EPA-600-R-92-006
January 1992
IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MISSING OR UNACCOUNTED FOR
AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
FINAL REPORT
Prepared by
Sharon L. Kersteter
David J. Zimmerman
P. Roger Cawkwell
Ajay Chadha
Bruce Henning
Miranda H. Henning
Teresa Lynch
Philindo Marsosudiro
Wienke M. Tax
J. David Winkler
George M. Woodall, Jr.
ALLIANCE TECHNOLOGIES CORPORATION
100 Europa Drive, Suite 150
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
EPA Contract No. 68-D9-0173
Work Assignment Nos. 0/107, 0/113, and 1/101
EPA Project Officer: E. Sue Kimbrough
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before complelir
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-600-R-92-006
3 F
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Identification and Characterization of Missing or
Unaccounted for Area Source Categories
5. REPORT DATE
January 1992
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. authoris) Kersteter, D. Zimmerman, R. Cawkwell,
A. Chadha, B. Henning, M. Henning, T. Lynch, P. Marso-
sudiro, W. Tax, D. Winkler, and J. Woodall, Jr.
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
CH-91-57
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Alliance Technologies Corporation
100 Europa Drive, Suite 150
Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-D9-0173, Tasks 0/107,
0/113, and 1/101
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADORESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final; 1-9/91
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
15.SUPPLEMENTARY notes^eeRL project officer is E. Sue Kimbrough, MD-62, 919/541-
2 612 •
is. abstract rep0rt identifies and characterizes missing or unaccounted for area
source categories. Area source emissions of particulate matter (TSP), sulfur diox-
ide (S02), oxides of nitrogen (NCx), reactive volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
and carbon monoxide (CC) are estimated annually bu the U. S. EPA. Area sources
include all mobile sources and any stationary sources that are too small, difficult,
or numerous to be inventoried as point sources. A missing or unaccounted for
source category is one that does not explicitly appear on the National Emissions
Data System (NEDS) area source category list or the State Implementation Plan
(SIP) area source category list in Chapter 4 of Procedures for the Preparation of
Emissions Inventory for Precursors of Ozone (EPA-450/4-88-021, December 1988).
A partial list of missing or unaccounted for categories identified by this project
includes: roofing activities; airport, rail yard, and marine port support activities;
charbroiling; automobile fires; paving or traffic paints; road and highway construc-
tion; and wineries.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollution Cookery
Properties Automobiles
Analyzing Fires
Roofing Paints
Airports Paving
Railroads Traffic
Marine Terminals Highways
Charcoal Construction
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Area Source Categories
Railyards
Charbroiling
Automobile Fires
Traffic Paints
Wineries
13B 06H
14 G
14 B 13 L
13 C 11C
01E 13 B
13F
15E
2 ID 13 M
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
333
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
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ABSTRACT
This report presents the results of work completed under three different work assignments under
EPA Contract No. 68-D9-0173. The objectives of this work were to identify and characterize emissions
sources not currently accounted for by either the existing NEDS or SIP area source methodologies.
Seventy missing sources categories were characterized.
Addressing the area of missing or unaccounted for source categories involved several steps:
• identifying source categories
• data gathering and initial characterization of categories
. priority ranking of characterized categories
. more detailed, in-depth characterization of high ranking categories and emissions
estimation methodology development
Information for the characterizations was derived from a number of sources, many of which were
identified during the search phase of this project. The' principal sources of information were available
literature, industry and trade association publications and contacts, and knowledgeable federal and state
personnel.
The information presented in these characterizations is intended to provide an initial overview of
the process and its emissions, an indication and/or summary of the data available from standard reference
materials and primary contacts, alternate methodology development strategies and a basis for ranking
these source categories for methodology development.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Abstract i i i
List of Tables viii
List of Acronyms - ix
Conversion Factors xiii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Purpose and Scope 1
Contents 3
2 IDENTIFICATION OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES 4
Introduction 4
Contacts 4
Literature Search 6
Document Summaries 6
CAAA and SARA Title III 11
CAAA 11
SARA Title III 14
Changing Technologies 14
Other Search Activities 14
Development of Lists and Definitions 14
3 CHARACTERIZATION OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES 30
Development of Template 30
List of Sources Characterized 30
Characterization Activities 31
Responsiveness to Reviewer Comments 32
Discussion of Results 32
APPENDIX-MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORY CHARACTERIZATIONS 34
Bakeries 35
Breweries 38
Distilleries 45
Silage Storage 49
Wineries 52
Catastrophic/Accidental Releases - Rail Car, Tank Truck, and Industrial Accidents 56
Natural Gas Well Blowouts 59
Oil Spills 63
Aircraft Deicing 67
Airport Support Vehicles 71
Aircraft Refueling 74
Lawn Care Products 78
Pesticide Application 81
Automotive Cleaners/Waxes/Polishes 89
Automotive Fluids and Fluid Leaks 96
Preceding page blank
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Section Page
Automotive Rustproofing/Undercoating 100
Diesel Fuel - Evaporative Emissions From Service Station Operations 103
Vehicle Lubricating 107
Vehicle Repair 110
Cooling Towers 115
Adhesives and Sealants - Commercial 118
Laminating 122
Laundry Products - Commercial and Consumer 126
Traffic Painting 129
Adhesives and Sealants - Consumer 134
Household Cleaners and Polishes 138
Personal Products 146
Research and Testing Laboratories 154
Oil and Gas Production - Well Drilling 157
Oil and Gas Production - Field Activity 160
Refrigerants - Leaking Coolant 163
Refrigeration/Air Conditioning Equipment 168
Refrigerated Trucks 172
Synthetic Organic Chemical Storage Tanks 176
Farming Operations 179
Landfill Activities - TSP 184
Road Construction 186
Grain Grinding and Feed Preparation 190
Road Salting and Sanding 196
Sandblasting 199
Street Sweeping and Cleaning 201
Inflight Aircraft 203
Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles 206
Mobile Source Evaporative and Running Losses 210
Motor Vehicle Racing 213
Petroleum Vessel Loading and Unloading Losses 219
Drinking Water Treatment with Ozone 223
Extra High Voltage (EHV) Transmission Lines 226
Photocopiers and Laser Printers 230
Pulp Bleaching with Ozone 233
Ultraviolet (UV) and Electron Beam (EB) Curable Coating . 236
Welding 240
Fireplaces 244
Kerosene Space Heaters 248
Rocket Launches and Test Firings 252
Small Electric Utility Boilers 256
Wood Stoves 264
Backyard Charcoal Grills 268
Commercial Charbroiling 271
Commercial Deep Fat Frying at Restaurants 273
Residential Deep Fat Frying 276
Cigarette Smoke 279
Barge, Tank, Tank Truck, Rail Car, and Drum Cleaning 282
Innovative Waste Treatment Technologies 286
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Section Page
Landfill Methane 290
Package Plants (Wastewater Treatment) 293
Recycling Processes 296
Refinery Sludge Dewatering 307
Waste Incineration: Developing Technologies for Hazardous Waste 310
Waste Oil Disposal 315
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
1 Contacts for Missing Source Identification and Information 5
2 Master List of Missing/Unaccounted for Source Categories 16
3 Working List of Missing/Unaccounted for Area Source Categories 21
CH-91-5?
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
AEERL U.S. EPA, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
AGA American Gas Association
AGST above-ground storage tank
AIB American Institute of Baking
AIRS Aerometric Information Retrieval System
ALAPCO Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials
APCA Air Pollution Control Association (See AWMA)
API American Petroleum Institute
ARCA American Race Car Association
AREAL U.S. EPA, Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory
AWMA Air and Waste Management Association (formerly APCA)
AWWA American Water Works Association
BIA Barbecue Industry Association
BIS Bibliographic Information Service
C&EN Chemical & Engineering News
CAAA Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
CARB California Air Resources Board
CART Championship Auto Racing Teams
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980
(Superfund)
CFC chlorofluorocarbon
CNG compressed natural gas
CO carbon monoxide
C02 carbon dioxide
CTG Control Techniques Guidelines
DAF dissolved air floatation (units)
DEM Division of Environmental Management
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
DOT Department of Transportation
EB electron beam
EHV extra high voltage (transmission lines)
EIA U.S. DOE, Energy Information Administration
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
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LIST OF ACRONYMS (continued)
ERC
U.S. EPA, Environmental Research Center
ESP
electrostatic precipitator
FAA
Federal Aviation Administration
FEDS
Federal Energy Data System
FIP
Federal Implementation Plan
FTP
Federal Test Procedures
HDPE
high density polyethylene
HEM
Human Exposure Model
HSWA
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
HUD
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
IC
internal combustion
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IWWT
industrial wastewater treatment plant
LDPE
low density polyethylene
LPG
liquefied petroleum gas
LTO
landing/takeoff (cycle)
MSW
municipal solid waste
NAAQS
national ambient air quality standard
NADB
U.S. EPA, OAQPS, National Air Data Branch
NAPAP
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASCAR
National Association for Stock Car Racing
NCASI
National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement
NEDS
National Emissions Data System
NESCAUM
Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management
NHRA
National Hot Rod Association
NMHC
non-methane hydrocarbon
NO,
oxides of nitrogen
NPDES
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NRC
National Response Center
NSF
National Science Foundation
NSPS
New Source Performance Standards
NTIS
National Technical Information Service
NYMA
New York Metropolitan Area
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X
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NYCMA
03
OAQPS
OCS
OECD
OMS
OSHA
OTS
PAD
PCB
PET
PM,0
POM
POTW
PROC
PSD
PVC
RCFtA
RITG
ROD
ROG
RWC
SARA
SCAB
SCAQMD
SCC
SCCA
SIC
SIMS
SIP
SITE
S02
sox
soc
LIST OF ACRONYMS (continued)
New York City Metropolitan Area
ozone
U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
outer continental shelf
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
U.S. EPA, Office of Mobile Sources
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
U.S. EPA, Office of Toxic Substances
Petroleum Administration of Defense (district)
polychlorinated biphenyl
polyethylene terephthalate
particulate matter less than 10
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SRM
STAPPA
THM
TLV
TOG
TPD
TPY
TSCA
TSDF
TSP
UCSF
UV
VMT
VOC
LIST OF ACRONYMS (continued)
solid rocket motor
State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators
trihalomethanes
threshold limit value
total organic gas
tons per day
tons per year
Toxic Substances Control Act
hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facility
total suspended particulate
University of California at San Francisco
ultraviolet
vehicle miles traveled
volatile organic compound(s)
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CONVERSION FACTORS
To Convert From To Multiply By
Acre
Hectare (ha)
2.471
Acre
Square meter (m2)
4047
Barrel (bbl)
Liter (1)
159
Barrel (bbl) - petroleum*
Gallon (gal)
42
Board foot
Cubic meter (m3)
0.0024
British thermal unit (Btu)
Gram/calorie (g/cal)
251.98
British thermal unit/hour (Btu/hr)
Watt (W)
0.293
Centigrade
Fahrenheit
(°C+32) 9/5
Cord
Cubic meter (m3)
3.6224
Cubic foot (ft3)
Cubic meter (m3)
0.0283
Cubic foot (ft3)
Liter (1)
28.316
Cubic foot/minute (ff/min)
Cubic centimeter/second (cm3/sec)
472.0
Cubic yard (yd3)
Cubic meter (m3)
0.77
Fahrenheit
Centigrade
(•F-32) 5/9
Foot (ft)
Meter (m)
0.3048
Gallon (gal)
Liter (1)
3.785
Inch (in)
Centimeter (cm)
2.54
Mile (mi)
Kilometer (km)
1.609
Pound steam/hour** (Ib/hr)
British thermal unit/hour (Btu/hr)
1400.0
Pound (lb)
Kilogram (kg)
0.45
Pound/ton (lb/ton)
Gram/kilogram (g/kg)
0.496
Pound/square inch (psi)
Kilopascal (kPa)
6.894
Quart (qt)
Liter (1)
0.946
Square foot (ft2)
Square meter (m2)
0.0929
Ton
Kilogram (kg)
907.1
*42 gal/bbl is the standard as used in the oil industry. For other Industries, different gallons/bbl apply.
Typical value based on common boiler design parameters. Value will vary depending upon steam temperature and
pressure.
CH-B1-57
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Area source emissions of particulate matter (TSP), sulfur dioxide (SO^, oxides of nitrogen (NOJ,
reactive volatile organic compounds (VOC) and carbon monoxide (CO) are estimated annually by the
National Air Data Branch (NADB) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Area sources
include all mobile sources and any stationary sources that are too small, difficult or numerous to be
inventoried as point sources. The NADB defines an area source as an anthropogenic mobile or stationary
source that emits less than 100 tons per year of TSP S02, NOx, VOC and CO.1
The original National Emissions Data System (NEDS) area source methodologies and algorithms
were developed in 1973 and 1974, using 1960 census data, and identified 64 area source categories. The
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) expanded the NEDS area source category list
to 97 categories.
Chapter 4 of Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of Ozone,
Volume I (EPA-450/4-88-021; NTIS PB89-152409) provides a list of area source categories to be
inventoried under a State Implementation Plan (SIP) inventory.2 The list of area source categories to be
inventoried and the emissions estimation methodologies given in the SIP guidance differ noticeably from
the NEDS categories and methodology. While emissions sources included in the NEDS and SIP
inventories cover a large portion of anthropogenic emissions, many smaller source categories are not
accounted for in either inventory. Identification, characterization and inclusion of these categories and their
emissions in the inventory program will result in a more thorough and complete emissions inventory.
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
This report presents the results of work completed under three different work assignments under
EPA Contract No. 68-D9-0173. The objectives of this work were to identify and characterize emissions
sources not currently accounted for by either the existing NEDS or SIP area source methodologies.
Missing source categories are characterized, to the extent possible, in the following areas:
'Readers more familiar with metric units may use the factors at the end of the front matter to convert to that system.
2Recently. EPA has issued a revised version of the SIP emissions inventory guidance document Procedures (or the
Preparation of Emissions Inventories (or Carbon Dioxide and Precursors of Ozone, Volume I (EPA-450/4-91-016). This revised
document incorporated some results from these previously initiated missing sources projects (Work Assignment Nos. 0/107,
0/113 and 1/101 under Contract No. 68-D9-0173).
CH-91-57
1
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. definition/description of the category and activity
process breakdown (if applicable)
. importance of the category (i.e., reason for considering the category)
pollutants emitted
• estimate of the pollutant levels
• point/area source cutoff (i.e., does the category have both a point source
and an area source component)
• level of detail of available information
. level of detail required by users
emission factor requirements
• regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
urban or rural characteristics
• potential emissions estimation methodology
A missing or unaccounted for source category is defined as a category that does not explicitly
appear on the NEDS area source category list or the SIP area source category list as presented in
Chapter 4 of Procedures for the Preparation of Emissions Inventory for Precursors of Ozone. Exceptions
to this generic definition include, for example, residential liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) consumption, light-
duty diesel passenger cars and light-duty diesel trucks. Residential LPG consumption is not explicitly
listed as a NEDS area source category, but is accounted for within the methodology for residential natural
gas consumption. Light-duty diesel passenger cars and light-duty diesel trucks are also not explicitly
accounted for in the NEDS mobile sources methodology, although the diesel vehicle miles traveled (VMT)
and diesel fuel consumption are assigned to the heavy duty diesel category. Examples of true missing
or unaccounted for source categories include cooling towers, street sweeping, street sanding, restaurant
charbroiling3 operations (wood- or charcoal-fired) and aircraft cruise mode (inflight) operations.
Addressing the area of missing or unaccounted for source categories involves several steps;
. identifying source categories
• data gathering and initial characterization of categories
. priority ranking of characterized categories
• more detailed, in-depth characterization of high-ranking categories and
emissions estimation methodology development
3Charbroil is used as defined in Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, Second College Edition. Simon
& Schuster, Inc. New York, NY 1986.
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This project was designed to identify and characterize the missing or unaccounted for area sources. The
complete effort has been divided into phases. Seventy missing or unaccounted for source categories
were identified and characterized under Work Assignments 0/107 (Phase I), 0/113 (Phase II) and 1/101
(Phase III) under Contract No. 68-D9-0173.
CONTENTS
Section 2 of this report describes the process of identifying the missing or unaccounted for source
categories. The characterization of the source categories is described in Section 3. The
70 characterizations are presented in the Appendix.
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SECTION 2
IDENTIFICATION OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES
INTRODUCTION
Missing or unaccounted for source categories were identified by contacting various individuals
and groups, conducting literature searches, reviewing the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA) and
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) Title III, investigating changing technologies and
reviewing other information sources (e.g., in-house knowledge, telephone book yellow pages, etc.). This
chapter discusses the identification procedures and their results.
CONTACTS
Alliance Technologies Corporation (Alliance) contacted individuals and groups, such as EPA
personnel, state and local agencies (e.g., Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management
(NESCAUM), State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators/Association of Local Air Pollution
Control Officials (STAPPA/ALAPCO), etc.), NAPAP participants, Environment Canada, trade and
professional associations and environmental groups, to identify and gather information on area source
categories not currently inventoried by the NEDS or SIP methodologies. EPA contacts included Regional
SIP representatives and other knowledgeable personnel from the Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards (OAQPS), Office of Mobile Sources (OMS), Office of Toxic Substances (OTS), Air and Energy
Engineering Research Laboratory (AEERL) and Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment
Laboratory (AREAL). State personnel were identified from in-house knowledge and experience and from
NAPAP contacts. Environmental groups were identified and contacted based in part on in-house
knowledge. NAPAP contacts were also identified from in-house knowledge.
A standard series of questions for each contact was developed to ensure consistency and
thorough coverage. Table 1 lists the groups and individuals contacted.
A partial list of missing or unaccounted for categories identified by this process include the
following: roofing activities; airport, rail yard and marine port support activities; charbroiling; automobile
fires; paving or traffic paints; road and highway construction; and wineries. Some contacts provided
information useful for characterizing the categories or estimating emissions from the categories. In
addition, several contacts registered concerns about the current methodologies. One common concern
was that while a detailed emissions estimation methodology may be available for a category, no relevant
data necessary for using the methodology exist.
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TABLE 1. CONTACTS FOR MISSING SOURCE IDENTIFICATION AND INFORMATION
EPA Personnel - Regional
• Bob Judge, Region I
. Rebecca Taggart, Region III
. Kay Prince, Region IV
• Bill Jones, Region V
• Becky Caldwell, Region VI
• Larry Hacker, Region VII
. Lee Hanley, Region VIII
. Scott Bohning, Region IX
. Mike Lidgard, Region X
• Randy Ramos, Region X
State Personnel
EPA Personnel - Other
. Sue Kimbrough, AEERL
• Bob Hangebrauck, AEERL
• Joan Novak, AREAL
. Arch MacQueen, OAQPS
• Mike Kosusko, AEERL
• Sharon Reinders, OAQPS
. Mark Wolcott, OMS
. Pat Kennedy, OTS
• Kenon Smith, OTS
• Bill Lamason, OAQPS
• Tom Lahre, OAQPS
Environmental Groups
. Jeff Walker, Alabama
. Willard Hanks, Florida
. Dick Forbes, Illinois
. Richard Dalebout, Michigan
. Wayne Anderson, Mississippi
• Mike Conley, New Mexico
. Rick Leone, New York
. Jim Hambright, Pennsylvania
. Jay Walters, Pennsylvania
• Bill Gill, Texas
• Don Robinson, Utah
Other Groups/Individuals
. Brian Dunbar, NASA
• Alan Van Arsdale, NESCAUM
• Tony Kosteltz, Environment Canada
. STAPPA/ALAPCO
. Tom Butler, McDonnell-Douglas
• Steve Heisler, ENSR
. Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI)
. Juliette Benedicto, National Paint
and Coatings Association
• Environmental Defense Fund
. Natural Resources Defense Council
. Sierra Club
• World Resources Institute
NAPAP Contacts
• Ron Freeto, Connecticut
. Fred Sellars, ENSR
. Paul Shutt, Michigan
• World Resources Institute
Other
• Radian Study
• Yellow Pages (Durham, Raleigh
and Chapel Hill, NC)
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LITERATURE SEARCH
Alliance searched the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) database, ChemAbstracts (on
Dialog Information Service), EPA holdings and Triangle university collections for reports or papers
identifying emissions sources not included in current NEDS or SIP inventories. The NTIS database was
searched through the CD-ROM system for the period 1985 through April 1990. General keyword
identifiers, such as area source, emission inventory, etc., were used, as well as specific category keyword
identifiers such as cooling tower and pesticide air emissions. Approximately 135 pages of bibliographic
information with abstracts were retrieved and reviewed. Many of the citations referred to documentation
from the 1980 and 1985 NAPAP inventories. Ten documents were selected for further review. These NTIS
documents were retrieved on fiche from the North Carolina State University public documents collection.
No relevant citations were identified from the EPA holdings search or an on-line title and subject
search of the Triangle University Bibliographic Information Service (BIS).
Discussions with Anne Powell (EPA/Environmental Research Center (ERC) Library) led to a search
of ChemAbstracts through the Dialogue Information Service. Since searching the potential missing
category keywords or identifiers would have been too time consuming and costly, a general identifier
search (e.g., air emissions and non-traditional) was used. An initial search of the database (1967 to the
present) produced sixty citations and bibliographic citations. These were received and reviewed.
Relevant documents were .retrieved from the EPA/ERC Library and Duke University's Engineering Library.
Other information sources reviewed include annual Air Pollution Control Association (APCA)
proceedings, APCA specialty session proceedings, EPRI documents, the Third Party NAPAP review
documentation and state NAPAP review comments.
Document Summaries
Those documents identified during the literature search and considered useful for this work
assignment are summarized briefly in the following pages. A comment has been added after each
document summary to characterize the relevant source types and usefulness of information in the
document.
CH-91-57
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Hazardous Waste TSDF (Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities): Fugitive Particulate Matter Air
Emissions Guidance Document, C. Cowherd et al., EPA-450/3-89-019 (PB90-103250), May 1989.
The purpose of this document is to provide regulatory and industrial personnel with sufficient
information to identify sources of contaminated fugitive particulate matter, estimate the magnitude of
emissions, select viable control measures and estimate the effectiveness of those measures in order to
ensure that high risks from these facilities do not occur. The following sources are discussed in the
document: paved and unpaved roads; open waste piles and staging areas; dry surface impoundments;
landfills; land treatment; and waste stabilization.
Comment: No new data on missing or unaccounted for area sources were identified.
Area Sources of VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) Emissions and Their Contribution to Tropospheric
Ozone Concentrations, M. Kosusko and S.L. Nolan, EPA-600/D-89-075 (PB-89-181291), June 1989.
The report quantifies the importance of area sources to total VOC emissions, reviews components
of AEERL's nonattainment program, discusses the status of emissions control or prevention for several
area sources and reviews some of the regulatory strategies being implemented or considered by state
and local pollution control agencies. In 1988, several projects were undertaken by AEERLto develop a
greater understanding of the contribution of area sources of VOC to the ozone problem. These include
studies related to specific sources of VOC, identification of commercial/consumer product control options
and determination of the regional/seasonal variations in emissions. In each study, available sources of
information have been used to develop priorities for the sources of emissions contributing to the ozone
nonattainment problem. Sources of data include the technical literature, contacts in industry and
elsewhere in the EPA and surveys conducted by various trade organizations.
Comment: Good reference section, but no new relevant information.
Screening-level Assessment of Airborne Carcinogen Risks from Uncontrolled Waste Sites, T.F. Wolfinger,
JAPCA 39:461-468, April 1989.
This report presents screening-level estimates of the general level of cancer risks arising from
uncontrolled waste sites. These risks were determined based on an estimate of the types and amounts
of air contaminants at 25 National Priority List sites. Exposures and risks were calculated using the EPA
Human Exposure Model (HEM).
Comment: A level of 100 kilograms per year of carcinogenic emissions was assumed based on
limited test data. Abandoned waste sites are a missing source, but this document provides no new
information on their emissions rates, nor does it address the overall location or characterization of these
sites. The reference section may be of some use in identifying the sources of the author's assumptions.
CH-91-57
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Ethanol Emissions and Control for Wine Fermentation Tanks, California Air Resources Board,
ARB/ML-88-027 (PB88-223540), April 1989.
Three emissions control devices (a water scrubber, a carbon adsorption unit and a catalytic
incinerator) were tested as part of a pilot program to evaluate technologies to reduce the ethanol content
of wine fermentation tank exhaust gases. The devices were evaluated on 1,400 gallon capacity tanks
producing red and white wines at the California State University at Fresno. Tank exhaust gases were
directed to the control devices through a hood cap collection system. A control tank with no exhaust gas
collection system or control device was also tested. Ethanol emissions were monitored using continuous
hydrocarbon analyzers at the inlet and outlet of each control device. Each control device was found to
be capable of reducing ethanol emissions by at least 90 percent. Continuous monitoring of oxygen and
carbon dioxide was performed. Samples were taken to determine moisture content and selected VOC
and hydrogen sulfide concentrations. A data logger was used to allow computer data reduction of the
continuous monitor results.
Comment: Test data could be used to develop emission factors for wineries.
Assessment of Non-Regulated Sources in the Seattle Area, G.M. Savage and H. Sharpe, Waste
Management and Research 5:159-171, 1989.
The results of a quantitative study to assess the extent and degree of non-regulated hazardous
waste present in municipal solid waste generated in King County, Washington are reported. The study
sampled municipal waste deposited at transfer stations in the county for the purpose of identifying the
types and concentrations of non-regulated hazardous waste.
Comment: The document contains a small amount of information on volatile contents of municipal
waste based on samples in one county.
PMJ0 Emission Factors for Specialized Open Dust Sources, C. Cowherd and M.A. Grelinger,
In Proceedings of the 81st Annual Meeting of APCA. Dallas, TX, June 19-24, 1988 (88-71 B.3).
This paper discusses PM,0 emission factor development for specific open dust sources for which
appropriate factors have been unavailable. The source categories include agricultural harvesting and
burning, unpaved airport runways, cattle feedlots, construction site preparation, demolition, off-highway
vehicle travel, open burning, landfill activities, tailings ponds, transportation tire and break wear, road
sanding and unpaved parking lots. Estimation methods employing scientific and engineering procedures
and technology transfer techniques were used to fill identified gaps in particulate matter under ten microns
in diameter (PM10) emission factors.
CH-91-57
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Comment: Contains data and estimation methods (for PM10) on fugitive particulate sources, some
of which have not been considered previously.
Evaluation of Emissions from Selected Uninventoried Sources in the State of California, Radian Corporation,
ARB/R-88-343 (PB88-215215). April 1988.
The California Air Resources Board (CARB) maintains an extensive statewide emissions inventory
of criteria pollutants. The document ranks the emissions from 47 emissions source categories that are
not currently inventoried by CARB. A primary objective of the study was to evaluate the significant source
categories emitting VOC. Sources of ammonia (manure wastes) and particulate matter (wind blown dust)
were also considered. The project was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, preliminary
emissions calculations for the 47 source categories were prepared. The second phase of the project,
presented in this document, focused on eight source categories that were selected from the ranking
process. A detailed methodology for calculating statistical confidence intervals for the refined emissions
estimates was also developed and applied.
