EPA/600/R-16/140 I July 2016
www.epa.gov/homeland-security-research
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
oEPA
Current and Emerging Post-Fukushima
Technologies, and Techniques, and
Practices for Wide Area Radiological
Survey, Remediation, and Waste
Management
Office of Research and Development
Homeland Security Research Center
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EPA/600/R-16-140
July 2016
Current and Emerging Post-Fukushima Technologies, and
Techniques, and Practices for Wide Area Radiological
Survey, Remediation, and Waste Management
National Homeland Security Research Center
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
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Disclaimer
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), through its Office of Research and
Development's National Homeland Security Research Center, funded and managed this
investigation through Interagency Agreement 92392301 with Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. This report is peer- and administratively reviewed and approved for publication as
an EPA document. This report does not necessarily reflect the views of the EPA. No official
endorsement should be inferred. This report includes photographs of commercially available
products. The photographs are included for the purposes of illustration only and are not intended
to imply that EPA approves or endorses the products or their manufacturers. EPA does not
endorse the purchase or sale of any commercial products or services.
Questions concerning this document and its application should be addressed to the following
individual:
Sang Don Lee, Ph.D.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Homeland Security Research Center
109 T.W. Alexander Dr. (E343-06)
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Telephone No.: (919) 541-4531
Fax No.: (919) 541-0496
E-Mail Address: lee.sangdon@epa.gov
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Executive Summary
Technologies to survey and decontaminate wide-area contamination and manage the subsequent
radioactive waste have been developed and implemented following the Chernobyl nuclear power
plant release and the breach of a radiological source resulting in contamination in Goiania,
Brazil. These civilian examples of radioactive material release provided some of the first
examples of urban radiological remediation. Many emerging technologies have recently been
developed and demonstrated in Japan following the release of radioactive cesium isotopes (Cs-
134 and Cs-137) from the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant in 2011. Information on
technologies reported by several Japanese government agencies such as the Japan Atomic
Energy Agency (JAEA), the Japanese Ministry of the Environment (MOE) and the National
Institute for Environmental Science (NIES), together with academic institutions and industry
have been summarized and are compared to recently developed, deployed and available
technologies in the United States.
The technologies and techniques presented in this report may be deployed in response to a wide
area contamination event in the United States. In some cases, additional research and testing is
needed to adequately validate the effectiveness of the technology over wide areas. Survey
techniques can be deployed on the ground or from the air, allowing a range of coverage rates and
sensitivities. Survey technologies also include those useful in measuring decontamination
progress and mapping contamination. Decontamination technologies and techniques range from
non-destructive (e.g., high pressure washing) and minimally destructive (plowing) to fully
destructive (surface removal or demolition). Waste minimization techniques can greatly impact
the long-term environmental consequences and cost of remediation efforts.
Recommendations on technical improvements to address technology gaps are presented together
with observations on remediation in Japan.
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Acronyms
3-D
3-dimensional
AMS
Aerial Measuring System
ASPECT
Airborne Spectral Photometric Environmental Collection Technology
Bq/kg
Becquerel(s) per kilo-gram
Ci
Curie (unit of radioactivity)
cm
centimeter(s)
cpm
counts per minute
Cs
cesium
Csl-Tl
thallium-doped cesium iodide
CsCl
cesium chloride
d
day(s)
DHS
Department of Homeland Security
DF
decontamination factor
DOD
U.S. Department of Defense
DOE
U.S. Department of Energy
DPP
Decontamination Pilot Plan
DSRC
Dedicated Short Range Communications
EPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EU
European Union
FSU
Former Soviet Union
g
gram(s)
GIS
Geographic Information System
GM
Geiger-Miiller
GMT
Geiger-Miiller tube
Gy
Gray (unit of absorbed dose)
h
hour(s)
HEPA
high-efficiency particulate air
HPGe
high-purity Germanium
1-131
iodine-131
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
ICS A
intensive contamination survey area
IND
improvised nuclear device
INES
International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale
ISF
Interim Storage Facility
ITRC
Interstate Technology Regulatory Council
JAEA
Japan Atomic Energy Agency
JPY
Japanese Yen (currency)
JR. EC
Japan Radiation Engineering Co.
kBq
kilo-Becquerel(s)
kCi
kilo-Curie(s)
km
kilo-meter(s)
KURAMA
Kyoto University RAdiation MApping
LLNL
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
L/m2
liter(s) per meter squared
m
meter(s)
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mCi/kg
milliCurie(s) per kilogram
m/s
meter(s) per second
MEXT
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology (Japan)
mm
millimeter(s)
Mm3
million cubic meter(s)
MOE
Ministry of the Environment (Japan)
MPa
mega-Pascal(s) (unit of pressure)
mph
mile(s) per hour
mSv/h
milliSievert(s) per hour
mSv/y
milliSievert(s) per year
|j,Sv/h
microSievert(s) per hour
MSW
municipal solid waste
Nal-Tl
thallium-doped sodium iodide
NIES
National Institute for Environmental Studies (Japan)
NPP
nuclear power plant
PMMA
polymethylmethacrylate
PSF
plastic scintillation fiber
PVT
polyvinyl toluene (plastic scintillator)
QAPP
quality assurance project plan
R/h
Roentgen(s) per hour (unit of dose-rate)
RDD
radiological dispersal device
SDA
special decontamination area
SUV
sports utility vehicle
Sv/h
Sievert(s) per hour (unit of dose-rate)
TBq
terra-Becquerel(s) (unit of radioactivity)
UAV
unmanned aerial vehicle
UK
United Kingdom
US
United States
y
year(s)
$
US Dollar
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary vi
Acronyms vii
Table of Contents ix
Figures x
Tables xi
1. Introduction and Background 1
1.1 Quality Assurance 3
1.2 Chernobyl Wide Area Contamination and Remediation 4
1.3 Goiania Urban Remediation and Restoration 8
1.4 Fukushima Wide Area Contamination 9
2. Current and Emerging Technologies and Techniques in Japan Following the Fukushima
Dai-ichi Accident 11
2.1 Survey and Characterization 11
2.1.1 Aerial Surveys 12
2.1.2 Ground-Based Surveys 13
2.2 Decontamination 20
2.2.1 Forests 22
2.2.2 Agricultural Land 24
2.2.3 Residential Buildings 26
MPa: megaPascals 28
2.2.4 Roads and Vehicles 30
2.2.5 Playgrounds, Schools and Swimming Pools 37
2.3 Waste Treatment 38
3. Conclusions and Recommendations 50
4. References
53
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Figures
Figure 1-1. Surface Ground Deposition of Cs-137 in the Immediate Vicinity of the Chernobyl
Nuclear Reactor (IAEA, 2006) 4
Figure 1-2. Principal Sites of Goiania Contamination (recreated from IAEA, 1988) 8
Figure 1-3. Dose and Evacuation Areas Following the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP Release (IAEA,
2014) 10
Figure 2-1. Airborne Survey Systems Corresponding to Table 2.1 (Miyahara et al., 2015) 12
Figure 2-2. Toshiba's Simplified Method for Measuring Radioactivity Concentration per
Container (MOE, 2013a) 14
Figure 2-3. JAEA Application of PSF in Post-Fukushima Surveys (reproduced from JAEA).... 15
Figure 2-4. JAEA Monitoring Vehicle 16
Figure 2-5. A Demonstration of KURAMA-II 17
Figure 2-6. Example of Gamma Camera Applications in Japan (recreated from MOE, 2013b) . 19
Figure 2-7. Airborne Dose Rate Meters in Urban Areas (left) and on Freeways in the Evacuation
Zone (right) in Japan 20
Figure 2-8. Displays Demonstrating Radiation and Residential Decontamination at the
Fukushima City Decontamination Information Plaza 21
Figure 2-9. Example Forest Decontamination (MOE, 2013b) 24
Figure 2-10. Example Remediation of Agricultural Land 24
Figure 2-11. Example Residential External Decontamination Activities 26
Figure 2-12. Flow Diagram for Decontamination of Paved Roads (MOE, 2013b) 31
Figure 2-13. Flow Diagram for Decontamination of Unpaved Roads (MOE, 2013b) 32
Figure 2-14. Example Road Decontamination Techniques (recreated from JAEA, 2015a) 34
Figure 2-15. Spin-Jet Decontamination of the Joban Expressway (recreated from MOE) 36
Figure 2-16. Example Decontamination of Outdoor School Areas and Playgrounds (recreated
from MOE, 2013b) 37
Figure 2-17. Process of Waste Segregation and Treatment in the Fukushima Prefecture (IAEA,
2015b) 39
Figure 2-18. Process of Waste Segregation and Treatment in the Other Prefectures (IAEA,
2015b) 40
Figure 2-19. Process of Waste Segregation and Treatment in the SDA (IAEA, 2015b) 40
Figure 2-20. Excavation of Topsoil and Vegetation 41
Figure 2-21. Contaminated Soil and Vegetation Waste Containment 42
Figure 2-22. A Panoramic View of an Example Satellite Waste Storage Location in Iitate 43
Figure 2-23. Flow Diagram for Wastewater Treatment (MOE, 2013b) 46
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Tables
Table 1.1. Definition of IAEA INES Levels > 3 based on Activity Released (reproduced from
IAEA, 2013) 1
Table 1.2. Radiological Equivalence to 1-131 for Radionuclide Releases to the Atmosphere
(reproduced from IAEA, 2013) 2
Table 1.3. Examples of Large Accidental Releases of Cs-137 to the Environment 2
Table 1.4. Estimated Relative Surface Activity Concentration for Different Radionuclides after
Release from the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (April 26, 1986) 5
Table 2.1. Characteristics of JAEA Airborne Survey Systems (reproduced from Miyahara et al.,
2015) 12
Table 2.2. Characteristics of Example Airborne Standoff Radiation Detectors (DHS 2013) 13
Table 2.3. Characteristics of Example Ground-based Standoff Radiation Detectors (DHS, 2013)
17
Table 2.4. Common Decontamination Techniques used to Remove Radioactive Material from
Surfaces (reproduced from JAEA, 2015a; IAEA, 2014) 22
Table 2.5. Comparison of Technologies for Forest Decontamination (JAEA, 2015a) 23
Table 2.6. Comparison of Technologies for Agricultural Land Decontamination (recreated from
JAEA, 2015a) 25
Table 2.7. Comparison of Technology for Decontamination of Residential Roofs (recreated from
JAEA, 2015a) 27
Table 2.8. Comparison of Technology for Cleaning Concrete for Roofs, Floors and Walls
(recreated from JAEA, 2015a) 28
Table 2.9. Technical Performance and Waste Generation for Example Residential
Decontamination Techniques (JAEA, 2015a) 29
Table 2.10. Comparison of Technologies for Cleaning Asphalt Roads (recreated from JAEA,
2015a) 33
Table 2.11. Technical Performance and Waste Generation for Example Road Decontamination
Techniques (JAEA, 2015a) 35
Table 2.12. Technical Performance and Waste Generation for Examples of Park, School Field
and Swimming Pool Decontamination Techniques (JAEA, 2015a) 38
Table 2.13. Technologies used for Waste Treatments 45
Table 2.14. Summary of Waste Treatment Technologies Selected in MOE Demonstration
Program (2011-2014) 47
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1. Introduction and Background
After detonation of a radiological dispersal device (RDD) or an improvised nuclear device (IND), an
accidental radiological release from a nuclear facility such as a nuclear power plant (NPP), or the breach
of a radiological source, radioactive contamination may be dispersed over a wide area, affecting a
variety of land uses from rural and agricultural to urban. The scale of nuclear events is determined by
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) using the International Nuclear and Radiological Event
Scale (INES). A description of IAEA INES levels is given in Table 1.1, and radiological equivalence to
radioactive iodine-131 (1-131) for radionuclide releases to the atmosphere is shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1. Definition of IAEA INES Levels > 3 based on Activity Released
(reproduced from IAEA, 2013)
lAI'.A IM S
U\el
IkTinilinn
Addilioiiiil Null's
7
An event resulting in an environmental release
corresponding to a quantity of radioactivity
radiologically equivalent to a release to the
atmosphere of more than several tens of
thousands of terra-Becquerels (TBq) [> 100
kilo-Curies (kCi) range] of 1-131.
This level corresponds to a large fraction of the core
inventory of a power reactor, typically involving a
mixture of short- and long-lived radionuclides. With
such a release, stochastic health effects over a wide area,
perhaps involving more than one country, are expected,
and there is a possibility of deterministic health effects.
Long-term environmental consequences are also likely,
and it is very likely that protective action such as
sheltering and evacuation will be judged necessary to
prevent or limit health effects for members of the public.
6
An event resulting in an environmental release
corresponding to a quantity of radioactivity
radiologically equivalent to a release to the
atmosphere of the order of thousands to tens of
thousands of TBq [tens of kCi] of I -131.
With such a release, it is very likely that protective
action such as sheltering and evacuation will be judged
necessary to prevent or limit health effects on members
of the public.
5
An event resulting in an environmental release
corresponding to a quantity of radioactivity
radiologically equivalent to a release to the
atmosphere of the order of hundreds to
thousands of TBq [< 10 kCi] of 1-131.
As a result of the actual release, some protective action
will probably be required (e.g., localized sheltering
and/or evacuation to prevent or minimize the likelihood
of health effects).
4
An event resulting in an environmental release
corresponding to a quantity of radioactivity
radiologically equivalent to a release to the
atmosphere of the order of tens to hundreds of
TBq [Ci to kCi range] of 1-131.
For such a release, protective action will probably not be
required, other than local food controls.
