&EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane November 2017 TECHNICAL FACT SHEET - 1,4-DIOXANE Introduction This fact sheet, developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office (FFRRO), provides a summary of the emerging contaminant 1,4-dioxane, including physical and chemical properties; environmental and health impacts; existing federal and state guidelines; detection and treatment methods; and additional sources of information. This fact sheet is intended for use by site managers who may address 1,4-dioxane at cleanup sites or in drinking water supplies and for those in a position to consider whether 1,4-dioxane should be added to the analytical suite for site investigations. 1,4-Dioxane is a likely human carcinogen and has been found in groundwater at sites throughout the United States. The physical and chemical properties and behavior of 1,4-dioxane create challenges for its characterization and treatment. It is highly mobile and does not readily biodegrade in the environment. What is 1,4-dioxane? ~ 1,4-Dioxane is a synthetic industrial chemical that is completely miscible in water (EPA 2006; ATSDR 2012). ~ Synonyms include dioxane, dioxan, p-dioxane, diethylene dioxide, diethylene oxide, diethylene ether and glycol ethylene ether (EPA 2006; ATSDR 2012; Mohr2001). ~ 1,4-Dioxane is unstable at elevated temperatures and pressures and may form explosive mixtures with prolonged exposure to light or air (EPA 2006; HSDB 2011). ~ 1,4-Dioxane is a likely contaminant at many sites contaminated with certain chlorinated solvents (particularly 1,1,1-trichloroethane [TCA]) because of its widespread use as a stabilizer for chlorinated solvents (EPA 2013a; Mohr2001). Historically, the main use (90 percent) of 1,4- dioxane was as a stabilizer of chlorinated solvents such as TCA (ATSDR 2012). Use of TCA was phased out under the 1995 Montreal Protocol and the use of 1,4-dioxane as a solvent stabilizer was terminated (ECJRC 2002; NTP 2016). Lack of recent reports for other previously reported uses suggest that many other industrial, commercial and consumer uses were also stopped. Disclaimer: The U.S. EPA prepared this fact sheet using the most recent publicly- available scientific information; additional information can be obtained from the source documents. This fact sheet is not intended to be used as a primary source of information and is not intended, nor can it be relied on, to create any rights enforceable by any party in litigation with the United States. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. At a Glance ~ Flammable liquid and a fire hazard. Potentially explosive if exposed to light or air. ~ Found at many federal facilities because of its widespread use as a stabilizer in certain chlorinated solvents, paint strippers, greases and waxes. ~ Short-lived in the atmosphere, may leach readily from soil to groundwater, migrates rapidly in groundwater and is relatively resistant to biodegradation in the subsurface. ~ Classified by EPA as "likely to be carcinogenic to humans" by all routes of exposure. ~ Short-term exposure may cause eye, nose and throat irritation; long-term exposure may cause kidney and liver damage. ~ Federal screening levels, state health-based drinking water guidance values and federal occupational exposure limits have been established. ~ Modifications to existing sample preparation procedures may be required to achieve the increased sensitivity needed for detection of 1,4-dioxane. ~ Common treatment technologies include advanced oxidation processes and bioremediation. ~ No federal maximum contaminant level (MCL) has been established for 1,4- dioxane in drinking water. United States Office of Land and Emergency EPA 505-F-17-011 Environmental Protection Agency Management (5106P) November 2017 1 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane ~ It is a by-product present in many goods, including paint strippers, dyes, greases, antifreeze and aircraft deicing fluids, and in some consumer products (deodorants, shampoos and cosmetics) (ATSDR 2012; Mohr2001). ~ 1,4-Dioxane is used as a purifying agent in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and is a by- product