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restoration efforts have been aimed at rehabilitating an impacted site to an improved condition to satisfy a
management goal or agency mandate.
As used in this strategy, the definition of restoration is interpreted as "a process of facilitating
natural ecosystem recovery by providing the necessary functional and structural connectivity to support
the self-organizing nature of ecosystems that have been degraded and fragmented by human
disturbance." This interpretation is consistent with prevailing ecological principles and the
recommendation of the EPA Science Advisory Board (SAB) that EPA utilize the sustainability and
recovery processes of natural systems to guide risk reduction decision making (USEPA 1990a,1990b).
Under this definition a "restored" ecosystem may not necessarily have the same dominant species,
species diversity, production rates, or nutrient cycling rates as a similar undisturbed site; however,
essential functional roles will be reestablished so that the restored system will be self-sustaining.
Restoration of sites underlain by permafrost includes restitution of thermal as well as hydrologic stability
(Johnson and Van Cleve 1976, Walker et al. 1987b).
Site Restoration Linked to a Regional Scale
Conceptually, the landscape scale is the level of organization at which physical, chemical, and
biological attributes of arctic tundra wildlife habitats are best integrated. Exclusive focus upon restoring a
site, without first determining how it relates spatially and temporally to characteristics of the environment
that govern it, can lead to mismanagement Undue emphasis placed upon restoring ecologically
insignificant disturbances, insisting on a complete recovery to a "natural state," and mistakenly ignoring
potentially significant ecological perturbations can be avoided if the environment of a site is understood,
local disturbances are assessed, and restoration possibilities are examined in a broad, spatial, and
temporal context Consider a small site such as an oil drilling pad and its associated roads in the larger
landscape of the arctic coastal plain. The environmental characteristics of the site are altered relative to the
natural state of the larger area. Determination of the appropriate course of action regarding restoration
requires assessing 1) the significance of the alteration with regard to the resources that are placed at risk,
2) the need for undergoing restoration of any kind, and (3) the level of effort required for restoring the site.
This example represents our conceptual framework for restoration objectives based on the regional
character of the environment.
We see the range of restoration goals being determined by a hierarchical process in which
management goals for the region and its component landscapes are considered by the stakeholders prior
to the establishment of site-specific performance standards by the regulatory agencies (e.g. What do we
want the landscapes to be like after restoration has been completed?). These higher order management
goals might include, for example, statements of what mix and spatial arrangement of wildlife habitats is
deemed desirable, which ecological characteristics are considered most valuable, etc. Examining the
larger scale landscape and regional contexts is a mechanism that limits the realm of choices for site-level
activities to those that are ecologically possible, and economically and socially desirable.
Ultimately, resolution of oil field restoration problems will require an integrated understanding of
complex regional and landscape ecological processes. Also required will be an understanding of equally
complex site-level issues regarding the structure and functions that may be desired for restored
ecosystems. II will also be necessary to develop new ecological engineering techniques for tundra habitat
restoration, as well as a methodology lor selecting when, where, and what level of effort will be required in
the application of those techniques to achieve desired restoration objectives. Brown and Hemming
(1980) discuss the types of issues that must be assessed in planning specific site restoration actions.
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SECTION 3
RESEARCH: QUESTIONS AND CONCEPTS
OVERVIEW
To present research concepts in an organized manner, we have used the problem areas
discussed in Section 2 to identify three major areas of research activity: 1) defining the need for
restoration and the level of effort required to meet this need, 2) developing ecological engineering
methods, and 3) integrating research by developing restoration planning tools and monitoring methods to
support the decision making process.
i
We use a common format to present research concepts for each of the major areas of activity
discussed in this section. Our approach is to 1) identifiy specific problems for each major area (e.g., What
critical wildlife habitat is present?) and briefly review the state of relevant knowledge in an overview
section, 2) identify major information or knowledge limitations that have inhibited or slowed the regulatory
decision process (e.g., Has critical wildlife habitat been lost or will it be placed at risk as a result of oil
development?), and 3) suggest potential research approaches for filling knowledge gaps (e.g., How can
we clearly define critical wildlife habitats?). Section 4 presents somewhat more specific suggestions for
research activities that can address these research needs.
IDENTIFYING THE NEED FOR RESTORATION
The regulatory decision to require restoration should depend on a clearly recognized need for
restoration (i.e. evidence that restoration will result in a net ecological or environmental benefit). To
identify the need for restoration, regulatory agencies require additional information on 1) the structure and
function of arctic ecosystems in natural states so that ecological resources can be defined and delineated,
2) the extent, rate, and intensity of human-caused disturbance and concomitant ecosystem responses for
use in assessing risk to critical tundra habitats, and 3) changes in tundra ecosystems following restoration
efforts to quantify ecological benefits and costs of restoration.
Defining and Identifying Ecological Resources
Ecological resources (i.e. natural goods and services) are derived from the components and
processes of ecosystems, their structure, function, diversity, and dynamics. Ecosystems produce
commodities as well as less readily visible services, such as nutrient storage and cycling, wildlife habitat,
and climate mitigation (Lubchenco et al. 1991, USEPA 1990a). In our preliminary assessment, wildlife
habitat is the ecosystem resource at greatest risk from oil field development in arctic Alaska.
Defining Wildlife Habitat-
Definition. classification, and the spatial and temporal relationships among tundra habitat types will
help to determine the value ol these habitats to wildlife groups. Knowledge of these values will help to
focus restoration efforts on crucial wildlife habitats that have been lost or are at risk. Although local
processes are important, their significance must be evaluated on a broader spatial scale.
The approach we propose here is to investigate impacts to wildlife as mediated through the
habitats used by groups of wildlife species. Use of species groups rather than a species-by-species
approach is necessitated by the lack of necessary detail concerning wildlife-habitat relationships, except
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for a few species of overwhelming concern (e.g., caribou). In addition, questions concerning biodiversity
cannot be answered using a species-by-species approach. A key testable assumption in this approach is
that wildlife group-habitat linkages are strong and can be defined.
We define tundra habitat types based on utility to functional groups such as intercontinental
migrants (e.g., shorebirds and waterfowl), intracontinental migrants (e.g., colonial geese), regional
migrants (e.g., caribou), resident herbivores (e.g., lemming), and carnivores (e.g., wolf and bear) rather
than by individual species. However, there may be enough information to break down the broad groups
into smaller groups that specialize on particular habitats (e.g., Truett and Kertell 1990, though note that
their categories are not mutually exclusive).
Identifying critical habitats is a complex task. Questions arise as to the relative quality of apparently
similar habitat types in other locals and the wildlife occupancy of habitats. We suggest considering
habitats as critical when there is strong inferential evidence that the spatial extent, location, or quality of
the habitat can be construed as an important factor limiting the carrying capacity ol a functional wildlife
group. Such evidence may consist of individual animal growth or condition (e.g., hormone and blood
chemistry changes when constrained to a habitat), as well as demographic factors (e.g., population-level
survival or reproductive trends). We advocate a multiphased approach to this task. First, it is important to
determine the natural habitats used by the species group. (For example, habitats such as calving
grounds, insect relief areas, and overwintering areas are each important components, among others, that
determine the relative success of regional migrants.) Second, information on nutrient requirements for
growth, survival, and fecundity, in conjunction with information on habitat-specific food quality and
availability, is essential for defining critical habitats.
