United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Research and
Development
Washington, DC 20460
EPA 620/R-06/003
October 2006
Surface Waters
Western Pilot Study:
Field Operations Manual for
Wadeable Streams
Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program
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EPA/620/R-06/003
October 2006
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT PROGRAM-
SURFACE WATERS
WESTERN PILOT STUDY:
FIELD OPERATIONS MANUAL FOR
WADEABLE STREAMS
by
David V. Peck1, Alan.T. Herlihy2, Brian H. Hill3, Robert M. Hughes2,
Philip R. Kaufmann1, Donald J. Klemm4, James M. Lazorchak4, Frank H. McCormick5,
Spencer A. Peterson1, Paul L. Ringold1, Teresa Magee6, and Marlys R. Cappaert7
1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research
Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, OR 97333
department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97333
3 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research
Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN 55804
4 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ecological Exposure Research Division, National Exposure
Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH 45268
5 USDA Forest Service, Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory,
Pacific Northwest Research Station, Olympia, WA 98512
6 Dynamac International, Inc., Corvallis, OR 97333
7 Computer Sciences Corp, Corvallis, OR 97333.
NATIONAL HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NC 27711
NATIONAL EXPOSURE RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NC 27711
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NOTICE
The information in this document has been funded wholly or in part by the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency under the following contracts and cooperative
agreements:
Contracts 68-D06-005 and EP-D-06-013 to Dynamac, Inc.
Contract 68-W01-032 to Computer Sciences Corp.
Cooperative Agreement TBN16816 with Oregon State University.
This work is in support of the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP).
It has been subjected to review by the National Health and Environmental Effects
Research Laboratory and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents reflect the views of the Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial
products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
The suggested citation for this document is:
Peck, D.V., A.T. Herlihy, B.H. Hill, R.M. Hughes, P.R. Kaufmann, D.J. Klemm, J.M.
Lazorchak, F.H. McCormick, S.A. Peterson, P.L. Ringold, T. Magee, and M.
Cappaert. 2006. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface
Waters Western Pilot Study: Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams.
EPA/620/R-06/003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, D.C.
Section authors are listed on the following page. Complete addresses for authors
are provided in each section.
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Section 1:
Section 2:
Section 3:
Section 4:
Section 5:
Section 6:
Section 7:
Section 8:
Section 9:
Section 10:
Section 11:
Section 12:
Section 13:
Section 14:
D.V. Peck1, AT. Herlihy2, B.H. Hill3, R.M. Hughes2, P R.
Kaufmann1, D. J. Klemm4, and S.G. Paulsen1
B.H. Hill3, F.H. McCormick5, J.M. Lazorchak4, D.J. Klemm4, and
M. Cappaert6
D.J. Klemm1, B.H. Hill3, F.H. McCormick5, D.V. Peck1, and M.
Cappaert6
A T. Herlihy2
A T. Herlihy2
P R. Kaufmann1
P R. Kaufmann1
P.L. Ringold1 and T. Magee7, and P.R. Kaufmann1
B.H. Hill3 and D.V. Peck1
D.J. Klemm4, J.M. Lazorchak4
F.H. McCormick5 and R. M. Hughes2
R.M. Hughes2, S.A. Peterson1, and F.H. McCormick5
A. T. Herlihy2 and J.M. Lazorchak4
J.M. Lazorchak4
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW35th St., Corvallis,
OR 97333.
Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333.
U.S. EPA, National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, 6201 Congdon Blvd,
Duluth, MN 55804.
U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr.,
Cincinnati, OH 45268.
USDA Forest Service, Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Olympia, WA 98512
Computer Sciences Corporation, Corvallis, OR 97333.
Dynamac International, Inc., Corvallis, OR 97333.
iii
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ABSTRACT
This document describes field procedures that were used during the Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) Western Pilot Study, conducted from 1999
through 2004. Objectives for EMAP involve developing appropriate scientific and technical
tools for evaluating ecological condition on regional and national scales. The procedures
in this document are based on previously published EMAP procedures, modified to adapt
them to the specific requirements of the Western Pilot Study. Procedures are described
for collecting field measurement data and/or acceptable samples for several response and
stressor indicators, including aquatic vertebrate assemblages, benthic macroinvertebrate
assemblages, periphyton assemblages, water chemistry, physical habitat, invasive riparian
plants, and fish tissue contaminants. Additional information on data management, safety
and health, and other logistical aspects are integrated into the procedures and overall
operational scenario. Flowcharts and other graphic aids summarize specific field activities
required to visit a stream site and collect data for these indicators. Tables give step-by-
step instructions for each procedure. These figures and tables are designed to be
extracted and bound separately to make a convenient reference guide for field teams. The
manual also includes example field data forms for recording field measurements and
sample tracking information. Checklists of all supplies and equipment needed for each
field task are included to help ensure that these materials are available when required.
These procedures should be considered for future use in field studies sponsored by EMAP,
related research projects such as the Regional Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Program (R-EMAP), and possibly in other stream monitoring programs designed to assess
the ecological condition of wadeable streams.
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
NOTICE ii
ABSTRACT iv
FIGURES x
TABLES xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii
ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND MEASUREMENT UNITS xx
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 OVERVIEW OF EMAP-SURFACE WATERS 2
1.2 WESTERN PILOT STUDY 3
1.3 SUMMARY OF ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS 7
1.3.1 Water Chemistry 7
1.3.2 Physical Habitat 7
1.3.3 Periphyton Assemblage 8
1.3.4 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Assemblage 9
1.3.5 Aquatic Vertebrate Assemblages 10
1.3.6 Fish Tissue Contaminants 10
1.4 RESPONSE DESIGN 11
1.5 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS MANUAL 12
1.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE 13
1.7 LITERATURE CITED 13
2 OVERVIEW OF FIELD OPERATIONS 23
2.1 DAILY OPERATIONAL SCENARIO 23
2.2 GUIDELINES FOR RECORDING DATA AND INFORMATION 24
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
2.3 HEALTH AND SAFETY 26
2.3.1 General Considerations 30
2.3.2 Safety Equipment and Facilities 32
2.3.3 Safety Guidelines for Field Operations 33
2.4 LITERATURE CITED 35
3 BASE LOCATION ACTIVITIES 37
3.1 ACTIVITIES BEFORE EACH STREAM VISIT 36
3.1.1 Confirming Site Access 38
3.1.2 Daily Sampling Itinerary 38
3.1.3 Instrument Inspections and Performance Tests 40
3.1.4 Preparation of Equipment and Supplies 45
3.2 ACTIVITIES AFTER EACH STREAM VISIT 49
3.2.1 Equipment Cleaning 49
3.2.2 Sample Packing, Shipment, and Tracking 51
3.3 STATUS REPORTS 61
3.4 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 61
3.5 LITERATURE CITED 64
4 INITIAL SITE PROCEDURES 67
4.1 SITE VERIFICATION ACTIVITIES 67
4.1.1 Locating the Index Site 67
4.1.2 Determining the Sampling Status of a Stream 68
4.1.3 Sampling During or After Rain Events 72
4.1.4 Site Photographs 73
4.2 LAYING OUT THE SUPPORT REACH 73
4.3 MODIFYING SAMPLE PROTOCOLS FOR HIGH OR LOW FLOWS 79
4.3.1 Streams with Interrupted Flow 79
4.3.2 Partially Wadeable Sites 79
4.3.3 Streams with Braided Channel Patterns 81
4.4 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 82
4.5 LITERATURE CITED 82
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
5 WATER CHEMISTRY 85
5.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION 86
5.2 FIELD MEASUREMENTS 87
5.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 95
5.4 LITERATURE CITED 95
6 STREAM DISCHARGE 99
6.1 VELOCITY-AREA PROCEDURE 100
6.2 NEUTRALLY-BUOYANT OBJECT PROCEDURE 100
6.3 TIMED FILLING PROCEDURE 106
6.4 DIRECT DETERMINATON OF DISCHARGE 107
6.5 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 109
6.6 LITERATURE CITED 109
7 PHYSICAL HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION 111
7.1 COMPONENTS OF THE HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION 113
7.2 HABITAT SAMPLING LOCATIONS WITHIN THE SUPPORT REACH 115
7.3 LOGISTICS AND WORKFLOW 117
7.4 THALWEG PROFILE AND LARGE WOODY DEBRIS MEASUREMENTS ... 119
7.4.1 Thalweg Profile 119
7.4.2 Large Woody Debris Tally 128
7.5 CHANNEL AND RIPARIAN MEASUREMENTS AT CROSS-SECTION
TRANSECTS 131
7.5.1 Slope and Bearing 131
7.5.2 Substrate Size and Channel Dimensions 137
7.5.3 Bank Characteristics 139
7.5.4 Canopy Cover Measurements 149
7.5.5 Riparian Vegetation Structure 152
7.5.6 Instream Fish Cover, Algae, and Aquatic Macrophytes 155
7.5.7 Human Influence 157
7.5.8 Cross-section Transects on Side Channels 157
7.5.9 Riparian "Legacy" Trees 160
vii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
7.6 CHANNEL CONSTRAINT, DEBRIS TORRENTS, AND RECENT FLOODS .. 160
7.6.1 Channel Constraint 160
7.6.2 Debris Torrents and Recent Major Floods 168
7.7 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 169
7.8 LITERATURE CITED 169
8 INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANTS 177
8.1 DETERMINING THE PRESENCE OF INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANTS 178
8.2 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 178
8.3 LITERATURE CITED 178
9 PERIPHYTON 183
9.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION 184
9.2 PREPARATION OF LABORATORY SAMPLES 184
9.2.1 ID/Enumeration Sample 188
9.2.2 Chlorophyll Sample 190
9.2.3 Biomass Sample 190
9.3 COLLECTING PERIPHYTON FROM A TARGETED HABITAT 193
9.4 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 193
9.5 LITERATURE CITED 197
10 BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES 203
10.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION 204
10.1.1 Reachwide Sample 204
10.1.2 Targeted Riffle Sample 207
10.2 SAMPLE PROCESSING 214
10.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPIES 219
10.4 LITERATURE CITED 222
11 AQUATIC VERTEBRATES 225
11.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION 226
11.1.1 Electrofishing 226
11.1.2 Seining 234
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Section Page
11.2 SAMPLE PROCESSING 237
11.2.1 Taxonomic Identification and Tally 237
11.2.2 External Examination and Length Measurements 240
11.2.3 Preparing Voucher Specimens 241
11.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 245
11.4 LITERATURE CITED 245
12 FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANTS 251
12.1 PREPARING TISSUE CONTAMINANT SAMPLES 252
12.2 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 255
12.3 LITERATURE CITED 255
13 RAPID HABITAT AND GENERAL VISUAL STREAM ASSESSMENTS 259
13.1 RAPID HABITAT ASSESSMENT 259
13.2 GENERAL VISUAL STREAM ASSESSMENT 270
13.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES 274
13.4 LITERATURE CITED 274
14 FINAL SITE ACTIVITIES 277
Appendix Page
A EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLY CHECKLISTS A-1
B CHANGES AND MODIFICATIONS TO EMAP-SURFACE WATERS FIELD
PROCEDURES B-1
C FIELD DATA FORMS C-1 and CD-ROM
D INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANT IDENTIFICATION GUIDES D-1 and CD-ROM
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FIGURES
Figure Page
1-1 Study areas and locations of sites sampled for the EMAP Western Pilot Study 5
1-2 Candidate reference sites sampled for the EMAP Western Pilot Study 6
2-1 General sequence of stream sampling activities 25
3-1 Base location activities 39
3-2 Performance test procedure for a dissolved oxygen meter 42
3-3 Sample container labels 50
3-4 Sample tracking form for unpreserved samples 54
3-5 Sample tracking form for preserved samples 58
3-6 Equipment and supply checklist for base location activities 63
4-1 Stream Verification Form (page 1) 71
4-2 Stream Verification Form (page 2) 77
4-3 Support reach features 78
4-4 Equipment and supplies checklist for initial site activities 83
5-1 Completed sample labels for water chemistry 87
5-2 Sample Collection Form (page 2), showing data recorded for water
chemistry samples 89
5-3 Channel Constraint and Field Measurement Form, showing data recorded for
water chemistry 92
5-4 Checklist of equipment and supplies for water chemistry 96
6-1 Layout of channel cross-section for obtaining discharge data by the velocity-area
procedure 101
6-2 Stream Discharge Form, showing data recorded for all discharge measurement
procedures 104
6-3 Use of a portable weir in conjunction with a calibrated bucket to obtain an
estimate of stream discharge 107
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FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Figure Page
6-4 Equipment and supply checklist for stream discharge 110
7-1 Support reach layout for physical habitat measurements (plan view) 116
7-2 Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris Form 122
7-3 Large woody debris influence zones 130
7-4 Channel slope and bearing measurements 132
7-5 Slope and Bearing Form 134
7-6 Substrate sampling cross-section 138
7-7 Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form for a main channel transect 142
7-8 Determining bank angle under different types of bank conditions 144
7-9 Schematic showing the relationship between bankfull channel and incision 147
7-10 Determining bankfull and incision heights for (A) deeply incised channels, and
(B) streams in deep V-shaped valleys 148
7-11 Schematic of modified convex spherical canopy densiometer 150
7-12 Riparian zone and instream fish cover plots for a stream cross-section transect.. . 153
7-13 Riparian and instream fish cover plots for a stream with minor and major
side channels 159
7-14 Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form for an additional major side channel
transect 161
7-15 Riparian "Legacy" Tree and Invasive Alien Plant Form (Page 1), showing data
for riparian legacy trees 163
7-16 Channel Constraint and Field Chemistry Form, showing data for channel
constraint 166
7-17 Types of multiple channel patterns 167
7-18 Torrent Evidence Assessment Form 170
7-19 Checklist of equipment and supplies for physical habitat 171
8-1 Boundaries for visual estimation of invasive riparian plants 178
8-2 Riparian "Legacy" Tree and Invasive Alien Plant Form (Page 1), showing data
for invasive riparian plants 179
8-3 Checklist of equipment and supplies for determining the presence of invasive
riparian plants 180
xi
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FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Figure Page
9-1 Response design for collecting periphyton samples 185
9-2 Sample Collection Form (pagel) showing data recorded for periphyton samples. . . 187
9-3 Completed set of periphyton sample labels 188
9-4 Filtration apparatus for preparing chlorophyll and biomass subsamples
for periphyton 192
9-5 Completed label for the targeted habitat periphyton sample 197
9-6 Field data form for targeted habitat periphyton samples 198
9-7 Descriptions of channel classes and habitat types associated with
targeted habitat periphyton samples 199
9-8 Checklist of equipment and supplies for periphyton 200
10-1 Modified D-frame kick net 205
10-2 Response design for the reachwide benthic macroinvertebrate sample 206
10-3 Sample Collection Form (page 1), showing information for the reachwide and
targeted riffle benthic macroinvertebrate samples 211
10-4 Response design for the targeted riffle benthic macroinvertebrate sample 212
10-5 Completed labels for benthic macroinvertebrate samples 219
10-6 Blank labels for benthic invertebrate samples 220
10-7 Equipment and supply checklist for benthic macroinvertebrates 221
11-1 Vertebrate Collection Form (page 1) 227
11-2 Completed voucher sample label and specimen bag tag for aquatic vertebrates. . 244
11-3 Equipment and supplies checklist for aquatic vertebrates 246
12-1 Vertebrate Collection Form showing information recorded for fish tissue
contaminant samples 254
12-2 Completed labels for fish tissue contaminant samples 255
12-3 Equipment and supplies checklist for fish tissue contaminants 256
13-1 Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for riffle/run prevalent streams (page 1) 266
13-2 Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for riffle/run prevalent streams (page 2) 267
13-3 Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for glide/pool prevalent streams (page 1) 268
13-4 Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for glide/pool prevalent streams (page 2) 269
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FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Figure Page
13-5 Stream Assessment Form (page 1) 273
13-6 Stream Assessment Form (page 2) 275
13-7 Checklist of equipment and supplies required for rapid habitat and general
visual stream assessments 276
14-1 Checklist for reviewing field data forms and sample labels 278
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TABLES
Table Page
2-1 ESTIMATED TIMES AND DIVISION OF LABOR FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES 24
2-2 GUIDELINES FOR RECORDING FIELD DATA AND OTHER INFORMATION 27
2-3 GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 31
2-4 GENERAL SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR FIELD OPERATIONS 34
3-1 CHECKING THE CALIBRATION OF THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN METER 43
3-2 STOCK SOLUTIONS, USES, AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARATION 44
3-3 PERFORMANCE CHECK OF NEWER CONDUCTIVITY METERS 46
3-4 PERFORMANCE CHECK OF OLDER CONDUCTIVITY METERS 47
3-5 GENERAL PERFORMANCE CHECKS FOR CURRENT VELOCITY METERS 48
3-6 EQUIPMENT CARE AFTER EACH STREAM VISIT 52
3-7 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PACKING AND SHIPPING UNPRESERVED
SAMPLES 56
3-8 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PACKING AND SHIPPING PRESERVED
SAMPLES 59
3-9 STATUS REPORTING 62
4-1 SITE VERIFICATION PROCEDURES 69
4-2 GUIDELINES TO DETERMINE THE INFLUENCE OF RAIN EVENTS 73
4-3 LAYING OUT THE SUPPORT REACH 75
4-4 MODIFICATIONS FOR SUPPORT REACHES WITH INTERRUPTED FLOW 80
4-5 MODIFICATIONS FOR STREAMS WITH BRAIDED CHANNEL PATTERNS 82
5-1 SAMPLE COLLECTION PROCEDURES FOR WATER CHEMISTRY 88
5-2 PROCEDURES FOR STREAMSIDE AND IN SITU CHEMISTRY
MEASUREMENTS 90
5-3 PROCEDURES FOR IN SITU MEASUREMENTS OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN,
CONDUCTIVITY, AND TEMPERATURE USING A MULTI-FUNCTION METER 93
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TABLES (CONTINUED)
Table Page
6-1 VELOCITY-AREA PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING STREAM DISCHARGE ... 102
6-2 NEUTRALLY BUOYANT OBJECT PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING
STREAM DISCHARGE 105
6-3 TIMED FILLING PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING STREAM DISCHARGE 108
7-1 COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION 114
7-2 THALWEG PROFILE PROCEDURE 120
7-3 CHANNEL UNIT AND POOL FORMING ELEMENT CATEGORIES 125
7-4 PROCEDURE FOR TALLYING LARGE WOODY DEBRIS 129
7-5 PROCEDURE FOR OBTAINING SLOPE AND BEARING DATA 133
7-6 MODIFIED PROCEDURE FOR OBTAINING SLOPE AND BEARING DATA 135
7-7 SUBSTRATE MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE 140
7-8 PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING BANK CHARACTERISTICS 143
7-9 PROCEDURE FOR CANOPY COVER MEASUREMENTS 151
7-10 PROCEDURE FOR CHARACTERIZING RIPARIAN VEGETATION
STRUCTURE 154
7-11 PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING INSTREAM FISH COVER 156
7-12 PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING HUMAN INFLUENCE 158
7-13 PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING RIPARIAN LEGACY TREES 162
7-14 PROCEDURES FOR ASSESSING CHANNEL CONSTRAINT 165
8-1 PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANT SPECIES 177
9-1 PROCEDURE FOR COLLECTING COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF PERIPHYTON . . 186
9-2 PREPARATION OF ID/ENUMERATION SAMPLE FOR PERIPHYTON 189
9-3 PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING CHLOROPHYLL AND BIOMASS SAMPLES
FOR PERIPHYTON 191
9-4 COLLECTING A TARGETED HABITAT PERIPHYTON SAMPLE 194
xv
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TABLES (CONTINUED)
Table Page
10-1 PROCEDURE TO COLLECT KICK NET SAMPLES FOR THE REACHWIDE
COMPOSITE SAMPLE 208
10-2 LOCATING SAMPLING POINTS FOR KICK NET SAMPLES: TARGETED
RIFFLE SAMPLE 213
10-3 COLLECTING A KICK NET SAMPLE FROM WADEABLE STREAMS FOR
THE TARGETED RIFFLE COMPOSITE SAMPLE 215
10-4 PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING COMPOSITE SAMPLES FOR
BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES 217
11-1 BACKPACK ELECTROFISHING PROCEDURES 229
11-2 BANK/TOWED ELECTROFISHING PROCEDURES 232
11-3 SEINING PROCEDURES 235
11-4 PROCEDURE TO IDENTIFY, TALLY, AND EXAMINE AQUATIC
VERTEBRATES 238
11-5 GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES FOR PREPARING AQUATIC
VERTEBRATE VOUCHER SPECIMENS 242
12-1 PROCEDURE TO PREPARE FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANT SAMPLES 253
13-1 DESCRIPTIONS OF PARAMETERS USED IN THE RAPID HABITAT
ASSESSMENT OF STREAMS 261
13-2 PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING THE RAPID HABITAT ASSESSMENT 265
13-3 PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING THE GENERAL VISUAL ASSESSMENT
OF A STREAM 271
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Review comments of earlier versions of this document from the following persons
are gratefully acknowledged: J.L. Stoddard (U.S. EPA, Corvallis, OR), G. Hayslip (U.S.
EPA, Seattle, WA), J. R. Baker and W.L. Kinney (Lockheed-Martin Corp., Las Vegas, NV),
D. K. Averill and S. Gwin (Dynamac Inc., Corvallis, OR), T. Angradi (U.S. EPA, Duluth,
MN), M. Munn (USGS, Tacoma, WA). I. Waite (USGS, Portland, OR), and D. P. Larsen
(U.S. EPA, Corvallis, OR). Input from field crews from the following organizations have
helped improve both the procedures themselves and the presentation of concepts and
techniques: Arizona Game and Fish Department, California Dept. of Fish and Game,
Colorado Division of Wildlife, Dynamac, Inc., Idaho Dept. of Environmental Quality,
Montana Dept. of Environmental Quality, Lockheed-Martin Co., North Dakota Dept. of
Health, Oregon Dept. of Environmental Quality, South Dakota Dept. of Game, Fish, and
Parks, Utah Dept. of Environmental Quality, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington Dept. of
Ecology, and Wyoming Dept. of Environmental Quality. Comments from L. Herger (U.S.
EPA, Seattle, WA), E.W. Schweiger (National Park Service, Fort Collins, CO), and E.F.
Smith (Kansas Dept. of Health and Environment, Topeka, KS) are greatly appreciated and
were very helpful in revising the final draft for publication.
M. Hails-Avery and H. Gronemyer (National Asian Pacific Center on Aging, Senior
Environmental Employment Program, Corvallis, OR) assisted with preparing many of the
figures. S. San Romani and R. Lane (Computer Sciences Corporation, Corvallis, OR)
prepared the field data forms and labels. We would also like to acknowledge the
numerous individuals and organizations who provided and granted permission for their
images of invasive riparian plants to be published as part of this document (Appendix D).
Finally, the dedication and professionalism of the field crews who visited the
sampling sites and followed these protocols, sometimes underlying circumstances, are
gratefully acknowledged. Field crew members identified based on information recorded on
the field data forms are listed alphabetically below. Hopefully all who are deserving are
listed and their names are spelled correctly!
Bryan Abel, Amy Ackerman, Brett Adams, Daniel Adams, Shannon Albeke,
Simona Altman, Erika Ammann, Alex Anderson, Scott Anderson, Lorraine
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Avenetti, Clint Baier, John Baker, Mike Baker, Ben Barker, Heidi Beard,
Chris Beebe, Julie Berry, David Beugli, Molly Blankinship, Scott Bonar, Cal
Borden, Aaron Borisenko, Greg Boughton, Brian Bowder, Brandon Bowen,
Jim Brian, Myron Brooks, Jack Brookshire, Nathan Brosius, Chad Brown,
Jim Bruce, Jeanie Bryson, Jennifer Burghardt, Steve Butkus, Jane Byron,
James Callagary, Chris Cantrell, Coral Cargill, Jennifer Carter, John Clark,
Alice Coker, Kate Colenso, Chris Collins, Ryan Collver, S. A. Collyard,
Randy Colvin, Kathy Converse, Sarah Cook, Gail Cordy, A. Cressler, Curt
Crouch, Ann Dahl, Lauren Dailey, William Dailey, Mike Dawson, Andre
DeLorme, Jamie Dennis, Richard Denton, Molly Dillender, James
Dominguez, Doug Drake, Jesse Dulburger, Rick Dykstra, Erik Eckles, Mark
Edwards, Scott Elstad, Shane Elstad, Brian Engerness, Dan English, Wes
Essig, Richard Evans, Brian Farnell, J. M. Feltner, Gretchen Fitzgerald, John
Flemming, Andrea Francis, Nolan Friday, Tom Friesen, Merry Gamper, Jim
Garner, Chris Garrett, Mike George, L. Gianakos, Dave Gill, Paul Gill, Bob
Goldstein, Keli Goodman, Bruce Gungle, Rick Hafele, Heather Haley, Matt
Hamilton, Jason Handel, Sarah Haque, Libby Hardin, Jim Harrington, Neil
Haugerud, Nick Hayden, Allen Heakin, Shane Hellman, Lil Herger, Karl
Hermann, Lisa Hewlett, Chris Hill, Nicole Hill, Dan Hover, John Howington,
Shannon Hubler, Richard Hudson, Dave Huff, Teresa Hunt, Billy Jackel,
Tom Johnson, Katina Kapantais, James Kardouni, John Kelly, Bill Kepner,
Travis Kessler, Jenny Ketterlin, Won Kim, Wes Kinney, Stacy Kinsey,
Kristine Kirkeeng, Josh Klaus, Jason Kline, Joel Klumpp, Nicolette Kofol,
Jason Krai, Zach Kraus, Sara Krier, Drew Kundtz, Anita Lahey, Tina
Laidlaw, Jason Lambrecht, Jennifer Lane, Ron Le Cain, Karl Leavitt, Kip
Leavitt, Robin Leferink, Mike Lemoine, Jennifer Lenz, Ted Lenz, Nathan
Lockhart, Jenn Logan, Gregg Lomnicky, Thomas Lossen, Jamie Ludwig,
Rob Lundberg, Bob Lundgren, Brenda Luse, Aspen Madrone, Greg Magda,
N. B. Majerus, Cordell Manz, Pedro Marques, Kelly Martin, Andy Massey,
Paul Matson, Sarah Matthews, Shawn McBride, Kristin McCleery, Jim
McGowen, Megan Mclntyre, Norman McKee, Tonya McLean, Jim Meek,
Stacy Menger, Tsegaye Mengistu, Glenn Merritt, Andrew Midwood, John
Miller, Kirk Miller, Daria Mochan, Sarra Moller, Dylan Monahan, Steve
Monroe, Jennifer Moore, Nathan Morey, Andrea Mull, Tim Mulloy, Mike
Mulvey, Sean Mundell, Rebecca Myers, Jesse Naymik, Kathy Neitzert, Ken
Norton, Scott Nykerk, Ericka Oberembt, Pete Ode, Jeff Ostermiller, Wally
Page, Stephanie Painter, Jim Parent, Nick Paretti, Eric Pearson, Dave
Peterson, Jason Phillips, Doug Post, Pat Quinn, Elizabeth Ray, Andy Rehn,
xviii
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Kendra Remley, Renee Ripley, Tony Robinson, Virginia Robinson, Ashley
Rollings, Dennis Rosenkranz, Jay Rowan, Ashley Rust, Rosie Sada De
Suplee, Will Sadler, Steve Sando, Chuck Schade, Bjorn Schmidt, Jason
Schmidt, Amy Schmitt, Bill Schroeder, Angie Schwab, Ryan Scott, Joann
Sedillo, Paul Seilo, Eric Shaner, Darcy Sharp, Jeff Shearer, Chris Sheehy,
Mark Shumar, Glenn Sibbald, Darlene Siegal, Dennis Smits, Jarrod Sowa,
Peter Spatz, Sarah Spaulding, Marcia Springer, Ross St. Clair, Amy
Stauffer, Mike Stermitz, Bill Stewart, Dave Stewart, Todd Strobel, Lawrence
Sullivan, Michael Suplee, Robert Swanson, Mike Sweat, Tyler Tappenbeck,
Ryan Thompson, Rachel Toner, Ryan Toohey, Amy Tsuji, Eric Urban,
Crystal Vancho, Christina Venable, Adrienne Viosca, Damon Walby, Chris
Walker, Pat Walsh, David Ward, Vaughn Wassink, Andy Welch, Sherri
Welch, J. D. Wheeler, Larry Whitney, Donnie Wicker, Ann Widmer, Austin
Williams, Sarah Williams, Julie Wilson, Mark Wolfram, Doug Wong, Kristen
Wood, Andrea Woods, Peter Wright, Trevor Wright, Jennifer York, and Ron
Zelt.
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ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND MEASUREMENT UNITS
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AFDM Ash-free dry mass
APA Acid/Alkaline phosphatase activity
BEAST Benthic Assessment Sediment
BPJ Best professional judgment
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
CENR (White House) Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CWA Clean Water Act
dbh Diameter at breast height
DC Direct Current
DD Decimal degrees
DIC Dissolved inorganic carbon
DLGs Digital line graphs
DMS Degrees, minutes, and seconds
DO Dissolved oxygen
DOT Department of Transportation
EERD Ecological Exposure Research Division
EMAP Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program
EMAP-SW Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters
Resource Group
EMAP-W Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Western Pilot Study
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ERB Ecosystems Research Branch
GIS Geographic Information System
GPRA Government Performance and Results Act
GPS Global Positioning System
HDPE High density polyethylene
IATA International Air Transport Association
ID Identification
LWD Large woody debris
MAHA Mid-Atlantic Highlands Assessment
MAIA Mid-Atlantic Integrated Assessment
NAD North American Datum
NAWQA National Water-Quality Assessment Program
NERL National Exposure Research Laboratory
NHD National Hydrography Dataset
xx
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ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND MEASUREMENT UNITS
(CONTINUED)
Acronyms and Abbreviations (continued)
NHEERL
National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory
NOAA
National Oceanic and atmospheric Administration
NSWS
National Surface Water Survey
ORD
Office of Research and Development
OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
pdf
Portable document file
P-hab
Physical habitat
PVC
Polyvinyl chloride
QA
Quality assurance
QAPP
Quality assurance project plan
QC
Quality control
QCCS
Quality control check sample
RBP
Rapid Bioassessment Protocol
R-EMAP
Regional Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program
RF3
U.S. EPA River Reach File
RIVPACS
River Invertebrate Prediction and Classification System
SL
Standard length
SOP
Standard Operating Procedure
TIME
Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems
TL
Total length
UN
United Nations
USGS
United States Geological Survey
WED
Western Ecology Division
WRS
Willamette Research Station (Corvallis, OR)
WSA
Wadeable Streams Assessment
YOY
Young of year
YSI
Yellow Springs Instrument system
Measurement Units
A
Ampere
cm
Centimeter
ft
Foot
gal
Gallon
ha
Hectare
Hz
Hertz
in
Inches
L
Liter
m
Meter
m2
Square meters
mg/L
Milligram per liter
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ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND MEASUREMENT UNITS
(CONTINUED)
Acronyms and Abbreviations (continued)
mm
Millimeter
|jm
Micrometer
|jS/cm
Microsiemens per centimeter
mS/cm
Millisiemens per centimeter
msec
Millisecond
N
Normal (equivalents per liter)
ppm
Parts per million
pps
Pulses per second
psi
Pounds per square inch
S/cm
Siemens per centimeter
V
Volts
VA
Volt-ampere
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
by
David V. Peck1, Alan T. Herlihy2, Brian H. Hill3, Robert .M. Hughes2,
Phillip R. Kaufmann1, Donald J. Klemm4, and Steven G. Paulsen1
This manual contains procedures for collecting samples and measurement data
from various biotic and abiotic components of streams in the western United States for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Program (EMAP) Western Pilot Study (EMAP-W). These procedures are designed for use
during a one-day visit by a team of three or four persons to sampling sites located on
wadeable streams or rivers (typically Strahler stream order 1 through 3 as depicted on
1:100,000 scale topographic maps, or higher orders for semiarid and arid regions of the
western U.S.). The purposes of this manual are to: (1) document the procedures used in
the collection of field data and various types of samples for EMAP-W and (2) provide these
procedures for use by other groups implementing stream monitoring programs similar to
EMAP.
These procedures were modified from those initially developed for EMAP research
studies in the eastern U.S and published in Lazorchak et al. (1998). They were initially
developed based on information gained from a workshop of academic, State, and Federal
experts (Hughes 1993), and subsequent discussions between aquatic biologists and
ecologists both within EMAP and various Federal and State scientists in the western U.S.
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St.,
Corvallis, OR 97333.
2 Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333.
3 U.S. EPA, National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, 6201 Congdon
Blvd, Duluth, MN 55804.
4 U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King
Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268.
1
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 2 of 22
1.1 OVERVIEW OF EMAP-SURFACE WATERS
The U.S. EPA implemented EMAP to develop the necessary monitoring tools to
determine the current status, extent, changes and trends in the condition of our nation's
ecological resources on regional and national scales (U.S. EPA 1998a, U.S. EPA 2002a).
The EMAP Surface Waters Resource Group (EMAP-SW) is charged with developing the
appropriate tools to assess the health of lakes, streams, and wetlands in the United States.
These activities support two EPA strategic goals, Clean and Safe Water and Healthy
Communities and Ecosystems (U.S. EPA 2003a, 2003b), to improve the EPA's abilities to
execute its legislative mandates under both the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Govern-
ment Performance and Results Act (GPRA).
The tools being developed by EMAP-SW include appropriate indicators of ecological
condition, statistical sampling designs to determine the status and extent of condition and to
detect regional-scale trends in condition (e.g., Urquhart and Kincaid 1999), and approaches
to characterizing the benchmark or reference conditions that are required to define aquatic
assemblage or ecosystem condition (e.g., Bailey et al. 2004, Stoddard et al. 2006a).
Collectively, these tools provide the science needed for a monitoring framework (e.g.,
Committee on Environment and Natural Resources 1997) to assess objectively whether the
nation's ecological resources are responding positively, negatively, or not at all, to existing
or future regulatory actions (Whittier and Paulsen 1992, Hughes et al. 2000).
Several EMAP-SW research studies were conducted prior to EMAP-W. These
included 1) northeastern lakes (Paulsen et al. 1991, Larsen and Christie 1993), 2) wetlands
in the Prairie Pothole region of North and South Dakota (Peterson et al. 1997), 3) lakes and
streams of the northeastern and eastern U.S., designed specifically to assess the changes
and trends in chemical condition in acid-sensitive surface waters resulting from the 1990
Clean Air Act amendments (Ford et al. 1993, Stoddard et al. 1996, 2003). EMAP-SW
began stream sampling studies in 1993 by collaborating on the Mid-Atlantic Highlands
Assessment (MAHA, Davis and Scott 2000, U.S. EPA 2000). This collaboration continued
as the MAHA project evolved into the Mid-Atlantic Integrated Assessment (MAIA) project
(Bradley and Landy 2000), which produced assessments of the condition of estuarine
resources (U.S. EPA 1998b), landscapes (Jones et al. 1997, 2001), and surface waters
(Stoddard et al. 2006b). Tools and procedures developed by EMAP-SW have also been
adapted and used in projects sponsored by the Regional Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program (R-EMAP, U.S. EPA 1993). In 2000, EMAP-SW assisted in research
on adapting EMAP protocols for very large rivers such as the Ohio, Missouri, and Missis-
sippi (Schweiger et al. 2005) and in 2004 helped develop a formal protocol for Great Rivers
2
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 3 of 22
(Angradi et al. 2006). Also in 2004, EMAP-SW collaborated with the U.S. EPA Office of
Water and State water quality agencies on the Wadeable Streams Assessment (WSA), an
initiative to produce a national-scale assessment of stream resources by the end of 2005
(U.S. EPA 2004a, 2006).
Field procedures developed for EMAP-SW research projects are available for lakes
(Baker et al. 1993), for wadeable streams in the eastern U.S. (Lazorchak et al. 1998), and
for nonwadeable streams and rivers in the eastern U.S (Lazorchak et al. 2000). Procedures
used for the WSA (U.S. EPA 2004b) are slightly modified from those presented in this
manual. Field procedures used for non-wadeable streams and rivers for EMAP-W are
presented in a companion document to this manual (Peck et al. in press).
1.2 WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Details regarding EMAP-W are described in the peer-reviewed research plan (U.S.
EPA 2000), the statistical summary report (Stoddard et al. 2005a), and the assessment
report (Stoddard et al. 2005b). The primary goals of EMAP-W were to:
1. Develop the monitoring tools (ecological indicators, stream survey design,
estimates of reference condition) necessary to produce unbiased estimates of the
ecological condition of surface waters across a large geographic area (or areas)
of the western U.S.; and
2. Demonstrate those tools in a large-scale assessment of the status and extent of
ecological condition. Quantifying a regional trend in condition was not an objec-
tive, as it required a design that included a component to more specifically
address objectives for trend detection (multiple status surveys and/or repeated
sampling of sites across several years).
Measurable objectives of EMAP-W, expressed as three general assessment questions
included:
1. What proportion of stream and river miles in the western U.S. are in acceptable
(or poor) biological condition?
2. What is the relative importance of potential stressors (e.g., physical habitat
modification, sedimentation, nutrients, etc.) in streams and rivers across the
western U.S.?
3. What stressors are associated with streams and rivers having biological assem-
blages in poor condition?
3
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 4 of 22
EMAP-W advanced the science of monitoring with respect to the type of systems
addressed (mountainous and arid systems) and the size of the region covered (essentially
one third of the conterminous U.S.). EMAP-W also applied EMAP design and assessment
tools to answer some urgent and practical assessment questions facing the western EPA
Regional Offices, using a methodology that could be extended to the entire nation, as was
demonstrated by the WSA for benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages, water chemistry,
and physical habitat.
The survey design developed for EMAP-W selected sites that were statistically
representative of the resource population of interest, termed the target population (Stevens
and Olsen 2004, Stoddard et al. 2005a, 2005b). The survey design allows results for a
comprehensive suite of ecological indicators (Section 1.3) to be extrapolated from the sites
sampled to the entire target population, or to selected subpopulations (e.g., States, eco-
regions, drainage basins) having an adequate sample size. The target population of
interest for EMAP-W was all perennial streams and rivers as represented in the EPA's River
Reach File (RF3) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Pacific Northwest River Reach
file, with the exception of the Columbia River, the mainstem Missouri River, and the lower
portions of the Snake and Colorado Rivers. Figure 1-1 presents the sites from the target
population that were sampled, showing the various study components that were integrated
into a single survey design. A detailed description of the survey design and the site
selection process is presented in the EMAP-W statistical summary (Stoddard et al. 2005a).
An important characteristic of the survey design is that not all sites initially identified for
sampling turn out to be sampled; some do not meet the criteria for inclusion in the target
population, and some target sites cannot be sampled for various reasons (e.g., physically
inaccessible or access permission is not obtained). The survey design allows for estimation
of these various types of errors, resulting in a more accurate and robust determination of
the resource population that can be confidently assessed.
In addition to the sites that were sampled as part of the survey design, candidate
reference sites (Figure 1-2) were selected by several different approaches to provide the
capability for characterizing reference condition for the various ecological indicators. Details
regarding candidate reference site selection, the final selection of reference sites, and the
characterization of reference conditions are found in the EMAP-W statistical summary
(Stoddard et al. 2005a) and Stoddard et al. (2006a).
4
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 5 of 22
...«r
It *
••
¥ ,' I A AJ'.'J ¦¦>!., ^ /a AHA*.
/• •: *. •
-------
EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 6 of 22
»i
: :: "E -,e=e-E',:e ; _es
. EMA= HAfID-=ir-\ED SITES
. STAC, GRANT HAtlD-°IC ^ED 5'TES
| 1 STATE 5 j>
OfiE^NI^
0 100200300400500 Kilometers
Figure 1-2. Candidate reference sites sampled for the EMAP Western Pilot Study. Modified from
Stoddard et al. 2005a.
6
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 7 of 22
1.3 SUMMARY OF ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS
The following sections describe the rationale for each of the ecological indicators
included in the stream sampling procedures presented in this manual. This information is
presented to help users understand the significance of certain aspects of the field proce-
dures.
EMAP-SW considers two principal types of indicators (Suter 1990), condition and
stressor (U.S. EPA 1998a, Hughes et al. 2000). Condition indicators are biotic or abiotic
characteristics of an ecosystem that can provide an estimate of the condition of an ecologi-
cal resource with respect to some environmental value, such as biotic integrity. Stressor
indicators are characteristics that are expected to change the condition of a resource if the
intensity or magnitude is altered. Additional details are given in the relevant sections that
follow. EMAP-SW has typically included condition indicators based on different biological
assemblages, following Barbour et al. (1999), as each assemblage may exhibit different
responses to stressor variables (in terms of type or severity).
1.3.1 Water Chemistry
Data are collected from each stream for a variety of physical and chemical constitu-
ents. Information and stressor indicators derived from these data are used to evaluate
stream condition with respect to stressors such as acidic deposition, nutrient enrichment,
and other inorganic contaminants. In addition, streams can be classified with respect to
water chemistry type, water clarity, mass balance budgets of constituents, temperature
regime, and presence of anoxic conditions. Chemical data are also important in character-
izing reference conditions for biological assemblage indicators. Examples of relationships
between stream chemistry and watershed-level land use data are described in Herlihy et al.
(1998).
1.3.2 Physical Habitat
Naturally occurring differences among surface waters in physical habitat structure
and associated hydraulic characteristics contribute to much of the observed variation in
species composition and abundance within a zoogeographic province (Hynes 1970, Allen
1995). The structural complexity of aquatic habitats provides the variety of physical and
chemical conditions to support diverse biotic assemblages and maintain long-term stability.
Anthropogenic alterations of riparian areas and stream channels, wetland drainage, grazing
and agricultural practices, and stream bank modifications such as revetments or develop-
7
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 8 of 22
ment, generally act to reduce the complexity of aquatic habitat and result in a loss of
species and ecosystem degradation.
Stressor indicators derived from data collected about physical habitat quality are
used to help explain or diagnose stream condition relative to various condition indicators.
Important attributes of the physical habitat in streams include channel dimensions, gradient,
substrate characteristics; habitat complexity and cover; riparian vegetation cover and
structure; disturbance due to human activity, and channel-riparian interaction (Kaufmann
1993). Overall objectives for this suite of indicators are to develop quantitative and
reproducible indices, using both multivariate and multimetric approaches, to classify
streams and to monitor biologically relevant changes in habitat quality and intensity of
disturbance. Kaufmann et al. (1999) discuss procedures for reducing EMAP field habitat
measurements and observations to metrics that describe channel and riparian habitat at the
reach scale.
1.3.3 Periphyton Assemblage
Periphyton are the algae, fungi, bacteria, and protozoa associated with substrates in
aquatic habitats. These organisms exhibit high diversity and are a major component in
energy flow and nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystems. Many characteristics of periphyton
assemblage structure and function can be used to develop indicators of ecological condi-
tions in streams (Stevenson and Bahls 1999, Hill et al. 2000). Periphyton are sensitive to
many environmental conditions, which can be detected by changes in species composition,
cell density, ash free dry mass (AFDM), chlorophyll a, and enzyme activity (e.g., alkaline
and acid phosphatase). Each of these characteristics may be used, singly or in concert, to
assess condition with respect to societal values such as biological integrity and trophic
condition.
Condition indicators developed from periphyton assemblage data involve the
calculation of composite indices for biotic integrity, ecological sustainability, and trophic
condition. The composite indices can be calculated from measured or derived first-order
and second-order indices. The first-order indices include species composition (richness,
diversity), cell density, AFDM, chlorophyll, and enzyme activity (e.g., Sayler et al. 1979),
which individually are indicators of ecological condition in streams. Second-order indices
can be calculated from periphyton assemblage characteristics, such as the autotrophic
index (Weber 1973), assemblage similarity compared to reference sites, and autecological
indices (e.g., Lowe 1974, Lange-Bertalot 1979, Charles 1985, Dixit etal. 1992, Potapova et
al. 2004). Hill et al. (2000, 2003), Fore (2002), and Wang et al. (2005) describe the
8
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 9 of 22
development of multimetric indexes based on periphyton assemblages in wadeable
streams.
1.3.4 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Assemblage
Benthic macroinvertebrates inhabit the sediments or live on the bottom substrates of
streams. Monitoring these assemblages is useful in assessing the status of the water body
and discerning trends in ecological condition. Benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages
respond differently to a wide array of stressors. As a result, it is often possible to determine
the type of stress that has affected a benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage (Plafkin et al.
1989; Klemm et al. 1990; Barbour et al. 1999). Because many macroinvertebrates have
relatively long life cycles of a year or more and are relatively immobile, macroinvertebrate
assemblage structure is a function of past conditions.
Rosenberg and Resh (1993) and Bonada et al. (2006) present and compare various
approaches to biological assessment using benthic invertebrates, and Norris (1995) briefly
summarizes and discusses approaches to analyzing benthic macroinvertebrate community
data. For EMAP-W, two different approaches were used to develop ecological indicators
based on benthic invertebrate assemblages. The first is a multimetric approach, where
different structural and functional attributes of the assemblage are characterized as metrics.
Individual metrics that respond to different types of stressors are scored against expecta-
tions under conditions of minimal human disturbance. The individual metric scores are then
summed into an overall index value that is used to judge the overall level of impairment of
an individual stream reach. Examples of multimetric indices based on benthic invertebrate
assemblages include Kerans and Karr (1993), Fore et al. (1996) Barbour et al. (1995,
1996), Klemm et al. (2003), and Ode et al. (2005). The multimetric index developed for
EMAP-W is described by Stoddard et al. (2005a).
The second approach was to develop indicators of biological condition based on
multivariate analysis of benthic assemblages and predictive models based on associated
abiotic variables (Hawkins et al. 2000, Van Sickle et al 2005, Mazor et al. 2006). Examples
of this type of approach as applied to benthic invertebrate assemblages include RIVPACS
(Wright 1995), BEAST (Reynoldson et al. 1995), and Hawkins et al. (2000). Hawkins
(2006) compares the performance of different types of approaches, including multimetric
and predictive models, used to assess condition at regional scales. The predictive model
indicator developed for EMAP-W is described in Stoddard et al. (2005a).
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 10 of 22
1.3.5 Aquatic Vertebrate Assemblage
Aquatic vertebrate assemblages of interest to EMAP-W include fish and amphibians.
The fish assemblage represents a critical component of biological condition from both an
ecosystem function and a public interest perspective. Historically, fish assemblages have
been used for biological monitoring in streams more often than in lakes (e.g., Plafkin et al.
1989, Karr 1991). Fish assemblages can serve as good indicators of ecological conditions
because fish are long-lived and mobile, forage at different trophic levels, integrate effects of
lower trophic levels, and are reasonably easy to identify in the field (Plafkin et al. 1989,
Barbour et al. 1999). Amphibians comprise a substantial portion of vertebrate biomass in
streams of many areas of the U.S. (Hairston 1987, Bury et al. 1991). Reports of dramatic
declines in amphibian biodiversity (e.g., Blaustein and Wake 1990, Phillips 1990) have
increased the level of interest in monitoring these assemblages. Amphibians may also
provide more information about ecosystem condition in the headwater or intermittent
streams in certain areas of the country than other biological response indicators (Hughes
1993). The objective of field sampling is to collect a representative sample of the aquatic
vertebrate assemblage by methods designed to 1) collect all except very rare species in the
assemblage and 2) provide a measure of the abundance of species in the assemblages
(McCormick 1993, Reynolds et al. 2003). Information collected for EMAP that is related to
vertebrate assemblages in streams includes assemblage attributes (e.g., species composi-
tion and relative abundance) and the incidence of external pathological conditions.
Indicators based on vertebrate assemblages were developed primarily using the
multimetric approach described in Section 1.3.4 for benthic macroinvertebrates, and
originally conceived by Karr and others (Karr et al. 1986). Simon and Lyons (1995) provide
a recent review of multimetric indicators as applied to stream fish assemblages. McCormick
et al. (2001) provide an example of a multimetric indicator developed for the Mid-Atlantic
region using EMAP-SW data, based on an evaluation process described by Hughes et al.
(1998). Hughes et al. (2004) present a multimetric indicator to assess condition in cold-
water streams in the Pacific Northwest. The multimetric indicator developed for EMAP-W is
described by Stoddard et al. (2005a).
1.3.6 Fish Tissue Contaminants
For EMAP-W, the primary purpose of determining contaminant levels in fish tissue is
to provide a measure of the potential exposure of stream systems to toxic compounds. It is
also meant to be used in conjunction with the other stressor indicators (physical habitat,
water chemistry, land use, human population density, other records of relevant anthro-
10
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 11 of 22
pogenic stresses) and condition indicators (fish, macroinvertebrates, periphyton) to help
diagnose whether the probable cause of stream degradation, when it is shown by the
condition indicators to occur, is water quality, physical habitat, or both.
Whole fish are collected and analyzed because they present fewer logistical
problems for field crews (no gutting required in the field) and the analytical lab (no filleting
necessary). Yeardley et al. (1998), Peterson et al. (2002), and Lazorchak et al. (2003)
provide examples of the use of fish tissue contaminant data in EMAP studies.
The relative bioaccumulation of contaminants by large and small stream fish is not
known, so two different types of samples were prepared. One type of sample was prepared
using a species whose adults are small (e.g., small minnows, sculpins, or darters). The
second type of sample was prepared using a species whose adults are of larger size (e.g.,
suckers, bass, trout, sunfish, carp). In addition to being more ubiquitous than the larger fish
(and therefore more likely to be collected in sufficient numbers to combine into a composite
sample), small fish have other advantages over large fish. Most important, it may be
possible to get a more representative sample of the contaminant load in that stream
segment (although it could be at a lower level of bioaccumulation) by creating a composite
sample from a larger number of small individuals than by compositing a few individuals of
larger species (Peterson et al. 1996, Lazorchak et al. 2003). The major advantage that
larger fish could potentially offer, whether predators (piscivores) or bottom feeders, is a
higher level of bioaccumulation and thus greater sensitivity to detect contaminants.
1.4 RESPONSE DESIGN
For a given indicator, the response design is the process of deciding what to
measure and how to measure it at a given sampling point (Stevens and Urquhart 2000).
For EMAP-W, the response design for each indicator was integrated into an overall
response design that was applied at every sampling site. This integrated response design
addressed the sampling requirements for all indicators, minimized the level of disturbance
to the stream during sampling, and minimized the time required to complete all the required
activities at a site. For all indicators, a spring-summer baseflow period was defined as the
appropriate index period to collect samples and measurements.
For water chemistry and discharge, spatial variability over relatively short distances
is relatively small (barring anomalous inputs or withdrawals) in comparison to variability
among sites, so a single sample at the sampling point adequately characterizes the general
chemical and flow conditions present at the sampling point. For biological assemblages and
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 12 of 22
physical habitat, collection or characterization at a single point at a sampling site does not
provide adequate representation of the assemblage or physical habitat conditions present
(different habitat types generally yield different species), and so a support reach about each
sampling point is necessary (Barbour et al. 1999). The overall length of the support reach is
determined primarily by the requirements for the vertebrate assemblage indicator (which
were the most mobile organisms sampled) to collect the majority of commonly occurring
species in their rank abundance (Reynolds et al. 2003). This distance (40 times the mean
wetted channel width at the sampling point) also closely coincides with approximately 4
riffle-pool sequences or 2 meander cycles, which were recommended as the length of reach
to sample to adequately characterize the various components of physical habitat (Robison
1998, Kaufmann et al. 1999). Results from Li et al. (2001) also suggested a support reach
length of 40 channel widths was adequate for assessing benthic macroinvertebrate
assemblages.
To ensure allocation of sampling effort throughout the entire support reach, and
maximize consistency in sampling across all sampling points and comparability of the
results in the assessment of condition, a systematic approach to the collection of samples
or field measurements was used, based on the establishment of 11 equidistant cross-
sectional transects within the support reach. Habitat data, benthic macroinvertebrate
samples, and periphyton samples were collected at each transect, while other habitat
measurements and aquatic vertebrates were collected between each of the transects.
1.5 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE FIELD OPERATIONS MANUAL
Only field-related sampling and data collection activities are presented in this
manual. Laboratory procedures and methods (including sample processing and analytical
methods) associated with each ecological indicator are summarized in Chaloud and Peck
(1994); detailed procedures are the same (or nearly so) as those published for the WSA
(U.S. EPA 2004c).
This manual is organized to follow the sequence of field activities during the 1-day
site visit. Section 2 presents a general overview of all field activities. Section 3 presents
those procedures that are conducted at a base location before and after a stream site visit.
Section 4 presents the procedures for verifying the site location and defining a reach of the
stream where subsequent sampling and data collection activities are conducted. The next
nine sections (5 through 13) describe the procedures for collecting samples and field
measurement data for various condition and stressor indicators. Specific procedures
associated with each indicator are presented in tables that can be copied, laminated if
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 13 of 22
desired, and taken into the field for quick reference. Section 14 describes the final activities
that are conducted before leaving a stream site. Appendix A contains a list of all equipment
and supplies required by a crew to complete all field activities at a stream. Appendix B
provides a summary of the changes from previously published field procedures for EMAP-
SW, and minor modifications made each year during EMAP-W to clarify procedures and
data forms. These modifications provide traceability to previous drafts of this manual that
were used each year. Appendix C (on CD-ROM) contains a set of blank field data forms.
Appendix D (on CD-ROM) contains photos and detailed taxonomic characteristics and
habitat information about the invasive riparian plant species presented in Section 8.
1.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance is a required element of all EPA-sponsored studies that involve
the collection of environmental data (U.S. EPA 2001, 2002b). Large-scale and/or long-term
monitoring programs such as those envisioned for EMAP require a comprehensive and
rigorous quality assurance (QA) program that can be implemented consistently by all
participants throughout the duration of the monitoring period. A QA program comprises
various planning, implementation, assessment, reporting, and quality improvement activities
that work collectively to provide confidence in the data or product from a project or study. A
QA project plan (QAPP; e.g., Chaloud and Peck [1994] for EMAP-SW activities) contains
more detailed information regarding QA and quality control (QC) activities and procedures
associated with general field operations, sample collection, measurement data collection for
specific indicators, laboratory operations, and data validation and reporting activities. The
QAPP developed for EMAP-W will be published as a separate report and/or included with
the metadata compiled for the database of results. The QA program for EMAP-W is similar
to that implemented for the WSA (U.S. EPA 2004a).
Quality control activities serve to ensure data will meet the performance objectives
established for each method or technique used for a project. Quality control activities
associated with field operations are integrated into the field procedures. Important QA
activities associated with field operations include a comprehensive training program that
includes practice sampling visits, and the use of a qualified museum facility or laboratory to
confirm any field identifications of biological specimens. The overall sampling design for
EMAP-W includes a subset of sites (at least 1 per state per year) that are revisited twice per
year for two years to obtain estimates of important components of variance for estimating
status and trend (e.g., Larsen 1997, Urquhart et al., 1998) for the various ecological
indicators.
13
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual, Section 1 (Introduction), Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 14 of 22
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NOTES
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SECTION 2
OVERVIEW OF FIELD OPERATIONS
Brian H. Hill1, Frank H. McCormick2, James M. Lazorchak3, Donald J. Klemm3,
and Marlys Cappaert4
This section presents a general overview of the activities a 4-person field team
conducts during a typical one-day sampling visit to a stream site. General guidelines for
recording data and using standardized field data forms and sample labels are also pre-
sented. Finally, safety and health considerations and guidelines related to field operations
are provided.
2.1 DAILY OPERATIONAL SCENARIO
The field team is divided into two groups, termed the Geomorphs and the Bio-
morphs, that reflect their initial responsibilities more than their expertise. The geomorphs
are primarily responsible for conducting the intensive physical habitat characterization. The
biomorphs are primarily responsible for collecting biological samples. Table 2-1 provides
the estimated time required to conduct various field activities. Figure 2-1 presents one
scenario of the general sequence of activities conducted at each stream reach. For some
wide, shallow streams, the required reach length and/or the larger area requiring sampling
effort may necessitate two days be allocated to complete all required activities.
Upon arrival at a stream site, the geomorphs verify and document the site location,
determine the length of stream reach to be sampled, and establish the required transects
U.S. EPA, National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, 6201 Congdon
Blvd, Duluth, MN 55804.
USDA Forest Service, Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3625 93rd Avenue SE,
Olympia, WA98512
U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 W. Martin L. King Dr.,
Cincinnati, OH 45268.
Computer Sciences Corp., c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333
23
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
October 2006 Page 2 of 14
TABLE 2-1. ESTIMATED TIMES AND DIVISION OF LABOR FOR FIELD ACTIVITIES
Activity
Group
Est. Time
Required
Site verification and establishing sampling reach
and transects
Geomorphs (2 persons)
1 hr
Water chemistry sampling and stream discharge
determination
Biomorphs (2 persons)
1 hr
Collecting and processing benthos and periphyton
samples
Biomorphs (2 persons)
2 hr
Intensive physical habitat characterization, includ-
ing legacy tree identification and presence of
invasive plant taxa
Geomorphs (2 persons)
2 to 3 hr
Aquatic vertebrate sampling and processing
Geomorphs and
Biomorphs (4 persons)
1 to 3 hr
Rapid habitat assessment
Visual stream assessment
Biomorphs (2 persons)
0.5 hr
Sample tracking and packing
Geomorphs (2 persons)
1 hr
SUMMARY
19 to 27.5 person-hours
8.5 to 11.5 hrs
per team3
a For wider wadeable streams (e.g., > 20 m), it may require more than one day to complete all required activities.
(Section 4). The biomorphs collect samples and (optional) field measurements for water
chemistry (Section 5) and determine stream discharge (Section 6). The biomorphs also
collect periphyton and benthos samples (Sections 9 and 10, respectively). The geomorphs
conduct the intensive physical habitat characterization (Section 7). Both groups are
involved with collecting aquatic vertebrates (Section 11) and preparing fish samples for
analysis of toxic contaminants (Section 12). Finally, the biomorphs conduct a (optional)
habitat characterization based on the Rapid Bioassessment Protocols (RBP; Plafkin et al.
1989, Barbour et al. 1999), and a visual assessment of the stream and its surrounding area
(Section 13). All team members participate in the final activities at a site (Section 14), which
include reviewing data forms, and preparing samples for transport and shipment (Section
3).
2.2 GUIDELINES FOR RECORDING DATA AND INFORMATION
During the one-day visit to a stream, a field team obtains and records a substantial
amount of data and other information for all of the various ecological indicators described
24
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
October 2006 Page 3 of 14
GEOM0RPHS'
(2 person
BIOMORPHS
(2 persons)
SITE LOCATION AND VERIFICATION
Verify stream and reach locations
Mark index site and cross-section transects
WATER CHEMISTRY
Collect samples
G o ndu ct fiei d nre asu rem ents
PHYSICAL HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION
(Intensive)
¦ Thalweg profile measurements
¦ Substrate size and channel dimensions
¦ Large woody debris tally
¦ Riparian vegetation types and structure
¦ Canopy density
¦ Bank characteristics
¦ Instream fish cover
¦ Human disturbance
¦ Legacy tree and invasive plants
¦ Channel Constraint
¦ Torrent evidence
STREAM DISCHARGE
Locate suitable cross-section
Collect depth and velocity measurements, or
discharge measurements using alternate method
PERIPHYTOII
Collect samples at transect
{optional) I
Prepare composite |
s amp I e (s) fo r stre am reach ^
BEHTHIC
MACROIN VE RTE B RATES
Collect samples at transect
sampling points
Collect samples from
targeted riffle habitat unite
Prepare composite samples
for stream reach
A
31
v_
AQUATIC VERTEBRATES
Conduct electrofishing and/or seining throughout reach
ID and tally fish and aquatic vertebrates collected
Measure lengths and examine for external anomalies
Prepare voucher specimens
Select specimens and prepare tissue contaminant samples j
RAIMIJ 1'IIYSk.AI HAEtllA!
