*>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Technical Fact Sheet -
1,4-Dioxane
January 2014
TECHNICAL FACT SHEET - 1,4-DIOXANE
Introduction
This fact sheet, developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office (FFRRO), provides a
summary of the contaminant 1,4-dioxane, including physical and chemical
properties; environmental and health impacts; existing federal and state
guidelines; detection and treatment methods; and additional sources of
information. This fact sheet is intended for use by site managers who may
address 1,4-dioxane at cleanup sites or in drinking water supplies and for
those in a position to consider whether 1,4-dioxane should be added to the
analytical suite for site investigations.
1,4-Dioxane is a likely human carcinogen and has been found in
groundwater at sites throughout the United States. The physical and
chemical properties and behavior of 1,4-dioxane create challenges for its
characterization and treatment. It is highly mobile and has not been shown
to readily biodegrade in the environment.
What is 1,4-dioxane?
1,4-Dioxane is a synthetic industrial chemical that is completely miscible
in water (EPA 2006).
Synonyms include dioxane, dioxan, p-dioxane, diethylene dioxide,
diethylene oxide, diethylene ether and glycol ethylene ether
(EPA 2006; Mohr2001).
1,4-Dioxane is unstable at elevated temperatures and pressures and
may form explosive mixtures with prolonged exposure to light or air
(DHHS2011; HSDB 2011).
1,4-Dioxane is a likely contaminant at many sites contaminated with
certain chlorinated solvents (particularly 1,1,1-trichloroethane [TCA])
because of its widespread use as a stabilizer for chlorinated solvents
(EPA 2013a; Mohr2001)
It is used as: a stabilizer for chlorinated solvents such as TCA; a solvent
for impregnating cellulose acetate membrane filters; a wetting and
dispersing agent in textile processes; and a laboratory cryoscopic solvent
for molecular mass determinations (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011; EPA
2006).
It is used in many products, including paint strippers, dyes, greases,
varnishes and waxes. 1,4-Dioxane is also found as an impurity in
antifreeze and aircraft deicing fluids and in some consumer products
(deodorants, shampoos and cosmetics) (ATSDR 2012; EPA 2006; Mohr
2001).
Disclaimer: The U.S. EPA prepared this fact sheet from publically-available
sources; additional information can be obtained from the source documents. This
fact sheet is not intended to be used as a primary source of information and is not
intended, nor can it be relied upon, to create any rights enforceable by any party
in litigation with the United States. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
At a Glance
~	Flammable liquid and a fire
hazard. Potentially explosive if
exposed to light or air.
~	Found at many federal facilities
because of its widespread use
as a stabilizer in certain
chlorinated solvents, paint
strippers, greases and waxes.
~	Short-lived in the atmosphere,
may leach readily from soil to
groundwater, migrates rapidly
in groundwater and is relatively
resistant to biodegradation in
the subsurface.
~	Classified by the EPA as "likely
to be carcinogenic to humans"
by all routes of exposure.
~	Short-term exposure may
cause eye, nose and throat
irritation; long-term exposure
may cause kidney and liver
damage.
~	No federal maximum
contaminant level (MCL) has
been established for
1,4-dioxane in drinking water.
~	Federal screening levels, state
health-based drinking water
guidance values and federal
occupational exposure limits
have been established.
~	Modifications to existing
sample preparation procedures
may be required to achieve the
increased sensitivity needed for
detection of 1,4-dioxane.
~	Common treatment
technologies include advanced
oxidation processes and
bioremediation.
United States
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response (5106P)
1
EPA 505-F-14-011
January 2014

-------
Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane
What is 1,4-dioxane? (continued)
1,4-Dioxane is used as a purifying agent in the
manufacture of pharmaceuticals and is a by-
product in the manufacture of polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) plastic (Mohr2001).
Traces of 1,4-dioxane may be present in some
food supplements, food containing residues from
packaging adhesives or on food crops treated with
pesticides that contain 1,4-dioxane as a solvent or
inert ingredient (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011).