Identifying Critical Wildlife Habitat-
Once critical habitat for breeding and survival are identified, the distribution of these habitats in the
landscape will be an important element in determining both the future potential risk of habitat loss as well
as a preferable habitat mix for restoration planning. The approach we suggest includes spatial
classification of vegetation and other habitat attributes (c.f. Walker et al. 1986, Anderson et al. 1991) used
with an overlay reflecting the wildlife species group habitats that will require development of new
information. There may be some information in unpublished reports (e.g., reports that were prepared by
consulting firms for oil companies) that can be used to assess pre-impact features. If appropriate,
questions about species diversity within the functional group and the spatial diversity of the habitats can
be addressed. If pre-impact information is too sketchy or lacking (as Walker et al. 1987a pointed out for the
Prudhoe Bay area), comparisons may have to be made to a currently nonimpacted area that has similar
physical and biological characteristics to the impacted area. These issues will have to be evaluated on a
case-by-case basis.
Assessing Risk to Critical Tundra Habitat
After the ecological resources have been determined for North Slope oil fields, it is necessary to
estimate the potential for loss of critical resources from human-caused disturbances such as gravel filling,
the introduction of pollutants, etc Characterizing risk includes a joint analysis of the intensity of
anthropogenic stresses and the likelihood that those stresses may threaten critical ecological resources.
A challenge in assessing risk to ecological resources is the fact that human-caused disturbances
frequently are linked through complex indirect pathways (o the affected resource. In addition, a series of
natural disturbances and normal cyclic instabilities also affect ecological resources. Two fundamental
questions must be resolved: first, determining the normal instability in ecological resources that arises
from natural disturbances (e.g., thaw-lake cycle) and other temporally dynamic processes (e.g.,
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succession); and second, judging the human-caused reduction, loss or enhancement of ecological
resources against this background of natural variation.
The thermal and hydrologic regimes of the North Slope are intricately linked (Shaver et al. 1991a,
b, Hinzman et al. 1991, 1992) and these regimes strongly influence the vegetation of the tundra surface
(Walker and Walker 1991). If a disturbance to the surface of a moist tundra system alters the surface
energy balance to increase surface temperature or thermal conductivity, a pattern of cyclic changes in the
subsurface thermal regime may begin. Typically, these changes begin as increased depth of permafrost
thawing followed by surface subsidence. Subsidence is followed by ponding that inundates and kills the
tundra vegetation leading to further increases in thermal conductivity and depth of permafrost thawing.
These problems may be intensified by artificially induced snow drifts that alter the local distribution of water
and the timing of snowmelt (Benson 1982, Tabler et al. 1990).
Changes in the physical regimes initiate changes in the floristic composition of plant communities.
For example, changes in the availability of water due to inundation may alter the composition of tundra
vegetation, thereby altering the value of habitat. Such physical and floristic changes affect the value (e.g.,
forage abundance or patchiness) of essential habitats that are used by the species group for breeding,
foraging, birthing, young-rearing, etc.
Because drill pads and roads are connected in a complex network, indirect impacts may produce
more massive disturbances than would have occurred if disturbances of similar areal extent occurred
without physical linkage. Such changes may not occur immediately after a disturbance and may not
become stable even 30 years following the initial disturbance (Walker et al. 1987b). Assessing
system-wide risk associated with various new oil field activities and retrospective estimation of ecological
resource changes caused by oil extraction activities cannot be very precise. To provide the best possible
level of precision in system-wide risk assessment, we suggest an approach that 1) strategically links
site-level process studies with landscape-level risk assessment, and 2) integrates assessment of thermal
and hydrologic instabilities in tundra systems as they drive biological cycles.
A review of wildlife responses to industrial impacts (Pollard et al. 1990) investigated how different
species and wildlife groups use gravel pads and impoundments. Additional work is needed to assess
where impacts occur in relation to the distribution of habitats and the effects of these impacts on
species-group habitat requirements. For example, is the major impact occurring in prime breeding habitat
or in marginal feeding habitat? It is quite likely that the answers to such questions will differ among
different species groups. Therefore, it will be necessary to assess the relationship between the
distribution of industrial impacts and the distribution of habitats for all of the species groups of concern
(e.g., the landscape is used differently by local and global migrants; therefore, map overlays of habitat
requirements will not be the same for different species groups).
For example, Walker et al. (1986,1987a) documented the rates of increase in spatial extent of
direct and indirect impacts of disturbances in the Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk oil fields using a geographic
information system (GIS) to evaluate aerial photographs taken periodically from before the onset of oil field
development until the present. Additional analysis of these and newly acquired data such as satellite
imagery (e.g., AVHRR, Landsat TM, SAR, elc.) will be useful in determining the spatial characteristics of
different habitats, identifying direct and indirect disturbances, and directing the investigation of industrial
impacts on physical processes and biological cycles.
Environmental Toxicants-
In this strategy, we primarily focus on evaluating ecological risk associated with gravel fills as a
special problem in risk assessment. The regulatory framework is different for mitigation of habitat losses
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and mitigation of environmental toxicants. Yet, the possibility of contamination of restoration sites with
environmental toxicants must be considered in the restoration planning process. Therefore, it is
necessary to assess the risk associated with such contaminants on both the North Slope landscape and
on restoration activities.
Anthropogenic contaminants occurring on the Alaska North Slope are not unlike those found in
other regions of the world. For example, atmospheric dusts and particulate contaminants, heavy metals,
and hydrocarbons (Walker et al. 1987b, Walker and Walker 1991) are associated with human activities
such as petroleum extraction and transport regardless of the geographic location of these activities. Not
surprisingly, North Slope soils and freshwater habitats have been impacted by these activities (Walker et
al. 1978, Barsdate et al. 1980, Woodward et al. 1989). In view of the activities that have occurred on the
North Slope over the past 25 years, contaminant-related impacts of petroleum extraction activities must be
considered in designing restoration plans. Hence, contaminant and toxicity-related impacts must be
distinguished from physical alterations in habitat impacts in evaluating restoration plans for the North
Slope.
In evaluating contaminant effects on indigenous flora and fauna, both acute and chronic
responses must be estimated to determine the extent to which clean-up or remediation is required before
initiating restoration activities. However, the ability to assess contaminant effects on North Slope wetlands
is complicated by three interrelated problems. First, raw petroleum products and their associated
co-contaminants (e.g., heavy metals) are mixtures of numerous organic and inorganic constituents which
vary in physical and chemical properties. The mixture also varies with time as its constituent components
differentially evaporate into air, dissolve into water, and become adsorbed to the soil. Biological
responses to individual components, as well as the mixture itself, may vary both in terms of toxicity and in
the adverse effects that may be expressed within populations and communities.
Second, test systems for evaluating contaminant effects in terrestrial and freshwater habitats are
poorly developed for use in the arctic. The relatively harsh climates characteristic of the region support a
specialized biota (Hobbie 1980, Brown et al. 1980, Remmert 1980), and bioassay methods currently
available routinely use test species which are dissimilar from the indigenous species of the North Slope. In
addition, the ability to identify contaminated tundra soils, particularly where impacts are less than obvious,
may be confounded by matrix effects characteristic of highly organic arctic soils that mask contaminant
effects. Such confounding effects are likely when tests for soil contamination are based on the results of
soil tests with surrogate species or surrogate soils.
Third, regardless of the habitat being considered, contaminant evaluations for the North Slope
must consider the interrelated roles of plants and animals in terrestrial and tundra habitats and the
influence of the climate, particularly following remediation and restoration activities. Plants, for example,
may express phytotoxic effects ranging from subtle sublethal responses such as altered growth,
productivity, and reproduction (Woodward et al. 1989) to death, with each effect potentially impacting the
tundra community differently. Extending the example of high arctic plants, if less than acute effects are
anticipated, plant tissues can be conduits for chemicals into herbivores and food chain quality may be
impacted (reviewed in Pollard et al. 1990). These long-term effects could well be expressed following
remediation and restoration, depending upon the extent of clean-up. Additionally, plants may directly or
indirectly affect the biological degradation of soil contaminants. The environmental fate of petroleum
constituents, for example, could then be altered through plant-microbe associations or the indigenous
soil microbial communities, as well as by stimulating growth of tolerant native or adapted bacterial, fungal or
algal microflora. In any case, the biodegradation will probably proceed at a slower rate on the tundra than at
temperate terrestrial sites due to the prolonged winter and short, cool summer.
