United States Office of Water EPA-822-S18-002
Environmental Protection Agency Office of Science and Technology May 2018
4304T
oEPA Biennial Review of
40 CFR Part 503
As Required Under the
Clean Water Act
Section 405(d)(2)(C)
Reporting Period
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
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EPA-822-S18-002
Biennial Review of 40 CFR Part 503
As Required Under the Clean Water Act Section
405(d)(2)(C)
Reporting Period Biosolids Biennial Review 2013
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water
Office of Science and Technology
Washington, D.C.
May 2018
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. EPA policy and approved for
publication. This report was prepared with the support of RTI International under the direction
and review of the Office of Science and Technology.
The discussion in this document of the statute and regulations is intended solely as guidance. The
statutory provisions and EPA regulations described in this document contain legally binding
requirements. This document is not a regulation itself, nor does it change or substitute for those
provisions and regulations. Thus, it does not impose legally binding requirements on EPA,
States, or the regulated community. While EPA has made every effort to ensure the accuracy of
the discussion in this document, the obligations of the regulated community are determined by
statutes, regulations, or other legally binding requirements. In the event of a conflict between the
discussion in this document and any statute or regulation, this document would not be
controlling. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation for their use.
This document can be downloaded from EPA's website at http://www.epa.gov/biosolids
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Executive Summary
In 1993, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) promulgated regulations in 40 CFR
Part 503 for sewage sludge1, as amended, that include general requirements, pollutant limits,
management practices, operational standards, and requirements for monitoring, recordkeeping
and reporting. Section 405(d)(2)(C) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) states that EPA shall review
the biosolids regulations not less often than every two years for the purpose of identifying
additional toxic pollutants and promulgating regulations for such pollutants consistent with the
requirements of section 405(d).
In fulfilling this commitment for the 2013 biennial review cycle, EPA collected and reviewed
publicly available information on the occurrence, fate and transport in the environment, human
health and ecological effects, and other relevant information for toxic pollutants that may occur
in U.S. biosolids. After conducting the review, if such data are available for pollutants that may
occur in biosolids, the Agency will assess the potential risk to human health or the environment
associated with exposure to such pollutants when biosolids are applied to land as a fertilizer or
soil amendment, placed in a surface disposal site, or incinerated, and, if appropriate, EPA will set
numeric limits for these pollutants.
This review process included information collected for pollutants that (1) have been identified in
the Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey (TNSSS; U.S. EPA, 2009) or in the open literature
as having concentration data for biosolids or other evidence of occurrence in biosolids, and (2)
have not been previously regulated or evaluated (e.g., as potentially causing harm to humans or
the environment) in biosolids. Using this search approach, 77 new articles were identified as
providing relevant information for pollutants that may occur in U.S. biosolids. Thirty-five new
chemicals and six new microbial pollutants were identified in biosolids in this 2013 Biennial
Review. Thirteen of the newly identified chemicals are perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). No
human health toxicity data were identified for any of the 35 new chemicals or for chemicals
identified in previous biennial reviews. However, EPA is currently engaged in efforts around
PFAS, including developing toxicity values for certain PFAS chemicals . Ecological toxicity
values were found for one chemical (triclosan) identified in a previous biennial review. New
physical-chemical properties (log Kow and half-life) were identified for 22 chemicals. New
bioaccumulation factors were identified for five previously identified chemicals.
The available data for many of the chemicals and microbial pollutants identified are not
sufficient at this time to evaluate risk using current biosolids modeling tools. EPA will continue
to evaluate available toxicological information for PFASs. In addition, the EPA's Office of
Pesticide Programs plans to complete a draft risk assessment for triclosan in late 20182. The
Federal Drug Administration and EPA have been closely collaborating on scientific and
regulatory issues related to triclosan to ensure government-wide consistency in the regulation of
this chemical.
1 EPA often uses the term "biosolids" interchangeably with "sewage sludge," which is defined in the regulations and
used in the statute. Biosolids refers to treated sewage sludge.
2 See additional information on triclosan on EPA's website (https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-
products/triclosan)
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EPA has not identified any additional toxic pollutants for potential regulation during the 2013
Biosolids Biennial Review. The Agency will continue to assess the availability of sufficient
information for these and other pollutants identified during the biennial review activities
pursuant to section 405(d)(2)(C) of the CWA.
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Table of Contents Page
1. Introduction 1
2. Literature Search Approach 3
2.1 Human Health Toxicity Values Data Sources and Selection 4
2.2 Ecological Toxicity Value Data Sources and Selection 6
3. Results of the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review 8
3.1 Pollutants Newly Identified in the 2013 Biennial Review 9
3.2 New Information on Pollutants Previously Identified in Biennial Reviews 10
3.3 Environmental Fate and Transport Properties 11
4. Conclusions 14
5. Additional Information 15
6. References 15
Attachment A. List of Pollutants Identified in Biosolids A-l
Attachment B. Reference Abstracts B-l
List of Tables
Table 1. Hierarchy for Human Health Toxicity Value Data 5
Table 2. Summary of Criteria for Selecting Ecological Toxicity Data 7
Table 3. Chemicals Identified in Biosolids in the 2013 Biennial Review 9
Table 4. Ecological Toxicity Values 11
Table 5. Physical-Chemical and Other Properties51 Identified in the 2013 Biennial Review 11
Table 6. Bioaccumulation Factors for Soil Biota ([mg/kg biota]/[mg/kg soil]) 12
Table 7. Bioaccumulation Factors for Plants ([mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]) 12
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1. Introduction
In Section 405 of the Clean Water Act (CWA), Congress set forth a comprehensive program
designed to reduce potential health and environmental risks associated with using or disposing of
sewage sludge. Under Section 405(d), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
establishes numeric limits and management practices that protect public health and the
environment from the reasonably anticipated adverse effects of chemical and microbial
pollutants in sewage sludge. Section 405(d) prohibits any person from using or disposing of
sewage sludge from publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) or other treatment works treating
domestic sewage, unless the use or disposal complies with regulations promulgated under section
405(d).
On February 19, 1993, EPA identified several pollutants which, based on available information
on their toxicity, persistence, concentration, mobility, or potential for exposure, were present in
sewage sludge in concentrations which may adversely affect public health or the environment. At
that time, the Agency promulgated regulations, 40 CFR Part 503 Standards for the Use or
Disposal of Sewage Sludge, specifying acceptable management practices, numeric standards for
10 metals (arsenic, cadmium, chromium III, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel,
selenium, and zinc), and operational standards for microbial organisms (58 FR 9248).
The 1993 rule also established requirements for the final use or disposal of sewage sludge when
it is: (1) applied to land as a fertilizer or soil amendment; (2) placed in a surface disposal site,
including sewage sludge-only landfills; or (3) incinerated. These requirements apply to publicly
and privately owned treatment works that generate or treat domestic sewage sludge and to
anyone who manages sewage sludge. The rule also requires monitoring, record keeping, and
reporting of specific information regarding sewage sludge management.
Section 405(d)(2)(C) of the CWA requires EPA to review the biosolids regulations not less often
than every two years for the purpose of identifying additional toxic pollutants and promulgating
regulations for such pollutants consistent with the requirements of section 405(d). Prior to the
reports known as "biennial reviews," in order to fulfill this requirement the Agency made the
following decisions and observations: (1) In 2001, EPA decided that regulation of dioxin and
dioxin-like compounds disposed via incineration or land-filling was not needed for adequate
protection of public health and the environment (66 FR 66227); (2) In 2003, EPA determined
that regulation of dioxin and dioxin-like compounds in land-applied sewage sludge was not
needed for adequate protection of public health and the environment (68 FR 61084); and (3) In
conducting the biennial review for 2003 (68 FR 75531), EPA identified nine pollutants (barium,
beryllium, manganese, silver, fluoranthene, pyrene, 4-chloroaniline, nitrate, and nitrite) for
evaluation. Molybdenum was also added for reevaluation in 2003. Summaries of the evaluations
and past biennial reviews are available on EPA's Web site at http://www.epa.gov/biosolids.
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For the 2013 Biennial Review, EPA searched publicly available information in databases and
articles published in English in refereed journals from July 2011 through December 2013. The
purpose of reviewing this information is to identify pollutants found in biosolids in this
timeframe and to assess the availability and sufficiency of the data for conducting risk
assessments. After conducting the review, if such data are available for pollutants that may occur
in biosolids, the Agency will assess the potential risk to human health or the environment
associated with exposure to such pollutants when biosolids are applied to land as a fertilizer or
soil amendment, placed in a surface disposal site, or incinerated to determine whether to regulate
the pollutants.
To inform the risk assessments of pollutants in biosolids, EPA typically uses models that require
data from three major categories:
Toxicity to human and ecological receptors. For human toxicity, this type of data
include values such as a reference dose, reference concentration, cancer slope factor, or
inhalation unit risk. For ecological toxicity, it includes values such as lethal dose, lethal
concentration, or chronic endpoints related to fecundity.
Concentration data for pollutants in biosolids. Both the ability to detect a given
pollutant in biosolids and the determination of the concentration at which that pollutant is
present are highly dependent on the existence of analytical methods for that pollutant in
the biosolids matrix.
Environmental Fate and transport data for pollutants that may be present in
biosolids. These data are necessary for assessing exposure. Examples of chemical and
physical properties that may be considered, depending on the nature of a given pollutant
in biosolids, include:
- Molecular weight
- Solubility
- Vapor pressure
- Henry's law constant
- Soil-water partitioning coefficients
- Soil adsorption coefficients (Kd and Koc)
- Degradation rates in various media
- Log octanol-water partition coefficients (Log Kow)
- Diffusivities in air and water
- Bioavailability
- Air-to-plant transfer factors
- Root uptake factors for above ground vegetation
- Root concentration factors
- Bioconcentration factors for animal products (e.g., meat and milk).
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2. Literature Search Approach
To determine if data are available to evaluate human health risks or ecological risks, EPA
searched databases and the published literature for articles in English in refereed journals from
July 2011 through December 2013 to identify data sources published since the previous search
performed in support of the 2011 Biosolids Biennial Review (EPA-830-R-13-009).
The bibliographic databases searched included PubMed, Science Citation Index Expanded (Web
of Science), Toxline, Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, Biological Sciences Database,
Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management, and Soil Science journal website. The data
search included a combination of the following key words:
Biosolids-related keywords: (sewage sludge OR biosolids OR treated sewage OR sludge
treatment OR sewage treatment)
AND
Pollutant- and health-related keywords: (pollutant* OR toxic* [toxicant, toxicology, etc.]
OR pathogen* OR concentration* OR propert* OR fate OR transport OR health OR
ecolog* OR effect OR effects OR micro* [microbial, etc.] OR Salmonella)
AND
Geographic keywords (limiters): (United States OR Canada OR USA OR U.S.A. OR U.S.
OR US)
AND
Land Application-related keywords: (land application OR farm OR agriculture OR soil)
AND
Health-related keywords: (occurrence OR concentration OR properties OR fate OR
transport OR health effects OR ecological effects).
In addition to the bibliographic databases searched, EPA also employed the search strategies
described in Sections 2.1 and 2.2 for human health toxicity values and ecological toxicity values,
respectively.
The Agency applied an abstract screening process to the initial group of articles identified.
Articles that included pollutants that fit the following criteria were formally reviewed:
Identified in the Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey (TNSSS; U.S. EPA, 2009) or
the open literature as having concentration data or other evidence of occurrence in
biosolids (see Attachments A).
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Not previously regulated or evaluated for biosolids.3
In the formal review process, articles addressing previously identified pollutants that appeared to
provide new data on their behavior in the environment or toxicity were included. Articles were
excluded from further review for any one of four reasons:
The study addressed toxicity through a medium other than biosolids (e.g., wastewater
effluent).
The study was conducted in a country other than the United States or Canada.
The study only described an analytical method.
An abstract was not available and the title alone did not provide sufficient evidence for
inclusion.
International studies that examined the occurrence of pollutants in biosolids were excluded from
consideration, because treatment technologies and regulatory requirements in other countries are
not necessarily representative of the United States. However, Canadian studies that examined the
fate and transport of pollutants from agriculturally applied biosolids in soils were included
because of the expected similarities in Canadian and U.S. soil types. Additionally, the Canadian
governmental research group, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, has conducted numerous
studies of interest on the fate and transport of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in
agricultural soils.
2.1 Human Health Toxicity Values Data Sources and Selection
To estimate the potential for adverse human health risks from agricultural land application of
biosolids, EPA assesses chronic oral and inhalation exposures. EPA uses reference doses (RfDs)
and reference concentrations (RfCs) to evaluate non-cancer risk from oral and inhalation
exposures, respectively. EPA uses oral cancer slope factors (CSFs) and inhalation unit risks
(IURs) to evaluate risk for carcinogens from oral and inhalation exposures.4
The Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS; U.S. EPA, 2016a) is EPA's primary repository
for human health toxicity values that have been developed specifically for human health risk
assessment using standardized methods5 and have been thoroughly peer reviewed. IRIS is
considered the most preferred source for human health toxicity values for EPA risk assessment.
In addition to IRIS, EPA used several other peer reviewed, publicly available sources of toxicity
3 For more information on pollutants previously regulated or evaluated in biosolids, see the Statistics Support
Documentation for the 40 CFR Part 503 - Volume 1 (https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-
04/documents/statistics 1992 support document - biosolids vol i.pdf) and the EPA's response to the National
Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences report on biosolids
fhttps://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-06/documents/technical background document.pdf)
4 For more information about these toxicity values, see https://www.epa.gov/iris/basic-information-about-
integrated-risk-information-svstem.
5 For more information about these methods, see https://www.epa.gov/iris/basic-information-about-integrated-risk-
information-svstcm# guidance.
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information. To make efficient use of resources, EPA developed a hierarchy (see Table 1) that
gives higher priority to sources of information that:
Are developed specifically for use in human health risk assessment using methodologies
similar to those used by IRIS;
Have been peer reviewed to at least some extent and have a transparent basis for the
values; and
Are more recent than published IRIS values.
Table 1. Hierarchy for Human Health Toxicity Value Data
Data Sources Included
Tier 1: Highest Quality EPA Sources
Sources in Tier 1 contain values developed by EPA specifically for human health risk assessment according to
standard methods and represent the highest quality human health toxicity values available. These toxicity values
are frequently used to support EPA risk analyses.
Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS): IRIS is EPA's primary repository for human health toxicity values that
have been developed specifically for human health risk assessment using standardized methods and have been
thoroughly peer reviewed. IRIS is considered the most preferred source for human health toxicity values for EPA
risk assessment; however, for pesticides, toxicity values are developed by EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs
(U.S. EPA, 2016a).
Human Health Benchmarks for Pesticides (HHBPs): EPA develops chronic oral health benchmarks (RfDs and
CSFs) for pesticides for surface and groundwater sources of drinking water using health effects data submitted
during the pesticide registration process (U.S. EPA, 2016b).
Provisional Peer Reviewed Toxicity Values (PPRTVs): The Superfund Health Risk Technical Support Center (in
the National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development) develops PPRTVs
using the same methods as IRIS (U.S. EPA, 2016c).
Office of Water Health Effects Support Documents (HESDs): These documents may provide additional toxicity
values not elsewhere available, but developed using the same methodology as IRIS.
Tier 2: Non-EPA Sources Using a Similar Methodology to Tier 1
Sources in Tier 2 contain toxicity values developed specifically for human health risk assessment by another
organization using methods similar to IRIS. They represent the highest quality human health toxicity values
available and are frequently used to support EPA risk analyses.
ATSDR Minimum Risk Levels (MRLs): The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
develops MRLs, which are oral non-cancer toxicity values equivalent to RfDs (ATSDR, 2016).
CalEPA Reference Exposure Levels (RELs) and Cancer Potency Factors (CPFs): The California
Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA) develops RELs, which are non-cancer toxicity values equivalent to
RfDs or RfCs (CalEPA, 2016) and CPFs, which are cancer toxicity values equivalent to CSFs or lURs (CalEPA,
2011).
Tier 3: Other Non-EPA Sources
Tier 3 sources represent high-quality human health toxicity values that have been developed by other
organizations for a use other than human health risk assessment or using methodologies that differ from IRIS.
JECFA Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADIs): The Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) of the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) meets
annually and issues ADIs, which are roughly equivalent to an RfD (FAO/WHO, 2014).
NAS Tolerable Upper Intake Levels: The National Academies of Science (specifically the Food and Nutrition
Board of the Institutes of Medicine) issues Dietary Reference Intakes every 5 years; in concert with this, although
less often, they also issue Tolerable Upper Limits for vitamins and elements. These Tolerable Upper Intake Levels
are expressed in mg/day (or [jg/day), so have been divided by a body weight of 70 kg to produce a toxicity value
comparable to an RfD for use here. Values for non-pregnant, non-lactating adults aged 31-50 were used (male
and female are presented separately but are the same values for elements) (NAS, 2010).
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Data Sources Included
RIVM Maximum Permissible Risk Levels (MPRs): RIVM, the Dutch National Institute of Public Health and the
Environment, maintains MPRs, which may be tolerable day intakes or tolerable concentrations in air for
noncarcinogens (analogous to RfDs and RfCs), or may be a cancer risk oral or inhalation. These latter are not
equivalent to a CSF or IUR, in that they are expressed as the dose or concentration in air, respectively, that results
in a risk of 1E-4. To obtain a value comparable to a CSF or IUR, divide 1E-4 by the RIVM MPR (Baars et al.,
2001). Note that RIVM reviewed a subset of these values in 2009 (Tiesjema and Baars, 2009), but none of the
ones used here.
Tier 4: Other EPA Sources
This tier consists of outdated or no-longer-maintained EPA sources.
Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables (HEAST): HEAST, once an alternative for chemicals without IRIS
toxicity values, has not been updated since 1997 and has largely been superseded by IRIS and other more recent
EPA sources described in Tier 1. It is rarely used, and only if no higher tier health toxicity values data are available
(U.S. EPA, 1997).
Tier 5: Open Literature
These sources include journal articles that contain ADI values similar to RfDs and developed for potential use in
assessing human risks but using methods or data (e.g., minimum therapeutic dose) that differ from IRIS.
Tier 6: Other Sources
These sources have limited use in human health risk evaluations. For example, the U. S. Food and Drug
Administration's (FDA's) tolerances for residues of drugs in food are for animal meat tissue (beef, fish, milk). These
values are only used if no other health toxicity values data are available.
FDA Tolerances for Residues of New Animal Drugs in Food. (21CFR556).
FDA Center For Veterinary Medicine. (http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinarv/default.htm).
FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. (http://www.fda.gov/Druas/default.htm).
European Union European Medicines Agency, (http://www.emea.europa.eu/).
For each chemical, the sources presented in Table 1 were searched from most preferred (IRIS) to
least preferred. Once a value was found for a particular toxicity value (RfD, RfC, CSF, IUR), no
lower ranked sources in the hierarchy were searched for that chemical. The lower tiers (Tiers 4,
5, and 6) were only used if no toxicity value of any kind was found in higher tiers (e.g., if IRIS
had a RfD but no CSF, Tiers 2 and 3 would be searched for a CSF, but if none were found, Tiers
4, 5, and 6 would not be searched, as at least one toxicity value was available from a higher tier
source).
2.2 Ecological Toxicity Value Data Sources and Selection
To assess the potential for ecological risks from biosolids, EPA assesses direct contact and
ingestion pathways. For the direct contact exposure pathway, species assemblages (or
communities) are assessed in soil, sediment, and surface water, where they are assumed to be
exposed through direct contact with the contaminated medium. For the ingestion pathway,
mammals and birds are assumed to ingest contaminated food and prey from agricultural fields
and a modeled farm pond receiving runoff from biosolids-treated fields.
The Agency uses articles published in: 1) English in peer-reviewed journals; 2) databases such as
ECOTOX, Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, Biological Sciences Database, and the
Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management Database.
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The ecological toxicity values are expressed in terms of media concentration (e.g., mg/L for
surface water and mg/kg for soil) for the direct contact pathway and in terms of dose (mg/kg-d)
for the ingestion pathway. Because there is no single repository for approved ecological toxicity
values analogous to IRIS, ecological toxicity values were derived from various EPA and other
government reports and data sources (e.g., ECOTOX), and from toxicological studies in the open
literature.
Data quality objectives for ecological ingestion toxicity values for use in this analysis included
the following:
Study should include test species, test species body weight, and study duration.
Route of administration should be oral, not intraperitoneal injection.
Table 2 summarizes the selection criteria for ingestion toxicity values. Note that non-preferred
data are used, but only if preferred data are not found. For studies that meet the above two
primary criteria, the lowest toxicity values for ingestion exposures for each chemical/receptor
combination is selected using a simple hierarchy:
Endpoints relevant to population-level impacts (e.g., survival, growth, reproduction) are
preferred over other endpoints (e.g., neurological effects). Sublethal endpoints are
considered but are less preferred.
Studies with exposure durations that are multigenerational or could be considered chronic
or subchronic are preferred over studies conducted with acute exposure durations.
For direct contact toxicity values, environmental quality criteria are identified in existing EPA
sources (e.g., national ambient water quality criteria). Other reputable sources of information,
such as studies conducted at the Oak Ridge National Laboratories, or published by the Canadian
Council of Ministries of the Environment are also used.
Table 2. Summary of Criteria for Selecting Ecological Ingestion Toxicity Data
All Studies
Assessment Endpoint (Effect)
Preferred: Effects related to population or community viability: reproduction, growth
Not Preferred: Mortality as a short-term result is less preferred than long-term or chronic effects
Not used: Effects not related to population or community viability
Study Duration
Preferred: Chronic, longest
Not Preferred: Acute, shorter
Measurement Endpoint
Preferred: Long-term or chronic NOAEL, LOAEL, MATL, or other threshold effects level
Not Preferred: Short-term or acute LCso, LDso, ECso
Measured vs. Predicted Values
Preferred: Measured
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All Studies
Not Preferred: Predicted
Mammal and Bird Studies
Type
Preferred: Ingestion (dietary and other) studies
Not used: Injection studies
Reported Data
Preferred: Test species, test duration, and body weight reported
Not Preferred: Test species, test duration, or body weight not reported
Aquatic Studies
Study Design
Preferred: Flow-through for long-term or chronic studies
Not Preferred: Static for short-term or acute studies
3. Results of the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Using the search strategy outlined above for the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review, the Agency
identified 77 articles that met the eligibility criteria and provided relevant information on
pollutants that have been identified in U.S. biosolids. Review of these articles found the
following:
Thirty-five new chemicals and six new microbial pollutants were identified in biosolids
in the 2013 Biennial Review (see Section 3.1).
No new human health toxicity data were identified in either the 35 new chemicals, or in
chemicals identified in previous biennial reviews.