Exhibit 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of 1,4-Dioxane
(ATSDR 2012; Howard 1990; HSDB 2011)
Property
Value
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Number
123-91-1
Physical Description (physical state at room temperature)
Clear, flammable liquid with a faint, pleasant
odor
Molecular weight (g/mol)
88.11
Water solubility
Miscible
Melting point (°C)
11.8
Boiling point (°C) at 760 mm Hg
101.1 °C
Vapor pressure at 25°C (mm Hg)
38.1
Specific gravity
1.033
Octanol-water partition coefficient (log Kow)
-0.27
Organic carbon partition coefficient (log Koc)
1.23
Henry's law constant at 25 °C (atm-m3/mol)
4.80 X 10 s
Abbreviations: g/mol - grams per mole; °C - degrees Celsius; mm Hg ¦
atm-m3/mol - atmosphere-cubic meters per mole.
millimeters of mercury;
What are the environmental impacts of 1,4-dioxane?
1,4-Dioxane is released into the environment
during its production, the processing of other
chemicals, its use and its generation as an
impurity during the manufacture of some
consumer products. It is typically found at some
solvent release sites and PET manufacturing
facilities (ATSDR 2012; Mohr2001).
It is short-lived in the atmosphere, with an
estimated 1- to 3-day half-life as a result of its
reaction with photochemically produced hydroxyl
radicals (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011). Breakdown
products include aldehydes and ketones (Graedel
1986).
It may migrate rapidly in groundwater, ahead of
other contaminants and does not volatilize rapidly
from surface water bodies (DHHS 2011; EPA
2006).
Migration to groundwater is weakly retarded by
sorption of 1,4-dioxane to soil particles; it is
expected to move rapidly from soil to groundwater
(EPA 2006; ATSDR 2012).
It is relatively resistant to biodegradation in water
and soil and does not bioconcentrate in the food
chain (ATSDR 2012; Mohr2001).
As of 2007, 1,4-dioxane had been identified at
more than 31 sites on the EPA National Priorities
List (NPL); it may be present (but samples were
not analyzed for it) at many other sites (HazDat
2007).
What are the routes of exposure and the health effects of 1,4-dioxane?
Potential exposure could occur during production
and use of 1,4-dioxane as a stabilizer or solvent
(DHHS 2011).
Exposure may occur through inhalation of vapors,
ingestion of contaminated food and water or
dermal contact (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011).
Inhalation is the most common route of human
exposure, and workers at industrial sites are at
greatest risk of repeated inhalation exposure
(ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011).
2

-------
Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane
What are the routes of exposure and the health effects of 1,4-dioxane?
(continued)
1,4-Dioxane is readily adsorbed through the
lungs and gastrointestinal tract. Some
1,4-dioxane may also pass through the skin, but
studies indicate that much of it will evaporate
before it is absorbed. Distribution is rapid and
uniform in the lung, liver, kidney, spleen, colon
and skeletal muscle tissue (ATSDR 2012).
Short-term exposure to high levels of 1,4-
dioxane may result in nausea, drowsiness,
headache, and irritation of the eyes, nose and
throat (ATSDR 2012; EPA 2013b; NIOSH 2010).
Chronic exposure may result in dermatitis,
eczema, drying and cracking of skin and liver
and kidney damage (ATSDR 2012; HSDB
2011).
1,4-Dioxane is weakly genotoxic and
reproductive effects in humans are unknown;
however, a developmental study on rats
indicated that 1,4-dioxane may be slightly toxic
to the developing fetus (ATSDR 2012; Giavini
and others 1985).
Animal studies showed increased incidences of
nasal cavity, liver and gall bladder tumors after
exposure to 1,4-dioxane (DHHS 2011; EPA IRIS
2013).
EPA has classified 1,4-dioxane as "likely to be
carcinogenic to humans" by all routes of
exposure (EPA IRIS 2013).
The U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services states that 1,4-dioxane is reasonably
anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on
sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from
studies in experimental animals (DHHS 2011).
The American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has classified
1,4-dioxane as a Group A3 carcinogen —
confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown
relevance to humans (ACGIH 2011).