According to IAEA (2013):
1-131 is used because the scale was originally developed for nuclear power plants and 1-131
would generally be one of the more significant isotopes released... The actual activity of the
isotope released should be multiplied by the factor given in Table 1.2 and then compared with
the values given in the definition of each level. If several isotopes are released, the equivalent
value for each should be calculated and then summed.
l
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Table 1.2. Radiological Equivalence to 1-131 for Radionuclide Releases to tie
Atmosphere (reproduced from IAEA, 2013)
Isotope
Multiplication factor
Americium-241
8,000
Cobalt-60
50
Cesium-134
17
Cesium-137
40
Tritium
0.02
Iodine-131
1
Iridium-192
2
Manganese-54
4
Molybdenum-99
0.08
Phosphorus-32
0.2
Plutonium-239
10,000
Isotope
Multiplication factor
Rubidium-106
0
Strontium-90
20
Tellurium-132
0.3
Uranium-235(S)a
1,000
Uranium-235(M)a
600
Uranium-235(F)11
500
Uranium-238(S)a
900
U ranium-23 8(M)a
600
U ranium-23 8(F)a
400
Natural uranium
1,000
Noble gases
Effectively 0
a Lung absorption types: S — slow; M — medium; F — fast. If unsure, use the most conservative value.
A summary of accidental radioactive cesium isotope releases (Cs-134 and Cs-137) above the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) INES level 4 are shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3. Examples of Large Accidental Releases of Cs-137 to tie Environment
Source of Cs-13"7
Release
Cs-13"7
Released
l'l(|iii\alcnl
Mass of
Area
Affected
References
iai:a inks
1 .c\ el
inn
kC i
C s-13"7.» '
knr1'
Windscale NPP,
United Kingdom
1957
20
0.541
6.14
500
Devell and Johansson,
1994
5
Chernobyl NPP,
Ukraine 1986
85,000
2,300
26,100
> 200,000
Thakuretal., 2013
7
Goiania, Brazil 1987
50.9
1.38
15.6
~ 1
IAEA, 1988
5
Fukushima Dai-ichi
NPP, Japan 2011
7,000 -
20,000
190-
540
2,200 -
6,100
13,000
IAEA, 2015b
7
a The mass of Cs-137 released in each case is calculated using a specific activity of 88 Curies/gram (Ci/g).
b km = square kilometers
Such accidents (which include releases from Windscale, Chernobyl and Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear
power plants) result in wider consequences to people and the environment beyond the local level and
involve release of large quantities of radioactive material with a high probability of significant public
exposure. In addition to releases from NPPs, Cs-137 is also found in radiological sources used in
2
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medical and industrial irradiators, typically in the form of cesium chloride (CsCl) in double-
encapsulated stainless steel tubes, which also present an environmental threat if the material is not
properly protected or disposed of securely. For example, a 50.9 TBq, equivalent to 1.375 kCi Cs-137
source removed from a teletherapy machine in Goiania, Brazil, was breached and led to substantial
cleanup efforts (IAEA, 1988).
A vast array of surfaces will require a survey and subsequent monitoring to determine the extent of
contamination, potential stabilization to prevent resuspension, decontamination and monitoring, or
disposal. Monitoring, containment and remediation techniques and technologies were developed by
several countries in response to nuclear accidents resulting in dispersed radioactive material. A fire at
the Windscale Pile reactor in 1957 resulted in the release of fission and activation products across
portions of the United Kingdom (UK). Restrictions on sale, consumption and disposal of milk and farm
animals were enforced, but no significant decontamination efforts were performed beyond the fence-
line. Sections 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 examine the remediation and recovery efforts employed in the former
Soviet Union (primarily Ukraine and Belarus), Brazil and Japan following urban and rural radiological
releases. Emerging technologies developed and demonstrated in Japan for surveying, decontamination
and waste treatment are described in Section 2.
1.1 Quality Assurance
A Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP) was previously developed by LLNL and approved by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2014 to include a literature review of remediation
technologies and identification of gaps (LLNL, 2014a). There are four potential sources of information
that will be used to understand technical gaps, and these sources are ranked in order of reliability:
1. Peer-reviewed journal articles and conference abstracts;
2. Government reports;
3. Commercial vendor reports; and
4. Commercial and community web sites.
By nature of their review by peers, journal articles and some conference abstracts are considered trusted
sources of information. Similarly, reports published by government agencies such as US EPA, US
Department of Energy (DOE) and the Interstate Technology Regulatory Council (ITRC) are considered
highly trustworthy. International governmental reports were also utilized, including those from the UK
and European Union (EU) as well as the Japanese Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) and the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), particularly the reports relating to the response following Fukushima
and Chernobyl. While the Goiania event is not a radiological release from a nuclear power plant, this
event does provide another example of radiological contamination on a smaller scale, more
representative of an area impacted by the detonation of an RDD. Some EU countries have developed
recovery handbooks to aid in the recovery from radiological incidents (Public Health England's
Radiological Recovery Handbook is an excellent example). Commercial vendor reports were
considered in the survey if data and claims made are reasonable, and tests were carried out
appropriately. Often, commercial vendors/manufacturers perform product testing in collaboration with
other research agencies. Finally, data available on commercial websites and community web sites were
searched for relevant information, although this information should carry minimal weight in analyzing
technology gaps.
3
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1.2 Chernobyl Wide Area Contamination and Remediation
Response in the Former Soviet Union (FSU) following the accident at Chernobyl involved evacuation of
impacted areas and application of clay to surfaces (clay having the natural ability to bind soluble
cesium). Figure 1-1 shows the areas heavily impacted by the release of Cs-137 fission product from
Chernobyl (IAEA, 2006), and Table 1.4 shows the estimated relative surface activity concentration of
different radionuclides after release from the Chernobyl event.
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Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor (IAEA, 2006)
Some 5,000 tons of boron, dolomite, sand, clay and lead were dropped onto the burning core by
helicopter in an effort to extinguish the blaze and limit the release of radioacti ve particles1. Vovk et al.
(1993) and Ahn et al. (1995) demonstrated decontamination of building surfaces (including those in
urban areas affected by Chernobyl) using naturally occurring clays from Korea and Ukraine. Cities such
as Pripyat, which remains deserted 30 years after the Chernobyl accident, serve as an example of the
difficulty of remediating and repopulating following a wide area release. The FSU instead chose to
abandon Pripyat and relocate to Slavutych before the dissolution of the Soviet Union. However,
substantial remediation efforts have been applied in several of the countries most affected by the fallout
from Chernobyl. An excellent review of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl accident
1 World Nuclear littp:/A\ \vw.\\ orld-nuclcar,org/information-librar\ /safct\ -and-sccuriU /safct\ -of-p!ants/chcrnobT-. l-
accident.aspx (last accessed in June 2016)
4
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after 20 years of experience is provided by IAEA (2006). IAEA reports that a significant fraction of the
dose received by people was from radioactive contamination located in the soil, on coated surfaces such
as asphalt and concrete and to a small extent, on building walls and roofs. The most effective
decontamination technologies used to reduce dose were those that removed the upper layer of soil. The
contributions from different urban surfaces to human dose (and subsequent dose reductions) are
determined by settlement and house design, construction material, population habits, mode of
radionuclide deposition (wet versus dry), the radionuclide, the physicochemical composition of the
fallout and time (IAEA, 2006).
Table 1.4. Estimated Relative Surface Activity Concentration for Different
Radionuclides after Release from tie Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (April 26,
1986).
Isotope
Half-life
Ac(i\ i(\ per I nil Arc
a Kclali\c lo ( s-13"7
WcMcrn Plume Northern Plume
(near/one) (near/one)
Soul hern Plume ( >
dieai'/one) (f;
Ilolspols
r /one)
Sr-90
28.5-years
0.5
0.13
1.5
0.014
Zr-95
64.0-days
5
3
10
0.06
Mo-99
66.0-hours
8
3
25
0.11
Ru-103
39.35-days
4
2.7
12
1.9
Te-132
7 8.0-hours
15
17
13
13
1-131
8.02-days
18
17
30
10
Cs-137
30.0-years
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Ba-140
12.79-days
7
3
20
0.7
Ce-144
284.8-days
3
2.3
6
0.07
Np-239
2.355-days
25
7
140
0.6
Pu-239
24,400-years
0.0015
0.0015
—
—
Recreated from IAEA, 2006 and sources therein (Izrael et al., 1990).
*Half-life: the time required for the radioactivity of a specified isotope to decrease to half its original value.
For dry deposition, traditional street cleaning, vegetation removal and soil plowing are efficient and
inexpensive methods for significantly reducing dose. Cleaning of walls and roofs also significantly
decreases dose, but these techniques are generally expensive and labor-intensive. For wet deposition,
gardens and lawns should be given decontamination priority since removing contamination from
vegetation near residential areas can result in a significant reduction in dose, using techniques such as
mowing, strimming (weed-whacking) and trimming which are effective, quick and cheap methods.
Large-scale decontamination was performed for several years following the Chernobyl event, including
washing buildings, cleaning residential areas, removing contaminated soil and decontaminating bodies
5
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of open water (those subject to deposition and contamination such as outdoor swimming pools, lakes,
rivers, reservoirs, etc.), with special attention paid to kindergartens, schools, hospitals and other public
areas. To suppress dust resuspension in the early phase, organic dust suppression solutions were
sprayed over contaminated plots, and streets were watered both to prevent dust and to remove
contamination to the sewer system. IAEA (2006) also reports that since 1990, almost all large-scale
decontamination in the FSU ceased. However, some decontamination activities continue in Belarus,
including public areas and buildings, villages and houses, and some industrial buildings and equipment
(IAEA, 2006; Antsipov et al., 2000). The IAEA (2006) provides the following set of major and simple
long-term decontamination strategies (quote):
a) Removal of the upper 5 to 10 cm layer (depending on the activity-depth distribution) of soil in
courtyards in front of residential buildings, around public buildings, schools and kindergartens,
andfrom roadsides inside a settlement. The removed soil layer contains much of the
contamination and should be placed into holes specially dug on the territory of a private
homestead or on the territory of a settlement. The clean soil from the holes should be used to
cover the decontaminated areas. Such a technology excludes the formation of special burial sites
for radioactive waste.
b) Private fruit gardens should be treated by deep plowing or removal of the upper 5 to 10 cm layer
of soil...
c) Covering the decontaminated parts of courtyards, etc., with a layer of clean sand, or, where
possible, with a layer of gravel to attenuate residual radiation.
d) Cleaning or replacing of roofs...
For soil, the procedure can include plowing to dilute contamination from the topsoil, reseeding and/or
application of fertilizers and lime to dilute uptake in plants. When used together, these techniques
provide an effective treatment for rural farmland. For forests, remediation efforts are typically labor-
intensive, slow and expensive. Techniques can be either administrative (restrict access, logging,
hunting, etc.) or technology-based. Fire prevention is largely administrative (since fires are typically
started by human actions) and is important to prevent widespread resuspension. Technology-based
approaches include early clear cutting and replanting or self-regeneration to reduce tree contamination.
However, the technology-based approaches may result in a higher dose to workers. Soil improvement is
another approach to mitigate contamination, requiring improved tree growth to dilute contamination in
the topsoil and decrease uptake in edible fruits. The application of phosphorus and potassium fertilizers
may also reduce uptake in trees and herbs and promote plant growth, although it can have negative
ecological effects (IAEA, 2006).
For aquatic systems, IAEA (2006) reports that most radionuclides may be removed from drinking water
supplies during the water treatment process. Suspended particles can be removed during treatment and
soluble contamination can be removed by passing through activated charcoal and zeolite filtration
systems. Dredging bodies of water was performed after the Chernobyl event but was found to be mostly
ineffective due to high flow rates and contaminant solubility. Zeolite-containing dykes were also
constructed and were found to be minimally effective for small rivers and streams.
Substantial information on a variety of remediation techniques is provided by Roed et al. (1995),
including remediation data on the following surfaces tested in the FSU following Chernobyl:
6
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Roads
o
o
o
Walls
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Fire hosing
Road surface planing/shaving
Vacuum sweeping
High-pressure washing
Sand blasting (wet and dry)
Clay treatment
Ammonium nitrate spraying
Coatings
Power-tool assisted sanding
Manual scraping
• Roofs
o High-pressure washing
o Clay treatment
o Cleaning with rotating brush
o Replacement of roof
• Asphalt and concrete surfaces
o High-pressure washing
• Flagstones
o Manually turn
• Indoor surfaces
o Vacuum cleaning, scraping, brushing
The following topsoil removal techniques and virgin soil treatments are evaluated in Roed et al. (1995):
Topsoil
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Front-loader
Bulldozer
Grader
Manual digging
Turf harvester (large and small)
Lawn mower (mulcher)
Soil size fractionation
• Virgin rural soil
o Ordinary plowing
o Deep plowing
o Skim and burial plowing
Similarly, the following forest area remediation techniques are evaluated in Roed et al. (1995):
• Litter removal
• Grinding mower
Debarking wood
Wood pulp treatment
The properties evaluated in Roed et al. (1995) for each technology include:
•
Constraints (pre-requisites)
• Cost
•
Number of operators
o
Manpower
•
Productivity
o
Tool investment cost
•
Mode of operation
o
Discount
•
Efficiency
o
Consumables
•
Wastes generated
o
Overheads
o Solid
o
Scale of application
o Liquid
o
Specific exposure
o Activity per volume
o
Inhalation/external dose relation
o Toxicity
o
Number of man-hours needed
• Benefits
7
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1.3 Goiania Urban Remediation and Restoration
In Goiania, Brazil, the containment of a Cs-137 irradiation source from a disused clinic was
compromised in 1987, resulting in 249 people contaminated, four deaths, six doses above a few gray
(Gy, several hundred rads). Figure 1-2 shows the areas impacted by the release.