New ecological toxicity data were identified for one previously identified chemical (see
Section 3.2.2).
New physical-chemical property data (log Kow and half-life) were identified for 22
chemicals; 18 new chemicals and four chemicals previously identified in biosolids (see
Section 3.3).
New bioaccumulation factors (for soil biota and/or plants) were identified for five
chemicals previously identified in biosolids (see Section 3.3).
The abstracts for the articles that provided relevant information are provided in Attachment B.6
Toxicity data for Human Health and Ecological Effects are identified below for new pollutants
identified in this 2013 review and new data for pollutants identified in previous biennial reviews.
6 Note: A limited number of abstracts presented in Attachment B are reported with a 2014 publication date
corresponding to a hardcopy conversion publication date. These abstracts were captured as part of the electronic
search with a December 31, 2013 limit due to the fact that these records have 2013 epub dates (initially published
electronically).
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3.1 Pollutants Newly Identified in the 2013 Biennial Review
Table 3 lists 35 new chemicals and six microbial pollutants identified in the 2013 Biosolids
Biennial Review. Many of these chemicals were identified from re-analysis of samples collected
in EPA's Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey (TNSSS; U.S. EPA, 2009) and archived in
the National Biosolids Repository. Using new analytical methods Chari and Halden (2012) and
Venkatesan and Halden (2013) identified a variety of pharmaceuticals and 13 perfluoroalkyl
substances (PFASs) in biosolids.
Table 3. Pollutants Identified in Biosolids in the 2013 Biennial Review
Chemical Analyte
Class
Alprazolam
Other drugs
Amitriptyline
Other drugs
Amlodipine
Other drugs
Atenolol
Other drugs
Atorvastatin
Other drugs
Benzoylecgonine
Other drugs
Benztropine
Other drugs
Cocaine
Other drugs
Desmethyldiltiazem
Other drugs
Furosemide
Other drugs
Glyburide
Other drugs
Hydrocodone
Other drugs
Hydroxyamitriptyline, 10-
Other drugs
Norverapamil
Other drugs
Oxycodone
Other drugs
Paroxetine
Other drugs
Perfluorobutanoate (PFBA)
PFASs
Perfluoropentanoate (PFPeA)
PFASs
Perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA)
PFASs
Perfluorheptanoate (PFHpA)
PFASs
Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA)
PFASs
Perfluoronoanoate (PFNA)
PFASs
Perfluorodecanoate (PFDA)
PFASs
Perfluoroundecanoate (PFUnDA)
PFASs
Perfluorododecanoate (PFDoDA)
PFASs
Perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS)
PFASs
Perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS)
PFASs
Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS)
PFASs
Perfluorooctane sulfonamide (PFOSA)
PFASs
Promethazine
Other drugs
Propoxyphene
Other drugs
Sertraline
Other drugs
Triamterene
Other drugs
Valsartan
Other drugs
Verapamil
Other drugs
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Chemical Analyte
Class
Microbial Analyte
Class
Aerobic endospores
bacteria
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) or
Antibiotic-resistant genes (ARG)
bacteria
Coronavirus HKU1
virus
Cosavirus
virus
Klassevirus
virus
Human norovirus
virus
3.1.1 Human Health Toxicity Values for Newly Identified Chemicals
No human health toxicity values were found for any of the new chemicals identified in biosolids
in the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review. While PFASs were identified in this 2013 Biennial
Review, EPA is currently engaged in efforts concerning PFAS, including the development of
new toxicity information for certain PFAS chemicals. The EPA will continue to evaluate
available toxicological information to support scoping assessments for PFASs.
3.1.2 Ecological Toxicity Values for Newly Identified Chemicals
No ecological toxicity values were found for any of the new chemicals identified in biosolids in
the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review. While PFASs were identified in this 2013 Biennial
Review, EPA is currently engaged in efforts concerning PFAS, including the development of
new toxicity information for certain PFAS chemicals. The EPA will continue to evaluate
available toxicological information to support scoping assessments for PFASs.
3.1.3 Information on Newly Identified Microbial Pollutants
Information on the six new microbial pollutants identified in the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
includes prevalence and concentration in biosolids, as well as the inactivation of certain
pathogens during dewatering of activated sludge biosolids. Information on the correlation of
antibiotic resistant bacteria and corresponding concentrations of antibiotics in treated sludge was
also identified.
3.2 New Information on Pollutants Previously Identified in Biennial Reviews
In each new biennial review, EPA searches for new human health and ecological toxicity data,
and environmental fate data for pollutants identified in biosolids in the TNSSS, open literature,
or previous biosolids reviews. These chemicals are identified in Attachment A.
3.2.1 Human Health Toxicity Values
No new human health toxicity values were found in chemicals previously identified in biennial
reviews as a result of the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review.
3.2.2 Ecological Toxicity Values
Table 4 presents data for one chemical (triclosan) previously identified in biennial reviews.
10
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Table 4. Ecological Toxicity Values for Triclosan
Receptor
Endpoint
Value
(mg/kg)
Reference
Triclosan
Radish, Lettuce, Bahia grass,
Corn, & Soybean
NOEC
>11
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)
Soil community
NOEC (microbial respiration)
10
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)
Earthworm
NOEC
<1
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012a)
Earthworm a
LC50
>1
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012a)
a Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012a) note "A definitive earthworm lethal concentration (LC50) value cannot be calculated from the
data, because no significant adverse effect occurred up to the maximum tested concentration. An estimated LC50 value in the
IFS soil was greater than 1mg TCS/kg (equivalent to a biosolids concentration of >100 mg/kg). Data from the range-finding test
can be used to estimate an LC50 of greater than 100 mg/kg soils (equivalent biosolids TCS concentration >10,000 mg/kg) in the
ASL and artificial soils. The toxic levels estimated herein are much greater than the typical TCS concentrations (mean 16 mg/kg,
95th percentile=62 mg/kg) in biosolids."
3.2.3 Information on Previously Identified Microbial Pollutants
In each new biennial review, EPA searches for new data for microbial pollutants identified in
biosolids in the TNSSS, open literature, or previous biosolids reviews. These microbes are
identified in Attachment A. Information on previously identified microbial pollutants includes
prevalence and concentration in biosolids and water runoff from biosolid-treated agricultural
fields, as well as the inactivation of these pathogens during dewatering of activated sludge
biosolids.
3.3 Environmental Fate and Transport Properties
Table 5 presents pollutant-specific physical and chemical properties for 18 of the chemicals
identified in the 2013 Biosolids Biennial Review, as well as 4 chemicals previously identified in
biosolids that could be used to determine the fate and transport of these pollutants.
Table 5. Physical-Chemical and Other Properties3 Identified in the 2013 Biennial Review
Chemical
Half-life (days)
log Kow
Alprazolam
75
2.12
Amitriptyline
120
4.92
Amlodipine
75
3
Atenolol
75
0.16
Atorvastatin
3.85
Benzoylecgonine
30
-1.32
Benztropine
75
4.28
Cocaine
75
2.3
DEETb
75
2.18
Furosemide
120
2.03
Glyburide
360
4.79
Hydrocodone
2.16
Metoprololb
75
1.88
Norfluoxetineb
4.18
Oxycodone
360
0.66
Paroxetine
2.57
Promethazine
120
4.81
11
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Chemical
Half-life (days)
log Kow
Propoxyphene
120
4.18
Propranolol15
30
3.48
Sertraline
5.29
Triamterene
75
0.98
Verapamil
360
3.79
a Chari & Halden (2012) estimated half-life using EPA's PBT Profiler and obtained
log Kow from the Royal Society of Chemistry database.
b Identified in previous Biennial Reviews.
New bioaccumulation factors (for soil biota and/or plants) were identified for five pollutants
(albuterol, carbamazepine, diphenhydramine, triclocarban, and triclosan [including
transformation product methyl triclosan]) previously identified in biosolids. Table 6 presents
bioaccumulation factors for soil biota. Table 7 presents bioaccumulation factors for plants.
Table 6. Bioaccumulation Factors for Soil Biota
Receptor
Subtype
Value
[mg/kg biota]/
[mg/kg soil]
Reference
Triclocarban
Earthworm
Anecic
0.15
Macherius et al. (2014)
Earthworm
Endogeic
1.6
Macherius et al. (2014)
Triclosan
Earthworm
Anecic
5.9
Macherius et al. (2014)
Earthworm
Endogeic
13.9
Macherius et al. (2014)
Earthworm3
IFS soil
6.5
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012a)
Earthworm3
ASL soil
12
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012a)
Earthworm (methyl triclosan)b
Anecic
1.25
Macherius et al. (2014)
Earthworm (methyl triclosan)b
Endogeic
5.1
Macherius et al. (2014)
a Pannu. O'Connor, and Toor (2012a) note that "[t]he average measured BAFs in the two soils were significantly different (p<0.05).
The difference was attributed to differences in soil OC contents (11 g/kg for IFS soil and 34 g/kg for ASL soil; Table 1), with a
greater TCS accumulation by earthworms in high OC soil (ASL)."
b Methyl triclosan is a transformation product of triclosan
12
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Table 7. Bioaccumulation Factors for Plants
Receptor
Plant Part3
Value
Reference
Albuterol
(Salbutamol)
Chinese cabbage
conc. in roots
0.715 mg/kg
Holling etal. (2012)c
Chinese cabbage
conc. in aerials
0.026 mg/kg
Holling etal. (2012)c
Carbamazepine
Pepper
RCF
3.34 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Pepper
SCF
23.4 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Collard
RCF
1.62 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Collard
SCF
8.28 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Lettuce
RCF
1.66 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Lettuce
SCF
7.42 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Radish
RCF
1.12 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Radish
SCF
3.42 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Tomato
RCF
1.06 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Tomato
SCF
4.16 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Chinese cabbage
conc. in roots
2.59 mg/kg
Holling etal. (2012)c
Chinese cabbage
conc. in aerials
0.423 mg/kg
Holling etal. (2012)c
Diphenhydramine
Pepper
RCF
0.18 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Pepper
SCF
0.22 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Collard
RCF
0.06 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Collard
SCF
0.03 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Lettuce
RCF
0.06 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Lettuce
SCF
0.05 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Radish
RCF
0.03 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Radish
SCF
0.05 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Tomato
RCF
0.23 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Tomato
SCF
0.07 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Triclocarban
Pumpkin
root
11.01 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Aryal & Reinhold (2011)
Zucchini
root
40.27 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Aryal & Reinhold (2011)
Switch grass
root
30.92 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Aryal & Reinhold (2011)
Pepper
RCF
0.73 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Pepper
SCF
0.73 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Collard
RCF
0.67 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Collard
SCF
0.12 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Lettuce
RCF
0.34 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Lettuce
SCF
0.25 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Radish
RCF
0.31 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
Radish
SCF
0.36 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu etal. (2012)
13
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Receptor
Plant Part3
Value
Reference
Tomato
RCF
0.72 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu et al. (2012)
Tomato
SCF
0.48 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Wu et al. (2012)
Triclosan
Radish
root
0.43 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Radish
leaf
0.004 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Lettuce
leaf
0.04 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Bahia grass
-
<0.001 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Soybean grain
grain (2001)
0.06 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Soybean grain
grain (2002)
0.16 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Corn
leaf (2004)
0.07 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Corn
leaf (2005)
<0.01 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012b)b
Pumpkin
Root
972 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Aryal & Reinhold (2011)
Zucchini
Root
1822 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Aryal & Reinhold (2011)
Switch grass
Root
874 [mg/kg plant]/[mg/kg soil]
Aryal & Reinhold (2011)
Chinese cabbage
conc. in roots
1.52 mg/kg
Holling et al. (2012)c
Chinese cabbage
conc. in aerials
0.041 mg/kg
Holling et al. (2012)c
a RCF stands for root concentration factor; SCF stands for shoot concentration factor.
b Pannu, O'Connor, & Toor (2012) suggest a conservative first approximate BAF value of 0.4 for risk assessment in plants.
0 Holling et al. (2012) reported mean measured concentrations from plants grown in biosolids amended soils. The data is available
to calculate bioaccumulation factors. However, the authors did not make these calculations.
4. Conclusions
To complete a risk assessment using current tools, the following data are needed:
Human health and ecological toxicity values (i.e., studies that are adequate for
evaluating hazards following acute or chronic exposure).
Exposure data and/or physical chemical properties
- Pollutant concentrations in U.S. biosolids. Pollutant concentration data are
considered adequate when details are provided regarding sampling, handling, and
analysis based on a suitable analytical methodology for detecting and quantifying
pollutant concentrations. An analytical methodology is acceptable when the processes
and techniques have been independently replicated and/or validated, and when
written standard operating procedures exist.
- Environmental fate and transport properties. Data on half-life, mobility, and
bioaccumulation are needed to model exposure to humans and wildlife.
Thirty-five new chemicals and six new microbial pollutants were identified in biosolids in this
2013 Biennial Review. Thirteen of the newly identified chemicals are perfluoroalkyl substances
(PFASs). No human health toxicity data were identified for any of the 35 new chemicals or for
chemicals identified in previous biennial reviews. However, EPA is currently engaged in efforts
around PFAS, including developing toxicity values for certain PFAS chemicals
14
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Ecological toxicity values were found for one chemical (triclosan) identified in a previous
biennial review. New physical-chemical properties (log Kow and half-life) were identified for 22
chemicals; 18 newly identified chemicals and four previously identified in biosolids. Also, new
bioaccumulation factors were identified for five previously identified chemicals.
The available data for many of the chemicals identified are not sufficient at this time to evaluate
risk using current biosolids modeling tools. The EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs plans to
complete a draft risk assessment for triclosan in late 2018. The Federal Drug Administration and
EPA have been closely collaborating on scientific and regulatory issues related to triclosan to
ensure government-wide consistency in the regulation of this chemical. In addition, EPA will
continue to evaluate available toxicological information to support scoping assessments for
PFASs.
EPA has not identified any additional toxic pollutants for potential regulation during the 2013
Biosolids Biennial Review. The Agency will continue to assess the availability of sufficient
information for these and other pollutants identified during future biennial review activities
pursuant to section 405(d)(2)(C) of the CWA.
5. Additional Information
For additional information about EPA's Biosolids Program, please visit EPA's website at:
http://epa.gov/biosolids.
6. References
Aryal, N., and D.M. Reinhold. 2011. Phytoaccumulation of antimicrobials from biosolids:
Impacts on environmental fate and relevance to human exposure. Water Research
45:5545-5552.
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2011. Minimal Risk Levels
(MRLs) for Hazardous Substances, http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls/index.asp.
CalEPA (California Environmental Protection Agency). 2011. Air Toxics Hot Spots Program
Risk Assessment Guidelines: Cancer Potency Factors. Berkeley, CA: Office of
Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. Available at
http ://oehha. ca. gov/media/ downloads/crnr/appendixa.pdf.
CalEPA (California Environmental Protection Agency). 2016. Air Toxics Hot Spots Program
Risk Assessment Guidelines: OEHHA Acute, 8-hour, and Chronic Reference Exposure
Levels (RELs). Berkeley, CA: Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.
Available at http://oehha.ca.gov/air/general-info/oehha-acute-8-hour-and-chronic-
reference-exposure-level-rel-summarv.
Chari, B.P., and R.U. Halden. 2012. Validation of mega composite sampling and nationwide
mass inventories for 26 previously unmonitored contaminants in archived biosolids from
the U.S. National Biosolids Repository. Water Research Ľ(5:4814-4824
15
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
FAO/WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health
Organization). 2014. Evaluations of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food
Additives (JECFA). Updated through the 79th JECFA (June 2014). Available at
http://apps.vvho.int/food-additives-contaminants-i ecfa-database/search.aspx
Holling, C.S., J.L. Bailey, B. Vanden Heuvel, and C.A. Kinney. 2012. Uptake of human
pharmaceuticals and personal care products by cabbage (Brassica campestris) from
fortified and biosolids-amended soils. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 14:3029-
3036.
Macherius, A., D.R. Lapan, T. Reemtsma, J. Rombke, E. Topp, and A. Coors. 2014.
Triclocarban, triclosan and its transformation product methyl triclosan in native
earthworm species four years after a commercial-scale biosolids application. Science of
the Total Environment 472\235-238.
NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 2010. Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for Vitamins and
Elements. Available at https://fnic.nal.usda.gov/dietarv-guidance/dietary-reference-
intakes/dri-tables-and-application-reports.
Pannu, M.W., G.A. O'Connor, and G.S. Toor. 2012a. Toxicity and bioaccumulation ofbiosolids-
borne triclosan in terrestrial organisms. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
37(3):646-653.
Pannu, M.W., G.A. O'Connor, and G.S. Toor. 2012b. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of
biosolids-borne triclosan in food crops. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
37(9):2130-2137.
Tiesjema, B., and A.J. Baars. 2009. Re-evaluation of some human toxicological Maximum
Permissible Risk levels earlier evaluated in the period 1991-2001. RIVM (Rijksinstituut
Voor Volksgezondheid En Milieu) Report 711701092. July.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2016a. Integrated Risk Information System
(IRIS). Washington, DC: National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of
Research and Development, http://www.epa.gov/iris/
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2016b. Human Health Benchmarks for
Pesticides, https://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=HHBP:home: 1018991 1921861:::::
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2016c. Superfund Provisional Peer-Reviewed
Toxicity Values, http://hhpprtv.ornl.gov/quickview/pprtv papers.php
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2015. ECOTOX database. Available at:
http://vvvvvv.epa.gov/med/databases/databases.htm.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2012. National Recommended Water Quality
Criteria. Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water, Washington, DC. Available
at: http://vvater.epa.gov/scitech/svvguidance/standards/criteria/current/index.cfm
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2009. Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey
Statistical Analysis Report. Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA-822-R-08-018.
Available online at http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1997. Health Effects Assessment Summary
Tables, http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2877
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Wu, C., A.L. Spongberg, J.D. Witter, and B.B. Maruthi Sridhar. 2012. Transfer of wastewater
associated pharmaceuticals and personal care products to crop plants with biosolids
treated soil. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 85:104-109.
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
Attachment A. List of Pollutants Identified in Biosolids
TNSSS
Analyte?
ŚC
0)
TO
Ł o
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
When
Identif
GO .2
si
Acetaminophen
103-90-2
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Albuterol/Salbutamol
18559-94-9
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2013
Alprazolam
28981-97-7
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Aluminum
7429-90-5
Metals
X
2005BR
2007
Amitriptyline
549-18-8
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Amlodipine
88150-42-9
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Amphetamine
300-62-9
Other drugs
2007BR
2007
Androstenedione
63-05-8
Hormones
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Androsterone
53-41-8
Hormones
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Anhydrochlortetracycline
13803-65-1
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Anhydrotetracycline
4496-85-9
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Antimony
7440-36-0
Metals
X
2005BR
2005
Aspirin
50-78-2
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Atenolol
29122-68-7
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Atorvastatin
134523-00-5
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Azithromycin
83905-01-5
Antibiotics
X
2007BR
2011
Barium
7440-39-3
Metals
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-100 (2,2',4,4',6-PeBDE)
97038-97-6
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-138 (2,2',3,4,4',5'-HxBDE)
67888-98-6
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-153 (2,2',4,4',5,5'-HxBDE)
68631-49-2
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-154 (2,2',4,4',5,6'-HxBDE)
207122-15-4
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-183 (2,2',3,4,4',5',6-HpBDE)
207122-16-5
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-209 (2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6,6'-
DeBDE)
1163-19-5
PBDEs
X
2009BR
2009
BDE-28 (2,4,4'-TrBDE)
6430-90-6
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-47 (2,2',4,4'-TeBDE)
5436-43-1
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
A-l
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
TNSSS
Analyte?
ŚC
0)
TO
Ł o
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
When
Identif
GO .2
si
BDE-66 (2,3',4,4'-TeBDE)
84303-45-7
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
BDE-85 (2,2',3,4,4'-PeBDE)
32534-81-9
PBDEs
X
2009BR
2009
BDE-99 (2,2',4,4',5-PeBDE)
60348-60-9
PBDEs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Benz(a)anthracene
56-55-3
PAHs
2005BR
2005
Benzenesulfonic acid, 2,2'-(1,2-
ethenediyl)bis[5-amino]
42615-29-2
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Benzo(a)pyrene
50-32-8
PAHs
X
2005BR
2005
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
205-99-2
PAHs
2005BR
2005
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
207-08-9
PAHs
2005BR
2005
Benzoylecgonine
519-09-5
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Benztropine
86-13-5
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Benzyl-4-chlorophenol, 2-
120-32-1
Antimicrobial
2015BR
2015
Beryllium
7440-41-7
Metals
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Bezafibrate
41859-67-0
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
117-81-7
SVOCs
X
2005BR
2005
Bis(5-chloro-
2hydroxyphenyl)methane
97-23-4
Antimicrobial
2015BR
2015
Bisphenol A
80-05-7
Plastics
2007BR
2011
Boron
7440-42-8
Metals
X
2005BR
2005
Butylated hydroxy toluene
128-37-0
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Caffeine
58-08-2
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2011
Calcium
7440-70-2
Inorganics
X
2007BR
2007
Campesterol
474-62-4
Steroids
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Carbadox
6804-07-5
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2005
Carbamazepine
298-46-4
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2013
Carbon tetrachloride
56-23-5
Organics
2005BR
2005
Cefotaxime
63527-52-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Cerium
7440-45-1
Metals
2005BR
2005
Chloro-4-phenylphenol, 2-
92-04-6
Antimicrobial
2015BR
2015
Chloroaniline, 4-
106-47-8
SVOCs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Chloroform
67-66-3
Organics
2005BR
2005
Chloronaphthalene, 2-
91-58-7
Organics
2005BR
2005
Chlortetracycline
57-62-5
Antibiotics
X
2009BR
2009
A-2
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2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
TNSSS
Analyte?