The National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) considers 1,4-dioxane a
potential occupational carcinogen (NIOSH
2010).
Are there any federal and state guidelines and health standards for
1,4-dioxane?
Federal and State Standards and Guidelines:
¦	EPA's Integrated Risk Information System
(IRIS) database includes a chronic oral
reference dose (RfD) of 0.03 milligrams per
kilogram per day (mg/kg/day) based on liver
and kidney toxicity in animals and a chronic
inhalation reference dose (RfC) of 0.03
milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) based
on atrophy and respiratory metaplasia inside
the nasal cavity of animals (EPA IRIS 2013).
¦	The Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry (ATSDR) has established
minimal risk levels (MRLs) for inhalation
exposure to 1,4-dioxane : 2 parts per million
(ppm) for acute-duration (14 days or less)
inhalation exposure; 0.2 ppm for
intermediate-duration (15 to 364 days)
inhalation exposure; and 0.03 ppm for
chronic-duration (365 days or more)
inhalation exposure (ATSDR 2012).
¦	Oral exposure MRLs have been identified as
5 mg/kg/day for acute-duration oral
exposure; 0.5 mg/kg/day for intermediate-
duration oral exposure; and 0.1 mg/kg/day
for chronic-duration oral exposure (ATSDR
2012).
The cancer risk assessment for 1,4-dioxane
is based on an oral slope factor of 0.1
mg/kg/day and the drinking water unit risk is
2.9 x 10"6 micrograms per liter (|jg/L) (EPA
IRIS 2013).
EPA risk assessments indicate that the
drinking water concentration representing a
1x10" cancer risk level for 1,4-dioxane is
0.35 ng/l_ (EPA IRIS 2013).
1,4-Dioxane may be regulated as hazardous
waste when waste is generated through use
as a solvent stabilizer (EPA 1996b).
No federal maximum contaminant level
(MCL) for drinking water has been
established; however, an MCL is not
necessary to determine a cleanup level
(EPA 2012).
1,4-Dioxane was included on the third
drinking water contaminant candidate list,
which is a list of unregulated contaminants
that are known to, or anticipated to, occur in
public water systems and may require
regulation under the Safe Drinking Water
Act (EPA 2009).
3

-------
Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane
Are there any federal and state guidelines and health standards for
1,4-dioxane? (continued)
~ Federal and State Standards and Guidelines
(continued):
¦	The EPA has established drinking water
health advisories for 1,4-dioxane, which are
drinking water-specific risk level
concentrations for cancer (10~4 cancer risk)
and concentrations of drinking water
contaminants at which noncancer adverse
health effects are not anticipated to occur over
specific exposure durations. The EPA
established a 1-day health advisory of 4.0
milligrams per liter (mg/L) and a 10-day health
advisory of 0.4 mg/L for 1,4-dioxane in
drinking water for a 10-kilogram child. EPA
also established a lifetime health advisory of
0.2 mg/L for 1,4-dioxane in drinking water
(EPA 2012).
¦	The EPA's drinking water equivalent level for
1,4-dioxane is 1 mg/L (EPA 2012).
¦	EPA has calculated a screening level of 0.67
|jg/L for 1,4-dioxane in tap water, based on a
1 in 10~6 lifetime excess cancer risk (EPA
2013c). 1,2
¦	EPA has calculated a residential soil
screening level (SSL) of 4.9 milligrams per
kilogram (mg/kg) and an industrial SSL of 17
mg/kg. The soil-to-groundwater risk-based
SSL is 1.4 x10"4 mg/kg (EPA 2013c).
¦	EPA has also calculated a residential air
screening level of 0.49 micrograms per cubic
meter (|jg/m3) and an industrial air screening
level of 2.5 |jg/m3 (EPA 2013c).
1	Screening Levels are developed using risk assessment guidance
from the EPA Superfund program. These risk-based concentrations
are derived from standardized equations combining exposure
information assumptions with EPA toxicity data. These calculated
screening levels are generic and not enforceable cleanup standards
but provide a useful gauge of relative toxicity.