in the manufacture of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic (Mohr2001). ~ Traces of 1,4-dioxane may be present in some food supplements, food containing residues from packaging adhesives or on food crops treated with pesticides that contain 1,4-dioxane (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011). Exhibit 1: Physical and Chemical Properties of 1,4-Dioxane (ATSDR 2012) Property 1,4-Dioxane Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) number 123-91-1 Physical description (physical state at room temperature) Clear, flammable liquid with a faint, pleasant odor Molecular weight (g/mol) 88.11 Water solubility Miscible Melting point (°C) 11.8 Boiling point (°C) at 760 mm Hg 101.1 Vapor pressure at 25°C (mm Hg) 38.1 Specific gravity 1.033 Octanol-water partition coefficient (log Kow) -0.27 Organic carbon partition coefficient (log Koc) 1.23 Henry's law constant at 25 °C (atm-m3/mol) 4.80 X 10 ® Abbreviations: g/mol - grams per mole; °C - degrees Celsius; mm Hg - millimeters of mercury; atm-m3/mol - atmosphere- cubic meters per mole Existence of 1,4-dioxane in the environment 1,4-Dioxane is typically found at some solvent release sites and PET manufacturing facilities (ATSDR 2012; Mohr2001). It is short-lived in the atmosphere, with an estimated 1- to 3-day half-life due to photooxidation (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011). Migration to groundwater is weakly retarded by sorption of 1,4-dioxane to soil particles; it is expected to move rapidly from soil to groundwater (EPA 2006; ATSDR 2012). It is relatively resistant to biodegradation in water and soil, although recent studies have identified degrading bacteria (Inoue 2016; Pugazhendi 2015; Sales 2013). It does not bioaccumulate, biomagnify, or bioconcentrate in the food chain (ATSDR 2012; Mohr2001). 1,4-Dioxane is frequently present at sites with TCA contamination (Mohr 2001; Adamson 2014). It may migrate rapidly in groundwater, ahead of other contaminants (DHHS 2011; EPA 2006). Where delineated, 1,4-dioxane is frequently found within previously delineated chlorinated solvent plumes and existing monitoring networks (Adamson 2014). As of 2016, 1,4-dioxane had been identified at more than 34 sites on the EPA National Priorities List (NPL); it may be present (but samples were not analyzed for it) at many other sites (EPA 2016b). 2 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane What are the routes of exposure and the potential health effects of 1,4- dioxane? ~ Exposure may occur through ingestion of contaminated food and water, or dermal contact. Worker exposures may include inhalation of vapors (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011; EU 2002). ~ Potential exposure could occur during production and use of 1,4-dioxane as a stabilizer or solvent (DHHS 2011; EU 2002). ~ Short-term exposure to high levels of 1,4-dioxane may result in nausea, drowsiness, headache, and irritation of the eyes, nose and throat (ATSDR 2012; EPA 2013b; NIOSH2010; EU 2002). 1,4- Dioxane is readily absorbed through the lungs and gastrointestinal tract. Some 1,4-dioxane may also pass through the skin, but studies indicate that much of it will evaporate before it is absorbed. Distribution is rapid and uniform in the lung, liver, kidney, spleen, colon and skeletal muscle tissue (ATSDR 2012). ~ 1,4-Dioxane is weakly genotoxic and reproductive effects in humans are unknown; however, a developmental study on rats indicated that 1,4- dioxane may be slightly toxic to the developing fetus (ATSDR 2012; Giavini and others 1985). ~ Animal studies showed increased incidences of nasal cavity, liver and gall bladder tumors after exposure to 1,4-dioxane (ATSDR 2012; DHHS 2011; EPA IRIS 2013). ~ EPA has classified 1,4-dioxane as "likely to be carcinogenic to humans" by all routes of exposure (EPA IRIS 2013). ~ The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services states that "1,4-dioxane is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals" (DHHS 2011). ~ The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) considers 1,4-dioxane a potential occupational carcinogen (NIOSH 2010). ~ The European Union has classified 