Comment: A useful compilation of information on a number of missing and unaccounted for
sources, with some data to relate relative emissions magnitude. Eight categories are given a more
thorough treatment with emissions (for California) estimated in some cases.
Sources and Concentration of Chloroform Emissions in the South Coast Air Basin, Science Applications
International Corporation, ARB-R-88/344 (PB88-215678), April 1988.
The objectives of this study were to identify and quantify sources of chloroform emissions in the
South Coast Air Basin and to relate emissions to ambient concentrations. Phase I consisted of a literature
review; written and telephone surveys of users of chloroform precursors (water and wastewater treatment
plants, cooling tower users, pulp and paper plants, pharmaceutical manufacturers, laboratories and
hospitals); and modeling to relate estimated emissions to historically observed concentrations. A
machine-readable annotated bibliography was also developed. Phase II included ambient sampling by
carbon molecular sieve at sites throughout the Basin and at two fixed sites; source testing of a swimming
pool (using a surface isolation flux chamber) and at two wastewater treatment plants; sampling of marine
air and water; and smog chamber modeling of hypothesized atmospheric formation and removal
processes. New emissions estimates were developed from field measurement data and the resulting
modeled concentrations fit the observed values reasonably well. A conceptual model of cycling of
chloroform between the ocean and the atmosphere over the Basin was proposed.
Comment: No new data on missing or unaccounted for area sources were identified.
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Updating Nontraditional VOC Source Inventories, R.M. Leone, E.W. Davis and A.D. Jones, In Proceedings
of the 80th Annual Meeting of APCA. New York, NY June 21-26, 1987 (87-58.2).
This paper discusses efforts to develop updated VOC inventories for architectural surface coatings
in the New York Metropolitan Area (NYMA) and the State of New Jersey and for consumer/commercial
solvent use in the NYMA, the State of New Jersey and the State of California. The discussion includes
the preparation of area source emission factors and comparison to AP-42 factors, problems encountered,
sources of information and future year projections.
Comment: The document provides a lengthy list of specific commercial and consumer solvent
product types and references to original data sources for product content and distribution data.
Photochemically Reactive Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer and Commercial Products, A.
Jones eta!., EPA-902/4-86-001 (PB88-216940), November 1986.
The report estimates the emissions of VOC and photochemically reactive organic compounds
(PROC) released from the use of consumer products in the States of California and New Jersey and the
New York Metropolitan Area. The report describes the data sources and methodologies used to estimate
VOC and PROC emissions from consumer products and presents emissions estimates disaggregated by
consumer product subcategory and geographic region.
Comment: This document was summarized in the APCA article by Leone, Davis and Jones.
Determination of Air Toxic Emissions from Non-Traditional Sources in the Puget Sound Region,
Engineering-Science, EPA-910/9-86-148 (PB87-123550), April 1986.
This report describes the development of emissions estimates for five non-traditional sources in
the Puget Sound region, including publicly owned treatment works (POTWs); industrial wastewater
treatment plants (IWWTs); Superfund clean-up sites; municipal landfills; and TSDFs. Emissions were
estimated for specific facilities from each category. In evaluating emissions, no selected or limited list of
toxic materials was used; however, almost all available analyses of wastewaters were prepared to evaluate
the presence of EPA's priority pollutant list.
Comment: A relative magnitude assessment of POTW, IWWT, Superfund, municipal landfill and
TSDF site air toxic emissions. It may be of use in evaluating emissions magnitudes. It presents average
landfill flare gas composition, air toxics and priority pollutant estimates for three landfills.
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Air Toxics Technical Assistance for the State of Alaska, R.J. Dickson, S.H. Peoples, and W.R. Oliver,
EPA-910/9-87-159 (NTIS PB89-217897), March 1987.
An air toxics emissions inventory was developed for the State of Alaska. The inventory focuses
on both point (i.e., specifically identified facilities) and area sources. The area source inventory does not
identify facilities, but aggregates emissions totals for a geographic area Activity data were obtained for
the time periods from 1979 through 1986. Included in the report are exact sources of information and the
time periods for which they were derived and a summary of point and area source emissions by source
type. Also included are tables of data by air toxic compound and a detailed list of the point source
emissions by source. Threshold limit values were used to rank the emissions sources and the results are
tabulated.
Comment: This document provided no additional information on unidentified area sources. All
categories discussed were NEDS or NAPAP area source categories.
Effect of Wind Speed on the Atmospheric Levels of Particles Produced by Traditional and Nontraditional
Sources on the Island of Curacao, E. Sanhueza, J. Romero and E. Gijsbertha, Chemosphere 14:91-97,
1985.
TSP SO„2' and Pb levels observed downwind from a large refinery and the city of Willemstad are
presented. High atmospheric TSP levels are due to refinery emissions and the recirculation of street dust
particles produced by traffic.
Comment: No new data on missing or unaccounted area sources were identified.
CAAA AND SARA TITLE III
The CAAA were reviewed for identification of source categories not addressed in NEDS or the SIP
inventories, using the House version H.R.3030 (November 9, 1989; renumbered to House of
Representatives Bill S.1630) and the Senate version S.1630 (January 23,1990). Subsequent to passage
of the final law in October 1990, the CAAA were reviewed for any material changes to the identification
of source categories. Provisions in the SARA Title III legislation were also examined for specific area
source categories.
CAAA
Although little mention of specific area sources of emissions was made in the CAAA, several
sources were identified, including the following: clean fuels; marine vessels; urban fugitive dust;
residential wood combustion; prescribed agricultural burning; prescribed silvicultural burning; rocket
CH-01'57
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engine and motor firing and cleaning; shipbuilding and repair; aerospace coatings and solvent;
oxygenated fuel; outer continental shelf (OCS) oil and gas activities; research facilities; and oil and gas
production. Of these sources, residential wood combustion, prescribed agricultural and silvicultural
burning and marine vessels are already included in the NEDS or SIP inventories.
Clean Fuels. H.R.3030, Section 182(c)(3), requires that areas classified as nonattainment for
ozone submit a SIP revision to include such measures as may be necessary to ensure the effectiveness
of the clean fuels vehicle program prescribed under Section 212(b)(2). Although motor vehicles are
already included in the NEDS and SIP inventories, a prescribed clean fuels program will change the
emissions from these vehicles. Further work to quantify evaporative emissions from gasoline marketing
will be required.
Marine Vessels. Section 183(f) requires that EPA "promulgate standards applicable to the
emission of any air pollutant from loading and unloading of marine tank vessels which (EPA) finds causes,
or contributes to, any pollution that may be reasonably anticipated to endanger public health or welfare.'
In complying with this section of the CAAA, EPA must examine and quantify emissions from marine tank
vessels.
Urban Fugitive Dust, Residential Wood Combustion and Prescribed Agricultural and Silvicultural
Burning. Section 190 concerns particulate emissions and requires EPA to issue technical guidance on
reasonably available control measures and best available control measures for urban fugitive dust, and
emissions from residential wood combustion and prescribed silvicultural and agricultural burning.' EPA
should examine its studies on particulate emissions from these sources to determine if more work will be
needed to issue the required guidance.
Catastrophic and Accidental Releases. The October 26, 1990 Conference Report indicates that
Title III includes a new program under which EPA is to establish reasonable and appropriate regulations
to prevent or detect accidental releases to the maximum extent possible. Section 301 of the Amendments
amends Section 112(r)(1) of the CAA and states, "It shall be the objective of the regulations and programs
authorized under this subsection to prevent the accidental release and to minimize the consequences of
any release of any ... hazardous substance."
Rocket Engine and Motor Firing and Cleaning. Section 173(e) states that "the permitting authority
of a State or political subdivision shall allow a source to offset by alternative or innovative means emission
increases from rocket engine and motor firing, and cleaning related to such firing, at an existing or
modified major source that tests rocket engines or motors." EPA should develop appropriate emission
CH-91-57
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factors to enable the permitting authority to quantify the emissions from the engine testing and cleaning
activity.
Aerospace Coatings and Solvents. Section 183(b)(3) requires EPA to publish Control Techniques
Guidelines (CTGs) for "all aerospace coating and solvent applications (including military and commercial
applications).' EPA should examine its guidance on these emissions sources.
Oxygenated Fuels. Section 187(b)(3) requires areas designated as carbon monoxide
nonattainment areas to submit revised SIPs implementing and enforcing a program "with fuels containing
such level of oxygen as is necessary." To support this state effort, further work on oxygenated fuels
emission factors should be performed.
OCS Oil and Gas Activities. Title VIII, Section 801 requires the Secretary of the Interior to
promulgate regulations to reduce the effects of OCS oil and gas marketing activities within 25 miles
offshore along the Pacific, Arctic and Atlantic Coasts and part of Florida's Gulf Coast. Other OCS areas
will be studied to determine their impacts on adjacent nonattainment areas. Although emissions from
petroleum marketing activities are available for on-shore operations, research should be performed to
verify that these emission factors are appropriate for use in determining off-shore emissions.
Shipbuilding and Repair. Section 183(b)(4) requires that EPA issue CTGs for "aggregate
emissions of (VOC) and PM,0 into the ambient air from the removal and application of such paints,
coatings and solvents used in shipbuilding operations and repair." Research into the formulation of these
coatings, operations and control and research into emissions from sandblasting activities need to be
undertaken for this sector.
Research Facilities. Section 112(c)(7) requires EPA to establish a separate category for research
and laboratory facilities and hazardous air emissions. These facilities do not produce commercial
products. No separate inventory category now exists and research is required to determine how to
effectively inventory research facilities as point or area sources.
Oil and Gas Production Wells. Section 112(n)(4) permits EPA to create an area source category
for hazardous emissions from oil and gas production wells. Implementation of this provision would require
research into the pollutant species emitted and development of emission factors and activity data.
CM-91-57
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SARA Title III
Title III of SARA (also known as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act of
1986) was reviewed for any mention of area sources not included in NEDS or SIP inventories; however,
no sources were mentioned.
CHANGING TECHNOLOGIES
Using in-house knowledge and experience, Alliance identified several area source categories
where changing technologies may result in emissions from source categories not currently included in
NEDS or SIP inventories. Some categories identified through this process include the following:
. ultraviolet (UV) and electron beam (EB) curable coatings
• clean fuels/alternate fuels
. chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) substitutes
• artificial wetlands designed to treat domestic sewage
. compressed natural gas
pulp bleaching by ozone
• recycling activities
. drinking water ozonation
. coronal discharge
. innovative hazardous waste destruction and remediation techniques
OTHER SEARCH ACTIVITIES
In addition to the activities described earlier in this section, the telephone book yellow pages were
searched. These searches not only helped to directly identify sources not currently in the area source
inventories, but also provided insight to the identification process. Sources identified through this process
include small bakeries; fermentation processes found in breweries, distilleries and wineries; adhesives and
glues application; commercial pesticide use; photocopiers and laser printers; and commercial charbroiling
and deep fat frying.
DEVELOPMENT OF LISTS AND DEFINITIONS
Categories identified through the search phase were combined into a master list of
missing/unaccounted for sources. This list contains all the identified categories, regardless of their
CH-91-57
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emissions potential. The master list was reviewed by knowledgeable Alliance personnel and a preliminary
working list was developed containing those categories considered most important to characterize. The
working list was submitted to EPA for review and was revised based on the comments received. Identified
categories were aggregated into major headings and then disaggregated into specific category listings.
Definitions were developed for each source category. Tables 2 and 3 contain the master list and the final
working list, respectively. Information discovered while researching certain categories for characterization
sometimes resulted in redefining the category and changing the category title from the master list to the
final working list. The list of "changing technologies' source categories was developed and maintained
separately from the previously mentioned lists.
Alliance recognizes the uncertainty inherent in the development of the working list. For example,
process upset releases of emissions may be great. This category, however, was not included in the
working list. EPA may want to review the master and working lists for additional important categories for
future characterization.
CH-91-57
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TABLE 2. MASTER LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES
Bloprocess Emissions Sources
Biogenics
Bioprocess
Alcoholic beverage use
Bakeries (small, grocery stores)
Dairies
Fermentation processes
Breweries
Distilleries
Wineries
Silage storage
Catastrophic/Accidental Releases
Catastrophic releases
Rail car accidents
Plane crashes
Oil/gas well ruptures and fires
Tank farm failures and fires
Process upsets at stationary sources
Evaporative Emissions Sources
Agriculture
Aerial application/agricultural spraying/crop dusting
Fertilizers and fertilizer application operations
Lawn maintenance
Aircraft Support Emissions
Airplane cleaning and deicing
Airport support activity - fuel combustion
Airport support activity - refueling
Automotive
Automobile lubricants
Automobile wrecking
Automobile washing/waxing establishments
Automotive cleaners/waxes/polishes
Automotive fluids and fluid leaks
Automotive rustproofing/undercoating
Service station/vehicle activities
Diesel fuel emissions
Lubricating
Repair
Tire repairing
Windshield deicers
Biocides
Cooling towers
Pest control (exterminating/fumigating)
Sterilizing operations
Swimming pool (chlorination)
Water treatment (chlorination)
(continued)
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TABLE 2. MASTER LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES (continued)
Commercial Solvents
Acoustical tile finishing (ceilings)
Adhesives and sealants application
Beauty salons/schools
Blueprint machines/blueprinting
Candle making
Carpet/rug/upholstery cleaning and deodorizing
Caulking and sealing compounds
Copying machines/mimeograph
Foam packaging
Foam-spray packaging materials
Furniture making/manufacturing
Glass tinting and coating
Industrial and commercial cleaning/building cleaning
Insulation (sprayed/blown)
Laminating (application)
Laundry products
Lubricants and silicones
Metal cleaners and polishes
Mimeographing
Mortuaries
Plastics - fabricating/finishing/decorating
Plywood and veneer
Printed and etched circuits/microchips
Roofing activities and repair
Rubber coating
Screen printing
Service activity at airports, rail yards, ports
Taxidermy
Tobacco processing
Traffic painting
Waterproofing
Wood floor and furniture finishing/stripping/refinishing
Consumer Solvents
Adhesives and sealants application
Ball point and porous tip pens
Carpet/rug/upholstery cleaning and deodorizing
Caulking and sealing compounds
Copy machines
Household cleaners and polishes
Insect repellents and sprays
Laundry products
Lubricants and silicones
Metal cleaners and polishes
Mothproofing
Personal products
Plumbing chemicals
Recreational boat cleaners/polishes/waxes
(continued)
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TABLE 2. MASTER LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES (continued)
Consumer Solvents (continued)
Shoe polishes/waxes/dyes
Taxidermy
Waterproofing
Wood floor and furniture finishing/stripping/refinishing
Laboratory Chemicals/Solvents
Animal hospitals
Medical clinics and doctors' offices
Research and testing laboratories
Oil and Gas Production and Evaporative Losses
Oil and gas production - drilling
Oil and gas production - field activity
Oil tanks (home, above ground)
Petroleum spills
Refrigerants (servicing, disposal and accidental releases)
Air conditioners (home and car)
Refrigeration and air conditioning equipment (commercial/industrial)
Refrigerated trucks
Refrigerants (leaking coolant)
Mobile Sources
Air
Helicopters
Inflight aircraft emissions
Land
Compressed natural gas vehicles
Mobile sources - evaporation and running losses
Motor vehicle racing
Off-highway four wheel drive vehicles
Marine
Petroleum vessel loading and unloading losses
Fugitive Dust Sources
Agricultural
Aerial application/crop dusting
Agricultural harvesting/farming operations
Feed preparation
Grain grinding
Grain elevators
Soil preparation
Construction Trades
Construction site preparation
Demolition activities
Dynamiting/explosives
Road construction/earth moving
Sandblasting
(continued)
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TABLE 2. MASTER LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES (continued)
Mining
Coal mines and coal waste
Mining, sand and gravel fugitives
Tailings ponds (dry)
Military
Target ranges
Training exercises
Tanks
Troops
Municipal and Residential Activities
Chimney sweeping and cleaning
Landfill activities
Road salting
Street sanding/sweeping/cleaning
Other
Landfilling
Tire and brake wear
Unpaved airport runways
Unpaved parking lots
Ozone Sources
Photocopiers and laser printers (ozone)
Electric arc welding
Extra high voltage transmission lines.
Pulp bleaching with ozone
Tanning booths (ozone)
UV and EB curable coatings
UV sterilization
Water treatment (ozonation)
Small-Scale Combustion Sources
Fuel Combustion
Butane gas equipment (compressors)
Exempt internal combustion (IC) engines
Fireplaces
Gas dryers (methanol)
Kerosene space heaters
Rocket launches and test firings
Small electric utility boilers
Wood combustion - nonresidential
Wood stoves - residential
Other Combustion
Automobile fires
Cigarette smoke
Crematories
(continued)
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TABLE 2. MASTER LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES (continued)
Food Preparation
Charbroiling
Deep fat frying
Grills (gas and charcoal)
Residential kitchens
Restaurants
Waste Treatment and Disposal Sources
Abandoned waste sites
Barge, tank, tank truck, rail car and drum cleaning
Composting
Landfill methane
Package plants - wastewater treatment
Recycle/recovery/reclamation processes and facilities
Refinery sludge dewatering
Remediation activities/Superfund sites
Septic tanks and system cleaning
Waste oil disposal
Miscellaneous Sources
Acetylene/acetylene welding and other welding types1
Anodizing/planting/electroplating1
Building ventilation systems
Chemical and portable toilets
Coffee and other beverages
Diaper services
Distribution center activity
Fire suppression chemicals
Galvanizing1
Machine shops
Masonry (mixing)
Meat curing/packing
Metal heat treating1
Metallizing1
Mirrors - resilvering
Newspaper printing
Photographic processes (film developing)
Rendering companies (bones, fat, grease, tallow, scraps)
Sewer cleaning
Synthetic organic chemical storage tanks, especially exotic petrochemicals
'light industrial source
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
BIOPROCESS
Bakeries (small)
Breweries
Distilleries
Silage Storage
Wineries
Bakeries emit VOC, primarily ethanol, formed by yeast action
during the baking process. Commercial bakeries are covered in
the existing point source methods and in the NAPAP area source
categories, but small operations such as in-store bakeries remain
uninventoried.
Although large commercial breweries are covered in point source
inventories, small-scale (e.g., 'micro') and home brewing are not
included among point or area sources. Fugitive alcohol
emissions from the fermentation process are likely, but small in
magnitude. Grain drying also releases VOC, primarily methanol.
Fugitive alcohols are released from the aging process.
Particulate matter, C02 and NOx are emitted from degradation
processes during storage. Significant emissions are likely to
occur at cooperative storage centers, but individual silos would
have some contribution to the total.
Wineries contribute fugitive ethanol emissions from the
fermentation and aging processes.
CATASTROPHIC/ACCIDENTAL
RELEASES
Catastrophic I Accidental
Releases ¦ Rail Car, Tank Truck
and Industrial Accidents
These accidents are usually chemical spills, with or without
combustion, occurring randomly but with some frequency.
Emissions depend on the chemical spilled, opportunity for
combustion, remediation efforts and weather conditions.
Releases may involve spillage of materials being transported or
handled, fuel and materials combustion.
Natural Gas Well Blowouts
Natural gas well ruptures and fires occur in onshore and offshore
exploration and have significant potential for both direct release
and combustion emissions.
Oil Spills
Spills and petroleum well ruptures affect Outer Continental Shelf
waters and coastlines, contributing evaporative VOC emissions
and the potential for combustion products, depending on the
cargo, remediation and weather conditions. Spills may also
occur in inland waterways and on highways.
(continued)
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
EVAPORATIVE
Agriculture
Lawn Care Products
Pesticide Application
Aircraft Support Emissions
Aircraft Deicing
Airport Support Vehicles
Aircraft Refueling
Automotive
Automotive Cleaners/
Waxes/Polishes
Automobile Fluids and Fluid
Leaks
Automotive Rustproofing/
Undercoating
Home and commercial lawn maintenance includes VOC
emissions from the carrier solutions in the spraying of pesticides
and fertilizers, and potential volatile and/or toxic releases of the
active ingredients. This category also covers roadside herbicide
spraying.
Crop dusting and municipal and commercial spray application of
agricultural pesticides contribute VOC and particulate matter
through the active and carrier ingredients. Herbicide and
fertilizer application is another potential emissions source. This
category includes commercial and consumer extermination and
fumigation products that are applied inside and under residences
and buildings.
Exterior deicing of planes takes place during cold weather
operations. The composition of deicing compounds should be
investigated for the potential for evaporative emissions.
Activities such as airport vehicle and equipment fuel combustion
contribute to airport emissions.
Plane refueling contributes evaporative VOC emissions.
VOC are emitted from many commercial and consumer car care
products, including aerosol propellants, aerosol solvents and
nonaerosol solvents.
Fluids include leaking brake fluid, transmission fluid, antifreeze
(ethylene glycol), windshield washer fluid (alcohol), and
lubricants and oils. Emissions occur due to leaks at commercial
establishments, residences and on the roadway, or draining
fluids at residences. (See Vehicle Repair under Service
Station/Vehicle Activities.)
Application of rustproofing and undercoating products in the
aftermarket releases VOC from solvent-based coatings.
(continued)
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
EVAPORATIVE (continued)
Service Station/Vehicle
Activities
Diesel Fuel Evaporation -
Service Stations
Vehicle Lubrication
Vehicle Repair
Blocldes
Cooling Towers
Commercial Solvents
Adhesives and Sealants
(Commercial)
VOC emissions occur due to the loading and unloading of diesel
fuel at service stations, including underground tank losses,
vehicle refueling and spillage.
'Lube' and oil change emissions from waste oil evaporation
release VOC prior to disposal.
Auto repair includes drained fluids (including gasoline), cleaning
solvents (e.g., carburetor cleaners), touch-up paints, etc.
Chlorination of cooling towers creates volatile trihalomethane
species which are released to the atmosphere. Other emissions
include process contaminants, water conditioning additives and
suspended and entrained particulate matter, including chromium.
Sources include power generation, industrial process and
'comfort' cooling towers.
VOC are emitted from commercial application of adhesives and
glues for wood, plastics and other materials, primarily in the
sen/ice and construction sectors.
Laminating
Laundry Products (Commercial
and Consumer)
Traffic Painting
Application of laminates for packaging and other purposes has
the potential to emit VOC.
Commercial and consumer laundry products can contain
petroleum distillates. These components are emitted as the
product is used and vented to the atmosphere. Dry cleaning is
a current area source and is excluded from this category.
Oil-based road and parking lot paints emit VOC during
application, especially in the summer peak painting season.
(continued)
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
EVAPORATIVE (continued)
Consumer Solvents
Adhesives and Sealants
(Consumer)
Household Cleaners and
Polishes
Personal Products
Laboratory Chemicals
Research and Testing
Laboratories
Oil and Gas Production
Well Drilling
Field Activity
Refrigerants
Refrigerants - Leaking Coolant
Refrigeration/Air Conditioning
Equipment
Refrigerated Trucks
VOC are emitted from consumer application of adhesives,
sealants and glues for wood, plastics and other materials (e.g.,
wood glues and caulks).
Cleaners and polishes contain solvents both as active ingredients
and propellants (aerosols). Examples include furniture polishes,
metal cleaners and polishes, basin/tub/tile cleaners, all-purpose
cleaners, window cleaners, etc.
This category includes personal products such as hair sprays,
aftershaves, colognes, etc.
Laboratories associated with universities and hospitals routinely
vent solvent emissions (e.g., toluene) through hoods to the
outside atmosphere. Small commercial labs probably fall
beneath point source criteria and are likely not included in
inventories.
Drilling includes release of methane, degassing of drilling fluids
and evaporation of fugitive oil. Emissions from numerous small
wells operating on a more-or-less continuous basis are not
tracked.
Emissions include sulfur species from the sour gas H2S and well
head sweetening. Field sources include offgas from the
sweetening process, flanges, valves, venting, etc.
Leaking coolant refers to upset leaks from all types of
refrigeration equipment.
These emissions are coolant fugitives from the normal operation
of stationary refrigeration equipment.
Refrigerated trucks may lose coolant in transit.
CH-91'57
(continued)
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
EVAPORATIVE (Continued)
Other
Synthetic Organic Chemical
Storage Tanks
Although some storage sources are in the point source inventory,
many SCCs are either unavailable or unused for organic material
storage, at the point of manufacture, distribution or use.
FUGITIVE DUST
Earth Moving
Farming Operations Dust from farming includes tilling, cultivating, disking and
harvesting operations. These emissions are seasonal and vary
by soil type, crop, etc.
Landfill Activities Activities at landfills include cell construction, filling,
temporary/permanent covering and dust from vehicle travel.
Road Construction Fugitive dust is produced during bed cutting, filling and
construction, depending on soil types and local conditions. VOC
are contributed from paving and chemical dust suppressants.
Other
Grain Grinding and Feed Small-scale private or cooperative milling of grains for animal
Preparation feed produces fugitive dust from milling, mixing and handling.
Road Salting and Sanding Winter road deicing generates particulate emissions from
vehicular grinding and entrainment of applied salt and sand.
Sandblasting Sandblasting incorporates commercial architectural activity, but
excludes industrial process activities.
Street Sweeping and Cleaning Municipal street maintenance activities generate airborne dust
depending on local conditions and equipment.
MOBILE
Air-based
Inflight Aircraft Inflight emissions as defined occur below the inversion layer.
Emissions center around airports and result from private,
commercial and military craft. Military training flights merit
consideration due to sustained, low-level exercises.
(continued)
CH-91-57 25
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
MOBILE (Continued)
Land-based
Compressed Natural Gas
Vehicles
Mobile Source Evaporative and
Running Losses
Motor Vehicle Racing
The use of compressed natural gas, especially in the
transportation sector, is currently under development.
Evaporative and running losses considered by the MOBILE41
model can now be incorporated into inventories.
Fuel combustion and evaporative emissions and particulate
matter from dirt tracks result from motorcycle and automobile
racing, including track, road, off-road, drag and other racing.
Marine
Petroleum Vessel Loading and
Unloading Losses
OZONE (Direct Emissions)
Drinking Water Treatment with
Ozone
Extra High-Voltage (EHV)
Transmission Lines
Photocopiers and Laser
Printers
Pulp Bleaching with Ozone
UV and Electron Beam Curable
Coating
Welding
This category addresses primarily petroleum product fugitives
emitted during filling, transfer and unloading at ports.
Ozone is gaining acceptance in this country as an alternative
disinfectant for potable water. Fugitive losses from ozone
generators and contactors are potential emissions sources.
Ozone emissions occur due to coronal discharges along EHV
electrical transmission lines at points of high local voltage
gradients.
Ozone emitted from copiers and printers is generally considered
an indoor problem, but high volume equipment may be vented
to the atmosphere. The category includes commercial
establishments and business, government and personal use.
This technology is not yet beyond the pilot plant stage; however,
ozone releases from onsite production and use may be
significant as this technology penetrates the industry.
Coatings cured with UV light and electron beams are a substitute
for thermally-cured, solvent-based coatings. UV radiation is a
direct ozone source. Emissions are vented directly to the
atmosphere to avoid corrosion. VOC and toxic compounds from
the coating may also be released.
Ozone is directly produced and emitted during arc welding.