2	Tap water screening levels differ from the IRIS drinking water
concentrations because the tap water screening levels account for
dermal, inhalation and ingestion exposure routes; age-adjust the
intake rates for children and adults based on body weight; and time-
adjust for exposure duration or days per year. The IRIS drinking
water concentrations consider only the ingestion route, account only
for adult-intake rates and do not time-adjust for exposure duration or
days per year.
~	Workplace Exposure Limits:
¦	The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration set a general industry
permissible exposure limit of 360 mg/m3 or 100
ppm based on a time-weighted average (TWA)
over an 8-hour workday for airborne exposure
to 1,4-dioxane (OSHA 2013).
¦	The ACGIH set a threshold limit value of 72
mg/m3 or 20 ppm based on a TWA over an 8-
hour workday for airborne exposure to 1,4-
dioxane (ACGIH 2011).
¦	The NIOSH has set a ceiling recommended
exposure limit of 3.6 mg/m3 or 1 ppm based on
a 30-minute airborne exposure to 1,4-dioxane
(NIOSH 2010).
¦	NIOSH also has established an immediately
dangerous to life or health concentration of 500
ppm for 1,4-dioxane (NIOSH 2010).
~	Other State and Federal Standards and
Guidelines:
¦	Various states have established drinking water
and groundwater guidelines, including the
following:
-	Colorado has established an interim
groundwater quality cleanup standard of
0.35 jjg/L (CDPHE 2012);
-	California has established a notification
level of 1 |jg/L for drinking water (CDPH
2011);
-	New Hampshire has established a
reporting limit of 0.25 |jg/L for all public
water supplies (NH DES 2011); and
-	Massachusetts has established a drinking
water guideline level of 0.3 |jg/L (Mass
DEP 2012).
¦	The Food and Drug Administration set 10
mg/kg as the limit for 1-4-dioxane in glycerides
and polyglycerides for use in products such as
dietary supplements. FDA also surveys raw
material and products contaminated with
1,4-dioxane (FDA 2006).
¦	1,4-Dioxane is listed as a hazardous air
pollutant under the Clean Air Act (CAA) (CAA
1990).
¦	A reportable quantity of 100 pounds has been
established under the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (EPA 2011).

-------
Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane
What detection and site characterization methods are available for
1,4-dioxane?
As a result of the limitations in the analytical
methods to detect 1,4-dioxane, it has been difficult
to identify its occurrence in the environment. The
miscibility of 1,4-dioxane in water causes poor
purging efficiency and results in high detection
limits (ATSDR 2012; EPA 2006).
Conventional analytical methods can detect
1,4-dioxane only at concentrations 100 times
greater than the concentrations of volatile organic
compounds (EPA 2006; Mohr2001).
Modifications of existing analytical methods and
their sample preparation procedures may be
needed to achieve lower detection limits for
1,4-dioxane (EPA 2006; Mohr 2001).
High-temperature sample preparation techniques
improve the recovery of 1,4-dioxane. These
techniques include purging at elevated
temperature (EPA SW-846 Method 5030);
equilibrium headspace analysis (EPA SW-846
Method 5021); vacuum distillation (EPA SW-846
Method 8261); and azeotrophic distillation (EPA
SW-846 Method 5031) (EPA 2006).
The presence of 1,4-dioxane may be expected at
sites with extensive TCA contamination; therefore,
some experts recommend that groundwater
samples be analyzed for 1,4-dioxane where TCA
is a known contaminant (Mohr 2001).
NIOSH Method 1602 uses gas chromatography-
flame ionization detection (GC-FID) to determine
the concentration of 1,4-dioxane in air. The
detection limit is 0.01 milligram per sample
(ATSDR 2012; NIOSH 2010).
EPA SW-846 Method 8015D uses gas
chromatography (GC) to determine the
concentration of 1,4-dioxane in environmental
samples. Samples may be introduced into the GC
column by a variety of techniques including the
injection of the concentrate from azeotropic
distillation (EPA SW-846 Method 5031). The
detection limits for 1,4-dioxane in aqueous
matrices by azeotropic microdistillation are 12 |jg/L
(reagent water), 15 |jg/L (groundwater) and 16
jjg/L (leachate) (EPA 2003).