Sampling points for:
External radiation
(Thermoluminescent Dosimeter)
Rainwater
250
~ 100
500 j
TOO
Main contamination points
Cs-T37 in surface soil, Bq/kg
16C
INDEPENDENCE AVENUE
900 Z^2>v \ 400
o mk>AO A
FRANCISCO DA COSTA CUNHA STREET 26A STREET
600
65 STREET
500
2SA STREET"
1000 Q
O 130
600
Tcmr
180
" street
0 METRES 100
Figure 1-2. Principal Sites of Goiania Contamination (recreated from IAEA, 1988).
The Goiania event and subsequent response are well documented in IAEA (1988). Surveying found that
the top 1.5 cm of soil retained on average 60% of the Cs-137, so removal of topsoil was implemented.
Surveying employed several monitors including Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes, proportional counters and
scintillation detectors. Proportional counters were found to have poor robustness. Scintillation counters
designed for geological surveying provided low limits of detection, fast response time and were very
useful in determining hot-spots. To protect against the ambient environment (including contamination
and rain-water), monitors were placed in plastic bags, which hindered handling and reading. The cesium
chloride source was hydrated, resulting in dissolution of Cs-137 and subsequent migration into porous
materials such as soils, buildings and skin. Contaminated top layers of soil dried and formed radioactive
dust that was spread further and created an inhalation hazard. Chemical decontamination was performed
for surfaces generating exposure rates of 15 Roentgens per hour (R/h), a calculated equivalence of 131
milliSieverts per hour (mSv/h) and 3.87 milliCuries of radioactive cesium per kilogram of soil (mCi/kg).
8
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Decontamination efforts included 85 homes, 45 public places (including pedestrian areas, shops,
swimming pools, and bars) and approximately 50 vehicles.
For vegetation, dust deposition on leaves could be reduced by 50% simply by washing, while pruning of
trees followed by disposal of fruit was also effective. Soil was acidified with hydrochloric acid and
alum followed by Prussian blue. This treatment was also used to decontaminate clay or cement floors,
walls, roofs, asphalt, paper and clothes. An organic solvent was added first to remove grease on floors
or tables, and sodium hydroxide was employed first with detergents for synthetic floors and personal
objects. Creams and gels containing Prussian blue resin were applied to delicate items including
furniture and television screens. Enamel, granite and other silicate surfaces required pre-treatment with
hydrofluoric acid. Building contents were removed, and a determination was made as to whether items
were valuable (financially or personally) before being decontaminated or disposed of. Interior surfaces
(including walls, floors and inner roofs) were cleaned with high-efficiency filtered vacuums to remove
dust that accounted for more than 90% of the radioactivity. Exterior surfaces such as floors, roofs, walls
and vehicles were subjected to pressure washing with water, although this was 50% effective.
1.4 Fukushima Wide Area Contamination
A more progressive and comprehensive approach to remediation has been implemented in Japan
following the accident at the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP. In March 2011, approximately 2,700 to 11,000
kCi Iodine-131, 190 to 540 kCi Cesium-137 and 160,000 to 320,000 kCi Xenon-133 (IAEA, 2015a)
were released from the reactors and deposited over a wide area. A range of activities is given for each
due to uncertainties in source terms, which have been reduced based on excluding early (and less
certain) estimates of the amount of radionuclides released (IAEA, 2015a).
The land affected was primarily forest and agricultural but did include major urban cities such as
Fukushima City. Evacuations in the most impacted areas involved approximately 120,000 people, with
a restricted "exclusion area" established at a distance of 20 km from the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP and a
planned evacuation area northwest of the site corresponding to a dose rate of at least 20 milliSieverts per
year (mSv/y) (SRNL, 2013), together forming the "special decontamination area" (SDA) as shown in
the left panel of Figure 1-3 (IAEA, 2014). Within the SDA, zones were created based on dose, as shown
in the right panel of Figure 1-3:
• <20 mSv/y - residents returned to homes (green)
• 20 to 50 mSv/y - residents restricted to maintaining house, land, agriculture only during daytime
(yellow)
• >50 mSv/y -residents prohibited from returning to area (pink)
The SDA incorporates land in 11 municipalities. The area includes all of Naraha Town, Tomioka Town,
Okuma Town, Futaba Town, Namie Town, Katsurao Village and Iitate Village, and parts of Tamura
City, Minamisoma City, Kawamata Town and Kawauchi Village municipalities (IAEA, 2015b).
Additionally, an intensive contamination survey area (ICSA) was identified in which the dose rate was
estimated to be between 1 and 20 mSv/y. The ICSA includes wider regions of the Fukushima
Prefecture, in addition to portions of Gunma, Tochigi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Miyagi and Iwate Prefectures.
9
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Within the SDA, decontamination efforts were led by the Japanese government. Outside the SDA
(where residents were not evacuated, and including the ICS A), decontamination was performed by
municipal (local) governments.
Area !: Evacuation orders
ready (2013) to be lifted
Area 2: Residents not
permitted to live
litate Village
(2012/7/17-)
Area 3: Residents displaced
for a long time
Kiwamatsvjowi
($13/8/8^
Minamisoma Cit'
(2012/4/16*")
KatsuraoVtllaj
(2013/3/22-
NamieTcipn
(2013/4/|~)
Tamura Ci'
(2012/4/1
Tomioka\owj
J2013/3/25-:
Kawauehi Village
(2012/4/1-)
Naraha Town
(2012/8/10~l)
20km |
HironoTov^
Figure 1-3. Dose and Evacuation Areas Following the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP
Release (IAEA, 2014)
A significant body of work by IAEA and EPA was developed prior to the events in Japan, including a
technology reference guide for radiologically contaminated sites and surfaces (IAEA, 1999; EPA, 2006)
and a report on treating contaminated media (EPA, 2007). A review of traditi onal decontamination
strategies deployed in Chernobyl, Goiana and Fukushima has been developed by Kaminski et al. (2016).
Not surprisingly, decontamination of agricultural land and building exteriors in Japan mirrored the
decontamination of agricultural land and building exteriors previously demonstrated following events in
Chernobyl and Goiania, including washing of exterior surfaces and removal of vegetation. A substantial
body of work has also already been collected, demonstrated and evaluated by Japan's Ministry for the
Environment and the Japan Atomic Energy Agency as well as scientists, engineers and scholars from
other organizations such as NIES, the Universities of Tokyo and Kyoto and private industry to
understand the extent of contamination and determine the best remediation strategies. The remediation
strategies currently employed and emerging technologies are further discussed in Section 2.
10
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2. Current and Emerging Technologies and Techniques In Japan Following tie
Fukushima Dai-ichi Accident
In response to the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP accident in March 2011, MOE initiated a demonstration
program for decontamination techniques to elicit potentially new technologies and to provide an
opportunity to demonstrate such techniques to the public (MOE, 2012; 2013a; 2014a; 2014b). The
demonstrations included verifying decontamination efficiency, cost efficiency, and safety. Beginning in
2011 (and revised each year since), the program selects promising and emerging decontamination
techniques via a review committee consisting of subject matter experts. Selected techniques are tested
and verified independently at suitable contaminated sites. Technical advice and evaluation of
decontamination techniques are reported by the Headquarters of Fukushima Partnership Operations and
JAEA.
JAEA Decontamination Pilot Plans (DPPs) have been implemented at 16 sites in 11 municipalities to
address the lack of real-world examples for promising technologies and to provide additional experience
appropriate to Japanese boundary conditions. The pilot projects provided valuable information for each
technology (Miyahara et al., 2015), including:
• Checking the availability and efficiency of both proven and new techniques and tools;
• Investigating pros and cons of different approaches in terms of cost, work period, workforce,
waste generated and radiation exposure of workers;
• Establishing waste management procedures, including volume reduction of wastes
and ; treatn entof any secondary w aste produced
• Developing and testing approaches to assure worker safety by providing appropriate radiation
protection without compromising protection from conventional hazards associated with such
work;
• Establishing optimal radiation monitoring technology to quantify levels of contamination of
cleanup targets before, during and after such work and also in resulting wastes; and
• Developing and recording the required public communication to gain the permissions needed to
allow decontamination to proceed and also explaining the outcome of the work to
the communities who would return to these locations.
2.1 Survey and Characterization
Surveying and characterization of the radionuclides of interest, the activity and the geographic/topologic
distribution is vital to understanding and planning for both stabilization (to prevent migration or
resuspension) and decontamination. Monitoring is also needed during decontamination (to evaluate
progress) and after decontamination (clearance). Surveys can be aerial or ground-based, each type
having pros and cons. Aerial mapping of the contamination can cover large areas quickly and is not
dependent on road/terrain. However, aerial surveys do not have the same precision in area that ground-
based surveys can provide. Conversely, ground-based surveys can be slow to perform and are limited
by access for a given terrain (e.g., road or rail). Personnel-based surveying can also be performed using
backpack-style meters. Several U.S. government agencies such as DOE, Department of Defense (DOD)
and EPA have survey capabilities, including ground-based detection in cars, trucks and vans, and aerial
vehicles such as planes and helicopters.
li
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2.14 Aerial Surveys
Since the initial wide area surveys of northeastern Japan by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science & Technology (MEXT) and DOE in 2011 to define the evacuation zones, JAEA and MEXT
have performed significant work to test and characterize a range of airborne survey systems including
manned and unmanned aerial vehicles. The characteristics of each system are given in Table 2.1
(Miyahara et aL, 2015), together with images of each airborne technology demonstrated in Japan in
Figure 2-1.
Table 2.1. Characteristics of JAEA Airborne Survey Systems (reproduced from
Miyahara et al., 2015)
Surv ey Area
Small < 1 Ion2
Local > 1 km2
Semi-Regional >100
km2
Regional >1000 km2
Option
Micro unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV)
Unmanned helicopter
Unmanned airplane
Manned helicopter
Altitude
< 10 m
~ 50 in
~ 150 in
~300 in
Features
Allows focused surveys,
e.g., above urban areas
or in forests; under
development
Higher resolution
mapping available
Allows remote
controlled long-time
flight (e.g., six hours);
under development
Standardized
methodology available
for efficient regional
surveys
, 11 -
Increasing:
cost, altitude, fuel, range, maintenance, pilot qualifications, ground support
Figure 2-1. Airborne Survey Systems Corresponding to Table 2.1 (Miyahara et aL,
2015)
Manned aerial vehicles typically fly at higher altitudes, covering larger areas faster, but producing lower
resolution images. By contrast, micro-UAVs can cover significantly less area than the larger aircraft but
can fly much closer to the ground, providing finer resolution. UAVs also offer the ability to go into
otherwise inaccessible locations such as under tree lines, between buildings, under bridges, etc. The
UAV technology also has the ability to map contamination on buildings (e.g., high-rise walls/roofs),
which could greatly assist in the planning for and execution of decontamination and subsequent
clearance measurements. Clearly, the cost, fuel usage, range, maintenance, ground support and pilot
qualifications increase from small UAVs to unmanned helicopters, planes and manned aerial vehicles
such as fixed wings or helicopters. Researchers at Chiba University in Japan also demonstrated a low
12
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cost UAV with a highly efficient spatial radiation monitoring system to survey low-ground regions and
residential areas, as well as forests and wasteland where walking survey was previously impossible
(MOE, 2013a). Their technology, which flies between 1 and 3 meters (m) above the ground, also
includes a Geographic Information System (GIS) and a hyper-spectral aerial photographing system that
can obtain a continuous spectrum between the visible and near infrared region to determine land cover
classification.
The regional manned helicopter fielded by JAEA is similar to the aerial survey equipment deployed as
DOE's fixed wing and helicopter Aerial Measuring System (AMS)2, EPA's Airborne Spectral
Photometric Environmental Collection Technology (ASPECT)3 and other commercially available
standoff detection systems as detailed in Table 2.2 (DHS, 2013). It is recommended that the deployment
of radiation detection on UAVs be further evaluated in the U.S.
Table 2.2. Characteristics of Example Airborne Standoff Radiation Detectors (DHS
2013)
Company
Product
(>amma
Dclcclors
Dimensions
1. \ \\ \ II
(cm)
WciiilH
(kti)
2013 (
-------
Controller
Pallet & Load c«
-
Container for
measurement
Detector
Figure 2-2. Toshiba's Simplified Method for Measuring Radioactivity
Concentration per Container (MOE, 2013a)
In 2012, Hitachi-GE Nuclear Energy developed a plastic scintillation fiber (PSF) that operates for four
hours continuously with a rechargeable battery that can measure air dose rate as far as 20 m in a few
seconds.4 The work was published in 2014 (Gamo et al.), providing examples of using 1, 7 and 12 PSF
bundles to measure contamination along a roadway gutter, and potential applications on a building wall,
a tree, a pond and attached to a vehicle to survey roads. The technology is paired with GE's
SOPH IDA ™ and D-phod Viewer™ software with mesh sizes of 10 m and 1 m, respectively.
Recent work by JAEA has investigated the application of PSF to various contaminated areas resulting
from the Fukusbima Dai-ichi NPP. A 19-fiber, 12 meter long PSF array was placed across a field,
straddling the boundary between contaminated and decontaminated land. The results showed a clear
delineation between the two areas (Todani, 2011). At the same time, measurements of radi ation dose
rates were made in Mmamisoma City and Date City, Japan using PSF and identifying where high doses
were collocated over cracks in asphalt pavement (JAEA, 201 la). Similarly, a 20-m long bundle of 10
polystyrene 1 millimeter (mm) in diameter PSFs with polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) cladding was
manually moved along outdoor surfaces at schools at a rate of 0.1 meters per second (m/s), equivalent to
0.2 miles per hour (mph), allowing the two-dimensional mapping of Cs-137 before and after
decontamination (Torii and Sanada, 2013). In the same paper, the technique was also applied to the
front of a construction vehicle (e.g., IHI CL45 compact track loader) and performed the mapping of a
2,000-m2 area within one hour. Assuming a road lane width of three meters, the corresponding speed of
the motorized application was 0.4 mph. Additional studies were documented using PSF to measure the
contamination at the bottom of a pond in the Fukushima Prefecture using a 20 m submerged PSF bundle
(JAEA, 2014a). JAEA extended the length to 50 m PSF, and the submerged PSF bundle was used to
monitor leakage from contaminated water tanks at the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP (JAEA, 2014b; JAEA,
2015c).