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Defining the Benefit Added by Restoration Intervention-
How would restoration of habitats altered by industrial impacts affect the classification of habitats,
and how would the pattern of spatial distribution of the habitats change? Because the landscape is used
differently by different species groups, it will be important to assess the effects of restoration done to
benefit one group on the habitat requirements of other species groups." For example, will increasing
breeding habitat for one species group (e.g., waterfowl) change the way another species group uses the
same habitat (e.g., predators)?
An experimental approach to assessing restoration benefits is the application of the approaches
and techniques described above to evaluate new and past restoration activities. Assessment will include
restoration effects on physical processes, evaluation of the tundra habitats restored and determination of
net benefit in terms of habitat for critical wildlife groups.
DEVELOPING ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING METHODS
Historically, development of restoration methods has addressed the need to establish persistent
vegetation on disturbed sites to control erosion or non-point source water quality and to mitigate aesthetic
impacts. A significant amount of research and demonstration-level activities has been conducted to
evaluate revegetation and site management methods in North Slope oil field development areas
(Jorgenson 1988a, 1988b, 1989a, 1989b, Alaska Plant Materials Center 1988, Miller 1990, DOWL
Engineers 1985) However, because our concept of restoration is oriented toward recovery of the
landscape-scale functions and values of tundra habitats, we call for the development of new approaches
to site-scale ecological engineering. Consequently, this component of ANSORRS focuses on identifying
ecological engineering methods that will initiate processes leading to establishment of naturally
functioning and self-sustaining ecosystems that are integral parts of the North Slope landscape.
If a need for restoration of North Slope oil fields is demonstrated, it is likely that reestablishment of
self-sustaining wildlife habitat will be identified as a critical goal for the restoration. When tundra habitat
structure and function are reestablished, self-sustaining wildlife habitat will be recovered. We suggest that
the most pragmatic means of hastening recovery of ecological resources on North Slope oil fields will be to
identify engineering intervention techniques to mimic natural processes that 1) establish the physical
stability of the site, 2) initiate soil development, and 3) facilitate invasion by native tundra vegetation. The
following sections discuss these concepts.
Site Preparation
Existing restoration efforts on the North Slope have demonstrated the effectiveness of methods
to alter the landform of disturbed sites. Methods employed include removing gravel (DOWL Engineers
1985, Miller 1990, Jorgenson 1988a), reshaping gravel into berms and depressions for improved winter
snow retention, importing fine materials to improve the water retention and plant-soil-water relations
(Jorgenson et al. 1991, Jorgenson and Cater 1991), and transplanting tundra sod (Jorgenson 1988a).
Each of these approaches involves handling substrate materials to either mitigate existing impacts or
improve restoration success and the rate of recovery at site-specific scales.
We suggest that future investigations of site preparation methods should focus on two
objectives: 1) reestablishing or maintaining landscape thermal and hydrological functions, and 2)
establishing favorable seedbeds on gravel substrates. Although a significant amount of research has
been conducted to develop favorable seedbeds (e.g., Jorgenson et al, 1991, Jorgenson and Cater
1991, McKendrick 1991c), we believe that additional research is needed Additionally, research should
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be conducted to determine if hydrocarbon contaminated gravel can be decontaminated or neutralized
and reused, or if it must be stabilized and isolated to prevent leaching and contamination of other
materials.
Soil Regeneration
Although previous restoration efforts have incorporated methods of altering physical
characteristics of sites and substrates (Jorgenson and Cater 1991, Jorgenson et al. 1991), little effort has
addressed soil development processes on disturbed sites in the arctic. We suggest that accelerating or
mimicking soil development processes (e.g., through materials manipulation and addition of organic
matter) can be expected to result in significant improvements in plant survival during vulnerable periods of
germination, establishment and winter dormancy, and in the quality and rate of development of wildlife
habitat on restored sites. Basic research results suggest that in native tundra nutrient dynamics govern
plant growth and primary productivity, and that available pools of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus
(P) vary across gradients in soil fertility and primary productivity. The rate of mineralization of organic N in
arctic soils is less sensitive to soil temperature fluctuation than it is to soi! pH, the actions of soil microbial
populations, or temporal and spatial variation in community nutrient cycling processes among plant
community types (Kielland 1990). The soil microbial biomass in arctic soils has a tremendous potential to
immobilize mineralized N and P; thus, net N mineralization is only a small fraction of gross mineralization
rates. This information can serve as a foundation to the development of soil regeneration goals and
methods for restoration.
The surlace energy balance and soil organic matter content also affect soil heat flux, hydrology,
and soil development processes. Strong seasonal variation in solar radiation drives the development of
soil thermal gradients that influence rates of soil hydrological and biological processes (Kane et al. 1989).
Surface organic mats have low thermal conductivity (1/2 to 1/6 of mineral soil), and highly organic soil
horizons have high thermal capacity as a result of high water holding capacity. These factors regulate the
timing and rate of soil thawing and influence the length of the growing season. In addition, the hydraulic
conductivity of organic soil horizon can be up to 1000 times greater than that of mineral soils (Hinzman et
al. 1991) and most snowmelt and rainwater runoff will occur above the organic/mineral interface. Shaver et
al. (1991b) showed that the high hydraulic conductivity of organic arctic soils can affect nutrient availability
by mass flow, and that the topographic position of a vegetation type in a hydraulic gradient can strongly
influence the availability of nutrients in the active root zone throughout the growing season. Again, these
data constitute a foundation upon which pragmatic restoration goals and methods can be laid.
Reveaetation Methods
Significant research efforts have been directed toward developing methods for revegetating
disturbed sites on North Slope oil fields (Johnson 1981, 1984, Jorgenson et al. 1991, Jorgenson and
Cater 1991, McKendrick 1991a, b). Primarily, these efforts have been trials to determine the suitability of
individual species and effective plant establishment techniques (McKendrick 1991b) or appropriate levels
of seeding, fertilization, and soil amendments to use for different site conditions and species
combinations (Jorgenson et al. 1991, McKendrick 1991b).
As it applies to ecorestoration, revegetation must achieve more than just an adequate vegetative
cover; it should initiate development of self-sustaining habitat for specified wildlife species groups of
concern. Although significant progress has been made in identifying plant species for use in terrestrial-
(Jorgenson et al. 1991, Jorgenson and Cater 1991) and aquatic (McKendrick 1991a) applications,
additional research is needed to develop revegetation prescriptions that can produce the specified
habitat types at appropriate sites. Ongoing research is being conducted into the ecophysiological
aspects of germination, establishment, growth, and seed production on species used for restoration on
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the North Slope. However, insufficient results are available to allow development of restoration
prescriptions and much additional research is needed. Additionally, early research efforts in revegetation
focused primarily on developing methods to merely establish vegetative cover on specific sites rather than
on identifying species and species mixtures for establishing specific habitats.
RESTORATION PLANNING TOOLS AND MONITORING METHODS
Integrating scientific knowledge and applying this information to problems of North Slope
restoration will require effort to assemble and utilize existing and new information. This information is
needed to assist regulators in making scientifically defensible decisions and identifying economically
feasible and ecologically desirable restoration methods The following two areas of information acquisition
and management are needed for implementing restoration on the North Slope: 1) developing practical
analytical and decision support tools for restoration, and 2) developing monitoring techniques and
indicators of landscape- and site-scale ecosystem status.
Restoration planning tools are needed for three major reasons: 1) expediting the regulatory
permitting process, 2) enhancing the assessment of ecological risk, and 3) facilitating the selection of
economically-viable ecological engineering methods to achieve specified objectives. Monitoring results
provide feedback for assessing the efficacy of restoration planning and implementation.