Other emissions include combustion products and toxics from
flux materials. Emissions are associated with welding shops,
automotive repair, maintenance and construction activities,
(continued)
CH-91-57
26
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
SMALL-SCALE COMBUSTION
Fuel Combustion
Fireplaces
Kerosene Space Heaters
Rocket Launches and Test
Firings
Small Electric Utility Boilers
Wood Stoves
Food Preparation
Backyard Charcoal Grills
Commercial Charbroiling
Commercial Deep Fat Frying
(Restaurants)
Residential Deep Fat Frying
Fireplaces represent incomplete combustion sources at lodges,
residences, etc. that emit particulate matter, NO,, CO and VOC.
Fireplaces differ from wood stoves because they are usually not
primary heat sources, not continuously used, and are less
efficient combustors.
Residential or commercial kerosene space heaters may be
vented directly to the atmosphere and may be an indoor air
concern. Sources include portable and fixed units.
Particulate matter, VOC and other combustion products are
emitted during civilian and military rocket tests and launches.
Most emissions are limited to a few areas of the country.
Electric utilities releasing less than 100 tons per year (TPY) of
priority pollutants are not individually covered in national and
many state point source inventories. Assignment of emissions to
point or area source categories merits consideration.
Residential wood stoves produce VOC, CO, NOx and particulate
matter, depending on stove type and fuel characteristics.
VOC and particulate matter arise from combustion of the primary
fuel, food and/or any fire-starter, principally from gas or charcoal
(flame) cooking.
VOC and particulate matter arise from meat cooking at fast food
and full service restaurants, including flame-fired broilers and
direct-flame cooking.
Hot oils and greases used in frying potatoes, dough, chicken and
fish emit VOC and entrained particulate matter, which may be
released directly or vented to the ambient air.
Hot oils and greases used in frying potatoes, dough, chicken and
fish emit VOC and entrained particulate matter, which may be
released directly or vented to the ambient air.
(continued)
CH-91-57
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
SMALL-SCALE COMBUSTION
(continued)
Other Combustion
Cigarette Smoke
WASTE TREATMENT AND
DISPOSAL
Barge, Tank, Tank Truck, Rail
Car and Drum Cleaning
Innovative Waste Treatment
Technologies
Landfill Methane
Cigarette smoke is a source of VOC, CO, NOx, particulate matter
and air toxics and is a ubiquitous indoor and outdoor source.
VOC from residual contents and cleaning agents may be
released to the atmosphere during cleaning operations.
New technologies for hazardous and solid waste incineration and
destruction, waste reduction and remediation may create new
categories of emissions sources. These sources, their potential
emissions and the sources they replace should be identified as
the technologies are developed.
Methane is released from anaerobic decomposition of landfilled
wastes.
Package Plants (Wastewater
Treatment)
Recycling Processes
Refinery Sludge Dewatering
Wasfe Incineration (Developing
Technologies for Hazardous
Waste)
Package plants are small, automated (usually) domestic waste
treatment plants not requiring full-time supervision (e.g., at
subdivisions and golf courses). VOC are emitted from incoming
wastestreams during treatment.
Paper, plastic, glass and solvent recycling is a growing business.
Particulate matter, sulfur oxides (SOJ, NO„, CO and VOC
originate from the recycling process, energy generation and
storage or handling. However, processes in this category may
overlap with existing area source fuel and TSDF methods.
API separators and dissolved air floatation (DAF) units at refinery
wastewater treatment operations generate oily sludges that are
dewatered onsite prior to further treatment or disposal. VOC are
emitted during the dewatering processes which are not included
in emissions from the separators and DAFs.
Incineration technologies are currently in use or under
development to provide thermal destruction of hazardous waste
either at commercial incinerators or onsite. These incinerators
may be sources of combustion gases, VOC and other toxic
components from the wastestreams.
(continued)
CH-91-57
28
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TABLE 3. WORKING LIST OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR AREA SOURCE CATEGORIES
(continued)
WASTE TREATMENT AND
DISPOSAL (continued)
Waste Oil Disposal Proper and improper disposal of waste oil, specifically motor oils,
generates evaporative VOC emissions.
1User's Guide to MOBILE4 (Mobile Source Emission Factor Model). EPA-AA-TEB-89-1 (NTIS PB89-164271), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Office of Air and Radiation. Office of Mobile Sources. February 1989.
CH91-57
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SECTION 3
CHARACTERIZATION OF MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORIES
DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPLATE
To facilitate the characterization process and to ensure consistency, a template (protocol) was
developed to be used for each category characterization. The template defined the types of information
to be collected for the source and provided a common format.
LIST OF SOURCES CHARACTERIZED
Source categories characterized in these work assignment were taken from the list in Table 2.
Seventy (70) categories have been characterized and include the following:
. Adhesives and Sealants - Commercial
Adhesives and Sealants - Consumer
. Aircraft Deicing
. Aircraft Refueling
. Airport Support Vehicles
. Automotive Cleaners/Waxes/Polishes
Automotive Fluids and Fluid Leaks
• Automotive Rustproofing/Undercoating
. Backyard Charcoal Grills
Bakeries
Barge, Tank, Tank Truck, Rail Car and Drum Cleaning
Breweries
Catastrophic/Accidental Releases - Rail Car, Tank Truck
and Industrial Accidents
. Cigarette Smoke
. Commercial Charbroiling
. Commercial Deep Fat Frying at Restaurants
. Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles
• Cooling Towers
. Diesel Fuel - Evaporative Emissions from Service Station
Operations
Distilleries
. Drinking Water Treatment with Ozone
• Extra High Voltage (EHV) Transmission Lines
. Farming Operations
. Fireplaces
. Grain Grinding and Feed Preparation
. Household Cleaners and Polishes
• Inflight Aircraft
Innovative Waste Treatment Technologies
• Kerosene Space Heaters
Laminating
CH-91-S7
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Landfill Activities - TSP
Landfill Methane
Laundry Products - Commercial and Consumer
. Lawn Care Products
• Mobile Sources Evaporative and Running Losses
. Motor Vehicle Racing
Natural Gas Well Blowouts
. Oil and Gas Production - Field Activity
. Oil and Gas Production - Well Drilling
Oil Spills
. Package Plants (Wastewater Treatment)
Personal Products
• Pesticide Application
Petroleum Vessel Loading and Unloading Losses
. Photocopiers and Laser Printers
. Pulp Bleaching with Ozone
. Recycling Processes
. Refinery Sludge Dewatering
• Refrigerants - Leaking Coolant
. Refrigerated Trucks
. Refrigeration/Air Conditioning Equipment
. Research and Testing Laboratories
Residential Deep Fat Frying
. Road Construction
. Road Salting and Sanding
. Rocket Launches and Test Firings
. Sandblasting
Silage Storage
Small Electric Utility Boilers
Street Sweeping and Cleaning
. Synthetic Organic Chemical Storage Tanks
. Traffic Painting
• Ultraviolet (UV) and Electron Beam (EB) Curable Coating
. Vehicle Lubricating
. Vehicle Repair
Waste Incineration: Developing Technologies for
Hazardous Waste
Waste Oil Disposal
. Welding
. Wineries
. Wood Stoves
CHARACTERIZATION ACTIVITIES
Each of the 70 area source categories was characterized using the template. Information for the
characterizations was derived from a number of sources, many of which had been identified during the
search phase of this project. The principal sources of information were available literature, industry and
trade association publications and contacts, and knowledgeable federal and state personnel.
CH-91-57
31
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Available literature was identified based on the original literature search and also included
reference materials related to the specific process(es). These documents included EPA and other
government reports, journal and conference reports and trade association reports and bulletins. AP-42
(Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, September 1985 through
September 1991) was consulted for emission factor data.
Where applicable, trade associations were contacted for information. In some cases, association
contacts were able to offer unpublished or otherwise unavailable test reports and clarify process
descriptions. If the information could be obtained quickly, published materials were requested.
Federal and state personnel were identified through the category identification phase, guidance
from the EPA project team or through a particular knowledge gained from experience in Federal
Implementation Plan (FIP), SIP or NAPAP programs. Agencies contacted included OAQPS, Environment
Canada, state agencies including CARB and regional agencies such as the South Coast (California) Air
Quality Management District (SCAQMD). These contacts provided process descriptions, emission factors
and activity data, emissions estimates and comments on a number of source categories.
RESPONSIVENESS TO REVIEWER COMMENTS
During the development of the template and the characterization of source categories, completed
draft characterizations were distributed through the Work Assignment Manager to the EPA project team
for review. Comments were received regarding both the template format and the content of specific
characterizations.
Substantive comments on several draft source characterizations were received from Sue
Kimbrough (EPA/AEERL) and Jerry Gipson (EPA/AREAL). The comments principally concerned category
description, process breakdown and methodology. In most cases, addressing these comments required
further research and/or presentation of more detail. In a few instances, information needed to fully
address comments was not available. All comments have been retained in the project file for future
reference.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Characterization of the seventy source categories revealed a broad range of source types and
availability of information sources. Research indicates that the sources may lack applicable emission
factors and/or current activity data for the development of emissions estimation strategies. In some cases
(e.g., backyard charcoal grilling), state agencies such as CARB have begun to study these sources for
inclusion in state or local inventories and can provide their research. Trade associations may maintain
industry statistics, research and testing divisions useful to source description, emission factor development
CH-91-57
32
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and activity data identification. However, most of the source categories lack a current emissions
estimation methodology adequate for NEDS or SIP applications.
The information presented in these characterizations is intended to provide an initial overview of
the process and its emissions, an indication and/or summary of the data available from standard reference
materials and primary contacts, alternate methodology development strategies and a basis for ranking
these source categories for methodology development. Once the source categories are ranked, research
directed at methodology development will be able to focus on each source category individually and
provide a more exhaustive search of available resources, where warranted.
Additional work on missing and unaccounted for source categories may involve data gathering
and analysis, measurements and other research activities.
EPA welcomes reader comments on this document and on previously uninventoried categories
in general. This may include identification of additional source categories and input and data on
information, emission factors and methodologies for all categories. Please address all comments to Sue
Kimbrough, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, MD-
62, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711.
CH-91-57
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APPENDIX
MISSING/UNACCOUNTED FOR SOURCE CATEGORY CHARACTERIZATIONS
This Appendix contains the 70 source category characterizations developed under Work
Assignments 0/107, 0/113 and 1/101 under EPA Contract No. 68-D9-0173. The source category
characterizations are presented in the order in which the categories appear in Table 3. All
characterizations contain the following information:
. definition/description of the category and activity
• process breakdown (if applicable)
• reason for considering the category
. pollutants emitted
• estimate of the pollutant levels
» point/area source cutoff
level of detail of information available
level of detail required by users
• emission factor requirements
. regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
urban or rural characteristics
methodology
• references
The reference section includes characterization references and bibliographic sources.
CH-91-57
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BAKERIES
Definition/description of category and activity
Bakeries emit VOC, primarily ethanol formed by yeast fermentation of bread or dough (straight or
sponge"), during the baking process. Small baking operations, such as retail in-store and neighborhood
bakeries fall outside traditional NEDS and SIP methodologies. Ethanol is emitted during the baking
process through a vent with any combustion product gases.
Process breakdown
Standard Industrial Source Classification
Classification (SIC) Code (SCC) Description
2051, 2052 3-02-032-01 Bread Baking: Sponge-Dough Process
3-02-032-02 Bread Baking: Straight-Dough Process
3-02-032-99 Other Bakery Emissions (Not Classified)
Reason for considering the category
Since only commercial bakeries fall within the NEDS and SIP point source methodologies, there has been
concern that a substantial component of overall emissions from in-store and neighborhood baking
operations may be missing.
Pollutants emitted
VOC (Ethanol)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
1985 NAPAP Inventory: 50,000 TPY non-point source bakeries (U.S. total)
SCAQMD: 2,000 TPY non-point source bakeries
Point/area source cutoff
Large commercial baking operations may have emissions exceeding 100 TPY and should be considered
point sources. In-store and neighborhood baking operations are usually emit for less than 100 TPY Data
from Chicago area commercial bakeries indicate that these bakeries emit 30 to 150 TPY ethanol; smaller
operations are expected to have fewer emissions, although more data are necessary to provide a per
bakery estimate.
'Straight-dough refers to a process by which ingredients are mixed, allowed to ferment and then baked. Sponge-dough requires
mixing and fermentation of some ingredients, with the remainder of the Ingredients added just prior to baking.
CH-91-S7
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Level of detail of Information available
AP-42 emissions factors for sponge- and straight-dough processes:
0.5 lbs ethanol per 1,000 lbs bread produced (straight)
5 to 8 lbs ethanol per 1,000 lbs bread produced (sponge)
National sales data for retail, wholesale, food service and in-store bakeries
Emission factors from the American Institute of Baking (AIB)
lbs ethanol/1,000 lbs bread = 0.0402 + 0.0446[(% yeast)X(total proofing/fermentation time)]
SCAQMD has the only identified inventory including these small bakeries. Its methodology uses the CARB
emission factor (based on AP-42) and an estimate of bread production. South Coast has been contacted
for further information.
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Bread production by county or state (sponge- and straight-dough) or average yeast content and
fermentation times
Emission factor requirements
Ethanol emissions per unit of bread baked for both sponge- and straight-dough
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Uniform schedule
Urban or rural characteristics
Urban and suburban areas
Methodology
The current AP-42 emission factor is based on only a few tests. A technical bulletin from the AIB
described using experimental results to derive a relation between ethanol emissions and process
parameters. AlB's research identified the two key variables as initial yeast content and total
proofing/fermentation time. These two variables are likely to be difficult to estimate, although a survey to
determine a national or regional average for these variables could be undertaken. AIB data should be
reviewed to determine if one or more emission factors may be derived from its work to supersede the AP-
42 factors. Use of AP-42 or AIB factors requires an estimate of bread production; these data are probably
difficult to obtain. It may be possible to obtain sales data which could be used to estimate production.
Given the uncertain estimation methodology and the estimated magnitude of the source, the effort needed
-to develop a workable methodology may be large in comparison to the relatively small emissions.
CH-91-57
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The AIB, the Retail Bakers of America and the Bakery Production and Marketing Magazine were contacted
for further production and sales information. The magazine's June 1990 issue was devoted to retail trends
and contained national sales in four categories: retail, wholesale, food service and in-store baked goods
sales. CARB and South Coast personnel were contacted for any additional information they may have
on methods or existing data sources.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Methods for Assessing Area Source Emissions in California, California Air Resources Board,
Sacramento, CA, December 1984.
3. Stitley, J.W., et al., Bakery Oven Ethanol Emissions Experimental and Plant Survey Results,
American Institute of Baking Technical Bulletin 9(12): 1-11, 1987.
4. Illinois Ozone State Implementation Plan, 1988 Ozone Emissions Inventory for the Chicago Area,
IEPA/APC/90-045, Springfield, IL, December 1989.
5. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Retail Bakers of America,
June 1990.
6. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with J. Vetter, American Institute
of Baking, June 1990.
7. Telecon, Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with S. Lutzlw, Bakery Production
and Marketing Magazine, July 1990.
CH-91-57
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BREWERIES
Definition/description of category and activity
VOC emissions from breweries vary depending on brewery size, process and location. Breweries can be
classified as large (60,000 barrels per year or more), small (1,000 to 60,000 barrels per year), micro (less
than 1,000 barrels per year) and home breweries. The brewing processes used in a small and a large
brewing operation in California are shown in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. The emissions points in a
small brewery are the fermenters (usually the largest source of vented VOC emissions), brew kettle, hot
wort tank, mash tun, lautertun and the spent grain tank). The fermenter contributes about 93.5 percent
of the total VOC emitted from the brewery and the brew kettle accounts for another 4.6 percent of the total
VOC emitted. Approximate contributions, by step, to the total daily VOC emissions from a large brewery
are as follows: brew kettle, 45.9 percent; strainmaster, 17.8 percent; beechwood chip washer, 10.8
percent; waste beer sump, 8.8 percent; activated carbon regeneration, 8.7 percent; mash cooker, 7.8
percent; and rice cooker, 0.2 percent.12
Process breakdown
Brewery process steps vary according to brewery size.
Small Breweries
The steps in the brewing process at a small brewery are shown in Figure 1. The malt (barley and water)
is mixed in the mash tun where starch is converted to fermentable sugars. Emissions from this process
occur mainly by convection through a stack. After mashing is complete, the extract (wort) is separated
from insoluble grain residues in the lauter tun. Emissions from this process are vented to a stack in the
same way as the mash tun emissions. The spent grains are transferred to a holding tank where fugitive
VOC are emitted. The extract is then boiled in the brew kettle and the hops are added to the extract to
impart the bitter flavor to the beer. Other undesirable natural hydrocarbons formed in this process are
typically boiled off from the kettle and are emitted by convection through a stack. The hops are then
filtered out from the hot wort which is then cooled in a holding tank. Fugitive VOC from this step are
vented off. The cooled wort is aerated and transferred to the fermenters. The fermentation process varies
by brewery. Fermentation may be carried out in open tanks or in closed tanks (which trap the evolving
carbon dioxide). The fermentation room is usually the largest source of vented VOC emissions from a
small brewery.'2
Large Breweries
The process steps in a large brewery are shown in Figure 2. Large breweries often employ the double
mash method, in which the rice and barley malts are cooked separately and then combined. The
emissions from these two processes are mechanically vented through separate stacks or a single stack.
The wort from these two processes is separated in the strainmaster, which is similar to the lauter tun in
a small brewery. The spent grain is hauled away from a holding tank which vents passive emissions
which are subsequently vented to the atmosphere. The strainmaster itself also mechanically vents
emissions through a stack to the atmosphere. The wort is then transferred via a holding tank to the brew
kettle, which is typically the largest VOC emissions source in a large brewery. These emissions are
vented mechanically through a stack. After boiling, the wort is cooled and aerated by gravity flow of the
wort descending through a countercurrent stream of sterile air. Evaporative gases are exhausted to the
atmosphere through a stack. In a large brewery, the wort is fermented in a closed room, which prohibits
CH-91-57
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^uncontrolled mode
Diatomaceous
Earth Filtratl
Finishing
Tank
Indicates em1
y sampling site
beer
Hops
Water
Mash
Tun
Brew
Kettle
Scrubber
Lauter
Tun
Cellar
Tanks
Fermenters
Hop
Strainer
Centrifu-
gation
Yeast
Injection
Ground
Barley
Malt
Hot Wort
Tank
Spent Hops
to Dumpster
Spent Yeast
to Sewer
Spent Grain
Tank
Plate Heat
Exchangers
Pickup by Animal
Feed Processors
Bottle Filling
Crowning and
Packaging
Source: Reference 2 Reprinted with permission, California Air Resources Board, 1983.
Figure 1. Brewing process flow diagram - Anchor Brewing Company.
CH-91-57
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Brew Holding
Kftttle
Brew
Kettle
Trub
Trub
Spent
Yeast
Spent Yeast
Used
Chips
Schoene Sludge
Reprinted with permission. California Air Resources Board, 1983.
indicates emission
Yeast
Hops y
Water
Washer
Mash
Tun
Chip
Tanks
Schoene
Tanks
Packaging
Rice
Cooker
Hops
Strainer
Hot
Tank
,Jort
Transfer
Faci1Ity
Strainmaster
Beechwood
Chips
Finishing
Tanks .
Waste Beer
Sump
To Hauling
Trucks
Old Chips
to Dumpster
COo Storage
Hops
Slurry
Tank
Alpha
Tanks
Spent Grain
Holding Tank
Settling
Tank
Diatomaceous
Earth Filters
Ethanol
Recovery
Facility
Bottle, Can &
Keg Filling
Wort •
Cooler/Aerator
wp uu i i cut iuri
ana Purification
Source: Reference 2 sampling site
Figure 2. Brewing process flow diagram - Facility A.
-------
the escape of fermentation gases. The carbon dioxide (CO^ and VOC generated from fermentation are
passed through a C02 purification system and subsequently an activated carbon bed where the volatile
organics are driven to the atmosphere. After fermentation, the brew is pumped to aging tanks where
beechwood chips are used to enhance secondary fermentation. When aging is completed, the
beechwood chips are collected in a tank and washed. This washer is another significant source of
emissions in a large brewery and these emissions are often vented to the atmosphere through roof
openings.12
Reason for considering the category
VOC emissions from breweries have traditionally been considered negligible and have focused primarily
on the ethanol emissions from the fermentation process (AP-42, Section 6.5). Other process-specific
emissions from both large and small brewing operations are not well-documented. These emissions are
suspected of contributing to the atmospheric burden of VOC in ozone non-attainment areas, since these
breweries are typically located in urban areas. In addition to commercial breweries, micro breweries
located in urban areas accounted for 0.25 million barrels of beer production in 1989. There were an
estimated 1.5 million home brewers in the United States in 1989, brewing about 75 gallons of beer per
person annually.3
Pollutants emitted
VOC (including ethanol, ethyl acetate, myrcene and some other higher alcohols) from the various brewing
process steps; dimethyl sulfide emissions from the brew kettle, the strainmaster and the mash cooker;
additional VOC from spent grain drying after fermentation
Estimate of the pollutant levels
CARB estimated that for a small brewery with annual beer production of 29,500 barrels, the total VOC
emissions were 2.8 TPY For a large brewery with annual beer production of more than 60,000 barrels,
the total VOC emissions were 7.8 TPY Annual VOC emissions from breweries in the State of California
have been estimated to be 42.6 tons for 1982.2
Point/area source cutoff
A review of the Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) SCC listing showed SCCs for grain
handling, drying spent grain, brewing, aging and for the malt dryer.4 The 1985 NAPAP inventory shows
a total of 19 breweries in the point source inventory emitting a total of 1,055.54 TPY of VOC and 1,126
TPY of TSP.5 CARB classifies large breweries as those exceeding a production capacity of 60,000 barrels
per year. With the emission factors given in the next section, it is likely that some breweries, though
considerably large emitters of VOC, may not be in the point source inventory because of the 100 TPY
NEDS cutoff. These breweries should be included in the area source inventory.
Level of detail of Information available
Some emission factors have been provided by EPA for breweries (see Section 6.5 of AP-42). However,
these emission factors are limited to particulate matter emitted from grain handling and drying spent grain,
as well as some VOC emissions from drying spent grain. These emission factors are given below.
CH-01-57
41
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Process
Emissions
Grain Handling 3 lbs particulateAon
Spent Grain Drying 5 lbs particulate/ton
Spent Grain Drying 2.63 lbs VOC/ton
CARB has provided the following emission factors:
Small Breweries
Emissions
Process (lbs VQC/1,000 bblsl
0.403
0.194
3.771
0.797
51.578
0.060
Mash Tun
Lauter Tun
Brew Kettle
Hot Wort Tank
Fermentation Room Exhaust
Spent Grain Holding Tank
Large Breweries
Emissions
Process (lbs VQC/1,000 bbls)
Mash Cooker 0.275
Rice Cooker 0.005
Strainmaster/Lauter Tun 0.631
Brew Kettle 1.634
Activated Carbon Regeneration 0.660
Beechwood Chip Washer 0.963
Emission factors for home brewing and micro breweries are unavailable.
The Beer Institute in Washington, DC and the Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms have
statistics on annual beer production and consumption by region and state.8
The Institute of Fermentation and Brewing Studies in Boulder, CO has statistics on beer production from
micro breweries and home brewers.3
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Emissions from home brewing and micro brewery operations
Number of breweries
CH-91-57
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Amount of beer produced per brewery or average amount for each major type of brewery (i.e., large,
small, micro)
Emission factor requirements
Although emission factors are available for the various process steps at large and small brewing
operations, emission factors need to be developed for micro and home brewing operations.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Large breweries typically operate 24 hours per day year round. Smaller breweries usually operate on an
eight-hour per day schedule, for about three or four days per week.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
Methodology
The current methodology for estimating emissions from breweries is limited by the availability of emission
factors in AP-42, since emission factors are available for only two processes, grain handling and spent
grain drying. The emission factors developed by CARB are more indicative of the emissions from a
brewery. State and county emissions can be estimated using these emission factors and the beer
production estimates for the United States from the Beer Institute and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and
Firearms. State beer production can be assigned to the county based on SIC employment from County
Business Patterns.7
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42,
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Characterization of Fermentation Emissions from California Breweries, California Air Resources
Board, Sacramento, CA, October, 1983.
3. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Jeff Mandel, Institute for
Fermentation and Brewing Studies, Boulder, CO. Statistics about home brewing and micro
brewery operations. June 11, 1990.
4. AIRS Facility Subsystem Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing for Criteria Air
Pollutants, EPA-450/4-90-003 (NTIS PB90-207242), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, March 1990.
5. Saeger, M. et ai, The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory,(Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers'Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91-119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
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Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Philip C. Katz, Beer Institute,
Washington, DC. How to locate beer production statistics. June 19, 1990.
County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual Publication.
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DISTILLERIES
Definition/description of category and activity
Ethanol emissions are the largest component of the VOC emitted from distilleries. Distilleries produce
both grain alcohol for industrial and fuel purposes and distilled spirits, such as whiskey and brandy, for
consumption purposes. Distilled spirits are the yields of the distillation of various fermented products.
Figure 1 shows the flow chart for gin and whiskey production. Brandy is distilled from wine or from the
wine pulp left behind after racking or straining. The starting processes for whiskey and brandy are
analogous to beer and wine production, respectively. In addition to these initial processes, distilled spirits
manufacturing involves both distilling and aging steps.12
Process breakdown
The emissions points in the distilled spirits manufacturing process are likely to be the same as in
breweries and wineries, with the aging process as an additional source of emissions. Aging of distilled
spirits involves storing the whiskey in white oak barrels at a certain temperature and humidity.
Evaporation of the contents during the aging process occurs through the ends of the barrel.2
Reason for considering the category
Emissions from distilleries are poorly characterized, both for distilled spirits and grain alcohol production.
Some attempt has been made to calculate VOC emissions from the aging process during whiskey
production (see AP-42, Section 6.5); however, these emission factors are based on certain engineering
judgments and have not been verified. Alcohol production (distilled and grain alcohol) in the United
States is fairly significant, as shown in Table 1.3
TABLE 1. ALCOHOL PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1989*
Alcohol Type Gallons
U.S. Production of Distilled Spirits
Whiskey 38,946,409
Rum 776,957
Brandy 7,565,823
Gin 6,226,242
Vodka 2,929,684
U.S. Production of Grain Alcohol (potable and non-potable) 480,082,492
Total U.S. Production of Alcohol 536,527,607
"In addition to the licensed production of distilled spirits, there is a fairly significant production of untaxed alcohol or 'moonshine,'
which can be referred to as home distilling. No estimate can be made of the amount of alcohol produced by this method, but it
could be assumed that this is probably of a regional nature and predominates in the poorer regions of the country.
45
I
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Molt, rye,
corn, oats,
wheat, etc.
QP
QP
QP
Steam
Cistern
room
Ingredlerrts:
Juniper,
coriander, etc
~ir
Meal
storaqe
Slenm-
J J+HH+
Mash cnnvcrler
Water-
Double
Neutral
spirits
storage
evap.
From evap.
'Mash tub
Fermenters
Press
Cooling
coils
>
High-wine
storage
Whiskey aging
warehouse
¦ i
Blending or reducing tank
Beer still ( May be
3-cliamber type )
L
Distillers
grains
Whiskey
CD
Glass-lined
ageing tanks
vT
Gin still
Bottling
tanks
Filters
Gin
Source: Reference 2 Copyrighted. McGraw-Hill, 1977 Reprinted with permission.