ASSI SSMI Ml
PERIPHYTON
Prepare subsarnples (ID,
chlorophyll, and biomass
[ADFlVi])
r
BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
Process composite samples
FINAL SITE ACTIVITIES
¦ Conduct visual assessment
¦ Review field data forms
¦ Inspect and package samples
V • Clean up stream site
NEXT DAY ACTIVITIES
Ship samples and data forms
Call, FAX, or e-mail status report
Travel to next stream
Figure 2-1. General sequence of stream sampling activities. Modified from Chaloud and Peck,
(1994). Shaded activities are optional.
25
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
October 2006 Page 4 of 14
in Section 1.3. In addition, all the associated information for each sample collected must be
recorded on labels and field data forms to ensure accurate tracking and subsequent linkage
of other data with the results of sample analyses.
The field data forms developed for EMAP-W are compatible with an optical scanner
system to allow rapid entry, review, and conversion of the information recorded on a printed
form into one or more electronic files and reduce the need for manual data entry. While
these forms facilitate data recording by the field crew, field and sample information must be
recorded accurately, consistently, and legibly. Measurement data that cannot be accurately
interpreted by others besides the field teams, and/or samples with incorrect or illegible
information associated with them, are lost to the program. The cost of a sampling visit,
coupled with the short index period, effectively prohibits resampling a stream when the initial
information recorded was inaccurate or illegible. Some guidelines to assist field personnel
with recording information are presented in Table 2-2. Examples of completed data forms
and labels are presented in the sections describing field sampling and measurement
procedures for different indicators.
2.3 HEALTH AND SAFETY
Collection and analysis of samples (e.g., benthic invertebrates, fish, periphyton,
sediment) can involve significant risks to personal safety and health (drowning, electrical
shock, pathogens, etc.). While safety is often not considered an integral part of field
sampling routines, personnel must be aware of unsafe working conditions, hazards
connected with the operation of sampling gear, boats, and other risks (Berry et al. 1983).
Personnel safety and health are of the highest priority for all investigative activities and must
be emphasized in safety and health plans for field, laboratory, and materials handling
operations. Preventive safety measures and emergency actions must be emphasized.
Management should assign health and safety responsibilities and establish a program for
training in safety, accident reporting, and medical and first aid treatment. Safety documents
and standard operating procedures (SOPs) containing necessary and specific safety
precautions must be available to all field personnel. Additional sources of information
regarding field and laboratory safety related to biomonitoring studies include Berry et al.
(1983), U.S. EPA (1986), Ohio EPA (1990), and the U.S. Geological Survey (Yobbi et al.
1996). Note that the information provided in the following sections is general in nature, and
does not substitute for any specific health and safety requirements mandated by a specific
organization. Consult with your organization's health and safety official to determine the
requirements associated with conducting the field activities described in this document.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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TABLE 2-2. GUIDELINES FOR RECORDING FIELD DATA AND OTHER INFORMATION
Field Measurements:
Data Recording:
Record measurement values and/or observations on data forms preprinted on water-resistant paper.
Headers on the second pages of all forms link the data. Fill in all headers of all pages or data will be
lost or linked to the wrong site record (this is a good one to review at the end of the day).
DO NOT mark on or around the cornerblocks or ID Box (the squares in the corners and the funky box
with the number over it). These markings are crucial to the scanning software and changing
them in any way will affect performance.
Write legibly. Use a dark pencil lead that is at least a No. 2 for softness (HB), or use a dark perma-
nent (waterproof) marking pen. Your writing must be dark enough to be picked up by the
scanner. Erase mistakes completely and write the correct value whenever you can. NOTE: The
scanner cannot read the number over an erasure If you must line out an incorrect value, place
the correct value nearby in the appropriate box so the data entry operator can easily find it.
Use all caps when filling in the name fields on the forms. Clearly distinguish letters from numbers
(e.g., 0 versus O, 2 versus Z, 7 versus T or F, etc.). Do not put lines through 7's, 0's, or Z's.
Write 4's with an open top rather than closed. Do not use slashes. Below are examples of
lettering that are readable by the scanning software:
A
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
4
K
L
M
N
0
P
G
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
X
2
0
1
2
3
4
&
b
1
%
It is not necessary to write in all caps in the long comments sections on the stream verification and
stream assessment forms, but write legibly (because the data entry operators still need to read it
to type it in.) Avoid marginal notes, etc. Be concise, but avoid using abbreviations and/or
shorthand notations. If you run out of space, attach a sheet of paper with the additional
information, rather than trying to squeeze everything into the space provided on the form.
When you need to circle a choice, make a medium-sized circle around your choice.
For square boxes, mark inside the box with an X. For circles (bubbles), fill in completely.
(Continued)
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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TABLE 2-2 (Continued)
Data Recording:
Record data and information so that all entries are obvious. Enter data completely in every field that
you use. Follow the comb guidelines- print each number or letter in the individual space
provided. Keep letters and numerals from overlapping. Record data to the number of decimal
places provided on the forms. Illegible information is equivalent to no information.
If the measurement for a field is zero, enter zero. If left blank, it will be recorded as missing data.
(There are parts of forms that are left blank when they are not being used. A typical example is
The Stream Discharge Form. Usually only one type of velocity and discharge information is
recorded and the unused areas of the form are left blank).
If the field calls for meters, write the answer in meters. Do not fill in a number and put (cm) for units.
Do not add additional decimal places.
Dist. from
Bank
1
0
2
10
3
20
4
30
Velocity Depth Flag
0 0
-0.1 0.6
0.8 1.0
1.3 1.3
Record information on each line, even if it has to be recorded repeatedly on a series of lines (e.g., fish
names or species codes, physical habitat characteristics). Ditto marks (") can be used if
necessary and if they are clearly distinguishable from letters or numbers. Do not use a straight
vertical line to indicate repeated entries.
Data Qualifiers (Flags):
Use only defined flag codes from the list below and record on data form in appropriate field. If the
information is important enough to write on the page, use a Fn flag and put it in the comment section.
If you have been instructed to collect a piece of information for which there is no space on the form,
choose a flag and comment section, and use them consistently.
FLAG COMMENT
F1, F2, Miscellaneous comments assigned by field team (e.g., Fish
etc. dead)
K Sample not collected; No measurement or observation made
U Suspect sample, measurement or observation, or collected
using a non-standard procedure
Q Unacceptable QC check associated with measurement
Z Last interval sampled (e.g., stream discharge)
(Continued)
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TABLE 2-2 (Continued)
Data Qualifiers (Flags):
If you cannot take a measurement, leave the measurement field blank and put the K flag in the Flag
column.
Dist. from
Velocity
Depth
Flag
Bank
1
0
0
0
2
10
-0.1
60
3
20
0.8
100
4
30
130
K
K
Too deep and swift to obtain velocity measurement
Review of Data Forms:
Have someone who did not fill in the forms review them at the end of the day. Some information is
duplicated. Sometimes, however, when one measurement is missing, many other metrics based
on that measurement are also lost. Be thorough.
Examples: SiteJD-used in conjunction with Visit Date and Visit Number to merge data from
different forms (unique record identifiers)
Visit Date-used in conjunction with Site ID and Visit Number to merge data from
different forms (unique record identifiers)
Transect-Needed to merge different types of habitat data and to calculate many
habitat metrics correctly
Increment distance (on the back of the thalweg form)-used in conjunction with all
100-150 thalweg depth measurements
Returning the Forms
Return the originals.
Make a photocopy and keep it, in case questions arise during data entry.
Try to keep the forms in their original order.
Do not staple the forms together.
Include a list of sites visited. Please include a summary list with Site ID and Visit Date with each batch
of forms being returned.
(Continued)
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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TABLE 2-2 (Continued)
Sample Labels and Tracking
Sample Labels:
Sample Labels- Use adhesive labels with preprinted ID numbers and a standard recording format for
each type of sample.
Record information on labels using a fine-point indelible marker. Cover completed labels with clear
tape.
Sample Tracking Information-.
Record sample ID number from the label and associated collection information on sample collection
form. Use a dark pencil or pen.
Complete any sample tracking forms required. Include tracking forms with all sample shipments.
Sample Qualifiers (Flags):
Use only defined flag codes and record on sample collection form in appropriate field.
K Sample not collected or lost before shipment; not possible to resample.
U Suspect sample (e.g., possible contamination, does not meet minimum acceptability
requirements, or collected using a nonstandard procedure)
Fn Miscellaneous flags (n= 1, 2, etc.) assigned by a field team for a particular sample
shipment.
Explain all flags in comments section on sample collection form.
Review of Labels and Collection Forms:
The field team compares information recorded on labels, sample collection forms, and tracking forms
for accuracy before leaving a stream. Make sure Sample ID numbers match on all forms.
2.3.1 General Considerations
Important considerations related to field safety are presented in Table 2-3. The
group safety officer or project leader is responsible for ensuring that the necessary safety
courses are taken by all field personnel and that all safety policies and procedures are
followed. Sources of information regarding safety-related training include the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1981), the American National Red Cross
(1987), the U.S. Coast Guard (1987), and Ohio EPA (1990).
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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TABLE 2-3. GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Training:
First aid
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
Vehicle safety (e.g., operation of 4-wheel drive vehicles)
Boating and water safety (if boats are required to access sites)
Field safety (e.g., weather conditions, personal safety, orienteering, reconnaissance of sites prior
to sampling
Equipment design, operation, and maintenance
Electrofishing safety
Handling of chemicals and other hazardous materials
Communications
Check-in schedule
Sampling itinerary (vehicle used and its description, time of departure, travel route, estimated
time of return)
Cell (or satellite) phone or radio contact information for field team members
Contacts for police, ambulance, fire departments, search and rescue personnel
Emergency services available near each sampling site and base location
Personal Safety
Field clothing and other protective gear
Medical and personal information (allergies, personal health conditions)
Personal contacts (family, telephone numbers, etc.)
Physical exams and immunizations
Become familiar with the hazards involved and establish appropriate safety practices
prior to using any sampling device. At least one individual involved in electrofishing should
attend an approved electrofishing training course, such as those offered by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. In many states, this is a requirement for obtaining a scientific collect-
ing permit. Other personnel involved with electrofishing must be trained by a person
experienced in this method. Reynolds (1983) and Ohio EPA (1990) provide additional
information regarding electrofishing safety procedures and practices.
If boats are used to access sampling sites, consider and prepare for hazards
associated with the operation of motor vehicles, boats, winches, tools, and other incidental
equipment. Boat operators should be familiar with U.S. Coast Guard rules and regulations
for safe boating contained in a pamphlet, Federal Requirements for Recreational Boats,
available from a local U.S. Coast Guard Director or Auxiliary, or a state boating official (U.S.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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Coast Guard 1987). In some states, a separate license may be required to operate a
motorized watercraft. All boats with motors must have fire extinguishers, boat horns, life
jackets or flotation cushions, and flares or communication devices.
A communications plan to address safety and emergency situations is essential. Be
fully aware of all lines of communication. Field personnel should have a daily check-in
procedure, and contacts for police, ambulance, fire departments, and search and rescue
personnel.
Proper field clothing should be worn to prevent hypothermia, heat exhaustion,
sunstroke, drowning, or other dangers. Field personnel should be able to swim. Chest
waders made of rubberized or neoprene material and suitable footwear must always be
worn with a belt to prevent them from filling with water in case of a fall. The use of a
personal flotation device is advisable at dangerous wading stations if one is not a strong
swimmer because of the possibility of sliding into deep water.
Many hazards lie out of sight in the bottoms of lakes, rivers and streams. Broken
glass or sharp pieces of metal embedded in the substrate can cause serious injury if care is
not exercised when walking or working with the hands in such environments. Infectious
agents and toxic substances that can be absorbed through the skin or inhaled may also be
present in the water or sediment. Personnel who may be exposed to water known or
suspected to contain human or animal wastes that carry causative agents or pathogens
must be immunized against tetanus, hepatitis, typhoid fever, and polio. Biological wastes
can also be a threat in the form of viruses, bacteria, rickettsia, fungi, or parasites.
Prior to a sampling trip, determine that all necessary equipment is in safe working
condition. Follow good housekeeping practices in the field to protect staff from injury,
prevent or reduce exposure to hazardous or toxic substances, and prevent damage to
equipment and subsequent down time and/or loss of valid data.
2.3.2 Safety Equipment and Facilities
Appropriate safety apparel such as waders, lab coats, gloves, safety glasses, etc.
must be available and used when necessary. Bright colored caps or vests (e.g., hunter
orange) should be worn during field activities. Provide cellular or satellite telephones or
portable radios to field teams working in remote areas for use in case of an emergency. A
first aid kit (including an emergency blanket) and a fire extinguisher should be taken to
32
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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every site. A shovel and/or a Pulaski axe may be required for sites in National or State
Forest areas during fire season. Have soap and water, alcohol, or hand sanitizer solution
available to clean exposed body parts that may have been contaminated by pollutants in the
water. Also have skin cleanser available to prevent or reduce the effects of exposure to
poison oak or sumac. Use a fume hood in the laboratory when working with carcinogenic
chemicals (e.g., formaldehyde, formalin) that may produce dangerous fumes.
2.3.3 Safety Guidelines for Field Operations
General safety guidelines for field operations are presented in Table 2-4. Personnel
participating in field activities on a regular or infrequent basis should be in sound physical
condition and have a physical exam annually or in accordance with State or organizational
requirements. Consider all surface waters and sediments as potential health hazards due
to toxic substances or pathogens. Become familiar with the health hazards associated with
using chemical fixing and/or preserving agents. Formaldehyde (or formalin) is highly
allergenic, toxic, and dangerous to human health (carcinogenic) if utilized improperly.
Chemical wastes can cause various hazards due to flammability, explosiveness, toxicity,
causticity, or chemical reactivity. Dispose of all chemical wastes in accordance with
approved procedures, (e.g., National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 1981,
U.S. EPA 1986).
During the course of field activities, a team may observe violations of environmental
regulations, may discover improperly disposed hazardous materials, or may observe or be
involved with an accidental spill or release of hazardous materials. In such cases, take the
proper action and do not become exposed to something harmful. The following guidelines
should be applied:
First and foremost during any environmental incident, it is extremely important to
protect the health and safety of all personnel. Take any necessary steps to avoid
injury or exposure to hazardous materials. If you have been trained to take action
such as cleaning up a minor fuel spill during fueling of a boat, then do it. How-
ever, you should always err on the side of personal safety.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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TABLE 2-4. GENERAL SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR FIELD OPERATIONS
Two persons (three to four persons for electrofishing) must be present during all sample collection
activities, and no one should be left alone while in the field.
Minimize exposure to stream water and sediments. Use gloves if necessary, and clean exposed
body parts as soon as possible after contact.
All electrical equipment must bear the approval seal of Underwriters Laboratories and must be
properly grounded to protect against electric shock.
Use heavy gloves when hands are used to agitate the substrate during collection of benthic
macroinvertebrate samples and when turning over rocks during hand picking.
Use appropriate protective equipment (e.g., gloves, safety glasses) when handling and using
hazardous chemicals
Persons working in areas where poisonous snakes may be encountered must check with the local
Drug and Poison Control Center for recommendations on what should be done in case of a bite
from a poisonous snake.
If local advice is not available and medical assistance is more than an hour away, carry a
snake bite kit and be familiar with its use.
Any person allergic to bee stings, other insect bites, or plants must take proper precautions and
have any needed medications at hand.
Protect against the bite of deer or wood ticks because of the potential risk of acquiring pathogens
that cause Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease.
Be familiar with the symptoms of hypothermia and know what to do in case symptoms occur.
Hypothermia can kill a person at temperatures much above freezing (up to 10°C or 50°F) if he or
she is exposed to wind or becomes wet.
Handle and dispose of chemical wastes properly. Do not dispose any chemicals in the field.
Never disturb, or even worse, retrieve improperly disposed hazardous materials
from the field and bring them back to a facility for disposal.. To do so may
worsen the impact to the area of the incident, incur personal or organizational
liability, cause personal injury, or cause unbudgeted expenditures of time and
money for proper treatment and disposal of the material. However, it is important
not to ignore environmental incidents. You are required to notify the proper
authorities of any incident of this type so they can take the necessary actions to
respond properly to the incident.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
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Provide the following emergency telephone numbers to all field teams to contact
in the event of an environmental incident: State or Tribal department of environ-
mental quality or protection, U.S. Coast Guard, and the U.S. EPA Regional
Office. In the event of a major environmental incident, the National Response
Center may need to be notified at 1-800-424-8802.
2.4 LITERATURE CITED
American National Red Cross. 1987. Standard first aid and personal safety. 3rd edition.
Doubleday, Garden City, NY.
Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid bioassessment
protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: Periphyton, benthic macroinvert-
ebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA/841-B-99-002. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Water, Assessment and Watershed Protection Division, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Berry, C.R. Jr., W.T. Helm, and J. M. Neuhold. 1983. Safety in fishery field work. Pages
43-60 in Nielsen, L.A., and D. L. Johnson (eds.). Fisheries techniques. American
Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD.
Chaloud, D. J., and D. V. Peck (eds.). 1994 Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Program: Integrated quality assurance project plan for the surface waters resource
group. Revision 2.00. EPA 600/X-91/080. . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Las Vegas, Nevada.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 1981. Occupational health guidelines
for chemical hazards. NIOSH/OSHA Publication No. 81-123. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Ohio EPA. 1990. Ohio EPA fish evaluation group safety manual. Ohio Environmental
Protection Agency, Ecological Assessment Section, Division of Water Quality Planning
and Assessment, Columbus, Ohio.
Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross, and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid
bioassessment protocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macroinvertebrates
and fish. EPA/440/4-89/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C.
Reynolds, J. B. 1983. Electrofishing. Pages 147-163 in L. A. Nielsen and D. L. Johnson
(eds.). Fisheries techniques. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD.
U.S. Coast Guard. 1987. Federal requirements for recreational boats. U.S. Department of
Transportation, United States Coast Guard, Washington, D.C.
35
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EMAP-Western Pilot Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 2 (Overview of Field Operations), Rev. 3,
October 2006 Page 14 of 14
U.S. EPA. 1986. Occupational health and safety manual. Office of Planning and Manage-
ment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Yobbi, D.K., T.H. Yorke, and R.T. Mycyk. 1996. A guide to safe field operations. Open File
Report 95-777. U.S. Geological Survey, Tallahassee, Florida. Available from
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1995/of95-777/ofr95777.pdf.
NOTES
36
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SECTION 3
BASE LOCATION ACTIVITIES
Donald J. Klemm1, Brian H. Hill2, Frank H. McCormick3,
David V. Peck4, and Marlys Cappaert5
Field teams conduct a number of activities at a base location before and after
visiting each stream site. These activities are generally conducted on the same day as the
sampling visit. These activities are required to ensure that the field teams know where they
are going, that access to the stream site is possible and permissible, that all the necessary
equipment and supplies are in good order to complete the sampling effort, and that samples
are packaged and shipped correctly and promptly. Modifications to base location proce-
dures from those described in the previous EMAP-SW field operations manual for wadeable
streams (Klemm et al. 1998) and during the course of EMAP-W are summarized in
Appendix B.
In some situations, field teams may have personnel available who are certified to
ship preserved biological samples that constitute dangerous goods. Such samples must be
transported and presented for shipment in accordance with State, Federal, and international
regulations. Because of the large geographic area being sampled for EMAP-W, it is critical
to minimize the potential for transferring exotic or nuisance species of plants and animals or
waterborne pathogens such as salmonid whirling disease.
U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 W. Martin L. King Dr.,
Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. EPA, National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, 6201 Congdon
Blvd, Duluth, MN 55804.
USDA Forest Service, Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3625 93rd Avenue
SE, Olympia, WA 98512.
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St.,
Corvallis, OR 97333.
Computer Sciences Corporation, c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333
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Figure 3-1 illustrates operations and activities that are conducted before and after
each visit to a stream site. Activities that are conducted after a stream visit include
equipment cleanup and maintenance, packing and shipping samples, and communications
with the EMAP-SW information management staff and project management to report the
status of the visit.
3.1 ACTIVITIES BEFORE EACH STREAM VISIT
As part of the site selection process, each candidate site was evaluated to determine
if it met the criteria for inclusion as part of the target population (see Section 1.2 or Stoddard
et al. 2005) and could be accessed for sampling (including an initial contact of landowners
to obtain permission). The initial evaluation process was often followed by a site reconnais-
sance visit prior to the start of sampling activities. For some sites, the evaluation and
reconnaissance were conducted by a person who was also either a field team leader or
member. For other sites, the evaluation and reconnaissance was conducted by someone
other than a field tem member. For each site scheduled for sampling, the locational and
access-related information acquired during the evaluation and reconnaissance process is
provided to the field team leader as part of a site dossier.
Before each stream visit, confirm access to the stream site, develop a sampling
itinerary, inspect and repair equipment, check to make sure all supplies required for the visit
are available, and prepare sample containers. Procedures to accomplish these activities
are described in the following sections.
3.1.1 Confirming Site Access
Before visiting a stream, review the contents of the specific stream dossier and
identify any revisions to the information contained in the dossier since the evaluation was
conducted or the reconnaissance visit. Contact the landowner(s) listed in the dossier well in
advance of the scheduled visit to confirm permission to sample that was obtained earlier.
3.1.2 Daily Sampling Itinerary
Based upon the sampling schedule provided to each team, team leaders are
responsible for developing daily itineraries. The team leader reviews each stream dossier
to
38
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 3 of 30
BASE LOCATION ACTIVITIES
BEFORE EACH STREAM VISIT
Team Leader
Review stream dossier
information
Make access contacts
Prepare itinerary
Team Members
Test and calibrate oxygen meter and
conductivity meter (Optional
beginning 2001)
Initialize GPS (if necessary)
Prepare containers and labels for
water chemistry samples
Pack equipment and supplies using
checklist
SAMPLE STREAM
AFTER EACH STREAM VISIT
Team Leader
Review forms and labels
Record sample tracking information as
required
Package and ship samples and data
forms
Submit status report by phone, FAX, or
e-mail
File status report with field coordinator
or other central contact person
Team Members
Clean and check equipment; disinfect if
necessary
Charge or replace batteries
Assist with packing and shipping
samples
Check and refuel vehicles
Obtain ice and other consumable
supplies as needed
DVP
Figure 3-1. Base location activities. Shaded activities are optional.
39
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 4 of 30
ensure that it contains the appropriate maps, contact information, copies of permission
letters, and access instructions. The team leader also determines the best access routes,
confirms permission with landowners or local contacts, confirms lodging plans for the
upcoming evening, and coordinates rendezvous locations with individuals who must meet
with a field team prior to accessing a site. Use this information to develop an itinerary for
the stream. Include anticipated departure time, routes of travel, location of any intermediate
stops (e.g., to drop off samples, pick up supplies, etc.) and estimated time of arrival at the
final destination after completing the stream visit. Provide the itinerary (and any changes
that occur due to unforeseen circumstances) to the field coordinator or other central contact
person identified for the specific field study. Failure to adhere to the reported itinerary can
result in the initiation of expensive search and rescue procedures and disruption of carefully
planned schedules. In addition, carry emergency medical and personal information for each
team member to the field, possibly in the form of a safety logbook that remains in the
vehicle (see Section 2).
3.1.3 Instrument Inspections and Performance Tests
Some instruments require testing and/or calibration prior to departure for the stream
site. Field instruments include a global positioning system (GPS) receiver and a current
velocity meter. Optional instruments (since 2001) include a conductivity meter and a
dissolved oxygen (DO) meter. Backup instruments should be available if instruments fail
the performance tests or calibrations described in the following subsections.
3.1.3.1 Global Positioning System Receiver-
Specific performance checks vary among different brands of GPS receivers. Follow
the instructions in the receiver's operating manual to make sure the unit is functioning
properly. Turn on the receiver and check the batteries. Replace batteries immediately if a
battery warning is displayed. Make sure extra batteries are stored with the receiver and are
available in the field. Follow the manufacturer's instructions for setting up the receiver when
it becomes necessary (e.g., before first use, after replacing batteries, or if a new positional
reference is required).
3.1.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen Meter-
As an initial performance test before use each year, test DO meters for accuracy
against the Winkler titration method (individual test kits for field use are acceptable). In
addition, inspect and test the dissolved oxygen meters periodically during the course of field
sampling operations. At a minimum, check the instruments before the field season starts
40
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 5 of 30
and again after field sampling has been completed. The inspection and testing procedure,
based on the use of a Yellow Springs Instruments (YSI) Model 53 oxygen meter, is
summarized in Figure 3-2. Some modification to the procedure may be necessary for other
models or types of dissolved oxygen meters. The procedure to use for newer DO meters
(e.g., the YSI Model 85 or 95), is presented in Table 3-1.
Inspect the meter by checking the status of the batteries, and the functioning of the
electronics. Confirm the meter is adjusted correctly for measurements in fresh water.
Inspect the membrane of the probe. If bubbles are present, or if the membrane is discol-
ored or torn, use a backup probe and/or replace the membrane on the original probe. For
older models of meters, new membranes may require conditioning for 24 hours before use.
After inspecting the meter and probe, attempt to calibrate it using the procedure
presented in Table 3-1 (for YSI Models 85 or 95), or by following the instructions in the
instrument operating manual. Do not record the calibration information obtained during the
performance test. The meter is calibrated again at each stream site. If the meter cannot be
successfully calibrated, check the temperature probe reading against a thermometer and/or
replace the membrane, probe, or meter (if spare units are available). After the test, turn the
meter off, and store the probe according to the manufacturer's instructions.
3.1.3.3 Conductivity Meters-
Follow the operating manual provided with the meter to check the batteries, the
electronics, and to inspect the probe. New probes or probes that have been stored dry may
require conditioning before use.
The operation of the conductivity meter is checked periodically at a base location
using a standard solution of known conductivity. Prepare a quality control check sample
(QCCS) as described in Table 3-2. The QCCS can be prepared as either of two dilutions of
the stock standard, depending on the theoretical conductivity desired based on the
anticipated range of conductivities in the field. A 1:100 dilution of the stock provides a
QCCS with a conductivity of 75.3 |JS/cm at 25 °C (Metcalf and Peck 1993). A 1:200 dilution
results in a QCCS with a conductivity of 37.8 |jS/cm at 25 °C (Peck and Metcalf 1991).
Prepare a fresh lot of the QCCS every two weeks from the stock standard solution. For
higher conductivity systems, a 0.01 N potassium chloride solution can be used as a QCCS
(theoretical value = 1,413 |jS/cm at 25 °C).
41
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 6 of 30
DISSOLVED OXYGEN METER PERFORMANCE CHECK
Replace
batteries
or meter
CHECK METER
Turn meter on
Adjust electronic zero
Adjust salinity knob (0=F RESHWATER)
FAIL
Replace
membrane
PASS
FAIL
Replace
probe
Red Line
Check
Membrane
Check
PASS
EQUILIBRATE PROBE
Empty water from calibration
chamber
Insert probe into calibration chamber
Equilibrate in calibration chamber
water bath for 15 minutes
FAIL
Replace probe
andftirmeter
Temperature
Check
(within ±1 °C)? ^
1
PASS
f
CALIBRATE METER
¦ Adjust meter to theoretical 02 value for water-
saturated air at chamber temperature and pressure
Succ
'
sssfui\. N0
Calibration f
YES
<
'
TAKE METER TO THE STREAM
» Refill calibration chamber with water
to store probe
DVP 6.08
Figure 3-2. Performance test procedure for a dissolved oxygen meter. Based on a YSI Model
53 meter or comparable instrument.
42
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 7 of 30
TABLE 3-1. CHECKING THE CALIBRATION OF A DISSOLVED OXYGEN METER3
1. If a combination oxygen/temperature/conductivity meter is used, check the oxygen probe before
checking the conductivity probe.
2. Periodically, check the temperature probe of the meter against a field thermometer. This can be
done in a bucket of water at a base location or at a stream site. The displayed temperature
should be within ± 1 °C of the thermometer reading.
3. At each location, obtain the approximate local altitude from a topographic map or other source
(e.g., a local airport).
4. Inspect the DO probe membrane for wrinkles, cracks, bubbles, etc. Replace the membrane cap
assembly if necessary.
5. Check the calibration chamber and fill it with cold tap water to dampen the sponge. Drain the
chamber and insert the probe into the chamber.
6. Turn the meter on and make sure the meter passes all the internal electronics checks.
7. Press the MODE key until the dissolved oxygen reading inside the chamber is displayed in mg/L.
Allow approximately 15 minutes for the readings to stabilize (i.e., a change of < 0.02 mg/L over a
1-minute period).
8. Press the UP ARROW and DOWN ARROW keys simultaneously to enter calibration mode.
9. Use the UP ARROW or DOWN ARROW key to enter the local altitude [to the nearest 100 feet
(e.g., 15 equals 1500 ft)]. After the correct altitude is displayed, press the ENTER button.
10. In the lower part of the display, CAL should appear along with the theoretical value based on
temperature and altitude.
11. Once the actual value displayed is stable, compare the actual and theoretical values. They
should agree ± 0.5 mg/L. If not, check the temperature probe against a thermometer (Step 1),
or install a new membrane cap assembly, then repeat the calibration procedure.
a For use with YSI Models 85 and 95. Modified from YSI Incorporated. 1986. Model 85 handheld
oxygen, conductivity, salinity, and temperature system operations manual. YSI Incorporated,
Yellow Springs, OH.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 8 of 30
TABLE 3-2. STOCK SOLUTIONS, USES, AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARATION
SOLUTION
USE
PREPARATION
Bleach
(10%)
Bleach
(50%)
Sparquat 256®
germicidal
disinfectant
Formula 409s
cleaner
(antibacterial
version)
Conductivity
Standard
Stock Solution®
(optional)
Quality Control
Check Sample for
conductivity
(optional)
Formalin, borax
buffered0
(pH 7-8)
Ethanol (95%)
Soaking solution to disinfect gear
from spores of whirling disease, New
Zealand mud snails, and amphibian
chytrid fungus
Wipe-on or spray-on solution to disin-
fect gear from spores of whirling dis-
ease, New Zealand mud snails, and
amphibian chytrid fungus
Alternative soaking solution to disin-
fect gear from spores of whirling dis-
ease, New Zealand mud snails, and
amphibian chytrid fungus
Alternative soaking solution to disin-
fect gear from spores of whirling dis-
ease, New Zealand mud snails, and
amphibian chytrid fungus
To prepare conductivity quality control
check sample solution
To check operation of conductivity
meter
Preservative for fish specimens and
periphyton samples
Preservative for benthic macro-
invertebrate samples.
Dilute 400 ml_ (13 oz) household chlo-
rine bleach solution to 4 L (1 gal) with
tap water.
Dilute 2-L (64 oz) household chlorine
bleach solution to 4-L (1 gal) with tap
water
Dilute 120-180 mL (4-6 oz) to 4 L (1
gal) with tap water
Dilute 2-L (64 oz) to 4-L (1 gal) with
tap water
Dissolve 3.4022 g KH2P04 and 3.5490
g Na2HP04 (analytical grade; dried at
120 °C for 3 h and stored desiccated)
in 1000.0 g (1.0018 L at 20 °C, 1.0029
L at 25 °C) reagent water.
1:100 dilution of standard stock solu-
tion with reagent water (theoretical
conductivity = 75.3 |jS/cm at 25 °C)a
1:200 dilution of standard stock solu-
tion with reagent water (theoretical
conductivity = 37.6 |jS/cm at 25 °C)b
Add 400 g borax detergent (e.g.,
Twenty Mule Team®) to each 20-L
container of 100% formalin. Test with
pH paper.
None.
a Metcalf and Peck (1993)
b Peck and Metcalf (1991)
c Handle formalin according to 29 CFR 1910.1048.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 9 of 30
If a YSI Model 85 meter is being used, check the performance of the probe by
following the procedure presented in Table 3-3. Make sure the correct mode (temperature-
compensated conductivity) is used for the check. Compare the displayed value of the
QCCS to the theoretical value of the QCCS at 25 °C (75.3 |jS/cm or 37.8 |jS/cm).
If another model of a conductivity meter is used, refer to the procedure presented in
Table 3-4. If the meter cannot display temperature-compensated conductivity, develop a
table showing theoretical values of the QCCS solution at different temperatures.
3.1.3.4 Current Velocity Meters-
Field teams may be using one of three types of current velocity meters, a photo-
optical impeller type meter (e.g., Swoffer Model 2100) a vertical axis meter (e.g., Price type
AA), or an electromagnetic type meter (e.g., Marsh McBirney Model 201D). General
guidelines regarding performance checks and inspection of current meters are presented in
Table 3-5. Consult the operating manual for the specific meter and modify this information
as necessary.
3.1.4 Preparation of Equipment and Supplies
Check the inventory of equipment and supplies prior to departure using the stream
visit checklists presented in Appendix A. Pack meters, probes, and sampling gear to
minimize physical shock and vibration during transport. Prepare stock preservative
solutions as described in Table 3-2 if necessary. Follow Department of Transportation
(DOT) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations for
handling and transporting hazardous materials such as formalin and ethanol. Regulations
pertaining to formalin are in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR, specifically 29 CFR
1910.1048). These requirements should be summarized for all hazardous materials being
used for the project and provided to field personnel. Transport formalin and ethanol in
appropriate containers with absorbent material.
Inspect the vehicles every morning before departure. Refuel vehicles and conduct
maintenance activities the night before a sampling trip. Check vehicle lights, turn signals,
brake lights, and air pressure in the tires.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 10 of 30
TABLE 3-3. PERFORMANCE CHECK OF NEWER CONDUCTIVITY METERS3
1. If using a combination DO/conductivity meter (e.g., the YSI Model 85), check the conductivity
probe after completing the calibration check for the DO probe.
2. Inspect the probe for deposits or fouling.
3. Turn the meter on and make sure all internal electronics checks are completed successfully.
4. Use the MODE key to display "temperature compensated" conductivity (The "°C" symbol on the
display will be flashing).
5. Swirl the conductivity probe for 3-5 seconds in a 250-mL bottle containing the daily QCCS
solution labeled RINSE.
6. Transfer the probe from the RINSE bottle to a second 250-mL bottle of QCCS labeled TEST.
Let stabilize for 20 seconds.
7. If the measured value of the QCCS is within ±10% or ±10 |jS/cm of the theoretical value
(whichever is greater at the theoretical value), rinse the probe in deionized water. Store as
described in the operating manual and package the meter for transport to the stream site.
If the measured value of the QCCS is not within ±10% or ±10 uS/cm of theoretical value,
repeat Steps 5 through 7.
8. If the value is still unacceptable, replace the QCCS in both the RINSE and TEST bottles and
repeat the measurement process.
If the measured value is still not acceptable, clean the conductivity probe as described in
the manual, check the batteries, soak in deionized water for 24 hours, and repeat Steps 1
through 7.
If the measured value is still unacceptable, replace the meter.
a For use with YSI Models 85 and 95. Modified from YSI Incorporated. 1986. Model 85 handheld
oxygen, conductivity, salinity, and temperature system operations manual. YSI Incorporated,
Yellow Springs, OH.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 11 of 30
TABLE 3-4. PERFORMANCE CHECK OF OLDER CONDUCTIVITY METERS3
1. Check the functioning of the meter according to the manufacturer's operating manual (e.g., zero
and red line of the meter).
2. Swirl the conductivity probe for 3-5 seconds in a 250-mL bottle containing the daily QCCS
solution labeled RINSE.
3. Transfer the probe from the RINSE bottle to a second 250-mL bottle of QCCS labeled TEST.
Let stabilize for 20 seconds.
4. If the measured value of the QCCS is within ±10% or ±10 |jS/cm of the theoretical value
(whichever is greater at the theoretical value), rinse the probe in deionized water. Store as
described in the operating manual and package the meter for transport to the stream site.
If the measured value of the QCCS is not within ±10% or ±10 uS/cm of theoretical value, repeat
Steps 1 through 3.
If the value is still unacceptable, replace the QCCS in both the RINSE and TEST
bottles and repeat the measurement process.
If the measured value is still not acceptable, clean the conductivity probe as de-
scribed in the manual, check the batteries, soak in deionized water for 24 hours, and
repeat Steps 1 through 3.
If the measured value is still unacceptable, replace the meter.
a For use with older models of conductivity meters (e.g., YSI Model 33 S-C-T).
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 12 of 30
TABLE 3-5. GENERAL PERFORMANCE CHECKS FOR CURRENT VELOCITY METERS
Photoelectric Impeller Meters (e.g., Swoffer Model 2100)
Check that the calibration adjustment cover screws are tightly fitted on the display case.
Periodically check the condition of the connector fitting between the display unit and the
sensor.
Connect the sensor to the display unit and check the calibration value stored in memory. If
this value is less than the correct value for the display unit-sensor rotor combination, replace
the batteries.
Periodically perform a spin test of the rotor assembly, following the instructions in the meter's
operating manual. A displayed count value of 300 or greater is indicative of satisfactory
performance at low current velocities.
If a buzzing sound occurs when the rotor assembly is spun by hand, or if the shaft shows
visible wear, replace the rotor assembly.
Periodically examine the thrust-bearing nut on the rotor assembly. If a "cup" begins to form
on the bottom surface of the nut, it should be replaced.
Vertical-axis Meters (e.g., Price Type AA; from Smoot and Novak 1968)
Inspect the bucket and wheel hub assembly, yoke, cups, tailpiece, and the pivot point each
day before use.
Inspect the bearings and check the contact chamber for proper adjustment.
Periodically conduct a spin test of the meter. The minimum spin time is 1.5 minutes, while
the recommended time is between 3 and 4 minutes.
Electromagnetic Meters (e.g., Marsh-McBirney Model 2010)
Check the meter calibration daily as part of morning routine. Calibration value should be 2.00
+ 0.05.
Once per week, check the zero value using a bucket of quiescent water. Place the probe in
the bucket and allow to sit for 30 minutes with no disturbance. The velocity value obtained
should be 0.0 + 0.1. Adjust the meter zero if the value is outside this range.
48
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 13 of 30
Sample containers for water chemistry can be labeled before departing from the
base location. Figure 3-3 illustrates the preprinted labels. Prepare a set of three water
chemistry sample containers all having the same ID number (one for the 4-L cubitainer and
two for the 60-mL syringes) and labels completed with the appropriate information (de-
scribed in Section 5). After labeling, place the syringes in their plastic container, and place
the cubitainer and beakers in a clean self-sealing plastic bag to prevent contamination. Do
not prepare labels for other types of sample containers (e.g., periphyton, benthos, verte-
brates) before reaching the stream site. Problems in sample tracking will result if containers
are labeled and then are not used at a stream.
3.2 ACTIVITIES AFTER EACH STREAM VISIT
Upon reaching a lodging location after sampling a stream, review all completed data
forms and sample labels for accuracy, completeness, and legibility. Fill in missing or
illegible information on forms or labels as accurately as possible. The team leader initials all
data forms after review. The other team members should inspect and clean sampling
equipment, check the inventory of supplies, make a final inspection of samples, and prepare
samples for shipment. Other activities include shipping samples, submitting sampling
status and tracking information to the EMAP-SW information management staff at the EPA
Western Ecology Division (WED) in Corvallis, and communicating with the field coordinator
or other central contact person.
3.2.1 Equipment Cleaning
All equipment and gear used at a stream site must be cleaned and disinfected
between sites to reduce the risk of transferring nuisance species and pathogens. Three
organisms of primary concern in the western U.S. are Myxobolus cerebralis (the sporozoan
parasite that causes salmonid whirling disease), Potamopyrgus antipodarum (the nonnative
New Zealand mudsnail), and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (a chytrid fungus that
threatens amphibian populations).
The life cycle of M. cerebralis parasite includes both a resistant myxospore and a
more free-floating, highly infective form (the triactinomyxon). Myxospores can remain
dormant for 30 years or more, while the triactinomyxons reside at very high densities and
concentrations in fish and fish parts. The New Zealand mud snail has an extremely high
reproductive rate (it can reproduce asexually), can survive for extended periods in damp
49
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 14 of 30
WATER CHEMISTRY
WXXP99-
I I
CU S1 S2
400001
PERIPHYTON
WXXP99-
1
BiQ CHLA ID
&UB&LE VOLUME:
ml
COMPOSITE VOLUME:
mL
100001
REACH-WIDE BENTHOS
WXXP39-
I __/
500000
Jar of
TARGETED RIFFLE BENTHOS
WXXP99-
I. J
600000
Jar of
FISH • BAG
T.ig
900000
01
FISH - JAR
WX X P99 -
/ / _
900000
FISH TISSUE
WXXP99 ¦_
I i
BIG SMALL
300000
FISH TISSUE
WXXP99 -
I
i
BIG SMALL
Sample ID:
Figure 3-3. Sample container labels.
conditions, and has no natural predators (it passes through the digestive tract of fishes
unharmed). Little is known about the amphibian chytrid fungus, but it may be associated
with recent die-offs of several endangered frogs and toads, including the boreal toad in
Colorado.
Field teams should be provided with the latest information (as part of the site
dossier) regarding those streams, drainages, etc. that are known or suspected to be
infested with whirling disease, New Zealand mudsnails, or amphibian chytrid fungus. This
information is available from State or Federal fishery biologists or pathologists, or from State
game and fish agency websites.
Equipment cleaning procedures are given in Table 3-6. These are based on
guidelines established by the National Park Service (http://www.nps.gov/archive/romo/
downloads/aquatic_guidelines/aquatic_guidelir>es2006.pdf), and are intended to work to
50
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 15 of 30
protect against all three organisms. Additional online sources of information regarding
whirling disease, mud snails, or chytrid fungus, including information on cleaning and
disinfecting gear, include the Whirling Disease Foundation (www.whirling-disease.org), the
USDA Forest Service (Preventing Accidental Introductions of Freshwater Invasive Species,
available from http://www.fs.fed. us/invasivespecies/documents/Aquatic_is_prevention.pdf),
and the California Department of Fish and Game (Hosea and Finlayson 2005). General
information about freshwater invasive species is available from the U.S. Geological Survey
Nonindigenous Aquatic Species website (http://nas.er.usgs.gov), the Protect Your Waters
website (http://www.protectyourwaters.net/hitchhikers) that is co-sponsored by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, and the Sea Grant Program (http://www.sgnis.org). Note that many
organizations now recommend against using felt-soled wading boots in affected areas due
to the difficulty in removing myxospores and mudsnails. Handle and dispose of disinfectant
solutions properly, and take care to avoid damage to lawns or other property.
3.2.2 Sample Packing, Shipment, and Tracking
Pack and ship samples from each stream visit as soon as possible after collection,
normally the day following a stream visit. Field teams are provided with specific information
for the shipping destinations, contact persons, and the required shipping schedule for each
type of sample. Record sample tracking information (including sample types, sample ID
numbers, and other field-related information that is required by the laboratory to conduct
analyses and associate results to a specific sample and stream site) during the packing
process. After each shipment, file a status report with the EMAP-SW information manage-
ment staff at WED and with the field coordinator.
3.2.2.1 Unpreserved Samples-
Unpreserved samples include water chemistry, periphyton (including the preserved
ID sample), and fish tissue samples. For unpreserved samples, record information onto a
tracking form as shown in Figure 3-4. Fill out the tracking form for all samples taken. Use
the standard codes provided on the form to record the type of sample and its condition.
Record all subsample types (cubitainer and syringe for water chemistry, ID, chlorophyll, and
biomass for periphyton) in the comments field. For fish tissue contaminants samples, record
the common name, and for the small tissue sample, record the number of individuals in the
comments field (this information is needed by the laboratory, and is not available on the
sample label). Prepare one additional copy of the form (a photocopy is acceptable). Retain
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
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TABLE 3-6. EQUIPMENT CARE AFTER EACH STREAM VISIT
1. General cleaning for biological contaminants (e.g., plant and animal material).
Prior to departing a stream, drain all water from live wells and buckets used to hold and
process fish.
Inspect sampling gear and waders, boots, etc. for evidence of mud, snails, plant frag-
ments, algae, animal remains, or other debris. Remove using brushes, screwdrivers, or
other tools.
At the base location, inspect and rinse seines, dip nets, kick nets, waders, and boots with
water and dry. Use one of the procedures below to disinfect gear if necessary.
2. Additional precautions to prevent transfer of Whirling Disease spores, New Zealand mudsnails,
and amphibian chytrid fungus.®
Before visiting the stream, consult the site dossier and determine if the stream is in an
area where whirling disease, New Zealand mud snails, or chytrid fungus are known to
exist. Contact the local State fishery biologist to confirm the existence or absence of these
organisms.
If the stream is listed as "positive" for any of the organisms, or no information is available,
avoid using felt-soled wading boots, and, after sampling, disinfect all fish and benthos
sampling gear and other equipment that came into contact with water or sediments (i.e.,
waders, boots, etc.) by one of the following procedures:
Option A:
1. Soak gear in a 10% household bleach solution for at least 10 minutes, or wipe or
spray on a 50% household bleach solution and let stand for 5 minutes
2. Rinse with clean water (do not use stream water), and remove any remaining debris
3. Place gear in a freezer overnight or soak in a 50% solution of Formula 409® house-
hold cleaner (antibacterial version) for at least 10 minutes or soak gear in 120 °F (49
°C) water for at least 1 minute.
4. Dry gear in direct sunlight (at least 84 °F) for at least 4 hours.
Option B:
1. Soak gear in a solution of Sparquat® (4-6 oz. per gallon of water) for at least 10
minutes (Sparquat is especially effective at inactivating whirling disease spores).
2. Place gear in a freezer overnight or soak gear in 120 °F (49 °C) water for at least 1
minute.
3. Dry gear in direct sunlight (at least 84 °F) for at least 4 hours.
3. Clean and dry other equipment prior to storage.
Rinse chlorophyll filtration chamber three times with distilled water after each use.
Rinse periphyton sampling equipment with tap water at the base location.
Rinse coolers with water to clean off any dirt or debris on the outside and inside.
Make sure conductivity meter probes are rinsed with deionized water and are stored moist.
Rinse all beakers used to collect water chemistry samples three times with deionized
water to prevent contamination of the next stream sample. Place the beakers in a 1-gallon
sealable plastic bag with a cubitainer for use at the next stream.
a Based on guidelines established for Rocky Mountain National Park (available from
http://www.nps.gov/archive/romo/downloads/aquatic_guidelines/aquatic_guidelines2006.pdf).
(Continued)
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 17 of 30
TABLE 3-6 (Continued)
4. Check fish nets for holes and repair, if possible; otherwise, set damaged gear aside and locate
replacements.
5. Inventory equipment and supply needs and relay orders to the Field Coordinator.
6. Remove DO meters and GPS receivers from carrying cases and set up for pre-visit inspections
and performance tests. Examine the DO membrane for cracks, wrinkles, or bubbles; replace
the membrane if necessary.
7. Recharge all batteries overnight if possible (e.g., electrofishing batteries, 12-V wet cells,
computer battery). Replace others (GPS, DO meter, current meter) as necessary.
8. Replenish fuel in vehicles and/or electrofishing generator (if necessary).
9. Review the field data forms for the site. Make corrections and completions where possible, and
initial each form after review.
53
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 18 of 30
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54
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 19 of 30
the original copy to prepare the status report for the site (Section 3.3), and then include it as
part of the data forms packet for the site. Include the copy as a packing list in the shipment.
Ship unpreserved samples to the analytical laboratory facility (the Willamette Research
Station [WRS] laboratory at WED was used for EMAP-W).
General guidelines for packing and shipping the various types of unpreserved
samples described in this manual are presented in Table 3-7. Use ice substitute packs
whenever possible to avoid leakage due to melting ice. When shipping samples using ice,
use fresh ice. Use block ice when available, sealed in large plastic bags. If block ice is not
available, contain the ice in several self-sealing plastic bags. Label each bag of ice as ICE
with an indelible marker to prevent any leakage of meltwater from being misidentified by
couriers as a possible hazardous material spill. If ice substitute packs are used, place each
pack into a self-sealing plastic bag before use.
Ship water chemistry samples as soon as possible after collection in order to meet
holding time requirements for some laboratory analyses (especially nutrients). To ship
water chemistry samples, use a large (30-gallon) plastic bag as a liner in an insulated
shipping container (e.g., a plastic or metal cooler). Use clear tape to completely cover each
sample label (cubitainer and syringes) to prevent damage from water or condensation
during shipment. Put the syringes into a separate plastic container for shipment, then put
the container and cubitainer into a second large plastic bag and close. Place the bag
containing the samples inside the plastic bag lining the shipping container. Place bags of
ice around the bag of samples, but inside the plastic bag lining the shipping container. Be
sure to use sufficient quantities of ice to ensure samples will remain cold until arrival at the
laboratory. Typically, the total weight of each shipping container (samples plus ice) should
be between 40 and 50 pounds (more for shipments from hot locations). Alternatively, at
least one-half of the total weight of each shipping container should be ice.
Then close the outer plastic bag. Insert the copy of the completed tracking form
(Figure 3-4) into a self-sealing plastic bag, and tape the bag to the inside of the lid, then
close the container. Seal the container with shipping tape and affix any required shipping-
related labels to the outside of the container. Attach an adhesive plastic sleeve to the lid of
the container and insert any required shipping forms.
Samples requiring freezing (Table 3-7) are usually shipped with the refrigerated
samples, but these may be stored in the field in a portable freezer or on dry ice for a short
55
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 20 of 30
TABLE 3-7. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PACKING AND SHIPPING
UNPRESERVED SAMPLES
Sample Type
(container)
Guidelines
Samples requiring refrigeration (4 °C)
Water Chemistry
(4-L cubitainer and 60-mL
syringes)
Ship on day of collection or within 24 hr by overnight courier.
Use fresh ice in labeled plastic bags for shipping. Use enough ice so
that total weight of each shipping container is at least 40 lbs., or the
weight of ice is equal to or greater than the weight of the samples.
Line each shipping container with a large plastic bag.
Place syringes in a plastic container.
Place syringe container and cubitainer inside of a second plastic bag.
Cover labels completely with clear tape.
The cubitainer and syringes should have same sample ID number
assigned.
Confirm the sample ID assigned on the labels matches the ID number
recorded on the field collection form and the sample tracking form.
Samples requiring freezing (-20 °C) within 24 hours of collection
Periphyton chlorophyll (fil-
ter in aluminum foil)
If samples cannot be kept frozen in the field, ship on day of collection or
within 24 h by overnight courier.
Cover the label completely with clear tape.
Protect samples from meltwater if ice is used by double bagging ice and
placing samples in a plastic container.
Confirm the sample ID assigned on the label matches the ID number
recorded on the field collection form (or other sample tracking report).
If dry ice is used to transport or ship samples, special shipping contain-
ers, outside labeling, and shipping forms may be required.
Periphyton biomass (filter
in aluminum foil)
Periphyton activity (50-mL
centrifuge tube)
Fish Tissue
(aluminum foil; two 30-gal
plastic bags)
If samples cannot be kept frozen in the field, ship on day of collection or
within 24 h by overnight courier.
Cover labels completely with clear tape.
Label on each bag should have identical Sample ID number assigned.
Confirm the sample ID assigned on the label matches the ID number
recorded on the field collection form (or other sample tracking report).
Protect samples from meltwater if ice is used by double bagging ice.
Special shipping containers, outside labeling, and shipping forms may
be required for shipments containing dry ice.
56
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 21 of 30
period (e.g., one week) if necessary. If only ice (or ice substitute packs) is available for field
storage, ship the samples to the laboratory as soon as possible after collection, using fresh
ice (or ice substitute packs) to keep them as cold as possible. When using ice, double bag
the ice and tape the last bag shut to prevent contamination of samples by melting ice. If ice
substitute packs are used, place each pack into a self-sealing plastic bag. If possible, place
samples into a sealed plastic container to protect them from meltwater. Dry ice may also be
used for shipping. Note that dry ice is considered a hazardous material, and requires
special shipping containers, shipping labels, and shipping forms for ground or air transport.
If dry ice is used, the requirements and directions for packing and shipping samples should
be provided to each field team.
3.2.2.2 Preserved Samples-
Transport samples that are preserved in 10% buffered formalin (fish voucher
specimens) or ethanol (benthic macroinvertebrate samples) in appropriate containers
surrounded with some type of acceptable absorbent material (e.g., vermiculite). Preserved
vertebrate voucher samples should be packaged as dangerous goods, but may be shipped
in small quantities as a nonregulated chemical (but confirm this with your shipping service).
Complete a separate tracking form as shown in Figure 3-5 for all preserved samples
(fish voucher specimens and benthos). These samples are likely to be retained by the field
team and periodically transported to intermediate storage depots, where they will accumu-
late prior to shipment or delivery to the appropriate support laboratories. Again, you will
need to make a copy of the completed form for each site. Retain the original copy to
prepare the status report for the site (Section 3.3), and then include it as part of the data
forms packet for the site. Include the copy as a packing list when you drop off samples at
the storage depot.
Guidelines for packing, labeling, transporting, and shipping samples containing
formalin or ethanol are presented in Table 3-8. Note these are guidelines only and do not
necessarily conform to the latest regulations, so confirm any requirements associated with
dangerous goods shipments with your shipping service before offering any preserved
samples for shipment. It may be necessary to provide additional guidance to each field
team. In order to offer dangerous goods for shipment, a person must be certified through
participation in a training course to prepare dangerous goods for shipment. Most of this
training deals with packaging, forms and labels that must be used. Dangerous goods
shipments must always be presented to the shipper directly as either a pick-up by a driver
or a drop-off at a shipping facility.
57
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 22 of 30
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 23 of 30
TABLE 3-8. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PACKING AND SHIPPING PRESERVED SAMPLES
Sample Type
(container)
Preservative
Guidelines
Samples requiring preservation with formalin
Periphyton ID
(50-mL centrifuge
tube)8
4% buffered for-
malin (2 mL per
50-mL sample)
Labels or tags placed inside of the jar must be of water-
resistant paper or 100% rag content paper.
The label on outside of the container should be
completely covered with clear tape.
Confirm the sample ID assigned on the label matches the
ID number recorded on the field collection form and
sample tracking form.
Fish voucher
specimens
(1-L and/or 4-L jars)
10 % buffered
formalin
Packaging and Shipping Guidance (International Air Transport Association
flATAl Instructions 914, no limit)
Inside packaging
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles with leakproof screw-top cap (must
meet United Nations [UN] specification IP2). Apply a strip of plastic tape
around the cap to seal each bottle securely. Each container should only be filled
to the shoulder of the bottle to provide headspace.
Outside packaging
Screw-top plastic pail (5-gal size) with ratcheted lid is recommended (UN
specification 1H2). Line container with plastic bag meeting IP5 specifications.
Absorbent material
Not required. Stabilize contents with packing "peanuts".
Labeling
Outside package marked with UN shipping name and ID no .-."Environmentally
hazardous substance, liquid, n.o.s. (Formalin < 5%), UN3082". A Class 9
miscellaneous label and at least two package orientation labels should be
affixed to the container.
Shipping forms
Include packing list with each container. Note total quantity of formalin in liters
and the gross container weight in pounds. Prepare Shippers Manifest just prior
to shipment.
(Continued)
59
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 24 of 30
TABLE 3-8 (Continued)
Sample Type
(container)
Preservative
Guidelines
Samples requiring preservation with ethanol
Benthic Macro-
invertebrates
(500-mL or 1-L jars)
At least 70 % eth-
anol
Confirm the sample ID assigned on the label matches the
ID number recorded on the field collection form and
sample tracking from.
Packaging and shipping guidance (IATA Instructions 307, 60-L limit)
Inside packaging
HDPE bottles with leakproof screw-top cap (must meet UN specification IP2).
Apply a strip of plastic tape around the cap to seal each bottle securely. Each
container should only be filled to the shoulder of the bottle to provide
headspace.
Outside packaging
Screw-top plastic pail (5-gal size) with ratcheted lid is recommended (UN
specification 1H2). Line container with plastic bag meeting IP5 specifications.
Each pail can hold no more than 5.0 L total liquid (= 8 500-mL bottles or 5 1-L
bottles).
Absorbent material
Sufficient volume of absorbent material (vermiculite, UN A100 Absorbent
sheets [18"*18"] or equivalent) to absorb contents of all inner packaging. If
necessary, stabilize contents with packing "peanuts".
Labeling
Outside package marked with UN shipping name and ID no .."Alcohol,
flammable, toxic, n.o.s. (Denatured alcohol), UN1986". A Class 3 flammable
label, a Class 6 toxic label, and at least two package orientation labels should
be affixed to the container.
Shipping Forms
Include packing list with each container. Note total quantity of alcohol in liters
and the gross container weight in pounds. Prepare Shippers Manifest just prior
to shipment. Note there is a 60-L limit for a single shipment.
a Preserved periphyton samples may be shipped with unpreserved samples, as the concentration of formalin is below the level
which requires handling and shipment as dangerous goods.
60
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 25 of 30
Depending on the requirements and constraints of the project, there are other ways
to ship preserved samples to laboratories so that they do not constitute dangerous goods.
These generally involve holding the preserved samples for several days, decanting the
preservative, and shipping the samples to the laboratory without preservative. Preservative
is added upon receipt at the laboratory. This is the method used for the Wadeable Streams
Assessment (U.S. EPA 2004). Consult with the laboratory to determine if any alternative
shipping procedures are possible.
3.3 STATUS REPORTS
After visiting and/or sampling a site, contact the field coordinator and the EMAP
information staff at WED and provide a status report. File reports every day that
unpreserved samples are shipped. File a status report for every site visited (even if not
sampled). For EMAP-W, these status reports inform the laboratory staff in Corvallis of the
anticipated delivery of samples (this is especially important when samples are shipped on a
Friday for Saturday delivery), and allow the information management staff to better track
sites and samples (especially preserved samples that are not delivered directly to a
laboratory).
The procedure for preparing and submitting a status report to WED is presented in
Table 3-9. The information needed for a status report comes from the stream verification
form (see Section 4) and from the tracking forms prepared for both unpreserved and
preserved samples. Submit status reports to WED by phone/voice mail or by FAX. Teams
should also inventory their supplies after each stream visit. Submit requests for replenish-
ment to the field coordinator well in advance of exhausting on-hand stocks.
3.4 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
A checklist of equipment and supplies required to conduct the activities described in
Section 3 is presented in Figure 3-6. This checklist is similar to the checklist in Appendix A,
which is used at the base location to ensure that all of the required equipment is brought to
the stream. Use this checklist to ensure that equipment and supplies are organized and
available at the stream site in order to conduct the activities efficiently.
61
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 26 of 30
TABLE 3-9. STATUS REPORTING
1. File a status report after every site visit (even if not sampled) on the day that you ship
unpreserved samples (before shipment if practical). Submit reports to the field coordinator
and to the EMAP-SW information management staff at WED (Corvallis, OR).