Sanada et al. (2015) utilized nineteen bundled, 1 mm diameter, 20 m length Kuraray SCSF-3HF PSFs to
measure Cs-137 sediments under the water in irrigation ponds that had collected falling rain in the
4 http://enfoniiable.com/2012/05/ge-developing-fiber-optic-gamma-radiation-dose-rate-detection-and-measurement-svstem/.
accessed June. 2016.
14
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Fukushima prefecture. The results compared well with sediment cores withdrawn after measurement
with PSF. Subsequent measurements taken after decontamination were integrated with GTS maps to
demonstrate monitoring of decontamination efficacy. Example JAEA PSF applications are shown in
Figure 2-3, showing: (A) PSF equipment (with Photornultiplier Tube, PMT) supplied by Japan
Radiation Engineering Co. (JREC), (B) Application of PSF to survey pond sediments, (C) Application
of PSF to survey forest soil, and (D) Application of PSF to measure outdoor urban surfaces, e.g., a
school playground utilizing a system built by JREC Co. Ltd., and P-SCAN software to process data.3
Data Processing
Data
Processing \
Signal and power cable
Figure 2-3. JAEA Application of PSF in Post-Fukushima Surveys (reproduced from
JAEA)
IHI Corporation attached a PSF to a turf stripper to measure and remove contaminated soil,
demonstrating the capability in Okuma Town and Soma City, Japan. The technique promises two-
dimensional mapping, evaluation of depth profile, turf removal, reduction in soil or turf waste volume
and reduction in work hours (MOE, 2012). The application of PSF on vehicles should be investigated in
US studies, particularly those vehicles capable of performing decontamination or stabilization of
contamination on surfaces.
5 littp://fukushima.iaea.go.ip/englisMopics/pdf/topics-fuIcushima050epdf. last accessed in June 2016.
15
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JAEA have also applied modern detection technology to a sports-utility-vehicle (SUV) with GPS,
fielded from the Sasakino Analytical Laboratory, shown in Figure 2-4. The detection systems on the
vehicle can measure both low and high dose rate ranges, specifically 0.01 to 10 microSieverts per hour
(|j,Sv/h) using a shielded Nal-Tl scintillation detector and up to 100,000 uSv/h using semi-conductor
detector technology. Dust and gas sampling can measure alpha- and beta- emitting radionuclides in
airborne particles and capture radioactive iodine. The vehicle can transfer data real-time to a base
station, can travel off-road (particularly important for emergency response) and has a moveable
searchlight for night operation. Discussions with JAEA also determined that driving through
contaminated areas resulted in vehicle contamination that was not easily removed with typical vehicle
washing. Additionally, air-filters and cabin filters became contaminated. Similar issues should be
considered in US deployments of such response vehicles.
Figure 2-4. JAEA Monitoring Vehicle
Survey equipment has also been developed at the Kyoto University. The KURAMA (Kyoto University
RAdiation MApping) System measures a dose every three seconds and is deployed in a minivan with
GPS and linked to Google Earth. However, KURAMA requires an operator and a complicated setup.
Subsequently, KURAMA-II has been developed in a compact (30 x 20 centimeter [cm]), lightweight
form with autonomous pulse-height spectra utilizing a thallium-doped cesium iodide (Csl-Tl)
scintillation detector. Both systems have been demonstrated successfully in contaminated areas in the
Fukushima region. By deploying KURAMA-II instruments in 28 buses, two prefecture cars and 19
service-operated cars, data are transmitted real-time to JAEA and displayed on a large screen in the
JAEA Fukushima Office lobby (Tanigaki, 2015). Kyoto University and JAEA have now deployed 100
KURAMA-II instruments across eastern Japan. KURAMA-II is small enough to deploy on a
motorcycle (as shown in Figure 2-5) and backpack (Tsuda et al., 2015; Tanigaki, 2015).
16
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Figure 2-5. A Demonstration of KURAMA-II
The KURAMA-II program has the potential to be expanded to include other service vehicles, including
garbage trucks, street sweepers, and mail and parcel delivery trucks. Such detectors with real-time
feedback have the potential to "crowd-source" data if the program were to be expanded. Such a network
of highly portable, service-vehicle mounted detectors with real-time feedback to inform both
government and residents about dose may be useful for U.S. response to wide-area radiological
emergencies.
By comparison, several stand-off radiation search detectors were evaluated in a market survey report by
DHS (2013), the characteristics of which are shown in Table 2.3 and that can be deployed on vehicles.
Table 2.3. Characteristics of Example Ground-based Standoff Radiation Detectors
(DHS, 2013)
Company
Product
Gamma
Dimensions
Weight
2013 Cost
Product Website
Detectors
LxWxH
(cm)
(kg)
($k)
Bubble
FlexSpec
Left/right
99 x 137 x
249.5
195 -260
www.bubbletech.ca.
Technology
Inc.
Mobile™
directionality,
Nal-Tl
91
accessed June. 2016
FLIR
iFind Compton
Two-plane
203 x 130 x
900.4
600-
www.flir.com. accessed
Radiation Inc.
Camera 442™
measurement,
truck/trailer
mounted. Nal-Tl
and PVT
193
1,200
June. 2016
Innovative
Mobile
Vehicle mounted
64 x114 x
105.2
175
American
Radiation
or stand-alone
99
Technology
Inc.
Verification
System™
360-degree
horizontal field
of view, N'al-Ti
Innovation
Rapid
Nal-Tl
71x81x81
68.0
75
American
Technology
Inc.
Deployment
Radiation
Verification
System™
Mirion
SPIR-Ident
Nal-Ti
33 x 43 x 89
117.9
285
www.mirion.com. accessed
Technologies
Mobile
June. 2016
Inc.
Monitoring
System™
17
-------
Company
Product
(¦annua
Dclcclors
Dimensions
1. \ \\ \ II
(cm)
Weigh!
(kg)
2013 ( \
?[IS
ii a
\» \» \» ii::cs;i!c o.'iii.
accessed June. 2016
ORTEC
Detective -
200™
HPGe
38x25 x 43
21.3
95 - 380
www.ortec-online.com.
accessed June. 2016
Radiation
Solutions Inc.
RS-700 Mobile
Radiation
Monitoring
System
Nal-Tl
69 x 15 x 18
31.8
n/a
www. radiationsolutions. ca.
accessed June. 2016
Thermo Fisher
Scientific Inc.
Matrix Mobile
ARIS™
Nal-Tl
n/a
n/a
n/a
www.thermoscientific.com
. accessed June. 2016
Csl-Tl: thallium-doped cesium iodide; GMT: Geiger-Miiller tube; HPGe: high purity germanium;
Nal-Tl: thallium-doped sodium iodide; PVT: polyvinyl toluene; n/a: not available
Additional information on emerging standoff detection technologies is provided in DHS (2013). EPA
has a ground-based version of the ASPECT aerial detector. Known as ASPHALT, the system can be
placed on a pickup truck, SUV or other vehicle and uses up to three 3x3 inch lanthanum bromide
crystals to obtain better resolution than aerial systems and hand-held devices due to the crystal size (U.S.
EPA, 2014). Similarly, DOE has ground-based versions of AMSs, known as KIWI, consisting of an
array of eight 2 x 4 x 16 inch sodium iodide detectors positioned at three feet from the ground, and has a
view of approximately 10 feet in diameter allowing high spatial resolution mapping of contamination
(U.S. EPA, 2014).
Specifically, advanced imaging tools for locating radioactive sources use gamma cameras and Compton
imaging, both of which when paired with image software improve the probability of distinguishing
between the source and background radiation. Such techniques are designed to identify radioactive
material concentrated in a single location, with the background radioactivity spread over a large area.
Combining visual images with gamma measurements makes locating areas of elevated radioactive
contamination easier, particularly for those with little training in gamma measurement. An example
gamma camera application was recommended in the MOE decontamination guidance (MOE, 2013b)
and is shown recreated in Figure 2-6.
18
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Figure 2-6. Example of Gamma Camera Applications in Japan (recreated from
MOE, 2013b)
Distribution of
measurements
Combined visual and
gamma images
Camera
Distance
Camera image information
Field measurement
Mitsubishi demonstrated a gamma camera to image Cs-137 contamination in a parking lot and on a
house in the Fukushima area both before and after decontamination (Matsuura et al.. 2014). The tests
identified a 20 (j,Sv/h hot-spot in a parking lot after a 30 minute count time under a 1.5 LiSv/h air dose
(background) one meter from the camera and another hot-spot of 30 ja,Sv/h at a distance of 10 m from
the camera.
Additionally, technology developed by Chiyoda Technology Corporation6 presented at the recent 2015
symposium on radiological issues associated with the revitalization of Fukushima highlighted the use of
a lightweight Compton gamma camera for monitoring surface contamination during decontamination
efforts. Such techniques permit both the identification of contamination and a measure of
decontamination progress. Compton gamma cameras are being developed at several US DOE sites to
support DOE, DHS and IAEA search capabilities (LLNL, 2014b). Such cameras should be made more
widely available in response to wide-area radiological events, allowing remediation workers to locate
contamination and monitor the progress of decontamination.
In areas affected by the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP release, the Japanese government has deployed
airborne dose rate equipment with large visual displays in urban areas such as Fukushima City and on
6 http://www.c-teclinol.co.ip/eng. accessed June. 2016
19
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freeways to inform the public (Figure 2-7). Similar detectors would provide useful information and
public confidence in response to a U.S. radiological event.
Figure 2-7. Airborne Dose Rate Meters in Urban Areas (left) and on Freeways in the
Evacuation Zone (right) in Japan
2.2 Decontamination
Decontamination technologies can be divided among the substrates to be remediated. In a wide-area
release such as that observed from the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP release, there exists a wide range of
surfaces, from porous to nonporous, man-made to natural, and urban to rural. In many cases, the
different types of surfaces co-exist, for example, vegetation at the side of an asphalt road, or farm
buildings on agricultural land. However, it is possible to utilize several decontamination techniques to
address each of the surfaces. MOE developed and revised "Decontamination Guidelines" (MOE, 2013b)
using experience and knowledge gained, lessons learned and new technologies acquired from the
decontamination pilot tests and ongoing remediation practices to assist the municipalities to develop
their remediation approaches. The most commonly used decontamination methods such as debris
removal, high-pressure washing and surface removal are suitable to large areas and aim to efficiently
reduce the external radioactivity and the radiation dose rates in the living environment. Although
decontamination can involve mainly low level technologies to wash surfaces and remove contaminated
materials, efforts are taken to reduce the costs, the time required and the volume of waste produced
A collaboration between MOE, JAEA and local governments has performed significant public outreach,
including holding town-hall meetings, lectures and demonstrations to aid public understanding of
20
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radioactivity, survey techniques, dose, decontamination and waste. One example of such outreach is the
Decontamination Information Plaza, a dedicated facility in downtown Fukushima City.7
A
Figure 2-8. Displays Demonstrating Radiation and Residential Decontamination at
the Fukushima City Decontamination Information Plaza
The "plaza" is a large storefront-type facility that includes displays (e.g., Figure 2-8), reading material,
interactive videos and example equipment. Such displays are vital in improving public understanding,
particularly as it relates to their health (A), land and property decontamination strategies, such as high-
pressure washing (B) and top-soil removal decontamination strategies (C).
Prior to carrying out large-scale regional decontamination efforts, JAEA used a Decontamination Pilot
Project (DPP) as a test bed for new approaches and technologies, evaluating the effectiveness of
different techniques and options, and providing the technical guidelines for optimization towards the
decontamination goals. In general, the remediation technologies and approaches used for each
contaminated site were selected based on the site characterization and radiological monitoring data. For
sites with relatively high contamination levels, the primary goal was to reduce dose rates to the
maximum extent possible. Therefore, technologies that can effectively reduce dose rates had higher
priority. However, for sites with relatively low dose rates, the emphasis was minimization of the waste
volume generated during remediation. In those cases, technologies that generate less or no waste were
preferred. Further, the selection of technology and approaches was based on the type of site. JAEA
grouped technologies and approaches used in the DPP by specific type of target site, and the
performance of each technology was evaluated based on the following major quality criteria (JAEA,
2015a):
1. Speed of implementation: the goal was to allow people to return to their normal lifestyle as
quickly as possible.
7 Additional information available at Iiitps://iosen.env.go.jp/en/Ddf/decontamination information plaza.pdf?0930. accessed
June, 2016.
21
-------
2. Efficiency in terms of minimizing waste volume generated during decontamination, avoiding re-
contamination and reducing repeated efforts.
3. Effectiveness in terms of decontamination factor (DF) and reduction of dose rate.
For each technology and site type, detailed evaluations were performed including decontamination
speed (one person-day); waste type and the volume generated; volume of water used, method of waste
water collection and additional treatment; decontamination factor and gamma dose rate reduction, the
remediation cost and information on how to tailor the technology to specific site conditions were
provided in Appendix A in JAEA, 2015a. Table 2.4 lists some of the most common technologies used to
remove radioactivity from different surfaces in the DPP.