1,4-dioxane as having limited evidence of carcinogenic effect (EU 2002). Are there any federal and state guidelines and health standards for 1,4- dioxane? ~ EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) database includes a chronic oral reference dose (RfD) of 0.03 milligrams per kilogram per day (mg/kg/day) based on liver and kidney toxicity in animals and a chronic inhalation reference concentration (RfC) of 0.03 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) based on atrophy and respiratory metaplasia inside the nasal cavity of animals (EPA IRIS 2013). ~ The cancer risk assessment for 1,4-dioxane is based on an oral slope factor of 0.1 mg/kg/day and the drinking water unit risk is 2.9 x 10 6 micrograms per liter (|jg/L) (EPA IRIS 2013). ~ EPA risk assessments indicate that the drinking water concentration representing a 1 x 10 6 cancer risk level for 1,4-dioxane is 0.35 |jg/L (EPA IRIS 2013). ~ No federal maximum contaminant level (MCL) for drinking water has been established (EPA 2012). ~ 1,4-Dioxane is included on the fourth drinking water contaminant candidate list and is included in the Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (EPA 2009; EPA 2016a). ~ EPA's drinking water equivalent level is 1 mg/L (EPA 2012). EPA has calculated a screening level of 0.46 |jg/L for tap water, based on a 1 in 10 6 lifetime excess cancer risk (EPA 2017b). ~ EPA established a 1-day health advisory of 4.0 milligrams per liter (mg/L) and a 10-day health advisory of 0.4 mg/L in drinking water for a 10- kilogram child and a lifetime health advisory of 0.2 mg/L in drinking water (EPA 2012). ~ EPA has calculated a residential soil screening level (SSL) of 5.3 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) and an industrial SSL of 24 mg/kg. The soil-to- groundwater risk-based SSL is 9.4 x 10 5 mg/kg (EPA 2017b). ~ EPA has calculated a residential air screening level of 0.56 micrograms per cubic meter (|jg/m3) and an industrial air screening level of 2.5 jjg/m3 (EPA 2017b). ~ A reportable quantity of 100 pounds has been established under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (EPA 2011). ~ The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) established a permissible 3 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane exposure limit (PEL) for 1,4-dioxane of 100 parts per million (ppm) or 360 mg/m3 as an 8-hour time weighted average (TWA). While OSHA has established a PEL for 1,4-dioxane, OSHA has recognized that many of its PELs are outdated and inadequate for ensuring the protection of worker health. OSHA recommends that employers follow the California OSHA limit of 0.28 ppm, the NIOSH recommended exposure limit of 1 ppm as a 30- minute ceiling, or the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists threshold limit value of 20 ppm (OSHA 2017). ~ Various states have established drinking water and groundwater guidelines, including the following: State Guideline (H9/L) Source Alaska 77 AL DEC 2016 California 1.0 Cal/EPA 2011 Colorado 0.35 CDPHE 2017 Connecticut 3.0 CTDPH 2013 Delaware 6.0 DE DNR 1999 Florida 3.2 FDEP 2005 Indiana 7.8 IDEM 2015 Maine 4.0 MEDEP 2016 Massachusetts 0.3 MADEP 2004 Mississippi 6.09 MS DEQ 2002 New Hampshire 0.25 NH DES 2011 New Jersey 0.4 NJDEP 2015 North Carolina 3.0 NCDENR 2015 Pennsylvania 6.4 PADEP 2011 Texas 9.1 TCEQ 2016 Vermont 3.0 VTDEP 2016 Washington 0.438 WA ECY 2015 West Virginia 6.1 WV DEP 2009 What detection and site characterization methods are available for 1,4- dioxane? As a result of the limitations in the analytical methods to detect 1,4-dioxane, it has been difficult to identify its occurrence in the environment. The miscibility of 1,4-dioxane in water causes poor purging efficiency and results in high detection limits (ATSDR 2012; EPA 2006; Mohr2001). The Contract Laboratory Program SOW SOM02.3 includes a CRQL of 2.0 |jg/L in water, 67 |jg/kg in low soil and 2,000 |jg/kg in medium soil (EPA 2013c). Conventional analytical methods can detect 1,4- dioxane only at concentrations 100 times greater than the concentrations of volatile organic compounds. Modifications of existing analytical methods and their sample preparation procedures