ŚC
0)
TO
Ł o
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
When
Identif
GO .2
si
Cholestanol
80-97-7
Steroids
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Cholesterol
57-88-5
Steroids
X
2005BR
2007
Chrysene
218-01-9
PAHs
2005BR
2005
Cimetidine
51481-61-9
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Ciprofloxacin
85721-33-1
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2011
Clarithromycin
81103-11-9
Antibiotics
X
2007BR
2009
Clinafloxacin
105956-97-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Clindamycin
18323-44-9
Antibiotics
2011 BR
2011
Clofibric acid
882-09-7
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Clotrimazole
23593-75-1
Antibiotics
2011 BR
2011
Cloxacillin
61-72-3
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Cobalt
7440-48-4
Metals
X
2005BR
2007
Cocaine
50-36-2
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Codeine
76-57-3
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Coprostanol (3-beta)
360-68-9
Steroids
X
2007BR
2007
Cotinine
486-56-6
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Cresol, p- (4-methylphenol)
106-44-5
Preservative
2005BR
2007
Cyanide
57-12-5
Organics
2005BR
2005
Cyclophosphamide
50-18-0
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5)
541-02-6
Emollients
2015BR
2015
DEET (N,N-diethyltoluamide)
134-62-3
Pesticides
2005BR
2013
Dehydronifedipine
67035-22-7
Other drugs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Demeclocycline
127-33-3
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Desmethyldiltiazem
130606-60-9
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Desmosterol
313-04-2
Steroids
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Diazepam
439-14-5
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Dichlorobenzene, 1,3-
541-73-1
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Dichlorobenzene, 1,4-
106-46-7
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Dichlorocarbanilide
1219-99-4
Antibiotics
2011 BR
2011
Diclofenac
15307-86-5
Antibiotics/
Pesticides
2011 BR
2011
Diclofenac sodium
15307-79-6
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Digoxigenin
1672-46-4
Other drugs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
A-3
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
TNSSS
Analyte?
ŚC
0)
TO
Ł o
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
When
Identif
GO .2
si
Digoxin
20830-75-5
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Dihydroequilin, 17a-
651-55-8
Hormones
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Diltiazem
42399-41-7
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2011
Dimethoate
60-51-5
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Dimethyl phthalate
131-11-3
Organics
2005BR
2005
Dimethyl-3,5-dinitro-4-tert-
butylacetophenone, 2,6-
81-14-1
Odo rants
2005BR
2005
Dimethylaminophenazone
58-15-1
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Dimethylxanthine, 1,7-
611-59-6
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Di-n-butyl phthalate
(Butoxyphosphate ethanol, 2-)
84-74-2
Plasticizers
2005BR
2005
Di-n-octyl phthalate
117-84-0
Organics
2005BR
2005
Diphenhydramine
58-73-1
Other drugs
X
2007BR
2013
Di-tert-butylphenol, 2,6-
128-39-2
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Doxycycline
564-25-0
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2009
Endosulfan, a
959-98-8
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Endosulfan, (3
33213-65-9
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Enrofloxacin
93106-60-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Epianhydrochlortetracycline, 4-
158018-53-2
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Epianhydrotetracycline, 4-
4465-65-0
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Epichlortetracycline, 4-
14297-93-9
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Epicoprostanol
516-92-7
Steroids
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Epioxytetracycline, 4-
14206-58-7
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Epitetracycline, 4-
23313-80-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Equilenin
517-09-9
Hormones
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Equilin
474-86-2
Hormones
X
2005BR
2005
Ergosterol
57-87-4
Steroids
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Erythromycin
114-07-8
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2009
Estradiol, 17a-
57-91-0
Hormones
X
2005BR
2005
Estradiol, 17(3-
50-28-2
Hormones
X
2005BR
2009
A-4
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
TNSSS
Analyte?
When
Identified?
Last BR
Mention3
Estradiol-3-benzoate, p-
50-50-0
Hormones
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Estriol (estradiol)
50-27-1
Hormones
X
2005BR
2005
Estrone
53-16-7
Hormones
X
2005BR
2011
Ethanol, 2-butoxy-phosphate
78-51-3
Organics
2005BR
2005
Ethyl benzene
100-41-4
Organics
2005BR
2005
Ethynyl estradiol, 17a-
57-63-6
Hormones
X
2005BR
2005
Fenofibric acid
26129-32-8
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Fenthion
55-38-9
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Fipronil
120068-37-3
Antibiotics
2011 BR
2011
Floxacillin
5250-39-5
Antibiotics
2005BR
2005
Flumequine
42835-25-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Fluoranthene
206-44-0
PAHs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Fluoride
16984-48-8
Inorganics
X
2005BR
2005
Fluoxetine
54910-89-3
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2007
Furosemide
54-31-9
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Galaxolide
1222-05-5
Fragrance
2005BR
2011
Gemfibrozil
25812-30-0
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2011
Glyburide
10238-21-8
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Heptabromodibenzofuran,
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-
107555-95-3
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Heptabromodibenzofuran,
1,2,3,4,7,8,9-
161880-51-9
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Heptabromodibenzo-p-dioxin,
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-
103456-43-5
PBDD
2015BR
2015
Heptachlor epoxide
1024-57-3
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Hexabromobiphenyl, 2,2',4,4',5,5'-
59080-40-9
PBBs
2005BR
2005
Hexabromodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,4,7,8-
70648-26-9
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Hexabromodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,6,7,8-
107555-94-2
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Hexabromodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,7,8,9-
161880-49-5
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Hexabromodibenzofuran, 2,3,4,6,7,8-
60851-34-5
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Hexabromodibenzo-p-dioxin,
1,2,3,4,7,8-
110999-44-5
PBDD
2015BR
2015
Hexabromodibenzo-p-dioxin,
1,2,3,6,7,8-
110999-45-6
PBDD
2015BR
2015
Hexabromodibenzo-p-dioxin,
1,2,3,7,8,9-
110999-46-7
PBDD
2015BR
2015
Hydrocodone
125-29-1
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
A-5
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
TNSSS
Analyte?
ŚC
0)
TO
Ł o
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
When
Identif
GO .2
si
Hydroxyamitriptyline, 10-
1246833-15-7
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Ibuprofen
15687-27-1
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Indole
120-72-9
Fragrance
2007BR
2007
Indometacine
53-86-1
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Iron
7439-89-6
Metals
X
2005BR
2005
Isochlortetracycline
514-53-4
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Ketoprofen
22071-15-4
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Limonene, d-
5989-27-5
Fragrance
2007BR
2007
Lincomycin
154-21-2
Antibiotics
X
2009BR
2009
Lomefloxacin
98079-51-7
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Magnesium
7439-95-4
Metals
X
2007BR
2007
Manganese
7439-96-5
Metals
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Mefenamic acid
61-68-7
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Mesalazine
89-57-6
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Mestranol
72-33-3
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Metformin
657-24-9
Other drugs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Methamphetamine
537-46-2
Other drugs
2007BR
2009
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine,
3,4-
42542-10-9
Other drugs
2009BR
2009
Methylnaphthalene, 2-
91-57-6
PAHs
X
2005BR
2005
Metoprolol
37350-58-6
Other drugs
2005BR
2013
Miconazole
22916-47-8
Other drugs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Minocycline
10118-90-8
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Molybdenum
7439-98-7
Metals
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Monuron
150-68-5
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Nadolol
42200-33-9
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Naproxen
22204-53-1
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
Napthalene
91-20-3
PAHs
2005BR
2005
Nitrate
14797-55-8
Inorganics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Nitrite
14797-65-0
Inorganics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Nitrofen
1836-75-5
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
A-6
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
TNSSS
Analyte?
When
Identified?
Last BR
Mention3
Nitrogen
7727-37-9
Inorganics
2007BR
2007
Nitrogen, organic
14798-03-9
Organics
2007BR
2007
Nitrophenol, p-
100-02-7
Organics
2005BR
2005
N-nitrosodibutylamine (NDBA) 924-
16-3
924-16-3
Nitrosamines
2015BR
2015
N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) 55-18-
5
55-18-5
Nitrosamines
2015BR
2015
N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) 62-
75-9
62-75-9
Nitrosamines
2015BR
2015
N-nitroso-di-n-propylamine (NDPA)
621-64-7
621-64-7
Nitrosamines
2015BR
2015
N-nitrosodiphenylamine (NDPhA) 86-
30-6
86-30-6
Nitrosamines
2015BR
2015
N-nitrosopiperidine (NPIP) 100-75-4
100-75-4
Nitrosamines
2015BR
2015
N-nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR) 930-55-2
930-55-2
Nitrosamines
2015BR
2015
Nonylphenol
25154-52-3
Surfactants
2005BR
2011
Nonylphenol (branched), 4-
84852-15-3
Surfactants
2005BR
2005
Nonylphenol monoethoxylate
27986-36-3
Surfactants
2007BR
2007
Nonylphenol, 4-
104-40-5
Surfactants
2005BR
2007
Nonylphenol, diethoxy- (total)
NA
Surfactants
2007BR
2007
Norethindrone (norethisterone)
68-22-4
Hormones
X
2005BR
2005
Norfloxacin
70458-96-7
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2011
Norfluoxetine
57226-68-3
Antibiotics
2011 BR
2013
N org estimate
35189-28-7
Other drugs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Norgestrel (levonorgestrel)
797-63-7
Hormones
X
2005BR
2005
Norverapamil
67812-42-4
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Octabromodibenzofuran,
1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-
103582-29-2
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Octabromodibenzo-p-dioxin,
1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-
2170-45-8
PBDD
2015BR
2015
Octylphenol
67554-50-1
Organics
2005BR
2005
Octylphenol, 4-
1806-26-4
Organics
2007BR
2007
Ofloxacin
82419-36-1
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Ormetoprim
6981-18-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Oxacillin
66-79-5
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Oxolinic acid
14698-29-4
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
A-7
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
TNSSS
Analyte?
When
Identified?
Last BR
Mention3
Oxycodone
76-42-6
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Oxytetracycline
79-57-2
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2009
Paroxetine
61869-08-7
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Penicillin G
61-33-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Penicillin V (phenoxymethylpenicyllin)
87-08-1
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2005
Pentabromodibenzofuran, 1,2,3,7,8-
107555-93-1
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Pentabromodibenzofuran, 2,3,4,7,8-
131166-92-2
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Pentabromodibenzo-p-dioxin,
1,2,3,7,8-
109333-34-8
PBDD
2015BR
2015
Pentachloronitrobenzene
82-68-8
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Perfluorheptanoate (PFHpA)
375-85-9
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS)
45187-15-3
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorobutanoate (PFBA)
375-22-4
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorodecanoate (PFDA)
335-76-2
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorododecanoate (PFDoDA)
307-55-1
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS)
108427-53-8
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA)
307-24-4
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluoronoanoate (PFNA)
375-95-1
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorooctane sulfonamide
(PFOSA)
754-91-6
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS)
45298-90-6
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA)
335-67-1
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluoropentanoate (PFPeA)
2706-90-3
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Perfluoroundecanoate (PFUnDA)
2058-94-8
PFASs
2013BR
2013
Phenanthrene
85-01-8
PAHs
2007BR
2007
Phenazone
60-80-0
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Phosphate (total)
14265-44-2
Inorganics
2005BR
2005
Phosphorus
7723-14-0
Inorganics
X
2007BR
2007
Polyethylene glycol
25322-68-3
Organics
2005BR
2005
Potassium
7440-09-7
Metals
2007BR
2007
Progesterone
57-83-0
Hormones
X
2005BR
2009
Promethazine
60-87-7
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Propoxyphene
469-62-5
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Propranolol
525-66-6
Other drugs
2005BR
2013
Pyrene
129-00-0
PAHs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Quinine sulfate
7778-93-0
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Ranitidine
66357-35-5
Other drugs
X
2005BR
2005
A-8
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
TNSSS
Analyte?
ŚC
0)
TO
Ł o
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
When
Identif
GO .2
si
Roxithromycin
80214-83-1
Antibiotics
X
2007BR
2007
Rubidium
7440-17-7
Metals
2005BR
2005
Salicylic acid
69-72-7
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Sarafloxacin
98105-99-8
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sertraline
79617-96-2
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Silver
7440-22-4
Metals
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sitosterol, p-
83-46-5
Steroids
X
2007BR
2007
Skatole
83-34-1
NA
2007BR
2007
Sodium
7440-23-5
Metals
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sodium valproate
1069-66-5
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Stigmastanol, p-
19466-47-8
Steroids
X
2007BR
2007
Stigmasterol
83-45-4
Steroids
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Styrene
100-42-5
Organics
2005BR
2005
Sulfachloropyridazine
80-32-0
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sulfadiazine
68-35-9
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sulfadimethoxine
122-11-2
Antibiotics
X
2009BR
2009
Sulfamerazine
127-79-7
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2005
Sulfamethazine
57-68-1
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2009
Sulfamethizole
144-82-1
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sulfamethoxazole
723-46-6
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sulfanilamide
63-74-1
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Sulfasalazine
599-79-1
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Sulfathiazole
72-14-0
Antibiotics
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
tert-Butyl-4-hydroxy anisole, 3-
25013-16-5
Other drugs
2005BR
2005
Testosterone
58-22-0
Hormones
X
2009BR
2009
Tetrabromobisphenol A
79-94-7
Organics
2005BR
2005
Tetrabromodibenzofuran, 2,3,7,8-
67733-57-7
PBDF
2015BR
2015
Tetrabromodibenzo-p-dioxin, 2,3,7,8-
50585-41-6
PBDD
2015BR
2015
Tetrachloroethylene
127-18-4
Solvents
2005BR
2005
Tetracycline
60-54-8
Antibiotics
X
2009BR
2009
A-9
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
TNSSS
Analyte?
When
Identified?
Last BR
Mention3
Thallium
7440-28-0
Metals
X
2005BR
2005
Thiabendazole
148-79-8
Other drugs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Tin
7440-31-5
Metals
X
2005BR
2005
Titanium
7440-32-6
Metals
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Toluene
108-88-3
Solvents
2005BR
2005
Tonalide (AHTN)
21145-77-7
Fragrance
2007BR
2011
Tr
amterene
396-01-0
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Tr
chlorobenzene, 1,3,5-
108-70-3
Organics
2005BR
2005
Tr
chlorofon
52-68-6
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Tr
chlorophenol, 2,4,5-
95-95-4
Antimicrobial
2015BR
2015
Tr
clocarban
101-20-2
Antibiotics
X
2007BR
2013
Tr
closan
3380-34-5
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2013
Tr
methoprim
738-70-5
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2009
Tr
phenyl phosphate
115-86-6
Pesticides
2005BR
2005
Tr
s(2-chloroethyl) phosphate
115-96-8
Organics
2005BR
2005
Tylosin
1401-69-0
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2007
Valsartan
137862-53-4
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Vanadium
7440-62-2
Metals
X
2005BR
2005
Verapamil
52-53-9
Other drugs
2013BR
2013
Virginiamycin
11006-76-1
Antibiotics
X
2005BR
2009
Warfarin
81-81-2
Other drugs
X
2009
TNSSS
2009
Xylene, m-
108-38-3
Solvents
2005BR
2005
Xylene, musk
81-15-2
Odo rants
2005BR
2005
Xylene, o-
95-47-6
Solvents
2005BR
2005
Xylene, p
106-42-3
Solvents
2005BR
2005
Yttrium
7440-65-5
Metals
X
2005BR
2005
Microbial Pollutants
Aerobic endospores
Not applicable
Bacteria
2013BR
2013
Aeromonas spp.
Not applicable
Bacteria
2009BR
2009
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) or
Antibiotic-resistant genes (ARG)
Not applicable
Bacteria
2013BR
2013
Clostridia spp.
Not applicable
Bacteria
2007BR
2011
Coronavirus HKU1
Not applicable
Virus
2013BR
2013
Cosavirus
Not applicable
Virus
2013BR
2013
Cryptosporidium parvum
Not applicable
Protozoan
parasite
2007BR
2007
A-10
-------
2013 Biosolids Biennial Review
Attachment A: Pollutants
TNSSS
Analyte?
T3
0)
TO
Ł o
Pollutant
CAS No.
Category
When
Identif
GO .2
si
Enterovirus
Not applicable
Virus
2009BR
2013
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
Not applicable
Bacteria
2009BR
2013
Endotoxin
Not applicable
Microbial toxin
2007BR
2007
Giardia spp.
Not applicable
Protozoan
parasite
2009BR
2011
Human Adenoviruses
Not applicable
Virus
2009BR
2013
Human polyomaviruses
Not applicable
Virus
2011 BR
2011
Klassevirus
Not applicable
Virus
2013BR
2013
Listeria spp.
Not applicable
Bacteria
2009BR
2011
Human norovirus
Not applicable
Virus
2013BR
2013
Salmonella spp.
Not applicable
Bacteria
2007BR
2013
a This is the date of the most recent biennial report that mentions this pollutant. That does not necessarily mean there was new
data found, just that it came up in the literature search that year.
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Attachment B. Reference Abstracts
Akbar-Khanzadeh, F., A. Ames, et al. (2012) "Particulate matter (PM) exposure assessment-
horizontal and vertical PM profiles in relation to agricultural activities and environmental factors
in farm fields." J Occup Environ Hyg 9(8): 502-16.
Reports profiling airborne particulate matter (PM) in farm fields, especially during a Class B
biosolids land-injection process, are scarce. Thus, this study characterized PM in such a farm
field located in northwest Ohio. For comparison, a control farm field with no biosolids
application history was also monitored. During 11 days of varied agricultural activities, the
concentrations of particle mass and number (count) and also metal content were monitored in
the study field, and their interactions with environmental factors were examined. The
monitoring was performed across the farm field at four heights of 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 m
from the ground. The overall mean (SD) concentration (mug/m(3)) of respirable suspended
particulate matter (RPM) was 30.8 (23.1) with means ranging from 15.9 (3.80) during post-
tilling Event 1, 19.9 (12.4) during biosolids application to 56.1 (11.7) during post-harvest
(including baling) activity. The maximum concentration of RPM (mug/m(3)) was 43 during
biosolids application, 90 during post-harvest, and 183 during post-tilling Event 2 activities.
Overall, 93.7% (8.98%) of the total suspended particulate matter (TPM) was respirable. The
levels of RPM significantly (p < 0.01) correlated with TPM and particle counts of ultrafine
particles (UFP) and 0.3 mum particle size. Ambient temperature showed no effect, whereas
wind speed and relative humidity had an inverse effect on RPM concentration. Particle
concentrations changed minimally during each set of monitoring across the field, except
during major activities or sudden weather changes. For particles with sizes of 2, 5, and 10
mum, the counts decreased with increasing height from the ground and were significantly (p
< 0.05) higher at 0.5 m than at other heights. The levels of nine metals within particles
monitored were well below current recommended occupational exposure criteria. These
results suggest that injection of the biosolids into agricultural land provides significant
protection against exposure to biosolids particles.
Allen, R.C., Y.K. Tu, et al. (2013) "The mercury resistance (mer) operon in a marine gliding
flavobacterium, Tenacibaculum discolor 9A5." FEMS Microbiol Ecol 83(1): 135-48.
Genes conferring mercury resistance have been investigated in a variety of bacteria and
archaea but not in bacteria of the phylum Bacteroidetes, despite their importance in many
environments. We found, however, that a marine gliding Bacteroidetes species,
Tenacibaculum discolor, was the predominant mercury-resistant bacterial taxon cultured
from a salt marsh fertilized with mercury-contaminated sewage sludge. Here we report
characterization of the mercuric reductase and the narrow-spectrum mercury resistance (mer)
operon from one of these strains - T. discolor 9A5. This mer operon, which confers mercury
resistance when cloned into Flavobacterium johnsoniae, encodes a novel mercury-responsive
ArsR/SmtB family transcriptional regulator that appears to have evolved independently from
other mercury-responsive regulators, a novel putative transport protein consisting of a fusion
between the integral membrane Hg(II) transporter MerT and the periplasmic Hg(II)-binding
protein MerP, an additional MerP protein, and a mercuric reductase that is phylogenetically
distinct from other known mercuric reductases.
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Andaluri, G., R.P. Suri, et al. (2012) "Occurrence of estrogen hormones in biosolids, animal
manure and mushroom compost." Environ Monit Assess 184(2): 1197-205.
The presence of natural estrogen hormones as trace concentrations in the environment has
been reported by many researchers and is of growing concern due to its possible adverse
effects on the ecosystem. In this study, municipal biosolids, poultry manure (PM) and cow
manure (CM), and spent mushroom compost (SMC) were analyzed for the presence of seven
estrogen hormones. 17a-estradiol, 17P-estradiol, 17a-dihydroequilin, and estrone were
detected in the sampled biosolids and manures at concentrations ranging from 6 to 462 ng/g
of dry solids. 17a-estradiol, 17P-estradiol, and estrone were also detected in SMC at
concentrations ranging from 4 to 28 ng/g of dry solids. Desorption experiments were
simulated in the laboratory using deionized water (milli-Q), and the aqueous phase was
examined for the presence of estrogen hormones to determine their desorption potential.
Very low desorption of 0.4% and 0.2% estrogen hormones was observed from municipal
biosolids and SMC, respectively. An estimate of total estrogen contribution from different
solid waste sources is reported. Animal manures (PM and CM) contribute to a significant
load of estrogen hormones in the natural environment.
Antonious, G.F., M.R. Silitonga, et al. (2013) "Elevated concentrations of trace elements in soil
do not necessarily reflect metals available to plants." J Environ Sci Health B 48(3): 219-25.
Bioaccumulation and entry of trace elements from soil into the food chain have made trace-
elements major environmental pollutants. The main objective of this investigation was to
study the impact of mixing native agricultural soil with municipal sewage sludge (SS) or SS
mixed with yard waste (SS+YW) compost on total concentration of trace elements in soil,
metals available to plants, and mobility of metals from soil into peppers and melon fruits.
Regardless of soil treatment, the average concentrations of Ni, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, and Mo in
melon fruits were 5.2, 0.7, 3.9, 0.9, 34.3, 96.1, and 3.5(j,g g(-l), respectively. Overall
concentrations of Ni, Cd, Pb, and Zn in melon fruits were significantly greater (P < 0.05)
than pepper fruits. No significant differences were found in Cr, Cu, and Mo concentrations
between pepper and melon fruits at harvest time. Total metal concentrations and metal ions
in soil available to melon and pepper plants were also determined. Total concentration of
each metal in the soil was significantly greater than concentration of metal ions available to
plants. Elevated Ni and Mo bioaccumulation factor (BAF > 1) of melon fruits of plants
grown in SS+YW mixed soil is a characteristic that would be less favorable when plants
grown on sites having high concentrations of these metals.
Antonious, G.F., T.S. Kochhar, et al. (2012) "Yield, quality, and concentration of seven heavy
metals in cabbage and broccoli grown in sewage sludge and chicken manure amended soil." J
Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 47(13): 1955-65.
The mobility of heavy metals from soil into the food chain and their subsequent
bioaccumulation has increased the attention they receive as major environmental pollutants.