2. Complete two separate tracking forms for each site. One form is for unpreserved samples
(water chemistry, periphyton [including the ID sample], and fish tissue samples), the other for
preserved samples (fish voucher and benthos). Make a copy of each form (by hand or a
photocopy). Include the copy with the sample shipment (unpreserved) or with the samples
themselves (preserved samples).
3. Use the original copies of the tracking forms and the stream verification form from the site to
prepare the status report.
4. Contact the EMAP-SW IM message center by telephone. You will be prompted to leave a
voice mail message. NOTE: There is no need to leave a separate message with the
analytical laboratory staff in Corvallis. They will be able to access this number and retrieve
your report.
5. Include the following information in your report:
Your name and the date and time of the call
From the stream verification form:
Site ID number and visit number
Sampling status from the verification form (e.g., Sampleable/Wadeble, Non-
sampleable-not wadeable, no access-access denied, etc.)
Date sampled or visited
From the tracking form for unpreserved samples:
Date shipped
Airbill number
Anticipated date of delivery to laboratory (usually the next day)
For each sample in shipment:
Sample ID
Sample type (chemistry, periphyton, etc.)
Comments regarding condition or missing subsamples (Note, you do
not need to record the species information for tissue samples)
From the tracking form for preserved samples:
Sample ID
Sample Type (vertebrate voucher, reachwide benthos, etc.)
Comments regarding number of jars, condition, or missing samples
Alternatively, you can FAX copies of the verification form and two tracking forms to the
EMAP-SW IM staff FAX machine.
Return the original forms to the data forms packet for the site for later shipment to Corvallis.
62
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 27 of 30
BASE LOCATION ACTIVITIES
QTY.
ITEM
Before Departure for Stream
1
Dossier of access information for scheduled stream site
1
Sampling itinerary form or notebook
1
Safety log and/or personal safety information for each team member
1
GPS receiver with extra batteries
1
Dissolved oxygen/temperature meter with probe
1
Conductivity meter with probe
1
500-mL plastic bottle containing deionized water
500-mL plastic bottles containing conductivity QCCS, labeled "Rinse" and "Test"
1
Current velocity meter with probe and wading rod
Assorted extra batteries for dissolved, conductivity, and current velocity meters
1 set
Completed water chemistry sample labels (3 labels with same barcode)
1 set
Water chemistry sample containers (one 4-L Cubitainer and two 60-mL syringes
with a plastic storage container
1 box
Clear tape strips to cover completed sample labels
1
Checklist of all equipment and supplies required for a stream visit
Packing and Shipping Samples
Ice (also dry ice if it is used to ship frozen samples)
1 box
1 -gal heavy-duty sealable plastic bags
1box
30-gal plastic garbage bags
2
Insulated shipping containers for frozen samples (special containers may be
needed if dry ice is used)
2
Containers, absorbent material, labels, and shipping forms required to transport
and/or ship samples preserved in formalin and ethanol
2-4
Sample tracking forms (can photocopy completed originals or complete two sets
of forms per shipment)
Shipping airbills and adhesive plastic sleeves
Figure 3-6. Equipment and supply checklist for base location activities.
63
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 3 (Base Location Activities), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 28 of 30
3.5 LITERATURE CITED
Hosea, R.C. and B. Finlayson. 2005. Controlling the spread of New Zealand mud snails on
wading gear. Administrative Report 2005-02, California Department of Fish and
Game, Office of Spill Prevention and Response, Rancho Cordova, California. Avail-
able from http://www.dfg.ca.gov/fishing/html/Administration/MudSnail/Mudsnail_O.htm.
Klemm, D.J., B.H. Hill, F.H. McCormick, and M.K. McDowell. 1998. Base location activities.
Pages 27-44 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (eds.). Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: Field operations and methods
for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Metcalf, R. C., and D. V. Peck. 1993. A dilute standard for pH, conductivity, and acid
neutralizing capacity measurement. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 8:67-72.
Peck, D. V., and R. C. Metcalf. 1991. Dilute, neutral pH standard of known conductivity
and acid neutralizing capacity. Analyst 116:221-231.
Smoot, G. F., and C. E. Novak. 1968. Calibration and maintenance of vertical-axis type
current meters. Book 8, Chapter B2 in Techniques of water-resources investigations
of the United States Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Stoddard, J.L., D.V. Peck, A.R. Olsen, D.P. Larsen, J. Van Sickle, C.P. Hawkins, R.M.
Hughes, T.R. Whittier, G. Lomnicky, A.T. Herlihy, P.R. Kaufmann, S.A. Peterson, P.L.
Ringold, S.G. Paulsen, and R. Blair. 2005. Environmental Monitoring and Assess-
ment Program: Western streams and rivers statistical summary. EPA 620/R-05/006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 2004. Wadeable Streams Assessment: Field operations manual. EPA/841/B-
04/004. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
64
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NOTES
65
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NOTES
66
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SECTION 4
INITIAL SITE PROCEDURES
by
Alan T. Herlihy1
Upon arrival at a stream site, first confirm you are at the correct site. Then deter-
mine if the stream meets certain criteria for sampling and data collection activities to occur.
Decide whether the stream is unduly influenced by rain events which could affect the
representativeness of field data and samples. Certain conditions at the time of the visit may
warrant the collection of only a subset of field measurements and samples. Finally, if it is
determined that the stream is to be sampled, lay out a defined reach of the stream within
which all subsequent sampling and measurement activities are conducted. Modifications to
procedures in this section from those published previously for EMAP-SW by Herlihy (1998),
and over the course of the EMAP-W study are presented in Appendix B.
4.1 SITE VERIFICATION ACTIVITIES
4.1.1 Locating the Index Site
Stream sampling points were chosen from the "blue line" stream network repre-
sented on 1:100,000-scale USGS maps, following a systematic randomized selection
process developed for EMAP stream sampling (Stevens and Olsen 2004). The latitude and
longitude of a sampling point are provided on a site information sheet that is part of the
dossier compiled for each sampling site (see Section 3). To help the field team locate the
sampling point later in the field, mark the location of the sampling point with an Xon a finer-
resolution (1:24,000-scale) USGS map. A geographic information system [GIS] can also be
used to develop maps with the sampling points marked on them. Site coordinates on the
site information sheet are based on the North American Datum 1927 (NAD 1927), and have
to be converted if another datum (such as NAD 1983) is used. This point is referred to as
the index site or X-site. Include the map with the X-site identified in the dossier compiled
for the site.
1 Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333.
67
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 2 of 18
Complete a Stream Verification Form for each stream visited (regardless of whether
you end up sampling it), following the procedures described in Table 4-1. While traveling
from a base location to a site, record a detailed description of the last part of the route taken
(e.g., from a major road or other landmark) on page 1 of the Stream Verification Form
(Figure 4-1). This information will allow others to find the site again in the future. Upon
reaching the X-site for a stream, confirm its location and that you are at the correct stream.
Use all available means to accomplish this, and record the information on page 1 of the
Stream Verification Form (Figure 4-1).
4.1.2 Determining the Sampling Status of a Stream
In probability-based survey designs such as EMAP, not all selected stream sites turn
out to be streams due to errors in the sampling frame used to select the sites. An important
element of the EMAP survey design is it allows the estimation of the actual extent of stream
length within the study area. After the stream and location of the X-site are confirmed,
evaluate the stream reach surrounding the X-site and classify the stream into one of three
major sampling status categories (Table 4-1). The primary distinction between Sampleable
and Non-Sampleable streams is based on the presence of a defined stream channel and
presence of water.
Even if there is no water present at the X-site coordinates, the site may still be
sampleable as a stream with interrupted flow stream (Section 4.3.1). If the channel is dry at
the X-site coordinates, determine if there is water present within 75 m upstream and down-
stream of the X-site. If there are isolated pools of water within the 150-m reach, classify the
site as Wadeable-Interrupted and sample it using the modified procedures outlined in
Section 4.3.1. If the entire reach is dry, classify the site as Dry-visited on the Stream
Verification Form. NOTE: Do not slide the reach (Section 4.3) for the sole purpose of
obtaining more areas of water to sample (e.g., the downstream portion of the reach has
water, but the upstream portion does not).
In some areas of the western U.S., canals are numerous. Classify the site as NON-
SAMPLEABLE-Permanent, Other on the Stream Verification Form and identify the site as a
nontarget canal in the comments section if both of the following conditions are true:
1. The channel within the sampling reach is totally constructed at a location where
there is no evidence or other information to suggest a natural channel has ever
existed.
68
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 3 of 18
TABLE 4-1. SITE VERIFICATION PROCEDURES
1. Find the stream location in the field corresponding to the sampling point marked on a 1:24,000
scale topographic map (X-site) that is provided with the dossier for each site. Record the routes
taken and other directions on the Stream Verification Form so that someone can visit the same
location in the future.
2. Record the site coordinates provided in the dossier for the site in the Map Coordinates field on
the Stream Verification Form. Once the X-site is located and marked at the stream site, use a
GPS receiver (set GPS datum to NAD 1927) to obtain the actual X-site coordinates. Record
these as the GPS Coordinates on the verification form. If a GPS receiver cannot be used,
estimate the X-site coordinates as best you can from the topographic map and record these as
the GPS coordinates on the verification form.
NOTE: If a datum other than NAD 1927 is used (e.g., NAD 1983), the site coordi-
nates will require conversion before visiting the site.
3. Use all available means to insure that you are at the correct stream as marked on the map,
including: 1:24,000 USGS map orienteering, topographic landmarks, county road maps, local
contacts, etc.
4. Scan the stream channel upstream and downstream from the X-site, decide if the site is
sampleable or not, and mark the appropriate box on the Stream Verification Form. If the
channel is dry at the X-site, determine if water is present within 75 m upstream and downstream
of the X-site. Assign one of the following sampling status categories to the stream. Record the
category on the Stream Verification Form.
SAMPLEABLE Categories
Wadeable: The stream can be sampled with wadeable stream protocols, continuous water flow and > 50% of the
sample reach is wadeable.
Boatable: The site can be sampled by boat following nonwadeable river protocols.
Partially Sampled by Wading (Boat): More than 50% of the reach cannot be safely sampled by wadeable protocols
and the reach is inaccessible to boat sampling due to barriers or water velocity/depth. Sample using modified
procedures.
Wadeable Interrupted: The flow of water is not continual, but there is water in the sample reach (e.g., isolated pools).
Sample using modified procedures.
Altered Channel: There is a stream at the location marked as the X-site on the map, but the stream channel does not
appear the way it is drawn on the map. An example would be a channel rerouting following a flood event that cut off a
loop of the stream. Move as far as necessary from the original site coordinates (while staying in the same stream), and
establish a new X-site at the same relative position in the altered channel. Make careful notes (including distance and
direction from the original site coordinates) and sketches of the changes on the Stream Verification Form.
(Continued)
69
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 4 of 18
TABLE 4-1 (Continued)
NON-SAMPLEABLE Categories
PERMANENT:
Dry Channel: A discernible stream channel is present but there is no water anywhere within a 150-m reach centered
on the X-site. If determined at the time of the sampling visit, record on the field form as Dry-Visited; if the site was
determined to be dry (or otherwise nonperennial) from another source and/or field verified before the actual sampling
visit, record as Dry-Not visited.
Wetland (No definable stream channel): There is standing water present, but no definable stream channel. In cases of
wetlands surrounding a stream channel, record the site as Sampleable-Wadeable but restrict sampling to the stream
channel.
Map Error. No evidence that a water body or stream channel was ever present at the coordinates provided for the X-
site.
Impounded stream: The stream is submerged under a lake or pond due to man-made or natural (e.g., a beaver dam)
impoundments. If the impounded stream, however, is still wadeable, record the stream as Altered and sample.
Other. The site is nontarget for reasons other than those above. Examples would include underground pipelines or a
nontarget canal.
A sampling site must meet both of the following criteria to be classified as a nontarget canal:
1. The channel is constructed and there is no evidence at the site or other information to suggest a natural
channel has ever existed.
2. The sole purpose/usage of the reach is to transfer water. There are no other uses of the waterbody by
humans (e.g., fishing, swimming, boating).
TEMPORARY:
Not wadeable (boatable): A site that should be sampled but the crew did not have the right equipment (e.g., A
boatable river visited by a wadeable stream crew without rafts).
Other. The site could not be sampled on that particular day, but is still a target site. Examples might include a recent
precipitation event that has caused unrepresentative conditions.
NO ACCESS to site Categories
Access Permission Denied: You are denied access to the site by the landowner(s).
Permanently Inaccessible: The site is unlikely to be sampled by anyone due to physical barriers that prevent access to
the site (e.g., cliffs) or the channel proper (e.g., deep muck or dense vegetation along or over the channel).
Temporarily Inaccessible: The site cannot be reached at the present time due to conditions that may not be present at
some future date (e.g., forest fire, high water, roads temporarily closed, unsafe weather conditions)
5. Do not sample NON-SAMPLEABLE or NO ACCESS sites. Place an Xin the No box for "Did you sample
this site?" and check the appropriate box in the Non-Sampleable or No Access section of the Stream
Verification Form. Provide a detailed explanation in comments section.
70
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 5 of 18
STREAM VERIFICATION FORM - STREAMS/RIVERS
Reviewed by (initial):
SITE NAME: ?/LeT
DATE: Q J J Q J J 2 0 0 1
VISIT:
:O0
2 3
SITE ID: wxyPW' 97??
TEAM: yy.J
STREAM/RIVER VERIFICATION INFORMATION
Stream/River Verified by (X ail that apply):
~ Other (Describe Here):
I GPS ~ Local Contact ~ Signs ~ Roads E3 Topo. Map
~ Not Verified (Explain in Comments)
Coordinates
Latitude North
Longitude West
Type of
GPS Fix
Are GPS Coordinates
m/iiO Sec. of map*?:;
MAP
Degrees, Minutes,
arid Seconds
OR
Decimal Degrees
¦3.9. ¦/.Q.
/./ v. .. t o.
~ 2D
3D
IS Yes
~ No
GPS
Degrees, Minutes,
and Seconds
OR
Decimal Degrees
_j,j.O,
_i i » 1 ¦ ¦ 1 ¦
/,/ ,s..r. j_jr
DID YOU SAMPLE THIS SITE?
1^1 YES If YES, check one below
I I NO If NO, check one below
SAMPLEABLE (Choose method used)
18 Wadeable - Continuous water, greater than 50% wadeable
~ Boatable
~ Partial - Sampled by wading (Explain in comments)
~ Partial - Sampled by boat (Explain in comments)
G Wadeable Interrupted - Not continuous water along reach
G Boatable Interrupted - Not continuous water along reach
~ Altered - Stream/River Present but not as on Map
NON-SAMPLEABLE-PERMANENT
~ Dry - Visited
~ Dry - Not visited
G Wetland (No Definable Channel)
l~l Map Error - No evidence channei/waterbody ever present
O Impounded (Underneath Lake or Pond)
~ Other (explain in comments)
NON-SAM PLEABLE-TEMPORARY
~ Not boatable - Need a different crew
~ Not wadeable - Need a different crew
~ Other (Explain in comments)
NO ACCESS
G Access Permission Denied
G Permanently Inaccessible (Unable/linsafe to Reach Site)
G Temporarily Inaccessible-Fire, etc. (Explain in comments)
GENERAL COMMENTS:
DIRECTIONS TO STREAM/RIVER SITE: y, JE.,-1 „ CtUKL fU
'V SL Mflts 4a Smttk4ov» Re* A. Torn Sevtt **A I Q.& *iil+s Je a r»vt I to*/
a* l*j4. jfrAVf/ J* iC/r O. T at!In 4o htvie aa L ) ii // Uk lot fc 4* r»*J (++J mj 4o a4 <•»«»¦< /lf«r -fit X- t'A*
4i»n.
Record information used to define length of reach, and sketch general features of reach on reverse side.
03/26/2001 2001 Stream Verification
23755
Figure 4-1. Stream Verification Form (page 1).
71
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 6 of 18
B. The sole purpose and usage of the waterbody is to move water. There are no
other human uses, such as fishing, swimming, or boating.
If you are in doubt about whether a site is a nontarget canal, or if you think the waterbody
might represent an important resource for aquatic biota, then sample it if you have permis-
sion.
If the course of the stream is different from what appears on the map, and the site
coordinates provided do not fall within the existing channel, the site is considered to be
"altered." Altered streams are the only time the X-site can be relocated from the original
coordinates. Move as far as necessary to relocate the X-site in the same relative position in
the altered channel (make sure you are still in the same stream). Record the direction and
distance the X-site was moved, and sketch the altered channel configuration on the Stream
Verification Form.
Record the sampling status and pertinent site verification information on the Stream
Verification Form (Figure 4-1). If the site is non-sampleable or inaccessible, the site visit is
completed, and no further sampling activities are conducted.
4.1.3 Sampling During or After Rain Events
Avoid sampling during high flow rainstorm events. For one, it is often unsafe to be in
the water during such times. In addition, biological and chemical conditions during episodes
are often quite different from those during baseflow. On the other hand, sampling cannot
always be restricted to only strict baseflow conditions. It would be next to impossible to
define "strict baseflow" with any certainty at an unstudied site. Such a restriction would also
greatly shorten the index period when sampling activities can be conducted. Thus, some
compromise is necessary regarding whether to sample a given stream because of storm
events. To a great extent, this decision is based on the judgment of the field team. Some
guidelines to help make this decision are presented in Table 4-2. The major indicator of the
influence of storm events will be the condition of the stream itself. If you decide a site is
unduly influenced by a storm event, do not sample the site that day. Classify the site as NO
ACCESS-Temporarily Inaccessible on the Stream Verification Form. Notify the field
coordinator or other central contact person to reschedule the stream for another visit.
72
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 7 of 18
TABLE 4-2. GUIDELINES TO DETERMINE THE INFLUENCE OF RAIN EVENTS
If it is running at bank full discharge or the water seems much more turbid than typical for
the class of stream do not sample it that day.
Do not sample the stream if it is unsafe to wade in the majority of the stream reach.
Keep an eye on the weather reports and rainfall patterns. Do not sample a stream during
periods of prolonged heavy rains.
If the stream seems to be close to normal summer flows, and does not seem to be unduly
influenced by storm events, go ahead and sample it, even if it has recently rained or is
raining.
4.1.4 Site Photographs
Taking site photographs was an optional activity in EMAP-W. However, you should
seriously consider taking photos at all sites, given the current capability of digital cameras
and GPS and GIS technologies. If site photos are taken, develop procedures for labeling
the image files and connecting the images to a GPS location. Take photos if the site has
unusual natural or man-made features associated with it. Photographs of sites believed to
be minimally disturbed by human activities can provide valuable information during interpre-
tation and assessment activities. If you do take any photographs at a stream, start the
sequence with one photograph of an 8.5 x 11 inch piece of non-glossy white paper (or a
small "dry erase" board) with the site ID, stream name, and date printed in large, thick
letters. After the photo of the site ID information, take at least two photographs at the X-
site, one in the upstream direction and one downstream. Take any additional photos you
find interesting after these first three pictures. For pictures of aquatic vertebrates (see
Section 12) or other small objects, place the paper with the stream ID and date in each
snapshot. Keep a separate log of your photographs in a small notebook (or a separate field
data form) and briefly describe each one.
4.2 LAYING OUT THE SUPPORT REACH
At each sampling point (X-site location), the response designs (Section 1.4) for the
various indicators must be implemented. Unlike chemistry, which can be measured at a
point, the response designs for biological assemblage and physical habitat indicators
require sampling a length of a stream to obtain a representative picture of the assemblages
and habitat conditions to characterize the sampling point. The length of stream sampled at
each sampling point (termed the support reach) represents the integration of the response
73
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 8 of 18
designs for the individual indicators. Based on several studies (Robison 1998, Li et al.
2001, Reynolds et al. 2003), a support reach with a length of 40 times the average channel
width measured near the X-site is established at each X-site.
Establish the support reach about the X-site using the procedures described in Table
4-3. Reconnoiter the support reach to make sure it is clear of obstacles that would prohibit
sampling and data collection activities. Record the channel width used to determine the
support reach length, and the support reach length upstream and downstream of the X-site,
on page 2 of the Stream Verification Form as shown in Figure 4-2. Figure 4-3 illustrates the
principal features of the established support reach, including the location of 11 cross-section
transects used for physical habitat characterization (Section 7), and specific sampling points
on each cross-section transect for later collection of periphyton samples (Section 9) and
benthic macroinvertebrate samples (Section 10).
There are some conditions that may require adjusting the support reach about the X-
site (i.e., the X-site no longer is located at the midpoint of the support reach) to avoid
features we do not wish to (or physically cannot) sample across. The support reach should
be of the same stream order as the X-site. Do not proceed upstream into a stream reach if
the stream order decreases, or downstream into a stream reach if the stream order
increases (stream order is based on 1:100,000 scale maps). If you encounter an impound-
ment (lake, reservoir, or pond), or an impassible barrier (e.g., a waterfall, a cliff) while
laying out the support reach, adjust the reach such that the lake/stream confluence is at one
end. Note this is different from when the X-site itself falls within an impounded channel (in
this case, the site is not sampled unless it is still wadeable [Table 4-1]). Adjusting, or sliding
the support reach involves noting the distance of the confluence, barrier, or other restriction
from the X-site, flagging the confluence, impoundment/stream confluence, or barrier as the
endpoint of the reach, and adding the distance to the other end of the reach, such that the
total support reach length remains the same, but it is no longer centered about the X-site.
In cases where you are denied access permission to a portion of the support reach, you can
adjust the reach to make it entirely accessible; use the point of access restriction as the
endpoint of the reach.
Do not slide the support reach so that the X-site falls outside of the reach
boundaries. In this case, do not sample, and classify the site as NO ACCESS or NON-
SAMPLEABLE-Permanent on the Stream Verification Form, depending on the reason for
74
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 9 of 18
TABLE 4-3. LAYING OUT THE SUPPORT REACH
1. Use a surveyor's rod or tape measure to determine the wetted width of the channel at 3 to 5
places considered to be of typical width within approximately 5 channel widths upstream and
downstream from the X-site. Average the readings together and round to the nearest 0.5 m. If
the average width is less than 3.5 m's, use 150 m as a minimum support reach length. Record
this width on page 2 of the Stream Verification Form.
For channels with interrupted flow, estimate the width based on the unvege-
tated width of the channel (again, with a 150 m minimum).
2. Check the condition of the stream upstream and downstream of the X-site by having one team
member go upstream and one downstream. Each person goes until they can see the stream to
a distance of 20 times the average channel width (equal to one-half the support reach length,
but a minimum of 75 m) determined in Step 1 from the X-site.
For example, if the support reach length is determined to be 150 m, each
person would go 75 m from the X-site to lay out the reach boundaries.
3. Determine if the support reach needs to be adjusted about the X-site due to confluences with
higher order streams (downstream), lower order streams (upstream), impoundments (lakes,
reservoirs, ponds), physical barriers (e.g., falls, cliffs), or because of access restrictions to a
portion of the initially-determined support reach.
If such a confluence, barrier, or access restriction is present, note the dis-
tance and flag the confluence, barrier, or the limit of access as the endpoint
of the reach. Move the other endpoint of the support reach an equivalent
distance away from the X-site. The X-site must still be within the support
reach after adjustment. The total support reach length does not change, but
the support reach is no longer centered on the X-site.
NOTE: Do not slide the support reach to avoid man-made obstacles such as
bridges, culverts, rip-rap, or channelization, or in streams with interrupted flow
to obtain more inundated areas to sample.
4. Starting back at the X-site (or the new midpoint of the reach if it had to be adjusted as de-
scribed in Step 3), measure a distance of 20 channel widths down one side of the stream using
a tape measure. Be careful not to "cut corners." Enter the channel to make measurements
only when necessary to avoid disturbing the stream channel prior to sampling activities. This
endpoint is the downstream end of the support reach, and is flagged as transect A.
(Continued)
75
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 10 of 18
TABLE 4-3 (Continued)
5. Using the tape measure, measure 1/10 (4 channel widths in big streams or 15 m in small
streams) of the required stream length upstream from the start point (transect A). Flag this
spot as the next cross-section or transect (transect B). For transect B, roll the dice to deter-
mine if it is a left (L), center (C), or right (R) sampling point (following the convention of facing
downstream) for collecting periphyton and benthic macroinvertebrate samples. A roll of 1 or 2
indicates L, 3 or 4 indicates C, and 5 or 6 indicates R (or use a digital wristwatch and glance at
the last digit (1-3=L, 4-6=C, 7-9=R). Mark L, C, or R on the transect flagging.
6. Proceed upstream with the tape measure and flag the positions of 9 additional transects
(labeled "C" through "K" as you move upstream) at intervals equal to 1/10 of the reach length.
Assign sampling spots to each transect in order as L, C, R after the first random selection.
For example, if the sampling spot assigned to transect B was C, transect C is
assigned R, transect D is L, transect E is C, etc.
76
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 11 of 18
STREAM VERIFICATION FORM - STREAMS/RIVERS (cont.) "'JST
SITE NAME: T) UeT CteeK.
DATE: 7
la, .1.2 0 01
VISIT: 0 (3 2 3
SITE ID: WMPfl-
TEAM: yty.f
STREAIWRIVER
REACH DETERMINATION
Channel Width Used
DISTANCE (m) FROM X-SITE
Comment
to Define Reach (m)
U pstream Length
Downstream Length
, . 3,
, , . 7,5",
, , ,7,.T
SKETCH MAP - Arrow Indicates North
# / 3^"
/
* y
7
, X/
6/
S<^>7
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/
pL
W
PERSONNEL
| Team Number: ~ [
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NAME
SHmois
Biomorph
h
DUTIES
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is
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23755
03/26/2001 2001 Stream Verification
Figure 4-2. Stream Verification Form (page 2).
77
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 12 of 18
Distance between transects=4 times
mean wetted width at X-site
SAMPLING POINTS
• L=Left C=Center R=Right
• First point (transect A)
determined at random
• Subsequent points assigned in
order L, C, R
Total reach length=40 times mean wetted width at X-site (minimum=150 m)
Figure 4-3. Support reach features.
sliding the reach. Do not slide a support reach to avoid man-made obstacles such as
bridges, culverts, rip-rap, or channelization. These represent features and effects that
EMAP is attempting to study. Do not slide the support reach to obtain more water to sample
if the flow is interrupted (Section 4.3.1).
Before leaving the stream, complete a rough sketch map of the stream reach you
sampled on page 2 of the Stream Verification Form (Figure 4-2). In addition to any other
interesting features that should be marked on the map, note any landmarks/directions that
can be used to find the X-site for future visits.
78
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 13 of 18
4.3 MODIFYING SAMPLE PROTOCOLS FOR HIGH OR LOW FLOWS
4.3.1 Streams with Interrupted Flow
The full complement of field data and samples may not be able to be collected from
streams that are categorized as Wadeable-lnterrupted (Table 4-1). Note that data are not
collected from sampling points that are completely dry (as defined in Table 4-1). Interrupted
streams will have some cross-sections with biological and habitat measurements and some
with none. Modified procedures for interrupted streams are presented in Table 4-4. Collect
the water chemistry samples and measurements(Section 5) at the X-site (even if the
support reach has been adjusted by sliding it). If the X-site is dry and there is water
elsewhere in the support reach, the collect the water chemistry sample and chemical
measurements from a location having water with a surface area greater than 1 m2 and a
depth greater than 10 cm.
Collect data for the physical habitat indicator (Section 7) along the entire sample
reach from interrupted streams, regardless of the amount of water present at each transect.
Obtain depth measurements along the deepest part of the channel (the thalweg) along the
entire sampling reach (even if dry) to provide a record of the water status of the stream for
future comparisons (e.g., the percent of the support reach length with isolated pools or no
water). Other measurements associated with characterizing riparian condition, substrate
type, etc. are useful to help infer conditions in the stream when water is flowing continu-
ously.
4.3.2 Partially Wadeable Sites
At some sites, it is not possible to safely wade the majority or all of the support reach
because of excessive depth and/or current velocity, cascades or rapids, or extreme siltation.
These sites are also not amenable to sampling by boat due to shallowness, barriers or low
current velocity. In these reaches, it will be impossible to do all of the wadeable collection
and measurement procedures, but wading the stream will provide more data than attempt-
ing to sample it by boat.
If more than 50% of the support reach cannot be safely sampled by wadeable
protocols and the reach appears to be inaccessible to boat sampling due to barriers or
water velocity/ depth conditions, classify the site as SAMPLEABLE-Partially Wadeable on
the Stream Verification Form. Keeping safety in mind, attempt as much of the indicator
79
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 14 of 18
TABLE 4-4. MODIFICATIONS FOR SUPPORT REACHES WITH INTERRUPTED FLOW
Water Chemistry
If the X-site is dry but there is flowing water or a pool of water having a surface area greater
than 1 m2 and a depth greater than 10 cm somewhere along the defined support reach, take
the water sample and water chemistry measurements at the pool or flowing water location that
is nearest to the X-site. Note that the sample wasn't collected at the X-site and where on the
support reach the sample was collected on the field data form.
Do not collect a water sample if there is no acceptable location within the support reach.
Record a "K" flag for the chemistry sample on the sample collection form and explain why the
sample was not collected in the comments section of the form.
Physical Habitat Characterization, Periphyton, Sediment, and Benthic Macroinvertebrates
Obtain a complete thalweg profile for the entire reach. At points where channel is dry, record
depth as 0 cm and wetted width as 0 m.
At each of the transects (cross sections), sample the stream depending on flow status:
Dry Channel: No surface water anywhere in cross section;
Collect all physical habitat data. Use the unvegetated area of the channel to
determine the channel width and the subsequent location of substrate sampling
points. Record the wetted width as 0 m. Record substrate data at the sampling
points located in the unvegetated, but dry, channel. Do not collect macroinvert-
ebrates, sediment or periphyton from this transect.
Damp Channel: No flowing water at transect, only puddles of water < 10 cm deep;
Collect all physical habitat data.
Collect periphyton samples from the wet spots; these are great places for algae.
Do not collect a benthic macroinvertebrate or sediment sample.
Water Present Transect has flow or pools > 10 cm deep;
Collect all data and measurements for physical habitat, periphyton, sediment, and
benthic macroinvertebrate indicators, using standard procedures.
If at the end of sampling, there were more than 2 transects Dry or Damp so that there are
missing macroinvertebrate or periphyton transects (< 10 transects) in the composite sample,,
then take additional samples from other places in the stream reach that had sufficient water.
Preferably, these samples would be taken at the mid-point between transects but may be taken
anywhere in streams with only a small amount of water. Try to get an equivalent amount of
material as you would from an 11 transect composite. Make detailed notes on the sample
collection form for how and where you did sample.
Aquatic Vertebrates
In interrupted streams, sample any wet areas within the sampling reach that are potential
habitat for aquatic vertebrates. Do not sample downstream of transect A or upstream of
transect K, even if there appears to be good habitat present.
80
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 15 of 18
sampling as you can. It may be impossible to do thalweg depth profiles, discharge mea-
surements, and aquatic vertebrate sampling, but it should be possible to do the various
assessments that don't require getting in the water (riparian zone characterization [Section
7], rapid habitat and/or visual assessments [Section 13]). It is also usually possible to
collect a water sample for chemistry and perhaps to collect benthos and periphyton samples
at transects by sampling near the stream margin or at suitable locations between estab-
lished transects. The amount of sampling that can actually be done will depend on
observed conditions; do only what can be done safely. Be sure to make detailed comments
on the Stream Verification Form, describing what the conditions were like and how much
sampling could actually be done. Use the sketch map on the back of the Stream Verifica-
tion Form to indicate problem areas and where samples were collected if you had to go off
transect. If barriers to the site prohibit physically reaching the X-site, or if the entire support
reach cannot be sampled due to unsafe conditions or extremely dense vegetation covering
the channel, classify the site as NO ACCESS-lnaccessible on the Stream Verification Form.
4.3.3 Streams with Braided Channel Patterns
Depending upon the geographic area and/or the time of the sampling visit, you may
encounter a stream having a braided channel pattern, which are characterized by numerous
sub-channels that are generally small and short, often with no obvious dominant channel,
separated by unvegetated bars (See Section 7.6.1). If you encounter a stream with a
braided channel pattern, use the procedures presented in Table 4-5 to establish the support
reach. The objective of this protocol modification is to avoid sampling an excessively long
stretch of stream. Figuring the mean width of extensively braided systems for purposes of
determining the support reach length is a bit of a challenge. For braided channels, calculate
the mean width as the bankfull channel width as defined in the physical habitat protocol
(Section 7). For relatively small streams (mean bankfull width near the X-site < 15 m) the
support reach is defined as 40 times the mean bankfull width near the X-site. For larger
streams, (mean bankfull width near the X-site > 15 m), sum up the actual wetted width of all
the braids and use that as the width for calculating the 40 channel width support reach
length. If that seems too short for the system in question, lay out a longer support reach
that includes 2 or 3 meander cycles, or about 6 riffle-pool sequences). Make detailed notes
and sketches on the Stream Verification Form (Figure 4-2) about what you did. It's
important to remember that the purpose of the 40 channel width support reach length is to
sample enough stream to incorporate the variability in habitat types and obtain a represen-
tative sample of the biological assemblages. In a braided stream where there is a 100 m
wide active channel (giving a 4 km reach length based on the standard procedure) and only
81
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 16 of 18
TABLE 4-5. MODIFICATIONS FOR STREAMS WITH BRAIDED CHANNEL PATTERNS
1. Estimate the mean width as the bankfull channel width as defined in the physical habitat
protocol.
A. If the mean width is less than or equal to 15 m, set up a 40 channel width sample reach in
the normal manner.
B. If more than 15 m, sum up the actual wetted width of all the braids and use that as the
width for calculating the 40 channel width reach length. Remember the minimum reach
length is always 150 m.
C. If the reach length determined in 1B seems too short for the system in question, set up a
longer sample reach, taking into consideration the objective is to sample a long enough
stretch of a stream to include at least 2 to 3 meander cycles (or about 6 pool-riffle habitat
sequences).
2. Make detailed notes and sketches on the Stream Verification Form about what you did.
10 m of wetted width (say five, 2-m wide braids), a 400 m long support reach length is likely
to be sufficient, especially if the system has fairly homogenous habitat throughout its length.
4.4 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
A list of the equipment and supplies required to conduct the stream verification and
to lay out the sampling reach is presented in Figure 4-4. This checklist is similar to the
checklist presented in Appendix A, which is used at the base location (Section 3) to ensure
that all of the required equipment is brought to the stream. Use this checklist to ensure that
equipment and supplies are organized and available at the stream site in order to conduct
the activities efficiently.
4.5 LITERATURE CITED
Herlihy, A.T. 1998. Initial site procedures. Pages 45-56 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm,
and D.V. Peck (Eds.). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface
Waters: field operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of
wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Li, J., A.T. Herlihy, W. Gerth, P.R. Kaufmann, S.V. Gregory, S. Urquhart, and D.P. Larsen.
2001. Variability in stream macroinvertebrates at multiple spatial scales. Freshwater
Biology 46:87-97.
82
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 17 of 18
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR INITIAL SITE ACTIVITIES
QTY.
Item
1
Dossier of site and access information
1
Topographic map with X-site marked
1
Site information sheet with map coordinates and elevation of X-site
1
GPS receiver and operating manual
Extra batteries for GPS receiver
1
Stream Verification Form
Soft lead (#2) pencils
1
Surveyor's telescoping leveling rod
1
50-m fiberglass measuring tape with reel
2 rolls
Surveyor's flagging tape (2 colors)
Fine-tipped indelible markers to write on flagging
1
Waterproof camera and film (or digital camera)
1
Sheet of cardstock or thin cardboard (white with non-glossy finish or light gray)
with Site ID printed on it for use with site photographs
1 copy
Field operations and methods manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides for initial
site activities
Figure 4-4. Equipment and supplies checklist for initial site activities.
83
-------
EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 4 (Initial Site Procedures), Rev. 3, October 2006 Page 18 of 18
Reynolds, L., A.T. Herlihy, P.R. Kaufmann, S.V. Gregory, and R.M. Hughes. 2003.
Electrofishing effort requirements for assessing species richness and biotic integrity in
western Oregon streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 23:450-
461.
Robison, E.G. 1998. Reach scale sampling metrics and longitudinal pattern adjustments of
small streams. PhD Dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. Avail-
able from http://www.humboldt.edu/%7Eegr2A/VatershedTools.html.
Stevens, D.L. and A.R. Olsen. 2004. Spatially balanced sampling of natural resources.
Journal of the American Statistical Association 99:262-278.
NOTES
84
-------
SECTION 5
WATER CHEMISTRY
by
Alan T. Herlihy1
Water chemistry data are used to characterize acid-base status, trophic condition (in
terms of nutrient enrichment), chemical stressors (e.g., excessive conductivity, sulfate from
mining activity, or chloride derived from human land use activities), and to classify steams
based on their water chemistry. Water chemistry information includes measurements of the
major cations and anions, nutrients, turbidity and color. Syringe samples are collected for
laboratory analysis of pH and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Syringes are used to
protect samples from exposure to the atmosphere because the pH and DIC concentrations
can change if the streamwater equilibrates with atmospheric C02.
At some sites in EMAP-W, additional in situ or streamside measurements of specific
conductance, dissolved oxygen, and temperature were made. Specific conductance (or
conductivity) is a measure of the ability of the water to pass an electrical current, which is
related to the ionic strength of a solution. In natural waters, minimal concentrations of
dissolved oxygen (DO) are essential for survival of most aquatic organisms. Dissolved
oxygen concentration and water temperature are used to assess water quality and the
potential for healthy aerobic organism populations.
The response design for water chemistry is based on the National Stream Survey
(Kaufmann et al. 1988) and the Mid-Atlantic Integrated Assessment (Stoddard et al. 2006).
All samples and optional field measurements are obtained at a single sampling location-
below the surface at mid-channel (or an area of flowing water) at the X-site. Spatial
variability across the channel of a single stream is expected to be minimal in wadeable
streams as compared to the variability expected among sites, so a composite water
chemistry sample is not required. Longitudinal variability at small scales (on the order of 0.5
km), appears to be minimal based on conductivity data taken systematically along several
larger stream reaches in the Mid-Atlantic region. Water chemistry results from single point
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333
85
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 2 of 14
samples are associated with land use variables (Herlihy et al. 1998a), as well as biological
assemblage metrics (McCormick et al. 2001, Klemm et al. 2003, Hill et al. 2003)
Most of the procedures outlined in this section are similar to the ones utilized in
streams for the EPA National Surface Water Survey (NSWS; Kaufmann et al., 1988) and
have been adapted from the NSWS field operations handbook (U.S. EPA, 1989). Activities
and procedures presented here are essentially unchanged from those previously published
for EMAP-SW (Herlihy, 1998b). Changes to collection and measurement procedures from
Herlihy (1998b), and modifications made over the course of EMAP-W are summarized in
Appendix B. At each stream, optional in situ and streamside measurements are made
using field meters and recorded on standard data forms. Streamwater is collected in one
4-L container and two 60 ml_ syringes that are stored on ice in darkness and shipped or
driven to the analytical laboratory within 24 hours of collection (see Section 3). Overnight
express mail for these samples is required because the syringe samples need to be
analyzed, and the 4-L bulk sample needs to be stabilized (by filtration and/or acidification)
within a short period of time (72 hours) after collection.
5.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION
Before leaving the base location, package the sample containers (one 4-L cubitainer
and two 60 mL syringes) and the stream sample beaker to prevent contamination (see
Section 3). Fill out a set of water chemistry sample labels as shown in Figure 5-1. Attach a
completed label to the cubitainer and each syringe and cover with clear tape strips as
described in Section 3. Make sure the syringe labels do not cover the volume gradations on
the syringe. In the field, make sure that the labels all have the same sample ID number
(barcode), and that the labels are securely attached.
Collect a water chemistry sample as described in Table 5-1 from the middle of the
stream channel at the X-site, unless no water is present at that location (see Section 4).
Throughout the collection process, it is important to take precautions to avoid contaminating
the sample. Rinse all sample containers three times with portions of stream water before
filling them with the sample. Many streams have a very low ionic strength and can
86
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 3 of 14
WATER CHEMISTRY
WXXF83- "J C1
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be contaminated quite easily by perspiration from hands, sneezing, smoking, insect
repellent, sunscreen, or other chemicals used when collecting other types of samples (e.g.,
formalin or ethanol). Thus, make sure that none of the water sample contacts your hands
before going into the cubitainer or syringe. All of the chemical analyses conducted using
the syringe samples can be affected by equilibration with atmospheric carbon dioxide; thus
it is essential that no outside air contact the syringe samples during or after collection.
Record the information from the sample label on the Sample Collection Form as shown
in Figure 5-2. Note any problems related to possible contamination in the comments
section of the form.
5.2 FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Table 5-2 presents the procedures for obtaining field measurement data for the water
chemistry indicator. Check the conductivity and dissolved oxygen meters (if used) in the
field using the same procedures as those used at a base location (Section 3). If field
meters are not being used, determine stream temperature with a field thermometer (one
that does not use mercury). Record the results of field checks of these meters, the transect
where the measurement was made (usually the X-site), time of measurement, and the
measured values for specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, and stream temperature on
the Field Measurement Form as shown in Figure 5-3. If a combination dissolved oxygen-
conductivity-temperature meter is being used to determine in situ conditions, the procedure
presented in Table 5-3 may be more appropriate to use.
87
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 4 of 14
TABLE 5-1. SAMPLE COLLECTION PROCEDURES FOR WATER CHEMISTRY
Collect water samples from the X-site in a flowing portion of the channel near the middle of the
stream.
1. Rinse the 500 ml_ sample beaker three times with streamwater. Discard the rinse downstream.
2. Remove the cubitainer lid and expand the cubitainer by pulling out the sides. NOTE: DO NOT
BLOW into the cubitainers to expand them, this will cause contamination.
3. Fill the beaker with streamwater and slowly pour 30-50 ml_ into the cubitainer. Cap the cubi-
tainer and rotate it so that the water contacts all the surfaces. Discard the water downstream.
Repeat this rinsing procedure two more times.
4. Collect additional portions of streamwater with the beaker and pour them into the cubitainer.
Let the weight of the water expand the cubitainer. The first two portions will have to be poured
slowly as the cubitainer expands. Fill the cubitainer to at least three-fourths of its maximum
volume. Rinse the cubitainer lid with streamwater. Eliminate any air space from the cubitainer,
and cap it tightly. Make sure the cap is tightly sealed and not on at an angle.
5. Place the cubitainer in a cooler (on ice or streamwater) and shut the lid. If a cooler is not
available, place the cubitainer in an opaque garbage bag and immerse it in the stream.
6. Submerge a 60-mL syringe halfway into the stream and withdraw a 15-20 mL aliquot. Pull the
plunger to its maximum extension and shake the syringe so the water contacts all surfaces.
Point the syringe downstream and discard the water by depressing the plunger. Repeat this
rinsing procedure two more times.
7. Submerge the syringe into the stream again and slowly fill the syringe with a fresh sample. Try
not to get any air bubbles in the syringe. If more than 1-2 tiny bubbles are present, discard the
sample and draw another one.
8. Invert the syringe (tip pointing up), and cap it with a syringe valve. Tap the syringe lightly to
detach any trapped air bubbles. With the valve open, expel the air bubbles and a small volume
of water, leaving between 50 and 60 mL of sample in the syringe. Close the syringe valve. If
any air bubbles were drawn into the syringe during this process, discard the sample and fill the
syringe again (Step 7).
9. Repeat Steps 6 through 8 with a second syringe. Place the syringes together in the cooler or in
the streamwater with the cubitainer.
10. Record the Sample ID number (barcode) on the Sample Collection Form along with the
pertinent stream information (stream name, site ID, date, etc.). Note anything that could
influence sample chemistry (heavy rain, potential contaminants) in the Comments section. If
the sample was collected at the X-site, record an "X" in the "Station Collected" field. If you
had to move to another part of the reach to collect the sample, place the letter of the nearest
transect in the "Station Collected" field. Record more detailed reasons and/or information in
the Comments section.
11. After carrying the samples out to the vehicles, place the cubitainer and syringes in a cooler and
surround with 1 gallon self-sealing plastic bags filled with ice.
88
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 5 of 14
SAMPLE COLLECTION FORM - STREAMS
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89
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 6 of 14
TABLE 5-2. PROCEDURES FOR STREAMSIDE AND IN SITU CHEMISTRY MEASUREMENTS
Specific Conductance
1. Check the batteries and electronic functions (e.g., zero, red line) of the conductivity meter as
instructed by the operating manual.
2. If you haven't tested the meter at a base location recently, insert the probe into the RINSE
container of the quality control check sample (QCCS) and swirl for 3 to 5 seconds. Remove the
probe, shake it off gently, transfer it to the TEST container of QCCS, and let it stabilize for 20
seconds.
If the measured conductivity is not within 10% or 10 |jS/cm of theoretical value, repeat the
measurement process. If the value is still unacceptable, do not use the meter until it can
be inspected, diagnosed, and repaired.
3. Submerge the probe in and area of flowing water near the middle of the channel at the same
location where the water chemistry sample is collected. Record the measured conductivity and
any pertinent data comments about the measurement on the Field Measurement Form.
Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature
1. Inspect the probe for outward signs of fouling and for an intact membrane. Do not touch the
electrodes inside the probe with any object. Always keep the probe moist by keeping it inside
its calibration chamber.
2. Check the batteries and electronic functions of the meter as described in the operating manual.
2. Calibrate the oxygen probe in water-saturated air as described in the operating manual. Allow
at least 15 minutes for the probe to equilibrate before attempting to calibrate. Try to perform
the calibration as close to stream temperature as possible (not air temperature) by using
stream water to fill the calibration chamber prior to equilibration.
3. After the calibration, submerge the probe in midstream at mid-depth at the same location where
the water chemistry sample is collected. Face the membrane of the probe upstream, and allow
the probe to equilibrate. Record the measured DO and stream temperature on the Field
Measurement Form. Record the time the DO and temperature measurement was made in 24
hour units (e.g. 14:23) on the field form. If the DO meter is not functioning, measure the stream
temperature with a field thermometer and record the reading on the Field Measurement Form
along with any pertinent data comments.
NOTE: Older model dissolved oxygen probes require a continuous movement of water
(0.3 to 0.5 m/s) across the probe to provide accurate measurements. If the velocity of the
stream is appreciably less than that, agitate the probe in the water as you are taking the
measurement.
(Continued)
90
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 7 of 14
TABLE 5-2 (Continued)
Temperature Only (if no field meters are being used)
1. Place a field thermometer (±1 °C accuracy) beneath the surface of the stream in an area of
flowing water at or near where the water chemistry samples were collected.
2. Record the stream temperature (estimated to the nearest 0.1 °C) on the Field Measurement
Form. Record the time the temperature measurement was made in 24 hour units (e.g. 14:23)
on the field form, along with any pertinent data comments (e.g., measurement taken in sun or
shade).
91
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 8 of 14
CHANNEL CONS (RAIN? AND I !ELD CHEMISIRY - SI REAMS. RIVLKS
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chemistry.
92
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 9 of 14
TABLE 5-3. PROCEDURES FOR IN SITU MEASUREMENTS OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN,
CONDUCTIVITY, AND TEMPERATURE USING A MULTI-FUNCTION METER3
Conductivity QCCS check:
1. Check the probe for fouling, intact and unwrinkled oxygen membrane, and bubble behind the
membrane. Replace the electrolyte solution and membrane cap assembly if necessary.
2. Turn the meter on and allow the self-test sequence to finish (approx. 15 seconds).
3. Use the MODE key to display temperature compensated conductivity (The °C symbol on the
display will be flashing).
4. Swirl the conductivity probe for 3-5 seconds in a 250-mL bottle containing the daily QCCS
solution labeled RINSE.
5. Transfer the probe from the RINSE bottle to a second 250-mL bottle of QCCS labeled TEST.
Let stabilize for 20 seconds.
6. If the measured value of the QCCS is within ±10% or ±10 |jS/cm of the theoretical value
(whichever is greater at the theoretical value), rinse the probe in deionized water and proceed to
Step 8.
If the measured value of the QCCS is not within ±10% or ±10 |jS/cm of theoretical value,
repeat Steps 4 through 6.
7. If the value is still unacceptable, replace the QCCS in both the RINSE and TEST bottles and
repeat the measurement process.
If the measured value is still not acceptable, clean the conductivity probe as described in
the manual, check the batteries, and repeat Steps 1 through 6.
If the measured value is still unacceptable, do not make any conductivity measure-
ments. Note problems in the comments section of the field measurement form.
Dissolved oxygen calibration:
8. Check the calibration chamber and fill it with stream water to dampen the sponge and get the
chamber temperature as close to stream temperature as possible. Drain the chamber and insert
the probe into the chamber.
9. Press the MODE key until the dissolved oxygen reading inside the chamber is displayed in mg/L.
Allow approximately 15 minutes for the readings to stabilize (i.e., a change of < 0.02 mg/L over a
1-minute period).
(Continued)
a For use with YSI Models 85 and 95. Modified from YSI Incorporated. 1986. Model 85 handheld
oxygen, conductivity, salinity, and temperature system operations manual. YSI Incorporated,
Yellow Springs, OH.
93
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 10 of 14
TABLE 5-3 (continued)
Dissolved oxygen calibration (cont.):
10. Press the UP ARROW and DOWN ARROW keys simultaneously to enter calibration mode.
11. Obtain the approximate local altitude from either the site dossier or a topographic map. Use the
UP ARROW or DOWN ARROW key to enter the local altitude [to the nearest 100 feet (e.g., 15
equals 1500 ft)]. After the correct altitude is displayed, press the ENTER button.
12. In the lower part of the display, CAL should appear along with the theoretical value based on
temperature and altitude.
13. Once the actual value displayed is stable for 10 seconds, press the ENTER button to save the
calibration. NOTE: make sure the display says SAVE. Do not turn the meter off after saving the
calibration.
In situ measurements:
14. Remove the probe from the calibration chamber and hold it in mid-channel and mid-depth at the
X-site. Press the MODE button to cycle the display to DO in mg/L. Face the probe upstream
and/or jiggle the probe up and down to ensure a continuous movement of water across the
membrane surface. Unstable and inaccurate measurements will result if the flow of water
across the membrane is < 0.1 m/s.
15. Wait at least 1 minute for the displayed readings to stabilize, and record the DO value and
stream temperature on the Field Measurement Form.
16. Press the MODE button to cycle the display to temperature corrected specific conductance (the
°C symbol will flash). Record the displayed conductivity value in jjS/cm on the Field Measure-
ment Form.
NOTE: If the conductivity is high (> 999 jjS/cm), the display will convert from jjS/cm to
mS/cm. Be sure to check the units indicated on the display. If mS/cm are displayed,
multiply the value by 1000 to convert it to jjS/cm before recording it on the data form (e.g.,
9 mS/cm would be recorded as 9000 jjS/cm). Extremely low values (< 10) are likely to be
in mS/cm in most streams sampled in EMAP-W.
17. After completing all in situ measurements, rinse the probe with deionized water and store in the
calibration chamber. Be sure to keep the sponge in the chamber moist at all times.
a For use with YSI Model 85 or equivalent. Modified from YSI Incorporated. 1986. Model 85
handheld oxygen, conductivity, salinity, and temperature system operations manual. YSI Incorpo-
rated, Yellow Springs, OH.
94
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 11 of 14
5.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
A list of equipment and supplies required to collect samples and field data for the water
chemistry indicator is presented in Figure 5-4. This checklist is similar to the checklist
presented in Appendix A, which is used at the base location (Section 3) to ensure that all of
the required equipment is brought to the stream. Use this checklist to ensure that equip-
ment and supplies are organized and available at the stream site in order to conduct the
activities efficiently.
5.4 LITERATURE CITED
Herlihy, A.T., J.L. Stoddard, and C.B. Johnson. 1998a. The relationship between stream
chemistry and watershed land use data in the mid-Atlantic region, U.S. Water Air and
Soil Pollution 105:377-386.
Herlihy, A.T. 1998b. Water chemistry. Pages 57-65 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and
D.V. Peck (eds.). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface
Waters: Field operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of
wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Kaufmann, P., A. Herlihy, J. Elwood, M. Mitch, S. Overton, M. Sale, J. Messer, K. Reckhow,
K. Cougan, D. Peck, J. Coe, A. Kinney, S. Christie, D. Brown, C. Hagley, and Y. Jager.
1988. Chemical characteristics of streams in the Mid-Atlantic and southeastern
United States. Volume I: Population descriptions and physico-chemical relationships.
EPA 600/3-88/021a. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Stoddard, J.L., A.T. Herlihy, B. H. Hill, R.M. Hughes, P.R. Kaufmann, D.J. Klemm, J.M.
Lazorchak, F.H. McCormick, D.V. Peck, S.G. Paulsen, A.R. Olsen, D.P. Larsen, J. Van
Sickle, and T.R. Whittier. 2006. Mid-Atlantic Integrated Assessment (MAIA): State of
the flowing waters report. EPA 620/R-06/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1989. Handbook of methods for acid deposition studies: Field operations for
surface water chemistry. EPA 600/4-89/020. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
95
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual, Section 5 (Water Chemistry), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 12 of 14
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR WATER CHEMISTRY
QTY.
Item
1
Dissolved oxygen/Temperature meter with probe (optional)
1
DO repair kit containing additional membranes and probe filling solution
(optional)
1
Conductivity meter with probe (optional)
1
250-mL or 500-mL plastic bottle of conductivity QCCS labeled RINSE (in
plastic bag) (Optional)
1
250 ml_ or 500-mL plastic bottle of conductivity QCCS labeled TEST (in plastic
bag) (Optional)
1
Field thermometer
1
500 mL plastic beaker with handle (in clean plastic bag)
1
4-L cubitainer with completed sample label attached (in clean plastic bag)
2-4
60 mL plastic syringes (with Luer type tip) with completed sample labels
attached
1
Plastic container with snap-on lid to hold filled syringes
2-4
Syringe valves (Mininert® with Luer type adapter, or equivalent, available from
a chromatography supply company)
1
Cooler with 4 to 6 plastic bags (1 -gal) of ice or
a medium or large opaque garbage bag to store the water sample at stream-
side
1
Sample Collection From
1
Field Measurement Form
1 set
Water Chemistry labels (if not filled out and attached at base site)
Soft-lead pencils for filling out field data forms
Fine-tipped indelible markers for filling out labels
1 roll or
box of
tape strips
Clear packaging tape to cover labels
1 copy
Field operations and methods manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides for water
chemistry
Figure 5-4. Checklist of equipment and supplies for water chemistry.
96
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NOTES
97
-------
NOTES
98
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SECTION 6
STREAM DISCHARGE
Philip R. Kaufmann1
Stream discharge is equal to the product of the mean current velocity and vertical
cross sectional area of flowing water. Discharge measurements are important for assessing
trends in streamwater acidity and other characteristics that are very sensitive to streamflow
differences. Stream discharge information is also useful in interpreting the representative-
ness of water chemistry data and some physical habitat information.
The response design for stream discharge involves a single determination at a
suitable location within the support reach to characterize conditions at the sampling point.
The location selected should be as close as possible to the location where chemical
samples are collected (typically the X-site; see Section 5), so that these data correspond.
Variability in stream discharge within the support reach is expected to be small as compared
to variability in stream discharge among streams, so multiple determinations at a site are
not required. Discharge is usually determined after collecting water chemistry samples.
Although discharge is part of the physical habitat indicator (Section 7), it is presented as a
separate section because the "biomorphs" measure it while the "geomorphs" conduct the
other habitat characterization procedures (see Section 2).
No single method for measuring discharge is applicable to all types of stream
channels. The preferred procedure for obtaining discharge data is based on "velocity-area"
methods (e.g., Rantz and others 1982, Linsley et al. 1982), and providing either the
measurement data to calculate discharge (Section 6.1) or the calculated value for stream
discharge (if the instrumentation has the capability; Section 6.4). For streams that are too
small or too shallow to use the equipment required for the velocity-area procedure, two
alternative procedures are presented. One procedure (Section 6.2) is based on timing the
movement of a neutrally buoyant object (e.g., a plastic golf ball, a small rubber ball, or an
orange) through a measured length of the channel, after measuring one or more cross-
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St.,
Corvallis, OR 97333.
99
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 2 of 12
sectional depth profiles within that length (adapted from Robins and Crawford 1954). The
second procedure (Section 6.3) is based on timing the filling of a volume of water in a
calibrated bucket.
Most of the procedures and activities presented here are unchanged from those
previously published for EMAP-SW (Kaufmann 1998). Modifications made during the
course of EMAP-W are presented in Appendix B.
6.1 VELOCITY-AREA PROCEDURE
Because velocity and depth typically vary greatly across a stream, accuracy in field
measurements is achieved by measuring the mean velocity and flow cross-sectional area of
many increments across a channel (Figure 6-1). Each increment gives a subtotal of the
stream discharge, and the whole is calculated as the sum of these parts. Discharge
measurements are made at only one carefully chosen channel cross section within the
support reach. It is important to choose a channel cross section that is as much like a canal
as possible. A glide area with a U-shaped channel cross section that is free of obstructions
provides the best conditions for measuring discharge by the velocity-area method. You may
remove rocks and other obstructions to improve the cross-section before any measure-
ments are made. However, because removing obstacles from one part of a cross-section
affects adjacent water velocities, you must not change the cross-section once you com-
mence collecting the set of velocity and depth measurements.
The procedure for obtaining depth and velocity measurements is outlined in Table
6-1 (based on Rantz and others 1982). Record the data from each measurement on the
Stream Discharge Form as shown in the left side of Figure 6-2. To reduce redundancy and
to conserve space, Figure 6-2 shows measurement data recorded for all four procedures.
In the field, use only one procedure to obtain discharge data. If you are using a current
velocity meter that can compute discharge directly, refer to Section 6.4.
6.2 NEUTRALLY BUOYANT OBJECT PROCEDURE
In very small, shallow streams where the standard velocity-area method cannot be
applied, obtain an estimate of discharge using the neutrally buoyant object method. The
required pieces of information are the mean flow velocity in the channel and the cross-
sectional area of the flow. Estimate the mean velocity measuring the time it takes for a
100
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 3 of 12
Measure stream depth (D) at each
interval, arid obtain velocity
measurements at 0.6 of the depth
from the surface
15 to 20 equally spaced
intervals across stream,
beginning at left margin
Extended surveyor's
rod or tape measure
Record distance
and depth of
right margin
ft'
0.6 D
PRK/DVP 8/06
Figure 6-1. Layout of a channel cross-section for obtaining discharge data by the velocity-area
procedure.
neutrally buoyant object to flow through a measured length of the channel. Determine the
channel cross-sectional area from a series of depth measurements along one or more
channel cross-sections. Since the discharge is the product of mean velocity and channel
cross-sectional area, this method is conceptually very similar to the standard velocity-area
method.
The neutrally buoyant object procedure is described in Table 6-2. Examples of
suitable objects include small oranges, small sponge rubber balls, "wiffle-type" practice golf
balls, or small sticks. The object must float very low in the water. It should also be small
enough that it does not drag on the bottom. Choose a stream segment that is roughly
uniform in cross-section, and that is long enough to require 10 to 30 seconds for an object
to float through it. Select one to three cross-sections to represent the channel dimensions
101
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 4 of 12
TABLE 6-1. VELOCITY-AREA PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING STREAM DISCHARGE
1. Locate a cross-section of the stream channel for discharge determination that has most of the
following qualities:
Segment of stream above and below cross-section is straight
Depths mostly greater than 15 cm, and velocities mostly greater than 0.15 m/s. Do not
measure discharge in a pool.