Restoration Planning Tools
Planning for restoration of North Slope oil fields is a complex, semistructured process involving
resource identification and risk assessment at site and landscape scales, prescription, and application of
ecological engineering approaches and delineation and monitoring of performance standards to
determine compliance. Any or all components of this process may require tailoring to meet specific site
requirements. That is, restoration problems are neither routine nor repetitive, and a decision maker may
not have a generally established approach to solving a specific site restoration problem. It is precisely
these situations that are amenable to technological support in the form of a decision support system
(DSS) approach. This calls for research to improve information systems for decision making, including the
use of data from mapping, baseline data, and other data related to the environmental effects of oil field
development.
Computer-Aided Decision Tools-
A decision support system (DSS) is designed to help users address broad semistructured
problems. The user directs the problem-solving process. The DSS supports, but does not replace, the
user's decision making process (Gorry and Scott-Morton 1971, Newell et al. 1990). Sprague and Carlson
(1982) further describe DSS as systems that 1) tend to be aimed at the less well-structured,
underspecified problems that professionals typically face, 2) combine the use of models or analytical
techniques with traditional data access and retrieval functions, 3) are designed for use by noncomputer
people, and 4) focus on features that make them easy to use in an interactive mode, and stress flexibility
and adaptability to fit changes in the situation and decision-making approach.
In contrast, use of an expert system on a semistructured problem would impose structure by
extracting rules from an expert to address problems that may not have been recorded or expressed.
Expert systems are usually system-driven; that is, the computer dictates which step is to be taken next
Because expert systems are expensive to develop, they are usually applied to narrow and very specific
operational problems that need to be answered frequently by users (Doukidis 1988). Decision support
systems are more like a collection of tools and data that are used to solve problems.
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A DSS provides some structure to the problem, but the user must make a series of decisions
about how to set up the analysis and represent the problem, how to apply all the available data, and which
simulations should be made. To apply relevant data to each site considered, certain questions must be
raised. What are the criteria for evaluating and choosing restoration sites? Can or should we take all
restoration sites into account? How important is a certain area with regard to others? How shall importance
be determined and which characteristics make it important? When should an area be judged worthy of
restoration? Which factors should contribute towards distinguishing the degree of disturbance or
disruption of ecosystem function?
Such a system would provide a capability to integrate knowledge of all restoration actions taken
throughout the disturbed areas of the North Slope, and to identify how each new permit application fits
into the overall context ol North Slope restoration activities. It would include a modeling component that
would allow each new contemplated restoration project to be integrated into the expected restored
environment. This feature will allow assessment of the mixtures of habitat types and the effects on wildlife
populations that would result from the specific planned project.
Information Review --
One of the critical limitations faced by all parties participating in any research effort is the collection
and scoping of the current state of knowledge. Often a limited acquaintance with unpublished,
government, internal reports, or other "grey" literature that receives limited peer-review and circulation is a
fundamental handicap shared by researchers, regulators, and industrial operators alike. An additional
handicap stems from the fact that the quality of the data in much of the "grey" literature may be irregular
because of lack of peer review. Ecological restoration research and operations on the North Slope of
Alaska are no exception to these generalities
There is a critical need to establish an information base to support the regulatory decision process
and the development of site-specific restoration prescriptions. Without this information base, available
knowledge will likely be underutilized in establishing goals and performance standards, augmenting the
suite of available ecological engineering techniques, establishing site-specific prescriptions for restoration
methods, and developing monitoring strategies. The information gathered and developed under this
element is essential to the eflicient and effective regulatory and permitting decision process.
The first step in establishing a data base is to determine its purpose. The second is to stipulate its
contents. The simplest form of data base is a compilation of references to relevant documents; i.e., a
bibliography. Certainly, an annotated collection of bibliographic references is an important part of an
information base and can be readily developed. However, we believe that a more operational tool is
required for the North Slope. Although recovery from wide-spread disturbances have been studied and
provide some insight to development of sound restoration practices (Walker et al. 1987b), restoration
efforts have not been undertaken at this geographic scale before. In addition, unique characteristics of
arctic systems simplify some of the relationships normally involved in ecosystems (Shaver et al. 1991 b)
providing a great opportunity for advancing the scientific basis of restoration in temperate climates. The
information base for North Slope restoration can be the most important tool for evaluating the state of a •
habitat, assessing the probable changes that will occur without restoration, prescribing appropriate
intervention in the form of restoration treatments, management, or protection, monitoring the changes
that occur after implementation of these decisions, and determining the cost effectiveness of restorational
decisions in achieving desired levels of restoration.
With computers, information can be stored and accessed using an architecture that is significantly
different from the sequential presentation of printed books and manuals (Newell et al. 1990). Integrated
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data bases, or hypertext, represent a new type of information medium where large amounts of diverse
information are connected electronically in computers. Hypertext gives users electronic bridges for
reaching referenced information quickly and easily (Young 1986). Developing hypertext documents
requires careful design, implementation and testing, and is usually somewhat more time consuming than
developing conventional data bases. However, the cost of developing such a system should be carefully
weighed against the costs that all parties face when the permitting process becomes delayed due to large
numbers of permit applications, and the delays associated with personnel turnover and training.
Furthermore, development of a hypertext information system can be seen as the first step in the design
and development of an integrated decision support system.
Spatial and Temporal Analysis Tools-
Information on the temporal dynamics of North Slope ecosystems is inadequate, and only limited
mapped information of the spacial characteristics is available. More information will be obtained in the
future and better information will be discovered once restoration projects and development of the DSS
begin. Meanwhile, extant mapped biological, geological, climatic, and cultural information will be analyzed
and combined to produce maps that delineate boundaries of homogeneous landscapes in the coastal
plain. These maps will comprise several nested layers of information (mapping of informational scales)
including base maps that depict only broad regional features and maps, and data that provide detailed
information about specific features within the region. Similarly, mapping of spatial scales will be
accomplished by nesting detailed site and area maps within more general maps of larger areas to establish
linkages among levels of detail. Mapping of temporal scales is conceptually more difficult. The linkages
involved in temporal scale mapping will have to represent information such as daily, seasonal, and annual
changes in weather and climate conditions, thaw cycles, plant and animal colonization cycles, soil
development rates, paleobiological and geological information, and progression of site restoration
activities.
From this perspective, developing a regional decision support system can be viewed as a process
of partitioning the environment into interconnected scales of informational, spatial, and temporal detail,
and providing the tools to assess the effects of proposed actions upon the environment. The extent to
which this can be accomplished is dependent upon the extant data and the conceptual framework used in
their interpretation.
Monitoring Methods Research
Because restoration goals are inherently long-term, it will be necessary to identify indicators that
can be used to evaluate the progress of restoration actions toward achieving these desired goals. This will
require the identification of intermediate stages of restorational succession to target habitats and the
development of indicators that can, by means of periodic monitoring, identify attainment of these
intermediate stages. Monitoring can serve a two-part function. First, monitoring the state of a site relative
to performance standards will determine the level of success in achieving performance standards.
Second, monitoring is an important feedback mechanism to ensure that regulatory decisions and
performance standards have the desired effect on the landscape.
Although some monitoring of site-specific restoration efforts has been conducted by industry
(c.f., Jorgenson and Cater 1991, Jorgenson et al. 1991), essentially no research has been conducted to
develop effective goal-oriented monitoring programs at the landscape scale on the North Slope. In
addition to selecting indicators for monitoring, it will be necessary to develop two types of strategies for
monitoring. These strategies necessarily will consider the original intention of the restoration efforts, the
rationale for selecting the methods that were used, the indicators that have been selected, and the
expected behavior of those indicators after specific periods of time have elapsed.