EPA SW-846 Method 8260B detects 1,4-dioxane
in a variety of solid waste matrices using GC and
mass spectrometry (MS). The detection limit
depends on the instrument and choice of sample
preparation method (ATSDR 2012; EPA 1996a).
A laboratory study is underway to develop a
passive flux meter (PFM) approach to enhance the
capture of 1,4-dioxane in the PFM sorbent to
improve accuracy. The selected PFM approach
will be field tested at 1,4-dioxane contaminated
sites. The anticipated projection completion date is
2014 (DoD SERDP 2013b).
EPA Method 1624 uses isotopic dilution gas
chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to
detect 1,4-dioxane in water, soil and municipal
sludges. The detection limit for this method is 10
jjg/L (ATSDR 2012; EPA 2001b).
EPA SW-846 Method 8270 uses liquid-liquid
extraction and isotope dilution by capillary column
GC-MS. This method is often modified for the
detection of low levels of 1,4-dioxane in water
(EPA 2007, 2013a)
GC-MS detection methods using solid phase
extraction followed by desorption with an organic
solvent have been developed to remove
1,4-dioxane from the aqueous phase. Detection
limits as low as 0.024 |jg/L have been achieved by
passing the aqueous sample through an activated
carbon column, following by elution with acetone-
dichlormethane (ATSDR 2012; Kadokami and
others 1990).
EPA Method 522 uses solid phase extraction and
GC/MS with selected ion monitoring for the
detection of 1,4-dioxane in drinking water with
detection limits ranging from 0.02 to 0.026 ug/L
(EPA 2008).
What technologies are being used to treat 1,4-dioxane?
Pump-and-treat remediation can treat dissolved
1,4-dioxane in groundwater and control
groundwater plume migration, but requires ex situ
treatment tailored for the unique properties of
1,4-dioxane (such as, a low octanol-water partition
coefficient that makes 1,4-dioxane hydrophilic)
(EPA 2006; Kiker and others 2010).
Commercially available advanced oxidation
processes using hydrogen peroxide with ultraviolet
light or ozone is used to treat 1,4-dioxane in
wastewater (Asano and others 2012; EPA 2006).
A study is under way to investigate facilitated-
transport enabled in situ chemical oxidation to
treat 1,4-dioxane-contamined source zones and
groundwater plumes effectively. The technical
approach consists of the co-injection of strong
oxidants (such as ozone) with chemical agents
that facilitate the transport of the oxidant (DoD
SERDP 2013d).
5

-------
Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane
What technologies are being used to treat 1,4-dioxane? (continued)
Ex situ bioremediation using a fixed-film, moving-
bed biological treatment system is also used to
treat 1,4-dioxane in groundwater (EPA 2006).
Phytoremediation is being explored as a means to
remove the compound from shallow groundwater.
Pilot-scale studies have demonstrated the ability
of hybrid poplars to take up and effectively
degrade or deactivate 1,4-dioxane (EPA 2001a,
2013a; Ferro and others 2013).
Microbial degradation in engineered bioreactors
has been documented under enhanced conditions
or where selected strains of bacteria capable of
degrading 1,4-dioxane are cultured, but the impact
of the presence of chlorinated solvent co-
contaminants on biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane
needs to be further investigated (EPA 2006,
2013a; Mahendra and others 2013).
Results from a 2012 laboratory study found
1,4-dioxane-transforming activity to be relatively
common among monooxygenase-expressing
bacteria; however, both TCA and
1,1-dichloroethene inhibited 1,4-dioxane
degradation by bacterial isolates (DoD SERDP
2012).
Several Department of Defense Strategic
Environmental Research and Development
Program (DoD SERDP) projects are underway to
investigate 1,4-dioxane biodegradation in the
presence of chlorinated solvents or metals.