"U" shaped, with a uniform streambed free of large boulders, woody debris or brush, and
dense aquatic vegetation.
Flow is relatively uniform, with no eddies, backwaters, or excessive turbulence.
2. Lay the surveyor's rod (or stretch a meter tape) across the stream perpendicular to its flow, with
the "zero" end of the rod or tape on the left bank, as viewed when looking downstream. Leave
the tape tightly suspended across the stream, approximately one foot above water level.
3. Attach the velocity meter probe to the calibrated wading rod. Check to ensure the meter is
functioning properly and the correct calibration value is displayed. Calibrate (or check the
calibration) the velocity meter and probe as directed in the meter's operating manual. Place an
Xin the Velocity Area box on the Stream Discharge Form.
4. Divide the total wetted stream width into 15 to 20 equal-sized intervals. To determine interval
width, divide the width by 20 and round up to a convenient number. Intervals should not be less
than 10 cm wide, even if this results in less than 15 intervals. The first interval is located at the
left margin of the stream (left when looking downstream), and the last interval is located at the
right margin of the stream (right when looking downstream).
5. Stand downstream of the rod or tape and to the side of the first interval point (closest to the left
bank if looking downstream).
6. Place the wading rod in the stream at the interval point and adjust the probe or propeller so that
it is at the water surface. Place an X in the appropriate Distance Units and Depth Units boxes
on the Stream Discharge Form. Record the distance from the left bank and the depth indicated
on the wading rod on the Stream Discharge Form.
Note for the first interval, distance equals 0 cm, and in many cases depth may also equal 0
cm. For the last interval, the distance will equal the wetted width (in cm) and depth may
again equal 0 cm.
7. Stand downstream of the probe or propeller to avoid disrupting the stream flow. Adjust the
position of the probe on the wading rod so it is at 0.6 of the measured depth below the surface of
the water. Face the probe upstream at a right angle to the cross-section, even if local flow
eddies hit at oblique angles to the cross-section.
(Continued)
102
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 5 of 12
TABLE 6-1 (Continued)
8. Wait 20 seconds to allow the meter to equilibrate, then measure the velocity. Place an "X" in the
appropriate Velocity Units box on the Stream Discharge Form. Record the value on the
Stream Discharge Form. Note for the first interval, velocity may equal 0 because depth will
equal 0. Note that negative velocity readings are possible, when recording negative values,
assign a flag to denote they are indeed negative values.
For the electromagnetic current meter (e.g., Marsh-McBirney), use the lowest time
constant scale setting on the meter that provides stable readings.
For the impeller-type meter (e.g., Swoffer 2100), set the control knob at the mid-position of
Display Averaging. Press RESET then START and proceed with the measurements.
9. Move to the next interval point and repeat Steps 6 through 8. Continue until depth and velocity
measurements have been recorded for all intervals. Note for the last interval (at the right
margin), depth and velocity values may equal 0.
10. At the last interval (the right margin), record a Z in the Flag field on the field form to denote the
last interval sampled.
103
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 6 of 12
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Figure 6-2. Stream Discharge Form, showing data recorded for all four discharge measure
ment procedures. Note that only one procedure is actually used at each stream site.
104
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October20Q6 Page7of12
TABLE 6-2. NEUTRALLY BUOYANT OBJECT PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING
STREAM DISCHARGE
1. Place an X in the Neutrally Buoyant Object box on the Stream Discharge Form.
2. Select a segment of the sampling reach that is deep enough to float the object freely, and
long enough that it will take between 10 and 30 seconds for the object to travel. Mark the
units used and record the length of the segment in the Float Dist. field of the Stream
Discharge Form.
3. If the channel width and/or depth change substantially within the segment, measure widths
and depths at three cross-sections, one near the upstream end of the segment, a second
near the middle of the segment, and a third near the downstream end of the segment.
If there is little change in channel width and/or depth, obtain depths
from a single typical cross-section within the segment.
4. At each cross section, measure the wetted width using a surveyor's rod or tape measure, and
record both the units and the measured width on the Stream Discharge Form. Measure the
stream depth using a wading rod or meter stick at points approximately equal to the following
proportions of the total width: 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9. Record the units and the depth
values (not the distances from the bank) on the Stream Discharge Form.
5. Repeat Step 4 for the remaining cross-sections.
6. Use a stopwatch to determine the time required for the object to travel through the segment.
Record the time in the Float Time field of the Stream Discharge Form.
7. Repeat Step 6 two more times. The float distance may differ somewhat for the three trials.
105
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 8 of 12
within the segment, depending on the variability of width and/or depth. Determine the
stream depth at 5 equally spaced points at each cross-section. Measure the time required
for the object to pass through the segment that includes all of the selected cross-sections.
Repeat the timing two more times. Record data on the Stream Discharge Form as shown in
the lower right portion of Figure 6-2.
6.3 TIMED FILLING PROCEDURE
In channels too small for the velocity-area method, discharge can sometimes be
determined directly by measuring the time it takes to fill a container of known volume.
Small is defined as a channel so shallow that the current velocity probe cannot be placed in
the water, or where the channel is broken up and irregular due to rocks and debris, and a
suitable cross-section for using the velocity area procedure is not available. The timed
filling method can be an extremely precise and accurate, but requires a natural or con-
structed spillway of free-falling water. If obtaining data by this procedure will result in a lot
of channel disturbance or stir up a lot of sediment, wait until after all biological and chemical
measurements and sampling activities have been completed.
Choose a cross-section of the stream that contains one or more natural spillways or
plunges that collectively include the entire stream flow. A temporary spillway can also be
constructed using a portable V-notch weir, plastic sheeting, or other materials that are
available onsite. Choose a location within the sampling reach that is narrow and easy to
block when using a portable weir. Position the weir in the channel so that the entire flow of
the stream is completely rerouted through its notch (Figure 6-3). Impound the flow with the
weir, making sure that water is not flowing beneath or around the side of the weir. Use mud
or stones and plastic sheeting to get a good waterproof seal. The notch must be high
enough to create a small spillway as water flows over its sharp crest.
The timed filling procedure is presented in Table 6-3. Make sure that the entire flow
of the spillway is going into the bucket. Record the time it takes to fill a measured volume
on the Stream Discharge Form as shown in the upper right portion of Figure 6-2. Repeat
the procedure 5 times. If the cross-section contains multiple spillways, you will need to do
separate determinations for each spillway. If so, clearly indicate which time and volume
data replicates should be averaged together for each spillway; use an additional Stream
Discharge Form if necessary. On the additional form, record a flag value (e.g., F1)
106
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 9 of 12
Impounded Water Leve
^
Height above crest
Weir Crest
WW
Bucket
w€f
mm
pounded Pool NOTE: Alternatively, time the filling
of a bucket held beneath the plunge.
Weir Crest
PRK/DVP8/06
Figure 6-3. Use of a portable weir in conjunction with a calibrated bucket to obtain an estimate
of stream discharge.
on all lines in the Timed Filling section, and explain the flag means an additional spillway
was measured in the comment section.
6.4 DIRECT DETERMINATION OF DISCHARGE
The previous three procedures all provide data from which discharge (Q) is calcu-
lated by computer later. Some current velocity meters have the capability to calculate Q in
the field immediately after taking all of the measurements. If you are using an instrument
with this capability, record the Q value and associated units as shown in the lower portion of
the Stream Discharge Form (Figure 6-2). Note that if the Q Value box is marked, do not
record the raw measurement data on the form.
107
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 10 of 12
TABLE 6-3. TIMED FILLING PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING STREAM DISCHARGE
NOTE: If measuring discharge by this procedure will result in significant channel disturbance or will
stir up sediment, do not determine discharge until all biological and chemical measurement and
sampling activities have been completed.
1. Choose a cross-section that contains one or more natural spillways or plunges, construct a
temporary spillway using on-site materials, or install a portable weir using a plastic sheet and
on-site materials.
2. Place anXin the Timed Filling box in the stream discharge section of the Stream Discharge
Form.
3. Position a calibrated bucket or other container beneath the spillway to capture the entire flow.
Use a stopwatch to determine the time required to collect a known volume of water. Record
the volume collected (in liters) and the time required (in seconds) on the Stream Discharge
Form.
4. Repeat Step 3 a total of 5 times for each spillway that occurs in the cross section. If there is
more than one spillway in a cross-section, you must use the timed-filling approach on all of
them. Additional spillways may require additional data forms
108
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 11 of 12
6.5 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 6-4 shows the list of equipment and supplies necessary to measure stream
discharge. This checklist is similar to the checklist presented in Appendix A, which is used
at the base location (Section 3) to ensure that all of the required equipment is brought to the
stream. Use this checklist to ensure that equipment and supplies are organized and
available at the stream site in order to conduct the activities efficiently.
6.6 LITERATURE CITED
Kaufmann, P.R. 1998. Stream Discharge. Pages 67-76 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm,
and D.V. Peck (eds.). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface
Waters: field operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of
wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Linsley, R.K., M.A. Kohler, and J.L.H. Paulhus. 1982. Hydrology for engineers.
McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.
Rantz, S.E. and others. 1982. Measurement and computation of streamflow: Volume 1.
Measurement of stage and discharge. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
2175.
Robins, C. R., and R. W. Crawford. 1954. A short accurate method for estimating the
volume of stream flow. Journal of Wildlife Management 18:366-369.
NOTES
109
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 6 (Stream Discharge), Rev. 4,
October 2006 Page 12 of 12
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR STREAM DISCHARGE
QTY.
ITEM
1
Surveyor's telescoping leveling rod (7-.m long, metric scale, round cross-section)
1
50-m fiberglass measuring tape and reel
1
Current velocity meter, probe, and operating manual
1-2
Extra batteries for velocity meter
1
Top-set wading rod (metric or English scale) for use with current velocity meter
1
Portable weir with 60° "V" notch (optional)
1
Plastic sheeting to use with weir (optional)
1
Plastic bucket (or similar container) with volume graduations
1
Stopwatch
1
Neutrally buoyant object (e.g., "wiffle-type" plastic golf ball, orange, small rubber
ball,, or stick)
1
Covered clipboard
Soft (#2) lead pencils
Stream Discharge Forms (1 per stream plus extras if needed for timed filling
procedure or additional velocity-area intervals)
1 copy
Field operations and methods manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides for stream
discharge
Figure 6-4. Equipment and supply checklist for stream discharge.
110
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SECTION 7
PHYSICAL HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION
Philip R. Kaufmann1
In the broad sense, physical habitat in streams includes all those physical attributes
that influence or provide sustenance to organisms within the stream. The physical habitat
of a stream varies naturally, as do biological characteristics; thus, expectations differ even
in the absence of anthropogenic disturbance. Within a given physiographic-climatic region,
stream drainage area and overall stream gradient are likely to be strong natural determi-
nants of many aspects of stream habitat. This is because of their influence on discharge,
flood stage, and stream power (the product of discharge times gradient). Summarizing the
habitat results of a workshop conducted by EMAP on stream monitoring design, Kaufmann
(1993) identified seven general physical habitat attributes important in influencing stream
ecology:
Channel Dimensions
Channel Gradient
Channel Substrate Size and Type
Habitat Complexity and Cover
Riparian Vegetation Cover and Structure
Anthropogenic Alterations
Channel-Riparian Interaction
All these attributes may be altered directly or indirectly by anthropogenic activities.
Nevertheless, their expected values tend to vary systematically with stream size (drainage
area) and overall gradient (as measured from topographic maps). The relationships of
specific physical habitat measurements described in this section to these seven attributes
are discussed by Kaufmann (1993). Biological measures such as aquatic macrophytes,
riparian vegetation, and large woody debris are included in this and other physical habitat
assessments because of their role in modifying habitat structure and light inputs. The
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR
97333.
111
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 2 of 66
measurements from this physical habitat characterization are used with water chemistry,
temperature, and other data sources (e.g., remote sensing of basin land use and land
cover). The combined data analyses will more comprehensively describe additional habitat
attributes and larger scales of physical habitat or human disturbance than are evaluated by
the field assessment alone. A comprehensive data analysis guide (Kaufmann et al. 1999)
discusses the detailed procedures used to calculate metrics related to stream reach and
riparian habitat quality from field data collected using the EMAP field protocols. This guide
also discusses the precision associated with these measurements and metrics.
These procedures are intended for evaluating physical habitat in wadeable streams,
and are designed for monitoring applications where robust, quantitative descriptions of the
habitat at the reach scale are desired, but time is limited.. The EMAP field procedures are
most efficiently applied during baseflow conditions and during times when terrestrial
vegetation is active, but may be applied during other seasons and higher flows except as
limited by safety considerations. The qualitative nature of the habitat quality rank scores
produced by many currently available rapid habitat assessment methods (e.g., those
described in Section 14, Plafkin et al. 1989, Rankin 1995, Barbour et al. 1999) have not as
yet been demonstrated to meet the objectives of EMAP, where more quantitative assess-
ment is needed for site classification, trend interpretation, and analysis of possible causes
of biotic impairment.
The habitat characterization protocol developed for EMAP differs from other rapid
habitat assessment approaches (e.g., Plafkin et al. 1989, Rankin 1995, Barbour et al.,
1999) by employing a randomized, systematic spatial response design that allocates
collection of data along the entire support reach, minimizes bias in the placement and
positioning of measurements across different sites and field crews, and allows a consistent
collection of data from all sites. Measures are taken over defined channel areas and these
sampling areas or points are placed systematically at spacings that are proportional to
baseflow channel width. This response design scales the support reach length and
resolution in proportion to stream size (to represent approximately 3-4 meander cycles or 5-
6 riffle-pool sequences at a given sampling point). It also allows statistical and series
analyses of the data that are not possible under other designs. We strive to make the
protocol objective and repeatable by using easily learned, repeatable measures of physical
habitat in place of estimation techniques wherever possible. Where estimation is em-
ployed, we direct the sampling team to estimate attributes that are otherwise measurable,
rather than estimating the quality or importance of the attribute to the biota or its impor-
112
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 3 of 66
tance as an indicator of disturbance. We have included the more traditional visual
classification of channel unit scale habitat types because they have been useful in past
studies and enhance comparability with other work (e.g., Bisson et al. 1982, Frissell et al.
1986, Hankie and Reeves 1988, Hawkins et al. 1993, Arend 1999).
Changes to previously published EMAP-SW procedures (Kaufmann and Robison
1998), as well as modifications implemented during EMAP-W are summarized in Appendix
B. The procedures are employed on a support reach length 40 times its baseflow wetted
width, as described in Section 4. Measurement points are systematically placed to
statistically represent the entire reach. Stream depth and wetted width are measured at
very tightly spaced intervals, whereas channel cross-section profiles, substrate, bank
characteristics and riparian vegetation structure are measured at larger spacings. Woody
debris is tallied along the full length of the sampling reach, and discharge is measured at
one location (see Section 6). The tightly spaced depth and width measures allow calcula-
tion of indices of channel structural complexity, objective classification of channel units
such as pools, and quantification of residual pool depth, pool volume, and total stream
volume.
The time commitment to gain repeatability and precision is greater than that
required for more qualitative methods. The additional substrate measurements (pebble
count of 105 vs. 55 particles) add 20 to 30 minutes to the protocol described by Kaufmann
and Robison (1998). In our field trials, two people typically complete the specified channel,
riparian, and discharge measurements in about 2 to 3 hours of field time (see Section 2,
Table 2-1). However, the time required can vary considerably with channel characteristics.
On streams up to about 4 meters wide with sparse woody debris, measurements can be
completed in about two hours. The current protocol, requiring 21 wetted width measure-
ments, will require less than 4.5 hours for a well-practiced crew of two, even in large (>10
m wide), complex streams with abundant woody debris and deep water.
7.1 COMPONENTS OF THE HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION
There are five different components of the EMAP-W physical habitat characteriza-
tion (Table 7-1), including stream discharge, which is described in Section 6. Measure-
ments for the remaining four components are recorded on 11 copies of a two-sided field
form, and separate forms for recording slope and bearing measurements, recording
113
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 4 of 66
TABLE 7-1. COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION
Component
Description
Thalweg Profile:
(Section 7.4.1)
Woody Debris Tally:
(Section 7.4.2)
Channel and Riparian
Characterization:
(Section 7.5, Section 8)
Measure maximum depth, classify habitat and pool-forming
features, and check presence of backwaters, side channels and
loose, soft deposits of sediment particles at 10-15 equally spaced
intervals between each of 11 channel cross-section transects (100
or 150 individual measurements along entire reach).
Measure wetted width and evaluate substrate particle size classes
at 11 regular channel cross-section transects and midway between
them (21 width measurements and substrate cross-sections).
Between each of the channel cross sections, tally large woody
debris numbers within and above the bankfull channel according
to specified length and diameter classes (10 separate tallies).
At 11 cross-section transects (21 for substrate size) placed at
equal intervals along reach length:
Measure: channel cross section dimensions, bank height, bank
undercut distance, bank angle, slope and compass bearing (back-
sight), and riparian canopy density (densiometer).
Visually Estimate3: substrate size class and embeddedness; areal
cover class and type (e.g., woody trees) of riparian vegetation in
Canopy, Mid-Layer and Ground Cover; areal cover class of fish
concealment features, aquatic macrophytes and filamentous
algae.
Observe & Record3: Presence and proximity of human distur-
bances, presence of large trees, and presence of invasive riparian
plants (Section 8).
After completing thalweg and transect measurements and obser-
vations, identify features causing channel constraint, estimate the
percentage of the channel margin that is constrained for the whole
reach, and estimate the ratio of bankfull/valley width. Check
evidence of recent major floods and debris torrent scour or depo-
sition.
In medium and large streams (defined in Section 6) measure
water depth and velocity at 0.6 depth at 15 to 20 equally spaced
intervals across one carefully chosen channel cross-section.
In very small streams, measure discharge by timing the passage
of a neutrally buoyant object through a segment whose cross-
sectional area has been estimated or by timing the filling of a
bucket.
Substrate size class is estimated for a total of 105 particles taken at 5 equally-spaced points along each of 21 cross-sections.
Depth is measured and embeddedness estimated for the 55 particles located along the 11 regular transects A through K.
Cross-sections are defined by laying the surveyor's rod or tape to span the wetted channel. Woody debris is tallied over the
distance between each cross-section and the next cross-section upstream. Riparian vegetation and human disturbances are
observed 5m upstream and 5m downstream from the cross section transect. They extend shoreward 10m from left and right
banks. Fish cover types, aquatic macrophytes, and algae are observed within the channel 5m upstream and 5m downstream
from the cross section stations. These boundaries for visual observations are estimated by eye.
Assessment of Chan-
nel Constraint, Debris
Torrents, and Major
Floods
(Section 7.6)
Discharge:
(see Section 6)
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observations concerning riparian legacy (large) trees and alien invasive riparian plants
(Section 8), assessing the degree of channel constraint, and recording evidence of debris
torrents or recent major flooding. The thalweg profile is a longitudinal survey of depth,
habitat class, presence of deposits of soft/small sediments, and presence of off-channel
habitats at 100 equally spaced stations (150 in streams less than 2.5 m wide) along the
centerline between the two ends of the sampling reach. Thalweg refers to the flow path of
the deepest water in a stream channel. Wetted width is measured and substrate size is
evaluated at 21 equally spaced cross-sections (at 11 regular transects [A through K], and
10 supplemental cross-sections spaced midway between each of these). Data for the
second component, the woody debris tally, are recorded for each of 10 segments of
stream located between the 11 regular transects. The third component, the channel and
riparian characterization, includes measures and/or visual estimates of channel dimen-
sions, substrate, fish cover, bank characteristics, riparian vegetation structure, presence of
large (legacy) riparian trees, nonnative (alien) riparian plants (Section 8), and evidence of
human disturbances. These data are obtained at each of the 11 equally-spaced transects
established within the sampling reach. In addition, measurements of the stream slope and
compass bearing between stations are obtained, providing information necessary for
calculating reach gradient, residual pool volume, and channel sinuosity. The fourth
component, assessment of channel constraint, debris torrents, and major floods, is an
overall assessment of these characteristics for the whole reach, and is undertaken after the
other components are completed.
7.2 HABITAT SAMPLING LOCATIONS WITHIN THE SUPPORT REACH
Measurements are made at two scales of resolution along the length of the support
reach; the results are later aggregated and expressed for the entire reach, a third level of
resolution. Figure 7-1 illustrates the locations within the support reach where data for the
different components of the physical habitat characterization are obtained. We assess
habitat over stream reach lengths that are approximately 40 times their average wetted
width at baseflow, but not less than 150 m long. This allows us to adjust the support reach
length to accommodate varying sizes of streams (see Sections 1.4 and 4.2). Many
channel and riparian features are characterized on 11 cross-sections and pairs of riparian
plots spaced at 4 channel-width intervals (i.e., transect spacing = 1/10th the total support
reach length). The thalweg profile measurements must be spaced evenly over the entire
support reach. In addition, they must be sufficiently close together that they do not miss
deep areas and habitat units that are in a size range of about Vz to 1/4 of the average
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RIPARIAN
PLOT
(Right Bank)
i
Channel/Riparian
Cross-section.
Transect
Woody
Debris
Tally
' (between
transects)
Thalweg
profile
stations
/ ''
Intermediate transects (width and
substrate measurements only
/
Downstream end
of sampling reach ^
PRK/DVP 8/06
Figure 7-1. Support reach layout for physical habitat measurements (plan view).
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channel width. Follow these guidelines for choosing the increment between thalweg profile
measurements:
Channel Width < 2.5 m — increment = 1.0 m
Channel Width 2.5 to 3.5 m — increment = 1.5 m
Channel Width > 3.5 m — increment = 0.01 x (support reach length)
Following these guidelines, you will make 150 evenly spaced thalweg profile measure-
ments in the smallest category of streams, 15 between each detailed channel cross
section. In all of the larger stream sizes, you will make 100 measurements, 10 between
each cross section.
In contrast to Kaufmann and Robison (1998), we specify wetted width and substrate
at 21 transects (the 11 regular transect cross-sections plus 10 supplemental cross-sections
midway between regular transects), for a systematic pebble count of 105 (rather than 55)
particles. If more resolution is desired based on the objectives of a particular monitoring
study, width measurements may be made at all 100 or 150 thalweg profile locations.
7.3 LOGISTICS AND WORK FLOW
The five components (Table 7-1) of the habitat characterization are organized into
four grouped activities:
1. Thalweg Profile and Large Woody Debris Tally (Section 7.4). Two people (the
"geomorphs") proceed upstream from the downstream end of the sampling reach
(see Figure 7-1) making observations and measurements at the chosen incre-
ment spacing. One person is in the channel making width and depth measure-
ments, and determining whether soft/small sediment deposits are present under
his/her staff. The other person records these measurements, classifies the
channel habitat, records presence/absence of side channels and off-channel
habitats (e.g., backwater pools, sloughs, alcoves), and tallies large woody debris.
Each time this team reaches a flag marking a new cross-section transect, they
start filling out a new copy of the Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris Form. They
interrupt the thalweg profile and woody debris tallying activities to complete data
collection at each cross-section transect as it comes. When the crew member in
the water makes a width measurement at channel locations midway between
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regular transects (i.e., A, B, ... K), she or he also locates and estimates the size
class of the substrate particles on the left channel margin and at positions 25%,
50%, 75%, and 100% of the distance across the wetted channel. Procedures for
this substrate tally are the same as for those at regular cross-sections, but data
are recorded on the thalweg profile side of the field form.
2. Channel/Riparian Cross-Sections (Section 7.5). One person proceeds with the
channel cross-section dimension, substrate, bank, and canopy cover measure-
ments. The second person records those measurements on the Channel/
Riparian Cross-section Form while making visual estimates of riparian vegetation
structure, instream fish cover, and human disturbance specified on that form.
They also make observations to complete the riparian "legacy" tree field form.
Slope and bearing are determined together by backsighting to the previous
transect. Supplementary points may need to be located and flagged (using a
different color) if the stream is extremely brushy, sinuous, or steep to the point
that you cannot sight for slope and bearing measures between two adjacent
transects.
The work flow for the thalweg profile and channel cross described above
can be modified by delaying the backsighting measurements for slope and
bearing and the woody debris tally until after reaching the upstream end of
the reach. Backsighting and wood tallies can be done on the way back
down (Note that in this case, the slope and bearing data form would have
to be completed in reverse order).
3. Channel Constraint and Torrent Evidence (Section 7.6). After completing
observations and measurements along the thalweg and at all 11 transects, the
field crew completes the overall reach assessments of channel constraint and
evidence of debris torrents and major floods.
4. Stream Discharge (Section 6). Discharge measurements are made after collect-
ing the water chemistry sample. They are done at a chosen optimal cross
section (but not necessarily at a transect) near the X-site. However, do not use
the electromagnetic current meter close to where electrofishing is taking place.
Furthermore, if a lot of channel disruption is necessary and sediment must be
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stirred up, wait on this activity until all chemical and biological sampling has been
completed.
7.4 THALWEG PROFILE AND LARGE WOODY DEBRIS MEASUREMENTS
7.4.1 Thalweg Profile
Thalweg refers to the flow path of the deepest water in a stream channel. The
thalweg profile is a longitudinal survey of maximum flow path depth and several other
selected characteristics at 100 or 150 equally spaced points (termed stations) along the
length of the support reach measured along the centerline of the channel. Data from the
thalweg profile allows calculation of indices of residual pool volume, stream size, channel
complexity, and the relative proportions of habitat types such as riffles and pools. The
EMAP-SW habitat assessment modifies traditional methods by measuring upstream
distance in the middle of the channel, rather than along the thalweg itself (though each
thalweg depth measurement is taken at the point of the deepest flow path at each station).
One person walks upstream carrying a fiberglass telescoping (1.5 to 7.5 m) surveyor's rod
and a 1-m metric ruler (or a calibrated rod or pole, such as a ski pole, shovel handle,
wooden dowel, or old billiard cue). A second person on the bank or in the stream carries a
clipboard with 11 copies of the field data form.
The procedure for obtaining thalweg profile measurements is presented in Table
7-2. Record data on the Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris Data Form as shown in Figure
7-2. Use the surveyor's rod and a metric ruler or calibrated rod or pole to make the
required depth and width measurements at each station, and to measure off the distance
between stations as you proceed upstream. The first thalweg measurement is taken at
the transect (station 0). Ideally, in streams 2.5 m wide or greater, every tenth thalweg
measurement (station 9) will bring you one increment spacing from the flag marking a new
cross-section transect. The flag will have been set previously by carefully measuring along
the channel, making the same bends that you do while measuring the thalweg profile (refer
to Figure 7-1). However, you may still need to make minor adjustments to align each 10th
measurement to be one increment short of the next cross section transect. In streams with
average widths less than 2.5 m, make thalweg measurements at 1-meter increments.
Because the minimum support reach length is set at 150 meters, there will be 15 measure-
ments on a field data form: Station 0 at the transect plus 14 additional stations between it
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TABLE 7-2. THALWEG PROFILE PROCEDURE
1. Determine the increment distance between measurement stations based on the wetted width
used to determine the length of the support reach.
For widths less than 2.5 m, establish stations every 1 m (150 total).
For widths greater then 2.5 and less than or equal to 3.5 m, establish stations every 1.5
m (100 total).
For widths greater than 3.5 m, establish stations at increments equal to 0.01 times the
support reach length (100 total).
2. Complete the header information on the Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris Form, noting the
transect pair (downstream to upstream). Record the increment distance determined in Step 1
in the Increment field on the field data form.
3. Begin at the downstream end (station 0) of the first transect (transect A).
4. Measure the wetted width at station 0, and at either station 5 (if the stream width defining the
reach length is > 2.5 m), or station 7 (if the stream width defining the reach length is < 2.5 m).
Wetted width is measured across and over mid-channel bars and boulders. Record the width
on the field data form to the nearest 0.1 m for widths up to about 3 meters, and to the nearest
5% for widths > 3 m. This is 0.2 m for widths of 4 to 6 m, 0.3 m for widths of 7 to 8 m, and 0.5
m for widths of 9 or 10 m, and so on. For streams with interrupted flow, where no water is in
the channel at the station ortransect, record zeros for wetted width.
NOTE: If a mid-channel bar is present at a station where wetted width is measured, measure the wetted
width across and including the bar, but also measure the bar width and record it on the field data form.
5. At station 5 or 7 (see above) classify the size of the bed surface particle at the tip of your depth
measuring rod at the left wetted margin and at positions 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the
distance across the wetted width of the stream. This procedure is identical to the substrate size
evaluation procedure described for regular channel cross-sections (transects A through K),
except that for these midway supplemental cross-sections, substrate size is entered on the
thalweg profile side of the field form.
6. At each thalweg profile station, use a meter ruler or a calibrated pole or rod to locate the
deepest point within the deepest flow path (the thalweg), which may not always be found at
mid-channel (and may not always be the absolute deepest point in every channel cross-
section). Measure the thalweg depth to the nearest cm, and record it on the thalweg profile
form. Read the depth on the side of the ruler, rod, or pole to avoid inaccuracies due to the
wave formed by the rod in moving water.
NOTE: For streams with interrupted flow, where no water is in the channel at a transect or station,
record zeros for depth.
(Continued)
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TABLE 7-2 (Continued)
NOTE: It is critical to obtain thalweg depths at all stations. At stations where the thalweg is too deep to
measure directly, stand in shallower water and extend the surveyor's rod or calibrated rod or pole at an
angle to reach the thalweg. Determine the rod angle by resting the clinometer on the upper surface of
the rod and reading the angle on the external scale of the clinometer. Leave the depth reading for the
station blank, and record a U flag to indicate a non-standard procedure was used. Record the water
level on the rod and the rod angle in the comments section of the field data form. For even deeper
depths, it is possible to use the same procedure with a taut string as the measuring device. Tie a weight
to one end of a length of string or fishing line, and then toss the weight into the deepest channel location.
Draw the string up tight and measure the length of the line that is under water. Measure the string angle
with the clinometer exactly as done for the surveyor's rod.
If a direct measurement cannot be obtained, make the best estimate you can of the thalweg depth, and
use a U flag to identify it as an estimated measurement.
7. At the point where the thalweg depth is determined, observe whether unconsolidated, loose
(soft) deposits of small diameter (<16mm), sediments are present directly beneath your ruler,
rod, or pole. Soft/small sediments are defined here as fine gravel, sand, silt, clay or muck
readily apparent by "feeling" the bottom with the staff. Record presence or absence in the
Soft/Small Sediment field on the field data form. Note: A thin coating of fine sediment or silty
algae coating the surface of cobbles should not be considered soft/small sediment for this
assessment. However, fine sediment coatings should be identified in the comments section of
the field form when determining substrate size and type.
8. Determine the channel unit code and pool forming element codes for the station. Record these
on the field data form using the standard codes provided. For dry and intermittent streams,
where no water is in the channel, record habitat type as dry channel (DR).
9. If the station cross-section intersects a mid-channel bar, indicate the presence of the bar in the
Bar Width field on the field data form.
10. Record the presence or absence of a side channel at the station's cross-section in the Side
Channel field on the field data form.
11. Record the presence or absence of quiescent off-channel aquatic habitats, including sloughs,
alcoves and backwater pools in the Backwater column of the field form.
12. Proceed upstream to the next station, and repeat Steps 2 through 11.
13. Repeat Steps 2 through 12 until you reach the next transect. At this point complete Chan-
nel/Riparian measurements at the new transect (Section 7.5). Then prepare a new Thalweg
Profile and Woody Debris Form and repeat Steps 2 through 12 for each of the reach segments,
until you reach the upstream end of the sampling reach (transect K). At transect K, you will
have completed 10 copies of the Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris Form, one for each
segment (A to B, B to C, etc.).
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
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and the next transect upstream. Use the five extra lines on the thalweg profile portion of
the data form (Figure 7-2) to record these measurements.
It is very important that thalweg depths are obtained from all measurement stations.
Missing depths at the ends of the support reach (e.g., due to the stream flowing into or out
of a culvert or under a large pile of debris) can be tolerated, but those occurring in the
middle of the support reach are more difficult to deal with. Flag these missing measure-
ments using a K code and explain the reason for the missing measurements in the
comments section of the field data form. At points where a direct depth measurement
cannot be obtained, make your best estimate of the depth, record it on the field form, and
flag the value using a U code (for a nonstandard measurement), explaining that it is an
estimated value in the comments section of the field data form. Where the thalweg points
are too deep for wading, measure the depth by extending the surveyor's rod at an angle to
reach the thalweg point. Record the water level on the rod, and the rod angle, as deter-
mined using the external scale on the clinometer (vertical = 90°). This procedure can also
be done with a taut string or fishing line (see Table 7-2). In analyzing this data we
calculate the thalweg depth as the length of the rod (or string) under water multiplied by the
trigonometric sine of the rod angle. (For example, if 3 meters of the rod are under water
when the rod held at 30 degrees (sine=0.5), the actual thalweg depth is 1.5 meters.)
These calculations are done after field forms are returned for data analysis. On the field
form, crews are required only to record the wetted length of the rod under the water, a U
code in the flag field (to indicate a nonstandard technique), and a comment to the right
saying "depth taken at an angle ofxx degrees." If a direct measurement of the thalweg
depth is not possible, make the best estimate you can of the depth, record it, and use a U
flag and a comment to note it is an estimated value.
At every thalweg station, determine by sight or feel whether deposits of soft/small
sediments are present on the channel bottom. These particles are defined as substrate
equal to or smaller than fine gravel (< 16 mm diameter). These soft/small sediments are
different from Fines described when determining the substrate particle sizes at the cross-
section transects (Section 7.5.2). If the channel bottom is not visible, determine if soft/
small sediment deposits are readily obvious by feeling the bottom with your boot, the
surveyor's rod, or a calibrated rod or pole. (Note that a very thin coating of silt or algae on
a cobble bottom substrate does not qualify as soft/small sediments for this purpose.)
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Wetted width is measured at each transect (station 0), and midway between tran-
sects (station 5 for larger streams having 100 measurement points, or station 7 for smaller
streams having 150 measurement points). The wetted width boundary is the point at which
substrate particles are no longer surrounded by free water. Substrate size is estimated for
five particles evenly spaced across each midway cross-section using procedures identical
to those described for substrate at regular cross-sections (Section 7.5.2), but at the
supplemental cross-sections, only the size class (not the distance and depth) data are
recorded in spaces provided on the thalweg profile form.
While recording the width and depth measurements and the presence of soft/small
sediments, the second person evaluates and records the habitat class and the pool
forming element (Table 7-3) applicable to each of the 100 (or 150) measurement points
along the length of the reach. These channel unit habitat classifications and pool-forming
elements are modified from those of Bisson et al. (1982) and Frissell et al. (1986). The
resulting database of traditional visual habitat classifications provides a bridge of common
understanding with other studies. Make channel unit scale habitat classifications at the
thalweg of the cross section. The habitat unit itself must meet a minimum size criteria in
addition to the qualitative criteria listed in Table 7-3. Before being considered large enough
to be identified as a channel-unit scale habitat feature, the unit should be at least as long
as the channel is wide. For instance, if there is a small deep (pool-like) area at the thalweg
within a large riffle area, do not record it as a pool unless it occupies an area about as wide
or long as the channel is wide. If a backwater pool dominates the channel, record PB as
the dominant habitat unit class. If the backwater is a pool that does not dominate the
main channel, or if it is an off-channel alcove or slough (large enough to offer refuge to
small fishes), circle Y to indicate presence of a backwater in the Backwater column of the
field form, but classify the main channel habitat unit type according to characteristics of the
main channel. Sloughs are backwater areas having marsh-like characteristics such as
vegetation, and alcoves (or side pools) are deeper areas off the main channel that are
typically wide and shallow (Helm 1985, Bain and Stevenson 1999). When trying to identify
the pool forming element for a particular pool, remember that most pools are formed at
high flows, so you may need to look for elements that are dry at baseflow, but still within
the bankfull channel (e.g., boulders or large woody debris).
Mid-channel bars, islands, and side channels pose some problems for the sampler
conducting a thalweg profile and require some guidance. Bars are defined here as mid-
channel features below the bankfull flow mark that are dry during baseflow conditions
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TABLE 7-3. CHANNEL UNIT AND POOL FORMING ELEMENT CATEGORIES
Channel Unit Habitat Classes9
Class (Code)
Description
Pools: Still water, low velocity, a smooth, glassy surface, usually deep compared to other
parts of the channel:
Plunge Pool (PP)
Trench Pool (PT)
Pool at base of plunging cascade or falls.
Pool-like trench in the center of the stream
Lateral Scour Pool (PL) Pool scoured along a bank.
Backwater Pool (PB) Pool separated from main flow off the side of the channel (large
enough to offer refuge to small fishes). Includes sloughs (backwater
with marsh characteristics such as vegetation), and alcoves (a deeper
area off a wide and shallow main channel)
Impoundment Pool (PD) Pool formed by impoundment above dam or constriction.
Pool (P)
Glide (GL)
Riffle (Rl)
Rapid (RA)
Cascade (CA)
Falls (FA)
Dry Channel (DR)
Pool (unspecified type).
Water moving slowly, with a smooth, unbroken surface. Low turbu-
lence.
Water moving, with small ripples, waves and eddies - waves not
breaking, surface tension not broken. Sound: babbling, gurgling.
Water movement rapid and turbulent, surface with intermittent white-
water with breaking waves. Sound: continuous rushing, but not as loud
as cascade.
Water movement rapid and very turbulent over steep channel bottom.
Much of the water surface is broken in short, irregular plunges, mostly
Whitewater. Sound: roaring.
Free falling water over a vertical or near vertical drop into plunge, water
turbulent and white over high falls. Sound: from splash to roar.
No water in the channel, or flow is submerged under the substrate
(hyporheic flow).
(Continued)
Note that in order for a channel habitat unit to be distinguished, it must be at least as wide or long as the channel is wide
(except for off channel backwater pools, which are noted as present regardless of size).
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TABLE 7-3 (Continued)
Categories of Pool-forming Elements"
Code Category
N Not Applicable, Habitat Unit is not a pool
1/1/ Large Woody Debris.
R Rootwad
B Boulder or Bedrock
F Unknown cause (unseen fluvial processes)
WR, RW, RBW Combinations
07 Other (describe in the comments section of field form)
b In determining the pool forming element, remember that most pools are formed at high flows, so you may need to look at features,
such as large woody debris, that are dry at baseflow, but still within the bankfull channel.
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(see Section 7.5.3 for the definition of the bankfull channel). Islands are mid-channel
features that are dry even when the stream is experiencing a bankfull flow. Both bars and
islands cause the stream to split into side channels. When a mid-channel bar is encoun-
tered along the thalweg profile, it is noted on the field form and the active channel is
considered to include the bar. Therefore, the wetted width is measured as the distance
between wetted left and right banks. It is measured across and over mid-channel bars
and boulders. If mid-channel bars are present, record the bar width in the space provided.
If a mid-channel feature is at least as high as the surrounding flood plain (i.e.,
above bankfull flow), it is considered an island. Treat side channels resulting from islands
different from mid-channel bars. Handle the resulting side channel based on visual
estimates of the percent of total flow within the side channel as follows:
Less than 15% Indicate the presence of a side channel on the thalweg profile
form.
16 to 49% Indicate the presence of a side channel on the thalweg profile
form. If you reach a cross-section transect with an island and
side channel present, establish a secondary transect across the
side channel designated as X plus the primary transect letter;
(e.g., XA), by checking boxes for both X-try Side Channel and
the appropriate transect letter (e.g., A through K) on a separate
copy of the field data form. Complete the detailed channel and
riparian cross-section measurements for the side channel on this
form (see Section 7.5.8).
When a side channel occurs due to an island, indicate its presence with continuous
entries in the Side Channel field on the Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris Form (Figure 7-
2). In addition, note the points of divergence and confluence of the side channel in the
comments section of the thalweg profile form. Begin entries at the point where the side
channel converges with the main channel, and continue noting the side channel presence
until you reach the upstream point where it diverges. When doing width measures with a
side channel separated by an island, include only the width of the main channel in the
measures at the time and then measure the side channel width separately.
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For streams with interrupted flow, where no water is in the channel at a thalweg
station (or where flow is submerged beneath the substrate), record zeros for depth and
wetted width. Record the habitat type as dry channel (DR).
7.4.2 Large Woody Debris Tally
Methods for large woody debris (LWD) measurements are a simplified adaptation of
those described by Robison and Beschta (1990). This component of the EMAP physical
habitat characterization allows quantitative estimates of the number, size, total volume and
distribution of wood within the stream reach. LWD is defined here as woody material with
a small end diameter of at least 10 cm (4 in.) and a length of at least 1.5 m (5 ft.).
The procedure for tallying LWD is presented in Table 7-4. The tally includes all
pieces of LWD that are at least partially in the baseflow channel (Zone 1), in the active
channel (Zone 2, flood channel up to bankfull stage), or spanning above the active channel
(Zone 3), as shown in Figure 7-4. The active (or bankfull) channel is defined as the
channel that is filled by moderate sized flood events that typically recur every one to two
years. LWD in or above the active channel is tallied over the entire length of the reach,
including the area between the channel cross-section transects. Pieces of LWD that are
not at least partially within Zones 1, 2, or 3 are not tallied.
For each LWD piece, first visually estimate its length and its large and small end
diameters to place it in one of the diameter and length categories. The diameter class on
the field form (Figure 7-2) refers to the large end diameter. Sometimes LWD is not
cylindrical, so it has no clear "diameter." In these cases visually estimate what the diameter
would be for a piece of wood with a circular cross section that would have the same
volume. When evaluating length, include only the part of the LWD piece that has a
diameter greater than 10 cm (4 in). Count each of the LWD pieces as one tally entry and
include the whole piece when assessing dimensions, even if part of it is in Zone 4 (outside
the bankfull channel). For both the Zone 1-2 LWD and the Zone 3 LWD, the field form
(Figure 7-2) provides 12 entry boxes for tallying debris pieces visually estimated within
three length and four diameter class combinations. Each LWD piece is tallied in only one
box. There are 12 size classes for wood at least partially in Zones 1 and 2, and 12 for
wood partially within Zone 3. Wood that is not at least partially within those zones is not
tallied.
128
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 19 of 66
TABLE 7-4. PROCEDURE FOR TALLYING LARGE WOODY DEBRIS
Note: Tally pieces of large woody debris (LWD) within each segment of stream while the thalweg
profile is being determined. Include all pieces in the tally whose large end is found within the
segment.
1. Scan the stream segment between the two cross-section transects where thalweg profile
measurements are being made.
2. Tally all LWD pieces within the segment that are at least partially within the bankfull channel.
Determine if a piece is LWD (small end diameter >10 cm [4 in.], and length >1.5 m [5 ft.])
3. For each piece of LWD, determine the class based on the diameter of the large end (0.1 m
to < 0.3 m, 0.3 m to <0.6 m, 0.6 m to <0.8 m, or >0.8 m), and the class based on the length
of the piece (1,5m to <5.0m, 5m to <15m, or >15m).
If the piece is not cylindrical, visually estimate what the diameter would be for a
piece of wood with circular cross section that would have the same volume.
When estimating length, include only the part of the LWD piece that has a diameter
greater than 10 cm (4 in)
4. Place a tally mark in the appropriate diameter * length class tally box in the Pieces All/
Part in Bankfull Channel section of the Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris Form.
5. Tally all LWD pieces within the segment that are not actually within the bankfull channel, but
are at least partially spanning (bridging) the bankfull channel. For each piece, determine the
class based on the diameter of the large end (0.1 m to < 0.3 m, 0.3 m to <0.6 m, 0.6 m to
<0.8 m, or >0.8 m), and the class based on the length of the piece (1.5 m to <5.0 m, 5 m to
<15 m, or >15 m).
6. Place a tally mark for each piece in the appropriate diameter * length class tally box in the
Pieces Bridge Above Bankfull Channel section of the Thalweg Profile and Woody Debris
Form.
7. After all pieces within the segment have been tallied, write the total number of pieces for
each diameter * length class in the small box at the lower right-hand corner of each tally
box.
8. Repeat Steps 1 through 7 for the next stream segment, using a new Thalweg Profile and
Woody Debris Form.
129
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 20 of 66
BANKFULL CHANNEL WIDTH
WATER SURFACE AT
BANKFULL FLOW
WATER SURFACE
AT BASEFLOW
PRK/DVP S/06
Figure 7-3. Large woody debris influence zones (modified from Robison and Beschta, 1990)
130
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 21 of 66
7.5 CHANNEL AND RIPARIAN MEASUREMENTS AT CROSS-SECTION TRANSECTS
7.5.1 Slope and Bearing
The slope, or gradient, of the stream reach is useful in four different ways. First,
the overall stream gradient is one of the major stream classification variables, giving an
indication of potential water velocities and stream power, which are in turn important
controls on aquatic habitat and sediment transport within the reach. Second, the spatial
variability of stream gradient is a measure of habitat complexity, as reflected in the diversity
of water velocities and sediment sizes within the stream reach. Third, using methods
described by Stack (1989) and Robison and Kaufmann (1994), the water surface slope, in
conjunction with the multiple depth and width measurements taken in the thalweg profile
(Section 7.4.1), is used to compute residual pool depths, volumes, and numbers. Finally,
slope, in combination with measurements of channel dimensions, wood, and substrate
particle size, is necessary for calculating relative bed stability (Kaufmann et al. 1999).
Compass bearing between cross-section transects, along with the distance between
transects, is used to estimate the sinuosity of the channel (ratio of the length of the reach
divided by the straight line distance between the two reach ends).
Measure slope and bearing by backsighting downstream between transects (e.g.,
transect B to A, C to 6, etc.) as shown in Figure 7-4. To measure the slope and bearing
between adjacent transects, follow the procedure presented in Table 7-5. Record slope
and bearing data on the Slope and Bearing Form as shown in Figure 7-5. An alternative
procedure, where slope and bearing measurements are taken in reverse order (upstream
to downstream) is presented in Table 7-6. Note that in this case, the Slope and Bearing
Form is completed in reverse order (right to left, bottom to top), so be careful to record the
measurements in the correct order if you choose to follow this procedure.
Slope is typically measured by two people, each having a pole that is marked at the
same height. Alternatively (but much less precise), the second person can be marked at
the eye level of the person doing the backsighting. Be sure that you mark your eye level
on the other person or on a separate pole beforehand while standing on level ground.
Sight to your eye level when backsighting on your co-worker. We recommend that field
crews use poles marked at exactly the same height for sighting slope, particularly in
streams with slopes less than 3%. When two poles are used, sight from the mark on one
pole to the mark on the other. Also, be sure that the second person is standing (or holding
131
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 22 of 66
Short pole with
clinometer at
height h
Surveyor rod
with flagging at
height"
suVN/eVor
rod
d\n°'
,meter
Upstream
T ransect
Both poles must be at water's
surface or at same depth
Downstream
Transect
Bearing Measurements Between Transects
Backsight with
compass and
record
main slope
and bearing
measurements
and % of reach
Supplemental slope
and bearing point
Backsight with
compass and record
supplemental slope
and bearing
Measurements and
% of reach
Backsight
with compass
and record
main slope
and bearing
measurements
and % of reach
Figure 7-4. Channel slope and bearing measurements.
132
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 23 of 66
TABLE 7-5. PROCEDURE FOR OBTAINING SLOPE AND BEARING DATA
1. Stand in the center of the channel at the downstream cross-section transect. Determine if you can see
the center of the channel at the next cross-section transect upstream without sighting across land (i.e.,
do not "short-circuit" a meander bend). If not, you will have to take supplementary slope and bearing
measurements.
2. Mark a surveyor's rod and a calibrated rod (or meter ruler) at the same height. If a shorter pole or ruler
is used, measure the height from the ground to the opening of the clinometer when it is resting on top.
3. Have one person take the marked surveyor's rod to the downstream transect. Hold the rod vertical with
the bottom at the same level as the water surface. If no suitable location is available at the stream
margin, position the rod in the water and note the depth.
Alternatively, if only one person is doing slope and bearing determinations, set up a tripod in
shallow water or at the water's edge at the downstream cross-section transect (or at a supplemen-
tal point). Standing tall in a position with your feet as near as possible to the water surface
elevation, set the tripod extension and mark it with a piece of flagging at your eye level. Remem-
ber the depth of water in which you are standing when you adjust the flagging to eye level.
4. Walk upstream to the next cross-section transect. Place the base of the calibrated rod at the level as the
surveyor's rod (either at the water surface or at the same depth in the water).
If you have determined in Step 1 that supplemental measurements are required for this segment,
walk upstream to the furthest point where you can stand in the center of the channel and still see
the center of the channel at the downstream cross-section transect. Remember that your line of
sight cannot "cross land." Mark this location with a different color flagging than that marking the
cross-section transects.
5. Place the clinometer on the calibrated rod at the height determined in Step 2. With the clinometer, sight
back downstream to the flagged height on the surveyor's rod at the downstream transect (or at the
supplementary point). Mark the transect and method (CL) on the Slope and Bearing Form. Read and
record the percent slope in the Main section on the Slope and Bearing Form. Record the Proportion as
100%. Mark the % box below the recorded value on the form. NOTE: if using a method where elevation
difference is measured, mark the appropriate method box3 and the cm box on the form.
If you are backsighting from a supplemental point, record the slope (%) and proportion (%) of the
stream segment that is included in the measurement in the appropriate Supplemental section of
the Slope and Bearing Form.
6. Stand in the middle of the channel at upstream transect (or at a supplemental point), and sight back with
your compass to the middle of the channel at the downstream transect (or at a supplemental point).
Record the bearing (degrees) in the Main section of the Slope and Bearing Form.
If you are backsighting from a supplemental point, record the bearing in the appropriate Supple-
mental section of the Slope and Bearing Form.
7. Proceed to the next cross-section transect (or to a supplementary point), and repeat Steps 3 through 5
above.
a Method codes are: CL=clinometer, 7"R=transit, HL=hand level, l/l/T=Watertube, M=laser level, OrH£R=method not listed (describe
in comments section of form).
133
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 24 of 66
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134
-------
EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 25 of 66
TABLE 7-6. MODIFIED PROCEDURE FOR OBTAINING SLOPE AND BEARING DATA
Use this procedure if you are starting at the upstream transect (K), after completing the thalweg
profile and other cross-section measurements at transects A through K.
1. Stand in the center of the channel at the upstream cross-section transect. Determine if you can
see the center of the channel at the next cross-section transect downstream without sighting
across land (i.e., do not "short-circuit" a meander bend). If not, you will have to take supple-
mentary slope and bearing measurements.
2. Mark a surveyor's rod and a calibrated rod (or meter ruler) at the same height. If a shorter pole
or ruler is used, measure the height from the ground to the opening of the clinometer when it is
resting on top.
3. Have one person take the marked surveyor's rod to the downstream transect. Hold the rod
vertical with the bottom at the same level as the water surface. If no suitable location is
available at the stream margin, position the rod in the water and note the depth.
If you have determined in Step 1 that supplemental measurements are required for this
segment, walk downstream to the furthest point where you can stand in the center of the
channel and still see the center of the channel at the upstream cross-section transect.
Remember that your line of sight cannot "cross land." Mark this location with a different
color flagging than that marking the cross-section transects.
4. Place the base of the calibrated rod at the level as the surveyor's rod (either at the water
surface or at the same depth in the water).
5. Place the clinometer on the calibrated rod at the height determined in Step 2. With the
clinometer, sight back downstream to the flagged height on the surveyor's rod at the down-
stream transect (or at the supplementary point).
If you are sighting to the next downstream transect, read and record the percent slope in
the Main section on the Slope and Bearing Form for the downstream transect (e.g., J <
K), which is at the bottom of the form (i.e., you are completing the form in reverse order).
Record the Proportion as 100%.
If you are backsighting from a supplemental point, record the slope (%) and proportion
(%) of the stream segment that is included in the measurement in the appropriate
Supplemental section of the Slope and Bearing Form. The last sighting to a down-
stream transect (from either the upstream transect or the nearest upstream supplemental
point) is always recorded as the Main reading.
6. Stand in the middle of the channel at upstream transect (or at a supplemental point), and sight
with your compass to the middle of the channel at the downstream transect (or at a supplemen-
tal point). Record the bearing (degrees) in the same section of the Slope and Bearing form
(Supplemental or Main) as you recorded the slope in Step 6.
7. Proceed to the next cross-section transect (or to a supplementary point), and repeat Steps 3
through 7 above.
135
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 26 of 66
the marked pole) at the water's edge or in the same depth of water as you are. The intent
is to get a measure of the water surface slope, which may not necessarily be the same as
the bottom slope.
The clinometer reads both percent slope and degrees of the slope angle; be careful
to read and record percent slope. Percent slope is the scale on the right-hand side as
you look through most clinometers. If using an Abney level, insure that you are reading the
scale marked PERCENT. With the clinometer or the Abney level, verify this by comparing
the two scales. Percent slope is always a higher number than degrees of slope angle
(e.g., 100% slope=45° angle). For slopes > 2%, read the clinometer to the nearest 0.5%.
For slopes < 2%, read to the nearest 0.25%. If the clinometer reading is 0%, but water is
moving, record the slope as 0.1%. If the clinometer reading is 0% and water is not moving,
record the slope as 0%.
To calculate sinuosity from bearing measurements, it does not matter whether or
not you adjust your compass bearings for magnetic declination, but it is important that you
are consistent in the use of magnetic or true bearings throughout all the measurements
you make on a given reach. Note in the comments section of the Slope and Bearing Form
which type of bearings you are taking, so the measurements can be used to describe
reach aspect. Also, guard against recording reciprocal bearings (erroneous bearings 180
degrees from what they should be). The best way to do this is to know where the primary
(cardinal) directions are in the field: (north [0 degrees], east [90 degrees], south [180
degrees], and west [270 degrees]), and insure that your bearings "make sense."
As stated earlier, it may be necessary to set up intermediate (supplemental) slope
and bearing points between a pair of cross-section transects if you do not have direct line-
of-sight along (and within) the channel between stations (see Figure 7-4). This can happen
if brush is too heavy, or if there are sharp slope breaks or tight meander bends. If you
would have to sight across land to measure slope or bearing between two transects, then
you need to make one or more supplemental measurements (i.e., do not "short-circuit" a
meander bend). Mark these supplemental locations with a different color of plastic flagging
than used for the cross-section transects to avoid confusion. Record these supplemental
slope and bearing measurements, along with the proportion of the stream segment
between transects included in each supplemental measurement, in the appropriate
sections of the Slope and Bearing Form (Figure 7-5). Note that the main slope and bearing
observations are always downstream of supplemental observations (i.e., from or to the
136
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 27 of 66
downstream transect). Similarly, first supplemental observations are always downstream of
second supplemental observations.
Because of ease of use, portability, and cost, EMAP-W used hand-held clinometers
to determine slope. Relative precision and accuracy of clinometer measurements de-
creases when the gradient is low (< 1%). We recognize other organizations may have
access to more sophisticated instrumentation (e.g., laser levels), and have field personnel
who are experienced in the use of these instruments. The Slope and Bearing Form (Figure
7-5) is designed to allow for different methods and/or different units of measuring slope.
Mark the appropriate method box (instead of CL; method codes are identified in Tables 7-5
and 7-6), and mark the cm box (instead of the % box) if the method or instrument mea-
sures the change in elevation rather than the percent slope.
7.5.2 Substrate Size and Channel Dimensions
Substrate size is one of the most important determinants of habitat character for
fish and macroinvertebrates in streams. Here, we use the term substrate size to describe
the size of streambed surface particles Along with bedform (e.g., riffles and pools),
substrate influences the hydraulic roughness and consequently the range of water
velocities in the channel. It also influences the size range of interstices that provide living
space and cover for macroinvertebrates, salamanders, and sculpins. Substrate character-
istics are often sensitive indicators of the effects of human activities on streams. De-
creases in the mean substrate size and increases in the percentage of fine sediments, for
example, may destabilize channels and indicate changes in the rates of upland erosion
and sediment supply (Dietrich et al. 1989, Wilcock 1998).
In the EMAP protocol, substrate size and embeddedness are evaluated at each of
the 11 cross-section transects (refer to Figure 7-1) using a combination of methods
adapted from those described by Wolman (1954), Bain et al. (1985), Platts et al. (1983),
and Plafkin et al. (1989). Substrate size is also evaluated at 10 additional cross-sections
located midway between each of the 11 regular transects (A-K). The basis of the protocol
is a systematic selection of 5 substrate particles from each of 21 cross-section transects
(Figure 7-6). In the process of measuring substrate particle sizes at each channel cross
section, the wetted width of the channel and the water depth at each substrate sample
point are measured (at the 10 midway cross-sections, only substrate size and wetted width
are recorded). If the wetted channel is split by a mid-channel bar (see Section 7.4.1), the
137
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 28 of 66
75%
Wetted
Width
50%
Wetted
Width
25%
Wetted
Width
Right
Bank
Left
Bank
calibrated
rod/pole
Surveyor's ro
^*OOC*3C*C3CKn*3E:
PRK/DVP 8/06
Figure 7-6. Substrate sampling cross-section.
five substrate points are centered between the wetted width boundaries regardless of the
mid-channel bar in between. Consequently, substrate particles selected in some cross-
sections may be "high and dry". For cross-sections that are entirely dry, make measure-
ments across the unvegetated portion of the channel.
The distance you record to the right bank is the same as the wetted channel width.
(NOTE: this is the same value that is also recorded under Bank Measurements on the
same form [Section 7.5.3]). The substrate sampling points along the cross-section are
located at 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 percent of the measured wetted width, with the first and
last points located at the water's edge just within the left and right banks.
138
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 29 of 66
The procedure for obtaining substrate measurements is described in Table 7-7
(including all particle size classifications). Record these measurements on the Channel/
Riparian Cross-section side of the field form, as shown in Figure 7-7. For the supplemental
cross-sections midway between regular transects, record substrate size and wetted width
data on the thalweg profile side of the field form. To minimize bias in selecting a substrate
particle for size classification, it is important to concentrate on correct placement of the
measuring stick along the cross-section, and to select the particle right at the bottom of the
stick (not, for example, a more noticeable large particle that is just to the side of the stick).
Classify the particle into one of the size classes listed on the field data form (Figure 7-7)
based on the middle dimension of its length, width, and depth. This median dimension
determines the sieve size through which the particle can pass. Always distinguish hardpan
from fines, coding hardpan as HP. Similarly, always distinguish concrete or asphalt from
bedrock; denote these artificial substrates as RC and record their size class in the com-
ments section of the field data form. Code and describe other artificial substrates (includ-
ing metal, tires, car bodies, etc.) as Other (OT) on the field form. When you record the size
class as Other, assign an Fn flag on the field data form and describe the substrate type in
the comments section of the field form, as shown in Figure 7-7.
At substrate sampling locations on the 11 regular transects (A-K), examine particles
larger than sand for surface stains, markings, and algal coatings to estimate embedded-
ness of all particles in the 10 cm diameter circle around the substrate sampling point.
Embeddedness is the fraction of a particle's volume that is surrounded by (embedded in)
sand or finer sediments on the stream bottom. By definition, record the embeddedness of
sand and fines (silt, clay, and muck) as 100 percent, and record the embeddedness of
hardpan and bedrock as 0 percent.