Figure 1. Flow chart for the production of distilled liquors.
-------
Pollutants emitted
Mostly ethanol from the fermentation and aging processes
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The only emission factor available for whiskey fermentation and production is given in AP-42. It is
estimated that ten pounds of VOC are emitted per barrel (50 gallons) of whiskey aged over one year.
Fermentation tanks for whiskey and brandy production yield about three pounds of VOC per 1,000 gallons
of alcohol produced.4
Point/area source cutoff
If a distillery emits more than ten TPY VOC, it would be considered a point source. Using available
emission factors, a distillery which stored over 670,000 gallons of whiskey per year would emit
approximately 100 TPY There are 29 distilleries listed in the 1985 NAPAP point source inventory emitting
a total of 23,807 TPY of VOC, averaging about 820 TPY of VOC per facility.5
Level of detail of information available
Since it is a heavily regulated and taxed industry, state level revenues collected for production are
available from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms.
Total U.S. production of alcohol on annual basis is available from the Distilled Spirits Council of the United
States.6
Level of detail required by users
Amount distilled per county or state
Number of barrels distilled per facility or average barrels per facility
Number of distilleries per county
Emission factor requirements
Development of emission factors by process type for the various production stages, based on observed
emissions rather than just engineering judgment
An estimate of home distilling emission factors
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Home distilling operations may exhibit regional differences.
CH-91-5?
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Urban or rural characteristics
Probably an urban and semi-rural source
Methodology
The current methodology for calculating VOC emissions from a distillery uses the AP-42 emission factor
for the whiskey aging process. Whiskey and gin are distilled from a brew, thus it would be necessary to
include emission factors for breweries to estimate the total VOC emissions from a distillery. The statistics
on the total amount of spirits distilled in the various states on a monthly basis are available from the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. These production figures can be assigned to various counties
using SIC employment in County Business Patterns.1 Multiplying these production figures by the emission
factors will give the total amount of VOC emitted for a particular county.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Shreve, R.N. and J.A. Brink Jr., Chemical Process Industries, 4th Ed., McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, 1977.
3. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with David Byrd, Distilled Spirits
Council of the United States, Inc. Alcohol production statistics. July 25, 1990.
4. AIRS Facility Subsystem Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing for Criteria Air
Pollutants, EPA-450/4-90-003 (NTIS PB-90-207242), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, March 1990.
5. Saeger, M. ef a/., The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory, (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers' Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91-119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
6. Monthly Statistical Release - Distilled Spirits, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms,
Washington, DC. Monthly publication.
7. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
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SILAGE STORAGE
Definition/description of category and activity
The principal gases produced in silos during the silage-making process are C02 and NOx, including
nitrous oxide (N20), nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NOj). These silo gases are formed within the
porous silage mass and ultimately diffuse into the silo headspace as the new silage settles. These gases
are typically heavier than air and so displace the air in the silo headspace as they are vented through the
top of the silos. C02 is the end-product from oxidation of the plant material by bacteria as part of the
ensiling process. NO, is formed through three processes: (1) in a plant when it is exposed to some
adverse weather condition, such as a drought followed by periods of rainfall; (2) through addition of
fertilizer; and (3) through addition of material to the silage. The amount of silo gases formed varies with
the type of silage material (e.g., alfalfa, soybean, corn, etc.). The methods of silage making also vary by
region. In some parts of the country, silage is made by digging a hole in the ground, lining and filling the
pit, and then covering the silage material with a plastic sheet. In other regions, silage is stored in the solid
structure silos.1,234
Process breakdown
Not applicable
Reason for considering the category
There are no recent estimates of the amount of crops that is ensiled in the United States. However, the
U.S. Census of Agriculture provides state and county estimates of the quantity and acres of crops
harvested for silage.® The size of the dairy industry in the United States, which is the ultimate consumer
of the silage, indicates that silage production itself is not insignificant. By all indications, the ensiling
process results in C02 and NO„ emissions. The NO, emissions are important precursors in the formation
of photochemical smog, and thus any inventory which accounts for silage storage emissions would reflect
the NO„ emissions in the area more accurately.
Pollutants emitted
Pollutants emitted from silage storage include C02, NO, N02 and some N20.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
No estimate of pollutant level is currently available.
Point/area source cutoff
Silage storage is not considered a point source.
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Level of detail of information available
Emissions from silage storage vary with crop, the type of additive used in the ensiling process and the
type of structure used to house the silage. Some early measurements made by Peterson et al. for the
emissions from various crops used in silage (without any additives) are given below.2
2,537 ml of CCykg of alfalfa
16.7 ml of NCykg of alfalfa
1,950 ml of COj/kg of soybean
0.14 ml of NOj/kg of soybean
710 ml of COj/kg of corn
0.67 ml of NOj/kg of corn
Reference 5 contains the following information on the amount of crops harvested for silage in the United
States in 1982:
The national totals given above have been further resolved into county level harvests.
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Crops harvested for silage by crop type per county
Emission factor requirements
Amount of pollutant emitted per unit crop type
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Silage storage principally occurs during winter months.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally a rural source
Crop Harvested for Silage
Amount
Alfalfa hay
Small grain hay
Tame hay
Wild hay
Corn silage or green chop
Sorghum for dry forage
Sorghum for silage
110,733,566 dry tons
71,676,848 dry tons
4,675,040 dry tons
34,817,835 dry tons
8,326,005 dry tons
265,548 dry tons
7,827,178 dry tons
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Methodology
County-wide estimates of each crop type harvested for silage are readily available from the Census of
Agriculture. Multiplying these estimates by the appropriate emission factors will provide county-wide
emissions estimates of various gases produced from the silage storage. However, emission factors
should be developed for all crop types.
References
1. Reid, W.S., J.E. Turnbull, H.M. Sabourin and M. Ihnat. Silo gas: Production and detection. Can.
Agric. Eng. 26:197-207, 1984.
2. Peterson, W.H., R.H Burris, R. Sant and H.N. Little. Production of Toxic Gas (Nitrogen Oxides)
in Silage Making. Agric. Food Chem. 6:121-126, 1958.
3. Telecon. Chadha, Ajav. Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Dr. Green, N.C. State University,
Raleigh, NC. Silage practices in the United States. July 20, 1990.
4. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Howard Larsen, Agrivise Inc.,
Bayfield, Wl. Silage emissions from silos. July 30, 1990.
5. Census of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC,
1987.
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WINERIES
Definition/description of category and activity
Ethanol emissions from wineries result from entrainment of ethanol by carbon dioxide during the
fermentation process. Although this is the primary source of ethanol emissions in the wine production
process, other emissions occur whenever wine is exposed to air, such as in transferring or racking,
blending and storage for aging purposes. Factors affecting ethanol emissions include fermenting
parameters, process equipment design, handling techniques and temperatures.'2
Process breakdown
The first step of wine production entails crushing the harvested grapes and extracting the juice. In making
white wine, the skins and other remaining solids are first filtered out. Next, yeast is added to the mixture
which is then fermented in large, usually stainless steel, tanks. Red wine is fermented with the juice
containing the skins and the solids to add color to the wine. White wines are usually fermented at a
temperature of about 55°F; the holding tank may have to be cooled to keep the temperature constant.
Fermentation results in liberation of C02 from the mixture, which entrains a certain amount of ethanol to
the atmosphere. Entrainment of ethanol increases with increase in fermentation temperature. Hence, red
wine, which is typically fermented at about 80°F, would result in higher emissions than white wine. The
ethanol emitted from fermentation is usually vented to the atmosphere through openings in the roof. After
fermentation, the mixture is filtered through a drag screen or is centrifuged (pomace press) to extract the
remaining solids, before the wine is transferred for aging. Fugitive ethanol emissions from these two
processes and from bottling are greater than ethanol losses during aging. During aging, the contact
between the wine and air is minimized to avoid oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid.1,2
Reason for considering the category
Currently the wine industry does not control the ethanol emitted during the fermentation process. In
addition to the fermentation process emissions, fugitive emissions of ethanol also occur during storage
and handling processes. Ethanol is a precursor in ozone formation.
Pollutants emitted
Mostly ethanol (VOC) from the fermentation process and from storage and handling of the wine
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The Wine Institute provided the following 1989 bulk wine production statistics (including white, red and
dessert wines) from the four states (California, New York, Washington and South Carolina), which together
account for almost 99 percent of the total wine production in the United States:3
California
New York
Washington
South Carolina
371,000,000 gallons
23,700,000 gallons
6,800,000 gallons
3,400,000 gallons
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Since these figures do not reflect the production of different types of wines, any emissions estimates using
the emission factors given below in the Level of detail of Information available section, which are specific
to white and red wine production, cannot be used. Thus, no reliable estimate exists of the VOC emissions
from wineries.
Point/area source cutoff
A review of the AIRS SCC listing for winery operations showed SCCs for the aging and fermentation of
wine at 52°F and 80°F.4 However, most winery sources are not large enough to be included in the point
source inventory. A review of the point source listing in the 1985 NAPAP inventory does not show
inclusion of any wineries.5 Estimated emissions from wineries indicate that wineries would most likely be
classified as area sources.
Level of detail of Information available
Traditionally, the following AP-42 emission factors have been used to estimate emissions from wineries.
Emissions
Fermentation Process (lbs EtOH/1.000 gallons fermented^
White wine @ 52°F 1.06
Red wine @ 80CF 4.79
At other conditions, AP-42 emission factors for wine can be calculated using the following equation:
EF = [0.136T - 5.91] + [(B-20.4)fT - 15.21)(0.00685)] + [C]
where: EF = emission factor, (lbs EtOH/1,000 gallons)
T = fermentation temperature, (°F)
B = initial sugar content, (°Brix)
C = correction factor; zero for white wine, 2.4 for
red wine (lbs/1,000 gallons)
CAF!B has provided the following emission factors:
Emissions
Fermentation Process (lbs EtOH/1.000 gallons grape lulce)
White wine @ 56°F 2.6
White wine @ 60°F 1.4
Red wine @ 83°F 7.8
Red wine @ 72°F 10.5
Fugitive Sources Emissions
Drag Screen 0.5 lbs EtOH/1,000 gallon grape juice
Pomace Press 0.02 lbs EtOH/ton of pomace
Wine Bottling 0.1 lbs EtOH/1,000 gallon wine
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The Wine Institute in San Francisco, CA has total U.S. wine production estimates by state.
The Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms has annual wine production statistics by state.6
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Estimates of red and white wine production by county or state
Emission factor requirements
Emission factors are available for the various process steps in winery operations. However, since
emissions from winery operations are primarily concentrated in four states, detailed information could be
obtained about locations of these wineries and their production of the various wines.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Ethanol emissions are usually greatest during the fermentation period, which generally occurs between
late August and early October.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally a rural source
Methodology
The emission factors for wine production are currently available from AP-42 and CARB. These emission
factors may need further verification to ensure that they reflect the average wine making conditions. State-
level wine production estimates can be obtained from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms.
However, these figures do not distinguish between types of wines (red and white). Thus, some strategy
will have to be adopted to apportion wine production figures to the two different types of wine. State
estimates of wine production can be apportioned to various counties based on the SIC employment in
County Business Patterns. These county estimates can be multiplied by the emission factors to estimate
county-level emissions from wineries.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Characterization of Ethanol Emissions from Wineries, California Air Resources Board, Sacramento,
CA, October 1983.
3. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Wade Stevens, Wine Institute,
San Francisco, CA. Wine production statistics. July 11, 1990.
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4. AIRS Facility Subsystem Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing for Criteria Air
Pollutants, EPA-450/4-90-003 (NTIS PB90-207242), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, March 1990.
5. Saeger, M. et a/., The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory, (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers'Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91 -119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
6. Monthly Statistical Release - Wine, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Washington, DC.
Monthly Publication.
7. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
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CATASTROPHIC/ACCIDENTAL RELEASES ¦ RAIL CAR, TANK TRUCK,
AND INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
Definition/description of category and activity
Catastrophic releases from rail car, tank truck and industrial accidents are usually chemical spills, with or
without combustion. The emissions depend on the material released, remediation efforts and weather
conditions.
Process breakdown
Air pollutants from catastrophic and accidental releases may enter the atmosphere through evaporation
or combustion of solid or liquid materials, or release of gaseous materials.
Reason for considering the category
Catastrophic releases often involve large quantities of releases, often over a very short period of time,
potentially representing a significant portion of an area's total emissions. These emissions are not
represented in the current area source emissions inventory methodology.
Pollutants emitted
The nature of catastrophic releases makes precise description of the released materials difficult. VOC
species emitted are dependent on the material released. VOC, NO, and CO emissions are possible if
combustion takes place. Air toxics may also be emitted.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The levels of pollutants vary widely from year to year. Due to the nature of the activity, it is very difficult
to estimate annual emissions.
Point/area source cutoff
Unless the release occurs at a source otherwise counted as a point source, catastrophic releases are not
included in the point source inventories.
Level of detail of Information available
Releases of hazardous chemicals are required by law to be reported to the National Response Center
(NRC). The NRC compiles data on reported releases; access to these data is guaranteed by the Freedom
of Information Act. The compliance rate for this legislation is expected to be fairly high, especially for large
spills. Rule effectiveness is expected to be between 0.85 and 0.95. Data reported for each accident
include, but are not restricted to, the following:1
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• date of release
• material released
. media affected (water, air, etc.)
. mode (train, ship, truck, etc.)
. location
Agencies requesting information from the NRC should send a written request to the following address:
National Response Center
U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Room 2611
2100 2nd Street S.W.
Washington, DC 20593
The NRC operates a toll-free accident reporting service ((800)424-8802).
State environmental or hazardous material management agencies may have additional information.
Level of detail required by users
Area-specific release data (amount, type, remediation efforts, date of release)
Emission factor requirements
The releases reported to the NRC should be examined individually to determine the volatility of the
material, effect of remediation and climate.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
No regional, seasonal or temporal effects on release are expected. Seasonal climate variations will effect
volatilized emissions.
Urban or rural characteristics
No urban or rural preference is expected.
Methodology
• request reports on chemical releases in the study area from the NRC
. estimate potential air pollutant emissions from the chemical release report
contact local officials to determine effectiveness of remediation for the
releases and rule effectiveness for reporting requirement
. adjust potential emissions to reflect remediation effort
adjust potential emissions to reflect rule effectiveness
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References
1. Kohl, Jerome, L.A. Weaver III and Linda Deal. Hazardous Waste Management for Small
Generators. Industrial Extension Service, College of Engineering, North Carolina State University.
April 15, 1990.
2. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Petty Officer Ewaldt, National
Response Center. Data availability from NRC to public agencies. July 17, 1990.
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NATURAL GAS WELL BLOWOUTS
Definition/description of category and activity
Natural gas well blowouts are unexpected and uncontrolled releases of gas from exploratory and
production wells. Gas wells release primarily methane to the atmosphere. Blowouts have been defined
technically as "events where encountered formation pressure exceeds the mud column pressure allowing
the formation fluid to flow uncontrolled out of the hole, into the sea or air.'1 The amount of gas released
and the time required to contain the release depend on the nature of the particular field (e.g., formation
pressure), the design of the drilling and well rig, and local environmental conditions. OCS blowouts are
of particular concern to the industry due to the special equipment and stresses of OCS drilling and the
complexity of containing releases.
Process breakdown
Blowouts may occur at wells on the OCS or inland during exploration, development, production or work-
over (maintenance and remedial work) phases. Drilling and non-drilling blowouts are generally
differentiated in the industry.1
Reason for considering the category
Potential sources of methane emissions to the global environment are currently under study. Processing
and transporting natural gas contributes a significant quantity of methane emissions from fugitive releases.
Releases at the well due to extraordinary circumstances such as blowouts have not been studied.
Pollutants emitted
Primarily methane and small amounts of H2S, ethane and propane
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The total number of producing wells in 1988 was about 270,000." Statistics in the 1988 Natural Gas
Annual indicate that 145,525 MMCF of natural gas were vented or flared in 1988. According to the
American Gas Association (AGA) this estimate of 145,525 MMCF includes all losses associated with
production, including fugitive and flared gas.4 The AGA assumes this is an overestimate of these losses,
but no other data exist. This quantity translates to three million tons of methane in 1988 (based on 0.0425
pounds methane per cubic foot) and represents an overestimate. Losses due to blowout .are included
in this figure, but these losses represent an undetermined fraction. The Natural Gas Suppliers Association
has also been contacted but was not able to provide a better estimate.
A rough per-well estimate based on estimated volumes from offshore wells in the North Sea indicates that
a typical blowout may release 100 tons of methane in the first 20 days after blowout. Eight tons are
released on the initial day, diminishing to about four tons on the twentieth day. After 20 days, release
rates decay by about 0.002 tons per day.1 Blowout frequency has been estimated based on the number
of wells and the frequency of blowout for each phase (Table 1).' However, OCS blowout rates and loss
volumes may be much different than onshore wells.
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TABLE 1. FREQUENCY OF OCS GAS WELL BLOWOUTS1
WELL PHASE
BLOWOUT FREQUENCY
Exploration Drilling
6.3 x 10'3 to 1.4 x 10"2 per well
Developmental Drilling
1.6 x 10"3 to 3.9 x 10"3 per well
Production
4.5 x 10"5 to 2.0 x 10"4 per well-year
Work-over
1.2 x 10"4 to 3.3 x 10" per well-year
Point/area source cutoff
Methane emissions are exempted from NEDS and SIP inventories. However, some blowouts are large
enough to merit consideration as point sources if methane is inventoried. Smaller blowouts may fall
beneath point source criteria, but estimation of emissions through an emission factor rather than well-
specific data is not possible at this time.
Level of detail of Information available
Number of producing gas wells by year23
Number of gas wells drilled each year3
Production of gas wells by state 23
Location of gas wells by state 3
Total vented and flared natural gas by state 3
Blowouts
Estimated blowout frequency (OCS) 1
Historical record of OCS blowouts '
Gas well blowouts associated with oil spills5
Models and algorithms to calculate gas volume lost during a blowout1,8
Level of detail required by users
Number and locations of blowouts in the United States
Number and locations of exploratory drill sites and producing wells
Emissions per blowout or well-specific data to estimate emissions
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Emission factor requirements
Blowout frequency per well phase onshore
Emissions per blowout
Percent emissions due to blowout based on total vented and flared natural gas
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Confined to gas-producing states, primarily the Gulf states and California
Urban or rural characteristics
Rural and offshore
Methodology
Current data are insufficient to estimate natural gas losses from well blowouts in the United States except
on a well-by-well basis. However, even well-by-well estimates require significant knowledge of the drill rig
and field formation.6 The AGA, the Interstate Natural Gas Association and the Natural Gas Supply
Association have recently developed a research agenda for natural gas emissions. This group has
identified exploration, development and production losses as research topics. They are currently
embarking on this research.7 Studies done in Norway have used a study of OCS blowouts in the United
States to estimate the frequency of blowouts based on the number of wells in service.' Similar studies
of onshore well blowouts need to be done.
Several factors need to be considered when analyzing existing gas and oil blowout data and research
results. First, changes in drilling environments and technologies affect blowout frequency. Second, with
a rising demand for natural gas, harsher environments may be explored and lifetimes of existing rigs may
be extended. Conventional production in new regions and unconventional production from sources such
as tight sands may effect both the frequency and magnitude of natural gas losses. If estimation of
methane losses from natural gas blowouts is important, this research into methane losses could be
coordinated with the program underway at the AGA.
To be treated as an area source, an estimate of the total natural gas lost due to blowouts is necessary.
If this figure were available or estimable, losses could be apportioned to states (or counties) by gas well
population. Further apportionment to the county level could be made based on SIC employment in the
natural gas drilling sector.
References
1. Bern, T.I. and M. Rausand. Risk Picture: Risk of Oil and Gas Well Blowout on (he Norwegian
Continental Shelf, OR.221.21281.53.03, Norges Skipsforskningsinstrtutt, Oslo, Norway, December
1981.
2. Natural Gas Annual 1988, DOE/EIA-0131(88)/2, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information
Administration, Washington, DC, October 1989.
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3. Annual Industry Summary. World Oil 145(4), April 1986. Annual publication.
4. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation with Steve Etsler, American Gas
Association. Available statistics and information on gas well blowouts. November and December
1990.
5. Telecon. Tax, Wienke, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mr. Carlin, National Response
Center. Data availability from NRC. October 1990.
6. Coastal Petroleum Associates. Methods for Determining Vented Volumes during Gas Well
Blowouts, DOE/BETC/2215-1, U.S. Department of Energy, Bartlesville Energy Technology Center,
Bartlesville, OK, October 1990.
7. Natural Gas Emissions from New Facilities and Increased Consumption (Draft), prepared for the
American Gas Association, Interstate Natural Gas Association and the Natural Gas Supply
Association, October 1990.
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OIL SPILLS
Definition/description of category and activity
Oil spills involve oil tanker accidents (running aground on sandbars, ice floes or contacting other vessels),
tanker truck accidents and spills and blowouts from oil rigs or pipelines in coastal and inland areas. The
types of fuels spilled may range from thick unrefined crude oils to highly volatile fuels such as gasoline.
Emissions are influenced to a large extent by the type of fuel, the form of cleanup, the effects of
dispersion and weathering processes. Evaporation of spills produces local VOC emissions. If spills are
contained, emissions may be minimized. If spills catch fire, additional S02, CO, C02, PM, NO, and VOC
emissions may result.
Process breakdown
Pollutants from oil spills may be emitted to the atmosphere due to evaporation or combustion of liquid
fuels. Blowouts from pipelines or platforms may be sprayed directly into the atmosphere and onto the
water surface as aerosols.
Reason for considering the category
Oil spills can involve large quantities of fuel released over a relatively short time period, potentially having
a significant impact on a local area's total emissions. These emissions are not represented in the current
NEDS or SIP area source emissions inventory methodologies.
Pollutants emitted
VOC emissions result from blowouts and evaporation of spilled fuel and fuel from blowouts; S02, TSP,
VOC, NOx, C02 and CO emissions result from combustion of spilled fuel. Other potentially toxic chemical
compounds may be released as a result of chemical cleanup of spills.
Estimate of pollutant levels
It is estimated that the incidence of pipeline blowouts is fairly low; however, the incidence of oil spills due
to tank truck and tanker accidents is difficult to predict.' The NRC should be able to provide annual
national totals. CARB made rough estimates of the air emissions from evaporation versus burning of a
major (defined as ten million gallons) oil spill.2 Evaporation of this spill was estimated to cause 5,500 to
13,000 tons of reactive organic gas (VOC), whereas combustion of the spill was estimated to create 1,800
tons of particulate matter, 800 tons of sulfur oxide, 70 tons of NO„, 760 tons of total organic gas and 580
tons of reactive organic gas.
Point/area source cutoff
Oil spills are currently not accounted for as point or area sources. Blowouts on offshore oil platforms may
be treated as point sources. Oil spills from tanker trucks, tankers, and pipeline leaks or explosions may
be counted as point sources if individual spills emit more than ten TPY of a particular pollutant. If only
aggregate data are available describing the quantity of oil spilled, the source may have to be treated as
an area source and emissions allocated based on surrogate activity data.
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Level of detail of Information available
Releases of hazardous chemicals (including petroleum products) are required by law to be reported to
the NRC. The NRC compiles data on reported releases to the environment; access to these data is
guaranteed by the Freedom of Information Act. The compliance rate for this legislation is expected to be
fairly high, especially for large spills. Rule effectiveness is expected to be between 0.85 and 0.95. Over
50 percent of the information reported to the NRC concerns spills and releases of fuel oil.3 The data
reported for each accident include, but are not restricted to, the following: date of release, material
released, media affected (air, water, etc.), mode (train, ship, truck, etc.) and location. Attempts are being
made to include the county location also. Monthly and yearly summary statistics are also tabulated. No
estimate of the percentage of spills covered by the NRC is available; however, personnel at the NRC did
comment that many more reports are filed in the summer than in the winter.3
Agencies requesting information from the NRC should send a written request to the following address:
National Response Center
U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Room 2611
2100 2nd Street S.W.
Washington, DC 20593
The NRC also operates a toll-free accident reporting service at (800)424-8802.
State environmental or hazardous materials management agencies may have additional information. For
example, the North Carolina Division of Environmental Management (DEM) also collects statistics on
spills.4 The State relies on self-reporting by the spiders and collects information on location, time, amount
of spill, reason for spill, fate of material if cleaned up and name and address of responsible party. Since
1987, the State has maintained this information in a computerized database; it is believed that, for the past
four years, information is fairly comprehensive. Some emergency responses to spills are coordinated at
the county level and individual counties may have more information. There is a nominal charge for hard
copies of the state information.
Level of detail required by users
For the purposes of the SIP and NEDS inventories, county-level emissions are needed. Users need to
know the location of the spill, the type of fuel spilled and the amount spilled, as well as the choice of
cleanup strategy (evaporation, chemical treatment or combustion) and the appropriate emission factors
for the type of cleanup used. Offshore platforms may be included in a SIP area if emissions are above
the point source cutoff. For California, the CAAA explicitly state that OCS oil drilling operations up to 25
miles offshore are included in the inventory area.
Emission factor requirements
Emission factors are needed to describe the evaporation of volatile fuels from surface waters. Combustion
emission factors could probably be derived from existing emission factors for carbonaceous species and
possibly NOx.
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Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Activity surrounding the production and transport of petroleum products may occur less often in the winter
because the viscosity of the oil changes with temperature (i.e., it may take longer to pump and transport
the same quantity of product because the oil may be much thicker in winter than in summer).
Regions having a concentration of refineries and production facilities (e.g., Midwest; Texas, Oklahoma and
Louisiana; and Montana, Wyoming and California) are likely have a higher incidence of oil spills.
Urban or rural characteristics
It is assumed that tankers carrying crude oil or other petroleum products would not travel particularly
close to the coastline except when approaching the port. Most terminals and transfer points for petroleum
products are located in urban areas; to the extent that spills are the result of transfers of fuel, these types
of spills would be considered urban. However, most of the transportation of large quantities of petroleum
products occurs on nonurban roads or in nonurban areas, where larger spills could occur.
Methodology
Based on the currently available information, oil spills would be treated as individual point sources in
inventory because aggregate national statistics are not available. Treating spills as individual point
sources eliminates the problems of guessing whether the spill was allowed to evaporate, was cleaned up
chemically, with absorbent materials, or was allowed to burn off. Once the quantity and type of fuel
spilled are known, appropriate emission factors can be used to estimate emissions. Some emission
factors for spills which are burned are currently available from AP-42.5 Emission factors for evaporation
and clean up are needed to develop emissions estimates for these treatment options.
Researchers in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry at the University of
Toronto studied the volatilization rate of organic pollutants from water. They determined that the rate of
reaction of the pollutants is influenced by the presence of microbial populations, incident solar radiation,
temperature, pH and other variables.6 To assess the volatilization rate of materials, the aqueous solubility
of the spilled material, the vapor pressure and boiling point, the Henry's Law constant, the octanol water
partition coefficient, and the molar volume of the spilled material must be obtained. The report presents
a complex series of equations developed from the research.