Table 2.4. Common Decontamination Techniques used to Remove Radioactive
Material from Surfaces (reproduced from JAEA, 2015a: IAEA, 2014)
l)cconl;imin;ili*(l ik'111
Docoiiiiiiniiiiiiioii k'chni(|iK' used
Forest
Pruning, thinning, trimming, removal of humus layer of surface soil by mechanical
digger
Agricultural land, gardens and
other grounds
Topsoil stripping, mowing grass, collection of clippings, pruning, replacing turf,
plowing
Roofs and outer walls
High-pressure washing, washing, brushing, wiping, stripping agent
Parking lots and other paved
surfaces
Washing, high-pressure washing, surface removal (shot blasting, grit blasting,
etc.)
School athletic grounds etc.
(dirt)
Surface dirt removal
Roads (asphalt paved surfaces)
Washing, high-pressure washing, shaving off
The key characteristics of technologies used and evaluated for forests, agricultural land, residential
buildings, roads and public areas are summarized below. Many of the techniques could easily be
implemented in the U.S. in response to a wide area radiological event.
2.2.1 Forests
Forests have a very high uptake capacity (-80 to 90%) for contaminants, and radiocesium is initially
intercepted by the foliage and over time is transported to the surface as leaf litter (JAEA, 2015a). The
distribution of radioactivity in forest areas depends on the type of trees present. Deciduous trees lose their
leaves seasonally, and associated activity is deposited on the forest floor creating periods of greater downward
transfer. Evergreen trees lose their leaves gradually or not at all, so downward transfer is typically less than for
deciduous trees. The removal of litter and humus layers (either manually or by mechanical digging) was
the primary decontamination approach for the forest floor. However, it is unclear if removal of such
material promotes resuspension or runoff. Further reduction of radioactivity can be achieved by
removal of topsoil and trimming lower branches of evergreen trees at the expense of increased costs and
time required. Table 2.5 compares key factors of the technologies (reproduced from JAEA, 2015a) and
the decontamination results. Example images showing the collection of leaf litter and humus and
pruning back foliage are shown in Figure 2-9 (MOE, 2013b).
22
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Table 2.5. Comparison of Technologies for Forest Decontamination (JAEA, 2015a)
Decontamination
Technology
Kemo\al of
l.illcr and
lliimus
Manually or In
Mechanical
Digging
(Hal (•round)
Kcmo\al of l.illcr
and lliimus
Manually or by
Mechanical Digging
(Slopes)
Kcmo\al of
l.illcr. lliimus
and Topsoil by
Mechanical
Digging
(l-lal (.round)
Trees
High Pressure
\\ ashing Trunk
liranch
Pruning
(Lower Trunk)
Distribution of radioactivity
in evergreen forest
(September 2011)A
44 - 84%
Trunks:
1 - 3%
Branches and
leaves:
14 - 53%
Percentage dose reduction0
(at 1 cm)
60 - 80%
60- 80%
60 - 80%
~ 30%
5 - 30%
Volume of decontamination
waste generated (L/m2)
20-90
20-90
100-200
< 1,000 per tree
270 (non-
compacted waste
volume)
Secondary contamination
N/A
N/A
N/A
Water infiltration
to soil
Foliage from
branches to
forest floor
Effects on surrounding
environments
Possibility of causing erosion on slopes
Decontamination speed
(one person day)
50 m2
30 m2
40 m2
8 trees
40 m2
Direct implementation cost
Japanese Yen (JPY)/m2 for
area > 1,000 m2)
530
760
890
3,390
580
Overall
evaluation
Deciduous
forests
Highly effective
Highly effective
Effective
Limited effect
not applicable
Evergreen
forests
Highly effective
Highly effective
Effective
Limited effect
Effective
For branch pruning of trees, the dose rate was measured at a height 1 m above the ground; for other techniques, the
dose rate was measured at a height of 1 cm from the ground. The techniques are climate- and season-dependent.
A: Approximately half of the radioactivity was found to be contained in the trees, mainly on the branches and
leaves. Branch trimming was confined to the lower parts of trees.
B: Percentage dose reductions were calculated using the values measured before and after decontamination. In most
cases, branch pruning was carried out simultaneously with forest floor cleanup (e.g., litter removal), therefore dose
reduction was a composite of multiple methods and could not be separately estimated.
23
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Figure 2-9. Example Forest Decontamination (MOE, 2013b)
2.2.2 Agricultural Land
The goal of remediation of agricultural land is (to the extent possible) to allow returning farmers to grow
and sell crops and produce without safety concerns from consumers. Studies of Cs-134 and Cs-137
depth profiling suggest that the contamination penetrates mostly within the upper 5 cm of undisturbed
soil and up to 20 cm of plowed soil. To decontaminate agricultural land, the vegetation surface was first
removed, then various approaches were applied to reduce the dose rates of the contaminated soil. In
some cases, a fixative or solidification agent was applied (e.g., inorganic magnesium-based or cement-
based sprays) to facilitate thin-layer stripping of the soil. During periods of freezing weather, no
additional fixation is needed. Table 2.6 lists the decontamination technologies used and their evaluated
results. Examples of agricultural land remediation are shown in Figure 2-10, first mowing (left) and
plowing (right) to remove vegetation and dilute contamination below the topsoil surface.
Figure 2-10. Example Remediation of Agricultural Land 8
8 http://iosen.env. go.ip/en/framework/pdf/decontamination guidelines 2nd.pdf. accessed June, 2016
24
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Table 2.6. Comparison of Technologies for Agricultural Land Decontamination
(recreated from JAEA, 2015a)
Decontamination
Technology
Thin Layer Soil
Si ripping/
Mow ing
(Manual or
Mechanical
Hammer Knife)
Mechanical
Digger
(Si ripping
Thickness 5
cm)
Application of
Solidificalion
Agcnl and
( ollcclion In
Mechanical
Digger
Ke\ersal
Tillage
(Traclor
and
Plow ing)
(- 25-50 cm)
Interchanging
Topsoil w ill)
Suhsoil
(Mechanical
Digger)
(- 45 cm)
Dose rate
reduction (at 1 m)
~ 70%
65 - 95%
~ 40-70%
65 - 80%
~ 65%
Volume of
removed soil
Actual volume to
be removed
Actual volume
to be removed
and overbreakA
Actual volume to
be removed and
overbreakA
Secondary
contamination
-
-
-
-
-
Area
decontaminated
(m2/person day)
70
90
50
1100
100
Effective for thin
stripping
Must have
sufficient load
bearing capacity
Must have
sufficient load
bearing capacity;
Application
conditions
Flat ground only
Cannot use when
ground is frozen
Cannot strip to a
depth of less
than
5 cm
Cannot use when
standing water is
present or ground
is frozen;
1 week required
for solidification
For low level
contaminated
soil
For low level
contaminated
soil
Direct
implementation
cost JPY/m2
(area > 1000 m2)
690
560
880
33
310
Overall
evaluation
Effective
Effective
Moderately
effective0
Effective
Highly
effective
A: The overbreak is the excess soil removed around the area that was decontaminated, due to the precision of
machine operation.
B: The time required for both application of the solidification agent and meeting the correct soil conditions
reduces the overall evaluation of this technique.
25
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2.2.3 Residential Buildings
Major remediation efforts have been applied to residential structures, particularly external surfaces
including roofs and supporting walls. The decontamination was implemented in a top-down manner
to prevent recontamination of lower surfaces. Prior to roof decontamination, leaves and debris were
removed from rainwater gutters and drainage systems, which were identified as potential hot-spots.
The decontamination methods ranged from simple washing, wiping and scrubbing, to novel
technology such as a surface-stripping agent (e.g., K-Pack), and the methods were tested side-by-
side on the same surface. The results were very dependent on building materials. The stripping
agents are not suitable for remediation of large area in terms of efficiency and effectiveness. The
surrounding environment of residential buildings such as gardens and dirt roads were
decontaminated using technologies similar to the technologies used to treat forests and agricultural
lands. Figure 2-11 shows example decontamination of external residential surfaces, including roof
cleaning with high-pressure water (top left), gutter wiping (bottom left), high-pressure drain pipe
(down-spout) cleaning (top right) and topsoil removal (bottom right).
Figure 2-11. Example Residential External Decontamination Activities 9
Tables 2.7 and 2.8 summarize some of the decontamination techniques used and results of evaluation
studies for different types of roofing materials.
9 http://iosen.env. go.ip/en/framework/pdf/decontamination guidelines 2nd pdf. accessed June, 2016 and
http://iosen.env.go.jp/en/work report/20120709.html. accessed June, 2016
26
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Table 2.7. Comparison of Technology for Decontamination of Residential Roofs
(recreated from JAEA, 2015a)
Technology Information
High-Pressure Waler
•let
Crushing
\\ iping
Si ripping Agenl
Count rate
reduction
Iron
(baked finish)
N/A
~ 10%
Iron
(spray finish)
N/A
~ 30%
-5%
15 -18%
Clay
N/A
~ 50%
70%
30%
Cement
~ 30%
-5%
0 - 3%
30%
Slate
10%
0%
25%
35%
Decontamination waste
generated
Negligible
Small (waste
cloths)
Small (stripping
agent)
Secondary contamination
Spray contaminates
surrounding surfaces
Almost no
secondary
contamination
occurs as water is
collected
N/A
Area decontaminated
(per person day)
> 20 m2
20 m2
< 20 m2
10 m2
Application conditions
Topsoil stripping will be
required in the
surrounding area. Water
may potentially infiltrate
through gaps between
roof tiles.
Collection and
treatment of wash
water
Wash water
treatment
Requires 24 hours
after application
before removal
can begin.
Direct implementation cost
JPY/m2 (area > 1000 m2)
1,230
1,090
1,100
N/A
Overall evaluation
Moderately effective:
Application speed is
high, but secondary
contamination occurs
that requires treatment.
Effective
Moderately
effective: Area
decontaminated is
not large and takes
time.
27
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Table 2.8. Comparison of Technology for Cleaning Concrete for Roofs, Floors and
Walls (recreated from JAEA, 2015a)
Deconlaminalion
Method
Diisl ( oiledinn
Sander
(( oncrele)
I It r;i-l 1 iiili-
Pressure Waler .le(
(150-240 MPa)
Nigh-Pressure
\\ aler .le(
(10-50 MPa)
Slioi lilasling
Count rate reduction
60 - 80%
~ 80%
20 - 70%
~ 90%
(Depends on
number of
applications)
(Depends on pressure)
(Depends on shot density)
Decontamination
waste generated
(L/m2)
Concrete debris
~1
Concrete debris
~ 3
Sludge
0.02 - 0.04
Concrete debris
~ 3
Secondary
contamination
None. Blast
material
collected via
suction.
As almost all wash water is collected, virtually
no secondary contamination occurs.
Dust is collected via
suction but some fine
material may be lost.
Area decontaminated
(m2 / person day)
10
80
50
170
Application condition
Inefficient for
use on large
areas. Surface
must be dry.
Not applicable for
areas such as corners
where access is
limited. Can't use for
vertical surfaces.
Should be applied
carefully to prevent
scattering
No corners or narrow
sections. Difficult to apply
to vertical surfaces.
Surface must be dry.
Direct
implementation cost
JPY/m2 (area > 1,000
m2)
1,940
1,150
960
480
Overall evaluation
Effective
Effective
Effective
Effective
MPa: megaPascals
Inside residential buildings, accumulated dose is largely from contamination deposited on surfaces
outside the house, including the ground next to the house and the roof. The walls do provide some
shielding to external sources (IAEA, 2015b). Dust inside the residence typically contributed a small
fraction of the dose (IAEA, 2015b), largely associated with entrained and resuspended soil from outside
and resuspended dust from nearby trees and vegetation. The dust inside the residence can be kept to a
minimum by regular cleaning. Once inside, contamination was enriched in small particles (< 53
microns), but was also associated to a lesser extent with fibrous materials and soluble fractions of dust
(U.S. EPA, 2015). Regular cleaning can reduce indoor contamination, but in Japan it is common for
homeowners to open windows to promote air flow, particularly in homes without air conditioning. Such
actions are likely to cause additional migration of contamination into the house from surrounding areas
such as soil and vegetation.
Table 2.9 details demonstrated technical performance, cost and waste generation for a variety of
residential decontamination techniques used in Japan (JAEA, 2015a).