7.5.3 Bank Characteristics
The procedure for obtaining bank and channel dimension measurements is
presented in Table 7-8. Data are recorded in the Bank Measurements section of the
Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form as shown in Figure 7-7. Bank angle and bank
undercut distance are determined on the left and right banks at each cross section
transect. Figure 7-8 illustrates how bank angle is determined for several different situa-
tions. The scale at which bank angle is characterized is approximately 0.5 m. A short
(approx. 1-m long) pole is used to determine bank angle. The angle is determined based
on the pole resting on the ground for about 0.5 m. Other features include the wetted width
139
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 30 of 66
TABLE 7-1. SUBSTRATE MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE
1. Fill in the header information on page 1 of a Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form. Indicate
the cross-section transect. At the transect, extend the surveyor's rod across the channel
perpendicular to the flow, with the "zero" end at the left bank (facing downstream). If the
channel is too wide for the rod, stretch the metric tape in the same manner.
NOTE: If a side channel is present, and contains between 16 and 49% of the total flow, establish a
secondary cross-section transect. Use a separate field data form to record data for the side channel,
designating it as a secondary transect by marking both the X-try Side Channel box and the associated
primary transect letter (e.g., XA, XB, etc.). Collect all channel and riparian cross-section measurements
from the side channel.
2. Divide the wetted channel width channel by 4 to locate substrate measurement points on the
cross-section. In the DistLB fields of the form, record the distances corresponding to 0% (Lft),
25% (LCtr), 50% (Ctr), 75% (Rctr), and 100% (RgT) of the measured wetted width. Record
these distances at Transects A-K, but just the wetted width at midway cross-sections.
3. Place your sharp-ended meter stick or calibrated pole at the Lft location (0 m). Measure the
depth and record it on the field data form. (Cross-section depths are measured only at regular
transects A-K, not at the 10 midway cross-sections).
Depth entries at the left and right banks may be 0 (zero) if the banks are gradual.
If the bank is nearly vertical, let the base of the measuring stick fall to the bottom (i.e., the
depth at the bank will be > 0 cm), rather than holding it suspended at the water surface.
4. Pick up the substrate particle that is at the base of the meter stick (unless it is bedrock or
boulder), and visually estimate its particle size, according to the following table. Classify the
particle according to its median diameter (the middle dimension of its length, width, and
depth). Record the size class code on the field data form. (Cross-section side of form for
transects A-K\ special entry boxes on Thalweg Profile side of form for midway cross-sections.)
Code
Size Class
Size Range (mm)
Description
RS
Bedrock (Smooth)
>4000
Smooth surface rock bigger than a car
RR
Bedrock (Rough)
>4000
Rough surface rock bigger than a car
HP
Hardpan
>4000
Firm, consolidated fine substrate
LB
Boulders (large)
>1000 to 4000
Yard/meter stick to car size
SB
Boulders (small)
>250 to 1000
Basketball to yard/meter stick size
CB
Cobbles
>64 to 250
Tennis ball to basketball size
GC
Gravel (Coarse)
>16 to 64
Marble to tennis ball size
GF
Gravel (Fine)
> 2 to 16
Ladybug to marble size
SA
Sand
>0.06 to 2
Smaller than ladybug size, but visible as particles - gritty between
fingers
FN
Fines
<0.06
Silt Clay Muck (not gritty between fingers)
WD
Wood
Regardless of Size
Wood & other organic particles
RC
Concrete
Regardless of size
Record size class in comment field
OT
Other
Regardless of Size
Metal, tires, car bodies etc. (describe in comments)
(Continued)
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 31 of 66
TABLE 7-7 (Continued)
5. Evaluate substrate embeddedness as follows at 11 transects A-K. For particles larger than
sand, examine the surface for stains, markings, and algae. Estimate the average percentage
embeddedness of particles in the 10 cm circle around the measuring rod. Record this value on
the field data form. By definition, sand and fines are embedded 100%] bedrock and hardpan
are embedded 0%.
6. Move successively to the next location along the cross section. Repeat Steps 4 through 6 at
each location. Repeat Steps 1 through 6 at each new cross section transect, (including any
additional side channel transects established when islands are present).
141
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 32 of 66
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TABLE 7-8. PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING BANK CHARACTERISTICS
1. To measure bank angle, lay a meter ruler or a short (approx. 1-m long) rod down against the left bank
(determined as you face downstream), with one end at the water's edge. At least 0.5 m of the ruler or
rod should be resting comfortably on the ground to determine bank angle. Lay the clinometer on the rod,
and read the bank angle in degrees from the external scale on the clinometer. Record the angle in the
field for the left bank in the Bank Measurement section of the Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form.
A vertical bank is 90°, overhanging banks have angles >90° approaching 180°, and more gradually
sloped banks have angles <90°. To measure bank angles >90°, turn the clinometer (which only
reads 0 to 90°) over and subtract the angle reading from 180°.
If there is a large boulder or log present at the transect, measure bank angle at a nearby point
where conditions are more representative.
2. If the bank is undercut, measure the horizontal distance of the undercutting to the nearest 0.01 m. The
undercut distance is the distance from the water's edge out to the point where a vertical plumb line from
the bank would hit the water's surface. Record the distance on the field data form. Measure submerged
undercuts by thrusting the rod into the undercut and reading the length of the rod that is hidden by the
undercutting.
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 on the right bank.
4. Hold the surveyor's rod vertical, with its base planted at the water's edge. Examine both banks, then
determine the channel incision as the height up from the water surface to elevation of the first terrace of
the valley floodplain (Note this is at or above the bankfull channel height). Whenever possible, use the
clinometer as a level (positioned so it reads 0% slope) to measure this height by transferring (back-
sighting) it onto the surveyor's rod. Record this value in the Incised Height field of the bank measure-
ment section on the field data form.
5. While still holding the surveyor's rod as a guide, and sighting with the clinometer as a level, examine
both banks to measure and record the height of bankfull flow above the present water level. Look for
evidence on one or both banks such as:
An obvious slope break that differentiates the channel from a relatively flat floodplain terrace
higher than the channel.
A transition from exposed stream sediments to terrestrial vegetation.
Moss growth on rocks along the banks.
Presence of drift material caught on overhanging vegetation.
A transition from flood- and scour-tolerant vegetation to that which is relatively intolerant of these
conditions.
6. Record the wetted width value determined when locating substrate sampling points in the Wetted Width
field in the bank measurement section of the field data form. Also determine the bankfull channel width
and the width of exposed mid-channel bars (if present). Record these values in the Bank Measurement
section of the field data form.
7. Repeat Steps 1 through 6 at each cross-section transect, (including any additional side channel transects
established when islands are present). Record data for each transect on a separate field data form.
143
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 34 of 66
Bank Anqle= Clinometer leading
(A)
0.5 m
Pole rests most
"corrfortably"
here
(B)
Cfemmeterieatbrig
/
Pole is testing "corrioitabJy"
from wetted edge
0.5 rn
Too much space under
pole I measured Bum
water's edge
Shelf is not wide enough to
use for detenniing bank ani^e
sg
Bank Age= Gncmeter readhg
'X a5m
(C)
Net rooucji uidr* cut
exposed to ddine
werhantpgbank
Pole is "confortaMeT
from v*;#cr's edge
c:
Tresis
cwiioitawe
gel from
Bank Angle=18u - Cfenometer leaung
Figure 7-8. Determining bank angle under different types of bank conditions. (A) typical, (B) incised
channel, 9C) undercut bank, and (D) overhanging bank.
of the channel (as determined in Section 7.5.2), the width of exposed mid-channel bars of
gravel or sand, estimated incision height, and the estimated height and width of the
channel at bankfull stage as described in Table 7-8. Bankfull height and incised height are
both measured relative to the present water surface. In other words, both are measured up
from the level of the wetted edge of the stream. This is done by placing the base of the
small measuring rod at the bankfull elevation and sighting back to the survey rod placed at
the water's edge using the clinometer as a level (i.e., positioned so the slope reading is
0%). The height of the clinometer above the base of the smaller rod is subtracted from the
elevation sighted on the surveyor's rod.
Bankfull flows are large enough to erode the stream bottom and banks, but frequent
enough (every 1 to 2 years) to not allow substantial growth of upland terrestrial vegetation.
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Consequently, in many regions, it is these flows that have determined the width and depth
of the channel. Estimates of the bankfull dimensions of stream channels are extremely
important in EMAP surveys. They are used to calculate shear stress and bed stability (see
Kaufmann et al., 1999). Unfortunately, we have to depend upon evidence visible during
the low-flow sampling season. If available, consult published rating curves relating
expected bankfull channel dimensions to stream drainage area within the region of interest.
Graphs of these rating curves can help you get a rough idea of where to look for field
evidence to determine the level of bankfull flows. Curves such as these are available from
the USGS for streams in most regions of the U.S. (e.g., Dunne and Leopold 1978;
Harrelson et al. 1994, Leopold 1994). To use them, you need to know the contributing
drainage area to your sample site. Interpret the expected bankfull levels from these curves
as a height above the streambed in a riffle, but remember that your field measurement will
be a height above the present water surface of the stream. Useful resources to aid your
determination of bankfull flow levels in streams in the United States are video presenta-
tions produced by the USDA Forest Service for western streams (USDA Forest Service
1995) and eastern streams (USDA Forest Service 2002).
After consulting rating curves that show where to expect bankfull levels in a given
size of stream, estimate the bankfull flow level by looking at the following indicators:
First look at the stream and its valley to determine the active floodplain. This is a
depositional surface that frequently is flooded and experiences sediment
deposition under the current climate and hydrological regime.
Then look specifically for:
An obvious break in the slope of the banks.
A change from water-loving and scour-tolerant vegetation to more drought-
tolerant vegetation.
A change from well-sorted stream sediments to unsorted soil materials.
In the absence of clear bankfull indications, consider the previous season's flooding as the
best evidence available (note: you could be wrong if very large floods or prolonged
droughts have occurred in recent years.). Look for:
Drift debris ("sticky wickets" left by the previous seasons flooding).
The level where deciduous leaf-fall is absent on the ground (carried away by
previous winter flooding).
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Unvegetated sand, gravel or mud deposits from previous year's flooding.
In years that have experienced large floods, drift material and other recent high flow
markers may be much higher than other bankfull indicators. In such cases, base your
determination on less-transient indicators such as channel form, perennial vegetation, and
depositional features. In these cases, flag your data entry and also record the height of
drift material in the comments section of the field data form.
We use the vertical distance (height) from the observed water surface up to the
level of the first major valley depositional surface (Figure 7-9) as a measure of the degree
of incision or downcutting of the stream below the general level of its valley. This value is
recorded in the Incised Height field. (Note: In analyzing these data, we actually add the
mean thalweg depth to incision heights to yield a flow-independent measure- we do the
same thing for bankfull heights). If the first depositional surface is no longer active (i.e.,
frequently inundated by floods), it is called a terrace or an abandoned floodplain. Streams
incise when their rate of sediment transport exceeds the supply of new sediment from
upstream and from their banks. Conversely, aggradation occurs when sediment supplies
exceed the capacity of the stream to transport sediment. Human activities can change the
balance between sediment transport and supply in a number of ways. The power of the
stream to transport sediment may be increased by human activities that in-crease flood
flows (e.g., increases in the impervious area of a watershed), or remove large roughness
elements like woody debris that dissipate stream power that might otherwise transport
sediment. The supply of sediment may be increased by upslope erosion, or de-creased
when, for example, upstream impoundments trap bedload sediments. It may not be
evident at the time of sampling whether the channel is downcutting, stable, or aggrading
(raising its bed by depositing sediment). However, by recording incision heights measured
in this way and monitoring them over time, we will be able to tell if streams are incising or
aggrading.
If the channel is not greatly incised, bankfull channel height and incision height will
be the same (i.e., the first valley depositional surface is the active floodplain). However, if
the channel is incised greatly, the bankfull level will be below the level of the first terrace of
the valley floodplain, making bankfull channel height less than incision height (Figure 7-10).
Bankfull height is never greater than incision height. You may need to look for evidence of
recent flows (within about one year) to distinguish bankfull and incision heights. In cases
where the channel is cutting a valley sideslope and has oversteepened and destabilized
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A. Channel not Incised
Downcutt ng ovef Second
Act ve
^ fioooola.r at or "ear
j valley bottom elevation
I ,Recora tnis ne g-^tj
terrace
First terrace o^
va'tey bottom
aoove Dan-vfi,'
eve
No recert rcs;o^~ ba^Kft-H
leve! at va' ey bottom
B. Incised Channel
Dow^Cutt ng over
geologic time
Former active f oooosa n
Former second
terrace becomes
Former first third terrace
no longer connecteo— terace becomes
becomes new f rst te-race S0corc terrace
aoove oankfy, eve.
(Record this height)
Recent irc's^-
ban«fi.! level below
frst terace of valley
bottom
Valley Fill
Figure 7-9. Schematic showing relationship between bankfull channel and incision. (A) not
recently incised, and (B) recently incised into valley bottom. Note level of bankfull stage relative to
elevation of first terrace (abandoned floodplain)on valley bottom. (Stick figure included for scale).
147
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A) Deeply Incised Channel
(B)
''Active" ft&gsSpiain-
to lenae?
; fiw )i»8t terras*
Sew .Mnkfu.' !«v£5
Recent !!X=«k5i>
Sirs? ten
Incision Height (Always
equal to or greater than
bankful! height)
Second Terrace
\a
r-omst
terrace bscomss
Former lirst
•race Becomes
second
First Terrace
ankfull
Height
;W~er.
cranre' 'o-m
is not a good
jnd-cator, use
evidence of
'ece-M
flooding)
B) Small stream constrained in V-shaped valley
Flood
vttoleranl
vegetation
Bankfull Height
(when ca^ne; form is
not a good ^d cator
use evde«ce of recent
food ng, lack of
pe'ira^e^t food
into erart vegetation
Incision Heigrit=
Height
Mood
tolerant
No incision:
No evidence of
downcytf"g,
vert.ca bar\
argie. etc.)
Figure 7-10. Determining bankfull and incision heights for (A) deeply incised channels, and
(B) streams in deep V-shaped valleys. (Stick figure included for scale).
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that slope, the bare "cutbank" against the steep hillside at the edge of the valley is not
necessarily an indication of recent incision. In such a case, the opposite bank may be
lower, with a more obvious terrace above bankfull height; choose that bank for your
measurement of incised height. Examine both banks to more accurately determine incision
height and bankfull height. Remember that incision height is measured as the vertical
distance to the first major depositional surface above bankfull (whether or not it is an active
floodplain or a terrace. If terrace heights differ on left and right banks (both are above
bankfull), choose the lower of the two terraces. In many cases your sample reach may be
in a "V" shaped valley or gorge formed over eons, and the slope of the channel banks
simply extends uphill indefinitely, not reaching a terrace before reaching the top of a ridge
(Figure 7-10). In such cases, record incision height values equal to bankfull values and
make appropriate comment that no terrace is evident. Similarly, when the stream has
extremely incised into an ancient terrace, (e.g., the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon),
you may crudely estimate the terrace height if it is the first one above bankfull level. If you
cannot estimate the terrace height, make appropriate comments describing the situation.
7.5.4 Canopy Cover Measurements
Riparian canopy cover over a stream is important not only for its role in moderating
stream temperatures through shading, but also as an indicator of conditions that control
bank stability and the potential for inputs of coarse and fine particulate organic material.
Organic inputs from riparian vegetation become food for stream organisms and structure to
create and maintain complex channel habitat.
Canopy cover over the stream is determined at each of the 11 cross-section tran-
sects. A spherical densiometer (model A- convex type) is used (Lemmon 1957). Mark the
densiometer with a permanent marker or tape exactly as shown in Figure 7-11 to limit the
number of square grid intersections read to 17. Densiometer readings can range from 0
(no canopy cover) to 17 (maximum canopy cover). Six measurements are obtained at
each cross-section transect (four measurements in each of four directions at mid-channel
and one at each bank). The mid-channel measurements are used to estimate canopy
cover over the channel. The two bank measurements complement your visual estimates of
vegetation structure and cover within the riparian zone itself (Section 7.5.5), and are
particularly important in wide streams, where the riparian canopy may not be detected by
the densiometer when standing midstream.
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Figure 7-11. Schematic of modified convex spherical canopy densiometer. From Mulvey et al.
(1992). Note proper positioning with the bubble leveled and face reflected at the apex of the "V". In
this example, 10 of the 17 intersections show canopy cover, giving a densiometer reading of 10.
The procedure for obtaining canopy cover data is presented in Table 7-9. Densio-
meter measurements are taken at 0.3 m (1 ft) above the water surface, rather than at waist
level, to (1) avoid errors because people differ in height; (2) avoid errors from standing in
water of varying depths; and (3) include low overhanging vegetation more consistently in
the estimates of cover. Hold the densiometer level (using the bubble level) 0.3 m above
the water surface with your face reflected just below the apex of the taped "V", as shown in
Figure 7-11. Concentrate on the 17 points of grid intersection on the densiometer that lie
within the taped "V". If the reflection of a tree or high branch or leaf overlies any of the
intersection points, that particular intersection is counted as having cover. For each of the
six measurement points, record the number of intersection points (maximum=17) that have
vegetation covering them in the Canopy Cover Measurement section of the Channel/
Riparian Cross-section Form as shown in Figure 7-7.
TAPE
BUBBLE LEVELED
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TABLE 7-9. PROCEDURE FOR CANOPY COVER MEASUREMENTS
1. At each cross-section transect, stand in the stream at mid-channel and face upstream.
2. Hold the densiometer 0.3 m (1 ft) above the surface of the stream. Level the densiometer
using the bubble level. Move the densiometer in front of you so your face is just below the
apex of the taped "V".
3. Count the number of grid intersection points within the "V" that are covered by either a tree, a
leaf, or a high branch. Record the value (0 to 17) in the Ce/vI/p field of the canopy cover
measurement section of the Channel/Riparian Cross-section and Thalweg Profile Form.
4. Face toward the left bank (left as you face downstream). Repeat Steps 2 and 3, recording the
value in the CenL field of the field data form.
5. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 facing downstream, and again while facing the right bank (right as you
look downstream). Record the values in the CenDwn and CenR fields of the field data form.
6. Move to the water's edge (either the left or right bank). Repeat Steps 2 and 3 again, this time
facing the bank . Record the value in the Lft or Rgt fields of the field data form. Move to the
opposite bank and repeat.
7. Repeat Steps 1 through 6 at each cross-section transect (including any additional side channel
transects established when islands are present). Record data for each transect on a separate
field data form.
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7.5.5 Riparian Vegetation Structure
The previous section (7.5.4) described methods for quantifying the cover of canopy
over the stream channel. The following visual estimation procedures supplement those
measurements with a semi-quantitative evaluation of the type and amount of various types
of riparian vegetation. These data are used to evaluate the health and level of disturbance
of the stream corridor. They also provide an indication of the present and future potential
for various types of organic inputs and shading. Additional measures within the riparian
zone (legacy trees and invasive riparian plants) are described in Sections 7.5.9 and 8,
respectively.
Riparian vegetation observations apply to the riparian area upstream 5 meters and
downstream 5 meters from each of the 11 cross-section transects (refer to Figure 7-1).
They include the visible area from the stream back a distance of 10m (-30 ft) shoreward
from both the left and right banks, creating a10m* 10m riparian plot on each side of the
stream (Figure 7-12). The riparian plot dimensions are estimated, not measured. On
steeply sloping channel margins, the 10 m x 10 m plot boundaries are defined as if they
were projected down from an aerial view.
Table 7-10 presents the procedure for characterizing riparian vegetation structure
and composition. Figure 7-7 illustrates how measurement data are recorded in the Visual
Riparian Estimates section of the Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form. Conceptually
divide the riparian vegetation into three layers: the Canopy layer (> 5 m high), the Under-
story layer (0.5 to 5 m high), and the Ground cover layer (< 0.5 m high). Note that several
vegetation types (e.g., grasses or woody shrubs) can potentially occur in more than one
layer. Similarly note that some things other than vegetation are possible entries for the
Ground cover layer (e.g., barren ground).
Before estimating the areal coverage of the vegetation layers, record the type of
woody vegetation (broadleaf Deciduous, Coniferous, broadieaf Evergreen, Mixed, or None)
in each of the two taller layers (Canopy and Understory). Consider the layer Mixed if more
than 10% of the areal coverage is made up of the alternate vegetation type. If there is no
woody vegetation in the understory layer, record the type as None.
Estimate the areal cover separately in each of the three vegetation layers. Note
that the areal cover can be thought of as the amount of shadow cast by a particular layer
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A
10 m
Flow
10 m
V
10 m
RIPARIAN
PLOT
(Left Bank)
I
Cross-sectibn Transect
5 m I 5 m
Instream Fish
Cover Plot
RIPARIAN
PLOT
(Right Bank)
10 m
PRK/DVP 8JOB
Figure 7-12. Riparian zone and instream fish cover plots for a stream cross-section transect.
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Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 44 of 66
TABLE 7-10. PROCEDURE FOR CHARACTERIZING RIPARIAN VEGETATION STRUCTURE
1. Standing in mid-channel at a cross-section transect, estimate a 5 m distance upstream and
downstream (10 m total length).
2. Facing the left bank (left as you face downstream), estimate a distance of 10 m back into the
riparian vegetation.
On steeply-sloping channel margins, estimate the distance into the riparian zone as if it were
projected down from an aerial view.
3. Within this 10 m * 10 m area, conceptually divide the riparian vegetation into three layers: a
CANOPY LAYER (>5 m high), an UNDERSTORY (0.5 to 5 m high), and a GROUND COVER
layer (<0.5 m high).
4. Within this 10 m * 10 m area, determine the dominant vegetation type for the CANOPY
LAYER (vegetation >5 m high) as either Deciduous, Coniferous, broadieaf Evergreen, Mixed,
or None. Consider the layer Mixed if more than 10% of the areal coverage is made up of the
alternate vegetation type. Indicate the appropriate vegetation type in the Visual Riparian
Estimates section of the Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form.
5. Determine separately the areal cover class of large trees (>0.3 m [1 ft] diameter at breast
height [dbh]) and small trees (<0.3 m dbh) within the canopy layer. Estimate areal cover as the
amount of shadow that would be cast by a particular layer alone if the sun were directly
overhead. Record the appropriate cover class on the field data form (0=absent\ zero cover,
1=sparse\ <10%, 2=moderate\ 10-40%, 3=heavy: 40-75%, or 4=very heavy. >75%).
6. Look at the UNDERSTORY layer (vegetation between 0.5 and 5 m high). Determine the
dominant woody vegetation type for the understory layer as described in Step 4 for the canopy
layer. If there is no woody vegetation in the understory layer, record the type as None.
7. Determine the areal cover class for woody shrubs and saplings separately from non-woody
vegetation within the understory, as described in Step 5 for the canopy layer.
8. Look at the GROUND COVER layer (vegetation <0.5 m high). Determine the areal cover
class for woody shrubs and seedlings, non-woody vegetation, and the amount of bare ground
present as described in Step 5 for large canopy trees.
9. Repeat Steps 1 through 8 for the right bank.
10. Repeat Steps 1 through 9 for all cross-section transects (including any additional side channel
transects established when islands are present). Use a separate field data form for each
transect.
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alone when the sun is directly overhead. The maximum cover in each layer is 100%, so
the sum of the areaI covers for the combined three layers could add up to 300%. The four
areal cover classes are Absent, Sparse (<10%), Moderate (10 to 40%), Heavy (40 to
75%), and Very Heavy (>75%). These cover classes and their corresponding codes are
shown on the field data form (Figure 7-7). When rating vegetation cover types for a single
vegetation layer, mixtures of two or more subdominant classes might all be given Sparse
(1), Moderate (2), or Heavy (3) ratings. One Very Heavy cover class with no clear sub-
dominant class might be rated 4 with all the remaining classes rated as either Moderate (2),
Sparse (1) or Absent (0). Note that within a given vegetation layer, two cover types with
40-75% cover can both be rated 3, but no more than one cover type could receive a rating
of 4.
7.5.5 Instream Fish Cover, Algae, and Aquatic Macrophytes
This portion of the EMAP physical habitat protocol is a visual estimation procedure
that semi-quantitatively evaluates the type and amount of important types of cover for fish
and macroinvertebrates. Alone and in combination with other metrics, this information is
used to assess habitat complexity, fish cover, and channel disturbance.
The procedure to estimate the types and amounts of instream fish cover is outlined
in Table 7-11. Data are recorded in the Fish Cover/Other section of the Channel/
Riparian Cross-section Form as shown in Figure 7-7. Estimate the areal cover of all of the
fish cover and other listed features that are in the water and on the banks 5 m upstream
and downstream of the cross-section (see Figure 7-12). The areal cover classes of fish
concealment and other features are the same as those described for riparian vegetation
(Section 7.5.5).
The entry Filamentous algae refers to long streaming algae that often occur in
slow moving waters. Aquatic macrophytes are water-loving plants, including mosses, in
the stream that could provide cover for fish or macroinvertebrates. If the stream channel
contains live wetland grasses, include these as aquatic macrophytes. Woody debris are
the larger pieces of wood that can influence cover and stream morphology (i.e., those
pieces that would be included in the large woody debris tally [Section 7.4]). Brush/woody
debris refers to smaller wood pieces that primarily affect cover but not morphology. Live
Trees or Roots are living trees that are within the channel - estimate the areal cover
provided by the parts of these trees or roots that are inundated. Overhanging vegetation
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TABLE 7-11. PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING INSTREAM FISH COVER
1. Standing mid-channel at a cross-section transect, estimate a 5m distance upstream and
downstream (10 m total length).
2. Examine the water and the banks within the 10-m segment of stream for the following features
and types of fish cover: filamentous algae, aquatic macrophytes, large woody debris, brush and
small woody debris, in-channel live trees or roots, overhanging vegetation, undercut banks,
boulders, and artificial structures.
3. For each cover type, estimate the areal cover. Record the appropriate cover class in the Fish
Cover/Other section of the Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form:
0=absent zero cover,
1=sparse: <10%,
2=moderate\ 10-40%,
3=heavy\ >40-75%, or
4=very heavy. >75%).
4. Repeat Steps 1 through 3 at each cross-section transect (including any additional side channel
transects established when islands are present). Record data from each transect on a separate
field data form.
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includes tree branches, brush, twigs, or other small debris that is not in the water but is
close to the stream (within 1 m of the surface) and provides potential cover. Boulders are
typically basketball- to car-sized particles. Artificial structures include those designed
for fish habitat enhancement, as well as in-channel structures that have been discarded
(e.g., concrete, asphalt, cars, or tires) or deliberately placed for diversion, impoundment,
channel stabilization, or other purposes.
7.5.7 Human Influence
The field evaluation of the presence and proximity of various important types of
human land use activities in the stream riparian area is used in combination with mapped
watershed land use information to assess the potential degree of disturbance of the
sample stream reaches.
For the left and right banks at each of the 11 detailed Channel and Riparian Cross-
sections, evaluate the presence/absence and the proximity of 11 categories of human
influences with the procedure outlined in Table 7-12. Relate your observations and
proximity evaluations to the stream and riparian area within 5 m upstream and 5 m
downstream from the station (Figure 7-12). Four proximity classes are used: In the stream
or on the bank within 5 m upstream or downstream of the cross-section transect, present
within the 10 m x 10 m riparian plot but not in the stream or on the bank, present outside of
the riparian plot, and absent. Record data on the Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form as
shown in Figure 7-7. If a disturbance is within more than one proximity class, record the
one that is closest to the stream (e.g., C takes precedence over P).
A particular influence may be observed outside of more than one riparian observa-
tion plot (e.g., at both transects D and £). Record it as present at every transect where you
can see it without having to sight through another transect or its 10 m x 10 m riparian plot.
7.5.8 Cross-section Transects on Side Channels
If the wetted channel is split by an island, and the estimated flow in the side channel
is less than or equal to 15% of the total flow, the bank and riparian measurements are
made at each side of the main channel (the minor side channel is ignored other than to
note its presence on the thalweg profile form), so one riparian plot is established on the
island as shown in Figure 7-13. If an island is present that creates a major side channel
157
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TABLE 7-12. PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING HUMAN INFLUENCE
1. Standing mid-channel at a cross-section transect, look toward the left bank (left when facing
downstream), and estimate a 5 m distance upstream and downstream (10 m total length).
Also, estimate a distance of 10 m back into the riparian zone to define a riparian plot area.
2. Examine the channel, bank and riparian plot area adjacent to the defined stream segment for
the following human influences: (1) walls, dikes, revetments, riprap, and dams\ (2) buildings; (3)
pavement/cleared lots (e.g., paved, gravelled, dirt parking lot, foundation); (4) roads or
railroads, (5) inlet or outlet pipes] (6) landfills or trash (e.g., cans, bottles, trash heaps); (7)
parks or maintained lawns; (8) row crops; (9) pastures, rangeland, hay fields, or evidence of
livestock; (10) logging; and (11) mining (including gravel mining).
3. For each type of influence, determine if it is present and what its proximity is to the stream and
riparian plot area. Consider human disturbance items as present if you can see them from the
cross-section transect. Do not include them if you have to sight through another transect or its
10 m *10 m riparian plot.
4. For each type of influence, record the appropriate proximity class in the Human Influence part
of the Visual Riparian Estimates section of the Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form.
Proximity classes are:
B (Bank) Present within the defined 10 m stream segment and located in the
stream or on the stream bank.
C (Close) Present within the 10 * 10 m riparian plot area, but away from the bank.
P (Present) Present, but outside the riparian plot area.
0 (Absent) Not present within or adjacent to thel 0 m stream segment or the riparian
plot area at the transect
5. Repeat Steps 1 through 4 for the right bank.
6. Repeat Steps 1 through 5 for each cross-section transect, (including any additional side
channel transects established when islands are present). Record data for each transect on a
separate field form.
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Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 49 of 66
A) Island and minor side channel
No side channel cross-section transect,
Note presence on field form
Riparian plot established on island
Z' 10 m
< >
A.
I RIPARIAN i
] PLOT |
10m
j (Left Bank) :
Main cross-section
transect (e.g., E)
, \
j Flow >
l/
H
: 5 m 1 5 m
: Instream Fish
: Cover Plot
_L
RIPARIAN I
I PLOT
i (Right Bank) I
B) Island and major side channel
10 m
Sidle channel cross-
section transect
(e.g., XE)
[ RIPARIAN
PLOT
I (Left Bank)
Upstream Fish
: Cover Plot
RIPARIAN !
PLOT
(Left Bank) j ^10m
RIPARIAN
PLOT
| (Right Bank)
: 5 m | 5 m
: Instream Fish
: Cover Plot
Main cross-section : I
transect (e.g., E) \^ ¦
PLOT ^1
(Right Bank)!
] 10 m
Figure 7-13. Riparian and instream fish cover plots for a streams with minor and major side
channels.
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Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 50 of 66
containing more than 15% of the total flow (Section 7.5.1), an additional cross-section
transect is established for the side channel as shown in Figure 7-13. Separate substrate,
bank and riparian measurements are made for side channel transects. Data from the
additional side channel transect are recorded on a separate Channel/Riparian Cross-
section Form as shown in Figure 7-14. Riparian plots established on the island for each
transect may overlap (and be < 10 m shoreward) if the island is less than 10 m wide at the
transect.
7.5.9 Riparian "Legacy" Trees
The Riparian "Legacy" Tree procedure contributes to the assessment of "old
growth" characteristics of riparian vegetation, and aids the determination of possible
historic conditions and the potential for riparian tree growth. Follow the procedures
presented in Table 7-13 to locate the largest tree associated with each transect. The tree
you choose may not truly be an old legacy tree - just choose the largest you see. We use
these data to determine if there are true legacy trees somewhere within the support reach.
Note that only one tree is identified for each transect between that transect and the next
one upstream; at transect K, look upstream a distance of 4 channel widths. Record the
type of tree, and, if possible, the taxonomic group (using the list provided in Table 7-13) on
the left-hand column of the Riparian "Legacy" Trees and Invasive Alien Plants form (Figure
7-15). Estimate the height of the tree and the diameter at breast height (dbh), and mark
the appropriate height and dbh classes on the form. Estimate and record the distance of
the legacy tree from the wetted margin of the stream.
7.6 CHANNEL CONSTRAINT, DEBRIS TORRENTS, AND RECENT FLOODS
7.6.1 Channel Constraint
Whether natural or the result of human activities, the presence of immovable or
non-erodable river margins constrains the degree to which the stream can form its own
channel and banks through scour and deposition. The degree of channel constraint can
strongly influence the quantity and quality of habitat for aquatic organisms. Constraint also
influences the type and degree of stream channel adjustment to anthropogenic alterations
in flow and sediment supply, or to direct channel manipulations (e.g., dredging, revetments,
impoundment). To assess overall reach channel constraint, we have modified methods
160
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 51 of 66
Ul X
a a
o ->
R D
CO X
D ~
< 0
~ ~
0
Q
r<
c
t-
© 0 % €>
5 |*d
II
Si
* X
ins
IS
Figure 7-14. Channel/Riparian Cross-section Form for an additional major side channel
transect.
161
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 52 of 66
TABLE 7-13. PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING RIPARIAN LEGACY TREES
1. Beginning at Transect A, look upstream. Search both sides of the stream upstream to the next
transect. At Transect K, look upstream for a distance of 4 channel widths. Locate the largest
tree visible within 50 m (or as far as you can see, if less) from the wetted bank (note the tree
you identify may be outside the current riparian zone).
2. Classify this tree as deciduous, coniferous, or broadleaf evergreen (classify western larch as
coniferous). Identify, if possible, the species or the taxonomic group of this tree from the list
below.
1. Acacia/Mesquite 11.
2. Alder/Birch 12.
3. Ash 13.
4. Cedar/Cypress/Sequoia 14.
5. Fir (including Douglas Fir, Hem- 15.
lock)
6. Juniper 16.
7. Maple/Boxelder 17.
8. Oak
9. Pine
10. Poplar/Cottonwood
NOTE: If the largest tree is a dead snag, enter Snag as the taxonomic group.
3. Estimate the height of the potential legacy tree, its diameter at breast height (dbh) and its
distance from the wetted margin of the stream. Enter this information on the left-hand column
of the Riparian "Legacy" Trees and Invasive Alien Plants field form.
Snag (Dead Tree of Any Species)
Spruce
Sycamore
Willow
Unknown or Other Broadleaf Evergreen
Unknown or Other Conifer
Unknown or Other Deciduous
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 53 of 66
¦ 3^1
a
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lis
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lr
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ihlsl
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i
s5
c
ir
x 9;
5 s 5 | ?:
"K ~ ,—| r
6 ii ^ - -
& I -
Figure 7-15. Riparian "Legacy" Tree and Invasive Alien Plants Form (Page 1), showing data
for riparian legacy trees.
163
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 54 of 66
used by Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife in their Aquatic Inventories (Moore et al.
1993).
After completing the thalweg profile and riparian/channel cross-section measurements
and observations, envision the stream at bankfull flow and evaluate the degree, extent and
type of channel constraint, using the procedures presented in Table 7-14. Record data on
the Channel Constraint Assessment Form (Figure 7-16). First, classify the stream reach
channel pattern as predominantly a single channel, an anastomosing channel, or a braided
channel (Figure 7-17):
1. Single channels may have occasional in-channel bars or islands with side
channels, but feature a predominant single channel, or a dominant main channel
with a subordinate side channel.
2. Anastomosing channels have relatively long major and minor channels (but no
predominant channel) in a complex network, diverging and converging around
many vegetated islands. Complex channel pattern remains even during major
floods.
3. Braided channels also have multiple branching and rejoining channels, (but no
predominant channel) separated by unvegetated bars. Channels are generally
smaller, shorter, and more numerous, often with no obvious dominant channel.
During major floods, a single continuous channel may develop
After classifying the channel pattern, determine whether the channel is constrained
within a narrow valley, constrained by local features within a broad valley, unconstrained
and free to move about within a broad floodplain, or free to move about, but within a
relatively narrow valley floor. Then examine the channel to ascertain the bank and valley
features that constrain the stream. Entry choices for the type of constraining features are
bedrock, hillslopes, terraces/alluvial fans, and human land use (e.g., a road, a dike, landfill,
rip-rap, etc.). Estimate the percent of the channel margin in contact with constraining
features (for unconstrained channels, this is 0%). To aid in this estimate, you may wish to
refer to the individual transect assessments of incision and constraint. Finally, estimate the
"typical" bankfull channel width and visually estimate the average width of the valley floor.
If you cannot directly estimate the valley width (e.g., it is further than you can see, or if your
164
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Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 55 of 66
TABLE 7-14. PROCEDURES FOR ASSESSING CHANNEL CONSTRAINT
NOTE: These activities are conducted after completing the thalweg profile and littoral-riparian
measurements and observations, and represent an evaluation of the entire stream reach.
Channel Constraint: Determine the degree, extent, and type of channel constraint based on
envisioning the stream at bankfull flow.
1. Classify the stream reach channel pattern as predominantly a single channel, an anasto-
mosing channel, or a braided channel.
Single channels may have occasional in-channel bars or islands with side channels, but
feature a predominant single channel, or a dominant main channel with a subordinate
side channel.
Anastomosing channels have relatively long major and minor channels branching and
rejoining in a complex network separated by vegetated islands, with no obvious dominant
channel.
Braided channels also have multiple branching and rejoining channels, separated by
unvegetated bars. Subchannels are generally small, short, and numerous, often with no
obvious dominant channel.
2. After classifying the channel pattern, determine whether the channel is constrained within a
narrow valley, constrained by local features within a broad valley, unconstrained and free to
move about within a broad floodplain, or free to move about, but within a relatively narrow
valley floor.
3. Then examine the channel to ascertain the bank and valley features that constrain the stream.
Entry choices for the type of constraining features are bedrock, hillslopes, terraces/alluvial
fans, and human land use (e.g., a road, a dike, landfill, rip-rap, etc.).
4. Based on your determinations from Steps 1 through 3, select and record one of the constraint
classes shown on the Channel Constraint Form.
5. Estimate the percent of the channel margin in contact with constraining features (for uncon-
strained channels, this is 0%). Record this value on the Channel Constraint Form.
6. Finally, estimate the "typical" bankfull channel width, and visually estimate the average width of
the valley floor. Record these values on the Channel Constraint Form.
NOTE: To aid in this estimate, you may wish to refer to the individual transect assess-
ments of incision and constraint that were recorded on the Channel/Riparian Cross-
Section Forms.
NOTE: If the valley is wider than you can directly estimate, record the distance you can
see and mark the box on the field form.
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Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 56 of 66
CMANNtl CONSTRAINT AND HELD CHEMISTRY - STREAMS.'RIVERS
. ... fA*
Kl'i t to
k/XX-Pff "ft
IN SITU MEASUREMENTS
""f C I * r ;} •/
ConHWttts
-1
CHAHHn CuMSTRAlMT
ig major and nrnner ebanm
ng ancJ rgjolTtiifig * iTtaiftly o
"mm" ' " ""n
f DO nui.'l
1 ^p^orut;
I ui- mr
r! — _ _ _ — _
|- UUWN PATfcN iC»>m> Ovv,
j & Or< ciifinn*
¦ i \ A'Mstusmv.inq r
I
numerous mtd-ch&ftrtet bars,)
I. 'UANNR I'.OUSTI^tsr Of^1
| " Ouimel -cry ror»fttr»Niu»J if? V-sKap*>d f c,
| new channel during RocxJ)
|] ' Chminei n- , v <• r>- M , < < u ¦ •' yi !' j *. - j ItttmrM f.v
j Hows do not commonly spread av&i valtey floor or into muttipte channels.}
I j 1 ¦Ch-mnH H m NLwruw buUs- nm vssrv v,l ,[>-!< i 'i v. -- »¦ «r. / pun-1 , is. %
I vdftsy floor (<-10* bankftiif width)
II I'MrmH ri if? Bta.i'i V/*lk«y u ¦> t>it , i- ' «i < ., v f.' t j uim. , « , - >.<'<<*, -
11 s.pf#|gn}
COW RAWjKO FsAlW* *' w tW
11 D BtKirock (i.©. ciwwsrt t&. a b^tfrock-dornnistecf gorga)
|
Tutaw o k> < I .,r - 1 : > i\ u ' \
id our ove
I
¦' '•Jum-.vit tW-mk A^trrcHV-n. < •„ r^r
X Ma c^fp^t-a'fi'r.y idUircH
'cent of channel length with mar
j •'>>{¦< ^ ' ,i i, Mf -i i '--Tit,r«
tfyi widtti:
¦-stmped vaftey)
in€ls©« into rtv@r'fStf§«iffi
. j¦- ,ij rt' .x* - "
t, o, -
"2 "? iJ *j
>. . 6,
; t1 1
tu-' r r> vri7p • , n,v«,_ r1®"
?y wkith (ViswaS Es-fimatecl Av%>rs^s):
Bi> nH<« to bs-fwew? foatrs s
.rVMr,-tr"r- 'n- . i'»,-v c -i-'it »/,r^si'h-
Por^o-nt uhnpr< I
50%
aa
Figure 7-16. Channel Constraint and Field Chemistry Form, showing data for channel
constraint.
166
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 57 of 66
A) Anastomosing channel pattern
FLOW
Vegetated islands above bankfull flow. Multiple
channels remain during major flood events.
B) Braided channel pattern
FLOW
siai Unvegetated bars below bankfull flow. Multiple
channel pattern disappears during major flood events.
DVP
Figure 7-17. Types of multiple channel patterns.
167
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 58 of 66
view is blocked by vegetation), record the distance you can see and mark the appropriate
box on the field form.
7.6.2 Debris Torrents and Recent Major Floods
Major floods are those that substantially overtop the banks of streams and occur
with an average frequency of less than once every five years. Major floods may scour
away or damage riparian vegetation on banks and gravel bars that are not frequently
inundated. They typically cause movement of large woody debris, transport of bedload
sediment, and changes in the streambed and banks through scouring and deposition.
While they may kill aquatic organisms and temporarily suppress their populations, floods
are an important natural resetting mechanism that maintains habitat volume, clean
substrates, and riparian productivity.
Debris torrents, or lahars, differ from conventional floods in that they are flood
waves of higher magnitude and shorter duration, and their flow consists of a dense mixture
of water and debris. Their high flows of dense material exert tremendous scouring forces
on streambeds. For example, in the Pacific Northwest, flood waves from debris torrents
can exceed 5 meters deep in small streams normally 3 m wide and 15 cm deep. These
torrents move boulders in excess of 1 m diameter and logs >1 m diameter and >10 m long.
In temperate regions, debris torrents occur primarily in steep drainages and are relatively
infrequent, occurring typically less than once in several centuries. They are usually set into
motion by the sudden release of large volumes of water upon the breaching of a natural or
human-constructed impoundment, a process often initiated by mass hillslope failures
(landslides) during high intensity rainfall or snowmelt. Debris torrents course downstream
until the slope of the stream channel can no longer keep their viscous sediment suspen-
sion in motion (typically <3% for small streams); at this point, they "set up", depositing large
amounts of sediment, boulders, logs, and whatever else they were transporting. Upstream,
the torrent track is severely scoured, often reduced in channel complexity and devoid of
near-bank riparian vegetation. As with floods, the massive disruption of the stream
channel and its biota are transient, and these intense, infrequent events will often lead to a
high-quality complex habitat within years or decades, as long as natural delivery of large
wood and sediment from riparian and upland areas remains intact.
In arid areas with high runoff potential, debris torrents can occur in conjunction with
flash flooding from extremely high-intensity rainfall. They may be nearly annual events in
168
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 59 of 66
some steep ephemeral channels where drainage area is sufficient to guarantee isolated
thunderstorms somewhere within their boundaries, but small enough that the effect of such
storms is not dampened out by the portion of the watershed not receiving rainfall during a
given storm.
Because they may alter habitat and biota substantially, infrequent major floods and
torrents can confuse the interpretation of measurements of stream biota and habitat in
regional surveys and monitoring programs. Therefore, it is important to determine if a
debris torrent or major flood has occurred within the recent past. After completing the
thalweg profile and channel/riparian measurements and observations, examine the stream
channel along the entire sample reach, including its substrate, banks, and riparian corridor,
checking the presence of features described on the Torrent Evidence Assessment Form
(Figure 7-18). It may be advantageous to look at the channel upstream and downstream of
the actual sample reach to look for areas of torrent scour and massive deposition to
answer some of the questions on the field form. For example, you may more clearly
recognize the sample reach as a torrent deposition area if you find extensive channel
scouring upstream. Conversely, you may more clearly recognize the sample reach as a
torrent scour reach if you see massive deposits of sediment, logs, and other debris
downstream.
7.7 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 7-19 lists the equipment and supplies required to conduct all the activities
described for characterizing physical habitat. This checklist is similar to the checklist
presented in Appendix A, which is used at the base location (Section 3) to ensure that all of
the required equipment is brought to the stream. Use this checklist to ensure that equip-
ment and supplies are organized and available at the stream site in order to conduct the
activities efficiently.
7.8 LITERATURE CITED
Arend, K.K. 1999. Macrohabitat identification. Pages 75-93 in M.B. Bain and N.J. Steven-
son (editors). Aquatic habitat assessment: common methods. American Fisheries
Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Bain, M.B., J.T. Finn, and H.E. Booke. 1985. Quantifying stream substrate for habitat
analysis studies. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 5:499-500.
169
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 60 of 66
TORRENT EVIDENCE ASSESSMENT FORM - STREAMS
...... m
SITE ID~ j**KKF
0ATE: jSA.
Please X any of the following that are evident,
EWOeSCi OF TOHREHT aCOUMMfc
O
CM ¦ Stream channel has a neantiy corridor two or more iimm ihs wM® oi 11* tew tow channel. This
corridor lacks riparian »efletalh» with poarfbte exception of flnwwN*. *v«t«9«l aWer or cononwood se«»i-sejst.
grasses, or other hartoaeaoua plants.
02 • Stream autwtrato cotsbtas ar large gnvaJ particles are NOT IMBRICATED. (HnbrleMad means that ttwy lie with tint
sides htiMH and mat IN*am ttKMd lite roof tMnsto - fcnagtoathe upstream tattw at «w»top e( the •mat.') In
a Mram scour or dsjosillen channel, «tt stones art toying in uramnM peitsms, lying "emiy which way," In mMNmi
many of the tubal rata particles are angular (not ¦«rtlr>ram,|
o
03 - Channel has JiUle evidence erf pool-riff}« structure. (For example,, could you ride a mountain bike down the channel'*)
~
04 - Th» atraam channel Is scoured down to boarock tor tuhstanlis! poriien ol raach.
~
OS - m>®« »<• gravat m co&M terms {little tavaeti •bow bankfull few).
OS - Downstream of the secured reach (possibly aavaml mites),, there art mtii dapotite of sediment, loga, and other
Of • Rtpartan frets haw Iresfi berK seers at many points along the atnsam at seemingly antwliewbte twlfhts aOo«e 8ft®
tftarmei bed
o
08 - rapanan trees have Man Into ffws channel as a result of scouring naartNtfr raws,
EVIDENCE Of TOMHENT DEPOSITS:
~
09 - Thw an m**s
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 61 of 66
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR PHYSICAL HABITAT
QTY.
Item
1
Surveyor's telescoping leveling rod (round profile, metric scale, 7.5 m extended)
1
50-m fiberglass measuring tape & reel
1
Hio chain ('metric') for measurina reach lenaths (Optional')
1
Clinometer (or Abney level) with percent and degree scales.
1
Lightweight telescoping camera tripod (necessary only if slope measurements are
being determined by one person)
2
1/2-inch diameter PVC pipe, 2-3 m long: Two of these, each marked at the same
height (for use in slope determinations involving two persons)
1
Meter stick. Alternatively, a short (1-2 m) rod or pole (e.g., a ski pole) with cm
markings for thalweg measurements, or the PVC pipe described for slope deter-
minations can be marked in cm and used.
1 roll ea.
Colored surveyor's plastic flagging (2 colors)
1
Convex spherical canopy densiometer (Lemmon Model A), modified with taped
"V"
1
Bearing compass (Backpacking type)
1 or 2
Fisherman's vest with lots of pockets and snap fittings. Used at least by person
conducting the in-channel measurements to hold the various measurement
equipment (densiometer, clinometer, compass, etc.). Useful for both team
members involved with physical habitat characterization.
2 pair
Chest waders with felt-soled boots for safety and speed (unless nuisance organ-
isms like whirling disease or New Zealand mud snails are present) if waders are
the neoprene "stocking" type. Hip waders can be used in shallower streams.
Covered clipboards (lightweight, with strap or lanyard to hang around your neck)
Soft (#2) lead pencils (mechanical are acceptable)
11 plus
extras
Channel/Riparian Cross-section & Thalweg Profile and Woody Forms
1 plus
extras
Slope and Bearing Form; Riparian "Legacy" Tree and Invasive Alien Plant Form;
Channel Constraint Assessment Form; Torrent Evidence Form.
1 copy
Field operations and methods manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides for physical
habitat characterization
Figure 7-19. Checklist of equipment and supplies for physical habitat.
171
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 62 of 66
Bain, M.B., and N.J. Stevenson (editors). 1999. Aquatic habitat assessment: common
methods. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid bioassessment
protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic
macroinvertebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA/841 -B-99-002. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, Assessment and Watershed Protection Division,
Washington, D.C.
Bisson, P.A., J.L. Neilsen, R.A. Palmason, and L.E. Grove. 1982. A system of naming
habitat types in small streams, with examples of habitat utilizations by salmonids
during low stream flow. Pages 62-73 in N.B. Armantrout (editor). Acquisition and
utilization of aquatic habitat inventory information. Symposium Proceedings, October
18-30, 1981, Portland, Oregon. The Hague Publishing, Billings, Montana.
Dietrich, W.E., J.W. Kirchner, H. Ikeda, and F. Iseya. 1989. Sediment supply and the
development of the coarse surface layer in gravel bed rivers. Nature 340:215-217.
Dunne, T., and L.B. Leopold. 1978. Water in environmental planning. W.H. Freeman,
New York. 818 p.
Frissell, C.A., W.J. Liss, C.E. Warren, and M.D. Hurley. 1986. A hierarchical framework
for stream habitat classification: viewing streams in a watershed context. Environ-
mental Management 10(2):199-214.
Harrelson, C.C., C.L. Rawlins, and J.P. Potyondy. 1994. Stream channel reference sites:
an illustrated guide to field technique. USDA Forest Service, General Technical
Report RM-245, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins,
Colorado. 61 p.
Hawkins, C.P., J.L. Kershner, P.A. Bisson, M.D. Bryant, L.M. Decker, S.V. Gregory, D.A.
McCullough, C.K. Overton, G.H. Reeves, R.J. Steedman, and M.K. Young. 1993. A
hierarchical approach to classifying stream habitat features. Fisheries 18:3-12.
Helm, W.T. 1985. Aquatic habitat inventory: standard methods and glossary. American
Fisheries Society, Western Division, Bethesda, Maryland.
Kaufmann, P.R. (ed.). 1993. Physical habitat. Pages 59-69 in R.M. Hughes (editor).
Stream indicator and design workshop. EPA/600/R-93/138. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon.
Kaufmann, P.R., P. Levine, E.G. Robison, C. Seeliger, and D.V. Peck. 1999. Quantifying
physical habitat in wadeable streams. EPA 620/R-99/003. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
172
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 63 of 66
Kaufmann, P.R. and E.G. Robison. 1998. Physical habitat assessment. Pages 77-118 in
Lazorchak, J.L., Klemm, D.J., and D.V. Peck (editors). Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program - Surface Waters: field operations and methods for measuring
the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.
Lemmon, P.E. 1957. A new instrument for measuring forest overstory density. Journal of
Forestry 55(9):667-669.
Leopold, L.B. 1994. A view of the river. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachu-
setts. 298 p.
Linsley, R.K., M.A. Kohler, and J.L.H. Paulhus. 1982. Hydrology for engineers. McGraw-
Hill Book Co. New York, NY. 508 p.
Moore, K.M., K.K. Jones, and J.M. Dambacher. 1993. Methods for stream habitat surveys:
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Aquatic Inventory Project. Version 3.1.
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Corvallis, Oregon. 34 p.
Mulvey, M., L. Caton, and R. Hafele. 1992. Oregon nonpoint source monitoring protocols:
stream bioassessment field manual for macroinvertebrates and habitat assessment.
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, Laboratory Biomonitoring Section.
Portland, Oregon.
Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross, R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid bioassess-
ment protocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macroinvertebrates and fish.
EPA/440/4-89/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Assessment and Water-
shed Protection Division, Washington, D.C.
Platts, W.S., W.F. Megahan, and G.W. Minshall. 1983. Methods for evaluating stream,
riparian, and biotic conditions. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report
INT-183. 71 p.
Robison, E.G. and R.L. Beschta. 1990. Characteristics of coarse woody debris for several
coastal streams of southeast Alaska, USA. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and
Aquatic Sciences 47(9): 1684-1693.
Robison, E.G. and P.R. Kaufmann. 1994. Evaluating two objective techniques to define
pools in small streams. Pages 659-668 in R.A. Marston and V.A. Hasfurther (editors).
Effects of human induced changes on hydrologic systems. Summer Symposium
proceedings, American Water Resources Association, June 26-29, 1994, Jackson
Hole, Wyoming.
Stack, B.R. 1989. Factors influencing pool morphology in Oregon coastal streams. M.S.
Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon.
173
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 7 (Physical Habitat Characterization),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 64 of 66
USDA Forest Service, 1995. A guide to field identification of bankfuii stage in the western
United States. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Stream
Systems Technology Center, Fort Collins, Colorado (31 minute video, closed cap-
tioned).
USDA Forest Service, 2002. Identifying bankfuii stage in forested streams in the eastern
United States. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Stream
Systems Technology Center, Fort Collins, Colorado (46 minute video, closed cap-
tioned).
Wilcock, P.R. 1988. Two-fraction model of initial sediment motion in gravel-bed rivers.
Science 280:410-412.
Wolman, M.G. 1954. A method of sampling coarse river-bed material. Transactions of the
American Geophysical Union 35(6):951-956.
174
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NOTES
175
-------
NOTES
176
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SECTION 8
INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANTS
Paul L. Ringold1, Teresa Magee2, and Philip R. Kaufmann1
A trend of increasing concern along streams in many parts of the Western U.S. is
the invasion of alien (nonnative) tree, shrub, and grass species. The plant assemblages
that result from such invasions can substantially alter stream ecosystems and/or negatively
influence the economic value of the land they occupy (Pimentel et al. 2000, 2005). Riparian
areas are particularly susceptible to invasions because of both natural and human-induced
disturbance regimes, and the connectivity of the stream network (Nilsson and Svedmark
2002, Brown and Peet 2003). Determining the extent and severity of invasions provides
some perspective on how different least disturbed (best of what is left) and minimally
disturbed (unaltered) aquatic systems are in the western U.S.
The response design at the reach scale for invasive riparian plants is identical to that
described in Section 7 for riparian vegetation structure. Riparian plots established in
conjunction with the eleven cross-section transects along the support reach are examined
for the presence of selected species of invasive plants. Twelve species were selected for
inclusion in the invasive plant protocol as target species. Selection of these plants was
based on ease of field identification by non-botanists, degree of economic or ecological
impact at a regional (rather than local) scale, preference for riparian habitats, lack of
toxicity, and ecological variety within the list of target species. Different combinations of the
twelve species were developed for each individual State. Because each of the target
species are aggressive invaders (they can spread extensively along a stream reach in a
short period of time), presence anywhere in the support reach is the principal variable for
this indicator (Stoddard et al. 2005).
U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory, Western
Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333.
Dynamac, Inc. c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW35,h St., Corvallis, OR 97333.
177
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 8 (Invasive Riparian Plants),
Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 2 of 6
8.1 DETERMINING THE PRESENCE OF INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANTS
This procedure was previously included as part of the overall physical habitat
characterization (Section 7), and uses the same field data form as the "legacy" tree
component of the physical habitat characterization (described in Section 7.5.9). The
procedure for determining the presence of invasive plant taxa at a site is presented in Table
8-1. At each transect, examine the area within the 10 m x 10 m riparian plots on each bank
(Figure 8-1). Do not spend more than about 5 minutes in each plot looking for invasive
riparian plants. Record the presence of any listed plant taxon on the Riparian "Legacy"
Trees and Invasive Alien Plants field form (Figure 8-2). Appendix D (on the CD-ROM)
includes color photographs and text descriptions of all target taxa to help determine if any of
them are present within the plot. Note that the list of target plant taxa varies from state to
state. Record only the presence of plants that are target taxa for your state, even though
you may observe other invasive riparian taxa. If you notice the presence of other invasive
species not on the list, you can note their presence in the comments section of the form. If
no listed taxa for your state are present within the plot, mark the None box on the form.
8.2 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 8-3 lists the equipment and supplies required to conduct all the activities
described for determining the presence of invasive riparian plants. This checklist is similar
to the checklist presented in Appendix A, which is used at the base location (Section 3) to
ensure that all of the required equipment is brought to the stream. Use this checklist to
ensure that equipment and supplies are organized and available at the stream site to
conduct the activities efficiently.
8.3 LITERATURE CITED
Brown, R.L., and R.K. Peet. 2003. Diversity and invasibility of southern Appalachian plant
communities. Ecology 84:32-39.
Nillsson, C. and M. Svedmark. 2002. Basic principles and ecological consequences of
changing water regimes: riparian plant communities. Environmental Management
30:468-480.
Pimentel, D. L. Lach, Z. Rodolfo, and D. Morrison. 2000. Environmental and economic
costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. Bioscience 50:53-65.
178
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 8 (Invasive Riparian Plants),
Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 3 of 6
TABLE 8-1. PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANT SPECIES
Examine the 10m x 10m riparian plots on both banks for the presence of invasive riparian plant
species. Do not spend more than about 5 min in each plot looking for invasive plants. Look for
those species from the following table listed as target species for your State.
Name to
Check
on Form Common Name
Binomial:
Genus species CA OR WA ID ND SD WY CO AZ UT MT NV
Can This Canada Thistle
G Reed Giant Reed
Hblack Himalayan Blackberry
Spurge Leafy Spurge
M This Musk Thistle
Englvy English Ivy
RCGrass Reed Canarygrass
Rus Ol Russian-olive
SaltCed Salt Cedar
ChGrass Cheatgrass
Teasel Teasel
C Burd Common Burdock
Cirsium arvense
Arundo don ax
Rubus discolor
Euphorbia esula
Carduus nutans
Hedera helix
Phalaris arundinacea
Elaeagnus angustifolia X
Tamarix spp.
Bromus tectorum
Dipsacus full on um
Arctium minus
X On the list for this state
Not on the list for this state
Record the presence of any species listed for your State within the plot on either the left or right
bank by marking the appropriate box(es) on the right hand column of the Riparian "Legacy"
Trees and Invasive Alien Plants field form. Use the identification materials provided in Appendix
D. If none of the species listed for your state is present in either of the plots at a given transect
check the box labeled None for this transect.
Repeat Steps 1 through 5 for each remaining transect (B through K). At transect K, look
upstream a distance of 4 channel widths).
179
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 8 (Invasive Riparian Plants),
Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 4 of 6
10 m
RIPARIAN
PLOT
.eft Bank)
Flow
Cross-section Transect
RIPARIAN
PLOT
(Right Bank)
10 m
Figure 8-1. Boundaries for visual estimation of invasive riparian plants.