may be needed to achieve lower detection limits for 1,4-dioxane (EPA 2006; Mohr 2001). High-temperature sample preparation techniques improve the recovery of 1,4-dioxane. These techniques include purging at elevated temperature (EPA SW-846 Method 5030); equilibrium headspace analysis (EPA SW-846 Method 5021); vacuum distillation (EPA SW-846 Method 8261); and azeotropic distillation (EPA SW-846 Method 5031) (EPA 2006). NIOSH Method 1602 uses gas chromatography - flame ionization detection (GC-FID) to determine the concentration of 1,4-dioxane in air (ATSDR 2012; NIOSH 2010). EPA SW-846 Method 8015D uses gas chromatography (GC) to determine the concentration of 1,4-dioxane in environmental samples. Samples may be introduced into the GC column by a variety of techniques including the injection of the concentrate from azeotropic distillation (EPA SW-846 Method 5031). The lower quantitation limits for 1,4-dioxane in aqueous matrices by azeotropic microdistillation are 12 |jg/L (reagent water), 15 |jg/L (groundwater) and 16 jjg/L (leachate) (EPA 2003). EPA SW-846 Method 8260B detects 1,4-dioxane in a variety of solid waste matrices using GC and mass spectrometry (MS). The detection limit 4 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane depends on the instrument and choice of sample preparation method (ATSDR 2012). A laboratory study is underway to develop a passive flux meter (PFM) approach to enhance the capture of 1,4-dioxane in the PFM sorbent to improve accuracy. Results to date show that the PFM is capable of quantifying low absorbing compounds such as 1,4-dioxane (DoD SERDP 2013b). EPA Method 1624 uses isotopic dilution gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to detect 1,4-dioxane in water, soil and municipal discharges. The detection limit for this method is 10 jjg/L (ATSDR 2012; EPA 2001 b). EPA SW-846 Method 8270 uses liquid-liquid extraction and isotope dilution by capillary column GC-MS. This method is often modified for the detection of low levels of 1,4-dioxane in water (EPA 2007). EPA Method 522 uses solid phase extraction and GC-MS with selected ion monitoring for the detection of 1,4-dioxane in drinking water with detection limits as low as 0.02 |jg/L (EPA 2008). GC-MS detection methods using solid phase extraction followed by desorption with an organic solvent have been developed to remove 1,4- dioxane from the aqueous phase. Detection limits as low as 0.03 |jg/L have been achieved by passing the aqueous sample through an activated carbon column, following by elution with acetone- dichloromethane (ATSDR 2012; Kadokami and others 1990). Lab studies indicate effective methods for monitoring growth of dioxane-degrading bacteria in culture (Gedalanga 2014). Studies are underway to develop and assess methods for performing compound-specific isotope analysis (CSIA) on low levels of 1,4-dioxane in groundwater (DoD SERDP 2016). What technologies are being used to treat 1,4-dioxane? Pump-and-treat remediation can treat dissolved 1,4-dioxane in groundwater and control groundwater plume migration, but requires ex-situ treatment tailored for the unique properties of 1,4- dioxane (e.g., its low octanol-water partition coefficient makes 1,4-dioxane hydrophilic) (EPA 2006; Kikerand others 2010). Commercially available advanced oxidation processes using hydrogen peroxide with ultraviolet light or ozone can be used to treat 1,4-dioxane in wastewater (Asano and others 2012; EPA 2006). Peroxone and iron activated persulfate oxidation of 1,4-dioxane might aid in the cleanup of VOC- contaminated sites (Eberle 2015; Zhong 2015; Li 2016; SERDP 2013d). In-situ chemical oxidation can be successfully combined with bioaugmentation for managing dioxane contamination (DoD SERDP 2013d; Adamson 2015). Ex-situ bioremediation using a fixed-film, moving- bed biological treatment system is also used to treat 1,4-dioxane in groundwater (EPA 2006). Electrical resistance heating may be an effective treatment method (Oberle 2015). Phytoremediation is being explored as a means to remove the compound from shallow groundwater. Pilot-scale studies have demonstrated the ability of hybrid poplars to take up and effectively degrade or