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We suggest that effective monitoring strategies will integrate the monitoring requirements ot site-
specific monitoring with those of geographically broad monitoring needs. This will contribute to efficiency
and improved understanding of overall progress toward a desired landscape condition. For example,
efficient methods for remotely assessing the integrated effects of thermal, hydrological, and habitat
condition on the condition of whole ecosystems at landscape scales will require innovative approaches to
acquire, process, and interpret imagery from several satellite platforms. Monitoring environmental
conditions at the site scale requires development of strategies and tools for monitoring physical, chemical,
and biological conditions of both undisturbed and disturbed sites. The data generated must be
compatible with the data generated by landscape-scale monitoring efforts to allow integration of site and
landscape levels of information for assessment.
A meaningful monitoring program will require developing the ability to discern changes in
characteristics of restored and non-restored sites, it will be necessary to assess this information at a
geographical scale above the level of the site which requires developing networks of monitoring stations
located in all types of disturbances and restoration efforts. In addition, it will be necessary to develop
methods to statistically and graphically assess the information generated.
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SECTION 4
RESEARCH SUGGESTIONS AND ESTIMATED COSTS
OVERVIEW
The ANSORRS goal is to provide guidance on the overall structure and planning of arctic
restoration research. In this Section, we summarize the scope and structure of ANSORRS by suggesting
restoration research or demonstration projects for North Slope oil fields. However, because ANSORRS is
not a research plan, we do not present specific hypotheses, time tables or quality assurance and logistic
plans. We have also estimated the level of funding that will be required to conduct the research for each
of the three main problem areas outlined in ANSORRS. To be successful, we believe it will be necessary
for this effort to become an established long-term program with funding commitments for at least 10 years.
Funding suggestions made in the following sections, however, address a five-year budgetary period.
Because we expect that different agencies and industry will conduct the specific research
projects encompassed by ANSORRS, we recognize that selection of individual research topics and
development of detailed research plans will be the joint responsibility of each sponsor and the involved
scientists. ANSORRS facilitates public and private coordination of restoration research planning by
focusing efforts to enhance our knowledge of environmental condition, risks and trends in North Slope
landscapes and ecosystems affected by oil and gas development. However, we suggest that separate
plans be developed to coordinate research projects under the three problem areas (assessing restoration
benefits, ecological engineering and planning tools) that we have outlined in ANSORRS.
IDENTIFYING THE NEED FOR RESTORATION
To ascertain the need for restoration following North Slope development, we have suggested
(Section 3.2) that it will be necessary to define and quantify ecological resources and assess the risk of
resource loss. We recommend consideration of funding investigations in the following areas at an overall
level of $1 M/yr for five years:
1.	Defining and classifying baseline wildlife habitat conditions for all terrestrial and aquatic habitat types,
with special attention to identifying habitat requirements for critical wildlife including:
-	intercontinental migrants, such as waterfowl and shorebirds,
-	intracontinental migrants, such as colonial geese,
-	regional migrants, such as caribou, and
-	local resident species, such as mammalian herbivores and predators.
2.	Classifying and assessing the spatial characteristics of landscape scale hydrologic and thermal budgets
to determine:
-	physical stability of permafrost terrain,
-	effects due to industrial development (including direct effects such as habitat destruction by
burial under gravel, and indirect effects such as cumulative effects of altered local water
regimes due to snow capture and hydrologic system interruption associated with roads,
altered albedo caused by airborne dust, or toxic effects of air-transported pollutants), and
-	potential risk of loss of wildlife habitat from changes in physical conditions.
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ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING METHODS
Ecological engineering for restoration includes manipulations that are intended to hasten the
establishment of desired self-regulating terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To be effective in full-
production, these manipulations must be simple and straightforward, allowing non-scientists to apply
relatively few treatments to large areas in a limited amount of time. Research efforts must focus not only on
developing new methods of developing desired habitats, but also on methods for applying useful
methods on large scales. The three major categories of manipulations that we have included for
development under ANSORRS are: site preparation, accelerating soil development and revegetation
(Section 3.3). We recommend consideraiion of funding investigations in the following areas at an overall
level of $2M/yr for five years:
1.	Site preparation research fostering generation of desirable planting substrates by developing methods
for:
-	inventorying gravel recycling opportunities,
-	segregating substrate particle sizes and stratifying segregated materials as they are being
replaced prior to planting.
-	decontaminating hydrocarbon-contaminated gravel, and
-	providing soil moisture during the growing season.
2.	Site preparation research aimed at developing practical, large scale methods for reconfiguring sites to
meet physical system restoration goals by:
¦ restoring drainage patterns and eliminating ponding {e.g., breaching road systems and reducing
the extent of artificially induced snow-drifts),
-	reestablishing subsurface flow and surface sheet-flow processes (e.g.. removing roads and
pads in areas of significant surface or subsurface flows),
-	reestablishing metastable thermal regimes (e.g., halting thermokarst development and repairing
thermokarst damage),
-	restoring typical tundra patch size and shape (e.g., reducing connectedness of lineal facilities,
and reshaping gravel roads and pads), and
-	reestablishing typical mosaics of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
3.	Research to accelerate establishment of tundra sod by:
-	adding organic matter from mined tundra mats, stockpiles, sludge, or other sources to exposed
gravel,
-	adding amendments to soil and mineral substrates to improve ion exchange characteristics, pH
or macro- and micronutrient concentrations,
-	reshaping or otherwise modifying sites to provide suitable physical conditions for establishing
desired plant community types, and
-	enhancing establishment of soil microbiota by inoculation or other methods, using nonvascular
plants, mycorrhizae, and invertebrates.
4.	Modifying or enhancing agronomic practices to establish desired plant species by:
-	increasing the propagation of planted, seeded, or seed-banked plants in all types of aquatic and
terrestrial habitat,
-	identifying appropriate methods for using transplants, cuttings, plugs, and sod to establish
shrubs on all types of substrates and sites.
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-	enhancing germination from the seed bank on sites where fresh or stockpiled tundra organic
material is available,
-	idenlifying candidate species and ecotypes for planting and seeding in all types of aquatic and
terrestrial habitat,
-	testing individual species for viability in different types of disturbed site, and
-	using nitrogen-fixing and nonvascular plants.
5. Providing adequate materials and supplies to support restoration activities, by increasing existing
capabilities for:
-	producing adequate supplies of seed and vegetative materials and
-	supplying specific fertilizer formulations, soil amendments, mulches, matting and similar
materials.
RESTORATION PLANNING TOOLS AND MONITORING METHODS
Regulatory decisions rely on information integration which depends on all of the strategies and
infrastructures needed to gather, organize, manipulate, and assess existing and new information as it
pertains to restoration. We identified two major areas of investigation in Section 3.4: restoration planning
tools and monitoring. We recommend funding investigations in these areas at an overall level of $500k/yr
for five years:
1.	Supporting the regulatory decision process and the development of site-specific restoration
prescriptions by establishing an information base for:
-	understanding natural successional processes and time scales for terrestrial and aquatic
communities;
-	mapping data of thermal, hydrologic and habitat values; climatic and floristic zones; landscape
features: gravel fill locations and other relevant information;
-	identifying and assessing the cumulative impacts of oil field development on the North Slope;
-	developing a GIS interface and support for analysis of map information;
-	compiling references to relevant documents; and
-	developing computer-supported hypertext capabilities.
2.	Developing user-friendiy, integrated, computer-supported tools for use in analyzing alternate
restoration options including:
-	spatial models of wildlife/habitat relationships.
-	spatial hydrologic and thermal models, and
-	integration of hypertext capabilities.
3.	Developing strategies and tools for monitoring environmental and ecological conditions at site and
landscape spatial scales, as well as over ecologically significant time spans to support:
-	identifying and testing indicators of ecosystem status that are directly linked to specified goals of
the monitoring effort,
-	developing defensible sampling frames that accommodate the desired scales of resolution and
techniques that will be used for interpretation,
-	selecting appropriate instrumentation for use in data collection,
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-	developing appropriate quality control and statistical evaluation protocols to interpret the
information collected, and
-	developing a system for managing the collection of monitoring data.