The objectives of this investigation were to: i) study the impact of mixing native agricultural
soil with municipal sewage sludge (SS) or chicken manure (CM) on yield and quality of
cabbage and broccoli, ii) quantify the concentration of seven heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Mo, Cu,
Zn, Pb, and Ni) in soil amended with SS or CM, and iii) determine bioavailability of heavy
metals to cabbage leaves and broccoli heads at harvest. Analysis of the two soil amendments
used in this investigation indicated that Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Cd, Pb, and organic matter
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Attachment B: Reference Abstracts
content were significantly greater (P < 0.05) in premixed sewage sludge than premixed
chicken manure. Total cabbage and broccoli yields obtained from SS and CM mixed soil
were both greater than those obtained from no-mulch (bare) soil. Concentration of Ni in
cabbage leaves of plants grown in soil amended with CM was low compared to plants grown
in no-mulch soil. No significant differences were found in Cd and Pb accumulation between
cabbage and broccoli. Concentrations of Ni, Cu, Zn, and Mo were greater in broccoli than
cabbage. Total metals and plant available metals were also determined in the native and
amended soils. Results indicated that the concentration of heavy metals in soils did not
necessary reflect metals available to plants. Regardless of soil amendments, the overall
bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of seven heavy metals in cabbage leaves and broccoli heads
revealed that cabbage and broccoli were poor accumulators of Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, and Pb (BAF
<1), while BAF values were >1 for Zn and Mo. Elevated Ni and Mo bioaccumulation factor
(BAF >1) of cabbage grown in chicken manure mixed soil is a characteristic that would be
less favorable when cabbage is grown on sites having high concentrations of these two
metals.
Aryal, N. and D.M. Reinhold. (2011) "Phytoaccumulation of antimicrobials from biosolids:
impacts on environmental fate and relevance to human exposure." Water Res 45(17): 5545-52.
Triclocarban and triclosan, two antimicrobials widely used in consumer products, can
adversely affect ecosystems and potentially impact human health. The application of
biosolids to agricultural fields introduces triclocarban and triclosan to soil and water
resources. This research examined the phytoaccumulation of antimicrobials, effects of plant
growth on migration of antimicrobials to water resources, and relevance of
phytoaccumulation in human exposure to antimicrobials. Pumpkin, zucchini, and switch
grass were grown in soil columns to which biosolids were applied. Leachate from soil
columns was assessed every other week for triclocarban and triclosan. At the end of the trial,
concentrations of triclocarban and triclosan were determined for soil, roots, stems, and
leaves. Results indicated that plants can reduce leaching of antimicrobials to water resources.
Pumpkin and zucchini growth significantly reduced soil concentrations of triclosan to less
than 0.001 mg/kg, while zucchini significantly reduced soil concentrations of triclocarban to
0.04 mg/kg. Pumpkin, zucchini, and switch grass accumulated triclocarban and triclosan in
mg per kg (dry) concentrations. Potential human exposure to triclocarban from consumption
of pumpkin or zucchini was substantially less than exposure from product use, but was
greater than exposure from drinking water consumption. Consequently, research indicated
that pumpkin and zucchini may beneficially impact the fate of antimicrobials in agricultural
fields, while presenting minimal acute risk to human health.
Azizi, A.B., M.P.M. Lim, et al. (2013) "Vermiremoval of heavy metal in sewage sludge by
utilising Lumbricus rubellus." Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 90: 13-20.
Experiments were conducted to remove heavy metals (Cr, Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn) from urban
sewage sludge (SS) amended with spent mushroom compost (SMC) using worms, Lumbricus
rubellus, for 105 days, after 21 days of pre-composting. Five combinations of SS/SMC
treatments were prepared in triplicate along with a control for each treatment in microcosms.
Analysis of the earthworms' multiplication and growth and laboratory analysis were
conducted during the tenth and fifteenth week of vermicomposting. Our result showed that
the final biomass of earthworms (mg) and final number of earthworms showed significant
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differences between treatments i.e. F=554.70, P=0.00 and F=729.10, P=0.00 respectively.
The heavy metals Cr, Cd and Pb contained in vermicompost were lower than initial
concentrations, with 90-98.7percent removal on week ten. However, concentrations of Cu
and Zn, that are considered as micronutrients, were higher than initial concentrations, but
they were 10-200-fold lower than the EU and USA biosolid compost limits and Malaysian
Recommended Site Screening Levels for Contaminated Land (SSLs). An increment of heavy
metals was recorded in vermicompost for all treatments on week fifteen compared to week
ten, while concentration of heavy metals in earthworms' tissue were lower compared to
vermicompost. Hence, it is suggested that earthworms begin to discharge heavy metals into
their surroundings and it was evident that the earthworms' heavy metals excretion period was
within the interval of ten to fifteen weeks.
Benskin, J.P., M.G. Ikonomou, et al. (2013) "Biodegradation of N-ethyl perfluorooctane
sulfonamido ethanol (EtFOSE) and EtFOSE-based phosphate diester (SAmPAP diester) in
marine sediments." Environ Sci Technol 47(3): 1381-9.
Investigations into the biodegradation potential of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS)-
precursor candidates have focused on low molecular weight substances (e.g., N-ethyl
perfluorooctane sulfonamido ethanol (EtFOSE)) in wastewater treatment plant sludge. Few
data are available on PF OS-precursor biodegradation in other environmental compartments,
and nothing is known about the stability of high-molecular-weight perfluorooctane
sulfonamide-based substances such as the EtFOSE-based phosphate diester (SAmPAP
diester) in any environmental compartment. In the present work, the biodegradation potential
of SAmPAP diester and EtFOSE by bacteria in marine sediments was evaluated over 120
days at 4 and 25 degrees C. At both temperatures, EtFOSE was transformed to a suite of
products, including N-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoacetate, perfluorooctane
sulfonamidoacetate, N-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamide, perfluorooctane sulfonamide, and
perfluorooctane sulfonate. Transformation was significantly more rapid at 25 degrees C
(t(l/2) = 44 +/- 3.4 days; error represents standard error of the mean (SEM)) compared to 4
degrees C (t(l/2) = 160 +/- 17 days), but much longer than previous biodegradation studies
involving EtFOSE in sludge (t(l/2) approximately 0.7-4.2 days). In contrast, SAmPAP
diester was highly recalcitrant to microbial degradation, with negligible loss and/or
associated product formation observed after 120 days at both temperatures, and an estimated
half-life of >380 days at 25 degrees C (estimated using the lower bounds 95% confidence
interval of the slope). We hypothesize that the hydrophobicity of SAmPAP diester reduces its
bioavailability, thus limiting biotransformation by bacteria in sediments. The lengthy
biodegradation half-life of EtFOSE and recalcitrant nature of SAmPAP diester in part
explains the elevated concentrations of PFOS-precursors observed in urban marine sediments
from Canada, Japan, and the U.S, over a decade after phase-out of their production and
commercial application in these countries.
Bhat, A. and A. Kumar. (2012) "Particulate characteristics and emission rates during the
injection of class B biosolids into an agricultural field." Sci Total Environ 414: 328-34.
A field study was conducted during the summer of 2009 to collect airborne particulate matter
emitted during the agricultural activities. The activities surrounding the injection application
of class B biosolids were targeted for the sampling. The sampling was carried out before
(pre-application), during (application), and after (post-application) the application. This study
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characterized the particulate emissions deposited on the aerosols spectrometer. The effect of
different biosolids related activities was significant on the mass concentration, the number
concentration, and the size distribution. The mass concentration of fine (PM(2.5)) and
ultrafine (PM(l.O)) was highest during the pre-application. The mass concentration of
thoracic fraction (PM(2.5-10)) increased significantly during the application. A bimodal size
distribution was observed throughout the sampling. Nuclei mode formation was predominant
during the pre-application and the post-application, whereas the accumulation mode was
distinctive during the application. The number concentration of ultrafine particles was
highest during the entire sampling period. The application of biosolids resulted into a higher
number of coarse particle emission. It was also observed that the ultrafine and fine particles
traveled longer downwind distances. The emission rates were determined for pre-application,
application, and post-application activities.
Bibby, K. and J. Peccia. (2013) "Identification of viral pathogen diversity in sewage sludge by
metagenome analysis." Environ Sci Technol 47(4): 1945-51.
The large diversity of viruses that exist in human populations are potentially excreted into
sewage collection systems and concentrated in sewage sludge. In the U.S., the primary fate of
processed sewage sludge (class B biosolids) is application to agricultural land as a soil
amendment. To characterize and understand infectious risks associated with land application,
and to describe the diversity of viruses in human populations, shotgun viral metagenomics
was applied to 10 sewage sludge samples from 5 wastewater treatment plants throughout the
continental U.S, each serving between 100,000 and 1,000,000 people. Nearly 330 million
DNA sequences were produced and assembled, and annotation resulted in identifying 43 (26
DNA, 17 RNA) different types of human viruses in sewage sludge. Novel insights include
the high abundance of newly emerging viruses (e.g., Coronavirus HKU1, Klassevirus, and
Cosavirus) the strong representation of respiratory viruses, and the relatively minor
abundance and occurrence of Enteroviruses. Viral metagenome sequence annotations were
reproducible and independent PCR-based identification of selected viruses suggests that viral
metagenomes were a conservative estimate of the true viral occurrence and diversity. These
results represent the most complete description of human virus diversity in any wastewater
sample to date, provide engineers and environmental scientists with critical information on
important viral agents and routes of infection from exposure to wastewater and sewage
sludge, and represent a significant leap forward in understanding the pathogen content of
class B biosolids.
Borden, R.K. and R. Black. (2011) "Biosolids Application and Long-Term Noxious Weed
Dominance in the Western United States." Restor Ecol 19(5): 639-47.
Vegetation characteristics were assessed on three sets of 10-year-old test plots and one set of
5-year-old plots that received 0, 34, 45, and 67 tons/ha (0, 15, 20, and 30 short tons/acre) of
biosolids at a semiarid mine reclamation site in Utah. On average, noxious weed species such
as Bromus tectorum L. (cheatgrass) provided two-thirds of the cover on the biosolids test
plots, but only one-tenth of the cover on adjacent control plots that received no biosolids.
Cheatgrass provided more than half of the total cover on every biosolids test plot. Seeded
species provided about two times more cover at the control plots than at the biosolids plots.
Surfaces treated with 45 tons/ha composted biosolids (one part biosolids and two parts wood
chips) had a much lower percentage of noxious weed cover compared to biosolids alone. The
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relatively heavy initial nitrogen load associated with biosolids application may have
promoted cheatgrass dominance. Although the available nitrogen eventually declines, once
cheatgrass is established it may maintain its dominance indefinitely. Given the risk of weed
invasion, heavy biosolids applications should be used with caution for reclamation projects in
semiarid climates if perennial species establishment is desired. Consideration should instead
be given to light applications (<45 tons/ha) of biosolids/wood chip compost or forgoing the
use of biosolids entirely. The underapplication of nutrients may provide a slower, but
ultimately more reliable, strategy for the establishment of a healthy, native perennial
vegetation community.
Brisolara, K.F., R.S. Reimers, et al. (2012) "Impact of Treatment Temperature Decline on
Stability of Advanced Alkaline Biosolids." Int J Environ Res 6(4): 925-32.
Biosolids must be stabilized in order to reduce odors, which have been noted as a major
concern with respect to alkaline stabilization. Stabilization is designed to address potential
putrefaction processes, odiferous releases and vector attraction concerns. Also, most alkaline
processes are open systems in which temperature and mixing are more difficult to control,
and factors such as increased pressure or bactericidal action of un-ionized ammonia are not
present to aid in disinfection. The purpose of this project was to begin assessment of the
long-term stability of an advanced alkaline product resulting from operating conditions
established by testing previously conducted and approved by EPA's Pathogen Equivalency
Committee. The conditions formerly established as optimum to achieve required pathogen
destruction resulted in the ability of advanced alkaline system to operate at a lower
temperature of 55 degree C as opposed to the temperature of 70 degree C required by the
U.S. EPA 40CFR Part 503 Final Rule Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge.
All previous data collected regarding the ability of the advanced alkaline product to remain
stabilized over long periods of time were related to the material produced at the higher
temperatures which indicated no significant decline in pH over a time of 5 years. The goal of
this research is to obtain better understanding of the stabilization of biosolids over time,
lower costs, reduce odor formation and to reduce vector and pathogen attraction so to comply
with the current requirements.
Brown, S., K. Kurtz, et al. (2011) "Quantifying benefits associated with land application of
organic residuals in Washington State." Environ Sci Technol 45(17): 7451-8.
This study was conducted to quantify soil C storage, N concentration, available P, and water
holding capacity (WHC) across a range of sites in Washington State. Composts or biosolids
had been applied to each site either annually at agronomic rates or at a one-time high rate.
Site ages ranged from 2 to 18 years. For all but one site sampled, addition of organic
amendments resulted in significant increases in soil carbon storage. Rates of carbon storage
per dry Mg of amendment ranged from 0.014 (not significant) in a long-term study of turf
grass to 0.54 in a commercial orchard. Soils with the lowest initial C levels had the highest
rates of amendment carbon storage (r(2) = 0.37, p < 0.001). Excess C stored with use of
amendments in comparison with control fields ranged from 8 to 72 Mg ha(-l). For sites with
data over time, C content increased or stabilized. Increases in total N were observed at all
sites, with increased WHC and available P observed at a majority of sites. Using a 50 Mg ha
application rate, benefits of application of biosolids and compost ranged from 7 to 33 Mg C
ha. This estimate does not account for yield increases or water conservation savings.
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Chari, B.P. and R.U. Halden. (2012) "Predicting the concentration range of unmonitored
chemicals in wastewater-dominated streams and in run-off from biosolids-amended soils." Sci
Total Environ 440: 314-20.
Organic compounds such as sterols and hormones have been detected in surface waters at
ecologically relevant concentrations with sources including effluent discharged from publicly
owned treatment works (POTWs) as well as leachate and runoff from land amended with
municipal sludge (biosolids). Greater than 20% of regulated effluents discharged into U.S.
surface waters experience in-stream dilution of <10-fold and potential impacts are
particularly likely in receiving waters dominated by POTW effluents. The increasing use of
biosolids on agricultural land exerts additional stress, thereby necessitating environmental
monitoring for potential ecological and human health effects. Alternatively, or in addition to
monitoring efforts, screening for potentially hazardous chemicals can be performed using
empirical models that are scalable and can deliver results rapidly. The present study makes
use of data from U.S. EPA's Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey (TNSSS) to predict
the aqueous-phase concentrations and removal efficiencies of 10 sterols (campesterol, beta-
sitosterol, stigmasterol, beta-stigmastanol, cholesterol, desmosterol, cholestanol, coprostanol,
epicoprostanol, and ergosterol) as well as the putative toxicity posed by four specific
hormones based on their reported biosolids concentrations using published empirical models.
Model predictions indicate that removal efficiencies for sterols are uniformly high (-99%)
and closely match removal rates calculated from chemical monitoring at POTWs (paired t-
test; p=0.01). Results from toxicity modeling indicate that the hormones estrone, estradiol
and estriol had the highest leaching potentials amongst the compounds considered here and
that 17 beta-ethinylestradiol was found to pose a potentially significant threat to fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelas) via run-off or leaching from biosolids-amended fields. This
study exemplifies the use of in silico analysis to (i) identify potentially problematic organic
compounds in biosolids, (ii) predict influent and effluent levels for hydrophobic organic
compounds (HOCs) of emerging concern, and (iii) provide initial estimates of runoff
concentrations, in this case for four prominent hormones known to act as endocrine
disrupt or s.
Chari, B.P. and R.U. Halden. (2012) "Validation of mega composite sampling and nationwide
mass inventories for 26 previously unmonitored contaminants in archived biosolids from the U.S
National Biosolids Repository." WaterRes 46(15): 4814-24.
In the present study, archived U.S biosolids from the 2001 Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) National Sewage Sludge Survey were analyzed with an expanded U.S EPA Method
1694, to determine the occurrence of 26 previously unmonitored pharmaceuticals and
personal care products (PPCPs) among a total of 120 analytes. The study further served to
examine the reproducibility of a mega-composite approach for creating chemical mass
inventories in biosolids based on pooled samples from wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs) nationwide. Five mega-composites reflecting 94 WWTPs in 32 states and the
District of Columbia were constructed from archived biosolids and analyzed by LC/ESI-
MS/MS using a newly introduced analytical method expanding upon U.S EPA Method 1694.
In addition, soil-biosolids mixtures from a mesocosm setup were analyzed to experimentally
determine the half-lives of biosolids-borne compounds applied on U.S land. Among 59
analytes detected, 33 had been reported previously, whereas 26 are reported in biosolids for
the first time, at levels ranging from 1.65 to 673 [j,g kg-1 dry weight. Newly recognized
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biosolids constituents were identified as Ca2+ channel blockers, antidepressants, diuretics, P-
blockers and analgesics. Using a mass balance approach, the total loading of these 26
pharmaceuticals to U.S soils from biosolids land application was estimated at 5-15 tons
year-1. Past and present datasets for 30 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs)
were determined to be statistically indistinguishable (paired t-test; p = 0.01). This study
expands the list of PPCPs reported in U.S biosolids, provides the first estimates of
nationwide release rates to and environmental half-lives in U.S agricultural soils, and
confirms the utility of using mega-composite sampling for economical tracking of chemical
inventories in biosolids on a national scale.
Cline, E.T., Q.T.N. Nguyen, et al. (2012) "Metal stress and decreased tree growth in response to
biosolids application in greenhouse seedlings and in situ Douglas-fir stands." Environ Pollut:
160(1): 139-44.
To assess physiological impacts of biosolids on trees, metal contaminants and phytochelatins
were measured in Douglas-fir stands amended with biosolids in 1982. A subsequent
greenhouse study compared these same soils to soils amended with fresh wastewater
treatment plant biosolids. Biosolids-amended field soils had significantly higher organic
matter, lower pH, and elevated metals even after 25 years. In the field study, no beneficial
growth effects were detected in biosolids-amended stands and in the greenhouse study both
fresh and historic biosolids amendments resulted in lower seedling growth rates.
Phytochelatins - bioindicators of intracellular metal stress - were elevated in foliage of
biosolids-amended stands, and significantly higher in roots of seedlings grown with fresh
biosolids. These results demonstrate that biosolids amendments have short- and long-term
negative effects that may counteract the expected tree growth benefits.
Cunningham, V.L., V.J. D'Aco, et al. (2012) "Predicting concentrations of trace organic
compounds in municipal wastewater treatment plant sludge and biosolids using the PhATE
model." Integr Environ Assess Manag 8(3): 530-42.
This article presents the capability expansion of the PhATE (pharmaceutical assessment
and transport evaluation) model to predict concentrations of trace organics in sludges and
biosolids from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). PhATE was originally
developed as an empirical model to estimate potential concentrations of active
pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in US surface and drinking waters that could result from
patient use of medicines. However, many compounds, including pharmaceuticals, are not
completely transformed in WWTPs and remain in biosolids that may be applied to land as a
soil amendment. This practice leads to concerns about potential exposures of people who
may come into contact with amended soils and also about potential effects to plants and
animals living in or contacting such soils. The model estimates the mass of API in WWTP
influent based on the population served, the API per capita use, and the potential loss of the
compound associated with human use (e.g., metabolism). The mass of API on the treated
biosolids is then estimated based on partitioning to primary and secondary solids, potential
loss due to biodegradation in secondary treatment (e.g., activated sludge), and potential loss
during sludge treatment (e.g., aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, composting).
Simulations using 2 surrogate compounds show that predicted environmental concentrations
(PECs) generated by PhATE are in very good agreement with measured concentrations, i.e.,
well within 1 order of magnitude. Model simulations were then carried out for 18 APIs
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representing a broad range of chemical and use characteristics. These simulations yielded 4
categories of results: 1) PECs are in good agreement with measured data for 9 compounds
with high analytical detection frequencies, 2) PECs are greater than measured data for 3
compounds with high analytical detection frequencies, possibly as a result of as yet
unidentified depletion mechanisms, 3) PECs are less than analytical reporting limits for 5
compounds with low analytical detection frequencies, and 4) the PEC is greater than the
analytical method reporting limit for 1 compound with a low analytical detection frequency,
possibly again as a result of insufficient depletion data. Overall, these results demonstrate
that PhATE has the potential to be a very useful tool in the evaluation of APIs in biosolids.
Possible applications include: prioritizing APIs for assessment even in the absence of
analytical methods; evaluating sludge processing scenarios to explore potential mitigation
approaches; using in risk assessments; and developing realistic nationwide concentrations,
because PECs can be represented as a cumulative probability distribution. Finally,
comparison of PECs to measured concentrations can also be used to identify the need for fate
studies of compounds of interest in biosolids.
Davis, E.F., S.L. Klosterhaus, et al. (2012) "Measurement of flame retardants and triclosan in
municipal sewage sludge and biosolids." Environ Int 40: 1-7.
As polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) face increasing restrictions worldwide, several
alternate flame retardants are expected to see increased use as replacement compounds in
consumer products. Chemical analysis of biosolids collected from wastewater treatment
plants (WWTPs) can help determine whether these flame retardants are migrating from the
indoor environment to the outdoor environment, where little is known about their ultimate
fate and effects. The objective of this study was to measure concentrations of a suite of flame
retardants, and the antimicrobial compound triclosan, in opportunistic samples of municipal
biosolids and the domestic sludge Standard Reference Material (SRM) 2781. Grab samples
of biosolids were collected from two WWTPs in North Carolina and two in California.
Biosolids samples were also obtained during three subsequent collection events at one of the
North Carolina WWTPs to evaluate fluctuations in contaminant levels within a given facility
over a period of three years. The biosolids and SRM 2781 were analyzed for PBDEs,
hexabromobenzene (HBB), l,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), 2-ethylhexyl
2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (TBB), di(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH),
the chlorinated flame retardant Dechlorane Plus (syn- and anti-isomers), and the
antimicrobial agent 5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol (triclosan). PBDEs were
detected in every sample analyzed, and SigmaPBDE concentrations ranged from 1750 to
6358ng/g dry weight. Additionally, the PBDE replacement chemicals TBB and TBPH were
detected at concentrations ranging from 120 to 3749 ng/g dry weight and from 206 to 1631
ng/g dry weight, respectively. Triclosan concentrations ranged from 490 to 13,866 ng/g dry
weight. The detection of these contaminants of emerging concern in biosolids suggests that
these chemicals have the potential to migrate out of consumer products and enter the outdoor
environment.
Doud, C.W., D.B. Taylor, et al. (2012) "Dewatered Sewage Biosolids Provide a Productive
Larval Habitat for Stable Flies and House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae)." J Med Entomol 49(2):
286-92.
