant" database of low-water-use or
drought-tolerant plants searchable by geographic area:
https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/outdoor/what to plant.html
o San Diego, California, published an easy-to-understand Rainwater Harvesting Guide
(undated) to help residents install rainwater-collecting devices:
https://www.sandiego.gov/water/pdf/conservation/rainwaterguide.pdf
Guidance and Metrics
LEED for Neighborhood Development
Neighborhood Pattern and Design Prerequisite: Compact Development
Build residential components at a density of at least 7 dwelling units per acre and nonresidential
components at a density of 0.50 or higher FAR for the available land, with higher densities within
walking distance of transit service.
Green Infrastructure and Buildings Prerequisite and Credit: Indoor Water Use Reduction
The prerequisite is to reduce indoor water use by an average of 20 percent from a baseline. To achieve the
credit, new nonresidential buildings, mixed-use buildings, and multifamily residential buildings must use
an average of 40 percent less water than in baseline buildings. All newly installed water fixtures that are
eligible for labeling must be WaterSense labeled.
Green Infrastructure and Buildings Credit: Outdoor Water Use Reduction
Either show that the landscaping does not need a permanent irrigation system, or reduce outdoor
landscape irrigation by at least 30 percent from a calculated baseline for the site's peak watering month.
Green Infrastructure and Buildings Credit: Wastewater Management
Retain on site at least 25 percent of average annual wastewater generated, and treat and reuse it to replace
potable water use.
STAR Community Rating System
Built Environment Objective 2: Community Water Systems
Demonstrate the ratio of water withdrawals for human use to the total renewable, stored, and allocated
water resources is less than 0.2. Ensure the jurisdiction can enact water conservation measures in a
drought.
Built Environment Objective 3: Compact & Complete Communities
Demonstrate that the community achieves thresholds for residential and non-residential density.
Demonstrate that plans and policies support compact development.
Climate and Energ\> Objective 5: Water Efficiency
Demonstrate a 10 percent reduction in per capita water use since 2010 or reduce water use by 2 percent
per year from a 2010 baseline. Adopt a communitywide water management plan to improve water
efficiency. Adopt plumbing, building, and/or zoning codes that promote water-efficient practices and
products. Offer incentives for water-efficient buildings and landscaping.
Living Community Challenge
Imperative 5: Net Positive Water
All of the community's water needs must be supplied by captured precipitation or other natural, closed-
loop water systems, and/or by recycling used community water purified as needed without the use of
chemicals.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Drought
Case Study: Albuquerque, New Mexico
The city of Albuquerque and surrounding Bernalillo County receive an average annual rainfall of a
little over 9 inches.2 7 To use water more efficiently and better prepare for drought, the city and county
adopted water conservation efforts that have dramatically reduced water consumption. The local water
authority notes:
"When the conservation program began in 1995, the service area's water use was 251 gallons per
person per day (GPCD). ...The original conservation goal was to reduce use to 175 GPCD by
2005. This goal was achieved in 2005 when a GPCD of 172 was reached. A new goal was then
established of 150 GPCD by 2014. This goal was reached three years early in 2011.""2j8
Albuquerque's drop in water use happened despite a rise in population. In 2013, the city used roughly the
same amount of water that it used in 1983, even though its population grew by 70 percent in that 30-year
period.2"'"
Several policies, programs, and ordinances, many of which the city started in the 1990s and the water
authority subsequently took over, encourage water-conserving landscaping and water-efficient appliances
in new development. For example:
•	Requiring low-flow toilets in all new
residential construction and public
buildings, and offering a rebate program for
homeowners who buy high-efficiency
toilets.240
•	Restricting the type of landscaping that can
be used on new development and public
properties. For example, high-water-use
grasses can occupy no more than 20 percent
of the space in landscaped areas. ; and the
city and water authority promote
xeriscaping—using native, drought-tolerant
plants or other landscaping elements that
require little irrigation (Figure 33).
•	Encouraging compact development,"42
which uses water more efficiently.
Figure 33: To encourage xeriscaping, Albuquerque
implemented a rebate program in 1996. The water
authority continues that program, as of 2016, and
also offers templates for xeriscape garden designs
and lists of appropriate plants.
• Recommending that water-conserving trees
be part of the design of entire neighborhoods, not just single residential sites.24"
In 2001, the city established a Drought Management Strategy Task Force, whose members represented a
wide range of interests, including the Sierra Club, the Albuquerque Economic Forum, the local chamber
U.S. Climate Data. "Albuquerque (West) Weather Averages." http://www.usclirnatedata.com/climate/albuguergue-fwestynew-
mexico/united-states/usnmOOOS. Accessed Nov. 22, 2016.
1:38 Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority. Water Resources Management Strategy Implementation: 2024 Water
Conservation Plan Goal and Program Update. 2013. http://wvwj.abcwua.org/uploads/files/2024 Water Conservation Plan Update.pdf.