Laboratory studies will (1) identify microbial
cultures as well as biogeochemistry, which
generate desirable enzymatic activity for
1,4-dioxane biodegradation; (2) assess
biodegradation by methane oxidizing bacteria in
coupled anaerobic-aerobic zones; (3) and
evaluate branched hydrocarbons as stimulants for
the in situ cometabolic biodegradation of
1,4-dioxane and its associated co-contaminants
(DoD SERDP 2013c, e and f).
Photocatalysis has been shown to remove
1,4-dioxane in aqueous solutions. Laboratory
studies documented that the surface plasmon
resonance of gold nanoparticles on titanium
dioxide (Au - Ti02) promotes the photocatalytic
degradation of 1,4-dioxane (Min and others 2009;
Vescovi and others 2010).
Other in-well combined treatment technologies
being assessed include air sparging; soil vapor
extraction (SVE); and dynamic subsurface
groundwater circulation (Odah and others 2005).
SVE is known to remove some 1,4-dioxane, but
substantial residual contamination is usually left
behind because of 1,4-dioxane's high solubility,
which leads to preferential partitioning into pore
water rather than vapor. The DoD SERDP is
conducting a project to evaluate and demonstrate
the efficacy of enhanced or extreme SVE, which
uses a combination of increased airflow,
sweeping with drier air, increased temperature,
decreased infiltration and more focused vapor
extraction to enhance 1,4-dioxane remediation in
soils (DoD SERDP 2013a).
Where can I find more information about 1,4-dioxane?
Asano, M., Kishimoto, N., Shimada, H., and Y.
Ono. 2012. "Degradation of 1,4-Dioxane Using
Ozone Oxidation with UV Irradiation (Ozone/UV)
Treatment." Journal of Environmental Science and
Engineering. Volume A (1). Pages 371 to 279.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry (ATSDR). 2012. "Toxicological Profile for
1,4-Dioxane."
www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp187.pdf
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH). 2011. "2011 Threshold Limit
Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents Biological Exposure Indices."
Cincinnati, Ohio.
California Department of Public Health (CDPH).
2011. "1,4-Dioxane." Drinking Water Systems.
www.cdph.ca.qov/certlic/drinkinqwater/Paqes/1.4-
dioxane.aspx
~	Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAA). 1990.
"Hazardous Air Pollutants". 42 USC § 7412.
~	Colorado Department of Public Health and the
Environment (CDPHE). 2012. "Notice of Public
Rulemaking Hearing before the Colorado Water
Quality Control Commission." Regulation No. 31
and No. 41.
www.sos.state.co.us/CCR/Upload/NoticeOfRulem
akinq/ProposedRuleAttach2012-00387.PDF
~	Ferro, A.M., Kennedy, J., and J.C. LaRue. 2013.
"Phytoremediation of 1,4-Dioxane-Containing
Recovered Groundwater." International Journal of
Phytoremediation. Volume 15. Pages 911 to 923.
~	Giavini, E., Vismara, C., and M.L Broccia. 1985.
"Teratogenesis Study of Dioxane in Rats."
Toxicology Letters. Volume 26 (1). Pages. 85 to
88.
6

-------
Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane
Where can I find more information about 1,4-dioxane? (continued)
Graedel, T.E. 1986. Atmospheric Chemical
Compounds. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB). 2011.
"1,4-Dioxane." http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cqi-bin/
sis/htmlqen?HSDB
HazDat. 2007. "1,4-Dioxane." HazDat Database:
ATSDR's Hazardous Substance Release and
Health Effects Database. Atlanta, GA: Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
Howard, P.H. 1990. Handbook of Environmental
Fate and Exposure Data for Organic Chemicals.
Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, Ml. Pages 216 to
221.
Kadokami, K, Koga, M. and A. Otsuki. 1990. "Gas
Chromatography/Mass Spectrometric
Determination of Traces of Hydrophilic and
Volatile Organic Compounds in Water after
Preconcentration with Activated Carbon."
Analytical Sciences. Volume 6(6). Pages 843 to
849.