4. Focusing monitoring efforts on:
-	determining the status of terrestrial and aquatic vegetation (i.e., productivity, structure, and
composition),
-	identifying intermediate stages in restored plant community succession to evaluate the success
of revegetation prescriptions,
-	assessing the quality of terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and the identification of intermediate
stages in development of targeted restored habitats,
-	assessing thermal instability on landscape and site-specific scales,
• assessing the extent and distribution of air-transported pollutant effects
-	identifying nutrient availability in different habitats,
-	assessing local and regional hydrology, including determination of flushing rates for drainage
systems, impoundments, ponds, and lakes, and
-	assessing surface water quality.
PRODUCTS OF THE RESEARCH EFFORT
Implementing this strategy will result in development of methodologies for identifying which
ecosystems affected by oil development that require restoration. Priorities can be set for implementing
specific restoration actions in those ecosystems. In addition, the spatial and temporal data bases and
analysis techniques acquired during the project will support planning of future developments in a manner
that will require minimal restoration following abandonment. This research.also is expected to produce
new ecological engineering techniques for tundra habitat restoration and a methodology for determining
when, where, and the level of effort will be required in the application of those techniques.
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Wyant, J.G., R.J. Alig and W.A. Bechtold. 1991. Physiographic position, disturbance, and species
composition in North Carolina coastal plain forests. Forest Ecology and Management 41:1 -19.
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Young, J.S. 1986. Hypermedia MacWorld. March, pp. 116-121.
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APPENDIX A
LIST OF
Ecorestoration Workshop
Anchorage, AK
May 2-4, 1991
Dr. Feni Ayorrde, USACE
Ms. Joyce Bee rnan, ADEC
Dr. Max C. B'ewer, USGS
Ms. Anne Brown; BPX
Mr, Michaei Brody, EPA
Dr. John Bryant, UAF
Dr. Clarence Callahan, EPA
Dr. Buddy Clarain, USACE
Mr. Fred Crory, USACE
Mr. Lloyd Fanter, USACE
Dr. Craig Gerlach, UAF
Ms. Michelle Gilders, BPX
Ms. Jeanne Hanson, NMFS
Dr. Chris Herlgson, BPX
Mr. Marcus Hoton, USFWS
Mr. Torre Jorgensen, ABF!
Mr. Mike Joyce, ARCO
Mr. Ken Kertell, LGL Alaska
Dr. Knut Kielland, UAF
Mr. Me! Knapp, TRI
Dr. Peter Lent, LGL Alaska
Dr. Jay McKendrick, UAF
Dr. Rosa Meehan, USFWS
Dr. Rich Meganck. METI
Mr. Phi North, EPA
Dr. K>m Peterson, Clemscn
Dr. Mary Lee Plumb-Ment,es, USACE
Dr. Charies Racine, USACE
Mr. Dan Robison, EPA
Dr. Roger Ruess, UAF
Dr. Ron Thorn, Batel;e
Dr. Rooet White, UAF
Dr. Robet Woodmansee, CSU
Dr. Jannie Wyant, METI
PARTICIPANTS
North Slope Workshop
Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk oil fields
July 30 - August 2, 1991
Ms. Joyce Beelman, ADEC
Dr. Rick Bennett, EPA
Dr. Clarence Callahan, EPA
Dr. Ray Cameron, ADF&G
Ms. Terry Carpenter, USACE
Dr Buddy Cla-ain, USACE
Ms. Linda Comerci, EPA
Dr. Mary Davis, USACE
Mr. Joe Dygas, BLM
Mr. Lloyd Fan'e', USACE
Dr. Craig Gerlach, UAF
Ms. Michelle Gi ders. BPX
Dr. Larry Hinzman, UAF
Dr. Fred Huzby,
Mr. Steve Jacoby, ADGC
Mr. Larry Johnson, UAF
Mr. Tore Jorgensen, ABR
Mr. Mike Joyce, ARCO
Mr. Me Knapp, TRI
Dr. Rick Knight, CSU
Ms. Janet Kowalski, ADEC
Dr. Robert Lackey, EPA
Ms. Jennifer Loprocaro,
Mr. John Mahaffey, USACE
Ms. Barbara Mahoney, NMFS
Dr, Jay McKendrick, UAF
M-. Kieth Mueller, USFWS
Dr. Tony Palazzo, USACE
Mr. Roger Post, ADF&G
Dr. Ma-y Lee Plumb-Mentjes, USACE
Ms. Ann Rappaport, USFWS
Mr. Da- Robison, EPA
Dr. Floge' R^ess, UAF
Dr. Gus Shaver, MBL
Dr. Mostala Shirazi, EPA
Mr. Pat Sousa, USFWS
Dr Maryh Walker, CU
Dr. Jam;e Wyant, METI
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APPENDIX B
QUALITY ASSURANCE POLICIES
OVERVIEW
Policies initiated by the Administrator ol the EPA in memoranda of May 30, 1979, June 14,1979,
and April 3,1984 require that all EPA laboratories, program offices, and regional offices participate in a
centrally-managed quality assurance (QA) program. This policy extends to those monitoring and
measurement efforts supported or mandated through contracts, regulations, and/or other formal
agreements. The intent is to develop a unified approach to QA to ensure the collection of data that are
scientifically sound, legally defensible, and of known and documented quality.
The Office of Research and Development (ORD) is responsible for developing, coordinating, and
directing the implementation of the Agency's QA program. ORD has delegated this responsibility to the
Quality Assurance Management Staff (QAMS) under the Office of Modeling, Monitoring Systems, and
Quality Assurance (OMMSQA)
To implement Agency policy, EPA laboratories, program offices and regional offices must prepare
QA program plans covering ail intramural and extramural activities that generate and process
environmentally-related measurement data for Agency use. QA program plans are reviewed annually by
laboratory QA staff to determine if significant changes have occurred requiring revision. In addition, all
EPA supported projects that generate and process environmentally-related measurement data are
required to prepare QA project plans covering the specific quality assurance and quality control (QC)
measures to be followed for these projects. These documents are submitted to QAMS for review and
approval for implementation. Essentially all field and laboratory investigations involving the measurement
of environmental chemical, physical, or biological parameters generate environmentally-related
measurements.
QUALITY ASSURANCE POLICY STATEMENT
It is the policy of the EPA that QA will be integral to all research projects that generate or use
environmentally-related measurement data. A QA program plan will be established that ensures all data
collected are of known and documented quality.
Laboratory and regional management are responsible for ensuring that the QA program plan is
implemented. Each project officer is responsible to the QA officer for establishing the protocols that will
result in collecting data ol known quality. An independent QA stalf is responsible for implementing the
laboratory's QA program and ensuring that QA policy is followed Project-level staff may be assigned QA
responsibility to provide guidance in preparing QA project plans, to interpret QA requirements, and to
function as project advocates to aid in meeting project QA requirements.
The QA program is designed to ensure that laboratory outputs are cost-effective, technically
sound, and satisfy project objectives. Key elements of the QA program at the EPA Environmental
Research Laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon are:
1. Data Quality Objectives (DQOs): DQOs must be developed as part of the QA planning process before
data collection begins, and then compared to the quality of the actual data collected.
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2.	QA project plan: The QA project plan must be based on the data quality objectives and include integral
QA and quality control (QC) procedures Resources needed to accomplish project objectives will
be specified.
3.	Audits: Audits shall be conducted to evaluate the conformance of data collection, analysis, and
management to the DQOs and the QA project plan.
4.	Reporting: All data must be reported at a quality level adequate for the intended use. Journal articles
and reports developed as outputs from laboratory projects shall include QC information
supporting the data.