239 Fleck, John. "Total ABQ Water Use Lowest in 30 Years." Albuquerque Journal, Jan, 11, 2014.
https://www.abgiournal.eom/334881/news/albuguergues-total-water-use-in-2013-lowest-in-30-vears.htmll.
Combs, Susan. The Impact of the 2011 Drought and Beyond. Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts. 2012.
241	City of Albuquerque. City Water Conservation Landscaping and Water Waste Ordinance. Adopted 1995.
http://www.cabg.gov/planning/dQcuments/appendd.pdf.
242	City of Albuquerque, "Planned Growth Strategy."
243	City of Albuquerque. Climate Action Plan. 2009. https://www.cabq.goy/cap/CAPREV11fotWEB-Pdf.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Drought
of commerce, and the Coalition of Neighborhoods, among others.244 After the task force released the
Drought Management Strategy in 2003, the state of New Mexico imposed a legally binding benchmark on
Albuquerque to reduce its water usage to 155 gallons per person per day by 2024.245 To reach the
benchmark, city and county officials launched community engagement activities. Resident input was
gathered through public forums, outreach programs, business and civic groups, and a Customer Advisory
Committee.
In parallel with drought planning, the city developed its Planned Growth Strategy, which encouraged
smart growth strategies to conserve water. In 1998 and 1999, with help from Shared Vision, a local
nonprofit, the city held public forums to get input on the strategy. One of the residents" priorities was to
develop in areas where infrastructure already existed. As a result, creating compact neighborhoods
connected to existing infrastructure and transportation became a central feature of the strategy. The city
officially adopted elements of the strategy in 2002.246
By 2007, the Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority (ABCWUA) had taken over the
water and wastewater utility. It adopted a Water Resources Management Strategy to build on the city's
drought strategy. ABCWUA regularly reviews and updates the strategy with input from a citizen board,
stakeholder groups, and customers. In the 2016 update, ABCWUA set a new consumption goal of 110
gallons per person per day by 2037 and adapted policies and programs based on public and stakeholder
input.247
ABCWUA does not make land use decisions, but ensuring a reliable water supply is crucial to
development. The Water Resources Management Strategy includes a policy on linking land use planning
with water management, which recommends that ABCWUA:
•	Work with the city and county to update the comprehensive plan and other plans to ensure that
development plans align with infrastructure.
•	Base its capital planning process on the city and county's growth master plan to make land use
and infrastructure policies consistent.
•	Support infill development and more compact development because they use water more
efficiently.
•	Encourage the city, county, and state to adopt water-efficient building codes and landscaping
standards for new construction.248
Albuquerque, Bernalillo County, and ABCWUA have demonstrated that adapting to drought need not
incur high costs. Communities can use methods such as amending building codes, offering rebates and
other incentives, and running public education programs—many of which can save residents and
businesses money in addition to conserving water. As other communities face climate change scenarios
that project more severe droughts, Albuquerque can be a model—it has diversified and protected its water
resources by establishing a culture of conservation that engages every resident.
More information on Albuquerque's water planning is available on the ABCWUA website at
www.abcwua.org.
244	City of Albuquerque. Drought Management Strategy. 2003.
245	Fleck, John. "Water Goals Met Early." Albuquerque Journal, Mar. 13, 2012.
https://www.abaiournal.com/main/2012/03/13/news/water-aoals-met-earlv.html.
City of Albuquerque. Council Bill F/S 0-02-39, Adopting Elements of a Planned Growth Strategy. 2002.
http://www.caba.aov/council/documents/pgs/o-39fs3.pdf.
247 Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority. Water 2120: Securing Our Water Future. 2016.
http://www.abcwua.ora/uploads/filesAA/ater%202120%20Approved%20Policv%20Document.pdf.
Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority, Water 2120.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Wildfire
8. Adapting to Wildfire
Introduction
Higher temperatures and drought contribute
to more frequent, severe, and expansive
wildfires.241 The area where development
meets undeveloped land, known as the
wildland-urban interface (WUI), is at
particularly high risk from wildfires. One
study estimated that about 14 percent of the
privately owned land in the WUI in western
states has been developed, leaving a
considerable amount of land that could yet
be developed. Of the developed land, very
little—about 2 percent—has been built
compactly, with lot sizes of less than 1 acre.
The vast majority, 73 percent, has been
developed with lot sizes between 10 and 40
acres . ""1 As of 2010, "the WUI of the lower
48 states includes about 44 million houses,
equivalent to one of every three houses in th
country, with the highest concentrations of
houses in the WUI in California, Texas, and
Florida/'251
Other research has found that "the arrangement and location of structures strongly affects their
susceptibility to being destroyed in a wildfire, and... empirically based maps developed using housing
density and location better identify hazardous locations than fuel-based maps." This study found that
"Property loss was more likely in smaller, more isolated housing clusters with low- [sic] to intermediate
housing density and fewer roads.... Property loss was more likely to occur when structures were
surrounded by wildland vegetation rather than by urban or impervious areas:' The study concluded that
"new development would have a lower likelihood of burning if it were located away from fire-prone
areas, such as wind corridors or steep slopes, and if new structures were arranged m intermediate- to high-
density neighborhoods designed to minimize the amount of interface between homes and wildland
vegetation. New development within large, existing urban areas, which typically also have better
firefighter access, would also lower the likelihood of burning, compared to new development in more
isolated, remote settings."