Species diversity and seasonal abundance of muscoid flies (Diptera: Muscidae) developing in
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biosolid cake (dewatered biosolids) stored at a wastewater treatment facility in northeastern
Kansas were evaluated. Emergence traps were deployed 19 May through 20 October 2009
(22 wk.) and 27 May through 18 November 2010 (25 wk.). In total, 11,349 muscoid flies
were collected emerging from the biosolid cake. Stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)) and
house flies (Musca domestica (L.)), represented 80 and 18% of the muscoid flies,
respectively. An estimated 550 stable flies and 220 house flies per square-meter of surface
area developed in the biosolid cake annually producing 450,000 stable flies and 175,000
house flies. Stable fly emergence was seasonally bimodal with a primary peak in mid-July
and a secondary peak in late August. House fly emergence peaked with the first stable fly
emergence peak and then declined gradually for the remainder of the year. House flies tended
to emerge from the biosolid cake sooner after its deposition than did stable flies. In addition,
house fly emergence was concentrated around midsummer whereas stable fly emergence
began earlier in the spring and continued later into the fall. Biosolid age and temperature
were the most important parameters affecting emergence for house flies and stable flies,
whereas precipitation was not important for either species. This study highlights the
importance of biosolid cake as a larval developmental habitat for stable flies and house flies.
Egan M. (2013) "Biosolids management strategies: an evaluation of energy production as an
alternative to land application." Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 20(7): 4299-310.
Currently, more than half of the biosolids produced within the USA are land applied. Land
application of biosolids introduces organic contaminants into the environment. There are
potential ecological and human health risks associated with land application of biosolids.
Biosolids may be used as a renewable energy source. Nutrients may be recovered from
biosolids used for energy generation for use as fertilizer. The by-products of biosolids energy
generation may be used beneficially in construction materials. It is recommended that energy
generation replace land application as the leading biosolids management strategy.
Esseili, M.A., I.I. Kassem, et al. (2012) "Genetic evidence for the offsite transport of E. coli
associated with land application of Class B biosolids on agricultural fields." Sci Total Environ
433: 273-80.
The land-application of Class B biosolids is tightly regulated to allow for natural attenuation
of co-applied pathogens. Since many agricultural fields that receive biosolids are artificially
drained through subsurface tiles, it is possible that under scenarios of excessive drainage
associated with heavy rainfall events, co-applied pathogens might be carried offsite to
contaminate nearby surface waters. To address this concern, we used genetic as well as
traditional methods to investigate the impact of rainfall on the offsite drainage of Escherichia
coli from agricultural fields during biosolids application. Water samples from field drain tiles
and a reference field (no biosolids applied) were collected pre-, during and post-biosolids
application, while samples of applied biosolids were collected on site during application. The
samples were analyzed for E. coli-density and community- and isolate-fingerprinting to
assess the genetic link between E. coli in drainage water and those co-applied with biosolids.
In contrast to E. coli densities present in the reference field drainage, our results revealed that
post-application drainage water collected from biosolids treated fields contained significantly
higher E. coli densities following heavy rainfall events, as compared to light rainfall events.
Also, in contrast to the reference field, heavy rainfall correlated significantly with increased
similarity of E. coli community fingerprints occurring in biosolids to those draining from
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treated field. Fingerprinting of individual E. coli revealed a high similarity (>94%) between
some isolates collected from biosolids and post-application drainage water. Using a
combination of enumeration and genetic typing methods, we show that heavy rainfall
following biosolids application to agricultural fields induced the offsite transport of
biosolids-associated E. coli, potentially compromising the quality of water draining through
the watershed.
Gao, P., M. Munir, et al. (2012) "Correlation of tetracycline and sulfonamide antibiotics with
corresponding resistance genes and resistant bacteria in a conventional municipal wastewater
treatment plant." Sci Total Environ 421-422: 173-83.
Antibiotics and corresponding resistance genes and resistant bacteria have been considered as
emerging pollutants worldwide. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are potential
reservoirs contributing to the evolution and spread of antibiotic resistance. In this study, total
concentrations of tetracycline and sulfonamide antibiotics in final effluent were detected at
652.6 and 261.1ng/L, respectively, and in treated sludge, concentrations were at 1150.0 and
76.0mug/kg dry weight (dw), respectively. The quantities of antibiotic resistance genes and
antibiotic resistant bacteria in final effluent were quantified in the range of 9.12x10(5)-
1.05x10(6) gene abundances /lOOmL (genomic copies/lOOmL) and 1.05x10(1)-
3.09xl0(3)CFU/mL, respectively. In treated sludge, they were quantified at concentrations of
1.00xl0(8)-l.78x10(9) gene abandances/lOOmL and 7.08xl0(6)-1.91xl0(8)CFU/100mL,
respectively. Significant reductions (2-3 logs, p<0.05) of antibiotic resistance genes and
antibiotic resistant bacteria were observed between raw influent and final effluent. The gene
abundances of tetO and tetW normalized to that of 16S rRNA genes indicated an apparent
decrease as compared to sull genes, which remained stable along each treatment stage.
Significant correlations (R(2)=0.75-0.83, p<0.05) between numbers of resistant bacteria and
antibiotic concentrations were observed in raw influent and final effluent. No significance
(R(2)=0.15, p>0.05) was found between tet genes (tetO and tetW) with concentration of
tetracyclines identified in wastewater, while a significant correlation (R(2)=0.97, p<0.05)
was observed for sull gene and total concentration of sulfonamides. Correlations of the
quantities of antibiotic resistance genes and antibiotic resistant bacteria with corresponding
concentrations of antibiotics in sludge samples were found to be considerably weak
(R(2)=0.003-0.07).
Gelsleichter, J. and N.J. Szabo, et al. (2013) "Uptake of human pharmaceuticals in bull sharks
(Carcharhinus leucas) inhabiting a wastewater-impacted river." Sci Total Environ 456-457:196-
201.
The presence of human pharmaceuticals in sewage-impacted ecosystems is a growing
concern that poses health risks to aquatic wildlife. Despite this, few studies have investigated
the uptake of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in aquatic organisms. In this study,
the uptake of 9 APIs from human drugs was examined and compared in neonate bull sharks
(Carcharhinus leucas) residing in pristine (Myakka River) and wastewater-impacted
(Caloosahatchee River) tributaries of Florida's Charlotte Harbor estuary. The synthetic
estrogen used in human contraceptives (17alpha-ethynylestradiol) and 6 of the selective
serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine,
paroxetine, sertraline, venlafaxine) used in human antidepressants were observed at
detectable and, in some cases, quantifiable levels in plasma of Caloosahatchee River sharks.
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Comparatively, only venlafaxine was detected in the plasma of a single Myakka River shark
at a level below the limit of quantitation. These results suggest that sharks residing in
wastewater-impacted habitats accumulate APIs, a factor that may pose special risks to C.
leucas since it is one of few shark species to regularly occupy freshwater systems. Further
research is needed to determine if the low levels of API uptake observed in Caloosahatchee
River bull sharks pose health risks to these animals.
Gerba, C.P., A.H. Tamimi, et al. (2011) "Sources of microbial pathogens in municipal solid
waste landfills in the United States of America." Waste Manag Res 29(8): 781-90.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) categories, as specified by United States Environmental
Protection Agency (US EPA), were evaluated for their relative contribution of pathogenic
viruses, bacteria, and protozoan parasites into MSW landfills from 1960 to 2007. The
purpose of this study was to identify trends and quantify the potential contribution of
pathogens in MSW as an aid to the assessment of potential public health risks. A review of
the literature was conducted to estimate values for the concentrations of faecal indicator
bacteria and pathogens in the major categories of MSW. The major sources of MSW
contributing enteric pathogens were food waste, pet faeces, absorbent products, and
biosolids. During the last 47 years, recycling of glass, metals, plastic, paper and some organic
wastes in MSW has increased, resulting in a decreased proportion of these materials in the
total landfilled MSW. The relative proportion of remaining waste materials has increased;
several of these waste categories contain pathogens. For all potential sources, food waste
contributes the greatest number of faecal coliforms (80.62%). The largest contribution of
salmonellae (97.27%), human enteroviruses (94.88%) and protozoan parasites (97%) are
expected to come from pet faeces. Biosolids from wastewater treatment sludge contribute the
greatest number of human noroviruses (99.94%). By comparison, absorbent hygiene products
do not appear to contribute significantly to overall pathogen loading for any group of
pathogens. This is largely due to the relatively low volume of these pathogen sources in
MSW, compared, for example, with food waste at almost 40% of total MSW.
Gerrity, D. and S. Snyder. (2011) "Review of Ozone for Water Reuse Applications: Toxicity,
Regulations, and Trace Organic Contaminant Oxidation." Ozon Sci Eng 33(4): 253-66.
Increased public awareness, potential human health effects, and demonstrated impacts on
aquatic ecosystems have stimulated recent interest in pharmaceuticals, personal care products
(PPCPs), and endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in water and wastewater. Due to the
potential public and environmental health implications, some agencies are taking a proactive
approach to controlling trace organic contaminant (TOrC) concentrations in water supplies.
This review describes some of the research related to the toxicity and estrogenicity of
wastewater-derived TOrCs in addition to regulatory guidance from several international
agencies. This review also evaluates pilot- and full-scale studies to characterize the efficacy
of ozonation for TOrC mitigation in wastewater applications.
Gewurtz, S.B., S.M. Backus, et al. (2013) "Perfluoroalkyl acids in the Canadian environment:
multi-media assessment of current status and trends." Environ Int 59: 183-200.
In Canada, perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) have been the focus of several monitoring
programs and research and surveillance studies. Here, we integrate recent data and perform a
multi-media assessment to examine the current status and ongoing trends of PFAAs in
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Canada. Concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA),
and other long-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs) in air, water, sediment, fish, and birds
across Canada are generally related to urbanization, with elevated concentrations observed
around cities, especially in southern Ontario. PFOS levels in water, fish tissue, and bird eggs
were below their respective Draft Federal Environmental Quality Guidelines, suggesting
there is low potential for adverse effects to the environment/organisms examined. However,
PFOS in fish and bird eggs tended to exceed guidelines for the protection of mammalian and
avian consumers, suggesting a potential risk to their wildlife predators, although wildlife
population health assessments are needed to determine whether negative impacts are actually
occurring. Long-term temporal trends of PFOS in suspended sediment, sediment cores, Lake
Trout (Salvelinus namaycush), and Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) eggs collected from Lake
Ontario increased consistently from the start of data collection until the 1990s. However,
after this time, the trends varied by media, with concentrations stabilizing in Lake Trout and
Herring Gull eggs, and decreasing and increasing in suspended sediment and the sediment
cores, respectively. For PFCAs, concentrations in suspended sediment, sediment cores, and
Herring Gulls generally increased from the start of data collection until present and
concentrations in Lake Trout increased until the late 1990s and subsequently stabilized. A
multimedia comparison of PFAA profiles provided evidence that unexpected patterns in
biota of some of the lakes were due to unique source patterns rather than internal lake
processes. High concentrations of PFAAs in the leachate and air of landfill sites, in the
wastewater influent/effluent, biosolids, and air at wastewater treatment plants, and in indoor
air and dust highlight the waste sector and current-use products (used primarily indoors) as
ongoing sources of PFAAs to the Canadian environment. The results of this study
demonstrate the utility of integrating data from different media. Simultaneous evaluation of
spatial and temporal trends in multiple media allows inferences that would be impossible
with data on only one medium. As such, more co-ordination among monitoring sites for
different media is suggested for future sampling, especially at the northern sites. We
emphasize the importance of continued monitoring of multiple-media for determining future
responses of environmental PFAA concentrations to voluntary and regulatory actions.
Gore, J.M. (2012) "Effects of moisture augmentation of municipal solid waste through addition
of food waste or wastewater treatment biosolids on bio-gas formation for power generation.
Masters Abstracts International. Vol. 51, no. 03, 99 p." Masters Abstracts Int 51(03): 1-100.
An investigation into the effect of moisture augmentation by manipulation of food waste
proportion or wastewater treatment plant biosolids proportion was undertaken to determine
the effects on production of methane and other biogases from municipal solid waste (MSW).
Laboratory microcosm experiments were performed to determine the effect of various
proportions of influent waste streams on the production of biogas. Results indicated that
moisture augmentation through the addition of food waste to MSW increases the overall bio-
gas and hydrogen gas formed during fermentation. Moisture augmentation through addition
of wastewater treatment bio-solids lead to inconclusive results. Addition of food waste to
MSW would allow for an increase in combustible gas production through formation of
additional hydrogen gas in arid region landfills.
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Gottschall, N., E. Topp, et al. (2012) "Pharmaceutical and personal care products in
groundwater, subsurface drainage, soil, and wheat grain, following a high single application of
municipal biosolids to a field." Chemosphere 87(2): 194-203.
Dewatered municipal biosolids (DMBs) were applied to a field at a rate of-22 Mg dw ha(-l)
in October 2008. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were monitored in
groundwater, tile drainage, soil, DMB aggregates incorporated into the soil post-land
application, and in the grain of wheat grown on the field for a period of ~1 year following
application. Over 80 PPCPs were analyzed in the source DMB. PPCPs selected for in-depth
monitoring included: antibiotics (tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones), bacteriocides (triclosan,
triclocarban), beta-blockers (atenolol, propranolol, metaprolol), antidepressants (fluoxetine,
citalopram, venlafaxine, sertraline), antifungals (miconazole), analgesics (acetaminophen,
ibuprofen) and anticonvulsants (carbamazepine). PPCPs in tile were observed twice, ~3
weeks and 2 months post-application. Of all PPCPs measured in tile drainage, only
carbamazepine, ibuprofen, acetaminophen, triclosan, triclocarban, venlafaxine, and
citalopram were detected (5-74 ng L(-l)). PPCPs were not detected in groundwater >2 m
depth below the soil surface, and concentrations above detection limits at 2 m depth were
only observed once just after the first rain event post-application. In groundwater, all
compounds found in tile, except carbamazepine, acetaminophen and citalopram, were
detected (10-19 ng L(-l)). PPCPs were detected in DMB aggregates incorporated in soil up
to 1 year post-application, with miconazole and fluoxetine having the lowest percent
reductions over 1 year (-50%). For several compounds in these aggregates, concentration
declines were of exponential decay form. No PPCPs were detected in the grain of wheat
planted post-application on the field. No PPCPs were ever detected in water, soil or grain
samples from the reference plot, where no DMB was applied.
Gottschall, N, E. Topp, et al. (2013) "Hormones, sterols, and fecal indicator bacteria in
groundwater, soil, and subsurface drainage following a high single application of municipal
biosolids to a field." Chemosphere 91(3): 275-86.
A land application of dewatered municipal biosolids (DMB) was conducted on an
agricultural field in fall 2008 at a rate of 22Mg dry weight (dw) ha(-l). Pre- and post-
application, hormone, sterol and fecal indicator bacteria concentrations were measured in tile
drainage water, groundwater (2, 4, 6m depth), surface soil cores, and DMB aggregates
incorporated in the soil (~0.2m depth) for a period of roughly lyear post-application.
Hormones and sterols were detected up to lyear post-application in soil and in DMB
aggregates. Hormone (androsterone, desogestrel, estrone) contamination was detected briefly
in tile water samples (22d and ~2months post-app), at lowngL(-l) concentrations (2-34ngL(-
1)). Hormones were not detected in groundwater. Sterols were detected in tile water
throughout the study period post-application, and multiple fecal sterol ratios suggested
biosolids as the source. Coprostanol concentrations in tile water peaked at >1000ngL (-1)
(22d post-app) and were still >100ngL (-1) at 6months post-application. Fecal indicator
bacteria were detected throughout the study period in tile water, groundwater (<2m depth),
soil and DMB aggregate samples. These bacteria were strongly linearly related to
coprostanol in tile water (R(2)>0.92, p<0.05). The limited transport of hormones and sterols
to tile drainage networks may be attributed to a combination of the hydrophobicity of these
compounds and limited macroporosity of the field soil. This transitory contamination from
hormones and sterols is unlikely to result in any significant pulse exposure risk in subsurface
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drainage and groundwater.
Hale, R.C., M.J. La Guardia, et al. (2012) "Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in U.S. sewage
sludges and biosolids: temporal and geographical trends and uptake by corn following land
application." Environ Sci Technol 46(4): 2055-63.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been used extensively to flame-retard
polymers and textiles. These persistent chemicals enter wastewater streams following
manufacture, use, and disposal, concentrating in the settled solids during treatment. Land
application of stabilized sewage sludge (known as biosolids) can contribute PBDEs to
terrestrial systems. Monitoring sludge/biosolids contaminant burdens may be valuable in
revealing trends in societal chemical usage and environmental release. In archived Chicago
area sludges/biosolids from 1975 to 2008, penta-BDE concentrations increased and then
plateaued after about 2000. Penta-BDE manufacture in the United States ended in December
2004. Deca-BDE concentrations in biosolids rose from 1995 to 2008, doubling on a 5-year
interval. Evaluation of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Targeted National Sewage
Sludge Survey data from 2006 to 2007 revealed highest penta-BDE biosolids levels from
western and lowest from northeastern wastewater treatment plants (2120 and 1530 mug/kg,
respectively), consistent with patterns reported in some recent indoor dust and human blood
studies. No significant regional trends were observed for deca-BDE concentrations.
Congener patterns in contemporary Chicago biosolids support the contention that BDE-209
can be dehalogenated to less brominated congeners. Biosolids application on agricultural
fields increased PBDE soil concentrations. However, corn grown thereon did not exhibit
measurable PBDE uptake; perhaps due to low bioavailability of the biosolids-associated
flame retardants.
Hamid, H. and C. Eskicioglu. (2012) "Fate of estrogenic hormones in wastewater and sludge
treatment: A review of properties and analytical detection techniques in sludge matrix." Water
Res 46(18): 5813-33.
Estrogenic hormones (estrone (El), 17P-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), 17a-ethinylestradiol
(EE2)) are the major contributor to the total estrogenicity in waterways. Presence of these
compounds in biosolids is also causing concern in terms of their use as soil amendment. In
comparison with wastewater treatment, removal of estrogenic compounds in sewage sludge
has received less attention. This paper presents a literature review regarding the source and
occurrence of these pollutants in our environment. The removal pathways of estrogenic
compounds in engineered systems, such as full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs),
are also discussed. Review of the fate studies revealed that activated sludge system with
nutrient removal shows very high (>90%) removal of estrogenic hormones in most of the
cases. Although, aerobic digestion showed better attenuation of estrogenic compounds,
anaerobic digestion increased the overall estrogenicity of biosolids. Finally, this paper
highlights the challenges involved in analytical determination of these compounds in sewage
sludge matrix.
Holling, C.S., J.L. Bailey, et al. (2012) "Uptake of human pharmaceuticals and personal care
products by cabbage (Brassica campestris) from fortified and biosolids-amended soils." J
Environ Monit 14(11): 3029-36.
Human pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are routinely found in biosolids
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from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Once land applied, the PPCPs in biosolids are
potentially available for plant uptake and bioaccumulation. This study used a greenhouse
model to investigate uptake of PPCPs commonly detected in biosolids by the agricultural
plant Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris). Two series of greenhouse experiments were
conducted as part of this project. In the first set of experiments, four pharmaceuticals were
added to an organic matter-rich soil in environmentally relevant concentrations based on
typical biosolids application rates, resulting in final soil concentrations of 2.6 ng g(-l)
carbamazepine, 3.1 ng g(-l) sulfamethoxazole, 5.4 ng g(-l) salbutamol, and 0.5 ng g(-l)
trimethoprim. In the second set of experiments, the cabbage was grown in soil amended with
an agronomic rate of biosolids from a local WWTP. The ambient concentration of PPCPs in
the biosolids resulted in final soil concentrations of 93.1 ng g(-l) carbamazepine, 67.4 ng g(-
1) sulfamethoxazole, 30.3 ng g(-l) salbutamol, 433.7 ng g(-l) triclosan, and 24.7 ng g(-l)
trimethoprim. After growing to maturity, the aerials of the plants were separated from roots
and the two tissue types were analyzed separately. All four human pharmaceuticals were
detected in both tissues in the cabbage grown in the soil fortified with the four
pharmaceuticals with median concentrations of 255.4 ng g(-l) aerials and 272.9 ng g(-l)
roots carbamazepine; 222.8 ng g(-l) aerials and 260.3 ng g(-l) roots sulfamethoxazole; 108.3
ng g(-l) aerials and 140.6 ng g(-l) roots salbutamol; and 20.6 ng g(-l) aerials and 53.7 ng
g(-l) roots trimethoprim. Although all study compounds were present in the biosolids-
amended planting soil, only carbamazepine (317.6 ng g(-l) aerials and 416.2 ng g(-l) roots),
salbutamol (21.2 ng g(-l) aerials and 187.6 ng g(-l) roots), and triclosan (22.9 ng g(-l)
aerials and 1220.1 ng g(-l) roots) were detected in the aerials of the cabbage. In addition to
the study compounds detected in the aerials, sulfamethoxazole was detected in the roots of
one of the plants in the biosolid-amended soil. In comparison to many previous studies that
have utilized PPCP concentration that exceed environmentally relevant concentrations, plants
in this study were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of the PPCPs, yet
resulted in uptake concentrations similar to or greater than those reported in comparable
studies. We suggest that rhizosphere conditions, particularly the presence of dissolved
organic matter in the planting matrix, might be one of the critical factors determining
mobilization and bioavailability of xenobiotic compounds such as PPCPs.
Hope, B.K., L. Pillsbury, et al. (2012) "A state-wide survey in Oregon (USA) of trace metals and
organic chemicals in municipal effluent." Sci Total Environ 417-418: 263-72.
Oregon's Senate Bill 737, enacted in 2007, required the state's 52 largest municipal
wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) and water pollution control facilities (WPCF) to
collect effluent samples in 2010 and analyze them for persistent organic pollutants. These
facilities are located state-wide and represent a variety of treatment types, service population
sizes, geographic areas, and flow conditions. Of the 406 chemicals ultimately analyzed, 114
were detected above the level of quantification (LOQ) in at least one sample. Few persistent
pollutants were found possibly because of their diversion from effluent via sorption to sludge
(solids phase) or high LOQs for certain chemicals. Several pesticides, as well as benzene and
phenol degradation products, all previously unreported in effluent, were detected. Ten
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) congeners were present at low concentrations in
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in 65% of samples, with average and maximum concentrations of 0.18 and 1.36 ng/L,
respectively. Although they are generally assumed to be innocuous by-products of sewage
treatment, additional research is needed on potential impacts to aquatic ecosystems of high
loadings of coprostanol and cholesterol. These results suggest that effluent, rather than just
receiving waters, should itself be analyzed for a wide range of contaminants in order to
understand how upstream sources, conveyed through WWTPs and WPCFs, could be
impacting aquatic ecosystems.
James, M.O., C.J. Marth, et al. (2012) "Slow O-demethylation of methyl triclosan to triclosan,
which is rapidly glucuronidated and sulfonated in channel catfish liver and intestine." Aquat
Toxicol 124-125: 72-82.