Audits serve to communicate the intent of the ERL-Corvallis QA program to those actually
collecting the data. These reviews are designed as a training exercise. Personnel are advised of new or
revised QA directives through meetings and memos. Since effective QA requires teamwork, it is desirable
and useful for both management and operational level personnel to understand the QA function at all
levels of the project.
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APPENDIX C
ECOSYSTEM FEATURES OF ALASKA'S NORTH SLOPE
GEOMORPHOLOGY
The region of the North Slope of Alaska spans three physiographic provinces from the northern
slopes of the Brooks Range through the southern and northern foothills to the Arctic Coastal Plain. The
offshore region of the continental shelf is narrow in the east and extends to hundreds of miles in the west
before it drops into the Arctic Ocean abyss
The Coastal Plain is covered by thousands of lakes that develop by combined actions of freezing
and thawing in the active (upper) layer of the permafrost, and the ice wedge process that patterns the land
into polygons. More than half of the area of coastal plain is covered with thaw lakes that can reach up to 40
km in length and are generally shallower than 3 m. Britton (-1966) has described the dynamic aspects of
the thaw-lake cycle and the development of the ice-wedge polygon landscape.
Thaw lakes are formed by pooling of water in the depression of low-centered polygons and most
of the lakes become oriented perpendicular to the prevailing wind in the region (east-northeast). Low-
centered polygons are produced by the dynamics of ice-wedge formation. Marshy basins that constitute
25% of the coastal area are formed when the thaw lakes drain. Polygons are surrounded by ice-wedges
and the intersections of ice wedges produce ' beaded streams"," which are interconnected string of
elliptical pools. The drained thaw lakes and the encroachment of permafrost produce low frost mounds'
and "pingos' which can be up to 30 m high. This process occurs over the course of thousands to
hundreds of thousands of years (Walker and Walker 1991).
PERMAFROST AND HYDROLOGY
Permafrost is the frozen layer of soil and bedrock and ranges from approximately 400 m to 600 m
in thickness at Barrow and Prudhoe Bay, respectively. Only an upper layer is 'active' and thaws in the
summer. Seasonal cycles of the melting ice creates local variations in the land surface topography.
Permafrost formation is enhanced by shading and insolation, and vegetation cover insulates and
preserves it. Major problems can arise when construction on permafrost removes the insulating tundra
mat, altering the thermal conductivity of the soil. The result can be an increase in the depth to permafrost
caused by solar heating or inadequately insulated heated structures.
In the Arctic, the distribution and the subsurface drainage of groundwater is greatly affected by
the permafrost. Groundwater is perched on the frozen material and is available year round only from
unfrozen alluvium near large rivers and under large lakes that do not fully freeze. Unfrozen aquifers under
permafrost are brackish and unfrozen alluvial and bedrock aquifers are either low yield or difficult to find.
Water saturated sediments flow downslope forming sheets, lobes, and terrace-like features.
These permafrost related landforms result from the poor drainage capabilities of the topsoil underlain by
impermeable ice.
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OPEN WATER
Open water may comprise 35% or more of the surface area of the coastal plain (Walker et al. 1986).
Most of this aquatic milieu is shallow ponds that constitute one of the stages in the thaw lake cycle. Other
open water habitats are deep water lakes and impoundments created by surface disturbances. The
ecology of open waters on the coastal plain has not been thoroughly studied, although many shorebirds
and water fowl feed on aquatic plants or invertebrates (Truett and Kertell 1990).
Thaw lakes may form when a disturbance to the surface of a moist tundra system increases surface
temperature or increases soil thermal conductivity. This initiates a series of changes that propagate from
increased permafrost thaw depth, to surface subsidence, then to surface ponding that inundates and kills
the tundra vegetation, and subsequently to further increased thermal conductivity and depth of thaw.
The acreage flooded by shallow impoundments varies with the seasons, reaching a maximum at
the end of the snowmelt period. Although temporary flooding does not often kill the flooded terrestrial
vegetation, it can alter the vegetative composition and initiate a greening process that coincides with a
deepening of the depth of thaw (Walker et al. 1987b). Some deep-water impoundments occupy gravel
mine pits, and are suitable for production of resident fish populations since they do not freeze to the
bottom (Joyce pers. comm., McKendrick pers. comm.).
SOILS
Arctic soils are greatly influenced by their drainage potentials. In the Arctic Foothills, soils are
mixes of well drained soils with a dark non-acidic upper layer and poorly drained soils with a dark non-acidic
upper layer in the higher slopes. In the lower slopes and the Arctic Coastal Plain, soils are poorly drained
and thaw in the summer only to a shallow depth (approximately 45-50 cm). The quality of soil organic
matter varies widely among these ecosystems and is more important than soil temperature differences in
controlling rates of nutrient cycling and soil building processes in the field (Nadelhoffer et al. 1991)
The rates and patterns of nutrient dynamics in arctic soils are dependent on the physical and
biological characteristics of the soil profiles. The soils of the North Slope are typically wet (soil moisture
>75%), cold (temperature < 10c C in the rooting zone during the growing season), acidic (pH < 5.5), and
highly organic (organic matter content > 50% in surface horizons). Soil type, pH and moisture holding
capacity are strongly dependent on organic matter content and composition. Up to 95% of soil biological
activity (i.e., root biomass, root growth, microbial biomass and growth) may be confined to the organic
horizons (Kielland pers. comm., Ruess pers. comm.), although roots may penetrate all the way to the
maximum depth of soil thaw (Shaver and Billings 1975, Miller et al 1982).
VEGETATION
The flora of the coastal plain comprises only a few hundred vascular plant species and diminishes
along a south to north gradient to about 125 vascular species in the Barrow area. Mosses are an important
component of the vegetation in moist and wet sites. Mosses, along with peat soils, form the rooting
medium for most vascular plants throughout the region of interest. In many sites, mosses play an
important role in restricting thaw depths. Lichens are prevalent in drier locations.
Throughout the coastal plain, vegetational patterning is closely linked to patterns of soil moisture.
Soil moisture varies by several orders of magnitude, depending fargely upon microtopography. Low
precipitation combined with impervious permafrost at shallow depths allows perched water tables to
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intersect the soil surface in low-lying areas. Small elevations of a few decimeters as are associated with
polygon rims and high center polygons result in dry surface soils isolated from the water table.
Microtopographic relief results in strong vegetational patterning.
Regional vegetational differences within the wet coastal tundra region are a function of both
climatic and substrate differences. The sedge Eriophorum vagiriatum dominates much of the region, but
gives way to dominance by another sedge, Carex aquatilis, in the immediate coastal region where
frequent fog and cloudy conditions reduce summer temperatures. Much of the eastern region of the
coastal plain is under the riparian influence of rivers originating in calcium rich formations resulting in a high
soil pH. These areas lack the genus Sphagnum. To the west of this region, rivers originate in the northern .
arctic foothills or on the coastal plain itself and Sphagnum is an important component of the vegetation in
many wet sites.
In undisturbed arctic tundra, no single environmental factor has been demonstrated to limit the
productivity of all plant community members (Chapin and Shaver 1985) and though productivity of
individual species varies greatly from year to year, productivity of the whole vegetation is more stable
(Chapin and Shaver 1985, Henry et al. 1990). As in more southerly grasslands, there is some evidence
that moderate grazing results in greater net production and lower standing crop of dead material (Henry
and Svoboda 1989).
WILDLIFE
There are many studies investigating various aspects of the population ecology of large predators
and herbivores of the North Slope (Norton 1975, National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska Work Group 3
1979). In addition, the role of small mammals (i.e.. lemmings) in nutrient cycling has been studied (Batzli et
al. 1980). A common topic of concern is the relationship between wildlife and vegetation communities
(i.e., habitat).