Kiker, J.H., Connolly, J.B., Murray, W.A., Pearson,
S.C.; Reed, S.E., and R.J. Robert. 2010. "Ex-Situ
Wellhead Treatment of 1,4-Dioxane Using
Fenton's Reagent." Proceedings of the Annual
International Conference on Soils, Sediments,
Water and Energy. Volume 15, Article 18.
Mahendra, S., Grostern, A. and L. Alvarez-Cohen.
2013. "The Impact of Chlorinated Solvent Co-
Contaminants on the Biodegradation Kinetics of
1,4-Dioxane." Chemosphere. Volume 91 (1).
Pages 88 to 92.
Massachusetts Department of Environmental
Protection (Mass DEP). 2012. "Standards and
Guidelines for Contaminants in Massachusetts
Drinking Waters."
www.mass.gov/dep/water/dwstand.pdf
Min, B.K., Heo, J.E., Youn, N.K., Joo, O.S., Lee,
H., Kim, J.H., and H.S. Kim. 2009. "Tuning of the
Photocatalytic 1,4-Dioxane Degradation with
Surface Plasmon Resonance of Gold
Nanoparticles on Titania." Catalysis
Communications. Volume 10 (5). Pages 712 to
715.
Mohr, T.K.G. 2001. "1,4-Dioxane and Other
Solvent Stabilizers White Paper." Santa Clara
Valley Water District of California. San Jose,
California.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH). 2010. "Dioxane." NIOSH Pocket
Guide to Chemical Hazards.
www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0237.html
New Hampshire Department of Environmental
Services (NH DES). 2011 "Change in Reporting
Limit for 1,4-Dioxane."
http://des.nh.gov/organization/divisions/waste/hwr
b/sss/hwrp/documents/repo rt-limits14dioxane.pdf
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA). 2013. "Dioxane." Chemical Sampling
Information, www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/
data/CH 237200.html
Odah, M.M., Powell, R., and D.J. Riddle. 2005.
"ART In-Well Technology Proves Effective in
Treating 1,4-Dioxane Contamination."
Remediation Journal. Volume 15 (3), Pages 51 to
64.
U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). Strategic
Environmental Research and Development
Program (SERDP). 2012. "Oxygenase-Catalyzed
Biodegradation of Emerging Water Contaminants:
1,4-Dioxane and N-Nitrosodimethylamine." ER-
1417. www.serdp.org/Program-Areas/
Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated-
Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-1417/ER-1417
DoD SERDP. 2013a. "1,4-Dioxane Remediation
by Extreme Soil Vapor Extraction (XSVE)." ER-
201326. www.serdp.org/Program-Areas/
Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated-Ground
water/Emerging-lssues/ER-201326/ER-201326
DoD SERDP. 2013b. "Development of a Passive
Flux Meter Approach to Quantifying 1,4-Dioxane
Mass Flux." ER-2304. www.serdp.org/Program-
Areas/Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated-
Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-2304/ER-2304/
DoD SERDP. 2013c. "Evaluation of Branched
Hydrocarbons as Stimulants for In Situ
Cometabolic Biodegradation of 1,4-Dioxane and
Its Associated Co-Contaminants." ER-2303.
www.serdp.org/Program-Areas/Environmental-
Restoration/Contaminated-Groundwater/
Emerging-lssues/ER-2303/ER-2303
DoD SERDP. 2013d. "Facilitated Transport
Enabled In Situ Chemical Oxidation of 1,4-
Dioxane-Contaminated Groundwater." ER-2302.
www.serdp.org/Program-Areas/Environmental-
Restoration/Contaminated-Groundwater/
Emerging-lssues/ER-2302/ER-2302/(language)/
eng-US
DoD SERDP. 2013e. "In Situ Biodegradation of
1,4-Dioxane: Effects of Metals and Chlorinated
Solvent Co-Contaminants." ER-2300.
www.serdp.org/Program-Areas/Environmental-
Restoration/Contaminated-Groundwater/
Emerging-lssues/ER-2300/ER-2300
7

-------
Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane
Where can I find more information about 1,4-dioxane? (continued)
DoD SERDP. 2013f. "In Situ Bioremediation of
1,4-Dioxane by Methane Oxidizing Bacteria in
Coupled Anaerobic-Aerobic Zones." ER-2306.