CARB staff performed a "quick and dirty" analysis of the relative emissions from the burning of a major
oil spill on water versus the natural evaporation of a spill the same size. A memorandum from James
Boyd (Executive Officer, CARB) to Donald Irwin (Office of Emergency Services, State of California) outlines
the assumptions used to determine the CARB emissions estimates as well as the results of the study and
a comparison of these results to an analysis by Science Applications, Inc.2
References
1. Personal communication. Tax, Wienke, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with J. David Winkler,
Alliance Technologies Corporation, Chapel Hill, NC. Likelihood of pipeline blowouts. October 23,
1990.
2. Memorandum plus attachments. Boyd, James D., Executive Officer, California Air Resources
Board, to Donald R. Irwin, Office of Emergency Services, State of California. Air pollution study
of major oil spill. March 16, 1990.
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3. Telecon. Tax, Wienke, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mr. Carlin, National Response
Center. Data availability from NRC. October 16, 1990.
4. Telecon. Tax, Wienke, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mr. Ken Williams, North Carolina
Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental
Management. Waste oil data collected by the State of North Carolina. October 18, 1990.
5. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
6. MacKay, D., W.Y Shiu, A. Bobra, J. Billington, E. Chou, A. Yeun, C. Ng, and F. Szeto. Volatilization
of Organic Pollutants from Water, University of Toronto, Department of Chemical Engineering and
Applied Chemistry for Environmental Processes Branch, Environmental Research Laboratory,
Athens, GA, April 1982.
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AIRCRAFT DEICING
Definition/description of category and activity
Aircraft deicing is the application of chemicals to aircraft wings to prevent ice formation. The Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) maintains a 'clean aircraft" policy that requires aircraft entering the runway
area for takeoff to be free of ice.1 Because the FAA does not mandate deicing under any specific set of
weather conditions, predicting the precise conditions at which deicing occurs is difficult.
Process breakdown
Aircraft are routinely sprayed with deicing chemicals (typically propylene glycol or ethylene glycol) during
inclement winter periods. These chemicals inhibit ice formation by combining with water to create a
mixture with a freezing point considerably lower than that of water. The chemicals are often heated before
application, sometimes as hot as 180°^
Reason for considering the category
Both propylene glycol and ethylene glycol are VOC. Although deicing activity during the ozone season
may be negligible, ethylene glycol is included in the list of hazardous air pollutants in Section 112 of the
Clean Air Act.
Pollutants emitted
VOC (ethylene glycol, propylene glycol)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The complex process of estimating evaporation rates from a sprayed material requires a large number
of application-specific inputs (e.g., droplet size, temperature and wind speed). While developing an
accurate estimate of evaporation rates for these materials is outside the scope of this study, some
generalizations may be drawn. The relatively high boiling points of ethylene glycol and propylene glycol
(388°F and 372-F, respectively) and the cold weather that dictates their use are factors which minimize
airborne emissions of deicing chemicals. Even at hot application temperatures (180°F) the volatility of
the materials is quite low (vapor pressure less than ten mmHg). Much of the evaporated deicing
chemicals will condense as the vapors cool to ambient temperatures and any precipitation will decrease
the amount of airborne chemicals. Qualitatively, only a very small amount of deicing chemicals will remain
in the air long enough to affect the air quality outside the boundaries of the airport.
Deicing chemicals may create environmental problems other than air pollution. The mist laden with
deicing chemicals may create a hazard for airport personnel applying the materials. The accumulation
of deicing chemicals in runoff water may pose a water pollution problem since both ethylene glycol and
propylene glycol are soluble in water and not volatile enough to evaporate quickly.
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Point/area source cutoff
Preliminary analysis of emissions from aircraft deicing has determined that air emissions from any one
airport are likely insufficient to require treatment as point sources.
Level of detail of information available
Information on the quantity of deicing chemicals used at specific airports may be available from state or
local airport or transportation authorities. National usage of deicing chemicals at airports may be
estimated by industry representatives. Air traffic data at FAA-controlled airports are available from FAA.2
Regional or state transportation authorities may be able to provide air traffic data for small airports not
controlled by FAA.
Level of detail required by users
VOC emissions by county
Deicing agents used by facility or county
Number of flights per airport or county
Number of days requiring deicing per airport or county
Emission factor requirements
Aircraft deicing emission factors are not currently available from EPA. Emission factors should be
developed for each deicing agent assuming typical application methods and weather conditions.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Emissions from deicing chemicals have significant regional, seasonal and temporal variations. Regional
and seasonal variations reflect the need for deicing activity in different climates. Deicing emissions occur
primarily during winter months, although some deicing activity may occur in the spring and fall. Deicing
emissions will match temporal variations in flight traffic since deicing activity will peak during times of peak
air traffic.
Urban or rural characteristics
Commercial and general aviation airports are typically located close to urban areas. Military airports are
usually located in rural areas.
Methodology
I. Determine the quantity of deicing chemicals consumed
A. Obtain consumption data on a state or local level when possible. Data may be available
from local or state transportation planning boards or airport commissions.
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B. If no local data are available, apportion national consumption to study-area airports.
1. Collect the data for allocation:
a. national aircraft deicing chemical consumption (from industry
representatives)
b. heating degree days at all FAA-controlled airports (from County and City
Data Book3)
c. annual number of flights at all FAA-controlled airports (from FAA Air Traffic
Activity1)
2. Apportion national deicing chemical consumption to the study area:
^locaJ ^national
x HDDi^ x FLTSloeal
HDDnaaonal x FLTS
naionaJ
where: Qloca] = the quantity of deicing chemicals
used in the study area
agonal = ^e quantity of deicing
chemicals used
nationally
HDDlocoJ = the number of heating
degree days in the study
area
HDDnatJOnaJ = the number of heating
degree days in the cities
with FAA-controlled
airports
FLTSlocaJ = the number of flights at
the study airport
FLTSna;iora] = the number of flights at
U.S. FAA-controlled
airports
C. Calculate emissions from deicing.
1. Emission factor: Before this methodology can be executed, more work is
required to develop an emission factor that accounts for the site specific factors
that affects emissions from deicing (e.g., application and ambient temperature,
droplet size of spray, fraction absorbed into the ground, etc.). This emission
factor would likely have the dimensions of mass VOC emissions per mass of
deicing compounds applied.
2. Multiply the emission factor and quantity of deicing materials consumed to
estimate emissions.
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References
1. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with George Legaretta, U.S. Federal
Aviation Administration. Aircraft deicing. November 1, 1990.
2. FAA Air Traffic Activity, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, DC. Annual publication.
3. County and City Data Book, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington,
DC. Annual publication.
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AIRPORT SUPPORT VEHICLES
Definition/description of category and activity
Airport support vehicles include self-propelled vehicles used at airports in support of aircraft activity.
Commercial aircraft are served by many types of motor vehicles, including food service vans and trucks,
baggage transfer carts and aircraft tugs.
Process breakdown
Most airport support vehicles are powered by gasoline engines and operate solely within the confines of
the airport facility.' This equipment uses the typical automotive internal combustion engine technologies.
Reason for considering the category
Airport support vehicles' internal combustion engines are sources of VOC, NOx and CO emissions. These
vehicles are not usually registered as highway vehicles and are not usually registered with state
Departments of Transportation or Motor Vehicles. Gasoline consumed by these vehicles is not reported
as a nonhighway fuel and is not accounted for in the mobile sources inventory. Aircraft service vehicles
are potentially significant sources of criteria air pollutants in many metropolitan areas with busy airports.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, NO,, CO, aldehydes, SO,, particulate matter
Estimate of the pollutant levels
National gasoline consumption by airport support vehicles may be estimated using fuel consumption data
from a surveyed airport. This estimate assumes that fuel consumption by support vehicles at an airport
is proportional to the airport's air traffic activity. The airport used in this estimate is the Greensboro-High
Point, NC, Regional Airport.
Greensboro fuel consumption (gallons per month):1 3,000
Greensboro fuel consumption (gallons per year): 36,000
Greensboro flight activity (operations per year):2 151,081
U.S. flight activity (operations per year):2 57,937,965
U.S. fuel consumption can be estimated as follows:
U.S. fuel consumption = (Greensboro fuel consumption) x (U.S. flight activity/Greensboro flight activity)
= 3,000 X (57,937,965/151,081)
= 13.8 x 106 gallons gasoline/year
Since AP-423 does not provide emission factors for airport support vehicles, emission
factors for industrial equipment are used to calculate annual emissions.
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Emission Factor Emissions
Pollutant (lb/103 gallons fuel) (tons/year)
CO
VOC
NO,
3940
132
102
27,186
911
704
30
37
44
Aldehydes
so,
4.35
5.31
6.41
Particulates
Point/area source cutoff
The number and diversity of air pollution sources at airports have discouraged the treatment of airports
as point sources. The relatively small size and mobility of airport service vehicles encourage the treatment
of these sources as area or off-highway mobile sources.
Level of detail of Information available
Reference 2 provides air traffic activity at all FAA-controlled airports. Data on fuel consumption by airport
service vehicles are not specifically reported to state or federal agencies, but data at each airport may be
available from the airline or airlines which provide gasoline for service vehicles.
Level of detail required by users
VOC, CO, NOx, aldehyde, SO,, particulate emissions by county
Gasoline consumed by airport service vehicles within each county
Flight traffic data for each airport
Emission factor requirements
No emission factors specifically developed for airport support vehicles are currently available. These
vehicles should be studied more closely to determine appropriate emission factors and to determine more
reliably the vehicle population and technology. Areas to study include the current and projected market
shares of vehicles by fuel type, emissions controls, operating cycles, engine characteristics, etc.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Airport support vehicle emissions are higher during periods of increased air travel. Regional differences
in air traffic are determined by the concentration of air traffic at the airports in the study area. The
temporal variation for national air traffic is determined by major airline schedules, with activity greatly
decreased at night. The main seasonal peak in air traffic is during summer months, but a secondary peak
occurs during the winter holiday season.4 Areas with high military or other non-commercial flight activity
may exhibit unique seasonal or temporal characteristics. State or local transportation officials should be
consulted to determine the specific air traffic characteristics of the region being studied.
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Urban or rural characteristics
Commercial and general aviation airports are typically located close to urban areas. Military airports may
be located in rural or urban areas.
Methodology
I. Determine the fuel sales
A. Survey airports in the study area to determine the fuel consumed by airport support
vehicles.
B. If survey results are incomplete, use available data to estimate consumption in the study
area, then apportion area-wide fuel consumption to the airports of interest according to
air traffic (e.g., passengers).
II. Develop emission factors (emission factors should be determined from AP-42)
Although emission factors for this category of vehicles are not specifically discussed in AP-42,
emission factors are available for industrial equipment.
III. Estimate annual emissions
A. Fuel sales data from Step I
B. Emission factors Step II
C. Multiply fuel sales by the emission factor
IV. Distribute annual emissions temporally according to guidance by state or local transportation
officials.
References
1. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Gary Edwards, Eastern Airlines
Station Manager, Greensboro-High Point Regional Airport. Airport support vehicles. January 3,
1991.
2. FAA Air Traffic Activity, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, DC. Annual publication.
3. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
4. Petroleum Marketing Annual 1988, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Oil and Gas, Energy
Information Administration, Washington, DC, October 1989.
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AIRCRAFT REFUELING
Definition/description of category and activity
Fuel dispensed into aircraft fuel tanks displaces vapors remaining in the tank to the atmosphere. This
vapor displacement caused by aircraft refueling is an area source of VOC emissions.
Process breakdown
Jet kerosene (used primarily by commercial turbojet and turboprop aircraft), jet naphtha (used primarily
by military aircraft) and aviation gasoline (used by aviation reciprocating engines) are the three most
common types of aircraft fuels used in the United States. Emissions occur when vapor-laden air in a
partially empty fuel tank is displaced to the atmosphere when the tank is refilled. The quantity of vapor
displaced depends on the fuel temperature, fuel vapor pressure, aircraft fuel tank temperature and fuel
dispensing rate.
Reason for considering the category
Whereas automobile refueling emissions are a major consideration of current SIP methodologies, aircraft
refueling emissions are not specifically discussed. No aircraft refueling emissions controls are currently
in place. Nonattainment areas may want to assess the benefits of vapor recovery for aircraft refueling.
Pollutants emitted
VOC
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The U.S. aviation industry consumed over twenty billion gallons of aviation fuels in 1988, resulting in
emissions of approximately 6,700 tons of VOC.1 EPA's methodology for estimating emission factors from
splash filling fuel storage tanks (as presented in AP-427) was used to estimate emission factors for
uncontrolled aircraft refueling. Table 1 includes the results of this analysis.
Point/area source cutoff
Aircraft refueling emissions are not currently included in point source inventories. Commercial and
general aviation aircraft primarily consume jet kerosene and naphtha and may not contribute enough
emissions to be treated as point sources. Military bases consume large quantities of jet naphtha, a more
volatile fuel than aviation gasoline or jet kerosene, and may be treated as point sources.
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TABLE 1. NATIONAL AIRCRAFT REFUELING EMISSIONS
Material Characteristic/Data Jet Kerosene Jet Naphtha Aviation Gasoline
Assumed Temperature (T, °R)
520
520
520
Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP, psi)
-
-
6.253
True Vapor Pressure (R psi)2
0.0085
1.3
3
Saturation Factor (S)2
1.45
1.45
1.45
Molecular Weight (M)2
130
80
69
Emission Factor (12.46xSxPxM/T)
(lb VOC/thousand gallons fuel)
0.038
3.613
7.192
Volume Fuel Sold1
(1988, thousand gallons)
17,316,402
2,812,508
353,737
U.S. 1988 Annual Emissions
(tons of VOC)
332
5,081
1,272
CUMULATIVE 1988 U.S. ANNUAL EMISSIONS: 6,686 tons VOC/yr
Level of detail of Information available
Reference 1 provides the quantities of aviation fuels sold in each state. Fuel use data specific to particular
airport facilities may be available from state or local airport regulatory agencies. Fuel characteristics data
are available from Reference 2. Air traffic data at FAA-controlled airports are available from FAA."
Regional or state transportation authorities may be able to provide air traffic data for small airports not
controlled by FAA.
Level of detail required by users
VOC emissions by county
Aviation fuel use by county
Type of fuel used at each facility studied
Availability of vapor recovery systems during refueling process
Flight traffic data for each airport
Temperature data for the study area
Emission factor requirements
Aircraft refueling emission factor estimation methodologies are not directly discussed in AP-42. Extension
of the automobile refueling emission factor estimation methodology to estimate aircraft refueling emission
factors requires data for fuel use and fuel characteristics.
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Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Aircraft refueling emissions increase during periods of increased air travel. Regional differences in air
traffic are determined by the concentration of air traffic at the airports in the study area. The temporal
variation for national air traffic is determined by major airline schedules, with activity greatly decreased at
night. The main seasonal peak in aircraft fuel consumption is during summer months, but a secondary
peak occurs during the winter holiday season.1 Areas with high military or other non-commercial flight
activity may exhibit unique seasonal or temporal characteristics. State or local transportation officials
should be consulted to determine the specific air traffic characteristics of the region being studied.
Urban or rural characteristics
Commercial and general aviation airports are typically located close to urban areas. Military airports may
be located in rural or urban areas.
Methodology
I. Determine the fuel sales (from distributors)
A. Obtain state sales of each fuel type from Reference 1. (National fuel sales data are also
available from Reference 1.)
B. Obtain local fuel sales data from local airport officials.
C. Local fuel sales may be estimated by apportioning the state fuel sales to the airports
being studied according to flight activity data from Reference 4.
II. Develop emission factors
A. Determine the fuel study temperature (T) in °R (°R = °F + 460)
B. Determine the fuel true vapor pressure (P) in psia using Table 4.3-2 from AP-42
C. Use a saturation factor (S) of 1.45 (from Table 4.4-1 of AP-42)
D. Use the following data for fuel molecular weight (M) in Ib/lbmol (from Table 4.3-1 of AP-42)
1. Jet kerosene: 130
2. Jet Naphtha: 80
3. Aviation Gasoline: 69
E. Use the following equation to estimate the emission factor (pounds VOC per 1,000 gallons
fuel throughput)
EF = (12.46 xSxPxMI
T
III. Estimate annual emissions
A. Obtain fuel sales data from Step I
B. Obtain emission factors Step II
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C. Multiply fuel sales by the corresponding fuel emission factor
IV. Distribute annual emissions temporally according to guidance by state or local transportation
officials.
References
1. Petroleum Marketing Annual 1988, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Oil and Gas, Energy
Information Administration, Washington, DC, October 1989.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
3. Avalone, Eugene A. and Theodore Baumeister III, eds. Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers, Ninth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY 1986.
4. FAA Air Traffic Activity, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, DC. Annual publication.
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LAWN CARE PRODUCTS
Definition/description of category and activity
Organic gas emissions result from evaporation of solvents and carriers of organic chemicals in lawn care
products, primarily in pesticides and fertilizers. This category includes the application of lawn care
products to residential, commercial and parks and recreation property and golf courses.
Process breakdown
Lawn care products are usually manually applied to residential and commercial lawns, parks and
recreation properties and golf courses. Evaporation of solvents and carriers of organic chemicals may
release VOC to the atmosphere. In addition, application of lawn care products may be a source of TSP
and PM10.
Reason for considering the category
Emissions from fertilizers and pesticides have traditionally been estimated from agricultural activity. Lawn
care chemical use has been poorly characterized and may be included in the generic category of
commercial and consumer solvent use. In nonattainment areas, the predominance of urban over
agricultural land use increases the importance of studying urban fertilizer and pesticide emissions. The
proliferation of lawn care services may be increasing the consumption of (and, therefore the emissions
from) these products. More work specifically targeting this source category should yield improvements
in the precision of the inventory.
Pollutants emitted
VOC from volatilized petroleum-based solvents and carriers are the primary pollutants emitted. Application
processes may also be a source of TSP and PM10.'
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The Massachusetts Department of Food and Agriculture has identified the following emission factors:2
Land Use
Emissions (lbs VOC/acre^
Residential lawns
Parks and recreation
Golf courses
Commercial
1.8
1.5
9.0
9.0
No reliable national land use data were identified.
Point/area source cutoff
Lawn care products are not considered point sources.
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Level of detail of Information available
Land use statistics may be available through local metropolitan planning organizations or land use maps.
Specific application rates may be available through county extension agents or state university schools
of agriculture (agronomy). Local landscaping firms may provide valuable location-specific guidance. A
detailed and more resource-intensive method of estimating emissions from pesticide application is used
by CARB.3
Level of detail required by users
VOC emission factors for the county by land use (quantity VOC per acre)
Land use statistics
Emission factor requirements
Application rate by land use type for the study area
Market share of inorganic pesticides and fertilizers in the study area
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Greater emissions (consumption) in the growing season
Consumption may vary significantly between and within regions
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
Methodology
Consult with county agents, agronomists from state universities and local landscape professionals
to determine chemical application rates in the study area.
. Consult with local planning agencies or zoning authorities to determine local land usage.
• If planning and zoning officials are unable to provide any land usage statistics, consult local real
estate industry representatives to estimate the average size and acreage of a single family
dwelling unit in the study area. The difference in these two figures approximates the average
acreage for residential lawns. Local lawn care practices may be estimated by lawn care
professionals in the study area. Area golf courses may be surveyed by telephone to determine
their acreage and pesticide usage. State and local parks officials should be able to provide
information about area parks acreage and pesticide usage.
Determine the lawn care chemical usage by multiplying the application rates and lawn, golf course
and recreational facility acreage. Sum the usage from these categories to estimate total lawn care
chemical consumption.
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Following guidance found in Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors
of Ozone, Volume I pertaining to estimating emissions from pesticides, a factor of 0.90 represents
the volatile organic fraction of pesticides.4
Multiply the 0.90 factor by the total lawn care chemical consumption to estimate VOC emissions
from lawn care chemicals.
References
1. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Jim Brooks, Professional Lawn
Care Association of America. Air pollutant emissions from lawn care products. July 13, 1990.
2. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Ken Santlal, Commonwealth of
Massachusetts, Department of Environmental Quality Engineering, Division of Air Quality Control.
Massachusetts methodologies for estimating emissions from pesticides. April 2, 1990.
3. Methods for Assessing Area Source Emissions in California, California Air Resources Board,
Emission Inventory Branch, Stationary Source Control Division, Sacramento, CA, December 1982.
4. Kersteter, Sharon L Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of
Ozone, Volume I, EPA-450/4-88-021 (NTIS PB89-152409), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1988.
CH-91-57
80
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PESTICIDE APPLICATION
Definition/description of category and activity
The application of commercial, municipal and agricultural pesticides can result in VOC, TSP and PM,0
emissions. Pesticides broadly include any substances used to kill or retard the growth of insects, rodents,
fungi, weeds or microorganisms. Pesticides fall into three basic categories: synthetics, nonsynthetics
(petroleum products) and inorganics. Formulations are commonly made by combining synthetic materials
with various petroleum products. The synthetic pest killing compounds in such formulations are labeled
as 'active" ingredients; the petroleum product solvents acting as carriers or diluents for the active
ingredients are labeled ¦inert."
Process breakdown
The application of pesticides may be divided into those applied for agricultural, municipal and commercial
purposes. Agricultural pesticides are applied both aerially and from the ground. TSP and PM10 emissions
may result from the impact of the pressurized ground application system. Municipal application includes
roadside spraying for mosquito control, but does not address spraying in parks (those emissions are
considered under lawn care products). Commercial application of pesticides is classified as that
conducted by pest-control services such as Terminex and Orkin; it does not include individual consumer
spraying of household products like Raid, since that is accounted for in the consumer products category.
VOC are of primary concern in all cases and should be estimated both for active ingredients and solvent
(inert) carriers. Pesticide application may be further broken down by chemical formulation or brand name.
Reason for considering the category
The highly volatile nature of pesticides and their widespread use suggest that pesticides may contribute
a substantial quantity of VOC to atmospheric pollution. In addition, ground application of agricultural
pesticides can disrupt soil particles, increasing airborne concentrations of particulate matter and PM10.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, TSP, PM,C
Estimates of pollutant levels
References 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 include estimates of VOC emissions derived from pesticide application.
These estimates are summarized in Table 1. Particulate matter emissions have not been quantified in
previous studies.
Point/area source cutoff
Residential pesticide application should be considered an area source, as should small municipal and
agricultural applications. Large farms may release more than ten TPY VOC and should be considered
point sources.
CH-91-S7
81
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TABLE 1. ESTIMATES OF POLLUTANT LEVELS
Source
Year
Region
Use
Emissions
Units
Compound Product
Comments
1
1986
CA
Consumer/commercial
3000.41
TPY
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
1
1986
CA
Consumer/commercial
13613.93
TPY
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
1
1986
CA
Consumer/commercial
0.67
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
average
1
1986
CA
Consumer/commercial
3605.25
TPY
VOC
herb. & fung.
high estimate
1
1986
CA
Consumer/commercial
0.15
lbs/capita
VOC
herb. & fung.
average
1
1986
NJ
Consumer/commercial
845.57
TPY
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
1
1986
NJ
Consumer/commercial
3836.65
TPY
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
1
1986
NJ
Consumer/commercial
0.56
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
average
1
1986
NJ
Consumer/commercial
1016.02
TPY
VOC
herb. & fung.
high estimate
1
1986
NJ
Consumer/commercial
0.12
lbs/capita
VOC
herb. & fung.
average
1
1986
NY
Consumer/commercial
1254.72
TPY
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
1
1986
NY
Consumer/commercial
5693.1
TPY
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
1
1986
NY
Consumer/commercial
0.64
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
average
1
1986
NY
Consumer/commercial
1507.65
TPY
VOC
herb. & fung.
high estimate
1
1986
NY
Consumer/commercial
0.14
lbs/capita
VOC
herb. & fung.
average
2
1989
New England Consumer/commercial
0.041
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
New England Consumer/commercial
0.428
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
New England Consumer/commercial
0.815
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
Mid. Atlantic
Consumer/commercial
0.041
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
Mid. Atlantic
Consumer/commercial
0.428
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
Mid. Atlantic
Consumer/commercial
0.815
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
E.N. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.038
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
E.N. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.404
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
E.N. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.769
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
W.N. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.038
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
W.N. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.404
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
W.N. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.769
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
S. Atlantic
Consumer/commercial
0.059
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
S. Atlantic
Consumer/commercial
0.622
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
S. Atlantic
Consumer/commercial
1.186
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
E.S. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.059
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
E.S. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.622
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
(continued)
-------
TABLE 1. ESTIMATES OF POLLUTION LEVELS (continued)
Source
Year
Region
Use
Emissions
Units
Compound Product
Comments
2
1989
E.S. Central
Consumer/commercial
1.186
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
W.S. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.059
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
W.S. Central
Consumer/commercial
0.622
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
W.S. Central
Consumer/commercial
1.186
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
Mountain
Consumer/commercial
0.040
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
Mountain
Consumer/commercial
0.418
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
Mountain
Consumer/commercial
0.797
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
Pacific
Consumer/commercial
0.040
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
low estimate
2
1989
Pacific
Consumer/commercial
0.418
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
mid-point
2
1989
Pacific
Consumer/commercial
0.797
lbs/capita
VOC
insect sprays
high estimate
2
1989
U.S.
Consumer/commercial
0.180
lbs/capita
VOC
moth control
low estimate
2
1989
U.S.
Consumer/commercial
0.184
lbs/capita
VOC
moth control
mid-point
2
1989
U.S.
Consumer/commercial
0.188
lbs/capita
VOC
moth control
high estimate
2
1989
U.S.
Consumer/commercial
0.000
lbs/capita
VOC
herb. & fung.
low estimate
2
1989
U.S.
Consumer/commercial
0.156
lbs/capita
VOC
herb. & fung.
mid-point
2
1989
U.S.
Consumer/commercial
0.313
lbs/capita
VOC
herb. & fung.
high estimate
3
1990
NYCMA
Household
5
TPY
VOC
Pet insecticides
3
1990
NYCMA
Commercial
32
TPY
VOC
Pet insecticides
3
1990
NYCMA
Household
33
TPY
VOC
Insect Repellents
3
1990
NYCMA
Commercial
15
TPY
VOC
Insect Repellents
3
1990
NYCMA
Household
413
TPY
VOC
Other Insecticides
3
1990
NYCMA
Commercial
619
TPY
VOC
Other Insecticides
3
1990
NY
Household
12
TPY
VOC
Pet insecticides
3
1990
NY
Commercial
70
TPY
VOC
Pet insecticides
3
1990
NY
Household
69
TPY
VOC
Insect Repellents
3
1990
NY
Commercial
30
TPY
VOC
Insect Repellents
3
1990
NY
Household
717
TPY
VOC
Other Insecticides
3
1990
NY
Commercial
1064
TPY
VOC
Other Insecticides
4
1988
U.S.
Agricultural
1.8
Ib/yr/harv.acre
PR VOC
Pesticides
low estimate
4
1988
U.S.