While more compact development is less susceptible to fire, buildings that are closer together can spread
fire from structure to structure, making fire-resistant materials and techniques more important in
compactly developed neighborhoods.
Wildfires can have immediate and lingering health effects on people in affected communities. Most
healthy adults and children will recover quickly from smoke exposure and will not suffer long-term health
24S EPA. "Climate Change Indicators: Wildfire." https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/wildfires. Accessed Aug. 4, 2016.
250	Gude, Patricia, Ray Rasker, and Jeff van den Noort. "Potential for Future Development on Fire-Prone Lands." Journal of Forestry,
Jun. 2008. https://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/PGude 2008 Forestrv.pdf.
251	U.S. Department of Agriculture. "As Wildfires Continue to Burn, New Maps Shows Expansion of Wildland-Urban Interface." Press
release, Sep. 10, 2015. http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=2015/09/0250.xml.
252	Syphard AD, et al, "Housing Arrangement and Location Determine the Likelihood of Housing Loss Due to Wildfire." PLoS ONE 7(3)
(2012): e'33954
Figure 34: The wildland-urban interface is illustrated here on
Merritt Island in Florida.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Adapting to Wildfire
consequences. However, sensitive populations might experience more severe acute and chronic
symptoms. Risk to fine particle-related health effects varies throughout a lifetime, generally being higher
in early childhood, lower in healthy adolescents and younger adults, and increasing in middle age through
old age as the incidence of heart and lung disease and diabetes increases.253
Wildfire is a challenging climate change-related threat to address through land use policies because of
resistance to regulation in many of the areas currently most prone to wildfires. Often, people move to
homes in remote areas on large lots for privacy; they might perceive regulations as telling them how and
where to live. Particularly in western states, localities that govern land in the WUI are often reluctant to
use regulation and land use planning to address wildfire risk.254 Other states, such as Florida, see less
resistance to regulation. Any regulation will win more support if the public understands the risk and how
the policy or regulation reduces it.
Response to the Problem
Most of the policy options in this chapter deal with reducing or preventing new development in the WUI
or designing it to be safer. However, many communities also have to consider what to do about existing
development that is already in harm's way and too spread out to protect effectively with land use
measures like preserving open space as a fire break. In these cases, effective strategies to reduce fire risk
can include thinning vegetation and brush to reduce the fuel available to wildfires, requiring and
periodically inspecting water storage and sprinkler systems, and using educational programs like Ready,
Set, Go! to help homeowners in the WUI protect themselves.255 As these strategies do not have any
additional benefits related to smart growth and green building, they are not discussed here, but they can
be valuable tools for communities in wildfire-prone areas.
To protect areas vulnerable to wildfire, communities can offer incentives and education to encourage
voluntary compliance and can update their land use regulations to incorporate wildfire protection
measures with complementary smart growth strategies. For areas in the WUI that do not regulate zoning,
updating building codes to meet at least minimum International Fire Code standards ensures structures are
less vulnerable. In some instances, fire protection districts can also be a mechanism to enforce some fire
protection building codes. Wildfire protection education is essential for property owners in these areas.256
Some rural communities that do not use zoning do have subdivision regulations, and these regulations can
be used to encourage or require development patterns that keep homes away from wildlands and to
require adequate road access to ensure that residents can evacuate and firefighters can safely get to and
from a fire in the area.257
Many communities use Firewise Communities, a set of site design, construction, and landscaping
guidelines developed by the National Fire Protection Association.258 However, communities should
recognize that Firewise Communities focuses on protecting structures from fire and does not address
other economic, environmental, health, or societal goals the community might have for its development.
253	EPA, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and California Air Resources Board. Wildfire Smoke: A
Guide for Public Health Officials. Revised May 2016. https://www3.epa.aov/airnow/wildfire mav2016.pdf.
254	Headwaters Economics, Local Responses to Wildfire Risks and Costs: Case Studies and Lessons Learned.
255	In Ready, Set, Go! programs, firefighters teach WUI residents to "be Ready with preparedness understanding, be Set with situational
awareness when fire threatens, and to Go, acting early when a fire starts." Ready, Set, Go! "Frequently Asked Questions."
http://www.wildlandfirersa.org/About/FAQs. Accessed Jun. 23, 2016.
256	Artley, Donald K. Wildland Fire Protection and Response in the United States. International Association of Fire Chiefs. 2009.
https://www.iafc.org/files/wild MissionsProiect.pdf.