Pimentel, D., R. Zuniga, and D. Morrison. 2005. Update on the environmental and
economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United states. Ecological
Economics 52:273-288.
Stoddard, J.L., D.V. Peck, A.R. Olsen, D.P. Larsen, J. Van Sickle, C.P. Hawkins, R.M.
Hughes, T.R. Whittier, G. Lomnicky, A.T. Herlihy, P.R. Kaufmann, S.A. Peterson, P.L.
Ringold, S.G. Paulsen, and R. Blair. 2005. Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program: western streams and rivers statistical summary. EPA 620/R-
05/006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
180
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 8 (Invasive Riparian Plants),
Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 5 of 6
III
O U K
~ O O
I I 1
~ o ~
~ ~ o
~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~ u
11!
u ~ ~
UUO
nil
inn
HOD
u BH ~ ~
Q ~
~ ~
~ on
Figure 8-2. Riparian "Legacy" Tree and Invasive Alien Plant Form (Page 1), showing data for
invasive riparian plants.
181
-------
EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 8 (Invasive Riparian Plants),
Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 6 of 6
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANT DETERMINATION
QTY.
Item
1
Covered clipboards (lightweight, with strap or lanyard to hang around neck)
several
Soft (#2) lead pencils (mechanical are acceptable)
1 plus
extras
Riparian "Legacy" Tree and Invasive Alien Plant Form
1 copy
Field operations and methods manual
1 set
Laminated sheet of procedure table and quick reference guide (including color
pictures) for target species of invasive plants (available as Appendix D from CD-
ROM)
Figure 8-3. Checklist of equipment and supplies for determining the presence of invasive
riparian plants.
NOTES
182
-------
SECTION 9
PERIPHYTON
Brian H. Hill1 and David V. Peck2
Periphyton are algae, fungi, bacteria, protozoa, and associated organic matter
associated with channel substrates. Periphyton are useful indicators of environmental
condition because they respond rapidly and are sensitive to many anthropogenic distur-
bances, including habitat destruction, contamination by nutrients, metals, herbicides,
hydrocarbons, and acidification (e.g., Bahls 1993, Pan et al. 1999, Hill et al. 2000, Griffith
et al. 2002).
Collection procedures for periphyton are similar to the multihabitat procedure of the
Rapid Bioassessment Protocol (RBP; Barbour et al. 1999). A representative sample of the
periphyton assemblage cannot be collected from a single point. Therefore, the response
design is based on the collection of multiple samples from throughout the support reach. A
fixed number (and thus area) of collection points is allocated systematically throughout the
support reach ensure a distribution of samples between faster water and slower water
habitats, eliminate individual sampler bias, and provide a comparable and consistent
sample from every site. To save time, periphyton sampling points are associated with
benthic macroinvertebrate sampling points. All samples collected at a site are combined
into a single composite sample to characterize the sampling point (Barbour et al. 1999) and
to reduce the cost and effort in processing and analysis. The number of individual samples
is expected to provide a composite sample having a sufficient number of individuals (at-
tached algae and/or diatoms) to characterize the taxonomic composition and relative
abundance of the assemblage.
Changes to the periphyton sampling procedures from the previous published
EMAP-SW field operations manual (Hill 1998), and modifications made during EMAP-W
U.S. EPA, National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, 6201 Congdon Blvd,
Duluth, MN 55804.
U.S. EPA, National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis,
OR, 97333.
183
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 2 of 20
are summarized in Appendix B. The biomorphs (refer to Figure 2-1) collect periphyton
samples at the same time as benthic macroinvertebrate samples (Section 10). At the
completion of the day's sampling activities, but before leaving the stream, three types of
laboratory samples are prepared from each composite index sample.
An optional procedure to collect an additional targeted habitat sample from a single
habitat type is described in Section 9.3. This procedure is modified from the RBP proce-
dure (Stevenson and Bahls 1999) and Hawkins et al. (2001). The targeted habitat sample
allowed for a comparison of assessments of the periphyton assemblage based on the
standard EMAP-W sampling procedure and those based on a targeted habitat procedure
used in a separate study focusing on reference sites in the western U.S.
9.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION
The general scheme for collecting and processing periphyton samples from the
support reach is illustrated in Figure 9-1. The procedure for collecting periphyton samples
is presented in Table 9-1. At each transect, collect a sample from an assigned sampling
point (left, center, or right as you face downstream). Locate the sampling point 1 m down-
stream of the transect to avoid disturbing substrates that are enumerated and classified as
part of the physical habitat characterization (Section 7). Sampling points at each transect
may have been assigned when the support reach was laid out (Figure 9-1; refer also to
Section 4; Table 4-3). If not, assign the sampling point at transect A at random using a
digital watch or other suitable means. Once the first sampling point is determined, collect
either an erosional or depositional sample, depending on whether the sampling point is in a
flowing water (e.g., a riffle or run) erosional habitat with coarser substrate, or in a slow
water (e.g., a pool) depositional habitat with finer substrate. Combine the individual
transect samples into a single plastic bottle to create a composite sample for the reach.
Record the total volume of the composite sample on the Sample Collection Form as shown
in Figure 9-2. Note that optional targeted habitat periphyton samples (Section 9.4) are
collected in conjunction with benthic macroinvertebrate samples from a targeted habitat
(riffles), rather than at each transect.
9.2 PREPARATION OF LABORATORY SAMPLES
Three laboratory samples are prepared from the composite sample: an ID/enumera-
tion sample (to determine taxonomic composition and relative abundances), a
184
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 3 of 20
CROSS SECTION TRANSECTS (A to K)
Stream Flaw
mm
TRANSECT SAMPLES (11 totaf)
Collected from assigned sampling point (left, center, or right) on each transect
At each sampling point, collect based on habitat type (erosbnal or depositimal) present
fy,
EROSIOHAL SAMPLE
O
Attached periph^on collected from
12 cm2 area of rock(s) by scrubbing
and/or scraping
DEPOSITIONAL SAMPLE
A
Of}
Top 1 cm of sediment from a 12 cm2
area collected in 35-60-mL catheter-
tipped syringe
X IZ
COMPOSITE INDEX SAMPLE
(Erosidnal and Depositiona!)
ID/ENUMERATION SAMPLE
50-mL aliquot
Preserve with undiluted formalin (2 mL)
CHLOROPHYLL SAMPLE
Filter 25 mL aliquot (glass-fiber filter)
Store filter at-20 C
BIOMASS SAMPLE
Filter 25 mL aliquot (glass-fiber filter)
Store filter at -20 C
Figure 9-1. Response design for collecting periphyton samples.
185
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 4 of 20
TABLE 9-1. PROCEDURE FOR COLLECTING COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF PERIPHYTON
1. Starting at Transect A, determine if the assigned sampling point (Left, Center, or Right) is
located in an erosional (riffle) habitat or a depositional (pool) habitat. Collect a single sample
at the point using the appropriate procedure in Step 2 below. NOTE: to avoid disturbing the
substrate on a transect, locate each sampling point 1 m downstream of the actual transect.
If the sampling points were not assigned previously when laying out the sampling reach, pro-
ceed to Transect A. Randomly determine if it is a left (L), center (C), or right (R) sampling
point for collecting periphyton and benthic macroinvertebrate samples. For example, use a
digital wristwatch and glance at the last digit (1-3=L, 4-6=C, 7-9=R). Mark L, C, or R on the
transect flagging. Assign sampling points at each successive transect in order as L, C, R after
the first random selection.
2A. Erosional habitats (coarser substrate present):
(1) Collect a sample of substrate (rock or wood) that is small enough (< 15 cm diameter) and
can be easily removed from the stream. Place the substrate in a plastic funnel which
drains into a 500-mL plastic bottle with volume graduations marked on it and labeled
PERIPHYTON.
(2) Use the area delimiter to define a 12-cm2 area on the upper surface of the substrate.
Dislodge attached periphyton from the substrate within the delimiter into the funnel by
brushing with a stiff-bristled toothbrush for 30 seconds. Take care to ensure that the
upper surface of the substrate is the surface that is being scrubbed, and that the entire
surface within the delimiter is scrubbed.
(3) Fill a wash bottle with stream water. Using a minimal volume of water from this bottle,
wash the dislodged periphyton from the rock, delimiter, and funnel into the 500-mL bottle.
2B. Depositional habitats (finer substrate present):
(1) Use the area delimiter to confine a 12-cm2 area of soft sediments.
(2) Vacuum the top 1 cm of sediments from within the delimited area into a catheter-tipped
syringe (35-60-mL size).
(3) Empty the syringe into the 500-mL PERIPHYTON bottle (combining it with samples
collected from erosional habitats).
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for transects B through K to produce the composite sample for the
support reach. Keep the collection bottle out of direct sunlight as much as possible to minimize
degradation of chlorophyll.
4. After samples have been collected from all 11 transects, add sufficient stream water from the
wash bottle to bring the total volume to the nearest 50-mL mark (final volume can be less than
500 mL). Mix the 500-mL bottle by gently swirling the sample to help separate periphyton from
heavier sediments. Record the total volume of the composite sample in the periphyton section
of the Sample Collection Form. Also record the number of transects where you obtained a
periphyton sample.
186
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 5 of 20
SAMPLE COLLECTION FORM - STREAMS L»l.
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Figure 9-2. Sample Collection Form, showing data recorded for periphyton samples.
187
-------
EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 6 of 20
PERIPHYTON
WXXP39- ?
*7.) I.J20D1
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Figure 9-3. Set of completed periphyton sample labels.
chlorophyll sample, a biomass sample (for ash-free dry mass). Keep all the sample con-
tainers required for an individual stream in sealed in plastic bags until use (see Section 3)
to avoid external sources of contamination (e.g., dust, dirt, or mud) that are present at
streamside.
A set of completed periphyton sample labels is shown in Figure 9-3. All labels in a
set have the same sample ID number. Circle the appropriate type of sample (chlorophyll,
biomass, etc.) on each label. Attach the completed labels to their appropriate containers
and cover with clear tape. When attaching the completed labels, do not cover any volume
graduations and markings on the container.
9.2.1 ID/Enumeration Sample
Prepare the ID/Enumeration sample as a 50-mL aliquot from the composite sample,
following the procedure presented in Table 9-2. Preserve each sample with 2 mL of undi-
luted formalin (37% formaldehyde), observing all safety precautions associated with han-
dling formalin solution. If you are using diluted formalin (e.g., 10-12%) as a preservative,
adjust the subsample volume to 40 mL and add 10 mL of preservative. Record the ID
number (barcode) from the sample container label and the total volume of the sample (50
mL) in the appropriate fields on the Sample Collection Form as shown in Figure 9-2.
Explain any deviations from the target volume in the comments field of the collection form.
Store the preserved samples upright in a container containing absorbent material, accord-
ing to the guidelines provided for handling formalin-preserved samples. Ship the
ID/Enumeration sample together with the other periphyton samples.
188
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 7 of 20
TABLE 9-2. PREPARATION OF ID/ENUMERATION SAMPLE FOR PERIPHYTON
1. Thoroughly mix the bottle containing the composite periphyton sample.
2. Prepare a sample label. Circle the sample type (ID) on the label. Record the volume of the
subsample (typically 50 mL) and the volume of the composite index sample on the label.
Attach the completed label to a 50-mL centrifuge tube; avoid covering the volume graduations
and markings. Cover the label completely with a clear tape strip.
3. Record the sample ID number of the label and the total volume of the composite index sample
on the Sample Collection Form. Explain any deviations from the target volume in the com-
ments section of the form.
4. Pour 50 mL of the composite sample into the labeled 50-mL centrifuge tube.
5. Wear gloves and safety glasses. Use a syringe or bulb pipette to add 2 mL of undiluted forma-
lin solution (37% formaldehyde) to the sample. Cap the tube tightly and seal with plastic
electrical tape. Shake gently to distribute the preservative.
NOTE: If using previously diluted formalin (e.g., 10-12%) as a preservative, adjust the
subsample volume to 40 mL and add 10 mL of preservative solution. Note the use of
diluted preservative in the comments.
6. Record the volume of the sample (typically 50 mL; exclude the volume of preservative added
to the ID sample) on the Sample Collection Form. Double check that the volume recorded on
the collection form matches the total volume recorded on the corresponding sample label,
especially if you are using diluted formalin as a preservative.
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9.2.2 Chlorophyll Sample
Prepare a chlorophyll sample by filtering a 25-mL aliquot of the composite index
sample through a glass fiber filter (Whatman GF/F or equivalent) as described in Table 9-3.
Chlorophyll can degrade rapidly when exposed to bright light, so filter the samples in
subdued light (or shade) as quickly as possible after collection to minimize degradation.
The filtration apparatus is illustrated in Figure 9-4. Rinse the filtration chamber with de-
ionized water each day at the base site and seal it in a plastic bag until use at the stream
(see Section 3). Keep the glass fiber filters in a dispenser inside a sealed plastic bag until
use.
It is important to measure the volume of the sample being filtered accurately (±1
ml_) with a graduated cylinder. During filtration, do not exceed 7 pounds per square inch
(psi) to avoid rupturing cells. If the vacuum pressure exceeds 7 psi, prepare a new sample.
If the filter clogs completely before the volume of sample in the chamber has been filtered,
discard the sample and filter, and prepare a new sample using a smaller volume of sample.
After filtering the sample, fold the filter paper in half and place it in a 50-mL centri-
fuge tube. Complete a sample label (Figure 9-3) and check it to ensure that all written
information is complete and legible. Affix the label to the centrifuge tube and cover it
completely with a strip of clear tape. Record the sample ID number printed on the label on
the Sample Collection Form (Figure 9-2). Make sure the volume recorded on the sample
label matches the corresponding volume recorded on the Sample Collection Form. Record
a flag and provide comments on the Sample Collection Form if there are any problems in
collecting the sample or if conditions occur that may affect sample integrity. Wrap the
centrifuge tube in aluminum foil and store it in a resealable plastic bag in darkness. Store
the sample frozen until shipment to the laboratory (Section 3).
9.2.3 Biomass Sample
Prepare the biomass sample from a 25-mL aliquot of the composite sample. Pre-
pare the sample according to the procedure presented in Table 9-3. As with the chloro-
phyll sample, measure the volume to be filtered accurately (±1 ml_). Rinse the filter cham-
ber components (Figure 9-4) and the graduated cylinder thoroughly between the chloro-
phyll and biomass samples with deionized water.
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TABLE 9-3. PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING CHLOROPHYLL AND BIOMASS SAMPLES
FOR PERIPHYTON
1. Mix the composite sample thoroughly.
2. Using clean forceps, place a glass fiber filter on the filter holder. Use a small amount of deion-
ized water from a wash bottle to help settle the filter properly. Attach the filter funnel to the
filter holder and filter chamber, then attach the hand vacuum pump to the chamber.
3. Rinse the sides of the filter funnel and the filter with a small volume of deionized water.
4. Rinse a 25-mL or 50-mL graduated cylinder (or a centrifuge tube with volume markings) three
times with small volumes of deionized water. Measure 25 mL (±1 mL) of sample into the
graduated cylinder.
NOTE: For composite samples containing fine sediment, allow grit to settle before pour-
ing the sample into the graduated cylinder.
5. Pour the 25-mL aliquot into the filter funnel, replace the cap, and pump the sample through the
filter using the hand pump. NOTE: Do not exceed 7 psi of vacuum pressure to avoid rupturing
fragile algal cells.
If 25 mL of sample will not pass through the filter, discard the filter and rinse the chamber
thoroughly with deionized water. Collect a new sample using a smaller volume of sam-
ple, measured to ±1 mL. Be sure to record the actual volume sampled on the sample
label and the Sample Collection Form.
6. Remove both plugs from the filtration chamber and pour out the filtered water in the chamber.
Remove the filter funnel from the filter holder. Remove the filter from the holder with clean
forceps. Avoid touching the colored portion of the filter. Fold the filter in half, with the colored
side folded in on itself. Place the folded filter paper into a 50-mL centrifuge tube.
7. Complete a periphyton sample label for chlorophyll, including the volume filtered, and attach it
to the centrifuge tube. Cover the label completely with a strip of clear tape.
8. Record the sample ID number (barcode) of the label and the total volume of the composite
index sample on the Sample Collection Form. Record the volume filtered in the Chlorophyll
field on the Sample Collection Form. Double check that the volume recorded on the collection
form matches the total volume recorded on the sample label.
9. Wrap the tube completely with aluminum foil to protect it from light. Place the centrifuge tube
into a resealable plastic bag. Place the plastic bag into a portable freezer, a cooler containing
dry ice, or between two sealed plastic bags of ice in a cooler.
10. Rinse the filter funnel, filter holder, filter chamber, and graduated cylinder thoroughly with
deionized water.
11. Repeat Steps 1 through 11 to prepare the biomass sample, completing a periphyton sample
label for biomass and recording sample information in the Biomass section of the Sample
Collection Form.
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FILTER
FUNNEL
FILTER
HOLDER
FILTER
CHAMBER
HAND
VACUUM PUMP
CLEAR
PLASTIC
TUBING
Figure 9-4. Filtration apparatus for preparing chlorophyll and biomass subsamples for peri-
phyton. Modified from Chaloud et al. (1989).
After filtering the sample, complete a biomass sample label as shown in Figure 9-3.
Check the sample label to ensure that all written information is complete and legible. Affix
the label to the 50-mL centrifuge tube and cover it completely with clear tape. Record the
sample ID number printed on the label and the volume filtered on the Sample Collection
Form as shown in Figure 9-2. Make sure the information recorded on the sample label
matches the corresponding information recorded on the Sample Collection Form. Record a
flag and provide comments on the Sample Collection Form if there are any problems in
collecting the sample or if conditions occur that may affect sample integrity. Wrap each
tube in aluminum foil, place them in a resealable plastic bag. and store them frozen until
shipment to the laboratory (Section 3).
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9.3 COLLECTING PERIPHYTON FROM A TARGETED HABITAT
This is an optional procedure that involves the collection of a separate composite
periphyton sample and the preparation of an additional ID/enumeration subsample. Collect
a series of individual samples from one type of targeted habitat as described in Table 9-5.
The preferred targeted habitat is riffle, with periphyton scraped from individual rocks col-
lected at the same locations as the targeted riffle benthos sample (Section 10). If riffle
habitat is not available within the stream reach, scrape periphyton from individual pieces of
wood collected from throughout the stream reach. If a support reach lacks both riffle and
wood, collect an additional Sand/silt sample at each transect where you collect a deposi-
tional periphyton sample. Combine all individual samples from the targeted habitat into a
single 1-L container marked in 250-mL increments, and add stream water to bring the total
volume of the composite sample to the nearest 250-mL mark. Prepare an ID/enumeration
subsample having a total volume of 40 mL and preserve with formalin (2 mL of undiluted
formalin, or 10 mL of dilute formalin solution). Complete a sample label as shown in Figure
9-5, and record the sample information on the separate field data form for the targeted
habitat periphyton sample (Figure 9-6).
After becoming familiar with the sampling reach, determine the channel classifica-
tion and dominant habitat type and record these on the field data form. Figure 9-7 pro-
vides guidance for determining the channel classification and dominant habitat type. This
information allows data from EMAP-W sites to be combined with data from other sites
where the EMAP physical habitat procedures were not used.
9.4 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 9-8 is a checklist of equipment and supplies required to conduct periphyton
sample collection and processing activities. This checklist is similar to the checklist pre-
sented in Appendix A, which is used at the base location (Section 3) to ensure that all of
the required equipment is brought to the stream. Use this checklist to ensure that equip-
ment and supplies are organized and available at the stream site in order to conduct the
activities efficiently.
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TABLE 9-4. COLLECTING A TARGETED HABITAT PERIPHYTON SAMPLE
NOTE: This is an optional procedure.
1. Collect one composite periphyton sample at each site (listed in order of preference):
A. If you collect an EMAP targeted riffle benthic sample, then collect a ROCK periphyton
sample (Step 2).
B. If you do not collect an EMAP targeted riffle sample, but there is sufficient submerged
wood in the stream to obtain 16 individual samples, then collect a SNAG periphyton
sample (Step 3).
C. If you do not collect an EMAP targeted riffle sample, and there is not enough wood pieces
available to collect a SNAG sample, then collect a SAND/SILT periphyton sample (Step
4).
2. ROCK sample:
A. At each riffle unit where you collect an EMAP targeted riffle kicknet sample (Section 10),
select TWO pieces of substrate for each kicknet sample (i.e., if you collect two kicknet
samples from a single riffle unit, then you would collect 4 pieces of substrate from that
riffle unit.).
Collect the pieces from throughout the riffle unit (i.e., they do not have to be at or
near the kicknet sample locations). Each piece must be large enough to use with
the periphyton area delimiter.
Collect the substrate pieces from a depth of 15-20 cm (or deepest area if stream is
< 15 cm deep).
B. Collect a sample from each piece of substrate using the EMAP procedure for erosional
samples. Rinse the sample into a 1 -L jar, marked at 250, 500, 750, and 1000 mL, labeled
TARGETED HABITAT PERIPHYTON SAMPLE.
C. Repeat Steps 2A and 2B for each piece of substrate and each targeted riffle kicknet
sample. You will end up preparing 16 pieces of substrate total.
D. Go to Step 5.
3. SNAG sample:
A. As you proceed up the support reach, look for submerged pieces of wood. Each piece
must be large enough for the periphyton area delimiter to completely fit on.
Collect the wood pieces from a depth of 15-20 cm (or the deepest area if the stream
is < 15 cm deep).
B. Collect a sample from each piece of wood using the EMAP procedure for erosional sam-
ples. Rinse the sample into a 1 -L jar, marked at 250, 500, 750, and 1000 mL, labeled
TARGETED HABITAT PERIPHYTON SAMPLE.
C. Repeat Steps 3A and 3B for each piece of wood until you have collected 16 individual
samples.
D. Go to Step 5.
(Continued)
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TABLE 9-4 (Continued)
4. SAND/SILT sample:
A. At each transect where you collected a standard EMAP depositional periphyton sample
(i.e., using a syringe), collect two additional depositional samples from a depth of 15-20
cm (or the deepest part if the stream is < 15 cm deep).
NOTE: Skip over transects where you collected standard EMAP erosional peri-
phyton samples.
Collect the samples from anywhere within the depositional habitat unit that the
transect is passing through (i.e., they do not have to be the transect sample loca-
tions or on the transect itself).
B. Use the EMAP procedure for the additional depositional samples (area delimiter and
catheter-tipped syringe). Place the contents of each syringe sample into a 1 -L jar,
marked at 250, 500, 750, and 1000 mL, labeled TARGETED HABITAT PERIPHYTON
SAMPLE.
C. Repeat Steps 4A and 4B for each depositional transect, until you have collected a total of
16 additional depositional samples.
D. Go to Step 5.
5. Prepare a single ID/Enumeration subsample from the targeted habitat composite sample
(either ROCK, SNAG or SAND/SILT) as follows:
A. Dilute the composite sample to the nearest 250 mL mark using stream water from a wash
bottle.
B. Cap the composite sample bottle tightly. Shake the bottle vigorously until all material is
fully suspended and homogenized (clumps of algae are broken up).
C. Pour about 10 mL of suspended sample into a 50 mL centrifuge tube.
D. Repeat Steps 4B and 4C three more times, so the final subsample volume will be 40 mL.
6. Complete a sample label. Circle the sample type (Rock/gravel or Sand/silt), and record the
number of substrate pieces used (for rock samples) or the number of syringe samples col-
lected. Circle the composite sample volume, and record the subsample volume.
NOTE: For SNAG samples, write in SNAG on the sample label.
7. Add 2 mL of buffered formalin to the subsample. Cap tightly and seal with plastic tape.
NOTE: If using dilute (10-12%) formalin, add 10 mL to the subsample (or fill it to the 50-
mL mark if the volume is greater than 40 mL).
8. Attach the completed label to the centrifuge tube.
9. Record the header information on the field data form. Make sure the site ID and date collected
match those on the label.
(Continued)
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TABLE 9-4 (Continued)
10. Record the sample collection information from the label onto the form.
NOTE: If you collect a SNAG sample, write in SNAG in the Sample Type field on the
collection form.
11. CHANNEL CLASSIFICATION: Complete this part of the field form after you have completed
sampling and have a good idea of the channel characteristics within the support reach.
A. Establish the valley segment characteristics as either colluvial, bedrock, or alluvial.
Colluvial: Generally, colluvial valleys are those in which colluvial fills (i.e., material
from hill slopes) accumulate and are periodically excavated by the stream.
Bedrock: There is no contiguous alluvial bed. Some alluvial material may be tempo-
rarily stored in scour holes, or behind flow obstructions, but in general the bedrock
valley channel bed lacks an alluvial cover, and there is little, if any, channel fill.
Alluvial: Channel is capable of sorting and transporting the load supplied to it from
upstream channels, but the transport capacity is not sufficient to scour it to bedrock.
B. Use the table on the back side of the field data form to classify the channel as either
colluvial, bedrock, or one of the following subcategories of alluvial channels: cascade
channel, step-pool channel, plane-bed channel, pool-riffle channel, regime channel, or
braided channel.
12. DOMINANT HABITAT TYPES:
A. Complete this part of the field form after you have completed sampling and thus have
surveyed the entire support reach, select what you feel are the dominant erosional and
depositional habitat types for the support reach.
B. Use the descriptions on the back side of the field data form to select the dominant class
of both erosional and depositional habitats. Circle one class in each category.
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
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PERIPHYTON
SI AN Protocol *0 Ssft f'fo
j.
. jioi*it ii,< r
C^VOSrl'V"' SJMc.mU
3=<1 7V 11.51
v pswu \
-------
EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 16 of 20
¦ MODIFIED STAR PROTOCOL PERIPHYTON DATA
SITE NAME P//rr
DATE: J*?*? io ~ l.3.Q.O,*t. V,S,T;« & 2 3
SITEiO: 79 9 ?
TEAM: )
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
October 2006 Page 17 of 20
Ctosifttrjf Stream Chmmnte
Ll i ' < r{r (, 'of [ V " r! ^ l>n4 i , !; M I
OWtfSltUWM.
Figure 9-7. Descriptions of channel classes and habitat types associated with targeted
habitat periphyton samples. From Hawkins et al. (2001).
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
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EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR PERIPHYTON
OTY
Item
1
Large funnel (15-20 cm diameter)
1
12-cm2 area delimiter (a 3 cm slice of 3.8 cm [1.5 in] inside diameter Schedule
40 PVC pipe); with no modifications for sealing it to a substrate surface)
1
Stiff-bristle toothbrush with handle bent at 90° angle
1
1-L wash bottle labeled STREAM WATER
1
1-L wash bottle labeled for and containing deionized water
1
500-mL plastic bottle (with volume markings every 50-mL), labeled
PERIPHYTON COMPOSITE SAMPLE
1
35-60 mL catheter-tipped plastic syringe
1
Small "fanny pack" or vest with pockets to carry funnel, delimiter, brush, wash
bottles, collection bottle, and syringe
50-mL screw-top centrifuge tubes with volume markings
1 box
Glass-fiber filters for chlorophyll and biomass samples
1 pair
Forceps for filter handling.
1
25-mL or 50-mL graduated cylinder, or 50-mL screw-top centrifuge tube with
volume markings
1
Filtration unit, including filter funnel, cap, filter holder, and receiving chamber
1
Hand-operated vacuum pump and clear plastic vacuum tubing
1
Aluminum foil for wrapping containers holding chlorophyll and biomass filters
Resealable plastic bags for chlorophyll and biomass samples
2 mL
Undiluted formalin solution for ID/Enumeration samples (10 mL if using diluted
formalin).
1
Small syringe or bulb pipette for dispensing formalin
1 pair ea.
Safety glasses and chemical-resistant gloves for handling formalin
2 sets
Sample labels (3 per set) with the same barcode ID number
1
Sample Collection Form for stream
Soft (#2) lead pencils for recording data on field forms
Fine-tipped indelible markers for filling out sample labels
1 pkg.
Clear tape strips for covering labels
(Continued
Figure 9-8. Checklist of equipment and supplies for periphyton.
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EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR PERIPHYTON (Continued)
OTY
Item
1
Portable freezer, cooler with dry ice, or cooler with bags of ice to store frozen
samples
1 copy
Field operations and method manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides for peri-
phyton
For the optional targeted habitat periphyton sample, the following
additional items are needed:
1
1 -L plastic bottle, with volume markings at 250-, 500-, 750-, and 1000-mL,
labeled TARGETED HABITAT PERIPHYTON SAMPLE
1
50-mL screw-top centrifuge tube with volume markings
2 mL
Undiluted formalin solution for ID/Enumeration samples (10 mL if using diluted
formalin).
1 ea
Sample label and field data form for targeted habitat periphyton sample
Figure 9-8. (Continued).
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 9 (Periphyton), Rev. 5,
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Montgomery, D.R. and J.M. Buffington, 1993. Channel classification, prediction of channel
response, and assessment of channel condition. TFW-SH10-93-002. Prepared for
the SHAMW committee of the Washington State Timber/Fish/Wildlife Agreement.
Seattle, Washington.
Stevenson, R.J. and L.L. Bahls. 1999. Periphyton protocols. Pages 6-1 to 6-23 jn M.D.
Barbour et al. Rapid bioassessment protocols for use in streams and wadeable
rivers: periphyton, benthic macroinvertebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA 841/B-
99/002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
NOTES
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SECTION 10
BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
by
Donald J. Klemm1, James M. Lazorchak1, and David V. Peck2
Benthic macroinvertebrates inhabit the bottom substrates of streams and reflect
overall biological condition (Kerans and Karr 1994, Barbour et al. 1999, Reynoldson et al.
2001, Klemm et al. 2002, 2003, Clarke et al. 2003, Bailey et al. 2004, Griffith et al. 2005).
Monitoring these assemblages is useful in assessing the status of the water body and
detecting trend in ecological condition. Benthic assemblages respond to a wide array of
stressors in different ways, and it is often possible to determine the type of stress that has
affected the macroinvertebrate assemblage (e.g., Klemm et al. 1990). Because many
macroinvertebrates have life cycles of a year or more and are relatively immobile, macro-
invertebrate assemblage structure is a function of present and past conditions (Barbour et
al. 1999).
The EMAP-SW benthic macroinvertebrate protocol is intended to evaluate the
biological condition of wadeable streams in the United States for the purpose of detecting
stresses on assemblage structure and assessing the relative severity of these stresses. It
is based on the Level III procedure for benthic macroinvertebrates of the Rapid Bioassess-
ment Protocol (RBP; Plafkin et al. 1989, Barbour et al. 1999), which has been adopted for
use by many states.
A representative sample of the benthic assemblage cannot be collected from a
single point. Therefore, the response design is based on the collection of multiple kicknet
samples from throughout the support reach. Results from Li et al. (2001) suggest the
length of the support reach (40 channel widths) provides an adequate sample of the
assemblage in terms of taxa richness and relative abundance. A fixed number (and thus
U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr.,
Cincinnati, OH 45268.
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St.,
Corvallis, OR 97333.
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area) of collection points is allocated systematically throughout the support reach ensure
distribution of samples among available major habitat types, eliminate individual sampler
bias, and provide a comparable and consistent sample from every site. All samples
collected at a site are combined into a single composite sample to characterize the support
reach (and thus the sampling point) and reduce the cost and effort in processing and
analysis (Patil et al. 1994, Barbour et al. 1999, Roth et al. 2002). The number of individual
samples (11) is expected to provide a composite sample having a sufficient number of
individuals to characterize the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of the
assemblage (e.g., Larsen and Herlihy 1998).
Changes to the previously published protocol for EMAP-SW (Klemm et al. 1998)
and modifications made during EMAP-W are summarized in Appendix B. Samples are
collected from each support reach with a D-frame kick net that can be used by one person
(Figure 10-1). Kick net samples are collected at the same time as periphyton samples
(Section 9). The biomorphs (refer to Figure 2-1) collect kick net samples for benthic macro-
invertebrates at sampling points at each cross-section transect. Typically, one person will
collect the kick net samples, while a second person times the collection of samples and
records information on the field data form. However, in swift waters, two persons may be
necessary to collect the samples. All kick net samples collected at transects are combined
into a single composite sample (termed the reachwide sample).
When sufficient riffle habitats are available at a site, additional kick net samples are
collected from available riffle habitats found within the support reach. These kick net
samples are combined to create a separate composite sample (termed the targeted riffle
sample).
Note that any crayfish collected as part of the aquatic vertebrate sampling (Section
11) are not combined with any of the benthic macroinvertebrate samples described in this
section.
10.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION
10.1.1 Reachwide Sample
Collect each kick net sample 1-m downstream of each of the 11 cross-section
transects (transects A through K) at an assigned sampling point (Left, Center, or Right).
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1.5 m long, 2-piece detachable handle
Detachable bucket w/ 500 urn mesh
or sewed end
Muslin Bottom Panel
Wlesh= 500 Mm
DV'P 8/06
Figure 10-1. Modified D-frame kick net. (Not drawn to scale.)
as illustrated in Figure 10-2. These points may have been assigned when the support
reach was laid out (refer also to Section 4; Table 4-3). If not, assign the sampling point at
transect A at random using a digital watch or other suitable means. Once the first sampling
point is determined, assign points at successive transects in order (Left, Center, Right).
These are the same sampling points as those used for periphyton samples (Section 9). At
transects assigned a Center sampling point where the stream width is between one and
two net widths wide, pick either the Left or Right sampling point instead. If the stream is
only one net width wide at a transect, place the net across the entire stream width and
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CROSS SECTIOH TRANSECTS (A to K)
Stream Flow
TRANSECT SAMPLES <1 per transect)
Sampling point of eseh transect (1/4,1/2, 3/4) selected systematically after random start
Modified kick net (500 pm mesh)
1 ft2 quadrat sampled for 30 sec
Combine all kick net samples collected from
riffles and runs and from pools
COMPOSITE REACHW1DE
SAMPLE
SIEVING
v
500 |jm mesh
Remove as much debris and fine
sediment as possible
COMPOSITE INDEX SAMPLE
500-mL or 1-L aliquots
Fill no more than 25% full with sample
Preserve with 95% ethanol to final
concentration of 70%
DVP 8/06
Figure 10-2. Response design for the reachwide benthic macroinvertebrate sample.
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consider the sampling point to be Center. If a sampling point is located in water that is too
deep or otherwise unsafe to wade, select an alternate sampling point on the transect at
random.
Collect a kick net sample at each transect as described in Table 10-1. At each
sampling point, determine if the flowing water or the slack water procedure is used based
on whether or not there is enough current to extend the net. For each kick net sample,
record the dominant substrate type (fine/sand, gravel, coarse substrate [coarse gravel or
larger] or other [e.g., bedrock, hardpan, wood, aquatic vegetation, etc.]) and the habitat
type (pool, glide, riffle, or rapid) on the Sample Collection Form as shown in Figure 10-3.
Collect only from the upper 4 to 5 cm (1.5 to 2 in) of the substrate. As you go upstream
from transect to transect, combine all the kick net samples into a container labeled
REACHWIDE, no matter whether they were collected using the flowing water or slack
water procedure.
If the kick net cannot be used to collect a sample at a flowing water sampling point,
select 10 rocks from the area near the sampling point (but within the area of flowing water).
Inspect and remove any organisms found on each rock and place them into the REACH-
WIDE sampling container. If the kick net cannot be used at a slack water habitat due to an
insufficient depth of water, spend about 30 seconds picking up pieces of substrate from a
0.09 m2 (1 ft2) area at the sampling point. Inspect and remove any organisms found on
each piece of substrate and place them into the REACHWIDE sampling container. At
vegetation-choked sampling points where neither procedure can be used, sweep the net
through the vegetation for 30 seconds, then place the contents into the REACHWIDE
sampling container.
10.1.2 Targeted Riffle Sample
Figure 10-4 illustrates the response design for the targeted riffle sample. Table 10-
2 presents the procedure for selecting individual sampling points from the available riffle
macrohabitat units found within the support reach. Note that if the total available area of
riffle habitats is less than 8 ft2 (i.e., such that eight non-overlapping kick net samples
cannot be collected), do not collect a targeted riffle sample. There may be support reaches
where more than one kick net sample is collected from a single riffle unit (but never from
207
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 6 of 22
TABLE 10-1. PROCEDURE TO COLLECT KICK NET SAMPLES FOR THE REACHWIDE
COMPOSITE SAMPLE
1. At 1 m downstream of each cross-section transect, beginning with transect A, locate the
assigned sampling point (Left, Center, or Right as you face downstream) as 25%, 50%, and
75% of the wetted width, respectively. If you cannot collect a sample at the designated point
because of deep water or unsafe conditions, relocate the point nearby on the same transect.
2. Attach the handle to the kick net. Make sure that the handle is on tight or the net may become
twisted in a strong current, causing the loss of part of the sample.
3. Determine if there is sufficient current in the area at the sampling point to extend the net fully.
If so, use the flowing water procedure (go to Step 4). If not, use the slack water procedure (go
to Step 10).
For vegetation-choked sampling points where neither procedure can be used, sweep the
net through the vegetation within a 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) quadrat for 30 seconds. Place the
contents of this hand-picked sample into the REACHWIDE sampling container. Go to
Step 15.
Flowing Water Procedure:
4. With the net opening facing upstream, position the net quickly and securely on the stream
bottom to eliminate gaps under the frame. Avoid large rocks that prevent the sampler from
seating properly on the stream bottom.
NOTE: If there is too little water to collect the sample with the kick net, randomly pick up
10 rocks from the riffle and pick and wash the organisms off them into a bucket labeled
REACHWIDE which is half-full of water.
5. Holding the net in position on the substrate, visually define a rectangular quadrat that is one net
width wide and one net width long upstream of the net opening. The area within this quadrat is
-0.09 m2 (1 ft2). Alternatively, place a wire frame of the correct dimensions in front of the net
to help delineate the quadrat to be sampled.
6. Hold the net in place with your knees. Check the quadrat for heavy organisms, such as
mussels and snails. Remove these organisms from the substrate by hand and place them into
the net. Pick up any loose rocks or other larger substrate particles in the quadrat. Use your
hands or a small scrub brush to dislodge organisms so that they are washed into the net.
Scrub all rocks that are golf ball-sized or larger and which are over halfway into the quadrat.
Large rocks that are less than halfway into the sampling area are pushed aside. After scrub-
bing, place the substrate particles outside of the quadrat.
7. Keep holding the sampler securely in position. Start at the upstream end of the quadrat, use
your foot and toes to vigorously kick the upper 4 to 5 cm (1.5 to 2 in) of the remaining finer
substrate within the quadrat for 30 seconds (use a stopwatch). Avoid going too deep into the
substrate with your kicking.
NOTE: For samples located within dense beds of long, filamentous aquatic vegetation (e.g.,
algae or moss), kicking within the quadrat may not be sufficient to dislodge organisms in the
vegetation. Usually these types of vegetation are lying flat against the substrate due to current.
Use a knife or scissors to remove only the vegetation that lies within the quadrat (i.e., not
entire strands that are rooted within the quadrat) and place it into the net.
(Continued)
208
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 7 of 22
TABLE 10-1 (Continued)
8. Pull the net up out of the water. Immerse the net in the stream several times to remove fine
sediments and to concentrate organisms at the end of the net. Avoid having any water or
material enter the mouth of the net during this operation.
9. Go to Step 14.
Slack Water Procedure:
10. Visually define a rectangular quadrat that is one net width wide and one net width long at the
sampling point. The area within this quadrat is -0.09 m2 (1 ft2). Alternatively, lay a wire frame
of the correct dimensions in front of the net at the sampling point to help delineate the quadrat.
NOTE: If there is not enough water present to use the net, spend 30 seconds collecting
and examining pieces of substrate from about 0.09 m2 (1 ft2) of substrate at the sampling
point.
11. Inspect the stream bottom within the quadrat for any heavy organisms, such as mussels and
snails. Remove these organisms by hand and place them into the net or into a bucket labeled
REACHWIDE. Pick up any loose rocks or other larger substrate particles within the quadrat
and hold them in front of the net. Use your hands (or a scrub brush) to rub any clinging
organisms off of rocks or other pieces of larger substrate (especially those covered with algae
or other debris) into the net. After scrubbing, place the larger substrate particles outside of the
quadrat.
12. Use your foot and toes to vigorously kick the upper 4 to 5 cm (1.5 to 2 in) of the remaining
finer substrate within the quadrat while dragging the net repeatedly through the disturbed area
just above the bottom. Keep moving the net all the time so that the organisms trapped in the
net will not escape. Continue kicking the substrate and moving the net for 30 seconds. NOTE:
If there is too little water to use the kick net, vigorously stir up the substrate with your gloved
hands and use a sieve with 500 jjm mesh size to collect the organisms from the water in the
same way the net is used in larger pools.
11. After 30 seconds, remove the net from the water with a quick upstream motion to wash the
organisms to the bottom of the net.
All samples:
12. Invert the net and transfer the contents into a bucket or wide-mouthed container with a lid
marked REACHWIDE. Inspect the net for any residual organisms clinging to the net and
deposit them into the REACHWIDE container. Use a squirt bottle with ethanol and watchmak-
ers' forceps if necessary to remove organisms from the net. Carefully inspect any large objects
(such as rocks, sticks, and leaves) in the bucket and wash any organisms found off of the
objects and into the bucket before discarding the object. Remove as much detritus as possible
without losing any organisms. Replace the lid on the bucket or container.
(Continued)
209
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 8 of 22
TABLE 10-1 (Continued)
All samples:
13. Determine the predominant substrate size/type you observed within the sampling quadrat.
Place an X in the appropriate substrate type box for the transect on the Sample Collection
Form. NOTE: If there is/are co-dominant substrate type(s), you may check more than one box;
note the co-dominants in the comments section of the form.
Fine/sand: not gritty (silt/clay/muck < 0.06 mm diam.) to gritty, up to ladybug sized (2 mm diam.)
Gravel: fine to coarse gravel (ladybug to tennis ball sized; 2 mm to 64 mm diam.)
Coarse: Cobble to boulder (tennis ball to car sized; 64 mm to 4000 mm)
Other: bedrock (larger than car sized; > 4000 mm), hardpan (firm, consolidated fine substrate),
wood of any size, aquatic vegetation, etc.). Note type of "other" substrate in comments on field
form.
14. Identify the habitat type where the sampling quadrat was located. Place an "X" in the appropri-
ate channel habitat type box for the transect on the Sample collection Form.
Pool; Still water; low velocity; with smooth, glassy surface; usually deep compared to other parts
of the channel.
GLide: Water moving slowly, with smooth, unbroken surface; low turbulence.
Riffle: Water moving, with small ripples, waves, and eddies; waves not breaking, and surface
tension is not broken; "babbling" or "gurgling" sound.
RApid: Water movement is rapid and turbulent; surface with intermittent "white water" with
breaking waves; continuous rushing sound.
NOTE: This habitat type may be different from that recorded during the thalweg profile
(Section 7), which is based on a channel width scale, rather than a quadrat scale. Also,
this habitat may be different from the operational definition used to select the sampling
procedure (flowing water vs. slack water), which is based solely on current velocity
15. Thoroughly rinse the net before proceeding to the next sampling location. Proceed upstream to
the next transect (including transect K, the upstream end of the support reach) and repeat
Steps 1 through 9. Combine all kick net samples from flowing water and slack water habitats
into the REACHWIDE container.
210
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 9 of 22
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-------
EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 10 of 22
CROSS SECTION TRANSECTS (A to K)
Stream Flow
TARGETED RIFFLE SAMPLES <8 per reach)
At least one sampie per riffle macrohabrtat unit
If < 8 riffle units, additional samples allocated to units at random
Sampling points within each unit selected at random from 9 possible chofces
Modified kick net (500 |_im mesh)
1 ft2 quacfrat sampled for 30 sec
Combine alt kick net samples collected from riffles
COMPOSITE RIFFLE
SAMPLE
SIEVING
Ni
500 Mm mesh
Remove as much debris and
sediment as possible
COMPOSITE INDEX SAMPLE
¦
500-mL or 1-L aliquots
Fill no more than 25 .. full of sample
Preserve with 95% ethanolto final
concentration or 70%
DVP 8/06
Figure 10-4. Response design for the targeted riffle benthic macroinvertebrate sample.
212
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 11 of 22
TABLE 10-2. LOCATING SAMPLING POINTS FOR KICK NET SAMPLES:
TARGETED RIFFLE SAMPLE
1. Before sampling, survey the stream reach to visually estimate the total number (and area) of
riffle macrohabitat "units" contained in the defined support reach. To be considered as a unit,
the area of the riffle must be greater than 1 ft2 (0.09 m2).
A. Do not collect a targeted riffle sample if the support reach contains less than 8 ft2 of riffle
macrohabitat.
B. If the support reach contains more than one distinct riffle macrohabitat unit but fewer than
eight units, allocate the eight sampling points among the units so as to spread the effort
throughout the support reach as much as possible. You may need to collect more than
one kick sample from a given riffle unit.
C. If the number of riffle macrohabitat units is greater than eight, skip one or more habitat
units at random as you work upstream, again attempting to spread the sampling points
throughout the support reach.
NOTE: The collection of targeted riffle samples can be conducted in conjunction with the
collection of reachwide samples to minimize the number of passes up the reach.
However, extreme care must be taken to ensure each type of sample is placed into the
correct sample container (REACHWIDE or TARGETED RIFFLE) to avoid compromising
both samples.
2. To minimize instream disturbance, begin sampling at the most downstream riffle unit, and
sample riffle macrohabitat units as they are encountered.
3. At each unit, constrain the potential sampling area to exclude margin habitats. Margin habitats
are edges (e.g., along channel margins or upstream or downstream ends) of the riffle macro-
habitat unit. Define a core area for each riffle unit as the central portion, visually estimating a
buffer strip circumscribing the identified unit. In some cases, the macrohabitat unit may be so
small that it will not be feasible to define a core area and avoid an edge.
4. Visually lay out the core area of the unit sampled into 9 equal plots (i.e., a 3 * 3 grid) as shown
below, and select a plot for sampling at random
FLOW
5. Collect the kick net sample in the center of the selected plot as described in Table 10-3.
6. If one or more additional samples are required from a single macrohabitat unit, select
additional plots at random as described in Step 4.
213
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 12 of 22
within the same plot in the 3 x 3 grid as described in Table 10-2). The objective for
selecting sampling points within the available riffle macrohabitat units is to allocate points
throughout the support reach as much as possible.
Procedures for collecting a kick net sample from riffle macrohabitat units are
presented in Table 10-3. At each sampling point, a 1 ft2 (0.09 m2) quadrat is sampled. If
you are collecting both reachwide and targeted riffle samples in the order they are
encountered during a single pass through the reach, it is very important to rinse the kick
net thoroughly between samples to avoid cross-contamination of the targeted riffle sample
and the reachwide sample. Also, make sure you put the contents from a kick sample into
the correct container.
10.2 SAMPLE PROCESSING
After collecting kick net samples for both the reachwide and targeted riffle samples,
prepare two composite index samples from the contents of the REACHWIDE and
TARGETED RIFFLE containers as described in Table 10-4. Record tracking information
for each composite sample on the Sample Collection Form as shown in Figure 10-3. Do
not fill out the collection form until you have confirmed that you will collect samples at the
site. If the sample collection form is filled out before you arrive at the site, and then no
samples are collected, a lot of time is wasted later by others searching for samples that do
not exist.
A set of completed sample labels, including the label that is used if more than one
jar is required for a single composite sample, is shown in Figure 10-5. Note that each
composite sample (reachwide and targeted riffle) has a different sample ID number
(barcode). The ID number is also recorded on a waterproof label that is placed inside each
jar (Figure 10-5, lower right). If more than one jar is used for a composite sample, use a
special label (Figure 10-5, lower left) to record the ID number assigned to the sample. Do
not use two different barcode numbers on two jars containing one single sample. Blank
labels for use inside of sample jars are presented in Figure 10-6. These can be copied
onto waterproof paper. If a sample requires more than one jar, make sure the correct
number of jars for the sample is recorded on the Sample Collection Form. Again, accurate
record keeping in the field saves substantial amounts of time later.
214
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 13 of 22
TABLE 10-3. COLLECTING A KICK NET SAMPLE FOR THE TARGETED RIFFLE
COMPOSITE SAMPLE
1. Beginning at the most downstream riffle unit within the sampling reach, locate the sampling
point within the macrohabitat unit as described in Table 10-2. Do not collect samples on
established transects to avoid disturbing substrates that are part of the physical habitat
characterization. Move the sampling point downstream of the transect.
2. Position the kick net quickly and securely on the stream bottom so as to eliminate gaps
between the frame and the stream bottom.
3. Hold the sampler firmly in position on the substrate. Define a quadrat immediately upstream
from the mouth of the net having a width equal to the width of the net frame (total area = 1 ft2
[0.09 m2]).
4 Hold the kick net in place with your knees and pick up any loose rocks or other larger substrate
particles in the quadrat. Use your hands or a small scrub brush to dislodge organisms so that
they are washed into the kick net. Scrub all rocks that are golf ball-sized or larger and which
are over halfway into the quadrat. Large rocks that are less than halfway into the sampling area
are pushed aside. After scrubbing, place the substrate particles outside of the quadrat.
S. Keep holding the kick net securely in position. Starting at the upstream end of the quadrat, use
your foot and toes to vigorously kick the upper 4 to 5 cm (1.5 to 2 in) of the remaining finer
substrate within the quadrat for 30 seconds (use a stopwatch).
NOTE: For samples located within dense beds of long, filamentous aquatic vegetation (e.g.,
algae or moss), kicking within the quadrat may not be sufficient to dislodge organisms in the
vegetation. Usually these types of vegetation are lying flat against the substrate due to current.
Use a knife or scissors to remove only the vegetation that lies within the quadrat (i.e., not
entire strands that are rooted within the quadrat) and place it into the kick net.
7. Pull the kick net up out of the water. Immerse the kick net in the stream several times to
remove fine sediments and to concentrate organisms at the end of the net. Avoid having any
water or material enter the mouth of the kick net during this operation.
8. Invert the kick net into a wide-mouthed container or a plastic bucket with a lid marked
TARGETED RIFFLE and transfer the sample. Inspect the kick net for any residual organisms
clinging to the net and deposit them into the TARGETED RIFFLE container. Use a squirt bottle
filled with ethanol and watchmakers' forceps if necessary to remove organisms from the net
and place them into the container. Replace the lid on the container.
(Continued)
215
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 14 of 22
TABLE 10-3. (Continued)
9. Record the nearest transect location in the box for the sample on the Sample Collection Form.
Also note the dominant substrate type by checking the appropriate box on the Sample
Collection Form. Identify the predominant substrate size/type you observed within the
sampling quadrat.
Fine/sand: not gritty (silt/clay/muck < 0.06 mm diam.) to gritty, up to ladybug sized (2 mm diam.)
Gravel: fine to coarse gravel (ladybug to tennis ball sized; 92 mm to 64 mm diam.)
Coarse: Cobble to boulder (tennis ball to car sized; 64 mm to 4000 mm)
Other: bedrock (larger than car sized; > 4000 mm), hardpan (firm, consolidated fine substrate),
wood of any size, aquatic vegetation, etc.). Note type of "other" substrate in comments on field
form.
10. Rinse the kick net thoroughly before proceeding to the next sampling location (either the next
riffle unit or a different quadrat location within the same riffle unit).
11. Repeat Steps 1 -10 at subsequent riffle sampling points until 8 kick net samples have been
collected and placed into the TARGETED RIFFLE container.
216
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 15 of 22
TABLE 10-4. PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING COMPOSITE SAMPLES FOR
BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
1. Pour off the water from the REACHWIDE (or TARGETED RIFFLE) bucket through a sieve (or
sieve bucket) with 500 |_im mesh size. Remove any large objects such as sticks, rocks, or plant
material from the bucket or container. Inspect these objects carefully and dislodge any clinging
organisms back into the bucket or container before discarding.
2. Estimate the total volume of the sample in the sieve and determine the size (500-mL or 1-L)
and number of jars that will be needed for the sample. Avoid using more than one jar for each
of the composite samples if possible (but don't overfill the jar with sample either).
3. Fill in a REACHWIDE (or TARGETED RIFFLE) sample label with the stream ID and date of
collection. Attach the completed label to the jar and cover it with a strip of clear tape. Record
the sample ID number for the composite sample on the Sample Collection Form. For each
composite sample, make sure the number on the form matches the number on the label. Do
not record an ID number on the form until you have collected the sample!
4. Wash the contents of the bucket or container to one side. Transfer the sample from the bucket
or container into a jar, using a large-bore funnel if necessary. Use as little water from the wash
bottle as possible to help transfer material. If the jar becomes too full of liquid, carefully pour
off the water through the sieve. Continue to transfer sample material to the jar until it is not
more than % full of solid material. Use additional jars for the remaining sample. Carefully
examine the bucket or container for any remaining organisms and use watchmakers' forceps to
place them into the sample jar.
If a second jar is needed, fill in a sample label that does not have a pre-printed ID number
on it. Record the ID number from the pre-printed label prepared in Step 4 in the SAMPLE
ID field of the label. Attach the label to the second jar and cover it with a strip of clear
tape. Record the number of jars required for the sample on the Sample Collection Form.
Make sure the number you record matches the actual number of jars used. If possible,
write Jar N ofX on each sample label using a waterproof marker (N is the individual jar
number, and X is the total number of jars for the sample).
5. Place a waterproof label with the following information inside each jar:
Stream Number
Type of sampler and mesh size used
Sample type (Reachwide or Targeted riffle)
Name of stream
Date of collection
Collector's initials
Number of kick net samples
collected
(Continued)
217
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 16 of 22
TABLE 10-4 (Continued)
6. Remove as much water as you can from each sample jar without including any sample
material by pouring it through the sieve. Completely fill each jar with 95% ethanol (no head-
space) so that the final concentration of ethanol is between 75 and 90%. It is very important
that sufficient ethanol be used, or the organisms will not be properly preserved.
NOTE: Prepared composite samples can be transported back to the vehicle before
adding ethanol if necessary. Fill each jar with stream water to cushion the sample from
the grinding action of non-biological material in the sample. Replace the water with
ethanol at the vehicle. Others (G. Lester, personal communication) suggest samples can
be transported without water with no damage to specimens, or a minimal amount of
ethanol can be added in the field to start the preservation process.
7. Replace the lid on each jar. Slowly tip the jar to a horizontal position, then gently rotate the jar
to mix the preservative. Do not invert or shake the jar. After mixing, seal each jar with plastic
tape.
8. Repeat Steps 1 through 8 for the TARGETED RIFFLE container.
9. Store the labeled sample jars in a container with absorbent material that is suitable for use with
95% ethanol until transport or shipment to the laboratory.
218
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 17 of 22
REACH-WIDE BENTHOS
WXXP99 -ilH
OH ! Ol t 2002
500000
Jar ,/ of
BENTHOS - Extra Jar
(^Reach Wido) Targeted Riffle
wxx"p99-_5'._5..J3L_3_
It Oil 2002
Sample 10: S'OOOoQ
Jar of
Figure 10-5. Completed labels for benthic macroinvertebrate samples. The label at lower left is
used if more than one jar is required for a composite sample. The label at lower right is placed
inside each sample container.
Check to be sure that the completed label on each jar is covered with clear tape,
and a waterproof label is in each jar and filled in properly. Confirm that the inside and
outside labels describe the same sample. Replace the lid on each jar and seal with plastic
electrical tape. It is helpful to mark the lid of each jar with the site number and habitat type
(Reachwide or Targeted Riffle); use a permanent marker or write on a piece of light-colored
tape (or a small blank address label) and attach it to the lid. Place the sample jars in a
cooler or other secure container for transporting and/or shipping the laboratory (see
Section 3). The container and absorbent material should both be suitable for transporting
ethanol. Check to see that all equipment is in the vehicle.
10.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 10-7 shows the checklist of equipment and supplies required to complete the
collection of benthic macroinvertebrates from streams. This checklist is similar to the
checklist presented in Appendix A, which is used at the base location (Section 3) to ensure
TARGETED RIFFLE BENTHOS
WXXP99-Jtit_ JL Jl
O'l '.Oil 2002
600000
Jar / of /
BBisTTHOS mSOTIFirjiTIOH
vvOrxm-W'?
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7/(/€>f
M Kielw#r 7 $txly
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it .
219
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 18 of 22
BENTHOS IDENTIFICATION
Site ID
Stream Name
Collection Date
Sampler Type
Habitat Type
Collector(s)
Number of Transects
BENTHOS IDENTIFICATION
Site ID
Stream Name
Collection Date
Sampler Type
Habitat Type
Collector(s)
Number of Transects
BENTHOS IDENTIFICATION
Site ID
Stream Name
Collection Date
Sampler Type
Habitat Type
Collector(s)
Number of Transects
BENTHOS IDENTIFICATION
Site ID
Stream Name
Collection Date
Sampler Type
Habitat Type
Collector(s)
Number of Transects
BENTHOS IDENTIFICATION
Site ID
Stream Name
Collection Date
Sampler Type
Habitat Type
Collector(s)
Number of Transects
BENTHOS IDENTIFICATION
Site ID
Stream Name
Collection Date
Sampler Type
Habitat Type
Collector(s)
Number of Transects
Figure 10-6. Blank labels for benthic invertebrate samples. This label is placed inside of
each sample container.
220
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 19 of 22
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
OTY
ITFM
1
Modified kick net ( D-frame with 500 |_im mesh) and 4-ft handle (Wildco #425-C50)
Spare net(s) and/or spare bucket assembly for end of net
1
Watch with timer or a stopwatch
2
Buckets, plastic, 8- to 10-qt capacity, labeled REACHWIDE and TARGETED
RIFFLE
1
Sieve with 500 |_im mesh openings or Sieve-bottomed bucket, 500 |_im mesh
openings
2 pr.
Watchmakers' forceps (straight and curved)
1
Wash bottle, 1-L capacity labeled STREAM WATER
1
Small spatula, spoon, or scoop to transfer sample
1
Funnel, with large bore spout
4 to 6
each
Sample jars, HDPE plastic with leakproof screw caps, 500-mL and/or 1-L capacity,
suitable for use with ethanol
2 gal
95% ethanol, in a proper container
2 pr.
Rubber gloves suitable for use with ethanol
1
Cooler (with suitable absorbent material) for transporting ethanol and samples
2
Preprinted benthic sample labels with sample ID numbers
4
Preprinted benthic sample labels without sample ID numbers
6
Blank labels on waterproof paper for inside of jars
1
Sample Collection Form for site
Soft (#2) lead pencils
Fine-tip indelible markers
1 pkg.
Clear tape strips
4 rolls
Plastic electrical tape
1
Knife, pocket, with at least two blades
1
Scissors
1
Pocket-sized field notebook (optional)
1 Pkg.
Kim wipes in small resealable plastic bag
1 copy
Field operations and methods manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides for benthic
macroinvertebrates
Figure 10-7. Equipment and supply checklist for benthic macroinvertebrates.
221
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 20 of 22
that all of the required equipment is brought to the stream. Use this checklist to ensure
that equipment and supplies are organized and available at the stream site in order to
conduct the activities efficiently.
10.4 LITERATURE CITED
Bailey, R.C., R.H. Norris, andT.B. Reynoldson. 2004. Bioassessment of freshwater
ecosystems using the reference condition approach. Klewer Acedemic Publishers,
New York.
Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid bioassessment
protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic macro-
invertebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA/841-B-99-002. U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Office of Water, Assessment and Watershed Protection Division,
Washington, D.C.
Clarke, R.T., J.F. Wright, and M.T. Furse. 2003. RIVPACS models for predicting the
expected macroinvertebrate fauna and assessing the ecological quality of rivers.
Ecological Modelling 160:219-233.
Cuffney, T.F, M.E. Gurtz, and M.R. Meador. 1993. Methods for collecting benthic inverte-
brate samples as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Open-File
Report 93-406. U.S. Geological Survey, Raleigh, North Carolina.
Griffith, M.B., B.H. Hill, F.H. McCormick, P.R. Kaufmann, A.T. Herlihy, and A.R. Selle.
2005. Comparative application of indices of biotic integrity based on periphyton,
macroinvertebrates, and fish to southern Rocky Mountain streams. Ecological
Indicators 5:117-136.
Kerans, B.L. and J.R. Karr. 1994. A benthic index of biotic integrity (B-IBI) for rivers of the
Tennessee Valley. Ecological applications 4:768-785.
Klemm, D.J., P.A. Lewis, F. Fulk, and J.M. Lazorchak. 1990. Macroinvertebrate field and
laboratory methods for evaluating the biological integrity of surface waters.
EPA/600/4-90/030. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Klemm, D.J., J.M. Lazorchak, and P.A. Lewis. 1998. Benthic macroinvertebrates. pp. 147-
182 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (eds.). Environmental Monitoring
and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations and methods for measur-
ing the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 10 (Benthic Macroinvertebrates),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 21 of 22
Klemm, D.J., K.A. Blocksom, W.T. Thoeny, F.A. Fulk, A.T. Herliny, P.R. Kaufmann, and
S.M. Cormier. 2002. Methods development and use of macroinvertebrates as
indicators of ecological conditions for streams in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands region.
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 78:169-212.
Klemm, D.J., K.A. Blocksom, F.A. Fulk, A.T. Herlihy, R.M. Hughes, P.R. Kaufmann, D.V.
Peck, J.L. Stoddard, W.T. Theony, M.B. Griffith, and W.S. Davis. 2003. Develop-
ment and evaluation of a macroinvertebrate biotic integrity index (MBII) for regionally
assessing Mid-Atlantic Highlands streams. Environmental Management 31:656-669.
Larsen, D.P. and A.T. Herlihy. 1998. The dilemma of sampling streams for macroinverte-
brate richness. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 17:359-366.
Li, J., A.T. Herlihy, W. Gerth, P.R. Kaufmann, S.V. Gregory, S. Urquhart, and D.P. Larsen.
(2001). Variability in stream macroinvertebrates at multiple spatial scales. Freshwa-
ter Biology 46:87-97
Patil, G.P., Gore, S.D. and Sinha, A.K. 1994. Environmental chemistry, statistical model-
ing, and observational economy. Pages 57-97 in Cothern, C. R. and N. P. Ross
(editors). Environmental Statistics, Assessment, and Forecasting. Lewis Publishers,
Boca Raton, Florida.
Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross, and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid
bioassessment protocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macroinvertebrates
and fish. EPA/440/4-89/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Assessment
and Watershed Protection Division, Washington, D.C.
Reynoldson, T.B., D.M. Rosenburg, and V.H. Resh. 2001. Comparison of models
predicting invertebrate assemblages for biomonitoring in the Fraser River catchment,
British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58:1395-
1410.
Roth, N.E., J.H. V0lstad, G. Mercurio, and M.T. Southerland. 2002. Biological indicator
variability and stream monitoring program integration: a Maryland case study.. EPA
903/R-02/008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental
Information, Fort Meade, Maryland. Available at http://www.epa.gov/maia/pdf/
Bioind_md.pdf.
223
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NOTES
224
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SECTION 11
AQUATIC VERTEBRATES
by
Robert M. Hughes1 and Frank H. McCormick2
Freshwater fish have long been a focus of bioassessment activities (Klemm et al.
1993), and were the subject of the first attempts to develop multimetric indicators of
ecological condition based on assemblage characteristics (Gammon 1980, Karr 1981, Karr
et al. 1986, 1991). Fish assemblages offer several unique advantages to assess ecologi-
cal condition from other biological assemblages, based on their mobility, longevity, and
trophic relationships (Plafkin et al. 1989, Barbour et al. 1999). Other aquatic vertebrates,
most notably amphibians, are important components of aquatic communities in many parts
of the U.S. (Hairston 1987, Bury et al. 1991), and provide information regarding ecological
condition in streams where fish are rare or absent (e.g., high-elevation streams, headwater
streams, and streams above natural colonization barriers).
The response design for aquatic vertebrates is similar to that developed for other
bioassessment programs such as the RBP (Barbour et al. 1999). The objective is to collect
a representative sample of all except very rare species in the assemblage. A sample from
a single point does not provide an adequate representation of the vertebrate assemblage
present. Sampling effort is allocated along the entire length of the support reach estab-
lished at each sampling point. The length of the support reach (40 times the mean wetted
width) is expected to allow collection of 90 percent of the species present based on several
different studies (Patton et al. 2000, Cao et al. 2001, 2002, Reynolds et al. 2003).
Changes to previously published EMAP-SW procedures (McCormick and Hughes
1998), and modifications made during EMAP-W are summarized in Appendix B. Sampling
fish, amphibian, and aquatic reptile species to estimate their proportionate abundances
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, c/o U.S. EPA 200 SW 35th St. Corvallis, OR 97333.
Current address: USDA Forest Service, Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3625
93rd Avenue SE, Olympia, WA 98512.
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 2 of 26
and the presence of external anomalies is conducted after all other field sampling and
measurement activities are completed. All team members are involved in collecting aquatic
vertebrates. Backpack electrofishers are used as the principal sampling gear (Section
11.1.1.1). Bank or towed electrofishers are recommended for wide but shallow streams
(Section 11.1.1.2), and seining (Section 11.1.1.3) is used in habitats where high conductiv-
ity or turbidity preclude electrofishing. In addition to gathering data on the assemblage, fish
specimens are retained for analysis of tissue contaminants (Section 12). Data collected by
these procedures are used to assess fish (or aquatic vertebrate) assemblage condition
across the region of interest (e.g., McCormick et al. 2001, Hughes et al. 1998, 2004,
Bramblett et al. 2005).
In addition, any crayfish specimens collected incidentally during aquatic vertebrate
sampling are retained for identification, but are not combined with the benthic macro-
invertebrate sample (Section 10). Crayfish collection data are used to estimate the
potential extent of nonnative crayfish in the western U.S.
11.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION
The entire channel within the support reach is allocated among 10 subreaches (i.e.,
areas between transects established as described in Section 4, and equivalent to seg-
ments described in Section 7) to distribute effort along the entire reach. Total collection
time for a site should be 45 minutes to 3 hours (Section 4) to obtain a representative
sample. If a support reach is very wide, however, it may take two days to sample it
effectively. If it appears that the support reach is wide enough that three hours of sampling
will only allow you to sample 50% or less of the available surface area of the reach
effectively, you should plan to spend two days to sample, and/or use the modified proce-
dure for bank/towed electrofishing (Section 11.1.1.2). Record sampling data and general
comments (perceived fishing efficiency, missed fish, gear operation, suggestions) on the
Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 11-1).
11.1.1 Electrofishing
The use of electrofishing gear to collect aquatic vertebrates requires training to do it
safely and correctly to reduce the potential for injury or mortality to both humans and
226
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 3 of 26
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227
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 4 of 26
aquatic vertebrates. Such training is becoming a prerequisite for obtaining a scientific
collection permit from many State and Federal agencies (e.g., National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration [NOAA] National Marine Fisheries Service). Information on
training programs is available from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Conserva-
tion Training Center website (http://training.fws.gov/BART/courses.html), training courses
may also be offered by commercial organizations or through local educational institutions.
Texts such as Kolz et al. (1998) also provide information on training course content.
Primary responsibility for safety while electrofishing rests with the sampling team
leader (Section 2). Electrofishing units can deliver a fatal electrical shock. While electro-
fishing, avoid contact with the water unless sufficiently insulated against electrical shock.
Use chest waders with nonslip soles and heavy rubber "linesmen" gloves (NOTE: some
types of "breathable" waders do not provide adequate insulation against electric current
when wet). If waders become wet inside, stop electrofishing until they are thoroughly dry
or use a dry pair. Always avoid contact with the anode and cathode due to the potential
shock hazard. If you perspire heavily, wear polypropylene or other wicking and insulating
clothing instead of cotton. If it is necessary for a team member to reach into the water to
pick up a fish or something that was dropped, do so only after the electrical current is off
and the anode is removed from the water. Do not resume electrofishing until all individuals
are clear of the electroshock hazard. The electrofishing equipment is equipped with a 45°
tilt switch that interrupts the current. Do not make any modifications to the electrofishing
unit that would hinder turning off the electricity. Avoid electrofishing near unprotected
people, pets, or livestock. Discontinue activity during thunderstorms or heavy rain. Team
members should keep each other in constant view or communication while electrofishing.
For each site, know the location of the nearest emergency care facility. Although the team
leader has authority, each team member has the responsibility to question and modify an
operation or to decline participation if it is unsafe.
11.1.1.1 Backpack Electrofishing--
The backpack electrofishing procedure is presented in Table 11-1; record informa-
tion on the Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 11-1). If the support reach cannot be
completely sampled by either electrofishing or seining, fill in the appropriate "bubble" on the
form, and explain why in the comments. If the stream is too wide to sample the width of
the channel over the entire support reach in the 3-hour time limit effectively (i.e., you can
only sample 50% or less of the available surface area), plan on two days of sampling
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 5 of 26
TABLE 11-1. BACKPACK ELECTROFISHING PROCEDURES
1. Allocate the total fishing time (45-180 min) among all subreaches based on stream size and
complexity. If you cannot effectively sample at least 50% of the available area in the 180-
minute (3 h) time limit, you should spend two days sampling, and consider using the modified
procedures for bank/towed electrofishing.
2. Complete header information on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
3. Review all collecting permits to determine if any sampling restrictions are in effect for the
reach. In some cases, you may have to cease sampling if you encounter certain listed species,
or use alternate gear types.
If you cannot sample a reach because of permit restrictions, mark the NotFished-No
Permit bubble on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
Search and sample for aquatic vertebrates and crayfish even if the stream is extremely
small, and it appears that sampling may produce no specimens. If no individuals are
collected, mark the Fished-None Collected bubble on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
Explain why in comments section.
If conductivity, turbidity, or depth precludes backpack electrofishing, sample by seining or
bank/towed electrofishing if possible, otherwise do not sample. If you do not sample,
mark the NotFished-Other bubble on the Vertebrate Collection Form and explain why
in the comments section of the form.
4. Set the unit to pulsed DC. Select initial voltage setting (150-400 V for high conductivity [>300
S/cm]; 500-800 V for medium conductivity [100 to 300 S/cm]; 900-1100 V for low conductivity
[< 100 S/cm] waters). In waters with strong-swimming fish (length >200 mm), use a pulse rate
of 30 Hz with a pulse width of 2 msec. If mostly small fish are expected, use a pulse rate of
60-70 Hz. Start the electrofisher, set the timer, and depress the switch to begin fishing. If
fishing success is poor, increase the pulse width first and then the voltage. Increase the pulse
rate last to minimize mortality or injury to large fish. If mortalities occur, first decrease the
pulse rate, then the voltage, then the pulse width. Start cleared clocks. Note: some electro-
fishers do not meter all the requested header data; provide what you can.
5. Once the settings on the electrofisher are adjusted properly to sample effectively and minimize
injury and mortality, record them on the Vertebrate Collection Form. Also, record the water
temperature and conductivity.
6. Begin sampling at the downstream end of the support reach (subreach A), and fish in an
upstream direction. Depress the switch and slowly sweep the electrode from side to side in the
water in riffles and pools. Sample available cut-bank and snag habitats as well. Move the
anode wand into cover with the current on, then remove the wand quickly to draw fish out. In
fast, shallow water, sweep the anode and fish downstream into a net. In extremely wide
reaches, work from the midline of the stream channel to the banks. Be sure to sample all
habitats (deep, shallow, fast, slow, complex, and simple). In stretches with deep pools, fish the
margins of the pool as much as possible, being extremely careful not to step or slide into deep
water. Keep the cathode near the anode if fish catch is low.
(Continued)
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 6 of 26
TABLE 11-1 (Continued)
7. The netter, with the net 1 to 2 ft from the anode, follows the operator, nets stunned individuals,
and places them in a bucket.
8. Continue upstream until the next transect is reached. Process fish and/or change water after
each subreach to reduce mortality and track sampling effort (i.e., all subreaches where a
species was collected).
9. Repeat Steps 6 through 8 until subreach J (between transects J and K) is finished. Record the
water visibility, and the number of subreaches sampled (all 10, 5-9, or < 5) on the collection
form; note which subreaches were not sampled and why in the comments section of the form.
Sample Distance is the total reach length actually fished (i.e., it will be equal to or less than
the support reach length).
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 7 of 26
and/or use the procedures for bank/towed electrofishing (Section 11.1.1.2) in conjunction
with the backpack electrofishing units.
Determine that all team members are wearing waders and gloves and are clear of
both electrodes. Wear polarized sunglasses and visors or caps to aid vision. The back-
pack unit is equipped with an audio alarm that sounds when the output voltage exceeds
300 volts (V). It also serves as an input current indicator for pulse cycles greater than 5
Hertz (Hz). It begins as a strong continuous tone and begins to beep slowly at currents of
I.25 amperes (A), beeping faster as input current increases. In case of an overload
(greater than 3 A), the beep becomes very rapid and the overload indicator comes on.
Release the anode switch, adjust voltage and waveform, and resume fishing.
The anode is fitted with a net and a second netter uses an insulated dip net to
retrieve stunned individuals, which are immediately deposited into a bucket for later
processing (Section 11.3). If individuals show signs of stress (loss of righting response,
gaping, gulping air, excessive mucus), change water or stop fishing and process them.
This should only be necessary on very warm days, in long subreaches, or if a large number
or biomass of aquatic vertebrates is collected. Stop electrofishing to process and release
listed threatened or endangered species or large game fish as they are netted (see Section
II.2). If periodic processing is required, be sure to release individuals downstream to
reduce the likelihood of collecting them again.
11.1.1.2 Bank/towed Electrofishing-
Bank/towed electrofishing sampling procedures are presented in Table 11-2. The
primary electrofishing gear is either a small (9 ft) inflatable kayak modified to carry all
fishing equipment, or an electrofishing unit that is set up on the bank with one or more
anodes. The kayak configuration consists of a frame mounted generator and electrofishing
control box, port and starboard cathodes, and one or two hand-held anodes fitted with
netting. Alternatively, the generator and control box may remain on the riverbank con-
nected to the electrodes by a 100-m long heavily insulated wire. The kayak is maneuvered
by one or two persons, and the vertebrates are collected by the others wading in the water.
Wear chest waders and linesman gloves to avoid electric shock, and polarized sunglasses
and caps to reduce the glare. Use ear protection and hand signals to communicate
direction and to have the power turned on or off when using generators. Adjust voltage
and output according to sampling effectiveness and minimizing incidental mortality.
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Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 8 of 26
TABLE 11-2. BANK/TOWED ELECTROFISHING PROCEDURES
NOTE: On very wide, shallow reaches, it may be necessary to use this procedure in conjunction with
backpack electrofisher units if larger units are not available.
1. Select a river bank for initial fishing (left for odd-numbered sites [e.g., WXXP99-0503], right for
even) unless immediate hazards or obstructions preclude this. Stay along the selected bank
for two subreaches to the degree it is safely wadeable. Switch to the opposite bank for the next
two subreaches, alternating in this manner until the entire site is fished or hazards prevent it.
Using a rangefinder, determine a downstream point that is 4 mean channel widths distant (this
is the subreach length). Record this distance on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
NOTE: The alternating bank approach is designed to ensure that shaded and unshaded
portions of the reach will be sampled. If it appears that alternating banks after every two
subreaches will result in sampling the same type of habitat throughout the reach (e.g.,
inside bends or outside bends), increase the number of subreaches sampled initially on
one bank to three, then switch banks after every second subreach.
2. Fill the generator fuel tank with gas, check all electrical connections and potential conductors,
and place the anodes and cathodes in the water. Fill live well and put on linesman gloves.
Verify that all electrical switches are off, that cathodes are submerged, that all nontarget
organisms are clear of the water or 20 ft away, and that barge (or kayak) surfaces are dry.
3. Complete header information on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
4. Review all collecting permits to determine if any sampling restrictions are in effect for the
reach. In some cases, you may have to cease sampling if you encounter certain listed species,
or use alternate gear types.
If you cannot sample a reach because of permit restrictions, mark the NotFished-No
Permit bubble on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
If no individuals are collected, mark the Fished-None Collected bubble on the Verte-
brate Collection Form. Explain why in the comments section.
If conductivity, turbidity, or depth precludes electrofishing, sample by seining if possible,
otherwise do not sample. If you do not sample, mark the Not Ft shed-Other bubble on
the Vertebrate Collection Form and explain why in the comments section.
5. Start the generator, switch to pulsed DC, a pulse rate of 30 pps, low range (duty cycle) and
40%. Increase % (voltage) as needed to roll fish. If success is poor, reduce %, switch to high
range, and again increase % as needed. If effectiveness is still low, switch to 60 pps and
repeat the process. If the current (amperage needle) is reduced, switch back to low range to
avoid overloading the generator. Switching should occur when power to the control box is off.
If the conductivity of the river is > 1700 |JS/cm, use a larger generator or seine. Activate the
thumb switches on each anode and confirm the current ceases when the switch is off. Crew
members towing the barge (or kayak) activate the generator and pulsator switches. Verify that
fish are rolled and relaxed but not rigid before beginning subreach. Record settings on the
Vertebrate Collection Form and clear clocks. Record the conductivity and water temperature
on the form as well.
(Continued)
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 9 of 26
TABLE 11-2 (Continued)
6. Zero the timer, and depress the thumb switch to begin fishing. With the system activated and
safety switches on, fish upstream near the shore. Maneuver the anode(s) to cover a swath 3-4
meters wide, near cover, and at depths less than 1 meter wherever possible. Do not place
yourself or the gear in danger to fish particular habitats; cut the generator and stow the gear
before negotiating hazards.
7. Place fish directly in livewell; do not hold them in the electrical field. Pay special attention to
netting small and benthic fishes as well as fishes that respond differently to the current-not just
the big fish that move to the surface. Try to net all fish seen, but in productive areas this is
impossible. Do not chase individual fish or place yourselves in unbalanced positions to net
them. If benthic fish are not being collected, occasionally hold a net in the current and along
the bottom, then sweep the anode downstream into the net. Draw fish from cover by thrusting
the anode into the cover with the power on, then quickly removing it.
8. Cease sampling at the end of the subreach. Process the fish quickly and carefully, returning
them to the water unless they are vouchered or saved for tissue.
9. Return to step 1 for each of the subsequent nine subreaches, but begin upstream from where
fish were released and alternate banks on every other subreach. Record the water visibility,
and the number of subreaches sampled (all 10, 5-9, or < 5) on the collection form; note which
subreaches were not sampled and why in the comments section of the form. Sample Distance
is the total reach length actually fished (i.e., it will be equal to or less than the support reach
length).
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
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Start at the downriver end of the support reach and along the designated shoreline,
and fish upriver. The netters use a dip net and an insulated anode with a net ring to
retrieve stunned individuals and deposit them into a live well in the kayak for later process-
ing (Section 11.2). Note, to avoid shocking crew members, insure that the thumb switch is
off anytime the anode leaves the water. Change the water in the live well at each transect
to minimize mortality. If individuals show signs of stress (loss of righting response, gaping,
gulping air, excessive mucus), stop fishing and process them. This should only be
necessary on very warm days, in long subreaches, or if a very large number or biomass of
aquatic vertebrates is collected. Cease electrofishing immediately to process and release
specimens of listed species or large game fish as they are netted (Section 11.2). After
processing at each transect, release individuals downriver and away from the shoreline to
reduce the likelihood of collecting them again. At the completion of electrofishing each
subreach, record information on the Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 11-1).
Gasoline is extremely volatile and flammable. Its vapors readily ignite on contact
with heat, spark or flame. Never attempt to refill the generator while it is running or near
the water. Always allow the generator to cool before refilling. Keep gasoline out of direct
sunlight to reduce volatilization and vapor release. Keep gasoline only in approved, tightly
closed plastic containers.
11.1.2 Seining
Seining is used when the conductivity of the stream is too high and/or in streams
with extremely high turbidity where electrofishing is ineffective. Avoid high mortality rates
by employing multiple short seine hauls at each of the 10 subreaches by using either the
riffle habitat or pool habitat method (Table 11-3). Allocate the total sampling time (up to
180 min) among the 10 subreaches (i.e., from 2 to 18 min per subreach). If no aquatic
vertebrates are collected, indicate this on the form ( Figure 11-1). Record the seine length,
mesh size, the time spent seining (Sampling Time) and the combined length of all seine
hauls (Sampling Distance) on the Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 11-1). If more than
two sizes or types of seines are required, record the information for the primary and
secondary seines used on the collection form, and note any additional types used in the
comments section of the form.
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 11 of 26
TABLE 11-3. SEINING PROCEDURES
1. Allocate the sampling effort throughout the reach so that the total fishing time will be between
45 min (small stream) and 3 hours (large stream). If you cannot effectively sample at least 50%
of the available area in the 180-min time limit, spend two days to sample the reach.
2. Complete header information on the Vertebrate Collection Form. Record the conductivity and
water temperature on the from as well.
3. Review all collecting permits to determine if any sampling restrictions are in effect for the
site. In some cases, you may have to cease sampling if you encounter certain listed species.
If you cannot sample a reach because of permit restrictions, mark the NotFished-No
Permit bubble on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
Search for aquatic vertebrates and crayfish even if the reach is extremely small, and it
appears that sampling may produce no specimens. If no individuals are collected, mark
the Fished-None Collected bubble on the Vertebrate Collection Form. Explain why in
comments section.
If you cannot sample by any method (electrofishing or seining), mark the NotFished-
Other bubble on the Vertebrate Collection Form and comment why.
4. Begin at the downstream end of the sampling reach (subreach A). Proceed along the reach,
sampling available habitats using the appropriate methods below:
4A. Riffle habitats: Use a seine 2 m long x 1.25 m high with 0.6 cm mesh.
1. Place the seine perpendicular to the current across the downstream end of the riffle.
Ensure that the lead line is on the bottom. Tilt the net slightly downstream to form a
pocket to trap aquatic vertebrates.
2. Starting about 2 m upstream, kick the substrate and overturn rocks, proceeding
downstream toward the net.
3. Raise the net quickly and examine it carefully for aquatic vertebrates (and crayfish).
4. The length of a seine haul in this case is the distance upstream from the net where
you started to kick. Keep a tally of the lengths of the individual hauls you conduct.
4B. Pool habitats: Use a seine 3-9 m long ><2m high with 0.6 cm mesh size.
1. Two people pull the seine across the pool, using the shore or riffles as barriers.
2. In areas with current, pull the net downstream and then sweep toward the shore with
one or both poles, or keep one end of the seine near shore and sweep the other end
in a wide arc from midstream to the same shore.
3. Pull the net onto the shore and examine it carefully for aquatic vertebrates (and
crayfish).
4. The length of a seine haul in this case is the distance the net moved. Keep a tally
of the lengths of the individual hauls you conduct.
(Continued)
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 12 of 26
TABLE 11-3 (Continued)
4C. Snags and undercut banks: Use a seine 2 m long x 1.25 m high; 0.6 cm mesh size.
1. Jab the seine under the cover and near the stream bottom, then quickly lift it above
the stream surface.
5. Place individuals in buckets for processing, and continue upstream to the next habitat area.
6. Complete the header information on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
7. Repeat Steps 4 through 6 for successive habitat areas until subreach J (between transects J
and K is finished. Record the water visibility, and the number of subreaches sampled (all 10, 5-
9, or < 5) on the collection form; note which subreaches were not sampled and why in the
comments section of the form. Sample Distance is the total length of all seine hauls con-
ducted within the entire support reach (i.e., it will usually be less than the support reach length).
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11.2 SAMPLE PROCESSING
Sample processing involves tallying and identifying fish, crayfish and amphibians,
examining individual specimens for the presence of external anomalies (which are not
classified further), obtaining length measurements from selected specimens, preparing
voucher specimens for taxonomic confirmation and archival at a museum, and selecting
specimens to prepare samples for fish tissue contaminants (Section 12). Process collec-
tions as quickly as possible at each transect to reduce stress to live specimens. One
person can process fish from one bucket while the other team members continue to collect
fish and deposit them into a second bucket. One person can identify, measure, and
examine individuals while another person records information on the field data forms.
11.2.1 Taxonomic Identification and Tally
Table 11-4 presents the procedure for identifying and tallying aquatic vertebrates.
Record identification, tally data, and comments for each species on the Vertebrate
Collection Form (Figure 11-1). It is important to note all subreaches where a species is
collected, as this is information is needed to develop estimates of sampling efficiency. Use
common names from Nelson et al. (2004). Taxonomic identification should be performed
only by trained ichthyologists familiar with the fish species and other aquatic vertebrate
taxa of the region. Use taxonomic reference books and other materials that contain
species descriptions, ranges, and identification keys to make species identifications in the
field. Where there are many individuals of easily identified species, processing is facili-
tated by keeping a tally count of the number of individuals of each species and totaling the
tally once processing is complete. If protected fish have died, voucher them. Notify the
appropriate state officials as soon as possible.
After the entire reach has been sampled, estimate the sampling adequacy based on
Cao et al. (2001). Use the presence/absence of vertebrate species (do not include
crayfish) between the "odd" and "even" groups of subreaches (i.e., the top and bottom rows
of subreaches on the form) to calculate a Jaccard coefficient of similarity. An example
calculation is given below and in Table 11-4. Treat unknowns suspected of being different
taxa (e.g., unknown sucker 1 and unknown sucker 2 in Figure 11-1) as separate taxa. In
cases where a species has more than one tag number assigned (e.g., mottled sculpin in
Figure 11-1), count it only once in the total species list and use the total number of different
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TABLE 11-4. PROCEDURE TO IDENTIFY, TALLY, AND EXAMINE AQUATIC VERTEBRATES
1. Complete all header information accurately and completely on the Vertebrate Collection Form.
If no vertebrates or crayfish were collected, fill in the Fished-None Collected bubble on the
form, and explain why in the comments.
2. Identify and process each individual completely, ideally handling it only once. When first
collected, record the common name {print using capital letters) on the first blank line of the
Vertebrate Collection Form. If a species cannot be positively identified, assign it as UN-
KNOWN followed by its common family name (e.g., UNKNOWN SCULPIN A). Note every
subreach where a species is collected (letters represent the downstream transect), by filling in
the appropriate bubble in the Subreaches section of the form.
3. Process species listed as threatened and endangered first and release individuals immediately
into the stream. Photograph specimens for voucher purposes if conditions permit and stress to
individuals will be minimal. Indicate if photographed on Vertebrate Collection Form. If
individuals have died, prepare them as voucher specimens and preserve in formalin.
Remember that the photographs you take must provide sufficient detail to allow for
someone else to confirm your identification. Fill the frame with each specimen and
ensure that key characters (e.g., mouth, fin rays, etc.), are visible. Use more than one
photo if necessary (e.g., one lateral view and one of the mouth if this is a key character).
4. Keep voucher specimens (up to 20) of smaller individuals of each species. If no smaller
individuals are collected, photograph each species and indicate so on the data form. Large,
questionable species may be placed on ice and then frozen.
We retain 20 voucher specimens to allow us to adjust count data when one apparent
species turns out to be more than one. For example, if you voucher 20 individuals of
Species A, and five of those turn out to be Species B, we can adjust the total number of
individuals of Species A collected by assigning 25% of them to Species B and the
remaining 75% to Species A.
5. Tally the number of individuals of each species collected in the Tally box on the Vertebrate
Collection Form and record the total number in the Count field on the form.
6. For fish, measure the total length (from the nose to the distal end of caudal fin) of the
largest and smallest individual to provide a size range for the species. For amphibians,
measure body length (tip of the snout to the vent). Do not measure lengths for crayfish.
Record these values in the Length area of the Vertebrate Collection Form.
(Continued)
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TABLE 11-4 (Continued)
7. Examine each individual for external anomalies and tally those observed. Readily identified
external anomalies include missing organs (eye, fin), skeletal deformities, shortened
operculum, eroded fins, irregular fin rays or scales, tumors, lesions, ulcerous sores, blisters,
cysts, blackening, white spots, bleeding or reddening, excessive mucus, and fungus. After all
of the individuals of a species have been processed, record the total number of individuals
affected in the Anomalies area of the Vertebrate Collection Form. Photograph specimens with
especially extreme anomalies.
8. Record the total number of mortalities due to electrofishing or handling on the Vertebrate
Collection Form.
9. Follow the appropriate procedure to prepare voucher specimens and/or to select specimens for
tissue samples. Release all remaining individuals downstream of your location to avoid
recapturing them.
10. For any line with a vertebrate name, ensure that all spaces on that line are filled in with a
number, even if it is zero.
11. Repeat Steps 1 through 10 for all other vertebrate species.
12. After processing the vertebrates from all 10 subreaches (do not include crayfish), calculate a
Jaccard Coefficient (JC) to assess sample adequacy. To help randomize the calculation,
subreaches A, C, E, G, and I are in the "odd" group (the top row of sites on the form) and
subreaches B, D, F, H, and J are in the "even" group (the bottom row of sites on the form).
Calculate JC as:
T
where S is the number of species shared by both groups of subreaches (the number of species
having marks in both rows on the form), and T is the total number of species collected from the
entire reach. Treat unknown taxa suspected of being different (e.g., UNKNOWN SUCKER 1,
UNKNOWN SUCKER 2) as different taxa. For species where more than one tag number is
assigned, count them only once in computing of T and use the total number of subreaches
recorded across all tag numbers in computing S. Record the value of JC in the comments
section; if JC < 0.7, sample two additional subreaches (one "odd", one "even"). List the species
in the appropriate group of subreaches ("odd" vs. "even") and recalculate JC. Continue until JC
> 0.7 or there is insufficient time or space to sample.
EXAMPLE: You have collected a total of seven species. Six different species were collected
from the "odd" group of subreaches (top row on form), and four different species from the
"even" group of subreaches (bottom row on form). Of these, three species were collected from
both groups of subreaches (both rows on form).
JC= 3/7
JC~0.4 In this case, sample two additional subreaches and recalculate.
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subreaches across all tag numbers in calculating the Jaccard coefficient. Calculate the
Jaccard coefficient (JC) as:
JC=-
T
where S is the number of species having marks in both rows on the form, and T is the total
number of species collected from the entire reach. If the calculated Jaccard value is < 0.7
and there is sufficient time available, sample an additional two subreaches (eight channel
widths) upstream of the reach. Continue with additional pairs of subreaches until the
calculated Jaccard value is > 0.7, or until there is insufficient time or space to sample (e.g.,
the reach moves through a confluence and changes to a lower stream order, or an
impoundment or other barrier is encountered. For the data presented in Figure 11-1, a
total of nine vertebrate species were collected (note mottled sculpin is recorded twice). Six
species have marks in both rows of the form, i.e., they were collected from both groups of
subreaches. Calculate the Jaccard coefficient as:
JC=—=0.67-0.7
9
For this site, the sampling effort is adequate, and no additional subreaches would be
sampled.
11.2.2 External Examination and Length Measurements
During the tallying procedure for each species (Table 11-4), examine each individ-
ual for the presence of external anomalies. Smith et al. (2002) present examples of
different types of external anomalies. Record the number of individuals affected on the
Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 11-1). Blackening and exopthalmia (popeye) may
occasionally result from electrofishing. Do not include injuries due to sampling in the tally
of external anomalies, but note these in the comments section of the Vertebrate Collection
Form (Figure 11-1), as this information may be required for collection permit reports.
Blackening from electrofishing usually follows the myomeres or looks like a bruise. If fish
die due to the effects of sampling or processing, record the number of mortalities for each
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species on the Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 11-1). If not too large, prepare all dead
individuals as voucher specimens (Section 11.2.3).
For each species, use a measuring board or ruler to determine the length of the
largest and smallest individuals from all the individuals of that species collected at a site.
Measure total length for fish (from the nose to the distal end of the caudal fin) and body
length for amphibians (from the tip of the snout to the vent) on the Vertebrate Collection
Form (Figure 11-1). No length measurements are taken for crayfish.
11.2.3 Preparing Voucher Specimens
Except for very large individuals or easily identified species, up to 20 individuals of
each species are vouchered from each stream site to provide a permanent, archived,
historical record of fish collections. Retaining 20 voucher specimens also enables us to
correct tally data and more rigorously infer relative abundances when one apparent
species in the field is found to be two or more species upon closer examination at the
museum. You should retain at least one voucher specimen of all species collected at a
site. This provides evidence for independent confirmation of taxonomic identifications
when there is a possibility of a range extension. Prepare the voucher sample for a site
according to the procedure presented in Table 11-5. Retain additional specimens of the
appropriate species for the fish tissue contaminants samples (Section 13). For each
species, voucher specimens take priority over specimens for the tissue contaminant
samples.
The number of voucher specimens and the method of vouchering varies with
species. Large, easily identified species, larger species that are difficult to identify in the
field, or species that are uncommon in the region require a few specimens of both adults
and juveniles, if both were collected. Very large specimens, especially of easily identified
game fish, are vouchered by photographing them and then releasing them alive. More
voucher specimens are required for smaller species, which are typically more difficult to
identify in the field. Any listed species of special concern (state and federally protected
species), are processed first, vouchered by photographs, and released alive. Include any
individuals of listed species that die before they can be released as part of the preserved
voucher sample for the stream.
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TABLE 11-5. GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES FOR PREPARING
AQUATIC VERTEBRATE VOUCHER SPECIMENS
1. Obtain at least one voucher specimen (preserved or photograph) of every species collected at
a site. Determine the voucher class of a species and the number of specimens to include in
the voucher sample based on the following guidelines. Process Class 1 species first. Voucher
samples take priority over tissue contaminant samples.
Class Y-State or federally listed species. Photograph and release immediately. Photographs
should include (1) a card with the stream ID and common name (2) an object of known length
(e.g., a ruler) with the specimen. If specimens have died, proceed to Step 2 and include them
in the voucher sample. Assign an Fn flag for the species on the Vertebrate Collection Form
and note it is a listed species in the comments section of the form. Notify the appropriate state
officials as soon as possible.
Class 2— Large easily identified species OR adults that are difficult to identify OR species that
are uncommon in that region (e.g., sunfish, suckers, bullheads, trout, crayfish). Preserve 1-2
small (<150 mm total length) adult individuals per site plus 2-5 juveniles. If only large adults
are collected, reserve smallest individuals until voucher procedure is complete and preserve
only if space is available. Individuals with a total length > 160 mm should be slit on the lower
abdomen of the right side before placing them into the container. Photograph if considered
too large for the jar or place in a bag on ice for freezing (Do not voucher large gamefish).
Retain additional individuals for tissue contaminant samples.
Class 3~Small to moderate-sized fish OR difficult to identify species (e.g., lampreys, juvenile
salmonids, minnows, sculpins). Preserve up to 20 adults and juveniles (several per transect).
If fewer than 20 individuals are collected, voucher them all. Retain additional individuals for the
tissue contaminant sample.
2. Euthanize voucher specimens in a bucket with two carbon dioxide tablets and a small volume
of water or by cranial concussion®, then transfer them to a nylon mesh bag. Tally, then record
the number of individuals included in the bag in the Vouchered Count field for the species on
the Vertebrate Collection Form.
NOTE: Do not pack specimens too tightly into a single mesh bag, as they will not be fixed and
preserved properly. If necessary, use additional bags, each with a separate tag number.
Record each tag separately on the collection form, even though they all represent the same
species. Record tally values separately for each bag.
3. Select a FISH-BAG tag with the same ID number as the voucher sample jar (Step 6). Record
the tag number in the Tag No. field on the corresponding line for the species on the Vertebrate
Collection Form. Place the tag into the mesh bag and close. This bagging, tagging, and
recording is crucial, as it enables us to estimate species proportionate abundances in the
assemblage even when one suspected species turns out to be multiple species.
4. Immediately place the bag into a container large enough to hold all voucher specimens loosely
and half-filled with 10% formalin. Use additional jars if necessary to avoid close packing and
bending of voucher specimens.
5. Repeat Steps 1 through 4 for all species collected.
a Acceptable or conditionally acceptable methods of euthanization (AVMA Panel on Euthanasia 2001). (Continued)
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TABLE 11-5 (Continued)
6. Prepare two FISH-JAR labels (each having the same sample ID number) by filling in the
stream ID and the date of collection. Place one label into the sample jar. Cap tightly and seal
with plastic electrical tape. Attach the second label to the outside of the sample container by
covering it with a strip of clear tape. Record the voucher sample ID number on page 1 of the
Vertebrate Collection Form. Record general comments (perceived fishing efficiency, missed
fish, gear operation, suggestions) in blank lines of the form, and make sure all header informa-
tion on the form is completed. NOTE: If more than one jar is required, use labels that have the
same ID number printed on them and flag.
7. Place the preserved sample in a suitable container with absorbent material. Store the
container in a well-ventilated area during transport. Follow all rules and regulations concerning
the transport and shipment of samples containing 10% formalin.
a Acceptable or conditionally acceptable methods of euthanization (AVMA Panel on Euthanasia 2001).
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Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 20 of 26
FISH - JAR
WXXP99 - il JL X
__1 / I- I aooi
900000
FISH - BAG
7aq
900000
01
Figure 11-2. Completed voucher sample label and specimen bag tag for aquatic vertebrates.
Note that two voucher sample labels (left) are filled out- one is placed inside the jar, the second is
taped to the outside.
For taking photographs, use a film or digital camera with sufficient macro capability
to take clear, close-up photographs of small fish or other aquatic vertebrates. The
photographs must be of sufficient magnification, clarity, and resolution so that important
external identifying characteristics (e.g., mouths, fin positions and rays, coloration, scale
patterns, etc.) can be distinguished. One purpose of a voucher photograph is to allow
someone else to confirm your field identification without an actual specimen to examine.
For each photograph, include a card with the site ID and the common name printed on it,
and a measuring board, ruler, or other object to provide a length reference. If necessary,
take more than one photo of a particular specimen (e.g., one lateral view, one close-up of
the mouth). Provide a log (either an electronic file or hard copy) describing each photo or
digital image, including date taken, file name (for images), site ID, tag number recorded on
collection form, common name, and description or other notes associated with the photo or
image when you submit the photos for archiving.
Voucher specimens for each species are euthanized by carbon dioxide or cranial
concussion (American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on Euthanasia 2001),
counted, and placed in nylon mesh bags or plastic jars (one or more bags per species).
Each bag contains a numbered tag (Figure 11-2). Single specimens of easily identified
and distinct species (e.g., sandroller, smallmouth bass) and crayfish may be placed directly
in the jar with the tag. Record the tag number and the number of individuals vouchered for
each species on the Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 11-1). Preserve vouchers of
sculpins, minnows, lampreys and other difficult species from throughout the support reach.
Note you can have more than one bag of specimens that you think are the same species.
This bagging, tagging, and recording procedure is crucial, as it enables us to estimate
species proportionate abundances in the assemblage even when one apparent species
turns out to be multiple species.
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Place specimen bags into a large sample jar containing 10% buffered formalin
(Section 3). The final volume of 10% formalin in the sample container should equal or
exceed the total volume of specimens. Use additional containers if necessary and avoid
tight packing of specimen bags or bending of specimens. Delays in carrying out the
preservation procedure, overpacking a bag or sample container, or an inadequate volume
of preservative will result in unidentifiable (worthless) specimens. Formalin vapors and
solution are extremely caustic and may cause severe irritation on contact with skin, eyes or
mucus membranes. Formaldehyde is a potential carcinogen, and contact with it should be
avoided. Wear gloves and safety glasses and always work in a well-ventilated area. In
case of contact with skin or eyes, rinse immediately with large quantities of water. Store
stock solution in sealed containers in a safety cabinet or cooler lined with vermiculite or
other absorbent material. If possible, transport outside the passenger compartment of a
vehicle. Complete a set of two sample labels for each sample container as shown in
Figure 11-2. Place one label inside each sample container, and attach the second label to
the outside of the jar with clear tape. Record the sample ID number on the Vertebrate
Collection Form (Figure 11-1).
11.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 11-3 is a checklist of equipment and supplies required to conduct protocols
described in this section. This checklist may differ from the checklists presented in
Appendix A, which are used at a base site to ensure that all equipment and supplies are
brought to the stream site. Use the checklist presented in this section to ensure that
equipment and supplies are organized and available to conduct the protocols efficiently.
11.4 LITERATURE CITED
American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on Euthanasia. 2001. 2000 report of the
AVME panel on euthanasia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
218:669-696.
Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid bioassessment
protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic
macroinvertebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA/841/B-99/002. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
245
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 22 of 26
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR AQUATIC VERTEBRATE SAMPLING
QTY.
Item
1
Gasoline or battery-powered backpack electrofishing unit with netted anode (elec-
trode wand)
Extra battery (charged) or gasoline
4 pr
Heavy-duty rubber gloves
3 pr
Chest waders with non-slip soles & patch kit
3 pr
Polarized sunglasses
2
Long-handled dip nets (0.6 cm mesh) with insulated handles
1
Watch or stopwatch to track elapsed fishing time
4
Collapsible buckets for holding and processing aquatic vertebrates
1
Minnow seine (2m X 1.25 m, 0.6 cm mesh) with poles
1
Large seine (9 m X 2 m, 0.6 cm mesh) with poles
1
Aquarium net
1 set
Taxonomic reference books and keys for fishes and amphibians of the region
1
Camera and film (or digital camera) with macro capability for photographing
vouchers
1-2
Fish measuring board & small plastic rulers (2)
5-20
Small nylon mesh bags or stockings for holding voucher specimens
1
Jackknife for preparing larger voucher specimens for preservation
1 ea.
1, 2, and/or 4-L screw-top plastic jars (leakproof) for voucher samples
2 L
10% (buffered) formalin or voucher sample jar half full of 10% formalin
1
Container with absorbent material to hold formalin solution and preserved voucher
sample jars
1 pr
Safety glasses
1 pr
Chemical-resistant gloves
1
Covered clipboard
1 box
Carbon dioxide tablets
1
Sheet of pre-printed jar labels (4) and voucher bag tags (36), all with same
preprinted sample ID number (barcode)
1 pr
Scissors for cutting jar labels and tags
1 roll
Plastic electrical tape
1 pkg.
Clear tape strips
2
Soft lead pencils for recording data and completing tags and labels
2
Vertebrate Collection Forms
3
Plastic safety whistles & ear protection if generators are used
1
Field operations manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of aquatic vertebrate procedure tables
1 ea.
Vertebrate collection Dermits (State. Federal. Triball
Figure 11 -3. Equipment and supplies checklist for aquatic vertebrates.
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 23 of 26
Bramblett, R.G, T.R. Johnson, A.V. Zale, and D.T. Heggem. 2005. Development and
evaluation of a fish assemblage index of biotic integrity for northwestern Great Plains
streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 134:624-640.
Bury, R.B., P.C. Corn, K.B. Autry, F.F. Gilbert, and L.L.C. Jones. 1991. Aquatic amphibian
communities in Oregon and Washington. Pages 353-362 in L.F. Ruggiero, K.B.
Aubry, A.B. Carey, and M.H. Huff (coordinators). Wildlife and vegetation of
unmanaged douglas-fir forests. General Technical Report PNW-GRT-285. USDA
Forest Service, Portland, Oregon.
Cao, Y., D.P. Larsen, and R.M. Hughes. 2001. Evaluating sampling sufficiency in fish
assemblage surveys- a similarity-based approach. Canadian Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Sciences 58:1782-1793.
Cao, Y., D.P. Larsen, R.M. Hughes, P.L. Angermeier, and T.M. Patton. 2002. Sample size
affects multivariate comparisons of stream communities. Journal of the North
American Benthological Society 21:701-714.
Gammon, J.R. 1980. The use of community parameters derived from electrofishing
catches of river fish as indicators of environmental quality. Pages 335-363 in Seminar
on water quality management tradeoffs. EPA 905/9-80/009. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Hairston, N.G. 1987. Community ecology and salamander guilds. Cambridge University
Press, New York.
Hughes, R.M., P.R. Kaufmann, A.T. Herlihy, T.M. Kincaid, L. Reynolds, and D.P. Larsen.
1998. A process for developing and evaluating indices of fish assemblage integrity.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55:1618-1631.
Hughes, R.M., S. Howlin, and P.R. Kaufmann. 2004. A biointegrity index (IBI) for coldwater
streams of western Oregon and Washington. Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society 133:1497-1515.
Karr, J.R. 1981. Assessment of biotic integrity using fish communities. Fisheries 6(6):21-
27.
Karr, J.R., K.D. Fausch, P.L. Angermeier, P.R. Yant, and I.J. Schlosser. 1986. Assessing
biological integrity in running waters: a method and its rationale. Illinois Natural
History Survey Special Publication No. 5, Champaign, Illinois.
Karr, J.R. 1991. Biological integrity: a long-neglected aspect of water resource manage-
ment. Ecological Applications 1:66-84.
Klemm, D.J., Q.J. Stober, and J.M. Lazorchak. 1993. Fish field and laboratory methods
for evaluating the biological integrity of surface waters. EPA 600/R-92/111. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
247
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 11 (Aquatic Vertebrates),
Rev. 5, October 2006 Page 24 of 26
Kolz A.L., J. Reynolds, A. Temple, J. Boardman, and D. Lam. 1998 et seq. Principles and
techniques of electrofishing (course manual). U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, National
Conservation Training Center, Shepherdstown, West Virginia.
McCormick, F.H., and R.M. Hughes. 1998. Aquatic vertebrates. Pages 161-182 in J.M.
Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (editors). Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations and methods for measuring
the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94-004F. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
McCormick, F.H, R.M. Hughes, P.R. Kaufmann, D.V. Peck, J.L. Stoddard, and A.T. Herlihy.
2001. Development of an index of biotic integrity for the Mid-Atlantic Highlands region.
Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 130:857-877.
Nelson, J.S., E.J. Crossman, H. Espinosa-Perez, L.T. Findley, C.R. Gilbert, R.N. Lea, and
J.D. Williams. 2004. Common and scientific names of fishes from the United States,
Canada, and Mexico. 6th edition. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Page, L.M., and B.M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north
of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts.
Patton, T.M., W.A. Hubert, F.J. Rahel, and K.G. Gerow. 2000. Effort needed to estimate
species richness in small streams on the Great Plains in Wyoming. North American
Journal of Fisheries Management 20:394-398.
Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross, and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid bio-
assessment protocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macroinvertebrates and
fish. EPA/440/4-89/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Reynolds, L., A.T. Herlihy, P.R. Kaufmann, S.V. Gregory, and R.M. Hughes. 2003.
Electrofishing effort requirements for assessing species richness and biotic integrity in
western Oregon streams. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 23:450-
461.
Smith, S.B., A.P. Donohue, R.J. Lipkin, V.S. Blaze., C.J. Schmitt, and R.W. Goede. 2002.
Illustrated field guide to assessing external and internal anomalies in fish. U.S.
Geological Survey, Information and Technology Report 2002-0007. (Available from
http://www.cerc.usgs.gov/pubs/center/pdfDocs/ITR_2002_0007.pdf).
248
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NOTES
249
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NOTES
250
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SECTION 12
FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANTS
Robert M. Hughes1, Spencer A. Peterson2, Frank H. McCormick3,
and James M. Lazorchak4
In addition to gathering data on the aquatic vertebrate assemblage (Section 11),
fish are retained for analysis of selected tissue contaminants (principally mercury). The
fish tissue contaminants indicator is used to evaluate the potential burden of toxic chemi-
cals at a site (e.g., Yeardley et al. 1998a, Peterson et al. 2002, 2005, Lazorchak et al.
2003). The focus is on fish species that commonly occur throughout the region of interest
that are sufficiently abundant within a support reach.
The response design (see Section 1.3.7) for this indicator is based in part on that
used for the aquatic vertebrates indicator (Section 11). Fish are collected from throughout
the sampling reach. To maximize the potential of obtaining a sample from every site, two
types of fish tissue contaminant samples are prepared for each site (if possible). Small fish
tissue contaminant samples are composite samples of individuals <100 mm long. Big fish
tissue contaminant samples are individuals that are >120 mm long. Whole fish are
collected and analyzed because they present fewer logistical problems and integrate all
fish parts (Yeardley et al. 1998a). Peterson et al. (2005) suggest that non-lethal biopsy
samples collected from individual fish could be used to predict filet and whole fish concen-
trations of mercury, but did not determine it this were true for other contaminants.
Current address: Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis,
OR 97333.
U.S. EPA, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, 200 SW 35th St.,
Corvallis, OR 97333.
USDA Forest Service, Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3625 93rd Avenue SE,
Olympia, WA 98512.
U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 Marrtin Luther King Dr.,
Cincinnati, OH 45268.
251
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 12 (Fish Tissue Contaminants),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 2 of 8
Procedures for obtaining fish tissue contaminant samples are adapted from those
previously published for EMAP-SW (Yeardley et al. 1998b). Minor modifications made
during EMAP-W are summarized in Appendix B. These included changing the species list
(no target species priority list for small species and adjusting the larger species list by
replacing eastern species with their western counterparts) and clarifying labeling and
shipping instructions.
12.1 PREPARING TISSUE CONTAMINANT SAMPLES
Prepare tissue contaminant samples as described in Table 12-1. To determine the
proper quantity for each sample, use weight for the small fish composite sample and total
length for each big fish sample. Use similar-sized individuals if possible (size difference
between smallest and largest < 25%) to prepare the small fish composite sample. If a
sufficient number of similar-sized individuals are not available, send as many fish of a
single species as possible up to 400 g. Getting a sufficient sample in terms of weight is a
higher priority than getting similar-sized individuals. If there is no single species with
enough individuals available, prepare a composite sample using individuals of multiple
species. For the big fish sample, send as many fish as possible, up to three fish for each
of three species. For each species, big fish samples should represent a wide range in size,
yet be as large as possible. Note that voucher specimens have higher priority than tissue
contaminant samples.
Record information for the fish tissue contaminant samples on page 2 of the
Vertebrate Collection Form (Figure 12-1). Examples of completed sample labels are
presented in Figure 12-2. Use a permanent marker to complete the labels. Each individual
comprising the big fish sample is wrapped, labeled, and bagged separately, while the
individuals comprising the small fish composite sample are wrapped together. Thus, up to
10 different sample labels may be required (nine big fish and one small fish). Each sample
is double bagged. Store tissue samples in a cooler with several bags of ice (or ice
substitute packs). Place ice inside two bags and tape the outside bag shut to prevent
melting ice from contaminating the samples. Store tissue contaminant samples on ice
(freeze them if possible) until they can be shipped (Section 3). Tissue contaminant samples
can be stored and shipped with other samples requiring ice or freezing (water chemistry
and periphyton samples). NOTE: It is critical that tissue contaminant samples are shipped
with sufficient ice or ice substitute packs to ensure they arrive in good condition at the
laboratory. Shipping containers with fish tissue contaminant samples should include
252
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 12 (Fish Tissue Contaminants),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 3 of 8
TABLE 12-1. PROCEDURE TO PREPARE FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANT SAMPLES
NOTE: Use your best judgement to collect some type of fish tissue sample from every site.
SMALL FISH sample: After voucher specimens have been prepared, choose a small fish species
that has enough similarly sized individuals (ideally the difference between the smallest and largest
individuals is < 25%) to equal 400 g (14 oz).
BIG FISH samples. After considering voucher specimens, select three individuals >120 mm total
length with a wide size range for each of three species. Preference order for Pacific coast and
Rocky Mountain drainages: bass, pikeminnow, trout, catfish, sucker; preference order for Mississippi
R. drainage: bass, walleye (orsauger), pike, trout, catfish, sucker. Preference is based on top
carnivores vs. bottom feeders.
1. Euthanize fish with two carbon dioxide tablets and a small volume of water or by cranial
concussion. Keep hands, foil, & bags clean and free of potential contaminants (mud, fuel,
formalin, sunscreen, insect repellant, soap, etc.)
2. Record the standard common name of the species (in CAPITAL LETTERS) on the Vertebrate
Collection Form. If more than one species is required to make up the small fish sample, record
the common name of the most abundant species in the Common Name column, and record the
other species name in the Comment section.
3. For the small fish composite sample, record the total number of individuals in the Number of
Small field. If the small sample consists of more than one species, record the number of
individuals for each species in the Comment section.
4. For each big fish sample, record the total length of each individual in the Total Length column
of the Vertebrate Collection Form.
5. Indicate the sample type by filling in the appropriate bubble in the Sample Type column on
form.
6. For the small fish composite sample, wrap all fish together in a single piece of aluminum foil,
with the dull side of the foil in contact with fish. Place the sample in a resealable plastic bag.
7. Wrap each big fish sample separately in aluminum foil, with the dull side of the foil in contact
with the fish. Place each individual in a single resealable plastic bag.
8. Expel excess air and seal each bag.
9. Prepare a sample label for each bag by filling in the site ID, the sample type (big, small) and
the collection date on each label. Record the sample ID for each bag on the Vertebrate
Collection Form.
10. Attach the appropriate label to each bag. Cover the label with a strip of clear tape. Place the
labeled bag into a second resealable plastic bag, and label and tape the second bag.
11. Keep the double bagged samples on ice (or frozen if possible) until shipment.
a Acceptable or conditionally acceptable methods of euthanization (AVMA Panel on Euthanasia 2001).
253
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 12 (Fish Tissue Contaminants),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 4 of 8
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contaminant samples.
254
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 12 (Fish Tissue Contaminants),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 5 of 8
FISH TISSUE
wxxp99 -J2. _3_ 1 %
CO_i._GJ_t 2002
(^big) small
300000
FfSH TISSUE
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FISH TISSUE
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Sample ID: 300000_ _
Figure 12-2. Completed labels for fish tissue contaminant samples. Note that a different label
(i.e., ID number) is prepared for each individual used for big fish samples, and up to 10 different ID
numbers could be used at a site. The label on the right is used on the outside of the sample
container (or bag).
enough ice to have a total weight (samples plus ice) of at least 40-50 lbs. The volume of
ice should equal or exceed the sample volume.
12.2 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 12-3 is a checklist of equipment and supplies required to conduct protocols
described in this section. This checklist may differ from the checklists presented in
Appendix A, which are used at a base site to ensure that all equipment and supplies are
brought to the stream site. Use the checklist presented in this section to ensure that
equipment and supplies are organized and available to conduct the protocols efficiently.
12.3 LITERATURE CITED
American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on Euthanasia. 2001. 2000 report of the
AVME panel on euthanasia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
218:669-696.
Lazorchak, J.L., F.H. McCormick. T.R. Henry, and A.T. Herlihy. 2003. Contamination of
fish in streams of the Mid-Atlantic region: and approach to regional indicator selection
and wildlife assessment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22:545-553.
Peterson, S.A., R.M. Hughes, A.T. Herlihy, K.L. Motter, and J.M. Robbins. 2002. Regional
evaluation of mercury contamination in Oregon freshwater fish. Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry 21:2157-2164.
255
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 12 (Fish Tissue Contaminants),
Rev. 4, October 2006 Page 6 of 8
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANTS
QTY.
ITEM
1
Bucket for anesthetization
4
Carbon dioxide tablets (Alka-Seltzer® or equivalent)
1 roll
Aluminum foil (heavy duty) (or 10 16 18" x 11" rectangles) for wrapping fish)
32
1/2 - 2 -gallon resealable plastic bags, or heavy duty garbage bags
2
Soft (#2) lead pencils or eversharps to record data
2
Fine-point indelible markers to fill out labels
1 pkg.
Clear tape strips
10 pr.
Fish tissue labels (each pair with different ID numbers)
2
Vertebrate Collection forms
1 set
Laminated procedure tables for fish tissue contaminants
1
Cooler with ice fdouble-baaaed and taDedl
Figure 12-3. Equipment and supplies checklist for fish tissue contaminants.
Peterson, S.A., J. VanSickle, R.M. Hughes, J. Schacher, and S. Echols. 2005. A biopsy
procedure for determining filet and predicting whole fish mercury concentration.
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 48:99-107.
Yeardley, R.B., Jr., J.M. Lazorchak, and S.G. Paulsen. 1998a. Elemental fish tissue
contamination in northeastern U.S. lakes: evaluation of an approach to regional
assessment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 17:1875-1884.
Yeardley, R.B., J.M. Lazorchak, and F.H. McCormick. 1998b. Fish tissue contaminants.
Pages 183-192 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (editors). Environmen-
tal Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations and
methods for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-
94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
256
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NOTES
257
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NOTES
258
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SECTION 13
RAPID HABITAT AND GENERAL VISUAL STREAM ASSESSMENTS
by
Alan T. Herlihy1 and James M. Lazorchak2
After all other samples and field data have been collected, the field team conducts
a visual-based rapid habitat assessment of the support reach, makes a general visual
assessment of the stream and adjacent area, and makes a final check of the data forms
and samples before leaving the stream site (see Section 15). The rapid habitat assess-
ment procedures used are based on those developed as part of the EPA Rapid Bioassess-
ment Protocol (RBP; Barbour et al. 1999). This habitat assessment is similar to, but not
redundant with, the overall channel and habitat assessment associated with the targeted
habitat periphyton sample (Section 9.4). The rapid habitat assessment focuses on
integrating information from specific parameters on the structure of the physical habitat.
The general visual assessment of catchment and stream characteristics is based on
the collective observations and impressions of field personnel while at a sampling site.
This assessment is very valuable for data review and validation, future data interpretation,
and selection of reference sites. Changes in the rapid habitat and general visual assess-
ment procedures from those previously published for EMAP-SW (Lazorchak et al. 1998),
and modifications made during EMAP-W, are summarized in Appendix B.
13.1 RAPID HABITAT ASSESSMENT
The rapid habitat assessment is separated into two basic approaches—one
designed for high-gradient streams and one designed for low-gradient streams. Based on
your visual impression of the dominant habitat type from collecting samples and measure-
ments from throughout the sampling reach, classify the stream as either Riffle/run preva-
Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, c/o U.S. EPA, 200 SW 35th St., Corvallis, OR 97333.
U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr.,
Cincinnati, OH 45268.
259
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 2 of 18
lent or Glide/pool prevalent. Choose the prevalent habitat type based on which habitat
type occupies most of the length of the support reach. Landscapes of moderate to high-
gradient typically contain riffle/run prevalent streams. Under natural conditions, riffle/run
prevalent streams contain primarily coarse substrates (i.e., coarse gravel or larger; refer to
Section 7) or many areas dominated by coarse substrates along a stream reach (Barbour
et al. 1999). Landscapes of low to moderate gradient are characterized by glide/pool
prevalent streams. These streambeds are dominated by finer substrates (fine gravel or
smaller) or occasional areas of coarser sediments along a stream reach (Barbour et al.
1999). The entire support reach is evaluated for each parameter.
A different field data form is completed depending upon the prevalent habitat type.