Agricultural
4.5
Ib/yr/harv.acre
PR VOC
Pesticides
high estimate
5
1979
CA
Agricultural
27008.98
TPY
TOG
47092 Pesticide
5
1979
CA
Domestic
1818.87
TPY
TOG
47100 Pesticide
(continued)
-------
TABLE 1. ESTIMATES OF POLLUTION LEVELS (continued)
Source
Year
Region
Use
Emissions
Units
Compound Product Comments
5
1979
CA
Unspecified
1369.78
TPY
TOG
47118 Pesticide
5
1979
CA
Agricultural
63507.54
TPY
TOG
47126 Pesticide
5
1979
CA
Domestic
2997.19
TPY
TOG
47134 Pesticide
5
1979
CA
All
96702.36
TPY
TOG
Pesticides total of above 5
7
1977
CA
All
182019000
Ibs/yr
TOG
Form. 10 Pesticides
-------
Level of detail of Information available
Estimating emissions levels for all application methods described above requires similar types of
information, although the formulation and application quantities may differ. These data include: quantity
used (weight or volume per unit area); type of pesticide applied (VOC content); vapor pressure of
pesticide; average ambient temperature during month of application; adjusted water evaporation rate in
pounds per acre; average relative humidity during the month; and molecular weight of compound.
All data necessary to calculate VOC emissions from pesticide application on a county basis are available,
though in some cases their reliability is questionable. Table 2 summarizes the data available from the
References 1 through 14. Methodologies are described in References 2 and 7. Usage statistics for
agricultural purposes are compiled in the National Pesticide Usage Database, compiled by Leonard
Gianessi of Resources for the Future.13 This database is disaggregated into county use for 25 widely
used agricultural pesticides, but statistical significance may be limited to the state level. Reference 9
contains nonagricultural use statistics. Reference 7 includes very complete formulation and chemical
properties data on a compound-specific basis. Thomson's handbooks on agricultural chemicals list
recommended application levels, also on a compound-specific basis.8 Mean monthly temperature,
relative humidity, and water evaporation data are available from National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration's Local Climatological Data monthly reports.15 Pesticide use per person, available in
Reference 1, may be combined with U.S. Census data to estimate geographical distribution of residential
pesticide use, by county.
Notably lacking in the literature is an investigation into the different emission factors which might be
calculated for aerial (as opposed to ground) application of agricultural chemicals. Harold Collins of the
National Agricultural Aviation Association stated that 30 percent of all agricultural pesticides are applied
aerially. He also said that the exact same formulations and levels of active ingredients are used aerially
as are used during ground applications. The quantity of diluent may vary with the application method,
but quantities do not exceed the manufacturer's recommendations. These are included in Reference 8.
It is reasonable to expect that a greater proportion of pesticides evaporates when applied aerially.
No studies have been performed estimating PM,0 and TSP emissions or emission factors associated with
the ground application of agricultural pesticides. Presumably, particulate emissions are a function of silt
content, number of days with at least 0.01 inch of precipitation per year, pressure of application and
volume of application.
Level of detail required by users
VOC emissions per county for commercial pesticide use
VOC emissions in lbs/acre harvested for agricultural pesticide use
VOC emissions per county for municipal pesticide use
TSP PM,0 emissions in lbs/acre harvested for agricultural ground application of pesticides
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Greater emissions (consumption) occur during growing season (spring and summer) for commercial,
agricultural and municipal pesticide applications.
CH-91-57
85
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TABLE 2. PESTICIDE DATA AVAILABILITY
Source Year State/Region
Method
Usage
Appl.
Agric.
Cons.
Comm.
MW
VP
RER Formu
Emissions
By
ology
Level
lation
County
1 1986 US
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2 1989 US
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3 1990 NY
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4 1988 US
X
X
X
5 1982 CA
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
6 1978 Fresno Cty, CA
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7 1980 CA
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
8 1989 US
X
X
X
X
X
9 1981 US
X
X
11 1988 US
X
X
X
X
12 1989 US
X
X
13 1988 US
X
X
X
X
X
14 1989 US
X
X
X
-------
Urban or rural characteristics
Rural areas may have greater emissions due to intensive agricultural pesticide use.
Methodology
A methodology for estimating VOC emissions from commercial, municipal and agricultural use of
pesticides is described by Leung et al.7 This methodology depends primarily on the model developed
by Hartley for pesticide volatilization from surface deposits. The basic emission rate is derived from
physical properties such as quantity of pesticide applied, vapor pressure and average ambient
temperature during application. After the initial rate is established, emissions are considered to follow a
time-course through each month which is first order or a summation of two first order time-courses.
Presently no methodology exists for estimating TSP and PM10 emissions resulting from ground application
of pesticides. A first step towards developing such a methodology would involve calculating an emission
factor. Parameters to be considered in the emission factor include silt content, number of days with at
least 0.01 inch of precipitation per year, pressure of application and volume of application. Presumably
county-level usage data could be combined with agricultural census data, and then multiplied by the
emission factor to estimate TSP and PM10 emissions in pounds per acre harvested.
References
1. Jones, A., et al. Photochemically Reactive Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer and
Commercial Products, EPA-902/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, New York, NY November 1986.
2. Compilation and Speciation of National Emission Factors for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April 1989.
3. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Analysis of Regulatory Alternatives
for Controlling Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Emissions from Consumer and Commercial
Products in the New York City Metropolitan Area, 3655/84, Albany, NY 1990.
4. Kersteter, Sharon L. Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of
Ozone, Volume I, EPA-450/4-88-021 (NTIS PB89-152409), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1988.
5. Methods for Assessing Area Source Emissions in California, California Air Resources Board,
Sacramento, CA, 1982.
6. Leung, Steve, et al. Air Pollution Emissions Associated with Pesticide Applications in Fresno
County, ARB A7-047-30, California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA, 1978.
7. Leung, Steve, et al. Air Pollution Emissions Associated with Non-Synthetic Hydrocarbon
Applications for Pesticide Purposes in California: Use Patterns and Alternatives, Draft Final Report,
Vols. I, II and III, ARB A7-173-30, California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA, 1980.
8. Thomson, W. T. Agricultural Chemicals, Books I, II, III and IV, Thomson Publications, Fresno, CA,
1989.
9. Consumer Pesticides and Fertilizers, C.H. Kline and Co., Fairfield, NJ, 1981.
CH-01-57
87
-------
10. Telecon. Henning, Miranda, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with H. Collins, National
Agricultural Aviation Association. Pesticide application. July 1990.
11. Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage, 1988 Market Estimates, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs, Washington, DC, 1989.
12. Osteen, Craig D., and Philip I. Szmedra. Agricultural Pesticide Use Trends and Policy Issues,
Agricultural Economic Report Number 622, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research,
Washington, DC, 1989.
13. Gianessi, Leonard P The National Pesticide Usage Data Base, In Aqrichemicals and Groundwater
Protection: Resources and Strategies for State and Local Management. Conference Proceedings,
October 24-25, 1988, Freshwater Foundation.
14. Gianessi, Leonard P, and Cynthia A. Puffer. Use of Selected Pesticides in Agricultural Crop
Production National Summary, Resources for the Future, Quality of the Environment Division,
Washington, DC, 1988.
15. Local Climatological Data: Annual Summary with Comparative Data, U.S. Department of
Commerce, Washington, DC. Annual publication.
CH-91-57
88
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AUTOMOTIVE CLEANERS/WAXES/POLISHES
Definition/description of category and activity
Automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes are any consumer product used on or in mobile equipment
(e.g., automobiles, buses, motorcycles, vans, heavy off-highway vehicles, etc.). Automotive cleaners,
waxes and polishes include, but are not limited to, the following products: insect and tar removers,
chrome and metal polishes; leather or vinyl cleaners; wheel cleaners; engine degreasers; carburetor-choke
cleaners; and brake cleaners.''2
Process breakdown
Automotive cleaning, waxing and polishing products are classified as either aerosols or nonaerosols.
These two categories can be further broken down as aerosol propellants, aerosol solvents and nonaerosol
solvents. Propellants are used to propel aerosol products from containers, solubilize active ingredients
and serve as part of the diluent system. Solvents solubilize the product ingredients and affect the
evaporation rate of the product.
Reason for considering the category
Aerosol propellants and solvents and nonaerosol solvents contain VOC that evaporate on use and are
carried into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, VOC photochemically react to produce ozone and
secondary particulate matter. Automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes represent significant sources of
unaccounted VOC.
Pollutants emitted
VOC
Estimate of the pollutant levels
AP-42 has calculated national emissions and per capita emission factors for commercial and consumer
solvents.1 Automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes are not specifically categorized. However, AP-42
lists polishes and waxes which are included in this unaccounted VOC source. The evaporative emissions
from commercial and consumer solvent use for nonmethane VOC are as follows:
. National emissions for polishes and waxes are 53,000 TPY
. Automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes per capita emission factors are 0.49 pounds per year
or 1.3 x 10'3 pounds per day.
VOC emissions estimated for consumer product categories are listed in Reference 3. Table 1 shows the
total VOC content for 49 consumer product categories for New York State, as estimated by Science
Applications International Corporation, Pacific Environmental Services and CARB. The values provided by
CARB were estimated using state population ratios and a recent CARB staff report on proposed consumer
product regulations. The automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes are represented in Table 1 by numbers
6, 14, 15, 16 and 28. Estimated total VOC emissions from automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes in
New York are 3,097 tons per year.
CH-91-5?
89
-------
TABLE 1. ANNUAL TONS VOC FOR NEW YORK STATE3
SAIC ?c of CUMULAT. PES CARS
S PRODUCT CATEGORY 1936 TOTAL % ¦ 1990 1990
1 Spray Paints, Primers, Varnishes 4,190 15.5 15.5 7,211
;;;;;;v^MnS°:.sXZ32s:3Lll:lP'260ZiZn0'9C0':
3 *Aii' Purpose Cleaners 2,526 9.4 35.7 6,574 ' 1,2C0
r "4";i£sTcTSpTavV"- : —^-•--•2'214^™-;:'8:2 "'':. •"f"-"'43.9""""7T-) ,'781"""'.'"' MM'
5 Room Deodorants & Disinfectants 1,758 6.5 50.4 6,964 2,0C0
^SMCafJKplSn^&Waxes^-'' '¦ ¦ "!' . •"j^53^r™,~~ "6.1'Tv^S6"S
' ~ 7 Aohesives (excludes industrial) 1,602 5.9 62.5 2,044
^^G^kiHy-'&SMling Compounds "" ' $95-"- r;-";3;7 T"^';";
9 Moth Control Products 877 3.3 69.4 " " ' *"
0 jG I as I elane r ;7; ";T;840"rTvr^:ir:~^r;v^5-7^^"^yr"'"" "y f-5C0 ;'
" '*"11 "Herbicides Fungicides 754 2.8 75.3 .
j»gi2 rpenoEHi^Decaaaiti";:;::'" : 7.^ 7"'"-
13 Auto Antifreezes 487 1.8 79.7 ~
ilgMSsffi ^ 'T?.
i5 Brake Cleaners 431 1.6 83.0
j;:~,16^E in'g i ri e;Oegrease rs777770;'::7M77 i 777 :M 1V1 CO;-?
17 fcngins Starting Fluids 397 1.5 86.0
> "18. Rug &. Upholstery Cleacers ^ " '359-y"' ' 174J., '87.'4-"." " " .!
19 Lubricants & Silicones 382 1.4 88.8
I*20\Mebl'Cleaners'&'Polishes'. ""276"^' ' 'T.0-. ~ ~89.9 • ,
21 Waxes & Polishes 273 1.0 90.9 700
:^22TiTile"&vBatKrcoin Cleaners- .•/ '..'2^7^' ' 0.'9 j- 7 9LS; "'7' ."'''"''7''. ::7:::7 100 !
"23* Styling Mousse 227 0.8 92.6 1C0
£'•••24;'IVVih'dshield"Deice'F "7'.7'7 ' v• ;*:"''20.9; 7:; ¦ "0.8'7' ;"'":'93r4 ¦¦:¦¦:¦¦:¦¦¦ ~r :""." r.
'""^Pharmaceuticals 209 0.8 94.2 " '
; v.'-26 'Lnsect'Recellanls'-' • 7 •" '•'•*': • 7...'? 165. L?" ; 7' "0.6'^'•:"-™-~T94.'S 7'^99 ""V'T""™
27 Starch & Fabric Finish 153 0.6 95.4
|:J::2S:;iAuto'Cleaners' . "'148,0'.'5 'r •.'55.9 : 7 . -¦•• •.••:• •;
29 Floor Waxes &. Polishes 127 0.5 96.4 6C0
I'.*30 '.-Colognes'- '* ¦' 27 ^T~0.'5 "". "j"v96.'8 " ¦ IV"'
31 Shaving La tiers 120 0.4 97.3 60
t?-3j£$Kn i ma 1 llnse c tic :ces7'lr';?r Sf:107 :4 ;I?P« I :¦
" 33 Aftershaves 86 0.3 " 98.0
|%;34'i'Unyercp^mgs - ' •'':" ¦¦;} -'0.37.'• v.v'5813'f'::?;: y.'. V-"' ' J
35 Shoe Polishes, Waxes, &. Colorants 77 0.3 98i6
i^tftOyen-iCleaners" " ' -'vs ' "yT*"<9819"!' ',"•. 200*
37 Paints-other related products 71 0.3 99.1
39 Soot Removers " 50 0.2 99.5 " *
^'40 ¦ 'Waxes-'^Tolish'esXiauicis .• •" ™- -'{AT - .^-J0.2'7~" -'•"rr99.7'™~^ "7''",
41 Hair Care Products - Shampoos 37 0.1 99.8
jpgCarpet;pec3o?£grr'~ :rT7'7^r'~-29.^:"::y'"'0a:~''! T-'39:9'™-"r~"~rr'
" '43 iSuntan Lotions " 16 0.1 100.0 "
pW|g?piiaton«'.; ;¦¦¦;:
* 45 "Anti-static Sprays 1 0.0 * 100.0 '***
$re^IffiSGm'llemovws w- CT^~, ""0.0f^% '^i00.'0,""7"-"T '~T" "'500
7 *47 Drain Openers 0 0.0 lCO.O
Ig^^i^HIeldrV^iiwrrFluid : y -r"- ~-~r :
*1 Nail Polish Remover ^ 300
TOTALS 26,979 100.0
CH-01-57
90
-------
California has taken a lead in developing consumer product emissions inventories and control measures
to reduce VOC emission from consumer products.2 Table 2 presents aerosol propellant and solvent
emissions estimates for eight consumer product categories and 29 subcategories including automotive
and industrial products. VOC emissions from propellants and solvents are estimated at 56 tons per day
(TPD). Of these, solvent emissions comprise 70.5 percent (39.3 TPD) and propellant emissions comprise
29.5 percent (16.4 TPD). The automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes account for approximately 48.2
percent (7.9 TPD) of total propellant and 11.8 percent (9.0 TPD) of total solvent emissions.
Automotive product emissions may be apportioned on the basis of automobile-related activity. There were
approximately 135,671,000 automobiles and light-duty trucks registered in the United States in 1986. Per-
vehicle emission factors were derived by dividing total VOC emissions by this number. National 1986 VOC
emissions and per-vehicle emission factors are as follows:
Car Polishes and Waxes: 50,391 TPY or 0.743 Ib/year/vehicle
Carburetor and Choke Cleaners: 13,093 TPY or 0.193 Ib/year/vehicle
Brake Cleaners: 9,824 TPY or 0.145 Ib/year/vehicle
Engine Degreasers: 5,192 TPY or 0.077 Ib/year/vehicle
Point/area source cutoff
Due to the nature of the use of automotive cleaners, waxes and polishes, this category is considered an
area source.
Level of detail of information available
The CAAA require EPA to prepare a report to Congress on VOC in consumer and commercial products
and to promulgate regulations that would reduce VOC emissions from these products. It is assumed that
the inventory will be developed from individual brand formulations and sales volumes and that these data
will be obtained by a survey of the manufacturers. The best four major studies publicly available are listed
below and include information on comprehensive inventories of VOC from consumer and commercial
products.
. Photochemically Reactive Organic Compounds Emissions from Consumer and Commercial
Products3
. Compilation and Speciation of National Emissions Factor for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use-
Analysis of Regulatory Alternatives for Controlling Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Emissions
from Consumer and Commercial Products in the New York City Metropolitan Area (NYCMA)6
• Expansion of the New York Study: Evaluation of VOC Emission Reduction Alternatives from
Selected Consumer and Commercial Products7
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TABLE 2. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM AEROSOL CONSUMER PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA
AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN (SCAB)2*
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIONS
1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
CONSUMER
PRODUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPO
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPO
PERCENT OF TOTAL
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPO
Paints and Finishes
• Aerosol paints/primers/varnishes 10.67 17.38 26.00 16.92 A.71 7.66
• Other 0.26 0.43 0.63 0.42 0.11 0.19
• Subtotals 10.93 17.81 26.63 173? 4.82 7.85
Household products
• Room deodorants/disinfectants 1.78 7.11 4.34 6.92 0.79 3.13
• Cleaners 2.58 4.65 6.29 4.53 1.14 2.05
• Laundry products 0.57 5.48 1.39 5.34 0.25 2.42
• Other 2.40 1.44 5.85 1.40 1.06 0.63
• Subtotals 7.33 18.68 17.87 18.19 3.24 8.23
Personal care products
jO • shaving lathers 0.79 0.00 1.92 0.00 0.35 0.00
• Hair sprays 6.62 18.81 16.13 18.32 2.92 8.30
• All other hair products 0.26 0.93 0.63 0.91 0.11 0.41
• Medicinals and pharmaceuticals 0.20 0.96 0.49 0.93 0.09 0.42
• Colognes/perfunes/aftershaves 0.08 0.47 0.19 0.46 0.03 0.21
• Deodorants and antiperspirants 5.35 2.23 13.04 2.17 2.36 0.98
• Other aerosol products, suntan 0.05 0.25 0.12 0.24 0.02 0.11
preps, lotions
• Subtotals 13.35 23.65 32.52 23.03 5.88 10.43
Automotive and industrial
Refrigerants
0.00
4.94
0.00
4.81
0.00
2.18
Aerosol windshield/lock deicers
0.00
1.35
0.00
1.31
0.00
0.59
Cleaners
0.10
0.22
0.24
0.21
0.04
0.10
Engine degreasers
0.41
3.55
1.00
3.46
0.18
1.57
Lubricants and silicones
1.61
6.53
3.92
6.36
0.71
2.88
Spray undercoats
0.26
0.16
0.63
0.16
0.11
0.07
Tire inflatants ond sealants
0.42
0.10
1.02
0.10
0.18
0.05
Carburetor and choke cleaners
0.59
4.30
1.44
4.19
0.26
1.90
Brake cleaners
0.13
1.14
0.32
1.11
0.06
0.50
Engine starting fluids
0.00
2.54
0.00
2.47
0.00
1.12
Other
0.44
2.54
1.07
2.47
0.19
1.12
Subtotals
3796
27.37
9764
26.65
TT73
12.08
(continued)
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TABLE 2. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM AEROSOL CONSUMER PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA
AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN (SCAB)2-* (continued)
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIONS
1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
CONSUMER
PRODUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPD
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPD
Animal Products
- Veterinarian and pet products 0.10 0.73 0.24 0.71 0.04 0.32
Food products
• All types (including pon 0.15 1.16 0.37 1.13 0.07 0.51
sprays)
Miscellaneous
• Other aerosol products not 1.50 3.01 3.65 2.93 0.66 1.33
listed above
Consumer pesticides
• Space insecticides 2.89 6.55 7.04 6.38 1.27 2.89
• Residual insecticides 0.83 3.74 2.02 3.64 0.37 1.65
• Subtotals 3.72 10.29 9.06 10.02 1.64 4.54
Grand totals 41.04 102.70 99.98c 100.0 18.08 45.29
Emissions are based on California Air Resources Board estimates. Emissions estimates are based on the assunptions that (1) all propellants and
solvents used in consumer products will eventually evaporate to the atmosphere and participate in photochemical reactions that produce ozone and
.(2) total organic compound emissions equal total volatile organic compound emissions.
TPD = tons per average annual day.
Total does not sum to 100 percent because of independent rounding.
-------
Level of detail required by users
Method 1
VOC emissions by county
Automotive cleaners, waxes, polishes consumed by county
Emissions per product
Method 2
VOC emission by county
Number of vehicles registered per county
Per-vehicle VOC emission factor
Emission factor requirement
VOC emission factor by product or by vehicle
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Some products, such as exterior waxes and polishes may exhibit regional and seasonal variations in use.
Urban or rural characteristics
Automotive cleaners, waxes, and polishes are used in urban, suburban and rural areas. Emissions vary
directly with population and numbers of automobiles.
Methodology
Method 1
. Compile a list of all the automotive cleaning products and their manufacturers.
. Determine sales volumes for each automotive cleaning product per county.
. Conduct laboratory testing, use existing emission factors to "generalize" VOC content by
product and assume 100 percent volatilize, and determine emissions from each
automotive product.
. Calculate total annual emissions for each automotive product. Multiply the emission
factor by the sales in each county.
Method 2
Compile a list of all the automotive cleaning products and their manufacturers.
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Determine sales volumes for each automotive cleaning product per county.
Determine the number of vehicles registered in each county.
Conduct laboratory testing or use existing VOC per-vehicle emission factors to determine
emissions from each automobile.
Calculate total annual emissions for each county. Multiply per-vehicle emission factors
by the number of registered vehicles in each county.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Letter and Attachments from Delao, Andrew P., California Air Resources Board to Strait, Randy,
Alliance Technologies Corporation. Consumer Product Emission Estimate Methodologies.
November 9, 1989. Section 3-6 Solvent Use - Aerosol Consumer Products and Section 4-1,
Pesticide Application-Aerosol Consumer Product Pesticides.
3. Memorandum from Ryan, Ron, Alliance Technologies Corporation, to Bruce Moore and Al
Vetvaert, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, NC. Issues for consumer products inventory protocol. September 28,
1990.
4. Jones, A. et al., Photochemically Reactive Organic Compounds Emissions from Consumer and
Commercial Products, EPA-902/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, New York, NY November 1986.
5. Compilation and Speciation of National Emissions Factor for Consumer!Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April 1989.
6. Pacific Environmental Services. Analysis of Regulatory Alternatives for Controlling Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC) Emissions from Consumer and Commercial Products in the New York City
Metropolitan Area (NYCMA), January 1990.
7. Pacific Environmental Services. Expansion of the New York Study: Evaluation of VOC Emission
Reduction Alternatives from Selected Consumer and Commercial Products, February 1990.
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AUTOMOTIVE FLUIDS AND FLUID LEAKS
Definition/description of category and activity
Automotive fluids include brake fluid, steering fluid, transmission fluid, windshield washing fluid, windshield
deicers, crankcase oil, engine starting fluids, engine coolant and gas-line antifreeze. Additives such as
oxidation inhibitors, rust inhibitors, antiwear agents, detergents and dispersants, pour-point depressants,
viscosity index improvers and foam inhibitors are added in varying combinations to most automotive fluids.
The compositions of these additives are described below, followed by descriptions of automotive fluids
ingredients.
Oxidation inhibitors are generally organic compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus, or alkyl
phenols. Rust inhibitors are mildly polar organic acids such as alkyl succinic or organic amines. Antiwear
agents are composed of fatty acids, esters, ketones, sulfur or sulfur dioxide mixtures, organic chlorine
compounds (such as chlorinated wax), organic sulfur compounds (such as sulfurized fats and sulfurized
olefins), chlorine-sulfur compounds, organic phosphorus compounds (such as tricresyl phosphate,
thiophosphates and phosphites) and organic lead compounds.1
Detergents and dispersants often make up two to 20 percent of automotive lubricants and are primarily
composed of sulfonates, calcium/barium salts of petroleum mahogany sulfonic acids, phosphonates,
thiophosphonates and polymers containing oxygen or nitrogen-bearing comonomers. Pour-point
depressants are usually polymethacrylates or polymers formed by condensation of wax with naphthalene
or phenols. Viscosity index improvers are linear polymers and foam inhibitors are methyl silicone
polymers.'
Engine coolants are composed of glycols, five to 77.5 percent water, 2.5 to 4.5 percent borax, caustic
soda, sodium mercaptobenzothiazole, nitrites, nitrates, silicates, benzotriazole, silicones, mineral oils,
organic phosphates, alkyl lactates, castor oil soaps or calcium acetate and trace amounts of pigments
or dyes. Windshield washer fluid is composed of zero to 50 percent water; 30 to 90 percent methyl
alcohol, ethylene glycol, isopropyl alcohol or propylene glycol; zero to one percent potassium phosphate;
zero to five percent surfactants; and trace amounts to two percent dyes. Gas-line antifreeze is composed
of 20 to 40 percent toluene, acetone, propanol, xylene or isopropanol and 60 to 90 percent isopropanol,
propanol or methanol.2 Windshield deicing fluids are also predominantly composed of ethylene glycol
and propylene glycol.1
The primary ingredient in brake fluids is diacetone alcohol, frequently in combination with castor oil.
These compounds are being replaced by hexylene glycol. Although information on the composition of
power steering fluid is not readily available, the compositions of other automotive lubricants are described
in the Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,1 Crankcase oils are well-fractionated and refined cuts from
paraffin-base, mixed base or cycloparaffinic crude oils. The best grades of oils are derived from paraffinic
or solvent-refined mixed base crudes. Crank case oils often contain one to two percent
zincdithiophosphate or terpene. Transmission and axle lubricants are generally well-refined heavy
lubricating oils containing film-strength improvers or extreme pressure additives. They may contain
between 0.5 and 1.0 percent phenolic and aromatic antioxidants. Antifriction bearing and chassis greases
are usually derived from medium and high viscosity, well-refined lubrication oils, gelled by the addition
of metallic soaps or other thickeners.1
Process breakdown
VOC emissions from automotive fluids are associated with draining, refilling, overfilling or replacing fluids
and from running and standing losses. Evaporative losses of these automotive fluids are likely to
negligible.
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Reason for considering the category
The compounds in automotive fluids are largely hazardous, composed of toxic and ignrtable chemicals.
Given the dominance of the automobile in American life, all aspects of their pollutant contributions should
be thoroughly evaluated. Furthermore, because automotive fluids release VOC which photochemically
react with NO, to form ozone, human health effects merit further consideration. Specifically, elevated
ozone levels have been linked to increased rates of pulmonary infection, decreased pulmonary function
and more frequent angina and asthma attacks in susceptible individuals.
Pollutants emitted
VOC
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Annual VOC emissions from engine coolants, engine starting fluids and windshield deicers in New York
State are estimated at 487, 397 and 209 TPY respectively. These three sources represent 4.1 percent
of total VOC emissions in New York.3 EPA estimates reactive VOC levels of 0.63 pounds per capita per
year for windshield washing fluids.4 This factor yields a national level of VOC emissions from windshield
washing fluids of 81,900 TPY for 1990, assuming an annual growth rate of 1.8 percent.5 Estimates for
pollutant levels associated with brake fluids, steering fluids, transmission fluid, crankcase oil and
windshield deicers are not readily available.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from automotive fluids and fluid leaks occur both at the point of application (mainly service
stations and residences) and at the vehicle. Emissions levels are likely to be low, yet very widely
distributed. Therefore, these sources should be addressed as area sources.