Duerksen, Chris, Don Elliott, and Paul Anthony. Addressing Community Wildfire Risk: A Review and Assessment of Regulatory and
Planning Tools. Fire Protection Research Foundation. 2011. http://www.nfpa.org/news-and-research/fire-statistics-and-reports/research-
reports/for-emergencv-responders/fire-prevention-and-administration/addressing-communitv-wildfire-risk.
Firewise Communities. Safer from the Start: A Guide to Firewise-Friendly Developments. NFPA. 2009.
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Adapting to Wildfire
In the longer term, some communities are encouraging development in already-developed areas and
discouraging it in the WUI. Limiting development in the WUI not only helps preserve open space for
recreation and ecological functions, it also reduces the number of people in harm's way and, particularly
in subdivisions that have only one or two exits, helps ensure that current residents can evacuate quickly if
need be.
Potential Benefits
•	Protecting the lives and health of residents and firefighters.
•	Protecting homes and other buildings.
•	Preventing the spread of wildfires.
•	Using public funds wisely.
Implementation Approaches
I. Modest Adjustments
•	Establish a task force that includes representatives from the public, nonprofit, private, and
institutional sectors and have them review building codes, development patterns in the
WUI, and other relevant elements like brush management codes. This group could also
examine development issues such as growth plans, existing and future land use, and zoning to
understand how these policies affect emergencies and emergency response. Their input can help
inform updates of building and zoning codes as well as fire response plans. They can also help
reach out to developers, residents, and businesses to get their input and to educate them about the
risks of developing in the WUI.
•	Incorporate wildfire scenario planning into local
planning to get a better sense of historical and
projected wildfire-prone areas. Use this information
to include wildfire issues in the comprehensive plan
to reduce or prevent future development in wildfire-
prone areas, and designate areas prone to wildfire in
the future land use element and future land use
259
maps.
•	Strengthen requirements for building and roof
materials to be both fire-resistant and green.
Some fire-resistant building materials would not meet green building standards because they are
treated with flame-retardant chemicals that can harm people's health, while fire fighters are
concerned about green building techniques and materials that might make fires more hazardous.
Involve fire protection experts and green building experts in setting standards.26" Communities
can make it easier for homeowners and builders by compiling examples of materials that meet
both fire and green building standards and making this information publicly available. For
example, fire-rated glass can meet energy-efficiency standards. Fire-resistant insulation can be
made from minerals instead of using chemicals that might pose health hazards.
259	Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Forestry. Wildfire Risk Reduction in Florida: Home,
Neighborhood, and Community Best Practices. 2010. http://freshfromflorida.s3.amazonaws.com/Wildfire Risk Reduction in FL.pdf.
260	Gollner, Michael, Amanda Kimball, and Tracy Vecchiarelli. "Fire Safety Design and Sustainable Buildings: Challenges and
Opportunities: Report of a National Symposium." National Fire Protection Association and Fire Protection Research Foundation. Nov. 7-
8, 2012. http://www.aollnerfire.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/Q5/Foundation Sustainable Building Design Symposium Proceedings-
Final. pdf.
Practice Pointer
Create wildfire risk reduction policies
proactively, based on development
location and density, historical fire
occurrences, fuel loads, projected changes
to wildfire-prone areas, and similar
information, rather than in response to a
major wildfire.
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o As an example of how to ensure fire safety without harming public health, California
changed its state furniture flammability standard to allow increased fire safety without the
use of potentially hazardous flame retardants. The state is investigating a similar change
for foam plastic insulation materials, which could help local governments and builders
find environmentally safe, effective insulation for wildfire-prone areas.261
• Require sites for new emergency facilities, hospitals, municipal buildings, and buildings
where large numbers of people gather (such as schools or houses of worship) to be outside
of areas at high risk for wildfire, well-connected to existing development, and easy for
people to access without driving.
Practice Pointer
Encourage xeriscaping in the defensible
space around a building. The design of the
defensible space and the plants selected
can require less water for irrigation while
preventing fire from spreading. Regulations
or guidelines for defensible space could
cite xeriscaping as a preferred option. The
community could offer free guides on
plants and landscape designs that use less
water and meet Firewise guidelines.
•	Require new developments to submit a fire
protection plan during site plan review. Plans
should demonstrate where water can be obtained,
how defensible space will be maintained, and how
residents and firefighters can quickly and safely get
in and out of the development.
2. Major Modifications
•	Encourage or require compact development
away from the WUI through comprehensive
plans, area plans, and zoning codes. These
strategies protect environmentally sensitive lands
and land within the WUI from development
pressure. Specific strategies can include:
o Increasing the density of development and redevelopment allowed in or near existing
towns and neighborhoods and along transit corridors.
o Prioritizing infill development.
o Promoting mixed uses.
o Using transfer of development rights to create incentives to preserve land in wildfire-
prone areas and develop in safer areas.