The antibacterial personal care product triclosan is discharged in municipal waste, and
converted in part by bacteria in sewage sludge and soil to its more lipid-soluble methyl ether,
methyl triclosan. Triclosan and methyl triclosan have been detected in water, sediment, fish
and invertebrates near sewage treatment facilities. Understanding the biotransformation of
methyl triclosan and triclosan in a model food fish, the channel catfish, will be of value in
assessing the likelihood that these compounds will bioaccumulate in exposed fish, and
therefore potentially pass up the food chain. We hypothesize that cytochrome P450 will
catalyze the O-demethylation of methyl triclosan to yield triclosan, which is likely to undergo
glucuronidation or sulfonation of the phenolic hydroxyl group. Conversion of methyl
triclosan to triclosan was measured by LC/MS/MS following aerobic incubation of varying
concentrations of methyl triclosan with NADPH and hepatic and intestinal microsomes from
untreated, 3-methylcholanthrene-treated (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or PCB-126-treated (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.)
channel catfish (n=4 per treatment group). The K(m) values for methyl triclosan were similar
for untreated, 3-methylcholanthrene-treated and PCB-126-treated catfish liver microsomes,
ranging from 80 to 250 [xM. V(max) values for O-demethylation ranged from 30 to 150
pmol/min/mg protein, with no significant differences between controls, PCB-126-treated or
3-methylcholanthrene-treated fish, suggesting that methyl triclosan O-demethylation was not
a CYP1 -catalyzed reaction. Methyl triclosan O-demethylation activities in intestinal
microsomes were similar to or lower than those found with liver microsomes. The calculated
rate of O-demethylation of methyl triclosan in catfish liver at 1 |iM, a concentration reported
in exposed fish, and 21°C, an early summer water temperature, is 0.10 pmol/min/mg protein.
This slow rate of metabolism suggests that upon continued exposure, methyl triclosan may
bioaccumulate in the channel catfish. Triclosan itself, however, was readily glucuronidated
by hepatic and intestinal microsomes and sulfonated by hepatic and intestinal cytosol.
Triclosan glucuronidation followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics when rates were measured
across a concentration range of 5-1000 |iM, whereas triclosan sulfonation exhibited substrate
inhibition at concentrations above 10-20 |iM in both intestinal and hepatic cytosol. Based on
the enzyme kinetic constants measured in hepatic and intestinal fractions at 21°C, triclosan at
1 |iM could be glucuronidated at rates of 23 and 3.2 pmol/min/mg protein respectively in
liver and intestine, and sulfonated at rates of 277 (liver) and 938 (intestine) pmol/min/mg
protein. These rates are much higher than the rates of demethylation of methyl triclosan, and
suggest that triclosan would be rapidly cleared and unlikely to bioaccumulate in catfish
tissues.
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Kim, B., M. Murayama, et al. (2012) "Characterization and environmental implications of nano-
and larger TiO(2) particles in sewage sludge, and soils amended with sewage sludge." J Environ
Monit 14(4): 1129-37.
Titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) is the most extensively used engineered nanoparticle to date, yet
its fate in the soil environment has been investigated only rarely and is poorly understood. In
the present study, we conducted two field-scale investigations to better describe TiO(2) nano-
and larger particles in their most likely route of entry into the environment, i.e., the
application of biosolids to soils. We particularly concentrated on the particles in the nano-
size regime due to their novel and commercially useful properties. First, we analyzed three
sewage sludge products from the US EPA TNSSS sampling inventory for the occurrence,
qualitative abundance, and nature of TiO(2) nano- and larger particles by using analytical
scanning electron microscopy and analytical (scanning) transmission electron microscopy.
Nano- and larger particles of TiO(2) were repeatedly identified across the sewage sludge
types tested, providing strong evidence of their likely concentration in sewage sludge
products. The TiO(2) particles identified were as small as 40 nm, and as large as 300 nm,
having faceted shapes with the rutile crystal structure, and they typically formed small,
loosely packed aggregates. Second, we examined surface soils in mesocosms that had been
amended with Ag nanoparticle-spiked biosolids for the occurrence of TiO(2) particles. An
aggregate of TiO(2) nanoparticles with the rutile structure was again identified, but this time
TiO(2) nanoparticles were found to contain Ag on their surfaces. This suggests that TiO(2)
nanoparticles from biosolids can interact with toxic trace metals that would then enter the
environment as a soil amendment. Therefore, the long-term behavior of TiO(2) nano- and
larger particles in sewage sludge materials as well as their impacts in the soil environment
need to be carefully considered.
Kim, M., P. Guerra, et al. (2013) "Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge and treated
biosolids: effect factors and mass balance." Water Res 47(17): 6496-505.
Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants have been consistently detected in
sewage sludge and treated biosolids. Two hundred and eighty-eight samples including
primary sludge (PS), waste biological sludge (WBS) and treated biosolids from fifteen
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Canada were analyzed to investigate the factors
affecting accumulation of PBDEs in sludge and biosolids. Factors examined included
environmental/sewershed conditions and operational parameters of the WWTPs. PBDE
concentrations in PS, WBS and treated biosolids were 230-82,000 ng/g, 530-8800 ng/g and
420-6000 ng/g, respectively; BDE-209,-99, and -47 were the predominant congeners.
Concentrations were influenced by industrial input, leachate, and temperature. Several
examinations including the measurement of BDE-202 indicated minimal debromination
during wastewater treatment. Estimated solids-liquid distribution coefficients were
moderately correlated to hydraulic retention time, solids loading rate, mixed liquor
suspended solids, solids retention time, and removal of organic solids, indicating that PBDE
partitioning to solids can be optimized by WWTPs' operational conditions. Solids treatment
type strongly affected PBDE levels in biosolids: 1.5 times increase after solids digestion,
therefore, digestion efficiency could be a potential factor for variability of PBDEs
concentration. In contrast, alkaline treatment reduced PBDE concentrations in biosolids.
Overall, mass balance approaches confirmed that PBDEs were removed from the liquid
stream through partitioning to solids. Variability of PBDE levels in biosolids could result in
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different PBDEs burdens to agricultural land, and different exposure levels to soil organisms.
Kwon, J.W. and K. Xia. (2012) "Fate of triclosan and triclocarban in soil columns with and
without biosolids surface application." Environ Toxicol Chem 31(2): 262-9.
The leaching and transformation behaviors of triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) in soil
columns (20 cm high, 4 cm in diameter) packed with an agricultural soil (Roxana very fine
sandy loam) with and without biosolids surface application were investigated. The column
leachates and soil samples were analyzed for TCS, TCC, and their transformation products.
Significantly more TCS was transformed compared with TCC. Surface application of
biosolids significantly retarded their transformation. Downward movement of TCS and TCC
occurred within a 10-cm soil depth. Methyl-TCS was not detectable in the leachates but was
detected in the top 5-cm soil layer, with more appearing in the biosolids-applied soil. At the
end of the column study, carbanilide (CBA) was the only detectable TCC reductive
dechlorination product in the soil. No TCC reductive dechlorination products were detectable
in the leachates. Detection of 3,4-dichloroaniline (3,4-DCA) and 4-chloroaniline (4-CA)
suggested the occurrence of TCC hydrolysis. Rapid leaching of 4-CA through the soil
column was observed. The 3,4-DCA was detected throughout the entire 20-cm depth of the
soil column but not in the leachates. The fact that only small percentages of the transformed
TCS and TCC appeared, after a 101-d column study, in the forms of the products analyzed
suggested that either the investigated transformation pathways were minor pathways or
further rapid transformation of those products had occurred.
Lajeunesse, A., S.A. Smyth, et al. (2012) "Distribution of antidepressant residues in wastewater
and biosolids following different treatment processes by municipal wastewater treatment plants
in Canada." Water Res 46(17): 5600-12.
The fate of 14 antidepressants along with their respective N-desmethyl metabolites and the
anticonvulsive drug carbamazepine (CBZ) was studied in 5 different sewage treatment plants
(STPs) across Canada. Using two validated LC-MS/MS analytical methods, the
concentrations of the different compounds were determined in raw influent, final effluent and
treated biosolids samples. Out of the 15 compounds investigated, 13 were positively detected
in most 24-h composite raw influent samples. Analysis showed that venlafaxine (VEN), its
metabolite O-desmethylvenlafaxine (DVEN), citalopram (CIT), and CBZ were detected at
the highest concentrations in raw influent (up to 4.3 mug L(-l) for DVEN). Cumulated
results showed strong evidence that primary treatment and trickling filter/solids contact has
limited capacity to remove antidepressants from sewage, while activated sludge, biological
aerated filter, and biological nutrient removal processes yielded moderate results (mean
removal rates: 30%). The more recalcitrant compounds to be eliminated from secondary
STPs were VEN, DVEN and CBZ with mean removal rates close to 12%. Parent compounds
were removed to a greater degree than their metabolites. The highest mean concentrations in
treated biosolids samples were found for CIT (1033 ng g(-l)), amitriptyline (768 ng g(-l)),
and VEN (833 ng g(-l)). Experimental sorption coefficients (K(d)) were also determined.
The lowest K(d) values were obtained with VEN, DVEN, and CBZ (67-490 L kg(-l)).
Sorption of these compounds on solids was assumed negligible (log K(d) 4).
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Lee, H.B., J. Kohli, et al. (2014) "Selected chloro and bromo derivatives of triclosansyntheses
and their occurrence in Canadian sewage and biosolid samples." Environ Sci Pollut Res Int
21(1): 314-24.
The occurrence of triclosan (TCS), a general purpose antibacterial agent contained in
numerous consumer and personal-care products, in the aquatic environment is well known.
To a lesser degree, the formation of chlorinated and brominated derivatives of TCS during
the chlorination of the antibacterial has also been reported. Presumably due to the lack of
authentic standards, very few reports have been published on the levels of these halogenated
TCSs in the environment. For this purpose, we have synthesized six selected halogenated
derivatives of TCS, namely, 3-C1-, 5-C1-, 3,5-C12-, 3-Br-, 5-Br-, and 3,5-Br2- TCSs, with
supporting (l)H-NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) and GC-MS (gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry) data for their structural assignments. Using these model compounds together
with sensitive analytical methods, we were able to identify and quantify the above
compounds together with their precursor compound TCS in Canadian municipal wastewater
and biosolid samples for the first time. While detected in all influent (range from 1.4 to 24.1
ng L(-l)) and biosolid (range from 7.7 to 274 ng g(-l)) samples, the concentrations of these
chlorinated TCS were generally from 100- to 1,000-fold lower than TCS in the same sample.
Even lower levels (<20 ng/g in 85% of the results) of brominated TCS were found in
biosolids, and they were mostly undetected in sewage.
Li, H., M.W. Sumarah, et al. (2013) "Persistence and dissipation pathways of the antidepressant
sertraline in agricultural soils." Sci Total Environ 452-453: 296-301.
Sertraline is a widely-used antidepressant that is one of the selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors. It has been detected in biosolids and effluents from sewage treatment plants. Since
sertraline can reach agriculture land through the application of municipal biosolids or
reclaimed water, the persistence and dissipation pathways of (3)H-sertraline were determined
in laboratory incubations using three agriculture soils varying in textures and properties. The
total solvent extractable radioactivity decreased in all three soils with times to dissipate 50%
of material (DT50) ranging from 48.1ą3.5 (loam soil) to 84.5ą13.8 (clay soil) days. Two
hydroxylated sertraline transformation products were identified in all three soils by high
performance liquid chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-TOF-
MS), but the accumulation did not exceed 10% of the initial parent concentration. The
addition of liquid municipal biosolids to the loam soil had no effect on the rate of sertraline
dissipation, or production of transformation products. In summary, sertraline was persistent
in agricultural soils with major dissipation pathways including the production of non-
extractable soil-bound residues, and accumulation of hydroxylated transformation products.
The biologically active sertraline transformation product norsertraline was not detected in
soil.
Li, H., M.W. Sumarah, et al. (2012) "Persistence of the tricyclic antidepressant drugs
amitriptyline and nortriptyline in agriculture soils." Environ Toxicol Chem 32(3): 509-16.
Amitriptyline and nortriptyline are widely used tricyclic antidepressant drugs. They have
been detected in wastewater, surface runoff, and effluents from sewage treatment plants. As
such, they could potentially reach agriculture land through the application of municipal
biosolids or reclaimed water. In the absence of data on their fate in the environment, the
persistence and dissipation pathways of radiolabeled amitriptyline were determined in three
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agriculture soils varying widely in texture and chemical properties (loam soil, clay loam soil,
and sandy loam soil). Tritiated amitriptyline was added to laboratory microcosms containing
soils, and the metabolism of the extractable (3) H was monitored during incubation at 30°C.
The total solvent extractable radioactivity decreased in all three soils with times to dissipate
50% of material (DT50) ranging from 34.1 ą3.2 (loam soil) to 85.3 ą 3.2 d (sandy soil).
Nortriptyline (N-desmethyl amitriptyline) and amitriptyline-N-oxide were identified as major
transformation products in all three soils by high performance liquid chromatography with
photodiode array detector and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-TOF-MS/UV). The
addition of liquid municipal biosolids to the loam soil had no effect on the dissipation of
amitriptyline. The persistence of nortriptyline was evaluated in the loam soil. The DT50 of
nortriptyline was 40.5 ą 3.2 d estimated with HPLC-TOF-MS/UV. Approximately 10% of
added nortriptyline was converted to hydroxylated products after 50 d of incubation. In
summary, amitriptyline persisted in agricultural soils with major dissipation mechanisms,
including forming nonextractable residues and producing various transformation products
including the psychoactive drug nortriptyline.
Li, J., L. Dodgen, et al. (2013) "Degradation kinetics and metabolites of carbamazepine in soil."
Environ Sci Technol 47(8): 3678-84.
The antiepileptic drug carbamazepine (CBZ) is one of the most frequently detected human
pharmaceuticals in wastewater effluents and biosolids. Soil is a primary environmental
compartment receiving CBZ through wastewater irrigation and biosolid application. In this
study, we explored the transformation of CBZ to biologically active intermediates in soil.
Both (14)C labeling and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)
were used to track transformation kinetics and identify major degradation intermediates.
Through 120 days of incubation under aerobic conditions, mineralization of CBZ did not
exceed 2% of the spiked rate in different soils. Amendment of biosolids further suppressed
mineralization. The fraction of non-extractable (i.e., bound) residue also remained negligible
(<5%). On the other hand, CBZ was transformed to a range of degradation intermediates,
including 10,11 -dihydro-10-hydroxycarbamazepine, carbamazepine-10,11 -epoxide,
acridone-N-carbaldehyde, 4-aldehyde-9-acridone, and acridine, of which acridone-N-
carbaldehyde was formed in a large fraction and appeared to be recalcitrant to further
degradation. Electrocyclization, ring cleavage, hydrogen shift, carbonylation, and
decarbonylation contributed to CBZ transformative reactions in soil, producing biologically
active products. The persistence of the parent compound and formation of incomplete
intermediates suggest that CBZ has a high risk for off-site transport from soil, such as
accumulation into plants and contamination of groundwater.
Liao, C., S. Lee, et al. (2013) "Parabens in sediment and sewage sludge from the United States,
Japan, and Korea: spatial distribution and temporal trends." Environ Sci Technol 47(19): 10895-
902.
Parabens (alkyl esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid) are widely used in cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, and foodstuffs as broad-spectrum antimicrobial preservatives. Laboratory
animal studies have shown that parabens possess weak estrogenic activity. Widespread
exposure of humans to parabens has raised significant public health concerns. Despite such
concern, little is known about the occurrence of parabens in the environment. In this study,
six paraben analogues, methyl- (MeP), ethyl- (EtP), propyl- (PrP), butyl- (BuP), benzyl-
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(BzP), and heptyl parabens (HepP), were determined in surface sediment and sediment core
samples collected from several locations in the United States (U.S.), Japan, and Korea by
high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS).
Concentrations of parabens also were determined in sewage sludge collected from several
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Korea. MeP was found in all samples, including
surface sediment, sediment core, and sludge samples, at concentrations ranging from 0.312 to
540 ng/g dry weight (dw). PrP was detected in the majority of samples (79%), and the
concentrations were, in general, 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than MeP concentrations.
Significant positive correlations were found among the concentrations of paraben analogues
in sediment and sludge, which suggested the existence of similar sources of origin for these
compounds. The sum concentrations of six parabens (summation operatorPBs) in sludge
(geometric mean: 66.3, median: 89.5 ng/g dw) were remarkably higher than those in
sediment (5.48, 5.24 ng/g dw). Vertical profiles of parabens in sediment cores from the U.S.
showed a gradual increase in concentrations in the past decade, although such a trend was not
clear in sediment core from Tokyo Bay, Japan.
Lowman, A., M.A. McDonald, et al. (2013) "Land application of treated sewage sludge:
community health and environmental justice." Environ Health Perspect 121(5): 537-42.
BACKGROUND: In the United States, most of the treated sewage sludge (biosolids) is
applied to farmland as a soil amendment. Critics suggest that rules regulating sewage sludge
treatment and land application may be insufficient to protect public health and the
environment. Neighbors of land application sites report illness following land application
events. OBJECTIVES: We used qualitative research methods to evaluate health and quality
of life near land application sites. METHODS: We conducted in-depth interviews with
neighbors of land application sites and used qualitative analytic software and team-based
methods to analyze interview transcripts and identify themes. RESULTS: Thirty-four people
in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia responded to interviews. Key themes were
health impacts, environmental impacts, and environmental justice. Over half of the
respondents attributed physical symptoms to application events. Most noted offensive sludge
odors that interfere with daily activities and opportunities to socialize with family and
friends. Several questioned the fairness of disposing of urban waste in rural neighborhoods.
Although a few respondents were satisfied with the responsiveness of public officials
regarding sludge, many reported a lack of public notification about land application in their
neighborhoods, as well as difficulty reporting concerns to public officials and influencing
decisions about how the practice is conducted where they live. CONCLUSIONS:
Community members are key witnesses of land application events and their potential impacts
on health, quality of life, and the environment. Meaningful involvement of community
members in decision making about land application of sewage sludge will strengthen
environmental health protections.
Lozano, N, C.P. Rice, et al. (2012) "Fate of Triclosan and Methyltriclosan in soil from biosolids
application." Environ Pollut 160(1): 103-8.
This study investigates the persistence of Triclosan (TCS), and its degradation product,
Methyltriclosan (MeTCS), after land application of biosolids to an experimental agricultural
plot under both till and no till. Surface soil samples (n = 40) were collected several times
over a three years period and sieved to remove biosolids. Concentration of TCS in the soil
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gradually increased with maximum levels of 63.7 ą 14.1 ng g(-l) dry wt., far below the
predicted maximum concentration of 307.5 ng g(-l) dry wt. TCS disappearance
corresponded with MeTCS appearance, suggesting in situ formation. Our results suggest that
soil incorporation and degradation processes are taking place simultaneously and that TCS
background levels are achieved within two years. TCS half-life (t(0.5)) was determined as
104 d and MeTCS t(0.5), which was more persistent than TCS, was estimated at 443 d.
Macherius, A., D.R. Lapen, et al. (2014) "Triclocarban, triclosan and its transformation product
methyl triclosan in native earthworm species four years after a commercial-scale biosolids
application." Sci Total Environ 472: 235-8.
Triclocarban (TCC), triclosan (TCS) and methyl triclosan (Me-TCS) were detected in soil
and the native population of earthworms of an agricultural field in Ottawa, Canada, about
four years after a commercial-scale application of biosolids. In soil that received biosolids,
TCC and TCS were detected at median concentrations of 13.0 and 1.5 ng/g soil (d.w.),
respectively, while Me-TCS, the transformation product of triclosan, was detected at a six-
fold higher median concentration than its precursor. In earthworms collected at the biosolids-
amended field-plot about four years post application, Me-TCS was also detected at higher
concentrations (26 to 114 ng/g tissue d.w.) than TCS (16-51 ng/g) and TCC (4-53 ng/g).
These data provide evidence that not only parent compounds but also their transformation
products need to be considered in faunal bioaccumulation studies. Moreover, the preliminary
results for pooled earthworm samples from different ecological groups suggest that the
degree of bioaccumulation of biosolids-associated contaminants may depend on the habitat
and feeding behavior of the organisms.
Magdouli, S., R. Daghrir, et al. (2013) "Di 2-ethylhexylphtalate in the aquatic and terrestrial
environment: a critical review." J Environ Manage 127: 36-49.
Phthalates are being increasingly used as softeners-plasticizers to improve the plasticity and
the flexibility of materials. Amongst the different plasticizers used, more attention is paid to
di (2-ethylhexylphtalate) (DEHP), one of the most representative compounds as it exhibits
predominant effects on environment and human health. Meanwhile, several questions related
to its sources; toxicity, distribution and fate still remain unanswered. Most of the evidence
until date suggests that DEHP is an omnipresent compound found in different ecological
compartments and its higher hydrophobicity and low volatility have resulted in significant
adsorption to solids matrix. In fact, there are important issues to be addressed with regard to
the toxicity of this compound in both animals and humans, its behavior in different
ecological systems, and the transformation products generated during different biological or
advanced chemical treatments. This article presents detailed review of existing treatment
schemes, research gaps and future trends related to DEHP.
McDaniel, J., M. Stromberger, et al. (2013) "Survival of Aporrectodea caliginosa and its effects
on nutrient availability in biosolids amended soil." Appl Soil Ecol 71: 1-6.
Few earthworms are present in production agricultural fields in the semi-arid plains of
Colorado, where earthworm populations may be constrained by limited water and/or organic
matter resources. We conducted a 12-week laboratory incubation study to determine the
potential of a non-native endogeic earthworm (Aporrectodea caliginosa) to survive in a low-
organic matter Colorado soil (1.4% organic C content), supplemented with or without
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biosolids, and to determine the effects of A. caliginosa on soil microbial biomass and soil
nutrient availability. A factorial design with three main effects of A. caliginosa, biosolids
addition, and time was used. Data was collected through destructively sampling at one, two,
four, eight, and twelve weeks. During the 12-week study, 97.5% of the worms in the soil
survived, and the survival of the earthworms was not significantly affected by the addition of
biosolids. The addition of biosolids, however, did significantly reduce the gain in mass of the
earthworms (8% mass gain compared to 18% in soil without biosolids). The presence of A.
caliginosa significantly increased soil NH4-N, and N03-N concentrations by 31% and 4%,
respectively, which was less than the six fold increases in both soil NH4-N, and N03-N
concentrations supplied from biosolids. Microbial biomass carbon was not affected by A.
caliginosa, but microbial biomass N was affected by an earthworm A biosolids interaction at
week 1 and 12. We concluded that A. caliginosa can survive in a low-organic matter
Colorado soil under optimal moisture content and that once established, A. caliginosa can
provide modest increases in inorganic N availability to crops Colorado agroecosystems.