Level of detail of information available
It is likely that data on automotive fluid use will be derived from vehicular use data, such as those provided
by References 6 and 7. In addition, values for total number of vehicles by county are available from each
state's Department of Motor Vehicles. In 1988, 141,251,695 passenger cars and taxis were registered in
the United States. Total VMT for cars was 2,025,586.® Total bus VMT was estimated to be 7,830 for 1988,
based on state motor vehicle registration data. Total truck VMT was estimated to be 580,802.7
It is also necessary to determine usage rates for each automotive fluid per automobile. Simmons Market
Research Bureau, Inc. reports that 34.4 percent of the U.S. population changes radiator coolant during
any one-year period.8 Two to four gallons of coolant are used per application.2 The quantity of fluid used
per application depends on the type of fluid. One and a half to three quarts of windshield washer fluid
is used per application; product labels specify one pint of gas-line antifreeze per application.9 For the one
to 15 percent of car owners using gas-line antifreeze, gas-line antifreeze may be applied once every eight
to ten gallons, two to four fill-ups or 1,000 miles.2
Alternatively, total usage can be calculated at a national level and then scaled to a per capita level. C.H.
Kline reported 1.72 million gallons of gas-line antifreeze used or sold in 1981, extrapolating from 1974 data
and assuming a two percent annual growth rate.10 Similarly, C.H. Kline reported 18.4 million gallons of
windshield washer fluid sold in 1981.10 In 1988, Simmons reported that 86,698,000 gallons of antifreeze
and 26,788,000 cans of gasoline additives had been purchased by consumers in the United States during
CH-91-57
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the preceding year. Simmons also reported that 102,353,000 quarts of crankcase oil had been purchased
during the preceding six months.11 Specific data on use of brake fluid, steering fluid and transmission
fluid are not readily available.
Emissions per volume of automotive fluid must be determined from field experiments, since few emission
factors have yet been developed. Only EPA provides a per capita emission factor estimate for VOC
derived from windshield washing fluid.4
Level of detail required by users
Vehicles per county
Fluid use per vehicle by fluid type
Emissions per volume of fluid by fluid type
Emission factor requirements
VOC and PM10 emissions per county, by fluid type, pollutant type, vehicle class and running/standing/
refilling mode
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Emissions from engine coolants and antifreeze may be greater during summer and winter months,
respectively, but emissions from other automotive fluids are likely to be constant throughout the year.
Emissions may peak during rush hours due to vehicle activity and engine temperature.
Urban or rural characteristics
It cannot be readily determined whether automotive fluid use on a per capita basis varies by location
(urban or rural).
Methodology
. Determine the number of vehicles per county, by vehicle class.
• Determine the amount of fluid used per vehicle, by fluid type and vehicle class.
. Develop emission factors through field studies to determine emissions per unit
automobile fluid. Factors may be broken down by fluid type, pollutant
running/standing/refilling mode.
Compute pollutant emissions per county by fluid type, pollutant type, vehicle
running/standing/refilling mode.
References
1. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Third edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY 1981.
2. JRB Associates. Generic Premanufacture Notification Information for Antifreeze Components and
Additives, Draft Final Report, McLean, VA, 1983.
volume of
type and
class and
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3. Jones, A. ef ai, Photochemically Reactive Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer and
Commercial Products, EPA-902/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, New York, NY November 1986.
4. Kersteter, Sharon L. Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of
Ozone, Volume I, EPA-450-88-021 (NTIS PB89-152409), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1988.
5. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). OECD Environmental Data
Compendium 1985, Paris, France, 1985.
6. Skinner, S.K and T.R Dungan. National Transportation Statistics Annual Report, DOT-TSC-RSPA-
90-2, U.S. Department of Transportation, Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge, MA, 1990.
7. Highway Statistics 1988, FHWA-PL-89-003, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, 1989.
8. Simmons Market Research Bureau, Inc. 1978/1979 Selective Markets and the Media Reaching
Them - Automotive Marketing, Volume 24, New York, NY 1978.
9. Chemical Specialties Manufacturing Association. Ethylene Glycol Base Antifreeze Surveys,
Washington, DC, 1982.
10. C.H. Kline and Company. Multi-client Sun/ey, Gas-line Antifreeze Windshield Washer Antifreeze,
Fairfield, NJ, 1975.
11. Simmons Market Research Bureau, Inc. Study of Media and Markets, New York, NY 1988.
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AUTOMOTIVE RUSTPROOFING/UNDERCOATING
Definition/description of category and activity
Automotive rustproofing is the application of solvent-based coatings into vehicle cavities to prevent cars
from rusting. This activity should be performed within the first three months. Automotive undercoating
is applied to the underside of vehicles for noise deadening. This category covers the application of
rustproofing and undercoating materials after a car leaves the plant, such as at a dealership or body
shop.
Process breakdown
Surface coating of automobiles and light trucks during the manufacturing process is covered by SIC
codes 3711 and 3713.1 Undercoating and rustproofing of vehicles after they leave the plant are not
specified by SIC or SCC code.
Reason for considering the category
VOC emissions from rustproofing currently are not included in the inventories, although they may be
accounted for in solvent use.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, including aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, are emitted. Other pollutants, including silicates and
lead, may also be emitted.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Based on available formulation and consumption data, it is estimated that 1,710 TPY of VOC are emitted
from undercoatings.2
Point/area source cutoff
Since emissions from a single source, such as a dealership or body shop, would probably not exceed
10 TPY this category should be considered an area source.
Level of detail of Information available
EPA has published formulation profiles for a number of solvent-based consumer goods including aerosol
undercoatings. There is only one profile for undercoating formulations. The range of percent VOC by
weight for undercoatings is estimated at 25 to 85 percent.2
Data on consumer demand for undercoatings are not available on a regional basis. Estimates for
consumption of undercoatings are available only for California, New Jersey and New York. These
estimates are based on the population each state and national consumption of undercoatings in 1984.
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Demand for undercoating may be available from supply vendors or from dedicated operations (e.g.,
Ziebart).
Compounds in undercoatings include iron oxides, silicates, lead or lead salts, zinc and zinc salts, titanium
dioxide, alkyd and phenolic resins, fish and vegetables oils, and aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons.
Level of detail required by users
County population
Number of vehicles undercoated/rustproofed per year per county
Amount of undercoating/rustproofing material consumed per county
Emission factor requirements
Formulation profiles of undercoatings
Percentage of undercoatings consumed by formulation
Per capita consumption data for different regions
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
There are no data available on regional or seasonal consumption of rustproofing and undercoating
material. Rustproofings are used to protect a car from rusting caused by climate, salts on roads and
exposure to sea spray (salt). Consumption of rustproofing materials may be higher in coastal areas and
in the colder, wetter regions (e.g., New England and the Midwest) during the months preceding winter.
Urban or rural characteristics
Emissions from this source will vary by vehicle population in an area. It is unknown whether consumer
demand for rustproofing and undercoating shows any urban versus rural difference.
Methodology
To determine emissions from undercoatings, emission factors representing the formulations of these
products must be developed. EPA has developed a profile for one formulation of undercoating; however,
a representative emission factor cannot be developed without data on formulations of other undercoatings
and market share of each of these formulations. In addition, estimates of consumption by region are
needed to account for varying consumer demand for these products.
A survey of automotive shops may yield data on types and amounts of undercoatings used. This survey
would have to be performed in all regions of the country to determine if the climate of a region affects the
level of consumption of these products. Regional estimates of consumption and product formulation can
be applied to population data to estimate emissions for the area under study.
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References
1. Stockton, M.B. and Stelling, J.H.E. Criteria Pollutant Emission Factors for the 1985 NAPAP
Emissions Inventory, EPA-600/7-87-015 (NTIS PB87-198735), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, May 1987.
2. Compilation and Speciation of National Emission Factors for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April 1989.
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DIESEL FUEL - EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS FROM SERVICE STATION OPERATIONS
Definition/description of category and activity
Volatile organic gas emissions result from the evaporation of diesel fuel due to the loading and unloading
of diesel fuel at service stations. Diesel evaporative emissions at service stations can be separated into
four categories: filling underground storage tanks, underground tank breathing and emptying,
displacement losses during vehicle refueling operations and spillage.
Process breakdown
Evaporative emissions from filling underground diesel storage tanks are generated when diesel vapors
in the tank are displaced to the atmosphere by the diesel fuel being loaded into the tank. Loading loss
emissions are dependent on fuel temperature, vapor pressure, method and rate of filling and tank
configuration.
Underground tank breathing emissions occur daily and are attributable to diesel evaporation, barometric
pressure changes and diurnal temperature changes. Diesel evaporation is a function of the frequency
with which diesel fuel is withdrawn from the tank, allowing fresh air to enter the tank.
Displacement loss emissions during vehicle refueling operations occur as vapors are displaced from the
motor vehicle tank by dispensed diesel. The quantity of displaced vapors depends on diesel temperature,
motor vehicle tank temperature, diesel vapor pressure and dispensing rate.
Spillage emissions include prefill and postfill nozzle drip and spit-back and overflow from the vehicle's fuel
tank filler pipe during filling. The amount of spillage can depend on several variables, including service
station business characteristics, tank configuration and operator techniques.
Reason for considering the category
VOC emissions from diesel refueling at service stations have traditionally been considered negligible since
the vapor pressure of diesel is significantly less than the vapor pressure of gasoline. Emissions from
diesel refueling may be of some importance due to large quantities of diesel fuel (17.6 billion gallons per
year) transferred during service station and vehicle refueling. Emission factors for diesel refueling are not
currently included in the MOBILE4 emission factors model.1 VOC from diesel evaporation are precursors
in ozone formation.
Pollutants emitted
VOC unbranched paraffins (i.e., heptane, octane, nonane, n-decane, n-undecane, n-dodecane,
n-tridecane, n-tetradecane and n-pentadecane)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
There has been no attempt to quantify evaporative diesel emissions from service station refueling at the
national or county level. An attempt has been made to estimate diesel emission factors for evaporative
losses for this characterization. Table 1 lists the current AP-42 emission factors available for gasoline
loading losses and the estimated diesel evaporative losses (emission factors) from service station
operations.2 Total diesel evaporative losses from service station operations are estimated to be
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approximately 6,800 TPY for 1987 using the guidance available in Reference 3. Table 2 lists evaporative
diesel emissions from service station operations for the individual emissions categories.
Point/area source cutoff
Service station operations having emissions that exceed the point source cutoff for an inventory (100 TPY
for NEDS) are considered point sources. Using estimated emission factors shown in Table 1, a service
station which sells 258 million gallons of diesel fuel per year would emit approximately 100 TPY and would
be considered a point source.
Level of detail of information available
AP-42 emission factors for filling underground storage tanks:
0.014 lbs VOC/1,000 gallons transferred (submerged loading - dedicated normal service)
0.03 lbs VOC/1,000 gallons transferred (splash loading - dedicated normal service)
State sales data for total diesel fuel are available from Highway Statistics* and from state fuel tax offices.
Level of detail required by users
Diesel fuel sales at a county or state level
Type of filling (fuel loading)
Emission factor requirements
Development of diesel emission factors for underground tank breathing and emptying losses, vehicle
refueling displacement losses and, especially, spillage losses, based on observed emissions rather than
just engineering judgement.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Emissions from fuel loading are higher in the summer due to higher diesel fuel temperatures. Emissions
from tank breathing and emptying are a function of average ambient diurnal temperature change.
Urban or rural characteristics
An urban and rural source
Methodology
Presently no methodology exists for estimating evaporative diesel emissions from service station
operations. The emission factors developed for diesel refueling may need further verification to ensure
that they reflect actual refueling conditions. The methodology used to estimate evaporative gasoline
emissions from service station activities can be used to estimate evaporative diesel emissions. County-
wide diesel evaporative emissions can be estimated by apportioning state sales of diesel fuel to the
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TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF GASOLINE AND DIESEL EVAPORATIVE EMISSION FACTORS FROM
SERVICE STATION OPERATIONS2
Gasoline Emission Rate Diesel Emission Rate
mg/liter lb/103 gal mg/liter lb/103 gal
Emission Source Throughput Throughput Throughput Throughput
Filling underground tank*
Submerged filling 880
Splash filling 1,380
Balanced submerged filling 40
Underground tank breathing
and emptying11 120
Vehicle refueling operations
Displacement losses0
(uncontrolled) 1,320
Displacement losses
(controlled) 132
Spillaged 80
"Emissions from filling underground tanks were calculated using the AP-42 loading equation:
= 12.46 SPM (1)
T
where: = Loading loss, lb/103 gal of liquid loaded
M = Molecular weight of vapors, Ib/lb-mole
P ¦= True vapor pressure of liquid loaded, psia
T = Temperature of bulk liquid loaded, °R (°F + 460)
S = Saturation factor
Gasoline loading loss emissions were calculated for a gasoline temperature of 60°F and RVP of 10. Diesel loading loss
emissions were calculated for distillate fuel no. 2 and a temperature of 60°F.
^Includes any vapor loss between underground tank and gas pump. The diesel emissions factor was estimated by assuming
underground tank breathing and emptying losses are similar to breathing loss emissions from a fixed roof tank. Diesel emissions
were estimated by taking the gasoline breathing loss emissions factor and adjusting for the difference in vapor pressure of gasoline
and diesel with the following equation:
Adjustment factor =
Pe.W(p» • FWJ 068
where: PA = average atmospheric pressure at tank location (psia)
Pg«jouna = ,rue vaPor pressure of gasoline at bulk liquid conditions (psia)
Prfese/ = ,rue vapor pressure of diesel at bulk liquid conditions (psia)
Uncontrolled diesel displacement losses from refueling are assumed to be equal to losses from splash loading. Assume controlled
diesel emissions from refueling (displacement losses) have a control efficiency of 90 percent.
dAssume spillage from diesel refueling is equal to spillage from gasoline refueling.
7.3 2.8 0.0231
11.5 4.0 0.0334
0.3 0.14 0.0012
1.0 1.0 0.0086
11.0 4.0 0.0334
1.1 0.4 0.0033
0.7 80 0.7
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TABLE 2. DIESEL EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS FROM SERVICE STATION OPERATIONS
Emission Source Emissions*
Tons per year
Filling underground tank - splash loading 294
Underground tank breathing and emptying 76
Vehicle refueling operations - Displacement losses (uncontrolled) 294
Spillage 6,166
Total Emissions 6,830
'Assumes diesel fuel accounts for 95 percent of the total dlesel and liquified petroleum gas consumption in 1987.
county level based on vehicle-miles travelled and multiplying by the appropriate emission factor.
Apportioning state diesel fuel sales to the county level could also be based on total mileage, county
population, county vehicle registration and service station employment.
References
1. User's Guide to MOBILE4 (Mobile Source Emission Factor Model). EPA-AA-TEB-89-1 (NTIS
PB89-164271), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Off ice of Air and Radiation. Office of Mobile
Sources. February 1989.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985
through September 1991.
3. Kersteter, Sharon L. Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of
Ozone, Volume I, Third Edition, EPA-450/4-88-021 (NTIS PB89-152409), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1988.
4. Highway Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC. Annual publication.
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VEHICLE LUBRICATING
Definition/description of category and activity
Activities in this category are limited to lubrication or greasing. Lubrication is the application of a
substance of low viscosity between two adjacent solid surfaces (one of which is in motion) to reduce
friction, heat and wear between the surfaces.
A lubricating grease is a mixture of a mineral oil or oils with one or more soaps. The most common soaps
are those of sodium, calcium, barium, aluminum, lead, lithium, potassium and zinc. Oils thickened with
residuum, petrolatum or wax may be called greases. Some form of graphite may be added. Greases
range in consistency from thin liquids to solid blocks and in color from transparent to black. Grease
specifications are determined by the speed, load, temperature, environment and metals in the desired
application.'2
Synthetic lubricants are any of a number of organic fluids having specialized and effective properties that
are required in cases where petroleum-derived lubricants are inadequate. Each type has at least one
property not found in conventional lubricants. The major types are polyglycols (hydraulic and brake
fluids), phosphate esters (fire-resistant), dibasic acid esters (aircraft turbine engines), chlorofluorocarbons
(aerospace), silicone oils and greases (electric motors, antifriction bearings), silicate esters (heat transfer
agents and hydraulic fluids), neopentyl polyol esters (turbine engines) and polyphenyl ethers (excellent
heat and oxidation resistance, but poor low temperature performance).3
Process breakdown
Emissions from automotive lubricants are associated with refilling or replacing and emissions from
standing losses.
Reason for considering the category
The compounds in automotive lubricants are largely hazardous, composed of toxic and ignitable
chemicals. Lubricating grease and synthetic lubricants contain VOC that evaporate on use and are
carried into the atmosphere. VOC photochemically react in the atmosphere to produce ozone and
secondary particulate matter. EPA has determined that ozone in the ambient air damages human health
and the environment. Over 100 major metropolitan areas, representing one third of the United States
population, are exposed to excessive levels of ozone. Lubricating grease may represent a significant
source of unaccounted VOC.
Pollutants emitted
VOC
Air toxics
Estimate of the pollutant levels
No estimations are currently available.
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Point/area source cutoff
Emissions per vehicle and/or emissions per service station-are expected to be less than 10 TPY This
category should be included in the area source inventory.
Level of detail of Information available
It is likely that data on automotive fluid use will be derived from vehicular use data, such as those provided
by References 4 and 5. In addition, total number of vehicles by county are available from each state's
Department of Motor Vehicles. In 1988, 141,251,695 passenger cars and taxis were registered in the
United States. Total VMT for cars was 2,025,586.4 Total bus VMT was estimated to be 7,830 for 1988,
based on data on state motor vehicle registration data. Total truck VMT was estimated to be 580,802.5
Emissions per volume of automotive fluid must be determined from field experiments, since few emission
factors have yet been developed.
Level of detail required by users
Service stations per county
Vehicles serviced per station
Class of vehicle serviced
Fluid use per vehicle
Emissions per volume of fluid
Emission factor requirements
Development of VOC emission factors per county, lubricant type, vehicle class and standing/refilling mode
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
No regional, seasonal or temporal effects are expected.
Urban or rural characteristics
Automotive lubricants are used in urban, suburban and rural areas. Use per vehicle or per capita is
expected to vary by area.
Methodology
. Determine the number of service stations per county.
Determine the number of vehicles serviced by vehicle class.
• Determine the amount of fluid used per vehicle, by fluid type and vehicle class.
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Develop emission factors through field studies to determine emissions per unit volume of fluid
used. This factor may be broken down by fluid type, pollutant type and standing/refilling mode.
Compute pollutant emissions per county broken down by fluid type, pollutant type, vehicle class
and standing/refilling mode.
References
1. . Gressner, H. The Condensed Chemical Dictionary, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Incorporated,
New York, NY 1981.
2. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Third Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY 1981.
3. Chemical and Process Technology Encyclopedia, McGraw-Hill, Incorporated, New York, NY 1974.
4. Skinner, S.K and T.R Dungan. National Transportation Statistics Annual Report, U.S. Department
of Transportation, Transportation Systems Center, Washington, DC, 1990.
5. Highway Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC. Annual publication.
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VEHICLE REPAIR
Definition/description of category and activity
Vehicle repair activities generate emissions from solvents used to clean carburetors, brakes and engines
and from engine starting fluids. These activities may be performed by consumers or by service stations.
Composition of automobile starting fluids, automotive brake cleaners, engine degreasers and carburetor
and choke cleaners are listed in Table 1. VOC emissions result from evaporation of solvents and
propellants, primarily butane, in automotive cleaning products.12
Process breakdown
Automotive repair cleaning products are manually applied by professional mechanics and vehicle owners.
The automotive cleaning products mentioned above are usually in the form of aerosol cans. Evaporation
of organic solvents and propellants releases VOC to the atmosphere.
Reason for considering the category
VOC emissions from vehicle repair have traditionally been considered negligible. Recent studies have
shown that national VOC emissions from carburetor and choke cleaners, brake cleaners, engine
degreasers and engine starting fluids are 13,093 TPY 9,824 TPY, 5,192 TPY and 9,034 TPY, respectively.
Many of the VOC used for vehicle repair are precursors in ozone formation.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, including the following compounds:1
Estimate of the pollutant levels
National VOC estimates for solvents used in automotive repair in 1986 are 37,143 tons per year.3
Acetone
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic 150 solvent
Butane
Butyl cellosolve
Complex amines
Cresylic acid
Cresol (o-,m-,p-)
o-Dichlorobenzene
Ethanolamine
Ethyl alcohol
Ethylene dichloride
Ethyl ether
Heavy aromatic naphtha
Isomers of xylene
Isopropyl alcohol
Kerosene
Methyl alcohol
Methylene chloride
Mineral spirits
Perchloroethylene
Pine oil
Tetrahydrofurfuryl
Toluene
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TABLE 1. FORMULATION PROFILES FOR AUTOMOBILE STARTING FLUIDS, AUTOMOTIVE
BRAKE CLEANERS, ENGINE DEGREASERS AND CARBURETOR CLEANERS1
Species Name Percent by Weight
Carburetor and Choke Cleaners
Formulation 1
Butane 12.00
Ethylene dichloride 63.00
Cresol 25.00
Formulation 2
Aliphatic hydrocarbons 88.00
N-Butane 12.00
Formulation 3
N-Butane 24.00
Ethyl alcohol 11.00
Ethylene dichloride 30.00
Cresol (o-,m-,p-) 35.00
Formulation 4
Methyl alcohol
Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol
Acetone
Isomers of Xylene
Toluene
11.11
11.11
5.56
33.33
38.89
Formulation 5
Methylene chloride 42.10
Cresylic acid 15.80
Complex Amines 0.53
o-Dichlorobenzene 41.57
Brake Cleaners
Formulation 1
Methyl alcohol 100.00
Formulation 2
Ethyl alcohol 100.00
Formulation 3
Isopropyl alcohol 100.00
(continued)
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TABLE 1. FORMULATION PROFILES FOR AUTOMOBILE STARTING FLUIDS, AUTOMOTIVE
BRAKE CLEANERS, ENGINE DEGREASERS AND CARBURETOR
CLEANERS1 (continued)
Species Name Percent by Weight
Engine Degreasers
Formulation 1
Isopropyl alcohol
100.00
Formulation 2
Kerosene
100.00
Formulation 3
Aromatic 150 solvent
100.00
Formulation 4
Mineral spirits
100.00
Formulation 5
Heavy aromatic naphtha
100.00
Formulation 6
Pine oil
37.27
Kerosene
59.04
Ethanolamine
3.69
Formulation 7
Kerosene
87.03
Butyl cellosolve
2.22
Ethanolamine
1.48
Perchloroethylene
9.28
Formulation 8
Butyl cellosolve
25.00
Kerosene
75.00
Formulation 9
Butyl cellosolve
100.00
Engine Starting Fluids
Ethyl ether
100.00
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Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from automotive repair should be considered in the area source inventory since emissions from
any one point would not exceed the point source cutoff.
Level of detail of information available
The number of registered vehicles by county is available from state Departments of Motor Vehicles.
National VOC estimates for service stations, emissions per vehicle registered and per capita emissions
are listed in Table 2.
TABLE 2. VOC EMISSION FACTORS FOR AUTOMOTIVE PRODUCTS3
National VOC
LB/YR VOC
Emissions
Per Vehicle
LB/YR VOC
Product
(tons/year)
Registered
Per Capita
Carburetor and Choke Cleaners
13,093
0.193
0.109
Brake Cleaners
9,824
0.145
0.082
Engine Degreasers
5,192
0.077
0.043
Engine Starting Fluid
9,034
0.133
0.075
Level of detail required by users
Population data by county or the number of registered vehicles by county
Emission factor requirements
Amount of VOC emitted per repaired vehicle
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None known
Urban or rural characteristics
These activities occur in both urban and rural areas, but are population (human and/or vehicle)
dependent.
Methodology
Since county-wide vehicle registrations are available from state Departments of Motor Vehicles, multiplying
the number of registrations by the appropriate emission factors will provide county-wide emissions
estimates of VOC from automobile repair. However, these emission factors were developed using sales
data and may not reflect the actual VOC emissions from automobile repair.
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References
1. Jones, A. et a/., Photochemically Reactive Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer
and Commercial Products, EPA-902/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, New York, NY November 1986.
2. Technical Support Document for a Proposed Regulation to Reduce Volatile Organic Compound
Emissions from Consumer Products, California Air Resources Board, Solvents Control Section,
Criteria Pollutants Branch, Sacramento, CA, August 1990.
3. Compilation and Speciation of National Emission Factors for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use.
Information Complied to Support Urban Air Toxics Assessment Studies, EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS
PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. April 1989.
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COOLING TOWERS
Definition/description of category and activity
VOC and TSP emissions from the vented vapors of cooling systems due to process contaminants in the
cooling water; anti-fouling, anti-scaling, anti-corrosion or other water conditioning additives; and/or
suspended and entrained organics and particulate matter (drift) are carried in the warm vapors. Cooling
towers considered include utility cooling towers, industrial process cooling water towers, commercial
cooling towers (e.g., dry cleaners) and 'comfort' cooling towers (i.e., cooling towers used to maintain a
specified environment or refrigeration system).1,2 In particular, chlorination of fresh waters as a biocide
produces volatile trihalomethanes (THM) such as chloroform, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, etc.,
that are released to the atmosphere.34
Process breakdown
Emissions are released from the cooling tower outlet, usually a stack or vent (particulate and VOC), and
from evaporation from the cooling pond (where applicable).
Reason for considering the category
Cooling towers have not traditionally been considered emissions sources except in large industrial
processes, but are a ubiquitous source (200,000 to 300,000 'comfort' towers in the United States) in urban
areas and may release organic and particulate toxics to the atmosphere. The volume of water used for
cooling is large and the potential for emissions is therefore significant.
Pollutants emitted
VOC (including chloroform) through volatilization and drift, TSP from drift
Estimate of the pollutant levels
50 to 110 kg THM/yr/utility tower (SCAQMD estimates 0.4 TPY chloroform, the principal species, from
utilities in the South Coast Air Basin (SCAB).)3
7,000 to 200,000 kg Cr/year - 'comfort' cooling towers2
0.0034 to 0.034 lb CHCIj/lb chlorine equivalent for chlorinated industrial (and utility) cooling waters, or
about 4.1 lb CHCIj per thousand gallons per minute for large cooling operations. SCAB estimates 2.3 TPY
chloroform in the South Coast Air Basin from industrial sources.
Refinery Cooling Towers: 6 lbs VOC/MG cooling water
10 lbs VOC/1,000 bbls refinery feed
Point/area source cutoff
Industrial cooling towers (e.g., refineries) are properly coded in the point source inventory. A review of
the NEDS SCC listing showed cooling tower SCCs only for refineries.5 Also, small industrial sources (less
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than 100 TPY) which use cooling towers to maintain cold storage, small chemical manufacturers and even
large utilities may be missing from the point source inventory. Part of the reason for their absence is that
the tower as an individual point source emits less than 10 TPY
Level of detail of information available
EPRI likely has information on the number of and the emissions from utility cooling towers.
State-level 'comfort' cooling tower numbers probably can be derived from Reference 2, but growth in their
numbers is unknown.
Emission Factors: Chloroform emission factor, VOC emission rate from utilities, industrial emission factors
from NEDS point source factors
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
TSP and VOC emission factors by cooling tower type
Number, type and throughput (gpm) of cooling towers per county
Other contaminants in the cooling water streams subject to evaporation and entrainment
Emission factor requirements
Total TSP and VOC emission factors by cooling tower type per tower or per throughput
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Greater emissions (use) in the cooling season
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
Methodology
Existing information sources would provide a methodology to estimate VOC emissions from utility and
industrial cooling towers when these populations have been defined. 'Comfort' cooling tower VOC
emissions estimates could be based on the utility sources, but would overestimate emissions in cases
where chlorine is not used as a biocide. No information on TSP from cooling towers was found.