•	In subdivision regulations or zoning, require clustered development that is well-connected
to existing development, has multiple points of entry/exit, and has good internal street
connections to make walking and biking easier. Clustering development lets homes be
placed closer together because some of their defensible space is shared (e.g., green space
encircling the homes that acts as a control line to stop the spread of fire).262 This green space
can house trails, parks, recreational activities, and water bodies, making it an everyday amenity
for the community. If it is designed with both landscape- and neighborhood-scale green
infrastructure techniques, the green space can also help capture and filter stormwater runoff,
protecting water quality.
•	Adopt wildfire hazard or WUI overlay districts with development regulations based on factors
like slope hazard, structure hazard, and fuel hazard. These districts can require certain design and
construction standards to minimize the risk of structures catching fire, as well as landscaping
standards and infrastructure requirements for emergency vehicles to access the development.
261 American Public Health Association. "Reducing Flame Retardants in Building Insulation to Protect Public Health." Policy Statement
20156. Nov. 3, 2015. http://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacv/public-health-policv-statements/policv-
database/2016/01/05/18/39/reducing-flame-retardants-in-buildina-insulation-to-protect-public-health.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Wildfire Risk Reduction in Florida.
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Because they are overlay districts, the underlying zoning remains in effect, so communities that
already have smart growth zoning can ensure that new development in the WUI adheres to the
same standards.
o Douglas County, Colorado's Wildfire Hazard Overlay District requires the county's
wildfire mitigation specialists to determine a wildfire hazard rating for structures based on
the combined effects of slope, aspect, topography, climatic conditions, weather, wildfire
behavior, and existing vegetation. The rating can incorporate additional factors such as
evacuation conditions, density of structures, history of fire occurrence, and availability of
local emergency services.263 See the case study in this chapter for more information.
Practice Pointer
Keep your community's long-term goals in
mind when making risk management
decisions. For example, defensible space
techniques can conflict with environmental
goals and homeowners' desires because
of their impacts on heavily wooded areas
and natural habitats.
•	Consider adopting the Firewise Communities
Program, administered by the National Fire
Protection Association, which encourages local
solutions for site design, construction, and
landscaping guidelines for homeowners. However,
recognize that the program does not consider any
issues beyond protecting homes from fire —it does
not discourage development in WUI lands, and it
could promote dispersed development and cutting
down trees, which can run counter to a
community's other goals. In addition, it might create a false sense of security that can
encourage people to build in the WUI. One analysis noted, "Firewise may unintentionally
increase fire risk by encouraging local officials, developers, and home owners to buy and
develop property in high-risk fire areas, thus resulting in more rather than fewer homes that are
vulnerable to future forest fires."264
3. Wholesale Changes
•	Require subdivisions to have a highly connected street network with multiple connection
points to the external street network. Residents will be able to evacuate faster if they have
multiple routes to choose from, and firefighters can more easily get to the subdivision to protect
it. If one route is blocked or unsafe, other routes will be available.
Acquire, through outright purchase or an
easement, open space between dense forested
areas and residential development to help
prevent fire from spreading to developed areas.
A Community Protection Zone of open, green space
at least 100 to 300 feet wide can separate homes
from wildlands. This space could include
recreational amenities such as trails or community
gardens.265 Making the protection zone a
community amenity would also help ensure that it is
maintained to prevent it from becoming overgrown.
Practice Pointer
Take the community's priorities and values
into consideration when developing
policies. People often choose to live in the
WUI to be surrounded by nature and left to
themselves. Non-regulatory solutions, such
as incentives to preserve open space,
might be more palatable to residents.
263 Douglas County. Zoning Resolution. Section 17: Wildfire Hazard - Overlay District. Amended 2007.
http://www.doualas.co.us/documents/section-17-3.pdf.
Headwaters Economics, Local Responses to Wildfire Risks and Costs: Case Studies and Lessons Learned.
265 Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Wildfire Risk Reduction in Florida.
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Resources
•	The University of Florida IFAS Extension's "Fire in the Wildland-Urban Interface: Reducing
Wildfire Risk While Achieving Other Landscaping Goals" (undated) offers landscape design and
specific plants Florida homeowners can use that meet Firewise landscaping standards and use less
water: http://edis.ifas .ufl.edu/fr 162
•	Some communities use the International Wildland Urban Interface Code and/or National Fire
Protection Association codes and standards. NFPA 1141, Standard for Fire Protection
In frastructure for Land Development in Wildland, Rural, and Suburban Areas could be
particularly relevant, as it "addresses the design of subdivisions and development in areas where
threats of natural disasters or human-caused hazards in suburban/rural areas are not addressed by
other planning and development documents/' These codes are primarily about fire protection;
municipalities would need to balance them with other community goals:
https://www.usfa.fema.gov/wui toolkit/wui codes.html
•	Fire-Adapted Communities offers resources and a learning network where communities can share
information: http://www.fireadapted.org
Guidance and Metrics
LEED for Neighborhood Development
Neighborhood Pattern and Design Prerequisite: Connected and Open Community
For projects under 5 acres, requires the project to have within one-quarter mile of its boundary
connectivity of at least 90 intersections per square mile. For projects larger than 5 acres, requires internal
connectivity to be at least 140 intersections per square mile. These larger projects' circulation networks
must have at least one connection intersecting the project boundary at least every 800 feet.