McFarland, M., K. Kumarsamy, et al. (2013) "Impact of Biosolids Recycling on Groundwater
Resources." Water Env Res 85(11): 2141-46.
Using the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (U.S. EPA) Multimedia, Multi-
pathway, Multi-receptor Exposure and Risk Assessment (3MRA) technology, a computer-
based biosolids groundwater risk characterization screening tool (RCST) was developed. The
objective of this study was to apply the RCST to characterize the potential human health
risks associated with exposure to biosolid pollutants. RCST application to two Virginia
biosolids land application sites predicted that pollutant concentrations as large as ten times
the current regulatory limit could be safely applied to land with no apparent human health
effects associated with groundwater consumption. Only under unrealistically high biosolids
application rates and pollutant concentrations were the public health risks associated with
groundwater impairment characterized as significant (hazard quotient greater than or equal to
1.0). For example, when the biosolids land application rate was increased to 900 Mg/ha and
the pollutant concentrations were increased to ten times the legal limit, the hazard quotient
value ranged from 1.27 (zinc) to 248.19 (selenium).
McFarland, M.J., K. Kumarasamy, et al. (2013) "Protecting groundwater resources at biosolids
recycling sites." J Environ Qual 42(3): 660-5.
In developing the national biosolids recycling rule (Title 40 of the Code of Federal
Regulation Part 503 or Part 503), the USEPA conducted deterministic risk assessments
whose results indicated that the probability of groundwater impairment associated with
biosolids recycling was insignificant. Unfortunately, the computational capabilities available
for performing risk assessments of pollutant fate and transport at that time were limited.
Using recent advances in USEPA risk assessment methodology, the present study evaluates
whether the current national biosolids pollutant limits remain protective of groundwater
quality. To take advantage of new risk assessment approaches, a computer-based
groundwater risk characterization screening tool (RCST) was developed using USEPA's
Multimedia, Multi-pathway, Multi-receptor Exposure and Risk Assessment program. The
RCST, which generates a noncarcinogenic human health risk estimate (i.e., hazard quotient
[HQ] value), has the ability to conduct screening-level risk characterizations. The regulated
heavy metals modeled in this study were As, Cd, Ni, Se, and Zn. Results from RCST
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application to biosolids recycling sites located in Yakima County, Washington, indicated that
biosolids could be recycled at rates as high as 90 Mg ha, with no negative human health
effects associated with groundwater consumption. Only under unrealistically high biosolids
land application rates were public health risks characterized as significant (HQ > 1.0). For
example, by increasing the biosolids application rate and pollutant concentrations to 900 Mg
ha and 10 times the regulatory limit, respectively, the HQ values varied from 1.4 (Zn) to
324.0 (Se). Since promulgation of Part 503, no verifiable cases of groundwater
contamination by regulated biosolids pollutants have been reported.
McFarland, M.J., K. Kumarsamy, et al. (2012) "Groundwater quality protection at biosolids land
application sites." Water Res 46(18): 5963-9.
Using the United States (US) Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Multimedia, Multi-
pathway, Multi-receptor Exposure and Risk Assessment (3MRA) technology, a computer-
based biosolids groundwater risk characterization screening tool (RCST) was developed. The
RCST, which generates a non-carcinogenic human health risk estimate (i.e., hazard quotient
or HQ value), has the ability to conduct screening-level risk-based characterization of
potential human risks associated with pollutants released from biosolids land application
sites. The HQ is a human health indicator that is equal to the ratio of the pollutant dose (mass
of pollutant per unit body weight per time) to the specific pollutant reference dose (R(f)d)
which, in turn, is a human health benchmark defined by the EPA as a scientific estimate of
the daily exposure level. A HQ value equal to or greater than one (1) suggests that the
resulting conditions pose an unacceptable risk to human health. The focus of the current
study was to evaluate whether the present regulatory limits established for biosolids
pollutants (e.g., heavy metals) were sufficiently protective of human health associated with
potential groundwater consumption using a new EPA risk assessment tool. Application of the
RCST to two biosolids land application sites located near Columbus, Georgia predicted that,
when the depth to groundwater was maintained at a distance of at least 2 m, regulated
pollutant concentrations as large as ten (10) times the current regulatory limit (i.e., Title 40 of
the US Code of Federal Regulations Part 503 - Ceiling Concentration Limit) could be safely
land applied at rates as high as ninety (90) Megagrams per hectare (Mg ha(-l)) with no
apparent non-carcinogenic human health effects associated with groundwater consumption.
At these pollutant concentrations, the HQ ranged from 1.79 x 10(-9) for cadmium to 3.03 x
10(-3) for selenium. Only under unrealistically high biosolids application rates were the
public health risks associated with groundwater impairment characterized as significant (HQ
>/= 1.0). For example, when the biosolids application rate was increased to 450 Megagrams
per hectare (Mg ha(-l)) and the pollutant concentrations were increased to ten times the 40
CFR Part 503 Ceiling Concentration Limit, a HQ value of 2.23 was estimated (selenium).
Similarly, when the biosolids application rate was increased to 900 Mg ha(-l) and the
pollutant concentrations were increased to ten times the regulatory limit, the HQ ranged
varied from 1.4 (for zinc) to 324.0 (for selenium).
McNamara, P.J., C.A. Wilson, et al. (2012) "The effect of thermal hydrolysis pretreatment on the
anaerobic degradation of nonylphenol and short-chain nonylphenol ethoxylates in digested
biosolids." Water Res 46(9): 2937-46.
The presence of micropollutants can be a concern for land application of biosolids. Of
particular interest are nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP(2)EO), nonylphenol monoethoxylate
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(NP(l)EO), and nonylphenol (NP), collectively referred to as NPE, which accumulate in
anaerobically digested biosolids and are subject to regulation based on the environmental
risks associated with them. Because biosolids are a valuable nutrient resource, it is essential
that we understand how various treatment processes impact the fate of NPE in biosolids.
Thermal hydrolysis (TH) coupled with mesophilic anaerobic digestion (MAD) is an
advanced digestion process that destroys pathogens in biosolids and increases methane yields
and volatile solids destruction. We investigated the impact of thermal hydrolysis pretreatment
on the subsequent biodegradation of NPE in digested biosolids. Biosolids were treated with
TH, anaerobic digestion, and aerobic digestion in laboratory-scale reactors, and NPE were
analyzed in the influent and effluent of the digesters. NP(2)EO and NP(l)EO have been
observed to degrade to the more estrogenic NP under anaerobic conditions; therefore,
changes in the ratio of NP:NPE were of interest. The increase in NP:NPE following MAD
was 56%; the average increase of this ratio in four sets of TH-MAD samples, however, was
only 24.6 ą 3.1%. In addition, TH experiments performed in pure water verified that, during
TH, the high temperature and pressure alone did not directly destroy NPE; TH experiments
with NP added to sludge also showed that NP was not destroyed by the high temperature and
pressure of TH when in a more complex sludge matrix. The post-aerobic digestion phases
removed NPE, regardless of whether TH pretreatment occurred. This research indicates that
changes in biosolids processing can have impacts beyond just gas production and solids
destruction.
Misiti, T.M., M.G. Hajaya, et al. (2011) "Nitrate reduction in a simulated free-water surface
wetland system." Water Res 45(17): 5587-98.
The feasibility of using a constructed wetland for treatment of nitrate-contaminated
groundwater resulting from the land application of biosolids was investigated for a site in the
southeastern United States. Biosolids degradation led to the release of ammonia, which upon
oxidation resulted in nitrate concentrations in the upper aquifer in the range of 65-400 mg
N/L. A laboratory-scale system was constructed in support of a pilot-scale project to
investigate the effect of temperature, hydraulic retention time (HRT) and nitrate and carbon
loading on denitrification using soil and groundwater from the biosolids application site. The
maximum specific reduction rates (MSRR), measured in batch assays conducted with an
open to the atmosphere reactor at four initial nitrate concentrations from 70 to 400 mg N/L,
showed that the nitrate reduction rate was not affected by the initial nitrate concentration.
The MSRR values at 22 degrees C for nitrate and nitrite were 1.2 +/- 0.2 and 0.7 +/- 0.1 mg
N/mg VSS(COD)-day, respectively. MSRR values were also measured at 5, 10, 15 and 22
degrees C and the temperature coefficient for nitrate reduction was estimated at 1.13. Based
on the performance of laboratory-scale continuous-flow reactors and model simulations,
wetland performance can be maintained at high nitrogen removal efficiency (>90%) with an
HRT of 3 days or higher and at temperature values as low as 5 degrees C, as long as there is
sufficient biodegradable carbon available to achieve complete denitrification. The results of
this study show that based on the climate in the southeastern United States, a constructed
wetland can be used for the treatment of nitrate-contaminated groundwater to low, acceptable
nitrate levels.
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Navab Daneshmand, T., R. Beton, et al. (2012) "Inactivation mechanisms of bacterial pathogen
indicators during electro-dewatering of activated sludge biosolids." Wat Res 46(13): 3999-4008.
Electro-dewatering is an energy-efficient technology in which an electric field can increase
the dryness of biosolids from secondary wastewater treatment from 15% w/w to 30-50%
w/w. Here, we address bacterial pathogen indicators inactivation (total coliforms, Escherichia
coli and aerobic endospores) during electro-dewatering, investigating the roles of
electrochemically generated oxidants, extreme pH, and high temperature (from Joule
heating). Our results demonstrate that temperature is the primary factor affecting total
coliforms and E. coli inactivation. First, several electro-dewatering cycles were used to
increase sludge temperature to about 100 degree C after 6 min, during which time the
average pH decreased from 7 to 3.6 after 10 min. Total coliforms and E. coli MPNs reached
their detection limits after 6 min (with 4-5 logs of inactivation for total coliforms and 3-4
logs for E. coli). In contrast, aerobic endospores were not inactivated under these conditions;
rather, their germination appeared to be stimulated by 6-8 min of electro-dewatering. Second,
the dewatering cake was separated into four horizontal layers. After 8 min of electro-
dewatering, the pH in the top layers decreased to 3, whereas the pH in the bottom layers
increased to 8. Inactivation of total coliforms and E. coli in the sludge cake was similar in all
layers, increasing with time, suggesting that oxidants and extreme pH are secondary
inactivation factors. Finally, electrodes were cooled to maintain a temperature less than 34
degree C. Although pH decreased significantly after 12 min of electro-dewatering, there was
no significant bacterial pathogen indicator inactivation at low temperature.
Niemi, L.M., K.A. Stencel, et al. (2013) "Quantitative determination of antidepressants and their
select degradates by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in
biosolids destined for land application." Anal Chem 85(15): 7279-86.
Antidepressants are one of the most widely dispensed classes of pharmaceuticals in the
United States. As wastewater treatment plants are a primary source of pharmaceuticals in the
environment, the use of biosolids as fertilizer is a potential route for antidepressants to enter
the terrestrial environment. A microsolvent extraction method, utilizing green chemistry, was
developed for extraction of the target antidepressants and degradation products from
biosolids, or more specifically lagoon biosolids. Liquid chromatography/tandem mass
spectrometry was used for quantitative determination of antidepressants in the lagoon
biosolid extracts. Recoveries from matrix spiking experiments for the individual
antidepressants had an average of 96%. The limits of detection for antidepressant
pharmaceuticals and degradates ranged from 0.36 to 8.0 ng/kg wet weight. The method was
applied to biosolids destined for land application. A suite of antidepressants was consistently
detected in the lagoon biosolid samples, and thus antidepressants are being introduced to
terrestrial environments through the land application of these biosolids. Sertraline and
norsertraline were the most abundant antidepressant and degradation product detected in the
biosolid samples. Detected, individual antidepressant concentrations ranged from 8.5 ng/kg
(norfluoxetine) to 420 ng/kg wet weight (norsertraline).
Pannu, M.W., G.A. O'Connor, et al. (2012) "Toxicity and bioaccumulation of biosolids-borne
triclosan in terrestrial organisms." Environ Toxicol Chem 31(3): 646-53.
Triclosan (TCS) is a common constituent of personal care products and is frequently present
in biosolids. Application of biosolids to land transfers significant amounts of TCS to soils.
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Because TCS is an antimicrobial and is toxic to some aquatic organisms, concern has arisen
that TCS may adversely affect soil organisms. The objective of the present study was to
investigate the toxicity and bioaccumulation potential of biosolids-borne TCS in terrestrial
micro- and macro-organisms (earthworms). Studies were conducted in two biosolids-
amended soils (sand, silty clay loam), following U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(U.S. EPA) guidelines. At the concentrations tested herein, microbial toxicity tests suggested
no adverse effects of TCS on microbial respiration, ammonification, and nitrification. The no
observed effect concentration for TCS for microbial processes was 10 mg/kg soil. Earthworm
subchronic toxicity tests showed that biosolids-borne TCS was not toxic to earthworms at the
concentrations tested herein. The estimated TCS earthworm lethal concentration (LC50) was
greater than 1 mg/kg soil. Greater TCS accumulation was observed in earthworms incubated
in a silty clay loam soil (bioaccumulation factor [BAF] = 12 +/- 3.1) than in a sand (BAF =
6.5 +/- 0.84). Field-collected earthworms had a significantly smaller BAF value (4.3 +/- 0.7)
than our laboratory values (6.5-12.0). The BAF values varied significantly with exposure
conditions (e.g., soil characteristics, laboratory vs field conditions); however, a value of 10
represents a reasonable first approximation for risk assessment purposes.
Pannu, M.W., G.S. Toor, et al. (2012) "Toxicity and bioaccumulation of biosolids-borne
triclosan in food crops." Environ Toxicol Chem 31(9): 2130-7.
Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial compound commonly found in biosolids. Thus, plants
grown in biosolids-amended soil may be exposed to TCS. We evaluated the plant toxicity
and accumulation potential of biosolids-borne TCS in two vegetables (lettuce and radish) and
a pasture grass (bahia grass). Vegetables were grown in growth chambers and grass in a
greenhouse. Biosolids-amended soil had TCS concentrations of 0.99, 5.9, and 11 mg/kg
amended soil. These TCS concentrations represent typical biosolids containing
concentrations of 16 mg TCS/kg applied at agronomic rates for 6 to 70 consecutive years,
assuming no TCS loss. Plant yields (dry wt) were not reduced at any TCS concentration and
the no observed effect concentration was 11 mg TCS/kg soil for all plants. Significantly
greater TCS accumulated in the below-ground biomass than in the above-ground biomass.
The average bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) were 0.43 ą 0.38 in radish root, 0.04 ą 0.04 in
lettuce leaves, 0.004 ą 0.002 in radish leaves, and <0.001 in bahia grass. Soybean (grain) and
corn (leaves) grown in our previous field study where soil TCS concentrations were lower
(0.04-0.1 mg/kg) had BAF values of 0.06 to 0.16. Based on the data, we suggest a
conservative first approximate BAF value of 0.4 for risk assessment in plants.
Peak, D., G. Kar, et al. (2012) "Kinetics and Mechanisms of Phosphorus Release in a Soil
Amended With Biosolids or Inorganic Fertilizer." Soil Sci 177(3): 183-187.
Desorption and dissolution often control the mobility and availability of phosphorus (P) in
the natural environment. In this study, P desorption was compared from a soil receiving
either long-term inorganic or biosolid fertilization as a part of a long-term field scale research
project. A continuous-flow desorption method was used to measure cumulative P desorption
over time, and P K-edge X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy was used to
determine the chemical species removed from the soil samples by desorption. The
cumulative amount of P released in the inorganic fertilizer-amended soil was higher (895 vs.
573 mg kg(-l)), and the rate of P release was much faster (k = 0.012 vs. 0.005 m(-l)) than
that of the biosolids-amended soil. The kinetics data were best described by the parabolic
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diffusion equation (r(2) = 0.98-0.99), suggesting that P desorption was mass-transfer limited
or that intraparticle diffusion could be the rate-limiting step. The X-ray absorption near edge
structure results indicated that dissolution of calcium and iron phosphate minerals occurs in
addition to desorption of P from the exchangeable sites. These observations suggest that the
redistribution between aqueous, adsorbed, and precipitated phosphate (P043-) species occurs
rapidly when solution P concentrations are depleted.
Robinson, K.G., C.H. Robinson, et al. (2012) "Public attitudes and risk perception toward land
application of biosolids within the south-eastern United States." J Environ Manage 98: 29-36.
A descriptive-correlational study of biosolids recycling was conducted in the south-eastern
United States to assess current knowledge, attitudes and risk perceptions of participants in
two communities that land apply biosolids as part of their waste management programs. One
community, Amelia County VA, has been outspoken against biosolids recycling in the past,
whereas the second community, Knoxville, TN region, has voiced few concerns about
biosolids recycling. Additionally, gender differences within the entire study population were
assessed. A 45-question telephone survey, utilizing a 4-point Likert scale, was developed and
administered to 311 randomly selected adults in the two regions. Commonalities identified
during the study revealed key risk perceptions by the public regarding biosolids regulations,
treatment, and application. Given current perceptions and knowledge, respondents felt that
the benefits derived from biosolids recycling do not offset the perceived health and safety
risks. However, as distance between application and personal property increased, a decrease
in opposition of biosolids reuse became evident for all respondents. Survey participants were
dissatisfied with the level of stakeholder involvement in research and decision-making
processes concerning biosolids. The outspoken Amelia County residents perceived greater
health risks due to inadequate treatment of biosolids and odorous emissions during the
application process than the less engaged Knox Metro respondents. Significant gender
differences were observed with sampled females perceiving greater risks to health and safety
from biosolids recycling than males. There was also indication that decisions and risks were
not sufficiently communicated to the public, leading to respondents being inadequately
informed about biosolids land application in both communities. Community-specific
outreach programs must address these public risk perceptions and the differences in
perception caused by gender and issue awareness to assist solid waste managers in
developing and implementing successful biosolids land application systems that are
acceptable to the public.
Sabourin, L., P. Duenk, et al. (2012) "Uptake of pharmaceuticals, hormones and parabens into
vegetables grown in soil fertilized with municipal biosolids." Sci Total Environ 431: 233-6.
Several recent greenhouse studies have established the potential for uptake of human
pharmaceuticals from soil fertilized with municipal biosolids into a variety of crops. In the
present study, a field experiment was undertaken to evaluate the uptake of organic
micropollutants from soil fertilized with municipal biosolids at a regulated application rate
into tomatoes, carrots, potatoes and sweet corn produced under normal farming conditions.
The vegetables were grown according to farming practices mandated by the province of
Ontario Canada, the key feature being a one-year offset between biosolid application and the
harvest of crops for human consumption. Biosolids at application, and crop samples
following harvest were analyzed for 118 pharmaceuticals and transformation products, 17
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hormones or hormone transformation products, and 6 parabens. Analyte concentrations in the
biosolids were consistent with those detected in other surveys. Eight of the 141 analytes were
detected in one or two crop replicates at concentrations ranging from 0.33 to 6.25 ng/g dry
weight, but no analytes were consistently detected above the detection limit in all triplicate
treated plots. Overall, this study suggests that the potential for micropollutant uptake into
crops under normal farming conditions is low.
Saez, J.A., T.C. Harmon, et al. (2012) "Seasonal ammonia losses from spray-irrigation with
secondary-treated recycled water." Water Sci Technol 65(4): 676-82.
This work examines ammonia volatilization associated with agricultural irrigation employing
recycled water. Effluent from a secondary wastewater treatment plant was applied using a
center pivot irrigation system on a 12 ha agricultural site in Palmdale, California. Irrigation
water was captured in shallow pans and ammonia concentrations were quantified in four
seasonal events. The average ammonia loss ranged from 15 to 35% (averaging 22%) over 2-h
periods. Temporal mass losses were well-fit using a first-order model. The resulting rate
constants correlated primarily with temperature and secondarily with wind speed. The
observed application rates and timing were projected over an entire irrigation season using
meteorological time series data from the site, which yielded volatilization estimates of 0.03
to 0.09 metric tons NH(3)-N/ha per year. These rates are consistent with average rates (0.04
to 0.08 MT NH(3)-N/ha per year) based on 10 to 20 mg NH(3)-N/L effluent concentrations
and a 22% average removal. As less than 10% of the treated effluent in California is
currently reused, there is potential for this source to increase, but the increase may be offset
by a corresponding reduction in synthetic fertilizers usage. This point is a factor for
consideration with respect to nutrient management using recycled water.
Shoults-Wilson, W.A., B.C. Reinsch, et al. (2011) "Effect of silver nanoparticle surface coating
on bioaccumulation and reproductive toxicity in earthworms (Eisenia fetida)." Nanotoxicology
5(3): 432-44.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of surface coating on the toxicity of
silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) soil. Earthworms (Eisenia fetida) were exposed to AgNO(3)
and Ag NPs with similar size ranges coated with either polyvinylpyrrolidone (hydrophilic) or
oleic acid (amphiphilic) during a standard sub-chronic reproduction toxicity test. No
significant effects on growth or mortality were observed within any of the test treatments.
Significant decreases in reproduction were seen in earthworms exposed to AgN03, (94.21
mg kg(-l)) as well as earthworms exposed to Ag NPs with either coating (727.6 mg kg(-l)
for oleic acid and 773.3 mg kg(-l) for polyvinylpyrrolidone). The concentrations of Ag NPs
at which effects were observed are much higher than predicted concentrations of Ag NPs in
sewage sludge amended soils; however, the concentrations at which adverse effects of
AgNO(3) were observed are similar to the highest concentrations of Ag presently observed in
sewage sludge in the United States. Earthworms accumulated Ag in a concentration-
dependent manner from all Ag sources, with more Ag accumulating in tissues from AgNO(3)
compared to earthworms exposed to equivalent concentrations of Ag NPs. No differences
were observed in Ag accumulation or toxicity between earthworms exposed to Ag NPs with
polyvinylpyrrolidone or oleic acid coatings.
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Siddiquee, M.N. and S. Rohani. (2011) "Experimental analysis of lipid extraction and biodiesel
production from wastewater sludge." Fuel Proces Tech 92(12): 2241-51.