www.serdp.org/Program-Areas/Environmental-
Restoration/Contaminated-Groundwater/
Emerqinq-lssues/ER-2306/ER-2306
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(DHHS). 2011. "Report on Carcinogens, Twelfth
Edition." Public Health Service, National
Toxicology Program. 12th Edition.
http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/roc12.pdf
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
1996a. "Method 8260B: Volatile Organic
Compounds by Gas Chromatography/Mass
Spectrometry (GC/MS)." www.epa.gov/osw/
hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/8260b.pdf
EPA. 1996b. "Solvents Study." EPA 530-R-96-
017.
EPA. 2001a. "Brownfields Technology Primer:
Selecting and Using Phytoremediation for Site
Cleanup." EPA 542-R-01-006.
www.brownfieldstsc.org/pdfs/phvtoremprimer.pdf
EPA. 2001b. "Method 1624." Code of Federal
Regulations. Code of Federal Regulations. 40
CFR Part 136. Pages 274 to 287.
EPA. 2003. "Method 8015D: Nonhalogenated
Organics Using GC/FID." SW-846. www.epa.gov/
osw/hazard/testmethods/pdfs/8015d r4.pdf
EPA. 2006. "Treatment Technologies for
1,4-Dioxane: Fundamentals and Field
Applications." EPA 542-R-06-009.
www.epa.gov/tio/download/remed/542r06009.pdf
EPA. 2007. "Method 8270D: Semivolatile Organic
Compounds by Gas Chromatography/Mass
Spectrometry (GC/MS)."
EPA. 2008. "Method 522: Determination of
1,4-Dioxane in Drinking Water By Solid Phase
Extraction (SPE) and Gas Chromatography/Mass
Spectrometry (GC/MS) with Selected Ion
Monitoring (SIM)." EPA/600/R-08/101.
EPA. 2009. "Drinking Water Contaminant
Candidate List 3 - Final." Federal Register Notice.
www.federalregister.gov/articles/2009/10/Q8/E9-
24287/drinking-water-contaminant-candidate-list-
3-final
EPA. 2011. "Reportable Quantities of Hazardous
Substances Designated Pursuant to Section 311
of the Clean Water Act. Code of Federal
Regulations." 40 CFR 302.4.
www.gpo.gov/fdsvs/pkg/CFR-2011 -title40-
vol28/pdf/CFR-2011 -title40-vol28-sec302-4.pdf
EPA. 2012. "2012 Edition of Drinking Water
Standards and Health Advisories."
water.epa.gov/action/advisories/drinking/upload/d
wstandards2012.pdf
EPA. 2013a. "1,4-Dioxane." www.clu-in.org/conta
minantfocus/default.focus/sec/1,4-Dioxane/
cat/Overview/
EPA. 2013b. "1,4-Dioxane (1,4-Diethyleneoxide)."
Technology Transfer Network Air Toxics Website.
www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/dioxane.html
EPA. 2013c. Regional Screening Level (RSL)
Summary Table.
www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/human/rb-
concentration table/Generic Tables/index.htm
EPA. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS).
2013. "1,4-Dioxane (CASRN 123-91-1)."
www. e pa. g o v/i ris/s u bst/0326 .htm
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2006.
"Food Additives Permitted for Direct Addition to
Food for Human Consumption; Glycerides and
Polyglycides." Code of Federal Regulations. 21
CFR 172.736.
Vescovi, T., Coleman, H., and R. Amal. 2010.
"The Effect of pH on UV-Based Advanced
Oxidation Technologies - 1,4-Dioxane
Degradation." Journal of Hazardous Materials.
Volume 182. Pages 75 to 79.
Additional information on 1,4-dioxane can be found at
www.cluin.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/1.4-Dioxane/cat/Overview
Contact Information
If you have any questions or comments on this fact sheet, please contact: Mary Cooke, FFRRO, by phone at
(703) 603-8712 or by email at cooke.marvt@epa.gov.
8

-------