deactivate 1,4-dioxane (EPA 2001a, 2013a; Ferro and others 2013). Microbial degradation in engineered bioreactors has been documented under enhanced conditions or where selected strains of bacteria capable of degrading 1,4-dioxane are cultured, but the impact of the presence of chlorinated solvent co- contaminants on biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane needs to be further investigated (EPA 2006, 2013a; Mahendra and others 2013). Results from a 2012 laboratory study found 1,4- dioxane-transforming activity to be relatively common among monooxygenase-expressing bacteria; however, both TCA and 1,1- dichloroethene inhibited 1,4-dioxane degradation by bacterial isolates (DoD SERDP 2012). Isobutane-metabolizing bacteria can consistently degrade low (<100 ppb) concentrations of 1,4- dioxane, often to concentrations <1 ppb. These organisms also can degrade many chlorinated co- contaminants such as TCA and 1,1-dichoroethene (1,1-DCE) (DoD SERDP 2013c). Ethane effectively serves as a cometabolite for facilitating the biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane at relevant field concentrations (DoD SERDP 2013f). Biodegradation rates are subject to interactions among transition metals and natural organic ligands in the environment. (Pornwongthong 2014; DoD SERDP 2013e). 5 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane ~ Photocatalysis has been shown to remove 1,4- dioxane in aqueous solutions. Laboratory studies documented that the surface plasmon resonance of gold nanoparticles on titanium dioxide (Au - Ti02) promotes the photocatalytic degradation of 1,4-dioxane (Min and others 2009; Vescovi and others 2010). ~ Other in-well combined treatment technologies being assessed include air sparging; soil vapor extraction (SVE); enhanced bioremediation- ~ Adamson, D. Mahendra S., Walker, K, Rauch, S., Sengupta, S., and C. Newell. 2014. "A Multisite Survey to Identify the Scale of the 1,4-Dioxane Problem at Contaminated Groundwater Sites." Environmental Science and Technology. Volume 1 (5). Pages 254 to 258. ~ Adamson, D., Anderson R., Mahendra, S., and C. Newell. 2015. "Evidence of 1,4-Dioxane Attenuation at Groundwater Sites Contaminated with Chlorinated Solvents and 1,4-Dioxane." Environmental Science and Technology. Volume 49 (11). Pages 6510 to 6518. ~ Alaska Department of Environmental (AL DEC). 2008. "Groundwater Cleanup Levels." dec.alaska.qov/spar/csp/quidance forms/docs/Gro undwater Cleanup Levels.pdf ~ Asano, M., Kishimoto, N., Shimada, H., and Y. Ono. 2012. "Degradation of 1,4-Dioxane Using Ozone Oxidation with UV Irradiation (Ozone/UV) Treatment." Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering. Volume A (1). Pages 371 to 379. ~ Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2012. "Toxicological Profile for 1,4-Dioxane." www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ toxprofiles/TP.asp?id=955&tid=199 ~ California Department of Public Health (CDPH). 2011. "1,4-Dioxane." Drinking Water Systems. www.waterboards.ca.gov/drinkinq water/certlic/dri nkingwater/14-Dioxane.shtml ~ Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment (CDPHE). 2017. "The Basic Standards and Methodologies for Surface Water." https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/sites/default/files/ 31 2017-03.pdf ~ Connecticut Department of Public Health (CTDEP). 2013. "Action Level List for Private Wells." oxidation; and dynamic subsurface groundwater circulation (Odah and others 2005). ~ 1,4-Dioxane was reduced by greater than 90 percent in the treatment zone with no apparent downward migration of 1,4-dioxane using enhanced or extreme SVE, which uses a combination of increased airflow, sweeping with drier air, increased temperature, decreased infiltration and more focused vapor extraction to enhance 1,4-dioxane remediation in soils (DoD SERDP 2013a). 1,4-dioxane? www.ct.gov/dph/lib/dph/environmental health/eoh a/groundwater well contamination/110916 ct act ion level list nov 2016 update.pdf ~ Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (DE DNREC). 1999. "Remediation Standards Guidance." www.dnrec.state.de.us/DNREC2000/Divisions/AW M/sirb/DOCS/PDFS/Misc/RemStnd.pdf ~ European Chemicals Bureau. 