For each type of stream, 10 parameters of the physical habitat (Table 13-1) are considered
and evaluated. Most of the parameters are evaluated similarly for both types of prevalent
habitats. In three cases, a parameter is evaluated differently, or a different (but ecologi-
cally equivalent) parameter is evaluated for riffle/run prevalent versus glide/pool prevalent
streams. Substrate embeddedness is evaluated in riffle/run prevalent streams, while pool
substrate composition is evaluated in glide/pool prevalent streams. The presence of four
potential microhabitat types based on combinations of depth and current velocity is
evaluated in riffle/run prevalent streams, while the presence of four types of pool micro-
habitat based on depth and area are evaluated in glide/pool prevalent streams. The
frequency of riffles is evaluated in riffle/run prevalent streams, while channel sinuosity is
evaluated in glide/pool prevalent streams. For three parameters, each bank is evaluated
separately and the cumulative score (right and left) is used for the reach.
Conduct the rapid habitat assessment using the procedure presented in Table 13-2.
For each of the 10 parameters, rate the overall quality of the support reach on a scale of 0
to 20. For riffle/run prevalent streams, record your scores for each parameter on the
Riffle/Run version of the Rapid Habitat Assessment Form as shown in Figures 13-1 and
13-2. If the stream is classified as a pool/glide prevalent stream, record your scores for
each parameter on the Glide/Pool version of the Rapid Habitat Assessment Form as
shown in Figures 13-3 and 13-4. Transfer the scores assigned for each parameter to the
box in the left-hand column of the form.
260
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General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 3 of 18
TABLE 13-1. DESCRIPTIONS OF PARAMETERS USED IN THE RAPID
HABITAT ASSESSMENT OF STREAMS®
Habitat
Parameter
(Prevalent
Habitat
Type
R=Riffle/run
G=Glide/
pool)
Description and Rationale
Parameters Evaluated within the Support Reach
1. Includes the relative quantity and variety of natural structures in the stream, such as
Epifaunal cobble (riffle/run), large rocks, fallen trees, logs and branches, and undercut banks,
Substrate/ available as refugia, feeding, or sites for spawning and nursery functions of aquatic
Available macrofauna. A wide variety and/or abundance of submerged structures in the stream
Cover (R, G) provides macroinvertebrates and fish with a large number of niches, thus increasing
habitat diversity. As variety and abundance of cover decreases, habitat structure be-
comes monotonous, diversity decreases, and the potential for recovery following distur-
bance decreases. Riffles and runs are critical for maintaining a variety and abundance of
insects in most high-gradient streams and serving as spawning and feeding refugia for
certain fish. The extent and quality of the riffle is an important factor in the support of a
healthy biological condition in high-gradient streams. Riffles and runs offer a diversity of
habitat through variety of particle size, and, in many small high-gradient streams, will
provide the most stable habitat. Snags and submerged logs are among the most
productive habitat structure for macroinvertebrate colonization and fish refugia in low-
gradient streams. However, "new fall" will not yet be suitable for colonization.
2A. Refers to the extent to which rocks (gravel, cobble, and boulders) and snags are covered
Embedded- or sunken into the silt, sand, or mud of the stream bottom. Generally, as rocks become
ness (R) embedded, the surface area available to macroinvertebrates and fish (shelter, spawning,
and egg incubation) is decreased. Embeddedness is a result of large-scale sediment
movement and deposition, and is a parameter evaluated in the riffles and runs of high-
gradient streams. The rating of this parameter may be variable depending on where the
observations are taken. To avoid confusion with sediment deposition (another habitat
parameter), observations of embeddedness should be taken in the upstream and central
portions of riffles and cobble substrate areas.
2B. Evaluates the type and condition of bottom substrates found in pools. Firmer sediment
Pool types (e.g., gravel, sand) and rooted aquatic plants support a wider variety of organisms
Substrate than a pool substrate dominated by mud or bedrock and no plants. In addition, a stream
Characteriza- that has a uniform substrate in its pools will support far fewer types of organisms than a
tion (G) stream that has a variety of substrate types.
3A. Patterns of velocity and depth are included for high-gradient streams under this parameter
Velocity and as an important feature of habitat diversity. The best streams in most high-gradient
Depth regions will have all 4 patterns present: (1) slow-deep, (2) slow-shallow, (3) fast-deep, and
Regimes (R) (4) fast-shallow. The general guidelines are 0.5 m depth to separate shallow from deep,
and 0.3 m/sec to separate fast from slow. The occurrence of these 4 patterns relates to
the stream's ability to provide and maintain a stable aquatic environment.
1 Modified from Barbour et al. (1999)
(Continued)
261
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 4 of 18
TABLE 13-1a (Continued)
Habitat
Parameter
(Prevalent
Habitat
Type
R=Riffle/ run
G=Glide/
pool)
Description and Rationale
Parameters Evaluated within the Support Reach
3B. Rates the overall mixture of pool types found in streams, according to size and depth. The
Pool 4 basic types of pools are large-shallow, large-deep, small-shallow, and small-deep. A
Variability (G) stream with many pool types will support a wide variety of aquatic species. Rivers with
low sinuosity (few bends) and monotonous pool characteristics do not have sufficient
quantities and types of habitat to support a diverse aquatic community. General guide-
lines are any pool dimension (i.e., length, width, oblique) greater than half the cross-
section of the stream for separating large from small and 1 m depth separating shallow
and deep.
4. Measures the amount of sediment that has accumulated in pools and the changes that
Sediment have occurred to the stream bottom as a result of deposition. Deposition occurs from
Deposition large-scale movement of sediment. Sediment deposition may cause the formation of
(R, G) islands, point bars (areas of increased deposition usually at the beginning of a meander
that increase in size as the channel is diverted toward the outer bank) or shoals, or result
in the filling of runs and pools. Usually deposition is evident in areas that are obstructed
by natural or manmade debris and areas where the stream flow decreases, such as
bends. High levels of sediment deposition are symptoms of an unstable and continually
changing environment that becomes unsuitable for many organisms.
5. The degree to which the channel is filled with water. The flow status will change as the
Channel channel enlarges (e.g., aggrading stream beds with actively widening channels) or as flow
Flow decreases as a result of dams and other obstructions, diversions for irrigation, or drought.
Status When water does not cover much of the streambed, the amount of suitable substrate for
(R, G) aquatic organisms is limited. In high-gradient streams, riffles and cobble substrate are
exposed; in low-gradient streams, the decrease in water level exposes logs and snags,
thereby reducing the areas of good habitat. Channel flow is especially useful for interpret-
ing biological condition under abnormal or lowered flow conditions. This parameter be-
comes important when more than one biological index period is used for surveys or the
timing of sampling is inconsistent among sites or annual periodicity.
Parameters Evaluated Broader than the Support Reach
6. Is a measure of large-scale changes in the shape of the stream channel. Many streams in
Channel urban and agricultural areas have been straightened, deepened, or diverted into concrete
Alteration channels, often for flood control or irrigation purposes. Such streams have far fewer
(R, G) natural habitats for fish, macroinvertebrates, and plants than do naturally meandering
streams. Channel alteration is present when artificial embankments, riprap, and other
forms of artificial bank stabilization or structures are present; when the stream is very
straight for significant distances; when dams and bridges are present; and when other
such changes have occurred. Scouring is often associated with channel alteration.
' Modified from Barbour et al. (1999)
(Continued)
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 5 of 18
TABLE 13-1a (Continued)
Habitat
Parameter
(Prevalent
Habitat
Type
R=Riffle/run
G=Glide/
pool) Description and Rationale
Parameters Evaluated Broader than the Support Reach
7A. Is a way to measure the sequence of riffles and thus the heterogeneity occurring in a
Frequency of stream. Riffles are a source of high-quality habitat and diverse fauna, therefore, an
Riffles (or increased frequency of occurrence greatly enhances the diversity of the stream commu-
Bends) nity. For high gradient streams where distinct riffles are uncommon, a run/bend ratio can
(R) be used as a measure of meandering or sinuosity (see 7b). A high degree of sinuosity
provides for diverse habitat and fauna, and the stream is better able to handle surges
when the stream fluctuates as a result of storms. The absorption of this energy by bends
protects the stream from excessive erosion and flooding and provides refugia for benthic
invertebrates and fish during storm events. To gain an appreciation of this parameter in
some streams, a longer segment or reach than that designated for sampling should be
incorporated into the evaluation. In some situations, this parameter may be rated from
viewing accurate topographical maps. The "sequencing" pattern of the stream morphol-
ogy is important in rating this parameter. In headwaters, riffles are usually continuous and
the presence of cascades or boulders provides a form of sinuosity and enhances the
structure of the stream. A stable channel is one that does not exhibit progressive changes
in slope, shape, or dimensions, although short-term variations may occur during floods
(Gordon et al. 1992).
7B. Evaluates the meandering or sinuosity of the stream. A high degree of sinuosity provides
Channel for diverse habitat and fauna, and the stream is better able to handle surges when the
Sinuosity stream fluctuates as a result of storms. The absorption of this energy by bends protects
(G) the stream from excessive erosion and flooding and provides refugia for benthic inverte-
brates and fish during storm events. To gain an appreciation of this parameter in low
gradient streams, a longer segment or reach than that designated for sampling may be
incorporated into the evaluation. In some situations, this parameter may be rated from
viewing accurate topographical maps. The "sequencing" pattern of the stream morphol-
ogy is important in rating this parameter. In "oxbow" streams of coastal areas and deltas,
meanders are highly exaggerated and transient. Natural conditions in these streams are
shifting channels and bends, and alteration is usually in the form of flow regulation and
diversion. A stable channel is one that does not exhibit progressive changes in slope,
shape, or dimensions, although short-term variations may occur during floods (Gordon et
al. 1992).
a Modified from Barbour et al. (1999) (Continued)
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 6 of 18
TABLE 13-1a (Continued)
Habitat
Parameter
(Prevalent
Habitat
Type
R=Riffle/run
G=Glide/
pool) Description and Rationale
Parameters Evaluated Broader than the Support Reach
Measures whether the stream banks are eroded (or have the potential for erosion). Steep
banks are more likely to collapse and suffer from erosion than are gently sloping banks,
and are therefore considered to be unstable. Signs of erosion include crumbling,
unvegetated banks, exposed tree roots, and exposed soil. Eroded banks indicate a
problem of sediment movement and deposition, and suggest a scarcity of cover and
organic input to streams. Each bank is evaluated separately and the cumulative score
(right and left) is used for this parameter.
Measures the amount of vegetative protection afforded to the stream bank and the near-
stream portion of the riparian zone. The root systems of plants growing on stream banks
help hold soil in place, thereby reducing the amount of erosion that is likely to occur. This
parameter supplies information on the ability of the bank to resist erosion as well as some
additional information on the uptake of nutrients by the plants, the control of instream
scouring, and stream shading. Banks that have full, natural plant growth are better for fish
and macroinvertebrates than are banks without vegetative protection or those shored up
with concrete or riprap. This parameter is made more effective by defining the native
vegetation for the region and stream type (i.e., shrubs, trees, etc.). In some regions, the
introduction of exotics has virtually replaced all native vegetation. The value of exotic
vegetation to the quality of the habitat structure and contribution to the stream ecosystem
must be considered in this parameter. In areas of high grazing pressure from livestock or
where residential and urban development activities disrupt the riparian zone, the growth of
a natural plant community is impeded and can extend to the bank vegetative protection
zone. Each bank is evaluated separately and the cumulative score (right and left) is used
for this parameter.
Measures the width of natural vegetation from the edge of the stream bank out through the
riparian zone. The vegetative zone serves as a buffer to pollutants entering a stream from
runoff, controls erosion, and provides habitat and nutrient input into the stream. A
relatively undisturbed riparian zone supports a robust stream system; narrow riparian
zones occur when roads, parking lots, fields, lawns, bare soil, rocks, or buildings are near
the stream bank. Residential developments, urban centers, golf courses, and rangeland
are the common causes of anthropogenic degradation of the riparian zone. Conversely,
the presence of "old field" (i.e., a previously developed field not currently in use), paths,
and walkways in an otherwise undisturbed riparian zone may be judged to be inconse-
quential to altering the riparian zone and may be given relatively high scores. For variable
size streams, the specified width of a desirable riparian zone may also be variable and
may be best determined by some multiple of stream width (e.g., 4 x wetted stream width).
Each bank is evaluated separately and the cumulative score (right and left) is used for this
parameter.
a Modified from Barbour et al. (1999)
Bank Stability
(Condition of
Banks)
(R, G)
9.
Bank
Vegetative
Protection
(R, G)
10.
Riparian
Vegetated
Zone Width
(R, G)
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 7 of 18
TABLE 13-2. PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING THE RAPID HABITAT ASSESSMENT
1. Based on observations during the day's sample collection and field measurement activities,
classify the entire support reach as predominantly flowing water habitat (Riffle/run) or slow
water habitat (Glide/pool). Choose the prevalent habitat type based on which habitat type
occupies the majority of the length of the sampling reach.
2. Select the appropriate version of the Rapid Habitat Assessment Form (Riffle/Run or Glide/Pool)
based on the classification in Step 1.
3. For each of the 10 habitat parameters, determine the general quality category (Poor,
Marginal, Sub-optimal, or Optimal) of the entire support reach. Use the descriptions
provided on the data form to assign a score from the values available within each quality
category. Circle the assigned score for each parameter on the form.
NOTE: For parameters 1 through 7, the sampling reach can be scored from 0 (worst) to
20 (best). For parameters 8 through 10, each bank is evaluated separately (from 0 to
10), and the cumulative score for both right and left banks are used.
4. After the support reach has been scored for all parameters, transfer the score circled for each
parameter to the corresponding SCORE box in the Habitat Parameter column of the
assessment form.
265
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 8 of 18
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266
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 9 of 18
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267
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 10 of 18
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268
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 11 of 18
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269
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 12 of 18
13.2 GENERAL VISUAL STREAM ASSESSMENT
The visual assessment form is designed as a template for recording pertinent field
observations. It is not comprehensive, so record any additional observations in the
General Assessment section of the form. Fill out the assessment form after all other
sampling and measurement activities have been completed. Consider only things at or
upstream of the X-site (i.e., things that may influence the sampling point). Take into
account all observations the sampling team has made while at the site. The assessment
includes the following components: watershed activities and observed disturbances, site
characteristics, weather during sampling, and a general assessment. Conduct the general
visual assessment of the support reach as described in Table 13-3. Record data and
observations for each component of the assessment on the Assessment Form as shown in
Figure 13-5. The visual assessment form is used in place of a more detailed field journal.
Each watershed activity or disturbance is rated into one of four categories of
abundance or influence: not observed, low, medium, or high. Leave the line blank for any
activity or disturbance type not observed. The distinction between low, medium, and high
will be subjective. For example, if there are 2-3 houses away from the stream, the rating
for Houses may be Low. If the stream is in a suburban housing development, rate it as
High. Similarly, a small patch of clear cut logging on a hill overlooking the stream would be
rated as Low. Logging activity right on the stream shore, however, would be rated as
High.
When assessing site characteristics, consider the land use and other activities
within a circle with a 200 m radius around the X-site (400 m diameter). Waterbody
character is defined as the physical habitat integrity of the water body, largely a function of
riparian and littoral habitat structure, volume change, trash, turbidity, slicks, scums, color,
and odors. Assess two attributes of waterbody character: the degree of human develop-
ment, and aesthetics. Rate each of these attributes on a scale of 1 to 5. For development,
give the stream a rating of 5 if it is pristine, with no signs of any human development or
activity. A rating of 1 indicates a stream is in an area that is totally developed (e.g., the
entire stream channel is lined with houses, or the riparian zone has been removed). For
aesthetics, base your decision on any factor about the stream that bothers you (e.g., trash,
algal growth, weed abundance, overcrowding). Also, rate the presence/absence of beaver
activity and the dominant land use within this circle according to the classes listed on the
form.
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 13 of 18
TABLE 13-3. PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING THE GENERAL VISUAL ASSESSMENT
OF A STREAM
1. After all other sampling and measurement activities are completed, fill out the header section
of an Assessment Form. Use your perceptions obtained throughout the day, while at the
stream or driving/walking through the catchment to complete the remainder of the form.
Consider only things at or upstream of the X-site.
2. Watershed Activities and Disturbances Observed: Rate each type of activity or disturbance
listed on the form as either Not observed, Low, Medium, or High, and record the rating on the
Assessment Form. Keep in mind that ratings will be somewhat subjective and that an
extensive effort to quantify the presence and intensity of each type of stressor is not required.
General categories of activities and types of disturbance are described below:
Residential: The presence of any of the listed disturbances next to or near the stream.
Recreational: The presence of organized public or private parks, campgrounds,
beaches or other recreation areas around the stream. If there are signs of informal
areas of camping, swimming or boating around the stream (e.g., a swimming hole),
record them as "primitive" parks, camping.
Agriculture: The presence of cropland, pasture, range, orchards, poultry, and/or
livestock. Also note any evidence of water withdrawals for agriculture.
Industrial: Any industrial activity (e.g., canning, chemical, pulp), commercial activity
(stores, businesses) or logging/mining activities around the stream or in the catch-
ment. Describe in more detail in the comments section.
Management: Any evidence of water treatment, dredging or channelization, flow control
structures, fish stocking, dams or other management activities.
Any oddities, or further elaboration should be recorded in the Comments section.
3. Site Characteristics: (based on a circle with a 200 m radius around the X-site)
Waterbody Character: Assign a rating of 1 (highly disturbed) to 5 (pristine) based on
your general impression of the intensity of impact from human disturbance. Mark
the box next to the assigned rating on the Assessment Form. Assign a rating to the
stream based on overall aesthetic quality, based on your opinion of how suitable the
stream water is for recreation and aesthetic enjoyment today. Mark the box next to
the assigned rating on the Assessment Form.
5 Beautiful, could not be any nicer.
4 Very minor aesthetic problems; excellent for swimming, boating, enjoyment.
3 Enjoyment impaired.
2 Level of enjoyment substantially reduced.
1 Enjoyment nearly impossible.
(Continued)
271
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 14 of 18
TABLE 13-3 (Continued)
Beaver: If you noticed any signs of beaver presence in the stream (chewed sticks, trees,
dams, lodges) rate the beaver presence as either rare or common. If no beaver
signs were present, mark the absent box. Also rate the amount of flow modifica-
tion caused by any beaver activity as None, Minor, or Major.
Dominant Land Use: Make one estimate of the dominant land use in the circle around the
x-site. Pick just one land use from among Forest, Agriculture, Range, Urban,
or Suburban/Town. If there are other major land uses, make note of them in the
General Assessment section of the form. If forest is the dominant land use, make
a guess as to the dominant age class of the forest (0-25, 25-75, or > 75 years).
3. Weather: record a very brief description of the weather conditions during stream sampling
(e.g., sunny, fair, partly cloudy, overcast, light rain, unseasonably warm, cold, or hot, etc.). Any
unusual weather right before sampling (e.g., heavy rain, 6 inches of snow) is also worth noting
here.
4. General Assessment: record comments on wildlife observed, perceived diversity of terres-
trial/riparian vegetation, or overall biotic integrity on the Assessment Form. Record any
information regarding the past or present characteristics or condition of the stream provided by
local residents here as well.
272
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 15 of 18
STREAM ASSESSMENT FORM - STREAMS/RIVERS
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273
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 16 of 18
The weather and general assessment components include any observations that
will help in data interpretation. The weather component is just a place to record a brief
description of the weather during sampling or just before sampling. General assessment
comments can include comments on wildlife observed, diversity of terrestrial/riparian
vegetation, overall biotic integrity, or any other observation. Comments from locals about
current or past conditions are often useful and should be recorded in this section as well.
The back side of the form (Figure 13-6) is available for additional general comments.
13.3 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Figure 13-7 is a checklist of the supplies required to complete the rapid habitat and
general visual stream assessments. This checklist may differ from the checklists presented
in Appendix A, which are used at a base site to ensure that all equipment and supplies are
brought to and are available at the stream site. Field teams are required to use the
checklist presented in this section to ensure that equipment and supplies are organized
and available to conduct the protocols efficiently.
13.3 LITERATURE CITED
Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid bioassessment
protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic
macroinvertebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA/841 -B-99-002. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, Assessment and Watershed Protection Division,
Washington, D.C.
Gordon, N.D., T.A. McMahon, and B.L. Finlayson. 1992. Stream hydrology: an introduc-
tion for ecologists. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., West Sussex, England.
Lazorchak, J.M., A.T. Herlihy, and J. Green. 1998. Rapid habitat and visual stream
assessments. Pages 193-209 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck
(editors). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field
operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable streams.
EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross, and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid
bioassessment protocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macroinvertebrates
and fish. EPA/440/4-89/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Assessment
and Watershed Protection Division, Washington, D.C.
274
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 17 of 18
STBEAM ASSESSMENT FOHM - STBEAWRIVERS (cont.) 1.4:
mm
Sd3
Figure 13-6. Stream Assessment Form (page 2).
275
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 13 (Rapid Habitat and
General Visual Stream Assessments), Rev. 2, October 2006 Page 18 of 18
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR RAPID HABITAT AND
GENERAL VISUAL STREAM ASSESSMENTS
QTY.
Item
1
Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for Riffle/run prevalent streams
1
Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for Pool/glide prevalent streams
1
Assessment Form for visual stream assessment
6
Soft (#2) lead pencils
1
Covered clipboard or forms holder
1 copy
Field operations and methods manual
1 set
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides for rapid
habitat and visual assessments
Figure 13-7. Checklist of equipment and supplies required for rapid habitat and general
visual stream assessments.
NOTES
276
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SECTION 14
FINAL SITE ACTIVITIES
James M. Lazorchak1
Before leaving a stream site, the team leader reviews all of the data forms and
sample labels for accuracy, completeness, and legibility. Use the checklist presented in
Figure 14-1 to help with the review. A second team member inspects all sample containers
and packages them in preparation for transport, storage, or shipment. Refer to Section 3
for details on preparing and shipping samples.
When reviewing field data forms, ensure that all required data forms for the stream
have been completed. Confirm that the stream identification code, the year, the visit
number, and the date of the visit are correct on all forms. On each form, verify that all
information has been recorded accurately, the recorded information is legible, and any flags
are explained in the comments section. Ensure that written comments are legible and do
not use shorthand or abbreviations. Make sure the header information is completed on all
pages of each form. After reviewing each form, initial the upper right corner of each page.
When inspecting samples, ensure that each sample is labeled, all labels are
completely filled in and legible, and each label is covered with clear plastic tape. Compare
sample label information with the information recorded on the corresponding field data
forms (e.g., the Sample Collection Form) to ensure accuracy.
The other team members should return all of the equipment and supplies to the
vehicle for transport and clean up the stream site. Pack all equipment and supplies in the
vehicle for transport. Keep them organized so they can be inventoried using the equipment
and supply checklists presented in Appendix A. Clean up and dispose of all waste material
at the stream site. Transport it out of the area if necessary.
U.S. EPA, National Exposure Research Laboratory, Ecological Exposure Research Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King
Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268.
275
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EMAP-Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Section 14 (Final Site Activities),
Rev. 1, October 2006 Page 2 of 2
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Figure 14-1. Checklist for reviewing field data forms and sample labels.
276
-------
APPENDIX A
EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLY CHECKLISTS
The checklists in this section represent a master list that can be used when loading
field vehicles for a sampling visit. Each item is listed only once, with lists being organized
to some extent by storage requirements rather than by individual indicator. Use the
checklists presented at the end of each indicator section to organize yourself for various
sampling and data acquisition activities at the stream site.
FIELD DATA FORMS AND SAMPLE LABELS A-2
OFFICE SUPPLIES AND TOOLS A-3
SITE-RELATED INFORMATION A-3
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES A-4
CHEMICALS A-5
PACKING AND SHIPPING SUPPLIES A-5
SITE VERIFICATION AND SAMPLING REACH LAYOUT A-6
WATER CHEMISTRY A-6
STREAM DISCHARGE A-7
PHYSICAL HABITAT A-7
PERIPHYTON A-8
BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES A-9
AQUATIC VERTEBRATES AND FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANTS A-10
A-1
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 2 of 10
FIELD DATA FORMS AND SAMPLE LABELS
Number
per site
Item
1
Stream Verification Form
1
Sample Collection Form and Stream Discharge Form
1 (optional)
Modified STAR Protocol Periphyton Data Form
11 + extras
Channel/Riparian Cross-section and Thalweg Profile Form
1
Slope and Bearing Form
1
Riparian "Legacy" Tree and Invasive Alien Plants Form
1
Channel Constraint and Field Measurement Form and Torrent Evidence
Assessment Form
2-3
Vertebrate Collection Form
1 (optional)
Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for Riffle/run prevalent streams
1 (optional)
Rapid Habitat Assessment Form for Glide/pool prevalent streams
1
Assessment Form for visual stream assessment
2 + extras
Sample Tracking Form
3
Water chemistry labels (same ID number)
3
Periphyton labels (same ID number)
1 (optional)
Periphyton STAR Protocol ID label
1
Reachwide Benthic sample labels, with preprinted ID numbers
1
Targeted Riffle Benthic sample labels with preprinted ID numbers
1 sheet
Benthic labels for extra containers (no preprinted ID number)
1 sheet
Blank benthic sample labels on waterproof paper for inside of jars
1 sheet
Pre-printed aquatic vertebrate jar labels (4) and voucher bag tags (36), all with
same preprinted sample ID number
1 sheet
Fish tissue sample labels (up to 10 different sample ID numbers)
2 copies
Field operations and methods manual
2 sets
Laminated sheets of procedure tables and/or quick reference guides
A-2
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 3 of 10
OFFICE SUPPLIES AND TOOLS
Number
per site
Item
4
Covered clipboards or forms holders
1 (optional)
Field notebook
12
Soft (#2) lead pencils
6
Fine-tip indelible markers
1 roll
Duct tape
1 pair
Scissors for cutting labels
1
Pocket knife or multipurpose tool
1
Battery charger (if needed for electrofishing unit)
1
Toolbox with basic tools needed to maintain/repair sampling gear
SITE-RELATED INFORMATION
Number
per site
Item
1
Dossier of access information for scheduled stream site
1
Topographic map with X-site marked
1
Site information sheet with map coordinates and elevation of X-site
1
Sampling itinerary form or notebook
1
Safety log and/or personal safety information for each team member
1
Sheet of cardstock or thin cardboard (white with non-glossy finish or light
gray) with Site ID printed on it for use with site photographs
1
List of protected aquatic taxa for watershed
1 ea.
All required scientific collection permits (State, Federal, Tribal)
A-3
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 4 of 10
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
Number
per site
Item
1 pair per
person
Chest waders with nonslip boots if waders are the "stocking" type. Hip
waders can be used in shallower streams (except for electrofishing). Note
felt-soled boots should not be used in areas where nuisance organisms are
present.
1 per person
Life vests
3 pair
Polarized sunglasses
1
First aid kit (including eye wash solution)
1 per person
Rain gear
1 or 2
Fisherman's vest or fanny pack for physical habitat characterization.
1 per person
Safety whistles
1 pair per
person
Earplugs (if gas-powered generators are used)
1 per person
Day packs, backs, fanny packs, and/or dry bags for personal gear
1 ea.
Insect repellent, sunscreen, barrier ointment or cleanser for poison oak,
hand sanitizer, water purifier unit
1
Patch kit for waders
A-4
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 5 of 10
CHEMICALS
Number
per site
Item
1 pair
Safety glasses
2 pair
Chemical-resistant gloves
1
Laboratory apron, resistant to ethanol and formalin
1
Cooler (with suitable absorbent material) for transporting ethanol and samples
2 gal
95% ethanol
1
Cooler (with suitable absorbent material) for transporting
formaldehyde/formalin
2 gal
10% (buffered) formalin solution OR 0.2 gal (0.75 L) buffered undiluted
formalin solution
1 gal
Disinfectant solution for whirling disease, New Zealand mud snails, and
amphibian chytrid fungus
Gasoline for electrofishing unit in approved container
PACKING AND SHIPPING SUPPLIES
Number
per site
Item
Ice (also dry ice if it is used to ship frozen samples) or ice substitute packs
1 box
1 -gal heavy-duty resealable (e.g., zipper-type closure) plastic bags
1-box
30-gal plastic garbage bags for lining shipping containers
1 roll
Clear tape for sealing shipping containers
2 pkg.
Clear tape strips for covering labels
4 rolls
Plastic electrical tape
3
Insulated shipping containers for samples
1
Portable freezer, cooler with dry ice, or cooler with bags of ice (or substitute ice
packs) to store frozen samples (special containers may be needed if dry ice is
used)
2
Containers and absorbent material suitable to transport and/or ship samples
preserved in formalin or ethanol
6
Shipping airbills and adhesive plastic sleeves
1 roll
Aluminum foil for periphyton and fish tissue contaminant samples
A-5
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 6 of 10
SITE VERIFICATION AND SAMPLING REACH LAYOUT
Number
per site
Item
1
GPS receiver and operating manual
Extra batteries for GPS receiver
1
Surveyor's telescoping leveling rod (round profile, metric scale, 7.5 m
extended)
1
50-m fiberglass measuring tape with reel
2 rolls
Surveyor's flagging tape (2 colors)
1 (optional)
Waterproof camera and film (or digital camera)
WATER CHEMISTRY
Number
per site
Item
1 (optional)
Dissolved oxygen/Conductivity/Temperature meter with probe and operating
manual
1 (optional)
DO repair kit with additional membranes and probe filling solution
1 (optional)
Conductivity meter, probe, and operating manual (if not integrated with
DO/Temp meter
4-8 (Optional)
Extra batteries for dissolved oxygen and conductivity meters
1 (optional)
500-mL plastic bottle of conductivity QCCS labeled "Rinse" (in plastic bag)
1 (optional)
500-mL plastic bottle of conductivity QCCS labeled "Test" (in plastic bag)
1 (optional)
500-mL plastic bottle of deionized water to store conductivity probe
1
Field thermometer
1
500 mL plastic beaker with handle (in clean plastic bag)
1
4-L cubitainer
2
60 mL plastic syringes
1
1/2 gal. size plastic container with snap-on lid to hold filled syringes
2
Syringe valves
A-6
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 7 of 10
STREAM DISCHARGE
Number
per site
Item
1
Current velocity meter and probe, with operating manual (e.g. Marsh-
McBirney Model 201, Swoffer Model 2100, or equivalent)
1
Top-set wading rod (metric scale) for use with current velocity meter
1 (optional)
Portable Weir with 60° "V" notch
1 (optional)
Plastic sheeting to use with weir
1
Plastic bucket (or similar container) with volume graduations
1
Stopwatch
1
Neutrally buoyant object (e.g., wiffle-type plastic golf ball, orange, small
rubber ball, stick, bobber)
PHYSICAL HABITAT
Number
per site
Item
1
Fisherman's vest with lots of pockets and snap fittings (or fanny pack with
pockets).
1
50-m tape measure
1
Clinometer with percent and degree scales. Alternate instruments (hand level,
laser level, surveyor's level, or roofer's level [water tube]) can be used for
slope measurements
1
Lightweight telescoping camera tripod, (necessary only if slope measurements
are being determined by only one person)
1
1/2-inch diameter PVC pipe, 2-3 m long, each marked at the same height (for
use in slope determinations involving two persons)
1
Spherical convex canopy densiometer, modified with taped "V"
1
Bearing compass (backpacking type)
1
Meter stick. Alternatively, a short (1-2 m) rod or pole (e.g., a ski pole or
wooden shovel handle) with cm markings for thalweg measurements
A-7
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 8 of 10
PERIPHYTON
Number
per site
Item
1
Large funnel (15-20 cm diameter)
1
12-cm2 area delimiter (3.8 cm diameter pipe, 3 cm tall)
1
Stiff-bristle toothbrush with handle bent at 90° angle
1
1-L wash bottle for stream water
1
1-L wash bottle containing deionized water
1
500-mL plastic bottle (marked in 50-mL increments) labeled PERIPHYTON for
composite sample
1 (optional)
1 -L plastic bottle (marked in 250-mL increments) labeled TARGETED HABITAT
PERIPHYTON for targeted habitat composite sample
1
35-60 mL plastic syringe (catheter-tip)
3 (plus 1
optional)
50-mL screw-top centrifuge tubes (or similar sample vials). Add an additional
tube if collecting the optional targeted habitat periphyton sample.
1 box
Glass-fiber filters for chlorophyll and biomass samples
1 pair
Forceps for filter handling.
1
25-mL or 50-mL graduated cylinder (or use a 50-mL centrifuge tube with volume
markings)
1
Filtration unit, including filter funnel, cap, filter holder, and receiving chamber
1
Hand-operated vacuum pump with length of flexible plastic vacuum tubing
1
Small syringe or bulb pipette for dispensing formalin
A-8
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 9 of 10
BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
Number
per site
Item
1
Modified kick net (500 |_im mesh) and 4-ft handle
1
Spare collection bucket for the kick net sampler (or an extra sampler)
2
Buckets with screw-top lids, plastic, 8- to 10-qt capacity, labeled REACHWIDE
and TARGETED RIFFLE
1
Sieve, U.S. Std. No. 35 (500 |_im mesh), or sieve bucket with 500-|_im mesh
openings
2 pair ea.
Watchmakers' and curved tip forceps
1
Small spatula, spoon, or scoop to transfer sample
1
Funnel, with large bore spout
4 to 6 ea.
Sample jars, HDPE plastic with leakproof screw caps, 500-mL and 1-L
capacity, suitable for use with ethanol
1 pkg.
Kim wipes in small self-sealing plastic bag
1
Screw-top pail with absorbent material to transport preserved samples
A-9
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix A, Rev. 4 October 2006 Page 10 of 10
AQUATIC VERTEBRATES AND FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANTS
Number
per site
Item
1
Gasoline or battery-powered backpack electrofishing unit with electrode wand
Extra battery
4 pr
heavy-duty insulated rubber "Linesmen" gloves for electrofishing
2
Long-handled dip nets (0.6 cm mesh) with insulated handles
1
Minnow seine (2m * 1.25 m, 0.6 cm mesh) with brailles
1
Large seine (3m*2m, 0.6 cm mesh) with brailles
4
Collapsible buckets for holding and processing aquatic vertebrates
1 set
Taxonomic reference books and keys for fishes and amphibians of the region
1-2
Fish measuring board
5-20
Small nylon mesh bags or nylon stockings for holding voucher specimens
1
Jackknife for preparing larger voucher specimens for preservation
1 ea.
1 and 2-L HDPE plastic jars with leakproof screw-top caps for voucher
samples
4
carbon dioxide tablets (Alka-Seltzer® or equivalent).
1
Cooler to hold preserved voucher sample jars
2
Aquarium nets (large and small)
A-10
-------
APPENDIX B
CHANGES AND MODIFICATIONS TO EMAP-SURFACE WATERS
FIELD PROCEDURES
This section describes the changes made in EMAP field procedures for EMAP-W
from those previously published for EMAP-Surface Waters (Lazorchak et al. 1998a). It
also documents the minor modifications and clarifications made during the course of
EMAP-W. These modifications were based in large part to comments received from
EMAP-W field crews after every field season. This section is organized to follow the
sequence of sections in the main body of this document:
B.1 BASE LOCATION ACTIVITIES B-2
B.2 INITIAL SITE PROCEDURES B-2
B.3 WATER CHEMISTRY B-3
B.4 DISCHARGE B-5
B.5 PHYSICAL HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION AND INVASIVE RIPARIAN
PLANTS B-5
B.6 PERIPHYTON B-7
B.7 BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES B-7
B.8 AQUATIC VERTEBRATES B-8
B.9 FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANTS B-9
B.10 RAPID HABITAT AND GENERAL VISUAL ASSESSMENTS B-10
B.11 LITERATURE CITED B-11
B-1
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix B (Changes and Modifications to
EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 2 of 16
B.1 BASE LOCATION ACTIVITIES
Modifications to base location procedures (Section 3) described in the previous
EMAP-SW field operations manual for wadeable streams (Klemm et al. 1998a) are
summarized in Table B-1. Conductivity pens were not used in EMAP-W. Sediment
samples for metabolism and sediment toxicity were not collected for EMAP-W.
Performance evaluation procedures for field meters were modified to reflect updated
instrumentation.
Modifications implemented during EMAP-W are also summarized in Table B-1.
Field measurements of conductivity and dissolved oxygen became optional (2001), and the
frequency of inspection and evaluation of field meters was reduced. All periphyton
samples were treated as "unpreserved" samples for packing and shipment (2002).
Guidelines for how much ice (or ice substitutes) to include in sample shipments, a more
formalized procedure for filing status reports after each site visit, and additional information
regarding the packing of preserved samples were also provided (2002).
For the final revision of this manual, updated material regarding cleaning and
disinfecting equipment against the spread of whirling disease, New Zealand mud snail, and
amphibian chytrid fungus was added, along with information regarding alternative
procedures for shipping preserved samples.
B.2 INITIAL SITE PROCEDURES
Table B-2 summarizes changes to initial site procedures (Section 4) from those
published previously for EMAP-SW by Herlihy (1998a), and modifications made during
EMAP-W. Changes from Herlihy (1998a) include providing guidance for sampling streams
that are partially wadeable, and for wide streams with a braided channel pattern. During
EMAP-W, field data were no longer collected at stream sites having completely dry
reaches. The field data form was modified for use with streams that were either
determined to be nontarget before a field visit, or that were nontarget when visited.
Additional criteria for determining nontarget sites were added, and clarifications were made
to (1) procedures for sites having interrupted flow at the time of sampling, or which were
dry at the time of the sampling visit, and 2) instructions for adjusting the initial support
reach about the X-site.
B-2
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix B (Changes and Modifications to
EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 3 of 16
B-3
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix B (Changes and Modifications to
EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 4 of 16
TABLE B-1. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN BASE LOCATION ACTIVITIES FOR
THE WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Changes from Klemm et al. (1998a):
1. Removed reference to conductivity pens.
2. Removed procedures and information related to sediment metabolism and sediment toxicity
sampling.
3. Performance evaluation procedures for field instrumentation were modified or added.
4. Added procedures for preparing dangerous goods samples for shipment.
5. Included cleaning procedures and solutions to prevent transfer of whirling disease spores
between streams.
Changes from EMAP-Western Pilot Study Year 2000 activities:
1. The frequency of performance evaluation checks for field conductivity and dissolved oxygen
meters was reduced from before each stream site to before and after the field season.
2. The use of ice substitute packs whenever possible to ship samples was strongly
recommended to avoid problems associated with melted ice during shipment.
Changes from EMAP-Western Pilot Study Year 2001 activities:
1. Emphasized the use of more ice in shipments.
2. Revised shipping guidelines to treat periphyton ID sample the same as unpreserved
samples.
3. Provided procedure for filing status reports after each site visit.
4. Provided additional detail regarding packaging and transport of preserved samples.
Changes from EMAP-Western Pilot Study Year 2002 activities:
1. Tracking form was reformatted to be easier to fill out and more compatible with optical
scanner technology.
B.3 WATER CHEMISTRY
Changes in procedures for collecting water chemistry samples and field data
(Section 5) from Herlihy (1998b) and modifications made during EMAP-W are summarized
in Table B-3. The minimum volume of the bulk water sample required was reduced from 4
L to approximately 3 L, and procedures for measuring in situ DO and conductivity using a
combination meter were included. In 2001, field measurements of dissolved oxygen and
conductivity became optional, the frequency of QCCS checks of the conductivity meter was
reduced, and the time when field measurements and samples were collected was
recorded.
B-4
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix B (Changes and Modifications to
EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 5 of 16
TABLE B-2. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN INITIAL SITE PROCEDURES FOR THE
WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Changes from Herlihy (1998a)
1. Developed guidance for sampling streams that are partially wadeable.
2. Developed guidance for how to sample streams that have a braided channel pattern.
Changes from Year 2000 Western Pilot Study Activities
1. Field data are no longer collected at sites where the entire sampling reach is dry when visited.
They are now classified as non-sampleable.
2. The field data form was revised to deal more clearly with sites that are determined to be
nontarget either before a field visit or at the time of the visit, including those that are
temporarily inaccessible and can be visited again in a future year.
3. The field data form was revised so that site coordinates could be recorded in degree-minute-
second (DMS) or decimal degree (DD) format. This was done to accommodate different types
of GPS units or other data recording requirements of EMAP-W participants.
Changes from Year 2001 Western Pilot Study Activities
1. Included criteria for determining nontarget canals that are not sampled.
2. Clarified the determination for dry sites when visited.
3. Clarified instructions for sites with interrupted flow in regards to "sliding" the stream reach.
4. Included instructions for "sliding" the reach when access is denied to a portion of the reach.
TABLE B-3. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN WATER CHEMISTRY PROCEDURES FOR THE
WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Changes from Herlihy (1998b)
1. The minimum volume of the bulk water sample was reduced from 4-L to 3-L.
2. Procedures for using combination oxygen/conductivity/temperature meters were included.
Changes from Year 2000 Western Pilot Study Activities
1. Dissolved oxygen and conductivity measurements became optional.
2. The frequency of performance evaluation checks for field conductivity meters was reduced
from before each field measurement to less frequent checks at base sites or home offices/
laboratories. If used, meters should be subjected to QCCS checks at a minimum frequency of
before and after the field season.
3. The field form where DO and temperature measurements are recorded was eliminated. Data
were recorded on the channel constraint form.
4. If field measurements are taken, the time of the measurements was recorded on the field data
form.
B-5
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix B (Changes and Modifications to
EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 6 of 16
B.4 DISCHARGE
Procedures for determining discharge (Section 6) were essentially unchanged from
those previously published for EMAP-SW (Kaufmann 1998). In 2001, the field data forms
were modified to allow a calculated value for discharge to be recorded (a fourth
procedure), and to provide the option to record data for more than 20 intervals (using a
supplemental form).
B.5 PHYSICAL HABITAT CHARACTERIZATION AND INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANTS
Changes to various procedures for characterizing physical habitat (Section 7)
previously published for EMAP-SW (Kaufmann and Robison 1998) are summarized in
Table B-4. Four procedures (substrate particle size, instream fish cover, human influence,
and thalweg habitat classification) are modified slightly from previous versions. The
number of particles to be included in the systematic pebble count was increased (from 55
particles to 105) to provide improved precision of substrate characterizations such as
%fines. To obtain the additional particles, 10 supplemental cross-sections are located
midway between successive regular transects. Procedures for locating and estimating the
size of particles on each cross-section remain unchanged, for regular and supplemental
cross-sections, except that only the substrate size class and the wetted width data are
recorded at the 10 supplemental cross-sections. Logistically, the supplemental substrate
cross-section procedures are accomplished as part of the thalweg profile that is undertaken
between regular transects (Section 7.4.1). However, the details of the actual
measurements and observations are described in Section 7.5.2. The instream fish cover
(Section 7.5.6) and human influence procedures (Section 7.5.7) now include additional or
modified features. The thalweg habitat classification (Section 7.4.1) now includes the
tallying of presence/absence of off-channel backwater habitats, (e.g., sloughs, alcoves,
backwater pools). Backwater pools are included in this tally, but if they are the dominant
channel habitat classification, they are also identified by a channel unit classification, as in
previous versions of this field procedure.
Four new procedures are included for EMAP-W. The first (Section 7.5.8) is added
to provide additional data on the size and proximity of large, old riparian trees. The second
(Section 7.6.1), is added to classify the general degree of geomorphic channel constraint.
This is an overall assessment of reach characteristics that is done after completing the
thalweg profile and other measurements at the 11 cross-section transects. The third
B-6
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EMAP Western Pilot Study Field Operations Manual for Wadeable Streams, Appendix B (Changes and Modifications to
EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 7 of 16
TABLE B-4. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN PHYSICAL HABITAT AND INVASIVE RIPARIAN
PLANT PROCEDURES FOR THE WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Changes from Kaufmann and Robison (1998):
1. Substrate: The systematic pebble count is augmented from 55 particles (5 particles in each of
11 cross-sections) to 105 particles (5 particles in each of 21 cross-sections). Ten additional
cross-sections are located midway between each regular transects. Only the substrate size
class and the wetted width data are recorded at each supplemental cross-section.
2. Instream Fish Cover. Fish concealment features now include in-channel live trees or roots.
3. Human Influence: The human influence category Pavement is modified to include cleared
barren areas and renamed Pavement/cleared lot.
4. Riparian "Legacy" Trees: New protocol to obtain information on the size and proximity of large,
old riparian trees.
5. Channel Constraint New protocol to classify the general degree of geomorphic channel
constraint. This is an overall assessment of reach characteristics that is done after completing
the thalweg profile and other measurements at the 11 Cross-section Transects.
6. Debris torrents: New protocol to identify evidence of major floods or debris torrents (lahars).
This is an overall assessment for the reach as a whole, and is done after completing the other
measurements.
7. Invasive Riparian Plants: New protocol to obtain information on the occurrence of nonnative
invasive riparian tree, shrub and grass species (presented in Section 8).
Modifications from Year 2000 Western Pilot Study Activities:
1. Dry Streams: Physical habitat data are no longer collected at streams reaches that are
completely dry at the time of the field visit.
2. Off-Channel Backwater Habitat The thalweg habitat classification now includes the tallying of
presence/absence of off-channel backwater habitats, (e.g., sloughs, alcoves, backwater pools).
If a backwater pool dominates the main channel habitat, PB is also entered as the channel unit
classification code, as in previous versions of this field protocol.
3. Riparian "Legacy" Trees: Additional details regarding these procedures are included.
4. Channel Constraint. Additional detail regarding procedure is included; the number of constraint
classes is reduced.
5. Invasive Riparian Plants: Additional details regarding these procedures are included. Target
species of nonnative invasive tree, shrub and grass species is modified for some areas of the
western U.S.
Modifications from Year 2001 Western Pilot Study Activities:
1. Bank Characteristics: Revised section dealing with determining bankfull and incision heights,
adding a figure showing examples.
2. Substrate: The boulder class is divided into Large (> 1 m median diameter) and Small (0.25 to
1m median diameter). Added a separate class for concrete.
3. Riparian "Legacy" Trees: Selection criteria for potential legacy trees are included.
Modifications from Year 2002 Western Pilot Study Activities:
1. Slope and Bearing: Form modified for use with other instruments/methods besides a
clinometer.
2. Riparian Vegetation Characterization: Clarified that vegetation type in canopy and understory
refers only to woody vegetation.
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procedure (Section 7.6.2) identifies evidence of major floods or debris torrents (lahars).
This is an overall assessment for the reach as a whole, and is done after completing the
other measurements. The field form and procedures for assessing debris torrent evidence
have been applied in Oregon and Washington research and R-EMAP surveys since 1994.
The fourth procedure is used to determine the occurrence of nonnative invasive riparian
tree, shrub and grass species (see Section 8).
Modifications to various habitat characterization procedures that occurred during
EMAP-W are also summarized in Table B-4. In addition, the final revision of this manual
includes additional figures showing a data form for a side channel transect and examples
of bank angle measurements. A modified procedure table is now included that describes
how to make slope and bearing measurements when starting at the most upstream
transect and moving downstream.
B.6 PERIPHYTON
Changes to the periphyton sampling procedures (Section 9) from those previously
published for EMAP-SW (Hill 1998), and modifications made during EMAP-W are
summarized in Table B-5. Changes included increasing the number of transects where
samples are collected, and reducing the number of composite samples from two to one per
site. Also, preleached and preweighed glass-fiber filters were no longer required. An
optional procedure to collect an additional ID/enumeration sample from a single "targeted"
habitat type at each stream was developed in 2002. This procedure (see Section 9.4), is
modified from one developed by Hawkins et al. (2001) for use in western streams and
rivers, which in turn was adapted from the U.S. EPA Rapid Bioassessment Protocol
(Stevenson and Bahls 1999). The objective of this additional sample was to allow for a
comparison of the assessment of the periphyton assemblage based on the standard EMAP
sampling procedure and the assessment based on a targeted habitat procedure used in a
separate study focusing on reference sites in the western U.S.
B.7 BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
Changes to the benthic macroinvertebrate sampling procedures (Section 10) from
those previously published for EMAP-SW (Klemm et al. 1998b), and modifications made
during EMAP-W are summarized in Table B-6. Changes included using a different net and
preparing a single composite sample for each site, as opposed to keeping flowing water
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TABLE B-5. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN PERIPHYTON PROCEDURES FOR THE
WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Changes from Hill (1998)
1. The number of transects where periphyton samples are collected is increased from nine to
eleven.
2. A single composite sample is prepared from the 11 cross-section samples, rather than
preparing separating samples for flowing water (erosional) and slow water (depositional)
transect samples.
3. The same glass-fiber filters are now used for both chlorophyll and biomass samples.
Previously a pretreated and preweighed filter was provided to use for the biomass sample.
Modifications from Year 2000 EMAP-W Activities
1. Filters for chlorophyll and biomass are no longer wrapped in foil, but are folded and placed in
separate 50-mL centrifuge tubes, which are labeled and then placed in a black plastic bag.
2. Samples for acid/alkaline phosphatase activity (APA) were no longer collected beginning in
2001.
Modifications from Year 2001 EMAP-W Activities
1. Clarified that sampling points should be located 1 m downstream of each transect to avoid
disturbing substrates that are part of the physical habitat characterization.
2. Determined the preserved ID/Enumeration sample could be shipped with the rest of the
periphyton samples.
Modifications from Year 2002 EMAP-W Activities
1. Volumes of subsample and preservative were adjusted for use with diluted formalin solutions.
2. Centrifuge tubes holding filters were wrapped in aluminum foil before storage to protect them
from light.
3. Developed optional collection procedure to obtain an additional periphyton sample from a
targeted habitat.
{riffle) and slack water (poo/) samples separate. Modifications during EMAP-W were minor,
involving clarifications to existing procedures.
B.8 AQUATIC VERTEBRATES
Changes to the aquatic vertebrate sampling procedures (Section 11) from those
previously published for EMAP-SW (McCormick et al. 1998), and modifications made
during EMAP-W are summarized in Table B-7. Changes included the specific inclusion of
other aquatic vertebrates besides fish, eliminating recording different types of external
anomalies and reducing the number of total length measurements to just the largest and
smallest individual of each species. Most of the modifications focused on clarifications to
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the vouchering procedures and recording information required by scientific collecting
permits.
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TABLE B-6. SUMMARY OF CHANGES TO BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATE
PROCEDURES FOR THE WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Changes from Klemm et al. (1998)
1. Two types of samples are collected, a Reachwide sample and a Targeted Riffle sample. The
Reachwide sample is collected from transects spaced evenly throughout the reach, as
described in Klemm et al. (1998). The Targeted Riffle sample is collected from riffle areas only
(i.e., if no riffle areas are present, the sample is not collected).
2. The number of kick samples in the Reachwide sample was increased from 9 (transects B
through J) to 11 (Transects A through K). The number of kick samples in the Targeted Riffle
sample is 8.
3. Each sample type is prepared as a single composite sample. For the Reachwide sample, all
kick samples are combined into a single composite sample, replacing the RIFFLE composite
and the POOL composite samples.
4. The sampling device was changed from a rectangular kick net to a D-Frame design. Mesh size
decreased from 595 jjm to 500 jjm. The width of the net decreased from 18 in. to 12 in. (50 cm
to 30 cm).
5. The area of each kick net sample was reduced from 0.5 m2 to 0.09 m2 (1 ft2).
6. The time for each kick net sample was increased from 20 seconds to 30 seconds.
Modifications from EMAP-W Year 2000 Activities:
1. Clarified procedure for collecting at sampling points choked with vegetation.
2. Field form was modified to record the microhabitat type (pool, glide, riffle, rapid) for each
Reachwide kick net sample.
Modifications from EMAP-W Year 2001 Activities:
1. Clarified that sampling points should be located 1 m downstream of each transect to avoid
disturbing substrates that are part of the physical habitat characterization.
2. Emphasized accurate record keeping in terms of samples actually being collected and the
correct number of jars for each sample recorded.
3. Provided approach for collecting samples located within beds of long, filamentous vegetation.
4. Clarified the identification of substrate types within a sampling quadrat.
5. Clarified option of waiting to preserve samples until arrival back at the vehicle.
B.9 FISH TISSUE CONTAMINANTS
Procedures for obtaining fish tissue samples (Section 12) are adapted from Yeardley et al.
(1998). For EMAP-W, a priority list of target species for small fish was not developed
because many smaller species are regionally endemic relative to the scale of EMAP-W.
The expectation was that for a given site, the most common small fish species in the region
would be collected and retained as the small fish sample. This species would probably be
a cyprinid most places, and a sculpin in others, which matched up fairly well with the MAHA
priority list (Yeardley et al. 1998). The target list for larger fish was modified to replace
eastern species with western counterparts. In 2001, procedures of preparing, labeling, and
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TABLE B-7. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN AQUATIC VERTEBRATE PROCEDURES FOR THE
WESTERN PILOT STUDY
Changes from McCormick and Hughes (1998)
1. Aquatic vertebrates collected from each subreach (i.e., between transects) were now tallied
and recorded on separate field data forms.
2. Crayfish collected during aquatic vertebrate sampling were now counted and retained as part of
the aquatic vertebrate sample.
3. Recording the occurrence of specific types of external anomalies was no longer required.
4. Determination of total lengths of 30 individual fish of each dominant species collected was no
longer required.
Modifications from Year 2000 EMAP-W Activities
1. Aquatic vertebrates (and crayfish) were now tallied and recorded on a single data form for each
reach; all subreaches where a species was collected were noted on the form.
2. Procedures for dealing with wide (>20 m) yet wadeable reaches were clarified and/or included.
Modifications from Year 2001 EMAP-W Activities
1. Procedures and field forms were revised to keep better track of sites where collection permits
restricted or prohibited sampling for vertebrates, and to identify sites where all subreaches were
not sampled.
2. The rationale for vouchering was clarified to provide additional detail regarding photographing
voucher specimens.
Modifications from Year 2002 EMAP-W Activities
1. Field forms were revised to include conductivity and water temperature to facilitate collection
permit reports.
2. Vouchering procedure was revised to emphasize that at least one voucher specimen of each
species be retained (preserved or photographed) to allow for confirmation of range extensions.
tracking individual fish samples were clarified. In 2002, the use of more ice in shipments
was emphasized.
B.10 RAPID HABITAT AND GENERAL VISUAL ASSESSMENTS
Changes in the rapid habitat assessment procedure (Barbour et al. 1999) from those
published previously for EMAP-SW (Lazorchak et al. 1998b), and the original RBP
procedures (Plafkin et al. 1989), involve additional assessment parameters for high
gradient streams and a more appropriate set of parameters for low gradient streams,
based on refinements from various applications across the country. Modifications during
EMAP-W included making the visual habitat assessment an optional activity after the first
year (2000). Modifications to the visual assessment procedure during EMAP-W included
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adding a general description of weather conditions at a site and adding evidence of fire as
a disturbance type.
B.11 LITERATURE CITED
Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid bioassessment
protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic macro-
invertebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA/841 -B-99-002. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, Assessment and Watershed Protection Division,
Washington, D.C.
Herlihy, A.T. 1998a. Initial site procedures. Pages 45-56 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm,
and D.V. Peck (editors.). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-
Surface Waters: field operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition
of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Herlihy, A.T. 1998b. Water chemistry. Pages 57-65 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and
D.V. Peck (editors). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface
Waters: field operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of
wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Hawkins, C.P., J. Ostermiller, M. Vinson, and R.J. Stevenson. 2001. Algae, invertebrate,
and environmental sampling associated with biological water quality assessments.
Unpublished report available from www.usu.edu/buglab/monitor/USUproto.pdf.
Hill, B.H. 1998. Periphyton. Pages 199-132 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V.
Peck (editors.). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters:
field operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable
streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C.
Kaufmann, P.R. 1998. Stream Discharge. Pages 67-76 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm,
and D.V. Peck (editors). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface
Waters: field operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of
wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Kaufmann, P.R. and E.G. Robison. 1998. Physical habitat assessment. Pages 77-118 in
Lazorchak, J.L., Klemm, D.J., and D.V. Peck (editors). Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program - Surface Waters: field operations and methods for measuring
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the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.
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EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 15 of 16
Klemm, D.J., B.H. Hill, F.H. McCormick, and M.K. McDowell. 1998a. Base location
activities. Pages 27-44 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (editors).
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations
and methods for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable streams.
EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Klemm, D.J., J.M. Lazorchak, and P.A. Lewis. 1998b. Benthic macroinvertebrates.
Pages. 147-182 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (editors).
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations
and methods for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable streams.
EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Lazorchak, J.M., D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (editors). Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations and methods for measuring
the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Lazorchak, J.M., A.T. Herlihy, and J. Green. 1998b. Rapid habitat and visual stream
assessments. Pages 193-209 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck
(editors). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field
operations and methods for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable streams.
EPA/620/R-94/004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
McCormick, F.H., and R.M. Hughes. 1998. Aquatic Vertebrates. Pages 161-182 in J.M.
Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (editors). Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations and methods for measuring
the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94-004F. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross, and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid
bioassessment protocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macroinvertebrates
and fish. EPA/440/4-89/001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Assessment
and Watershed Protection Division, Washington, D.C.
Stevenson, R.J. and L.L. Bahls. 1999. Periphyton protocols. Pages 6-1 to 6-23 in M.D.
Barbour, J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. Rapid bioassessment protocols
for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic macroinvertebrates, and
fish. 2nd edition. EPA 841/B-99/002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
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EMAP-Surface Water Field Procedures), Rev. 0, October 2006 Page 16 of 16
Yeardley, R.B., J.M. Lazorchak, and F.H. McCormick. 1998. Fish tissue contaminants.
Pages 183-192 in J.M. Lazorchak, D.J. Klemm, and D.V. Peck (editors). Environ-
mental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters: field operations and
methods for measuring the ecological condition of wadeable streams. EPA/620/R-94-
004F. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
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APPENDIX C
FIELD DATA FORMS
Two files containing the field data forms illustrated in this manual are provided on
the CD-ROM:
17A_blank_stream_1_each.pdf. Provides a single copy of each form.
17B_blank_stream_all.pdf. Provides a complete set of blank forms (including
multiple copies where required) that would be
used at a site.
The files are in Adobe portable document file (pdf) format. Software to read and print
these files (Adobe Acrobat Reader®) can be obtained free from www.adobe.com. Note
that Acrobat Reader cannot be used to edit the forms. The files are formatted for double-
sided printing.
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APPENDIX D
INVASIVE RIPARIAN PLANT IDENTIFICATION GUIDES
The following two files on the CD-ROM contains color images and associated
information to identify the 12 plants selected as target species in EMAP-W in the field:
18A_Appendixd_lnvasive_Riparian_Plant_ID_Guide_Low_Resolution_Version.pdf
18A_Appendixd_lnvasive_Riparian_Plant_ID_Guide_Full_Resolution_Version.pdf
The first file contains low-resolution images, suitable for viewing on a computer screen.
This file may also produce suitable hard copy output on many printers. The second file
contains high-resolution images, and can be used if the if the low-resolution version does
not produce a satisfactory hard copy. The files are in Adobe portable document file (pdf)
format. Software to read and print this file (Adobe Acrobat Reader®) can be obtained free
from www.adobe.com. Note that Acrobat Reader cannot be used to edit the forms. The
files are formatted for double-sided printing.
All images are used by permission. Rights for the use of any image beyond this field
manual must be secured from the copyright holder.
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