28
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Table 2.9. Technical Performance and Waste Generation for Example Residential Decontamination
Techniques (JAEA, 2015a)
Sii rl';ice
Tcclini(|iie
Area
Dccnnl;imin;ilcd
(nr. 1 person d;i\)
\\ ;iMc T\ |)c iind Volume
Colled ion
Tjpe iind R;i(e
Decon l-';iclor:
(iiiiiiniii Dose
Kiile Reduction
Direct
Iniplenienliilion
Com (Yen/nr:
S/|-|-»•' for Are;is >
1000 nr
Roof (clay
tile, iron)
Surface brushing
and washing
20
Sludge and solids; Depends on
purification process; ~ 6 mL sludge,
60 g solids per liter of water treated
Buckets and
tanks; 100%
2; 50% (clay)/
1.1-1.5;
10 - 30 % (iron)
1,090; 0.80
Gutters
Removal of debris
and wiping
25 (linear meters)
Litter, soil; Depends on age of
house and when gutters last cleaned;
~ 1 m3 / house
Bucket; 100%
1.4-10;
30 - 90%
1,100; 0.81
Gutters
Debris removal
followed by high-
pressure water
20 (linear meters)
Litter, sludge; Depends on age of
house and when gutters last cleaned;
~ 1 m3 / house
Vacuum;
100%
-2.5;
-60%
1,230; 0.91
Walls
Dry brushing
130
N/A
N/A
1.3-1.4;
20 - 30%
100; 0.07
Concrete
Walls
High pressure
wash
50
Sludge; depends on location, water
collection and treatment methods
Vacuum; 100%
1.3-3.3;
20 - 70%
960;0.71
Garden
Soil removal
(manual and
mechanical)
70
Vegetation, soil; 20 - 40 L/m2,
stripping @ 2-3 cm depth
N/A
1.1-10;
10 - 90%
590; 0.44
Garden
Gravel bed
stripping (manual
and mini-
mechanical
digger)
30
Gravel, soil; 20 - 40 L/m2, stripping
@ 2-3 cm depth
N/A
1.3-6.7;
20 - 85%
820; 0.61
Garden
Pebble washing
with high pressure
water
20
Sludge, water; depends on location,
water collection and treatment
methods
Tanks; 90%
2.5-20;
60 - 95%
930; 0.69
Garden
Mowing and turf
stripping
15
Turf; 20 - 50 L/m2, stripping @ 2-5
cm depth
N/A
-5;
-80%
1,500; 1.11
Garden
Tree pruning and
removal of root
soil
30
Vegetation, soil; ~ 30 L/m2
N/A
1 - 1.3;
0 - 20%
740; 0.55
Paved areas
High pressure
wash
15
Sludge; 0.2 L/m2
Vacuum
suction; -100%
1.4-5.0;
30 - 80%
1,320; 0.97
Flat
concrete
Dust collection
abrasion sander
10 (small areas
only)
Dust, lL/m2
Separate
vacuum
2.5-5;
60 - 80%
1,940; 1.43
'Internal Revenue Service's 2015 Average Exchange Rates for Converting Foreign Currencies into U.S. Dollars (125.911 Yen per Dollar) was used for conversion.
29
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2.2.4 Roads and Vehicles
Decontamination of vehicles has not been evaluated and presents a significant gap, particularly
considering the number of vehicles left in the evacuated zone, and the vehicles that travel through
contaminated areas such as the Joban Expressway in Japan. As discussed in Section 2.1.2 with respect
to the JAEA radiation detection vehicle, traditional car washing techniques did not remove all exterior
contamination. This failure to remove all exterior contamination was also demonstrated at a 2015 joint
EPA/DHS demonstration event hosted at Battelle in Columbus, Ohio. Low-tech washing methods such
as garden hose or pressure washer failed to remove all surrogate contamination from a vehicle (U.S.
EPA, 2016). Addition of decontamination foams such as Environment Canada's UDF foam additive
may aid removal of contamination. Furthermore, the interior of vehicles may contain contamination, as
will key components of the air intake, so both engine and cabin air filters should be replaced frequently
to remove contamination remaining in the air intake and any additional contamination deposited from
the environment while driving.
Cs-134 and Cs-137 activity in the Fukushima area (and the corresponding dose rates) were relatively
low on roads and paved areas (e.g., parking lots) as a result of natural self-cleaning processes (rain,
falling on roads divided contamination between porous road surfaces and runoff into drainage channels)
which are also dependent on the time since deposition, weathering and traffic volume since deposition.
In addition to road surfaces, other road infrastructure such as roadside gutters and drains must also be
decontaminated. Typically in Japan, runoff from cleaning roads and houses was diverted to roadside
gutters and drains, where it was ultimately trapped and removed. Given the large surface areas
associated with roadways, collection and removal of contaminated runoff (both during natural
precipitation events and decontamination efforts) must be considered. Vacuum removal of debris in
gutters and drains can be performed using a vacuum tanker or by mechanical digger, depending on the
gutter size. JAEA (2015a) conclude that 28 meters of gutter or drain can be treated per person day,
resulting in approximately 100 to 200 liters per m2 (L/m2) of sludge and vegetation, a decontamination
factor of 1 to 10 and a gamma dose rate reduction of between 30 and 90%, at a cost of 1080 Japanese
Yen per square meter (0.80 $ per ft2).
Figures 2-12 and 2-13 show the decontamination flow diagrams for paved and unpaved roads,
respectively (MOE, 2013b). An initial decision was made to decontaminate only roads near residential
areas to reduce dose contributions to people living in the surrounding residential areas.
30
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Decontamination of
paved roads
Measures to prevent tie spread of contamination
through dispersion, outflows, and so forth following
fee decontamination
Remove sediment (fallen leaves, moss, dirt, etc.)
F
Removal via manual labor
Washing away items that could not be
completely taken away through the
removal of sediment with water at the
end is effective
J
C, leaning
¦ viator cicanme
1 Cases where the results of decontamination cannot be adequately observed
| [Precautions]
• * Take steps to prevent dispersal and outflows of the water
and other materials
I * Perform the cleaning in a partial manner and check to
| confirm if the decontamination has been effective before
. carrying out full-scale cleaning
I Wastewater treatment (*where needed)
"1
J
In cases where adequate decontamination results are not observed, and this is acknowledged to
be a necessary and effective way of reducing the radiation, dose
Scraping away
Blast work
Ultra high pressure w ater cleaning
Scraping away
1
1
[Precautions]
^ * Take measures to prevent the dispersion of dust
J Wastewater treatment {* as needed)
"i
(
-J
I Work that is being considered for ;
I Implementation in regions where the
t air dose rate is comparatively high J
Figure 2-12. Flow Diagram for Decontamination of Paved Roads (MOE, 2013b)
31
-------
Decontamination of unpaved roads
Measures to prevent the spread of contamination through
, outflows, and so forth, following the
Remove sediments (fallen leaves, moss, dirt, etc.)
Removal via manual labor
Cases where the results of decontamination cannot be adequately observed
Soil toads, etc.
1 W.' ¦¦ .
V ¦" .
Covering the soil surface
Gravel and crushed stone roads, etc.
Remove gravel and crushed
stones
1
1
1
V
«h» M M -
Wastewater treatment 1 *
as needed)
Slopes of roads
Remove underbrush, etc.
[ Precautions]
¦ When scraping away the topsail and removing gravel and crushed stones,
it» necessary to confirm in advance the depth of the contamination from
the surface layer and establish the optimal depth for scraping away and
removal in advance.
II i ) J lll< ¦¦>••««(><<> M IIK till >1 a,
QWork that is being considered for I
implementation in regions where thfj
air dose rate is comparatively high ;
Figure 2-13. Flow Diagram for Decontamination of Unpaved Roads (MOE, 2013b)
Depth profile studies of contaminant migration into porous road surfaces indicated that much of the radio-
cesium was concentrated within the top 2 mm, possibly up to 4 mm for some porous asphalt roads.
Penetrations were much greater on damaged roads. Where low levels of contamination existed close to
the road surface, manual or vehicle-based high-pressure washing was used, in some cases followed by
mechanical decontamination with rotating brushes. Runoff water from decontamination efforts was
collected and pumped into vehicular-based tanks requiring additional treatment. For road surfaces that
exhibited higher levels of contamination and deeper penetration, destructive erosion technologies such
as shot-blasting, surface planing/shaving and asphalt removal were employed. Since asphalt and concrete
surfaces respond differently to the different techniques, tests were evaluated by JAEA and data are
summarized in Table 2.10 (recreated from information in JAEA, 2015a).
32
-------
Table 2.10. Comparison of Technologies for Cleaning Asphalt Roads (recreated
from JAEA, 2015a)
Decontamination
Method
\\ aler-.lel
Vehicle*
Nigh-Pressure
Wilier .lei*
(10-20 MPa)
1 lira-High Pressure
\\ siler *
(240 MPa)
Shot lilsisling"
Sii li'sice
Si ripping*
Secondary
contamination
As almost all wash water is collected, virtually no secondary
contamination occurs.
Dust is collected via suction bu i
some fine material may be lost.
Application
conditions
Best for smooth
surfaces that are
not distorted or
damaged.
Best for smooth surfaces that are not
distorted or damaged.
Roadside drain lids can also be washed
Best for smooth surfaces that are
not distorted or damaged.
Dry surface
Area
decontaminated
(m2 per person
day)
1,000
50
80
170
145
Direct
implementation
cost (JPY/m2) for
area > 1,000 m2
150
960
1,150
480
390
Overall
evaluation
Count rate
reduction
depends on the
pressure.
Effectiveness
largely depends
on road surface
conditions and
depth of Cs
penetration.
Effectiveness
largely depends
on road surface
conditions and
depth of Cs
penetration.
Count rate reduction
depends on the
pressure. Highly
effective but causes
damage and therefore
should only be used
on highly
contaminated roads.
Count rate
reduction depends
on the blasting
density. Highly
effective but
causes damage
and therefore
should be used
only on highly
contaminated
roads.
Highly
effective but
causes damage
and therefore
should be used
only on highly
contaminated
roads.
^Thcsc vehicles were equipped with water collection devices to minimize secondary contamination.
MPa = megaPascals.
^Thcsc vehicles had a collection system for blast materials and therefore secondary contamination was minimal. The
little secondary contamination that was produced was manually collected after blasting was completed.
^Secondary contamination was minimal as above.
D The uneven condition and/or cracks in roads may reduce decontamination effectiveness.
Figure 2-14 shows example techniques demonstrated in Japan for decontamination of roads (JAEA,
2015a), including: (A) street sweeping, (B) ride-on sweeping, (C) water-jet vehicle, (D) manual high-
pressure water washing, (E) hydro-blast ultra-high pressure water washing, (F) dry-ice blasting, (G)
sand-blasting, (H) medium-scale shot-blasting, (I) large-scale shot-blasting, (J) asphalt planing/shaving,
(K) mechanical digger asphalt removal, and (L) topsoil removal from unpaved road or soft-shoulder.
Corresponding data for each technology are presented in Table 2.11.
33
-------
Figure 2-14. Example Road Decontamination Techniques (recreated from JAEA,
2015a)
34
-------
Table 2.11. Technical Performance and Waste Generation for Example Road Decontamination Techniques
(JAEA, 2015a)
liliiiro
2-12
PillK'l
lochni(|iic
AiVii
l)ocon(;iniin;ik'(l
dir. oik1 person
d;i\)
\\ iislo Volume
(.ciK'nik'd
(l./nr)
\\ ;is(e Tj po
Collodion
l \|K' iind Kiilo
Decon l;ic(or:
Ci«iillin«i Dose
Kiilo Reduction
Diivcl
Implcmcnhilion
Com i Ycn/nr:
S/I'i-):| lor \iv;is >
1000 m-
A
Street sweeping
3,500
1 - 1.5
Soil, road dust,
vegetation
N/A
1-2;
0 - 45%
10; 0.01
B
Ride-on sweeping
1,750
20; 0.01
C
Water-jet vehicle
1,000
30-40
Sludge
Vehicle
50 - 70%
1-3;
0 - 70%
150; 0.11
D
Manual high-pressure
water washing
50
Vacuum
100%
1-3;
0 - 65%
960; 0.71
E
Hydro-blast ultra-high
pressure water
washing
80
3
Road dust, water
Vacuum
absorption
100%
2-15;
40-95
1,150; 0.85
F
Dry-ice blasting
70
2
Road dust
N/A
2.5-10;
60 - 90%
1,310; 0.97
G
Sand-blasting
5
20
Road dust, sand
4,190; 3.09
H
Medium-scale shot-
blasting (iron balls)
170 - 270
3
Concrete, asphalt
dust, iron shot
-10;
-90%
570; 0.12
I
Large-scale shot-
blasting (iron balls)
170
Road dust, iron
balls
3-23;
60 - 95%
480; 0.35
J
Asphalt
planing/shaving
150
8 (@5 mm
thickness)
Asphalt
22;
95
390; 0.29
K
Mechanical digger
asphalt removal
26
150
3 - 10;
70 - 90%
1,620; 1.20
L
Top-soil removal from
unpaved road or soft-
shoulder
90
20-50
Gravel, soil
1 - 13;
30 - 95%
560; 0.41
'Internal Revenue Service's 2015 Average Exchange Rates for Converting Foreign Currencies into U.S. Dollars (125.911 Yen per Dollar) was used for conversion.
35
-------
A major freeway in Japan is the Joban Expressway, connecting the two major cities of Tokyo and Mito,
and including the Prefectures of lbaraki, Iwaki and Fukushima. The expressway passes through areas of
elevated dose rates and comes within four miles of the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP. An example of high-
pressure water washing of the Joban Expressway using a spin-jet is shown in Figure 2-15.
Figure 2-15. Spin-Jet Decontamination of the Joban Expressway (recreated from
MQE)10
Ftigh-pressure water cleaning technologies have been tested and proven to be one of the most highly
effective techniques for large area decontamination. The higher the pressure, the higher the
decontamination factors obtained. However, one major drawback of high-pressure washing is that it
generates large volumes of waste water. The demonstration projects proposed by several companies
(Fukushima Komatsu Forklift Co. Ltd.; Muramoto Corporation; Todenkogyo Co. Ltd. [MOE, 2012] and
Shimizu Corporation [MOE, 2013a]) provide an on-site waste water treatment technology to their
ultrahigh- and high- pressure mobile units to re-use/recycle water, thereby reducing the volume of
generated waste water during decontamination. Some of the vendors also integrate other technologies
such as a remote handled robot that can perform high-risk operations (Muramoto Corporation) or a 3-
dimensional (3-D) decontamination function feature applicable to either horizontal or vertical surfaces.