2002. European Union Risk Assessment Report 1,4-Dioxane. echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/a4e83a6a- c421 -4243-a8df-3e84893082aa ~ Ferro, A.M., Kennedy, J., and J.C. LaRue. 2013. "Phytoremediation of 1,4-Dioxane-Containing Recovered Groundwater." International Journal of Phytoremediation. Volume 15. Pages 911 to 923. ~ Gedalanga, P., Pornwongthong, P., Mora, R., Chiang, S., Baldwin, B., Ogles, D., and S. Mahendra. 2014. "Identification of Biomarker Genes to Predict Biodegradation of 1,4-Dioxane." Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Volume 10. Pages 3209 to 3218. ~ Giavini, E., Vismara, C., and M.L Broccia. 1985. "Teratogenesis Study of Dioxane in Rats." Toxicology Letters. Volume 26 (1). Pages 85 to 88. ~ Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB). 2011. "1,4-Dioxane." toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ ~ Indiana Department of Environmental Management (IDEM). 2016. "IDEM Screening and Closure Levels." www.in.gov/idem/ landgualitv/files/risc screening table 2016.pdf ~ Inoue, D., Tsunoda, T., Sawada, K., Yamamoto, N„ Saito, Y., Sei, K., and M. Ike. 2016. "1,4- Dioxane degradation potential of members of the genera Pseudonocardia and Rhodococcus." Biodegradation. Volume 27. Pages 277 to 286. Where can I find more information about 6 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane Where can I find more information ~ Kadokami, K., Koga, M., and A. Otsuki. 1990. "Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometric Determination of Traces of Hydrophilic and Volatile Organic Compounds in Water after Preconcentration with Activated Carbon." Analytical Sciences. Volume 6 (6). Pages 843 to 849. ~ Kiker, J.H., Connolly, J.B., Murray, W.A., Pearson, S.C., Reed, S.E., and R.J. Robert. 2010. "Ex-Situ Wellhead Treatment of 1,4-Dioxane Using Fenton's Reagent." Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Soils, Sediments, Water and Energy. Volume 15, Article 18. ~ Li, B., and J. Zhu. 2016. "Simultaneous Degradation Of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane and Solvent Stabilizer 1,4-Dioxane by a Sono-Activated Persulfate Process." Chemical Engineering Journal. Volume 284 (15). Pages 750 to 763. ~ Mahendra, S., Grostern, A., and L. Alvarez-Cohen. 2013. "The Impact of Chlorinated Solvent Co- Contaminants on the Biodegradation Kinetics of 1,4-Dioxane." Chemosphere. Volume 91 (1). Pages 88 to 92. ~ Maine Department of Environmental Protection (MEDEP). 2016. "Maine Remedial Action Guidelines (RAGs) for Sites Contaminated with Hazardous Substances." www.maine.gov/dep/spills/publications/guidance/r aqs/ME-RAGS-Revised-Final 020516.pdf ~ Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (Mass DEP). 2012. "Standards and Guidelines or Contaminants in Massachusetts Drinking Waters." www.mass.gov/eea/ aqencies/massdep/water/drinkinq/standards/stand ards-and-quidelines-for-drinkinq-water- contaminants.html ~ Min, B.K., Heo, J.E., Youn, N.K., Joo, O.S., Lee, H., Kim, J.H., and H.S. Kim. 2009. "Tuning of the Photocatalytic 1,4-Dioxane Degradation with Surface Plasmon Resonance of Gold Nanoparticles on Titania." Catalysis Communications. Volume 10 (5). Pages 712 to 715. ~ Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality (MS DEQ). 2002. "Risk Evaluation Procedures for Voluntary Cleanup and Redevelopment of it 1,4-dioxane? (continued) Brownfield Sites." www.deg .state.ms. us/ MDEQ.nsf/pdf/GARD brownfieldrisk/$File/Proced. pdf ~ Mohr, T.K.G. 2001. "1,4-Dioxane and Other Solvent Stabilizers White Paper." Santa Clara Valley Water District of California. San Jose, California. ~ National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2010. "Dioxane." NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0237.html ~ New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (NH DES). 2011. "Change in Reporting Limit for 1,4-Dioxane." www.des.nh.gov/ organization/divisions/waste/hwrb/sss/hwrp/docum ents/report-limits14dioxane.pdf ~ New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP). 2015. "Interim Ground Water Quality Standards." www.ni.gov/dep/wms/ bears/gwgs interim criteria table.htm ~ North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality (NCDEQ). 