STAR Community Rating System
Built Environment Objective 3: Compact & Complete Communities
Adopt a mobility or circulation plan for compact development. Identify areas appropriate for compact
development on the community's future land use map.
Health & Safety Objective 6: Hazard Mitigation
Reduce overtime the percentage of residents living in high-risk areas. Adopt land use regulations that
limit development in high-risk areas.
Living Community Challenge
Imperative 1: Limits to Growth
Projects can be built only on previously developed sites that are not on or adjacent to any sensitive
ecological area.
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Case Study: Douglas County, Colorado
Douglas County is a fast-growing county between Denver and Colorado Springs that has been largely
rural but is becoming part of the Denver suburbs. To better prepare for wildfires, the county amended
its zoning and building codes, adopted policies in its Comprehensive Master Plan, and completed a
Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP).
Zoning and building codes: Douglas County amended its zoning ordinance to create a Wildfire
Hazard Overlay District. It amended its building code to create Wildfire Mitigation Standards that
apply to property and structures in the overlay district. These standards analyze a site's fire hazard
using components that rate the slope hazard, fuel hazard, structure hazard, WUI rating, and other
factors such as whether the area has municipal fire hydrants.
Wildfire mitigation specialists use these components to assign ratings to development sites to determine
what mitigation measures will be needed. The higher the rating, the higher the hazard: for example, a site
with small, light vegetation will receive a fuel hazard rating of 1, while a site with heavy brush will
-> 268
receive a 3.
Comprehensive Master Plan: In the 1990s, the
county opted into the Colorado State Growth
Management Act, which required the county to
participate in growth management planning as the
region's population and built environment
continued to expand. " ' In 2010, Douglas County
signed the Mile-High Compact, an agreement
among municipalities in the Denver region to work
together to manage growth. It incorporated the
regional growth management vision, along with
wildfire protection strategies, into its 2035
Comprehensive Master Plan, adopted in 2014. The
plan directs urban development (generally,
development that is denser than one unit per 2.5
acres) to already-developed, designated urban
areas and outlines strategies to improve public health, protect open space and parks, and encourage
walkable neighborhoods, among other goals. The plan encourages "low-impact, nonurban land uses" in
environmental hazard areas such as land susceptible to wildfires. It notes:
"Uses such as agriculture or grazing, open space, parks, or certain low-intensity recreational uses are
compatible because of the lack of permanent structural improvements. Limiting development in
hazard areas creates dual benefits: residents are spared the expense of hazard mitigation and
maintenance, while the most scenic land in the County can be preserved for open space or as land-use
buffers."268
Specific policies in the plan include:
• "Residential development in severe-wildfire areas, where mitigation methods are determined
impractical or excessive, is generally inconsistent with this Plan.
Figure 35: Downtown Parker, Colorado, illustrates
Douglas County's policies encouraging walkable
neighborhoods.
266	Douglas County. Resolution No. R-012-110. Exhibit B: Wildfire Mitigation Standards. Adopted Sep. 25, 2012.
http://www.doualas.co.us/documents/2012-code-amendments.pdf.
267	Douglas County. 2030 Comprehensive Master Plan. 2008.
268	Douglas County Department of Community Development. 2035 Comprehensive Master Plan. Adopted Jun. 16, 2014.
http://www.doualas.co.us/land/comprehensive-master-plan. p. 9-1.
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•	Locate facilities with high concentrations of people (churches, schools, employment centers,
residential development and recreation facilities, etc.) away from severe wildfire hazard areas
where mitigation is impractical or excessive.
•	Link existing development to new development to provide multiple access points, where practical.
•	Ensure that wildfire mitigation practices and policies are implemented throughout the
development review process."209
From 1990 to 2000, Douglas County was the fastest-growing county in the United States, growing by 191
percent.'7" From 2000 to 2010, the county's rate of growth slowed, but it was still the fastest-growing
county in the state, adding 140,000 people, hi part because of the county's commitment to direct
development to existing communities, about 91 percent of homes are in designated urban areas 271
Measures to direct development to existing communities also improve quality of life. For example, the
comprehensive plan encourages neighborhood connectivity so that emergency services can better reach
residents in the event of a fire. Better connectivity also promotes compact development and walkable
neighborhoods that enhance public health. These policies also help preserve open space and natural areas,
protecting ecosystems and wildlife.
Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP):
The county completed its CWPP in 2011. The plan
incorporates Firewise Communities standards and
includes a wildfire hazard assessment, identification
of communities at risk, and recommendations on how
to reduce that risk. For example, the plan
recommends that structures in the WUI have a
minimum 70 feet of defensible space.2'2 This amount
of defensible space generally would not be possible
in compactly developed neighborhoods, but the
Comprehensive Master Plan encourages only low-
impact uses in wildfire hazard areas.

Figure 36: Encouraging development in designated
urban areas can help Douglas County absorb growth
while protecting its farmland and land in the WUI.
Community participation and input were important in
developing the CWPP. Between 2010 and 2011,
public meetings were held in each of the county's fire
protection districts, and the county website encouraged residents to attend. Although the plan was
completed in December 2011, it is a "living document" that will be updated based on expert advice and
resident input. '
By incorporating wildfire protection measures into its zoning ordinances, building codes, and
comprehensive master plan, the county has linked public safety efforts to wider goals related to growth,
demographic change, and quality of life and helped show how smart land use strategies, whether they are
implemented by individuals or by the county, can reduce vulnerability to fire threats.
More information on Douglas County's wildfire mitigation efforts is available at
www.douglas.co.us/land/wildfire-mitigation.
f Ibid, p. 9-4-9-5.
270	Perry, Marc J., and Paul J. Mackun. "Population Change and Distribution: 1990 to 2000." Census 2000 Brief, Apr. 2001. U.S. Census
Bureau, https://www.census.gov/prod/2001 pubs/c2kbr01 -2.pdf.
271	Douglas County Department of Community Development. "Douglas County Demographic Summary." Updated Apr. 2016.
http://www.douaias.co.us/documents/doualas-countv-demoaraphics-summarv.pdf.
2,2 Douglas County. Community Wildfire Protection Plan. 2011. http://www.douglas.co.us/land/wildfire-mitiaation/communitv-wildfire-
protection-plan.
Ibid.
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Smart Growth Fixes for Climate Adaptation and Resilience
Additional Resources
Appendix: Additional Resources
Each chapter includes resources specific to the strategies discussed in that chapter. This appendix lists
more general resources on:
1.	Smart growth
2.	Green building
3.	Social equity
4.	Climate adaptation
5.	Identifying potential climate change impacts
1.	Smart growth
•	EPA's Smart Growth Program offers tools, publications, research, technical assistance, and other
resources to help implement smart growth strategies: https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth
•	EPA's Essential Smart Growth Fixes for Rural Planning, Zoning, and Development Codes
(2012) and Essential Smart Growth Fixes for Urban and Suburban Zoning Codes (2009)—the
models for this publication—have specific fixes that can help local governments amend their
codes and ordinances to promote more environmentally and economically sustainable growth:
https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/essential-smart-growth-fixes-communities
•	NOAA's Coastal & Waterfront Smart Growth website provides tools, techniques and case studies
highlighting smart growth approaches for coastal and waterfront communities:
http: //coastalsmartgrowth .noaa. gov
•	The National Complete Streets Coalition has extensive resources on complete streets policies:
https://smartgrowthamerica.org/program/national-complete-streets-coalition
2.	Green building
•	EPA's Tribal Green Building Toolkit has tools to help tribes implement green building strategies.
The Resilience and Adaptability Section might be particularly relevant:
https://www.epa.gov/green-building-tools-tribes/tribal-green-building-toolkit
•	EPA's Sustainable Design and Green Building Toolkit for Local Governments (2013) helps local
governments, developers, and other building professionals identify and remove barriers to
sustainable design and green building in permitting processes:
https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/sustainable-design-and-green-building-toolkit-local-governments
3.	Social equity
•	EPA's EJSCREEN screening and mapping tool provides a nationally consistent dataset and
approach for combining environmental and demographic indicators. Users can identify areas with
minority or low-income populations, possible environmental quality problems, and related
factors: https://www.epa.gov/eiscreen
•	EPA's "Climate Change, Health, and Populations of Concern" materials summarize key points
from the U.S. Climate and Health Assessment for eight populations that are disproportionately
affected by climate change impacts: https://www.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-change-health-
and-populations-concern
•	PolicyLink's Social Equity Atlas lists national and local sources for data and maps, as well as
other social equity resources: http://nationalequitvatlas.org/about-the-atlas/resources
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Additional Resources
•	The NAACP developed a sample list of indicators that communities can use to help make sure
they are considering equitable climate adaptation, Equity in Building Resilience in Adaptation
Planning (2015): http://action.naacp.org/pagc/-
/Climate/Equitv in Resilience Building Climate Adaptation Indicators FINAL.pdf
•	Enterprise Green Communities" Ready to Respond: Strategies for Multifamily Building Resilience
(2015) offers detailed strategies for owners of affordable multifamily housing to protect their
buildings from extreme weather and flooding, adapt buildings to changing climate conditions
such as higher temperatures, keep buildings safe and habitable if power or other services are lost,
and encourage a sense of community so residents will support each other in an emergency:
http://www.cntcrprisccommunitv.org/rcsourccs/rcadv-rcspond-stratcgics-miiltifamilv-building-
resilience-13356
4.	Climate adaptation
•	EPA's Climate Change Adaptation Resource Center lets local government decision-makers create
a package of information tailored to their needs. Users can find information about the risks posed
by climate change to the issues they are concerned about, relevant adaptation strategies, case
studies illustrating how other communities have adapted to those risks and tools to replicate their
successes, and EPA funding opportunities: https://www.epa.gov/arc-x
•	EPA's Being Prepared for Climate Change A Workbook for Developing Risk-Based Adaptation
Plans (2014) provides guidance for conducting risk-based climate change vulnerability
assessments and developing adaptation action plans. It is aimed at organizations that manage
places, watersheds, or coastal environments: https://www.epa.gov/cre/risk-based-adaptation
•	EPA's Hazard Mitigation for Natural Disasters: A Starter Guide for Water and Wastewater
Utilities (2016) describes how water utilities can integrate with community hazard mitigation
plans for greater climate resilience and potentially pursue federal funding opportunities:
https://www.epa.gov/waterutilitvresponse/hazard-mitigation-natural-disasters-starter-guide-water-
and-wastewater
•	EPA's Resilience and Adaptation in New England database (RAINE) provides examples of
codes, ordinances and policies that communities have used to become more resilient:
https://www.epa.gov/raine
•	The Federal Highway Administration's Assessment of the Body of Knowledge on Incorporating
Climate Change Adaptation Measures into Transportation Projects (2013) includes resources on
cost-benefit analysis specifically related to climate change in "Section 5: Assessing Costs and
Benefits of Adaptive Strategies":
http: //www. fhwa. dot. gov/environment/climate change/adaptation/publications/transportation pro
iects/page05.cfm
5.	Identifying potential climate change impacts
•	The 2014 National Climate Assessment Report includes observed changes and projected impacts
on regions and sectors: http://nca2014.globalchange.gov
•	Regional climate scenarios developed for the National Climate Assessment:
https://scenarios.globalchange.gov
•	The U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit links to resources from across the federal government:
https ://toolkit. climate. gov
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Additional Resources
•	Climate Explorer offers create graphs, maps, and data of observed and projected temperature,
precipitation, and related climate variables for every county in the contiguous United States:
https://toolkit.climate.gov/tools/climate-explorer
•	The U.S. Global Change Research Program's 2016 publication, The Impacts of Climate Change
on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment, provides information on the
growing risks that a change climate poses to human health and welfare:
https ://health2016. globalchangc. gov
•	EPA has two-page fact sheets with climate change impacts for each state:
https://www.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-change-impacts-state
•	EPA's Climate Change Indicators in the United States compiles key indicators that show the
causes and effects of climate change: https://www.epa. go v/climate-indicators
•	EPA's Scenario-Based Projected Changes Map, an easy-to-use mapping tool, provides local
projected changes in annual total precipitation, precipitation intensity, annual average
temperature, 100-year storm events, and sea level rise: https://www.epa.gov/crwu/view-vour-
water-utilitvs-climate-proiection-scenario-based-proiected-changes-map
•	NOAA's Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessment program provides links to regional teams
that have developed detailed climate change scenarios and projected impacts:
http://cpo.noaa.gov/ClimatePrograms/ClimateandSocietalInteractions/RISAProgram.aspx
•	NOAA's Coastal Flood Exposure Mapper for the East Coast and Gulf of Mexico allows a user to
quickly generate and share maps that show shallow coastal flooding areas, FEMA flood zones,
storm surge, and sea level rise: https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/tools/flood-exposure
•	NOAA's Sea Level Rise Viewer is a web mapping tool to visualize community impacts from
coastal flooding or sea level rise: https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/tools/slr.html
•	FEMA's Risk Mapping, Assessment, and Planning provides flood hazard maps:
https://www.fema.gov/national-flood-insurance-program-flood-hazard-mapping
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License information for photos used under a Creative Commons license:
•	Arlington County photo on cover
Original image: https://www.flickr.com/photos/arlingtonva/3926468274/
License: https://creativecommons.Org/licenses/bv-sa/2.0/
•	Figure 21
Original images: https://www.flickr.eom/photos/74868009@N07/6737716405/ and
https://www.flickr.eom/photos/74868009@N07/6737728369/
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bv-nc-sa/2.0
•	Figure 33
Original image: https://www.flickr.com/photos/teofilo/582983462/
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bv/2.0/
•	Figure 34
Original image: https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwssoutheast/5241203411/
License: https: //creativecommons. org/license s/bv/2.0/
•	Figure 35
Original image: https ://commons .wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Parker. Colorado .JPG
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bv/3.0/deed.en
•	Figure 36
Original image: https://commons.wikimedia.Org/wiki/File:Bear Canon Agricultural District.JPG
License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bv-sa/3.0/deed.en
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Smart Growt
PROGRAM

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