There have also been some efforts to reduce the volume of solid wastes generated from decontamination
of roads and sediments in water areas (MOE, 2013a). The technologies demonstrate removal of only a
minimum layer of the surface to minimize waste volumes while achieving a desirable decontamination
factor (DF). For example, NIPPO Corporation (MOE, 2013a) has developed a special bit for thin-layer
(5 mm) cutting on road surfaces, demonstrating a high DF, minimizing waste volumes and preserving
surface properties that enable road restoration without repaving. A remote-controlled scraping machine
for high-slope soil decontamination was demonstrated by Fukasawa Co. Ltd. (MOE, 2013a) to reduce
radiation exposure to workers and for use in high radiation areas. Additionally, Taisei Corporation
(MOE, 2013a) decontaminated the sediment surface in water areas by either thin-layer dredging or thin-
layer capping the surface.
10 http://iosen.env.go.ip/en/work report/20130301.html, accessed June. 2016
36
-------
2.2.5 Playgrounds, Schools and Swimming Pools
Special attention and high priority has been assigned to the decontamination of playgrounds and
swimming pools due to the concerns of potential dose exposure to children. Depending on the type of
playground surfaces, contaminant penetration ranged from depths of 5 to 12 centimeters (cm), with the
majority in the upper 5 cm layer. For soil or grass playgrounds, the decontamination methods used were
the same as those used for agricultural land. Example images from decontamination of schoolyards
using soil grading (top left), artificial turf infill material (top right), and play-structures (bottom) are
shown in Figure 2-16 (MOE, 2013b). For swimming pools, the contamination present in the water was
collected on absorbents placed in the pool, which then settled on the bottom of the pool and were
removed by a combination of vacuum, sweeping and shoveling before being sent to temporary storage
facilities. The pool surfaces then were brushed and washed by high-pressure water jets. Additional
JAEA guidance on cleaning contaminated swimming pools can be found in JAEA (201 lb). Technical
data on performance and waste generation for such decontamination methods are summarized in Table
2.12 (JAEA, 2015a).
Figure 2-16. Example Decontamination of Outdoor School Areas and Playgrounds
(recreated from MOE, 2013b)
37
-------
Table 2.12. Technical Performance and Waste Generation for Examples of Park,
School Field and Swimming Pool Decontamination Techniques (JAEA, 2015a)
Sii rl';ice
Tcclini(|iii-
AiVii
WsiMi-
\\ iisle
Colk-clion
IH-con
Diivcl
Docoiiiiimi
Volume
Tj pc
l \|K' iind
l-iiclor:
liiiploiiicnliilion
Milled (nr.
(.C'lKTilk'd
Kiilo
(iilllllllil
Cost (Yeii/nr:
per d;i\)
(l/ur)
Dose Kiiio
Reduction
S/fl:) lor Aivsis
> 1000 nr
Artificial
Turf
Vacuum filling
2600 (nine
men, two
machines)
10 - 20 @
5 mm
thickness
Artificial
N/A
2.5-2.9
150; 0.11
material
turf infill
60 - 65%
Turf
Thin-layer topsoil
stripping (hammer
knife mower and
65
20 @ 2 cm
depth
Soil
N/A
-10
-90%
710; 0.52
sweeper)
Turf
Thin-layer topsoil
stripping (vibrating
rollers, road
stripping vehicle
and collection)
175
20 - 50 @
2-5 cm
depth
Soil
N/A
5-10
80 - 90%
360; 0.27
Turf
Thin-layer topsoil
stripping (vibrating
rollers, motor-
grader and
collection)
160
20 - 50 @
2-5 cm
depth
Soil,
grass
N/A
10
-90%
290; 0.21
Turf
None
Topsoil-subsoil
substitution
(mechanical
digger, stripping
subsoil, backfill
150
Excavate
top 10cm,
strip to 20
cm,
backfill
with first
10 cm,
then with
20 cm
N/A
N/A
5-6.7
80 - 85%
230; 0.17
topsoil, backfill
subsoil)
Turf
Turf stripping
(large turf
stripping machine)
180
20 - 50 @
2-5 cm
depth
N/A
N/A
1.8
-45%
470; 0.35
Swimming
Water removal,
Pool
sludge removal,
high pressure
water washing,
brushing
45
1
Sludge
and
water
Vacuum
suction
100%
2.5-10.0
60 - 90%
800,000; 590.28
a Internal Revenue Service's 2015 Average Exchange Rates for Converting Foreign Currencies into U.S. Dollars (125.911 Yen per Dollar) was used for
conversion.
2.3 Waste Treatment
Significant volumes of waste continue to be generated during the wide-area remediation efforts
following the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP release. Currently in the Fukushima Prefecture, waste is
separated based on originating location, generation method, waste type and specific activity. The
location in which the waste was generated is divided between that generated in the SDA and ICSA. The
generating method is divided between remediation activities, demolition of houses damaged during the
38
-------
earthquake, and waste generated during cleaning of houses in the evacuated zone. The waste type is
distinguished to best disposition without incompatibility and with volume reduction in mind, specifically
combustible, non-combustible and soil. The specific activity is characterized between less than 8
kBq/kg, less than 100 kBq/kg and above 100 kBq/kg. The term "specified waste" is used to classify
waste from within the SDA consisting of debris from the tsunami, disaster-hit house demolition, and
house cleaning in long-term evacuation areas above 8 kBq/kg. Soil and waste from decontamination
work is termed "decontamination waste". The process for determining the disposition of waste
generated in the Fukushima Prefecture is shown in Figure 2-17 (IAEA, 2015b). Similarly, the flow
chart for the disposition of wastes generated in other Prefectures and the SDA is shown in Figures 2-18
and 2-19, respectively (IAEA, 2015b).
Specified waste
Decontamination waste
Waste within the
countermeasure area
Designated waste
>8 kBq/kg
Soil and waste from
decontamination work
renewable
XZ combustible
yes
yes
combustible
j Incineration j
Temporary storage
Incinerator ash,
etc.
[
I
Volume
reduction
1
> 100 kBq/k]
yes
Interim storage
{within 30 years)
no
I
Existing controlled
landfill site
Monitoring by Government
Disposal
Figure 2-17. Process of Waste Segregation and Treatment in the Fukushima
Prefecture (IAEA, 2015b)
39
-------
Specified waste
Decontamination waste
Designated waste
>8 kBq/kg
Stored at generated site
(water treatment plant,
incineration plant, and
farm house)
Soil and waste from
decontamination work
combustible _
yes
combustib e
Temporary storage
(on site)
Incinerator ash,
etc.
Incineration
Disposal facility
(isolated type)
Monitoring by Government
A -s. g
Prefecture
Monitoring by Government
Disposal standard
(to be determinded)
Figure 2-18. Process of Waste Segregation and Treatment in the Other Prefectures
(IAEA, 2015b)
Tsunami debris
Disaster-hit
house demolition debris
T
Temporary storage sites
House
cleaning waste
T
Combustibles
(wood waste, combustible mixtures)
| Incineration |—*¦
Incinerator ash
etc.
Controlled landfill sites
i n°
-------
In the Fukushima Prefecture, waste is initially stored at the point of generation and is then moved to a
local temporary storage site. The intent is to construct three interim storage locations, capable of storing
the waste from each temporary site for up to 30 years and providing waste minimization capabilities and
allowing Cs-137 to decay by one half-life before a final disposal site is constructed.
By December 2014, a total of 157,416 tons of designated waste > 8 kBq/kg had been generated (IAEA,
2015b).
Liquid waste generated from the decontamination of surfaces is treated using selective ion exchange as
well as sorption on zeolites (IAEA, 2015b). While removing cesium contamination, the process creates
additional solid waste requiring subsequent disposal.
By far the largest fraction of waste from outside the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP fence is soil and
vegetation removed from contaminated land. Vegetation is trimmed and the top six inches of soil is
removed using excavators and transported to staging and containment areas using trucks (Figure 2-20).
Figure 2-20. Excavation of Topsoil and Vegetation
Figure 2-21 shows soil and vegetation being placed in impermeable bags (A), sealed and labeled (B) and
subsequently stored in a temporary satellite location on top of an impermeable layer and surrounded by a
channel to prevent interaction with the groundwater (C). The spray-painted label on the waste bag in
panel B identifies the contents as "shielding", i.e., lower activity waste placed on the outside of the pile
to shield higher activity waste stored deeper in the pile.
41
-------
Figure 2-21. Contaminated Soil and Vegetation Waste Containment
Figure 2-22 shows one example of the more than 700 satellite storage locations, with over one thousand
waste bags stored on each side of the road (circled in red). Eventually, waste stored at the satellite
storage locations will be sent to a waste treatment and minimization facility located in or near a future
interim disposal facility, with a capacity of 15 to 28 million m3 and occupying an estimated area of 3 to
5 km2
42
-------
Figure 2-22. A Panoramic View of an Example Satellite Waste Storage Location in Iitate
43
-------
The volume of waste generated from decontamination depends on several factors, including:
• Material type
• Volume reduction processes
• Decision to decontaminate versus dispose
• Material being decontaminated
• Decontamination method used
• Efficacy of decontamination and the number of cycles
The volume of waste and the contaminant leachability greatly impact the selection (type and location) of
both the interim storage facility and the disposal site. The volumes of contaminated waste generated and
subsequent waste management during the DPP were important consideration factors in the
decontamination technology selection processes, specifically regarding efforts to optimize the overall
remediation efficiency. For example, the high-pressure water jet technology used in the DPP generated
large volumes of wastewater and subsequently presented a challenge for waste treatment techniques.
Therefore, use of "dry" decontamination technologies such as dry-stripping of paint combined with
High-Efficiency Particulate Arrestance (HEPA) filtration, shot blasting, dry ice blasting, or otherwise
minimizing use of fluids by increasing efficiency (e.g., high-pressure jet with recirculating water, or
the use of surfactants, microbubbles and ozonation) was preferred. For solid wastes, volume reduction is
implemented wherever practical. The reduction in vegetation and soil waste generated from
decontamination efforts continues to be a focus of techniques and technologies evaluated by MOE and
JAEA, particularly where incineration, thermal decomposition and heat drying are primary technologies.
Table 2.13 lists technologies used for treatments of various types of wastes. A number of soil
decontamination treatments were tested on the laboratory scale, including:
• High temperature (1,300 °C) Cs extraction;
• Washing to remove fine clay particles;
• Milling and washing to remove fines, with or without additional heat treatment at 700 °C;
• Cavitation jet and microbubble separation processes; organic acid extraction; and
• Separation based on activity levels.
However, these treatments are costly and have not yet been tested on an industrial scale (JAEA, 2015a).
44
-------
Table 2.13. Technologies used for Waste Treatments
Tjpe ol' Material
1 Apical
r.\amples
Treatment
Options
1 realmenl
Kesu lis
Direcl
Implementation
( osf
Non-combustible
decontamination
wastes
Liquid waste
Swimming pool
water, sludge
from
decontamination
washing
Various
combinations of
filtration, ion-
specific sorption,
precipitation and
coagulation of
suspended material
with radioactivity.
Discharge the
supernatants.
Before treatment:
290-33,100
Bq/kg; after
treatment: below
limit of detection
(4 Bq/kg), DF>
100
6,000 JPY/m3;
1.35 $/ft3
Organic (soil)
Topsoil, forest
soil, mineral soil,
agricultural soil
and gutter
sediment
Scanning technique
to separate higher
from lower
radioactivity
materials.
Dispose of higher
radioactivity
materials and
return lower ones
to the field.
Inorganic
(residential
paving, etc.)
Stones and
gravel
Load these wastes
into large flexible
bags, label and then
transport to a
temporary storage
location.
Inorganic
(materials from
surface
stripping)
Blasting
materials,
peelable
strippers
Inorganic
(asphalt)
Road surface,
pavements
Inorganic
(secondary
wastes)
Plastic sheets,
filters (masks
and water
treatment filters)
Combustible
decontamination
wastes
Organic
(vegetation)
Grass (turf grass,
moss, weeds,
etc.). Timber,
branches and
leaves (bamboo,
pruned branches,
etc.)
Significant volume
reduction by
mechanical
shredding /
chipping. Further
volume reduction
via incineration.
Volume reduction
rate by incineration
~ 95%
Soil and sand
mixed with roots
Rotary drier
(Minamisoma),
low-temperature
incineration, 250 -
400 °C
Volume reduction
rates of ~ 70-90%
Other flammable
wastes generated
as a result of
decontamination
work
Tyvek®
packaging, waste
cloth, etc.
Incineration
a Internal Revenue Service's 2015 Average Exchange Rates for Converting Foreign Currencies into U.S. Dollars (125.911 Yen per Dollar) was used for
conversion.
45
-------
A flow diagram for the treatment of waste waters resulting from decontamination of roofs, guttering and
roads is shown in Figure 2-23. Since cesium binds to soil particulates and other materials, it is important
to separate solids from the water itself before discharging. This propensity also serves as a method of
separation.
Wastewater treatment
Decontamination of roofs, rainwater guttering, roads, etc.
Cases where the removal of
sediments and wiping is earned
at^d w&stcwstcr treatment 1 s
Cases where the
destination the
wastewater flows
to is the soil <
Filtration
treatment via soil
Stripping
away and
deep plowing
Soil particles
with
radiocaesium
adhering to them
are stopped by
the soil and the
soil is removed.
Cases where
wastewater treatment is
carried out
Sedimentation treatment using
street drains
Water collection (damming
street drains with sandbags)
Water collection via
rainwater chambers
is also possible n
Sedimentation of suspended
solids (soil particles, etc.)
w
Supernatant
liquid
Collection of
the sediment
Discharge
Water recovery-type
high pressure water
cleaning
Sedimentation treatment using water
tanks
Collect water (plastic containers,
temporary pools, attached tanks
for water recovery-type high
pressure water cleaning, etc.)
Sedimentation of suspended
solids (soil particles, etc.)