2013. "Groundwater Classification and Standards." https://deg.nc.gov/about/divisions/water- reso u rces/wate r- reso u rces- ru les/n c- administrative-code-statutes ~ Oberle, D. Crownover, E., and M. Kluger. 2015. "In Situ Remediation of 1,4-Dioxane Using Electrical Resistance Heating." Remediation Journal. Volume 25 (2). Pages 35 to 42. ~ Odah, M.M., Powell, R., and D.J. Riddle. 2005. "ART In-Well Technology Proves Effective in Treating 1,4-Dioxane Contamination." Remediation Journal. Volume 15 (3). Pages 51 to 64. ~ Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 2017 Permissible Exposure Limits - Annotated Tables, Table Z-1. www.osha. gov/dsg/annotated-pels/index.html ~ Pornwongthong, P., Mulchandani A., Gedalanga, P.B., and S. Mahendra. 2014. "Transition Metals and Organic Ligands Influence Biodegradation of 1,4-Dioxane." Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. Volume 173 (1). Pages 291 to 306. 7 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane Where can I find more information ~ Pugazhendi, A., Banu, J., Dhavamani, J., and I. Yeom. 2015. "Biodegradation of 1,4-dioxane by Rhodanobacter AYS5 and the Role of Additional Substrates." Annals of Microbiology. Volume 645. Pages 2201 to 2208. ~ Sales, C., Grostrem, A., Parales, J., Parales, R., and L. Alvarez-Cohen. 2013. "Oxidation of the Cyclic Ethers 1,4-Dioxane and Tetrahydrofuran by a Monooxygenase in Two Pseudonocardia species." Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Volume 79. Pages 7702 to 7708. ~ Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. 2016. "Texas Risk Reduction Program (TRRP) Protective Concentration Levels (PCLs)." www.tceq.texas.gov/remediation/trrp/trrppcls.html ~ U.S. Department of Defense (DoD). Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). 2012. "Oxygenase-Catalyzed Biodegradation of Emerging Water Contaminants: 1,4-Dioxane and N-Nitrosodimethylamine." ER- 1417. www.serdp-estcp.org/Program- Areas/Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerqinq-lssues/ER-1417 ~ DoD SERDP. 2013a. "1,4-Dioxane Remediation by Extreme Soil Vapor Extraction (XSVE)." ER- 201326. www.serdp-estcp.org/Program- Areas/Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerqinq-lssues/ER-201326 ~ DoD SERDP. 2013b. "Development of a Passive Flux Meter Approach to Quantifying 1,4-Dioxane Mass Flux." ER-2304. www.serdp- estcp.org/Program-Areas/Environmental- Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-2304 ~ DoD SERDP. 2013c. "Evaluation of Branched Hydrocarbons as Stimulants for In Situ Cometabolic Biodegradation of 1,4-Dioxane and Its Associated Co-Contaminants." ER-2303. www.serdp-estcp.org/Program- Areas/Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-2303 ~ DoD SERDP. 2013d. "Facilitated Transport Enabled In Situ Chemical Oxidation of 1,4- Dioxane-Contaminated Groundwater." ER-2302. www.serdp-estcp.org/Program- it 1,4-dioxane? (continued) Areas/Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-2302 ~ DoD SERDP. 2013e. "In Situ Biodegradation of 1,4-Dioxane: Effects of Metals and Chlorinated Solvent Co-Contaminants." ER-2300. www.serdp- estcp.org/Program-Areas/Environmental- Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-2300 ~ DoD SERDP. 2013f. "In Situ Bioremediation of 1,4-Dioxane by Methane Oxidizing Bacteria in Coupled Anaerobic-Aerobic Zones." ER-2306. www.serdp-estcp.org/Program- Areas/Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-2306 ~ DoD SERDP. 2016. "Extending the Applicability of Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis to Low Concentrations of 1,4-Dioxane." ER-2535. www.serdp-estcp.org/Program- Areas/Environmental-Restoration/Contaminated- Groundwater/Emerging-lssues/ER-2535/ER-2535 ~ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). 2014. "Report on Carcinogens, Twelfth Edition." Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. 13th Edition. ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/dioxane. pdf ~ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1996a. "Method 8260B: Volatile Organic Compounds by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)." www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015- 12/documents/8260b.pdf ~ EPA. 2001 a. "Brownfields Technology Primer: Selecting and Using Phytoremediation for Site Cleanup." EPA 542-R-01-006. www.brownfieldstsc.org/pdfs/phvtoremprimer.pdf ~ EPA. 2001 b. "Appendix A To Part 136—Methods For Organic Chemical Analysis Of Municipal And Industrial Wastewater, Method 1624." Code of Federal Regulations. Code of Federal Regulations. 40 CFR Part 136. ~ EPA. 2003. "Method 8015D: Nonhalogenated Organics Using GC/FID." SW-846. www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015- 12/documents/8015d r4.pdf 8 ------- Technical Fact Sheet - 1,4-Dioxane Where can I find more information about 1,4-dioxane? (continued) ~ EPA. 2006. "Treatment Technologies for 1,4- Dioxane: Fundamentals and Field Applications." EPA 542-R-06-009. clu- in.orq/download/remed/542r06009.pdf ~ EPA. 2007. "Method 8270D: Semivolatile Organic Compounds by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)." www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015- 07/documents/epa-8270d.pdf ~ EPA. 2008. "Method 522: Determination of 1,4- Dioxane in Drinking Water By Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) and Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) with Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM)." EPA/600/R-08/101. cfpub.epa.qov/si/si public record report.cfm?dirE ntrvld=199229 ~ EPA. 2009. "Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List 3 - Final." Federal Register Notice. www.federalregister.gov/articles/2009/10/Q8/E9- 24287/drinkinq-water-contaminant-candidate-list- 3-final ~ EPA. 2011. "Reportable Quantities of Hazardous Substances Designated Pursuant to Section 311 of the Clean Water Act. Code of Federal Regulations." 40 CFR 302.4. www.gpo.gov/fdsvs/pkg/CFR-2011-title40- vol28/pdf/CFR-2011-title40-vol28-sec302-4.pdf ~ EPA. 2012. "2012 Edition of Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories." www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015- 09/documents/dwstandards2012.pdf ~ EPA. 2013a. "1,4-Dioxane." clu- in.orq/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/1.4- Dioxane/cat/Overview/ ~ EPA. 2013b. "1,4-Dioxane (1,4-Diethyleneoxide)." Technology Transfer Network Air Toxics Website. semspub.epa.QQv/work/09/2129341 .pdf ~ EPA. 2013c. "EPA Contract Laboratory Program Statement of Work for Organic Superfund Methods SOM02.3." www.epa.gov/clp/epa- co nt ra ct- la bo rato rv- prog ra m-state me nt-wo rk- orqanic-superfund-methods-multi-media-multi-0 ~ EPA. 2016a. "Contaminant Candidate List 4-CCL 4." www.epa.gov/ccl/draft-contaminant-candidate- list-4-ccl-4 ~ EPA. 2016b. Superfund Information Systems. Superfund Site Information, cumulis.epa. g o v/s u pe rcpad/cu rs ites/s rch s ites. cfm ~ EPA. 2017b. Regional Screening Level (RSL) Summary Table, www.epa.gov/risk/regional- screening-levels-rsls-generic-tables-mav-2016 ~ EPA. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). 2013. "1,4-Dioxane (CASRN 123-91-1)." cfpub. epa.gov/ncea/iris2/chemicalLanding. cfm?su bstance nmbr=326 ~ Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation (VTDEC). 2016. "Interim Groundwater Quality Standards." dec.vermont.gov/sites/dec/files/documents/interim gwgstandards 2016.pdf ~ Vescovi, T., Coleman, H., and R. Amal. 2010. "The Effect of pH on UV-Based Advanced Oxidation Technologies - 1,4-Dioxane Degradation." Journal of Hazardous Materials. Volume 182. Pages 75 to 79. ~ Washington Department of Ecology (ECY). 2015. "Groundwater Methods B and A ARARs." fortress.wa.gov/ecv/clarc/FocusSheets/Groundwat er%20Methods%20B%20and%20A%20and%20A RARs.pdf ~ West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection (WV DEP). 2009. "Voluntary Remediation and Redevelopment Rule." www.dep.wv.gov/dlr/oer/voluntarvmain/Documents /60CSR3%20VRRA%20rule%206-5-09.pdf ~ Zhong, H., Brusseau, M., Wang, Y., Yan, N., Quiq, L., and G. Johnson. 2015. "In-Situ Activation of Persulfate by Iron Filings and Degradation of 1,4- Dioxane" Water Research. Volume 83. Pages 104 to 111. Contact Information If you have any questions or comments on this fact sheet, please contact: Mary Cooke, FFRRO, at cooke.marvt@epa.gov. 9 ------- |