Arctic terrestrial animals utilize different vegetation communities to fulfill their basic
energy/reproductive requirements. This leads to patterns of association between the animals and the
vegetation communities. Because many of the wildlife species are migratory, different parts of the region
are associated with these patterns.
In some instances, specific vegetation communities can be associated with a wildlife species. For
example, moose rely on riparian shrub communities for winter habitat. In other cases, specific
geographical areas may be identified. For example, in the Central Arctic region of Alaska, the
barren-ground caribou winter in the northern foothills of the Brooks Range. During spring, the cows
migrate to calving areas along the coastal plain, while in summer the animals aggregate near the coast and
river deltas (Carruthers et al. 1987).
Waterfowl use of a variety of vegetation communities during the breeding season has been
studied by a number of authors using different classification schemes (Bergman et al. 1977, Derksen et al.
1981, Meehan et al. 1986, Meehan and Jennings 1988) making comparisons difficult (see review in
Meehan et al. 1986). Understanding is lacking regarding the use of different habitats by waterfowl,
especially during brood-rearing. The trophic relationships among waterfowl and habitat types are not well
understood, nor is the importance of different plant communities to waterfowl population dynamics.
Because the shallow lakes in the arctic region freeze to the bottom, they do not carry fish
populations. Aquatic communities in shallow lakes of the North Slope are dominated by invertebrates
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such as copepods, rotifers, cladocera, shrimp, and larvae of stonefly, beetles, and snails. These water
bodies are also significant waterfowl habitats.
Fish such as arctic char, whitefish, and grayling are found in the large rivers and deep lakes that do
not freeze to the. bottom in the winter.
THE PEOPLE
In general, the native peoples of the region settled in two major groups roughly corresponding to
the physiographic provinces of the Arctic. The Taremuits settled in the coastal region where they hunted
marine mammals (Burch 1975,1976). The Nunamuits settled in the uplands and hunted land mammals.
Within each culture, tribal entities can be identified with some of today's settlements. From the west to the
east on the coastal arctic there are the Tigeramuits of Point Hope, the Kukparungrnuit of Point Belcher
and Cape Beaufort, the Utukamuit of Icy Cape, the Knutmuit of Kuk River, the Sidarumuit of Pear Bay, and
the Utkiavinmuit and the Nuwukmuit of Point Barrow.
The Coastal Taremuits and the inland Nunamuit were culturally linked by trade and the exchange
of goods. The inland people traded caribou skins, fox furs, feathers, birch bark and berries for the seal oil
and stone lamps of the coastal people.
Depletion of the whale population, overhunting of the caribou and exploitation of fox and other
furbearers, predominantly by people outside the region, combined with changes within the region as a
result of outside influences shifted the cultural base of the native people (Hall et al. 1985). These cultural
and societal changes brought about a new era leading to the formation of the Arctic Slope Regional
Corporation and the North Slope Borough as forces in a regional government of the people.
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GLOSSARY
These terms are defined as they are used in this report, and not by reference to other usage
except to assist in making distinctions or in clarifying associations.
Decision Support System: Computer systems designed to help users with broad semistructured
problems, within which the user directing the problem-solving process. A DSS supports, but
does not replace the decision making process of the person solving the problem.
Degraded ecosystem: An ecosystem has been degraded when its pre-disturbance functions or
structural components have been altered sufficiently that the value of the system is reduced. For
example, disturbances that reduce the ability of vegetative communities to support wildlife
degrade the ecosystem as it pertains to wildlife values
Ecological engineering technique: Any method that can be used to manipulate the physical or
biological environment to accelerate achievement of ecorestoration goals is an ecological
engineering technique. For example, such methods may include, among others: physically
restructuring the land surface, adding soil amendments to planting sites, altering water capture
and retention on restoration sites, seeding, or planting vegetative materials
Flare pits: Waste discharge pits that are designed to allow pressure surges of gas or petroleum to be
vented and burned in safety.
Functional roles: Functional roles in ecosystems include all of the attributes that combine to
characterize an integrated ecosystem. Functional roles include biological roles (such as producer,
consumer, and detritivore) and physical/chemical roles (such as hydrological drainage, chemical
buffering, and nutrient transport).
Goals: Expressions of environmental values that are to be preserved or reestablished by restoration
activities.
Gravel pad: All facilities on the North Slope are built on gravel pads approximately 1.5 m thick. These
pads provide structural support and insulate the underlying permafrost. One of the original
Prudhoe Bay drilling sites (A-pad) covered 17.8 hectares (ha). The newest pads are substantially
smaller covering about 5.5 ha.
Landscape ecosystem concept: The concept recognizes that several elements may comprise a
geographically wide-spread ecosystem, and that, although processes and activities within a
landscape element may be studied as if they occur independently from other elements, they are
iinked through physical, chemical and biological interactions that constrain the ways that the
ecosystem as a whole can operate. It also recognizes that activities occurring within a landscape
element must be viewed within the context of the entire landscape,'rather than on a site-specific
basis. Landscape ecosystem elements may comprise entire ecosystems, or they may constitute
ecosystem components that normally interact or are perceived at a smaller scale than the
landscape. For example, drainage basins on the coastal plain of Alaska's North Slope constitute a
group of landscape elements, and the coastal piain is a much larger element of the arctic tundra
ecosystem.
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Monitoring: The study or surveillance of a system to determine whether pre-established restoration
standards are being met.
Performance standards: Formal expressions of ecosystem characteristics that reflect socially desired
ecosystem functioning, appearance, composition, and persistence at various scales of
ecosystem organization. When ecosystem conditions are found to be substantially different from
the formally stated standards, an unsatisfied need for additional restoration may be indicated.
Pigging pits: Sites where the residues cleaned from the inside of pipes are deposited.
Pingos: Conical hills with basal diameters of several tens to several hundreds of meters (m) and heights
of 10 m to 60 m; formed on an ice core.
Rehabilitation: The deliberate attempt to return a damaged ecosystem to some kind of productive use
or socially acceptable condition.
Reserve pit: Containment areas for drilling fluids, mud and cuttings built into the drilling pads. Drilling
fluid and muds may contain toxic levels of heavy metals or other contaminants. Technological
advances have eliminated the need for reserve pits for most new drilling operations.
Restoration: The process of facilitating or accelerating natural processes of ecosystem recovery by
providing the necessary functional and structural connectivity fo support the self-organizing
nature of an ecosystem that has been fragmented by resource extraction or other uses. Under
this definition, the "restored" ecosystem may not have the same dominant species, species
diversity, production rates, or nutrient cycling rates as a similar undisturbed site; however, all
essential functional roles of will be reestablished (Kusler and Kentula 1989).
Sampling frame: The geographic and temporal scales at which data collection is appropriate to answer
the questions of concern. For example, site-specific monitoring data may not be appropriate for
use in assessing landscape-scale ecosystem condition, and daily observation of depth of thaw of
the active layer is probably more frequent than necessary for evaluation of potential changes in
thermal regime. Appropriate choice of monitoring sampling frame optimizes the use of monitoring
funds in light of the questions to be answered
Species group of concern: Functional groupings of wildlife, such as intercontinental migrants (e.g.,
waterfowl), intracontinental migrants (e.g., colonial geese), regional migrants (e.g., caribou), year-
round resident herbivores (e.g. lemmings) and carnivores (e.g., wolves and bear). This grouping
allows assessment of habitat issues to focus on the aggregate of user wildlife, rather than on a
single species.
Stakeholder: Individuals or legal entities with an interest or share in an undertaking. For example,
private industry, native peoples, Alaska residents, federal regulators and U.S. citizens all have
stakeholder interests in the management and restoration of North Slope oil fields.
Thermokarst: Fracturing of the land surface and surficial collapse caused by thawing of ice rich
permafrost.
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