The most promising renewable alternative fuel, biodiesel, is produced from various lipid
sources. Primary and secondary sludge of municipal wastewater treatment facilities are
potential sources of lipids. In this study, factorial experimental analyses were used to study
the influence of different variables on the lipid extraction and biodiesel production from
dried municipal primary and secondary sludge (Adelaide Pollution Control Plant, London,
ON, Canada). The empirical models were developed for each factorial analysis. The
temperature turned out to be the most significant variable for lipid extraction by using
methanol and hexane as solvents. Extraction using methanol resulted in a maximum of 14.46
(wt/wt) % and 10.04 (wt/wt) % lipid (on the basis of dry sludge), from the primary and
secondary sludge sources respectively. A maximum of 11.16 (wt/wt) % and 3.04 wt/wt%
lipid (on the basis of dry sludge) were extracted from the primary and secondary sludge
sources, respectively, using hexane as a solvent. The FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) yield of
the H sub(2)SO sub(4) catalyzed esterification-transesterification of the hexane and methanol
extracted lipids were 41.25 (wt/wt) % and 38.94(wt/wt) % (on the basis of lipid) for the
primary sludge, and 26.89 (wt/wt) % and 30.28 (wt/wt) % (on the basis of lipid) for the
secondary sludge. The use of natural zeolite as a dehydrating agent was increased the
biodiesel yield by approximately 18 (wt/wt) % (on the basis of lipid). The effect of
temperature and time was also investigated for biodiesel production from the lipid of
wastewater sludge. The yield and quality of the FAME were determined by gas
chromatography.
Sivapatham, P., M.C. Potts, et al. (2012) "Evaluation of wastewater treatment by-products as soil
amendment: Growth of sorghum-sudan grass and trace elements concentrations." J Environ Sci
Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 47(11): 1678-86.
Wastewater treatment by-products (WTBP), such as sewage sludge (SS) may be used to
enhance soil chemical, physical, and biological properties. These enhanced soil properties, in
turn, could from its source of production to its site of application. These concerns may be
mitigated by incineration of the SS to produce ash (SSA) and dissolved in water and stored in
ponds as contribute to an increase in plant growth, production, mineral nutrition. Some SS is
difficult to handle due to bad odor in its raw state and has large mass, hence expensive for
transportation weathered SSA (WSSA). A greenhouse study was conducted using Candler
fine sand CFS; (CFS; pH = 6.8) and Ogeechee loamy sand OLS; (pH = 5.2) with application
of either 0, 24.7, 49.4, 98.8, or 148.2 Mg ha(-l) as either SS, SSA, or WSSA to evaluate the
biomass production and elemental composition responses of sorghum-sudan grass (Sorghum
vulgaris var. Sudanese hitche). Shoot and root biomass were 2 to 3 fold greater in the soil
amended with SS, than either SSA or WSSA. Concentrations of nutrient and trace elements
in the shoots and roots increased with increasing rates of amendments. Application of these
by-products up to 98.8 Mg ha(-l) rate did not adversely affect growth or accumulation of
trace elements in sorghum-sudan grass. Long-term field studies are recommended to
investigate the potential leaching of various elements from the amended soils in addition to
evaluation of plant growth and production responses to determine the acceptable rates of
these by-products as amendments to agricultural soils.
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Snyder, E.H. and G.A. O'Connor. (2013) "Risk assessment of land-applied biosolids-borne
triclocarban (TCC)." Sci Total Environ 442: 437-44.
Triclocarban (TCC) is monitored under the USEPA High Production Volume (HPV)
chemical program and is predominantly used as the active ingredient in select antibacterial
bar soaps and other personal care products. The compound commonly occurs at parts-per-
million concentrations in processed wastewater treatment residuals (i.e. biosolids), which are
frequently land-applied as fertilizers and soil conditioners. Human and ecological risk
assessment parameters measured by the authors in previous studies were integrated with
existing data to perform a two-tiered human health and ecological risk assessment of land-
applied biosolids-borne TCC. The 14 exposure pathways identified in the Part 503 Biosolids
Rule were expanded, and conservative screening-level hazard quotients (HQ values) were
first calculated to estimate risk to humans and a variety of terrestrial and aquatic organisms
(Tier 1). The majority of biosolids-borne TCC exposure pathways resulted in no screening-
level HQ values indicative of significant risks to exposed organisms (including humans),
even under worst-case land application scenarios. The two pathways for which the
conservative screening-level HQ values exceeded one (i.e. Pathway 10: biosolids-^soil-^soil
organism-^predator, and Pathway 16: biosolids^ soil ^surface water-^aquatic organism)
were then reexamined using modified parameters and scenarios (Tier 2). Adjusted HQ values
remained greater than one for Exposure Pathway 10, with the exception of the final adjusted
HQ values under a one-time 5 Mg ha(-l) (agronomic) biosolids loading rate scenario for the
American woodcock (Scolopax minor) and short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda). Results
were used to prioritize recommendations for future biosolids-borne TCC research, which
include additional measurements of toxicological effects and TCC concentrations in
environmental matrices at the field level.
Velicogna, J., E. Ritchie, et al. (2012) "Ecotoxicity of siloxane D5 in soil." Chemosphere 87(1):
77-83.
Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) is a cyclic volatile methyl siloxane (cVMS) commonly
found in commercially available products. D5 is expected to enter the terrestrial environment
through the deposit of biosolids from sewage treatment plants onto agricultural fields for
nutrient enrichment. Little to no information currently exists as to the risks of D5 to the
terrestrial environment. In order to evaluate the potential risk to terrestrial organisms, the
toxicity of a D5 contaminated biosolid in an agricultural soil was assessed with a battery of
standardized soil toxicity tests. D5 was spiked into a surrogate biosolid and then mixed with
a sandy loam soil to create test concentrations ranging from 0 to 4074 mg kg(-l). Plant
(Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Trifolium pratense (red clover)) and soil invertebrates
(Eisenia andrei (earthworm) and Folsomia Candida (springtail)) toxicity tests were completed
to assess for lethal and sub-lethal effects. Plant testing evaluated the effects on seedling
emergence, shoot and root length, and shoot and root dry mass. Invertebrate test endpoints
included adult lethality, juvenile production, and individual juvenile dry mass (earthworms
only). Soil samples were collected over time to confirm test concentrations and evaluate the
loss of chemical over the duration of a test. The toxicity of the D5 was species and endpoint
dependent, such that no significant adverse effects were observed for T. pratense or E. andrei
test endpoints, however, toxicity was observed for H. vulgare plant growth and F. Candida
survival and reproduction. Chemical losses of up to 50% were observed throughout the tests,
most significantly at high concentrations.
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Venkatesan, A.K. and R.U. Halden. (2013) "National inventory of alkylphenol ethoxylate
compounds in U.S. sewage sludges and chemical fate in outdoor soil mesocosms." Environ
Pollut 174: 189-93.
We determined the first nationwide inventories of alkylphenol surfactants in U.S. sewage
sludges (SS) using samples from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's 2001 national
SS survey. Additionally, analysis of archived 3-year outdoor mesocosm samples served to
determine chemical fates in SS-amended soil. Nonylphenol (NP) was the most abundant
analyte (534 +/- 192 mg/kg) in SS composites, followed by its mono- and di-ethoxylates
(62.1 +/- 28 and 59.5 +/- 52 mg/kg, respectively). The mean annual load of NP and its
ethoxylates in SS was estimated at 2408-7149 metric tonnes, of which 1204-4289 is applied
on U.S. land. NP compounds showed observable loss from SS/soil mixtures (1:2), with mean
half-lives ranging from 301 to 495 days. Surfactant levels in U.S. SS ten-times in excess of
European regulations, substantial releases to U.S. soils, and prolonged half-lives found under
field conditions, all argue for the U.S. to follow Europe's move from 20 years ago to regulate
these chemicals.
Venkatesan, A.K. and R.U. Halden. (2013) "National inventory of perfluoroalkyl substances in
archived U.S. biosolids from the 2001 EPA National Sewage Sludge Survey." J Hazard Mater
252-253: 413-8.
Using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, we determined the first nationwide
inventories of 13 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in U.S. biosolids via analysis of samples
collected by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in the 2001 National Sewage Sludge
Survey. Perfluorooctane sulfonate [PFOS; 403 +/- 127 ng/g dry weight (dw)] was the most
abundant PFAS detected in biosolids composites representing 32 U.S. states and the District
of Columbia, followed by perfluorooctanoate [PFOA; 34 +/- 22 ng/g dw] and
perfluorodecanoate [PFDA; 26 +/- 20 ng/g dw]. Mean concentrations in U.S. biosolids of the
remaining ten PFASs ranged between 2 and 21 ng/g dw. Interestingly, concentrations of
PFOS determined here in biosolids collected prior to the phase-out period (2002) were
similar to levels reported in the literature for recent years. The mean load of summation
operatorPFASs in U.S. biosolids was estimated at 2749-3450 kg/year, of which about 1375-
2070 kg is applied on agricultural land and 467-587 kg goes to landfills as an alternative
disposal route. This study informs the risk assessment of PFASs by furnishing national
inventories of PFASs occurrence and environmental release via biosolids application on land.
Wang, D.G., H. Steer, et al. (2013) "Concentrations of cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes in biosolid
amended soil, influent, effluent, receiving water, and sediment of wastewater treatment plants in
Canada." Chemosphere 93(5): 766-73.
A comprehensive surveillance program was conducted to determine the occurrence of three
cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes (cVMS) octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4),
decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5), and dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane (D6) in
environmental compartments impacted by wastewater effluent discharges. Eleven wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs), representative of those found in Southern Ontario and Southern
Quebec, Canada, were investigated to determine levels of cVMS in their influents and
effluents. In addition, receiving water and sediment impacted by WWTP effluents, and
biosolid-amended soil from agricultural fields were also analyzed for a preliminary
evaluation of the environmental exposure of cVMS in media impacted by wastewater
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effluent and solids. A newly-developed large volume injection (septumless head adapter and
cooled injection system) gas chromatography - mass spectrometry method was used to avoid
contamination originating from instrumental analysis. Concentrations of D4, D5, and D6 in
influents to the 11 WWTPs were in the range 0.282-6.69mugL(-l), 7.75-135mugL(-l), and
1.53-26.9mugL(-l), respectively. In general, wastewater treatment showed cVMS removal
rates of greater than 92%, regardless of treatment type. The D4, D5, and D6 concentration
ranges in effluent were <0.009-0.045mugL(-l), <0.027-1.56mugL(-l), and <0.022-
0.093mugL(-l), respectively. The concentrations in receiving water influenced by effluent,
were lower compared to those in effluent in most cases, with the ranges <0.009-0.023mugL(-
1), <0.027-1.48mugL(-l), and <0.022-0.15lmugL(-l) for D4, D5, and D6, respectively.
Sediment concentrations ranged from <0.003-0.049mugg(-l)dw, 0.011-5.84mugg(-l)dw, and
0.004-0.37lmugg(-l)dw for D4, D5, and D6, respectively. The concentrations in biosolid-
amended soil, having values of <0.008-0.017mugg(-l)dw, <0.007-0.221mugg(-l)dw, and
<0.009-0.71 lmugg(-l)dw for D4, D5, and D6, respectively, were lower than those in
sediment impacted by wastewater effluent in most cases. In comparison with the no-
observed-effected concentrations (NOEC) and IC50 (concentration that causes 50%
inhibition of the response) values, the potential risks to aquatic, sediment-dwelling, and
terrestrial organisms from these reported concentrations are low.
Wang, D.G., W. Norwood, et al. (2013) "Review of recent advances in research on the toxicity,
detection, occurrence and fate of cyclic volatile methyl siloxanes in the environment."
Chemosphere 93(5): 711-25.
The fate and behavior of cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes (cVMS)
octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4), decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5), and
dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane (D6) in the environment were reviewed. We evaluated their
usage data and patterns, physico-chemical properties, toxicology, partitioning and
degradation, methods of detection, and concentrations. The use of cVMS as an intermediate
in the formation of silicone polymers, personal care and household products has resulted in
their widespread environmental exposure; they have been detected in biogas, air, water, soil,
biosolid sediment, and biota samples. Modeled and experimental results suggest that cVMS
may be subject to long-range atmospheric transport, but have low potential to contaminate
the Arctic. For D4 and D5, there was no evidence of trophic biomagnification in aquatic food
webs, while some aquatic organisms demonstrated a high degree of bioconcentration and
bioaccumulation. High concentrations of cVMS observed in indoor air and biosolids resulted
from point sources. Concentrations of cVMS in water, sediment, and soil were all below their
no-observed-effect-concentrations.
Waria, M., G.A. O'Connor, et al. (2011) "Biodegradation of triclosan in biosolids-amended
soils." Environ Toxicol Chem 30(11): 2488-96.
Land application of biosolids can constitute an important source of triclosan (TCS) input to
soils, with uncertain effects. Several studies have investigated the degradation potential of
TCS in biosolids-amended soils, but the results vary widely. We conducted a laboratory
degradation study by mixing biosolids spiked with [l4C]-TCS (final
concentration = 40 mg/kg) with Immokalee fine sand and Ashkum silty clay loam soils at an
agronomic application rate (22 Mg/ha). Biosolids-amended soils were aerobically incubated
in biotic and inhibited conditions for 18 weeks. Subsamples removed at 0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15,
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and 18 weeks were sequentially extracted with an operationally defined extraction scheme to
determine labile and nonlabile TCS fractions. Over the 18-week incubation, the proportion of
[l4C] in the nonlabile fraction increased and the labile fraction decreased, suggesting
decreasing availability to biota. Partitioning of TCS into labile and nonlabile fractions
depended on soil characteristics. Less than 0.5% of [l4C]-TCS was mineralized to carbon
dioxide (l4C02) in both soils and all treatments. A degradation metabolite, methyl triclosan
(Me-TCS), was identified in both soils only in the biotic treatment, and increased in
concentration over time. Even under biotic conditions, biosolids-borne TCS is persistent,
with a primary degradation (TCS to Me-TCS) half-life of 78 d in the silty clay loam and
421 d in the fine sand. A half-life of approximately 100 d would be a conservative first
approximation of TCS half-life in biosolids-amended soils for risk estimation.
Whitley, A.R., C. Levard, et al. (2013) "Behavior of Ag nanoparticles in soil: effects of particle
surface coating, aging and sewage sludge amendment." Environ Pollut 182: 141-9.
This study addressed the relative importance of particle coating, sewage sludge amendment,
and aging on aggregation and dissolution of manufactured Ag nanoparticles (Ag MNPs) in
soil pore water. Ag MNPs with citrate (CIT) or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) coatings were
incubated with soil or municipal sewage sludge which was then amended to soil (1% or 3%
sludge (w/w)). Pore waters were extracted after 1 week and 2 and 6 months and analyzed for
chemical speciation, aggregation state and dissolution. Ag MNP coating had profound effects
on aggregation state and partitioning to pore water in the absence of sewage sludge, but pre-
incubation with sewage sludge negated these effects. This suggests that Ag MNP coating
does not need to be taken into account to understand fate of AgMNPs applied to soil through
biosolids amendment. Aging of soil also had profound effects that depended on Ag MNP
coating and sludge amendment.
Wong, K., T. Harrigan, et al. (2012) "Leaching and ponding of viral contaminants following land
application of biosolids on sandy-loam soil." J Environ Manage 112: 79-86.
Much of the land available for application of biosolids is cropland near urban areas.
Biosolids are often applied on hay or grassland during the growing season or on corn ground
before planting or after harvest in the fall. In this study, mesophilic anaerobic digested
(MAD) biosolids were applied at 56,000 L/ha on a sandy-loam soil over large containment
lysimeters seeded to perennial covers of orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), switchgrass
(Panicum virgatum), or planted annually to maize (Zea mays L.). Portable rainfall simulators
were to maintain the lysimeters under a nearly saturated (90%, volumetric basis) conditions.
Lysimeter leachate and surface ponded water samples were collected and analyzed for
somatic phage, adenoviruses, and anionic (chloride) and microbial (P-22 bacteriophage)
tracers. Neither adenovirus nor somatic phage was recovered from the leachate samples. P-22
bacteriophage was found in the leachate of three lysimeters (removal rates ranged from 1.8 to
3.2 loglO/m). Although the peak of the anionic tracer breakthrough occurred at a similar pore
volume in each lysimeter (around 0.3 pore volume) the peak of P-22 breakthrough varied
between lysimeters (<0.1, 0.3 and 0.7 pore volume). The early time to peak breakthrough of
anionic and microbial tracers indicated preferential flow paths, presumably from soil cracks,
root channels, worm holes or other natural phenomena. The concentration of viral
contaminants collected in ponded surface water ranged from 1 to 10% of the initial
concentration in the applied biosolids. The die off of somatic phage and P-22 in the surface
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water was fit to a first order decay model and somatic phage reached background level at
about day ten. In conclusion, sandy-loam soils can effectively remove/adsorb the indigenous
viruses leached from the land-applied biosolids, but there is a potential of viral pollution
from runoff following significant rainfall events when biosolids remain on the soil surface.
Wu, C., A.L. Spongberg, et al. (2012) "Transfer of wastewater associated pharmaceuticals and
personal care products to crop plants from biosolids treated soil." Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 85:
104-9.
The plant uptake of emerging organic contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and personal
care products (PPCPs) is receiving increased attention. Biosolids from municipal wastewater
treatment have been previously identified as a major source for PPCPs. Thus, plant uptake of
PPCPs from biosolids applied soils needs to be understood. In the present study, the uptake
of carbamazepine, diphenhydramine, and triclocarban by five vegetable crop plants was
examined in a field experiment. At the time of harvest, three compounds were detected in all
plants grown in biosolids-treated soils. Calculated root concentration factor (RCF) and shoot
concentration factor (SCF) are the highest for carbamazepine followed by triclocarban and
diphenhydramine. Positive correlation between RCF and root lipid content was observed for
carbamazepine but not for diphenhydramine and triclocarban. The results demonstrate the
ability of crop plants to accumulate PPCPs from contaminated soils. The plant uptake
processes of PPCPs are likely affected by their physico-chemical properties, and their
interaction with soil. The difference uptake behavior between plant species could not solely
be attributed to the root lipid content.
Yu, Y., L. Wu, et al. (2013) "Seasonal variation of endocrine disrupting compounds,
pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater treatment plants." Sci Total Environ
442: 310-6.
The occurrence of 14 endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), pharmaceuticals and
personal care products (PPCPs) in influents, effluents and sludge from five wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) in southern California was studied in winter and summer. All 14
compounds were detected in influent samples from the five WWTPs except for estrone.
Paracetamol, naproxen and ibuprofen were the dominant compounds, with mean
concentrations of 41.7, 35.7 and 22.3 mug/L, respectively. The treatment removal efficiency
for most compounds was more than 90% and concentrations in the effluents were relatively
low. Seasonal variation of the compounds' concentration in the wastewater was significant:
the total concentration of each compound in the wastewater was higher in winter than in
summer, which is attributed to more human consumption of pharmaceuticals during winter
and faster degradation of the compounds in summer. The highest concentrations of triclosan
and octylphenol were detected in sewage sludge, with mean concentrations of 1505 and 1179
ng/g, respectively. Risk quotients (RQs), expressed as the ratios of environmental
concentrations and the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNEC), were less than unity for
all the compounds except for estrone in the effluents, indicating no immediate ecological risk
is expected. However, RQs were higher than unity for 2 EDCs (estrone and octylphenol) and
carbamazepine in sludge samples, indicating a significant ecotoxicological risk to human
health. Therefore, appropriate treatment of sewage sludge is required before its application.
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Ziemba, C. and J. Peccia. (2011) "Net energy production associated with pathogen inactivation
during mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge." Water Res 45(16):
4758-68.
The potential for anaerobic digester energy production must be balanced with the
sustainability of reusing the resultant biosolids for land application. Mesophilic,
thermophilic, temperature-phased, and high temperature (60 or 70 degrees C) batch pre-
treatment digester configurations have been systematically evaluated for net energy
production and pathogen inactivation potential. Energy input requirements and net energy
production were modeled for each digester scheme. First-order inactivation rate coefficients
for Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and bacteriophage MS-2 were measured at each
digester temperature and full-scale pathogen inactivation performance was estimated for each
indicator organism and each digester configuration. Inactivation rates were found to increase
dramatically at temperatures above 55 degrees C. Modeling full-scale performance using
retention times based on U.S. EPA time and temperature constraints predicts a 1-2 log
inactivation in mesophilic treatment, and a 2-5 log inactivation in 50-55 degrees C
thermophilic and temperature-phased treatments. Incorporating a 60 or 70 degrees C batch
pre-treatment phase resulted in dramatically higher potency, achieving MS-2 inactivation of
14 and 16 logs respectively, and complete inactivation (over 100 log reduction) of E. coli and
E. faecalis. For temperatures less than 70 degrees C, viability staining of thermally-treated E.
coli showed significantly reduced inactivation relative to standard culture enumeration. Due
to shorter residence times in thermophilic reactors, the net energy production for all digesters
was similar (less than 20% difference) with the 60 or 70 degrees C batch treatment
configurations producing the most net energy and the mesophilic treatment producing the
least. Incorporating a 60 or 70 degrees C pre-treatment phase can dramatically increase
pathogen inactivation performance without decreasing net energy capture from anaerobic
digestion. Energy consumption is not a significant barrier against improving the pathogen
quality of biosolids.
Ziemba, C., W. Yang, et al. (2013) "Modeling human off-site aerosol exposures to
polybrominated flame retardants emitted during the land application of sewage sludge." Environ
Int 60: 232-41.
Elevated sewage sludge concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are due to
their broad utilization in textiles and polymers, their resistance to biological degradation, and
also their hydrophobic nature-which drives partitioning into wastewater solids. This study
estimated the total U.S. emissions of PBDE due to sewage sludge land application and then
determined the human inhalation exposure to sludge-associated PBDEs as a function
meteorological conditions and downwind distances from an application site. These aerosol
exposures have also been incorporated into pharmacokinetic models to predict contributions to
steady-state body burden. Our results suggest that while the amount of PBDEs aerosolized
during the land application process is small compared to aerosol emissions associated with
product use, the application of sludges onto U.S. soils constitutes a major source of PBDEs
entering the outdoor environment. Regarding aerosol exposure to nearby residents, the maximum
daily inhalation dosages from a common land application scenario occur immediately after
sewage sludges are applied and were 137, 27, 1.9, and 81pg/day for significant congeners PBDE-
47, -99, -153 and 209 respectively. These doses are 1-2 orders of magnitude less than the
standard daily inhalation exposure to the same PBDEs associated with home indoor air and are
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similar to doses from inhalation of urban and rural outdoor air. Under the worst-case atmospheric
transport scenario, the dosages are reduced by approximately 1 order of magnitude when the
setback distance between the sludge aerosolization source and human receptor is increased to
200m. Though the health implications of low-level exposures are not well-understood, these
sludge-derived PBDE dosages contribute less than a tenth of 1% to the estimated total body
burden of PBDE produced from inhalation of indoor and outdoor air, exposure to house dust, and
exposure to PBDE from food and water intake. Overall, the inhalation of PBDE aerosols from
sludge-applied fields does not represent a significant contribution to human exposure compared
to other common indoor exposures. However, land application is a major environmental source
of PBDEs and sludge health impact analyses should focus on the practice's impacts on other
exposures, such as biomagnification in aquatic and terrestrial food webs.
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