Supernatant
liquid
Use coagulants as
needed
Collection of
Discharge
Figure 2-23. Flow Diagram for Wastewater Treatment (MOE, 2013b)
During the period from 2011 to 2014, the MOE decontamination technique demonstration program
selected a total of 58 waste management techniques for verification prior to their field applications. The
vast majority of techniques selected in this program involved waste using volume reduction and
radioactivity stabilization in waste forms prior to transporting waste to storage facilities.
46
-------
For organic wastes, an approximate volume reduction rate of 95% was achieved by incineration and
thermal decomposition. The fly ash generated in the processes was decontaminated using water
washing to remove soluble Cs-137. Some demonstration projects also used an integrated waste
treatment and decontamination technology to produce ethanol as fuel for decontamination machines. In
other projects, the decontaminated fermentation byproducts were retained to be used as fertilizer, also
aiding the reduction of organic waste volume. Soil sorting methods have also been employed to reduce
the volume of contaminated soils. Such methods included separation of fine particles from coarse
uncontaminated soil, and separation of organic debris by washing (with water or chemicals) to remove
water-soluble contamination. Table 2.14 summarizes the waste treatment technologies selected in the
MOE demonstration program during 2011 to 2014 (MOE, 2012; 2013a; 2014a; 2014b).
Table 2.14. Summary of Waste Treatment Technologies Selected In MOE
Demons ration iVounsm 12011-2014)
Ohjecls
lochni(|iios
IViiliiivs
Or^iini/iilioii
Organics
Biomass power generation
and production of ethanol
Pyrolytic gasification and carbonization,
and utilization of the generated gases
Tekken Corporation
Organics
Production of ethanol (using grasses and
woods)
Contig-I Inc.
Organics
Phytoremediation and production and
gasification power generation of ethanol
(using polysaccharide plants)
Japan Groundwork
Association
Organics
Biomass power generation
Thermal decomposition (carbonization
and gasification), and combustion of the
charcoal
Konoike Construction Co.
Ltd.
Organics
Volume reduction by
carbonization
Carbonization (transportable type)
Yamaguchi Seisakusho Co.
Ltd.
Organics
Superheated steam carbonization.
Shirakawaido Boring Inc.
Organics
Incineration
Mobile in-furnace air-cooling incinerator
and volume reduction.
Shinseigiken Engineering
Co. Ltd.
Organics
Volume reduction and
removed soil and wastes
Demonstration of the Bio-coke
technology for volume reduction and
stabilization of contaminated organic
matter, and verification of transport
efficiency improvement, safety and
economic efficiency by volume reduction
Chugai Ro Co., Ltd.
Organics
Shredding, suction and
recovery
Laborsaving for greenery
decontamination using shredding and
suction.
Fukushima Komatsu Forklift
Co., Ltd.
Organics
Drying and shredding
Drying, shredding and segmented gate for
mixture of plant and soil.
Obayashi Corporation
Organics
Volume reduction
Incineration (low temperature
incineration)
Tohoku University
Organics
Low-temperature pyrolysis and biofuel.
Toonokosan Corporation
47
-------
Ohjecls
lochni(|iios
IViiluivs
Or^iini/iilioii
Organics
Washing
W ater washing and measurement of
surface contamination density.
\io\iti: (o i.id
Organics
Cleaning
Grinding cleaning
Aizudoken Corporation
Organics
Water cleaning and compression molding
Toonokosan Corporation
Incineration
ash
Leaching of Cesium from fly ash and
adsorption of cesium with Prussian blue
Koriyama Chip Industry Co.
Ltd.
Incineration
ash
Washing
Saving wastewater load using high
efficiency washing.
Fujita Corporation
Incineration
ash
Washing and magnetic
separation
Recovery of Cs using magnetic
nanoparticle coated with absorbent after
washing.
Taisei Corporation
Incineration
ash
Solidification (Superfluid
method)
Solidification and volume reduction of
incineration ash using solidification agent
and external vibration. Solidification
(Superfluid method)
Hazama Corporation
Incineration
ash
Solidification /non-
leachability
Compound synthetic resin solidification.
E&E Techno Service Co.
Ltd.
Incineration
ash
Granulation, solidification and washing.
Obayashi Corporation
Incineration
ash
Melting
Melted slag and volume reduction.
Kobe Steel Co. Ltd.
Soil
Segmented gate system
Automated wet segmented gate,
scrubbing cleaning (wet system) and
treatment of concentrated residues.
Shimizu Corporation
Soil
Mixed air jet pump, swirl segmented gate
system (wet system)
Maezawa Industries, Inc.
Soil
Mixed air pump, Sieve-based segmented
gate (wet type)
Radioactive Waste
Management and Nuclear
Facility Decommissioning
Technique Center
Soil
Grinding and segmented gate (dry
system) and surface grinding (dry system)
Fuji Furukawa Engineering
& Construction Co. Ltd.
Soil
Fluoride salt
Cs elution using fluoride salt at normal
temperature and pressures.
Swing Corporation
Soil
Vacuum pressure
Dewatering and solidification using
cement and vacuum pressure.
Maeda Corporation
Soil
Volume reduction and
removed soil and wastes
Demonstration of classifying and washing
the contaminated soil by movable system
on the truck, and the validation for
reusing the cleansed soil
HITACHI KIKAI Co.
Soil sorting
Transportation, temporary
storage and interim storage
of removed materials
Demonstration test of the Contaminated
Soil Sorting Unit for radioactive
AREVA NC Japan Projects
Co., Ltd.
48
-------
Ohjecls
lochni(|iios
IViiliiivs
Or^iini/iilioii
lUilllHIl
sediment
Segmented gale s\siem
Segmented gale s\siem fur hniinni
sediments
Vnin ('niisiniclinii (\>, 1 .id
Bottom
sediment
Coagulation sedimentation
Coagulation sedimentation (Fast)
Mitsubishi Kakoki Kaisha
Ltd.
Bottom
sediment
Dredging/segmented gate
Dredging system and centrifuge
segmented gate (wet system)
Toyo Construction Co. Ltd.
Sewage sludge
Incineration
Water glass solidification and ferric
ferrocyanide
Tokyo Institute of
Technology
Sludge
Volume reduction and
removed soil and wastes
Demonstration test for reduction of
radiological exposure using a cloth
traveling filter press
ISHIGAKI Company, LTD
Waste
treatment
Waste treatment
Multifunctional fill
Asahi-Kasei Geotechnologies
Co. Ltd.
Water
Adsorption of Cs ion and filtration using
functional carbide
GAIA Institute of
Environmental Technology
Inc.
Construction
method
Transportation, temporary
storage and interim storage
of removed materials
Effective construction method for low
permeability layer of radioactive storage
facility by simply crushing in-situ
excavated soil
Taisei Corporation
Transportation
Demonstration of mass transportation
management system using Dedicated
Short Range Communications (DSRC) to
transport the removed soils in Fukushima
prefecture
Hanshin Expressway
Company Limited
Breaking of
flexible
container bags
Technology demonstration of non-
contact, high efficiency and energy
conserving Water-Jet-Cutter for breaking
flexible container with low level
radioactive materials in interim storage
facility
SHIMIZU Corporation
Bag breaking
and polluted
water
processing
Demonstration of the container-bag
unloading and breaking system requiring
no worker and cleanup technology for
polluted water in container bags
Obayashi Corporation
Concrete
debris
Utilization
Reducing dose rates of contaminated
concrete debris by crushing and using as
coarse aggregates for structural concrete
Toda Corporation
Concrete
debris
Grinding/segmented gate
Moisture solidification & abrasion
segmented gate (dry system)
Takasago Thermal
Engineering Co. Ltd.
49
-------
MOE has a plan to construct the interim storage facility (ISF) in Okuma and Futaba town in Fukushima
Prefecture.11 MOE is currently working to obtain land acquisition from individual land owners. MOE
assesses approximately 22 million (M) m3 of radioactive wastes to be transported, treated, and stored in
the ISF. The radioactive wastes consist of 10 Mm3 soil with radioactivity less than 8000 Bq/kg, 10 Mm3
soil with 8000-100,000 Bq/kg, 10,000 m3 soil with higher than 100,000 Bq/kg, 1.55 Mm3 of incineration
ash, and 20,000 m3 of other wastes with higher than 100,000 Bq/kg from the temporary storage sites
across Fukushima Prefecture. The ISF will consist of several facilities including waste separation, soil
waste storage, volume reduction (incineration), and high level (more than 100,000 Bq/kg) waste storage.
For safe and secure waste transportation, MOE conducted a pilot transportation project from March
2015 for a year. This project transported approximately 1000 m3 of decontamination soil from municipal
temporary storage sites to the future ISF site. The project used a total of 45,382 m2 of stock yards in
towns of Okuma and Futaba. The used tucks are a total of 7,529 and each truck was screened for
radioactivity. All trucks passed the screening standard of 13,000 cpm. The pilot project results showed
that transportation route, traffic peak hour, local traffic volume, and road repairs should be considered
prior to the full scale transportation.
In the U.S. a software exists, developed for the Yucca Mountain Project for disposal of nuclear waste
canisters from U.S. nuclear reactor fleet, to determine such factors as transportation route, populations
affected, radiological consequences and risks to workers, by-standers and residents. RADTRAN was
developed and maintained by Sandia National Laboratories (Weiner et al., 2014) and is being extended
into DOE Nuclear Energy's Nuclear Storage and Transportation Planning Project. The software may be
applicable to address logistical and risk calculations for the transport of decontamination waste from
impacted towns and Prefectures to temporary, interim and final storage/disposal locations in Japan.
3. Conclusions and Recommendations
A significant lesson learned from nuclear (as well as chemical and biological) incidents is that prior
preparation, testing of technologies and development of guidance aids recovery. Having a toolbox of
technologies to deploy and criteria to make decisions on appropriate technologies for surfaces and areas
provide decision-makers with valuable insight when comparing the trade-offs of efficacy, speed, cost,
risk to workers and waste generation. What is abundantly clear in Japan is the magnitude of the
recovery effort, including the time and resources needed, the impact on residents and the volume of
waste that is being generated from decontamination activities.
After reviewing technologies implemented since the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant release in
Japan in 2011, it is evident that both traditional, well-proven and newly developed techniques are
available for surveying from the air and ground, decontamination of a wide variety of surfaces, and
waste treatment and volume reduction.
Sensitivity and portability improvements in detection technology allow real-time mapping of
contamination. These improvements are largely driven by DOE and DHS needs to detect radiological
material, and application in Japan is providing additional improvements. Deployment on UAVs would
11 http://iosen.env.go.ip/en/pdf/progressseet progress on cleanup efforts.pdf last accessed June 2016
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improve the capabilities for challenging environments that preclude the use of larger aircraft, vehicles or
hand-held detectors.
Deployment of PSF on vehicles has been demonstrated by JAEA. However, the design should be
improved so that the vehicle speed (which is currently 1 mph) can be increased to more practical speeds
such as 10-30 mph. Additionally, deployment of PSF on vehicles capable of either marking, stabilizing
or remediating contamination in situ would be a significant benefit.
Public outreach and real-time monitoring with displays accessible to the public are also key aspects of
the response. In Japan, the Decontamination Plaza provides public education on radiation, risk and
decontamination methods, making residents aware of what they can expect to experience. Similarly,
urban air monitoring and freeway signs provide information on local conditions. Both education and
real-time information can significantly improve public trust and cooperation. Deployment of "crowd-
sourced" detectors such as KURAMA-II provide a network of real-time information. Such networks
can be extended to include a variety of vehicles, from buses and taxis, to delivery and utility trucks.
Organizing decontamination techniques by area (e.g., forest, or residential) and subsequently by surface
type provides the basis for a plan. Many decontamination methods were reviewed in preparing this
report, which highlights key technologies fielded in Japan. Methods that utilize widely available
technologies with ease of use allow rapid deployment with minimal training. In Japan, rather than
relying on radiation workers to perform decontamination activities, the work is being performed by
contractors who receive training in radiation protection, allowing wide-area remediation to begin
quickly and continue over long periods. A range of techniques, from minimally destructive (such as
pressure washing and vacuuming), partially destructive (e.g., concrete or asphalt shaving, shot-blasting),
to completely destructive (e.g., excavation) provides to be effective in remediating contamination.
Opportunities exist to improve such widely available technologies. Application of filtration systems to
mowers, or applying fixatives prior to mowing or sod removal can reduce the potential for resuspension
while remediating lawns and wild-grass areas. Similarly, applying efficient filters to street-sweeping
and vacuum trucks will reduce re-aerosolization, as will application of water or agglomeration agents
prior to collection.
Ultimately, one of the greatest factors in wide-area remediation is waste. Typically, the larger the waste
volume is, the higher the cost. Determining responsibilities for waste generation, staging, minimization
and disposition is equally important as determining limits and methods for treatment. In Japan, this was
divided between Federal and Municipal Governments. Differences in U.S. branches of government
(Federal, State and Local) as well as social and cultural differences between the U.S. and Japan may
result in different processes and expectations.
Many waste treatment technologies continue to be developed and tested in Japan, from incineration of
organic waste to segmented gate separation of soils. Technologies are also being developed for
automated surveying, moving and opening storage/transportation bags, which is vital considering the
volume of waste. Transportation logistics from one site to another, from the site of generation to the
temporary storage location, to the interim storage location and to the ultimate internment location must
be considered. This must include the route, the associated activity and the risk to residents near the
route. Software exists, developed for the Yucca Mountain Project in the U.S., to determine such factors,
and is being extended as part of DOE's Office of Nuclear Energy Storage and Transportation Planning
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Project. Such software (RADTRAN) should be considered to evaluate transportation routes for
radiological waste from wide area remediation.
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