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References
1. Airborne Emissions from Power Plant Cooling Towers, Electric Power Research Institute,
August 1986.
2. Chromium Emissions from Comfort Cooling Towers - BID, EPA-450/3-87-01 Oa (NTIS PB88-197298),
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, March 1988.
. 3. Sources and Concentrations of Chloroform Emissions in the South Coast Air Basin, ARB/R-88/344,
Science Applications International Corporation, April 1988.
4. Smith, J.H., J.C. Harper and B.C. DaRos. Atmospheric Emissions from Electric Power Plant
Cooling Systems, In Wafer Chlorination: Environmental and Health Effects. Volume 4, Book 2, R.L.
Jolley, Ed., 1984.
5. Stockton, M.B. and J.H.E. Stelling, Criteria Pollutant Emission Factors for the 1985 NAPAP
Emissions Inventory, EPA-600/7-87-015 (NTIS PB87-198735), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, May 1987.
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ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS - COMMERCIAL
Definition/description of category and activity
Commercial use of solvent-based adhesives and sealants takes place primarily in the service and
construction sectors. Commercial adhesives include structural glues used for a variety of purposes,
including wood bonding. Commercial sealants include sealants used for roof repair, gutter and drain
sealing, glazing, general crack repair and joint sealing, bathroom caulking and swimming pool repair.
Process breakdown
Adhesive and sealant production is covered by SIC 2891. Consumption is covered in the point source
inventory by SCC 4-02-007-01.
Reason for considering the category
Solvent-based adhesive, caulk and sealant use is currently not included in emissions inventories. The
emission factor for adhesives, caulks and sealants is based on VOC emissions per ton applied; however,
there is no emission factor associated with SCC 4-02-007-01.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, including isopropyl alcohol and isomers of xylene from sealants and caulks and acetone, alcohol
740 P, amyl acetate, L-camphor, ethylene glycol, nitropropane (1-,2-), petroleum oil, toluene and tricresol
phosphate from adhesives1
Estimate of the pollutant levels
National emissions of VOC from caulks and sealants were estimated at 22,667 tons for 1986; emissions
from adhesives were estimated at 9,350 tons in 1986.1 While it is difficult to separate consumer,
commercial and industrial uses of these products, consumer use is estimated at about five percent of total
adhesives.12 The application of a product bought at a hardware store or "do-it-yourself supply channel
would be considered as a consumer, rather than commercial, application. Additionally, some of the
construction application of adhesives would be considered a commercial source. This includes adhesives
used in installing floors, laying carpets and papering walls.3 These factors make it difficult, if not
impossible, to estimate the amount of pollutants emitted by commercial applications of adhesives and
sealants. Most commercial uses of adhesives and sealants are probably included under consumer use;
a few of the applications, such as caulking of windows in a building, may be included under industrial use.
The use of consumer adhesives (those sold through do-it-yourself supply channels) was estimated by one
source to be 194 million pounds per year; the Predicasts Terminal System U.S. Time Series database
shows only 44 million pounds per year of consumer adhesives by households. This difference may be
an indication of the amount of household adhesives that is used by the commercial sector.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from commercial adhesive and sealant use will probably not exceed ten TPY from any one
source. Therefore, these emissions should be included in the area source inventory.
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Level of detail of Information available
EPA has published speciation profiles for several solvent-based consumer/commercial goods including
profiles for caulks, sealants and adhesives. There are three profiles for formulations of consumer sealants
and caulks and seven profiles for consumer adhesives. The range of percent VOC by weight for sealants
and caulks is zero to twenty percent. Based on equal market shares for each formulation, the average
composition of sealants and caulks is six percent isopropyl alcohol and 94 percent isomers of xylene.
Unfortunately, data for associating formulations with brand names are not complete nor are data on
market share by brands or formulations available. Therefore, it is not possible to develop a composite
emission factor for sealants and caulks. Consumer demand for sealants and caulks does not vary
between regions in the United States; per capita VOC emissions from caulks are estimated at 0.188
pounds.1
The formulations of consumer/commercial adhesives range from zero to 85 percent in VOC content. Of
the seven formulations, two contained petroleum oil and two contained toluene. Other VOC, including
acetone, amyl acetate, L-camphor, ethyl alcohol 740 R nitropropane, ethylene glycol and tricresol
phosphate, appear in at least one formulation. In the two formulations with petroleum oil, the petroleum
oil accounts for 100 percent of the VOC. Toluene accounts for 72 percent, by weight, of the VOC in one
of the formulations in which it is found and 100 percent in the other. Formulations are not always
associated with brand names and, even when that information is available, data on market share by
product name are not readily available. Therefore, at this time it is not possible to determine an average
VOC content or a species profile for VOC in consumer/commercial adhesives.
Consumer demand for adhesives varies by region in the United States. This means that per capita VOC
emissions from consumer/commercial use of adhesives vary by region. Estimates of VOC emissions from
consumer and commercial applications are presented in Table 1. There is not enough information
available to separate these numbers into consumer and commercial emissions.
TABLE 1. ESTIMATES OF PER CAPITA VOC EMISSIONS FROM ADHESIVES
Marketing Region
VOC Emissions (lbs/capita)
New England
0.079
Middle Atlantic
0.079
North Central
0.083
South Atlantic
0.070
South Central
0.070
Mountain
0.082
Pacific
0.082
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Level of detail required by users
Population of area
Marketing region of area
Amount of adhesives used by the commercial sector that are classified as consumer or industrial
applications
Amount of caulks and sealants used by the commercial sector that are classified as consumer or industrial
applications
Emission factor requirements
The amount of adhesives consumed by the commercial sector by formulation (this may vary regionally
depending on percentage of sales of different brands)
The percentage of sealants and caulks consumed by the consumer sector by formulation (this may vary
regionally depending on percentage of sales of different brands)
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Consumer use of sealants and caulks will probably not vary by geographic area; market surveys indicate
that per capita use of caulks and sealants does not vary regionally for consumer use of these products.
These "consumer* use data include most commercial usage of adhesives and sealants. There is some
variation in use of adhesives in different regions of the United States. The highest per capita use is in the
North Central States and the lowest is in the South Atlantic and South Central States. There is
approximately a 17 percent difference in amount of adhesives used in the high-consumption and low-
consumption states.1
Urban or local characteristics
Areas with a large amount of new construction will probably have large amounts of commercial and
consumer adhesive and sealant usage associated with caulking of bathrooms, wallpapering and laying
carpets.
Methodology
To determine emissions from caulks, sealants and adhesives, emission factors that represent the brands
and formulations of these products must be developed. Although EPA has developed emission factors
and speciation profiles for different formulations used to make these products, a representative emission
factor cannot be developed until information on market share of different brands, and the formulation of
these brands, is available. Adhesives is a particularly difficult commercial market to identify because many
uses of adhesives are not included in most studies. Estimates of actual use of adhesives range from 20
percent of the figure reported by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census to many times
the officially reported number. Data on commercial/consumer uses and markets for adhesives may not
improve; consumer use of adhesives is estimated at only five percent of the total market. Since product
composition and market shares for products are subject to constant change, it may not be possible or
worthwhile to develop overall speciation profiles for adhesives and sealants.1
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EPA has presented per capita and by-formulation emission factors. An estimate of VOC emissions from
adhesives and sealants can be developed by applying population estimates to the appropriate per capita
emission factor. Another, more costly method involves performing a survey of commercial users of
solvents and adhesives for each area of interest. Most commercial usage is associated with construction
or remodeling of homes. Once the most commonly used product brands have been identified, formulation
data may be obtained from an existing source or the manufacturer may be contacted to provide more
detailed composition data. A comprehensive survey of commercial users of adhesives and sealants would
also help in determining the amount of commercial versus consumer applications of products.
References
1. Compilation and Speciation of National Emission Factors for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April 1989.
2. "Adhesives and Sealants '86: A Chemical Week Special Advertising Section," Chemical Week, Vol.
138, No. 12, March 19, 1986.
3. "Adhesives and Sealants: A Booming $4 Billion Business," Chemical Week, Vol. 140, No. 10, March
18, 1987.
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LAMINATING
Definition/description of category and activity
Lamination is the bonding of layers of materials together for structural, protective or decorative purposes.
Laminating encompasses commercial and industrial applications, ranging from industrial production of
pipe and building materials to commercial activities such as home building. Typical laminating markets
are construction and packaging. Laminating products include counter tops, wall panels, cabinetry and
specialty packaging. No consumer applications are known. Adhesives used in the laminating process
are the sources of VOC emissions. Some particulate matter is also generated from the handling of filler
materials and the trimming during finishing operations. Table 1 presents the major industrial laminating
processes, polymers and products.
TABLE 1. INDUSTRIAL LAMINATING PROCESSES, POLYMERS AND PRODUCTS
Process
Polymer
Products
Flat Laminate Sheets
Epoxy Resins
Melamine Formaldehyde
Phenolic Resins
Alkyd Polyesters
Paper or Cloth Sheets
Counter Tops
Furniture Panels
Fuse Boxes
Terminal Blocks
Transformer Insulation
Wall and Ceiling Panels
Cut-Out Products
Printed Circuit Panels
Laminate Rods and Tubes
Epoxy Resins
Melamine Formaldehyde
Phenolic Resins
Alkyd Polyesters
Paper or Cloth Sheets
Rods, Tubes and Profile Shapes
Tanks
Pressure Bottles
Pipe (oil, chemical, water and sewage)
Continuous Laminating
Alkyd Resins
Chopped Glass Fibers
Awnings
Fences
Greenhouse Panels
Counter Tops
Wood Panels
Patio Covers
Table Tops
Truck and Trailer Panels and Liners
Process breakdown
In the point source inventory, laminating is covered solely under SCC 4-02-007-xx (adhesive application).
Within existing area source inventories, VOC emissions are allocated from the national solvent total
(NEDS) or counted in commercial/consumer solvents from the per capita factor (SIP).
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Laminate products are produced from thermosetting resins and filler sheets. Typical resins include alkyd
polyesters, epoxies, melamine formaldehyde and phenolic resins. Three major processes are used to
produce laminated materials: flat sheet, rod/tube and continuous sheet. Flat sheet is the dominant
method and is presented in a simplified diagram below. In an industrial setting, emissions could be
vented from the workplace to the atmosphere with or without a control device.
voc
voc
voc
Resin -
Sheet -
~Product
>-
>-
LOADING
COOLING
CURING
TRIMMING
PRESSING
HEATING
T
PM
Particulates are generated from the handling and trimming operations. Sources include the additives, the
resin and the fibers. Emissions from tube and continuous laminating are generated from similar
processes to those detailed above. VOC amounts and species will vary between applications.
Reason for considering the category
Laminating is a VOC source due to solvent content of the adhesive carriers and additives (colorings,
plasticiz'ers, hardeners, catalysts, etc.) that are released during the laminating and curing processes.
There are currently no point source SCCs specifically for industrial or commercial laminating processes.
However, this category is a subset of the commercial adhesives category.
Pollutants emitted
VOC (primary)
PM (secondary)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
EPA estimated emissions from adhesives to be 9,350 tons VOC in 1986.1 The portion of this amount
originating from laminating processes is unknown. Laminating is only one of many uses for these
adhesives. No estimate of particulates is available, but particulate emissions are probably very small.
Point/area source cutoff
Industrial applications emitting more than ten TPY VOC should be categorized in point source inventories
under solvent emissions from adhesives. Commercial applications are likely to emit less than ten TPY and
should be assigned to the area source inventory. No consumer applications are known for this category.
Level of detail of information available
Emissions from laminating are associated with the solvents present in adhesives used during the process.
Some adhesives have been characterized for their VOC content, but adhesives used in the laminating
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processes have not specifically been addressed. No current breakdown of the amounts of adhesives
used in laminating compared to overall solvent uses is available.
Level of detail required by users
Point Source SCCs and emission factors are necessary to properly classify industrial laminating
applications. Adhesive consumption and solvent content are required to generate
emissions estimates for point sources.
Area Source Information compiled for adhesives will cover laminating emissions. Necessary
information for the existing per capita methodology requires population statistics and
identification of the specific marketing region. For this specific application, laminating
adhesives content and amount consumed need to be identified (by product).
Emission factor requirements
Laminating adhesive formulations and consumption are required to develop product/process-specific
emission factors. Formulation and market penetration are probably regionally variable. Alternately, per
capita consumption figures and population could be used.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
No known regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Urban or rural characteristics
Sources, especially commercial uses, are likely to be predominantly urban.
Methodology
Current methods used to estimate emissions either allocate national solvent consumption to the area
under study based on employment and population statistics or apply a per capita factor to solvent use.
Estimating emissions resulting from specific uses (like laminating) in a study area requires emission
factors to be determined from formulation data of brand-specific consumption. Potential control of VOC
emissions is enhanced by specific information on the uses, requirements and formulations of
industrial/commercial processes and products. As a start, survey of the adhesives market should precede
determination of specific niches like laminating.
Product-specific information requires formulation testing, market surveys and sales statistics at regional
levels to produce the necessary data to estimate emissions in each area of interest. Many of these data
may be obtained from manufacturers and trade associations. However, formulations and market shares
may be subject to constant change due to economic and technological changes in the market.
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References
1. Compilation and Speciation of National Emission Factors for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April 1989.
2. Jones, A. et ai, Photochemically Reactive Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer and
Commercial Products, EPA-902/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, New York, NY November 1986.
3. Industrial Process Profiles for Environmental Use, Chp. 10a, The Plastics and Resins Processing
Industry, EPA-600/2-85-086 (NTIS PB85-245298), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH, July 1985.
4. Adhesives and Sealants '86: A Chemical Week Special Advertising Section. Chemical Week
138(12) :SAS 1-SAS34.
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LAUNDRY PRODUCTS
COMMERCIAL AND CONSUMER
Definition/description of category and activity
Some commercial and consumer laundry products contain volatile organics including petroleum distillates
and ethanol. These components are emitted to the indoor air as the product is used or vented to the
atmosphere. Commercial dry cleaning is a current point and area source category and is therefore
excluded from the laundry products category. Initially, an attempt was made to differentiate consumer
and commercial products. However, existing inventories and data do not separate these categories.
Formulation differences between consumer and commercial products, and the problem of double-counting
consumer solvents, indicate that these categories probably should be divided when the supporting data
are available.1
Process breakdown
Laundry products are further divided by product type. The products identified as potential emissions
sources are aerosol starches and sizings, aerosol stain remover, prewashes and liquid laundry detergent.
No information on the potential of VOC from fabric softeners or products added to the drying cycle was
located. Laundry products are sprayed, poured or rubbed into the fabric or added to washing machines.
Solid and powder products have not been associated with emissions of VOC.
Reason for considering the category
Although the VOC content in some laundry formulations may already be accounted for in consumer
solvent totals, VOC control strategies are already considering laundry products as an individual emissions
source in California.2 To fully address emissions from commercial and consumer products in SIP
inventories and control strategies, these sources need to be enumerated separately.
Pollutants emitted
VOC - including ethanol, nonethyl amine, 1,2-propanediol, trichloroethylene, butane, perchloroethylene,
methylene chloride, formaldehyde, isopropyl alcohol, etc.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Product Emissions (Estimated)
Liquid Laundry Detergent 7,000 TPY (Ethanol)
Prewash 6,000 TPY
Starch/Fabric Finish 3,000 TPY
Spot Remover 1,000 TPY
TOTAL 17,000 TPY
These national estimates do not distinguish between consumer and commercial products. The annual
national estimates have been based on the source information indicated. However, only Reference 3
Basis of Estimate
Reference 3
Reference 2
Reference 4
Reference 4
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supplied national data. The other estimates have been extrapolated from California estimates on the basis
of population. The original estimates were made on the basis of product content and annual use.
The estimates presented above are based on the average of the potential emissions data ranges
presented in the original documents. Worst case potential emissions are estimated to be about 40,000
TPY based on the high end of ranges given in the literature. For example, one CARB study estimates
total prewash, starch and stain remover emissions as 6.6 tons per day, translating to roughly 22,000 TPY
on an annual national basis (this estimate excludes liquid laundry detergents).5 The liquid detergent
estimate is based on measured emissions during laundering from washing machines; the other estimates
assume 100 percent volatilization of the VOC component. VOC not emitted during the wash cycle would
be considered within the wastewater treatment plant.
Point/area source cutoff
There are no current point source categories for laundry products. Emissions per location are likely to
be far below point source inventory cutoffs.
Level of detail of information available
Present inventory methods rely on product formulation data, market share and sales data to estimate
product VOC content (and therefore emissions) in an area. Inventory studies on laundry products have
been done in California, but no laundry product inventories were located for other geographic regions.
California is currently planning another survey next year. Market share data must be purchased from one
of the national business statistics firms such as Simmons, A.C. Nielson, etc. These data are quite
expensive. The Census of Manufactures covers soap, cleaners and toilet goods, but this is a measure
of production within SIC grouping.8 Emissions are allocated on the basis of population statistics derived
from Census data.
Level of detail required by users
Studies done in one area of the country can be extrapolated to other areas or the nation as a whole on
the basis of population. However, the difference in product formulation, market penetration and individual
use patterns increase the uncertainty of values derived from this strategy. Even existing studies assume
a uniformity of product formulations. In the commercial/institutional sector, many formulations are tailored
to the individual cleaning needs of the client and information from each manufacturer of each product
would be necessary for a more accurate representation.
Emission factor requirements
VOC content and sales data per product type or individual product are necessary to develop inventories
based on use or sales. Alternately, development of per capita and per employee emissions factors may
be viable strategies.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
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Urban or rural characteristics
No special characteristics
Methodology
Two methods are apparent from the current information available. Any estimate would have to be
subtracted from current estimates of "consumer solvents." A rough estimate can be derived based on
California emissions data. These data could be used to derive a per capita factor that could be applied
for any inventory. This method discounts differences in product formulation, market penetration and
individual preferences and does not differentiate commercial and consumer products. Data on bulk
products in the Census of Manufactures may be used to roughly separate product totals into the two
sectors. The method does not recognize that commercial products are often developed to meet client
specifications.
A second, more detailed, method would rely on the Soap and Detergent Association to interact with its
members and access proprietary formulation and market data to derive emissions estimates. The
resolution of these estimates would necessarily be dependent on the available data and the potential
uses, but may be on a state, regional or per capita basis. This approach would entail a great deal of
effort, although the bulk of the effort could be coordinated through the trade association. Cooperation
of the trade association would assure access to confidential data during the development of formulation
and market data. In either effort, changes in the regulatory, economic or technological climate would
affect application of current data in future years. This method may be able to supply individual
commercial and consumer estimates.
References
1. Memorandum. Ryan, Ron, Alliance Technologies Corporation to Bruce Moore and Al Vervaert,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Issues for
Consumer Product Inventory Protocol. September 28, 1990.
2. Proposed Regulation to Reduce Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer Products,
California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA, August 1990.
3. Wooley, J., W.W. Nazaroff and AT. Hodgson. Release of Ethanol to the Atmosphere During Use
of Consumer Cleaning Products. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association
40(8) :1114-1120, 1990.
4. Jones, A. et al., Photochemically Reactive Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer and
Commercial Products, EPA-902/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, New York, NY November 1986.
5. Study of the Efficacy of Aerosol versus Nonaerosol Laundry Products. ARB/R-87/1317 (PB88-
128749), California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA, October 1987.
6. 1987 Census of Manufactures. Soap, Cleaners and Toilet Goods, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC, February 1990.
7. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Richard Sedlak, Soap and
Detergent Association. Laundry product statistics. November 1990.
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TRAFFIC PAINTING
Definition/description of category and activity
Highways, roads and parking lots are marked with many different materials, including solvent-borne paints,
water-borne paints, thermoplastics, preformed tapes, field-reacted materials and permanent markers.'
Solvent-borne paints are the most common materials used for traffic marking. The solvents in these and
other paints and marking materials constitute an area source of evaporative VOC emissions.
Process breakdown
Solvent-borne paints include a resin, pigment and additives suspended in volatile organic solvents.
Water-borne paints contain a much smaller amount of VOC than solvent-borne paints and other marking
methods contain negligible quantities of VOC. After the paint is applied to the road surface, the solvent
evaporates, resulting in VOC emissions.
Reason for considering the category
Emissions from architectural and industrial surface coating are included in the current SIP inventory
guidance. Discussions with EPA personnel indicate that current guidance for estimating emissions from
architectural surface coating does not include traffic painting.2,3 Ongoing efforts to design federal
regulations limiting VOC emissions from architectural surface coating are not expected to cover emissions
from traffic painting.3
Pollutants emitted
VOC
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The U.S. highway system includes over two million lane-miles of highways receiving federal aid." No data
estimating the market penetration of the marking materials were found. Using the methodology outlined
below, over 112,000 tons VOC per year are potentially emitted from marking federally-aided highways (see
Figure 1). This assumes that all highways are marked with solvent-borne materials. This figure does not
include special markings for parking lots and intersections.
Point/area source cutoff
Traffic marking is not included in current emissions inventories. Due to the nature of the activity, it should
be included as an area source.
Level of detail of information available
State Departments of Transportation may be able to furnish the approximate level of each of the above
materials, either in absolute quantities (e.g., gallons) or in relative terms (percent of highways using
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ASSUMED
LANES AND ACCESS CONTROL NUMBER OF LANES MILEAGE LANE-MILES
Rural: one-way
2 lanes
3 lanes
4 or more lanes - undivided
divided highways, 4 or more lanes
degree of access control
none
partial
full
1 718 718
2 593,331 1,186,662
3 2,159 6,477
4 6,551 26,204
6 13,777 82,662
6 5,742 34,452
6 36,830 220,980
659,108 1,558,155
Urban: one-way 1
2 lanes 2
3 lanes 3
4 or more lanes - undivided 5
divided highways, ,4 or more lanes
degree of access control
none 6
partial 6
full 6
4,239
121,121
1,774
21,533
22,072
4,979
15,988
4,239
242,242
5,322
107,665
132,432
29,874
95,928
191,706
617,702
Cumulative: one-way 4,957 4,957
2 lanes 714,452 1,428,904
3 lanes 3,933 11,799
4 or more lanes - undivided 28,084 133,869
divided highways, 4 or more lanes
degree of access control
none 35,849 215,094
partial 10,721 64,326
full 52,818 316,908
Assumptions:
Emission Factor (lb/mi-yr)a: 69
Stripes/lane: 1.5
Results:
850,814 2,175,857
Potential Emissions (ton VOC/yr): 112,601
Figure 1. VOC emissions estimate from traffic painting.
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each material). Lane-miles by state are available from Reference 3. Emission factors are available from
Reference 1.
Level of detail required by users
VOC emissions by county
Lane miles by county or marking materials used by county
Type of marking materials
Commercial and institutional (e.g., parking lot) painting activity
Emission factor requirements
Reference 1 provides the following emission factors:
VOC content VOC emissions
Material lb/gallon Ib/mlle-vear
Solvent-borne paints 3.15 69
Water-borne paints 0.76 13
Thermoplastics Negligible 0
Preformed Tapes
without primer 0 0
with primer 5.3 58
Field-reacted
Epoxy 0.06 0.25
Polyester Not tested 0
Permanent Markers 0 0
*No further work on emission factors appear necessary at this time.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Highway and roadwork occurs predominantly during the spring, summer and fall months. Local highway
authorities should be able to help quantify this variation. A regional variation corresponding to the time
suitable for outdoor work is likely, leading emissions to be somewhat consistent on a monthly basis in
warm states, while cooler states would have large seasonal variation.
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Urban or rural characteristics
Traffic marking activity is greater in urban areas because of the high concentration of paved areas.
Highway marking and parking lot marking occurs in both rural and urban areas.
Methodology
I. Highway and road marking
A. Consult with state highway officials to determine the amount of each type of marking
material used in each county. If these data are available, implement Step C.
B. If material usage data in gallons are unavailable:
1. Determine (from highway officials) the fraction of marking using each of the
marking materials.
2. Using the emission factors for each marking material and their relative amount of
use, calculate a weighted average emission factor.
3. Multiply the area's lane-miles data (from Reference 3 or state highway officials) by
the weighted average emission factor to determine statewide annual emissions.
4. Proceed with step D below.
C. Multiply the emission factor for each marking material by the amount of that material used.
Sum the resulting annual emissions estimates to estimate the annual total VOC emissions
from highway marking.
D. Apportion state emissions to the county level according to highway lane miles (data should
be available through the state highway departments) or according to population data (from
the Census of Population5) or economic indicators (from OBERS,e County Business
Patterns,7 etc.).
E. Using information provided by state highway departments, apportion emissions on a
monthly basis.
II. Nonhighway Marking
A. Survey local distributors of traffic marking paint to determine the amount of each marking
material used for highways and roads versus the amount used for nonhighway concerns.
B. Scale up the highway emissions to reflect the total amount of marking materials used in the
area.
III. Legislative Controls on Traffic Painting
Although discussions with EPA indicated that ongoing efforts to develop federal regulations
restricting VOC emissions from architectural surface coating will not include traffic painting, further
research on traffic painting should include contacting EPA's Office of Air Quality Standards -
Chemicals and Petroleum Branch to identify any upcoming pertinent federal regulations.
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References
1. Aurand, Gary A, et at. Reduction of Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from the Application of
Traffic Markings, EPA-450/3-88-007 (NTIS PB89-148274), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, August 1988.
2. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with William Johnson, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Architectural
surface coating control techniques guidelines. October 30, 1990.
3. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Ellen Ducey, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Architectural surface coating
control techniques guidelines. October 30, 1990.
4. Highway Statistics 1988, FHWA-PL-89-003, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, 1989.
5. 1980 Census of Population, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Decennial publication.
6. 1985 OBERS BEA Regional Projections Volume 2: Metropolitan Statistical Area Projections to 2035,
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Washington, DC, 1985.
7. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC,
1988. Annual publication.
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ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS - CONSUMER
Definition/description of category and activity
Consumer application of adhesives and sealants for woods, plastics, and other materials may be a source
of VOC emissions. Consumer adhesives include all adhesives sold through hobby and model shop
supply channels and stationery, school, and office supply channels. Consumer sealants include sealants
used for roof repair, gutter and drain sealing, glazing, general crack repair and joint sealing, bathroom
caulking and swimming pool repair.
Process breakdown
Adhesive and sealant production is covered by SIC 2891. This is a production industrial code. Adhesive
consumption is covered in the point source inventory by SCC 4-02-007-01.
Reason for considering the category
Solvent-based adhesive, caulk and sealant use is currently not included in emissions inventories.
Emission factors for adhesives, caulks and sealants are based on emissions per ton applied; however,
there is no emission factor associated with SCC 4-02-007-01.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, including isopropyl alcohol and isomers of xylene from sealants and caulks; acetone, alcohol 740
P amyl acetate, L-camphor, ethylene glycol, nitropropane (1-,2-), petroleum oil, toluene and tricresol
phosphate from adhesives'
Estimate of the pollutant levels
National emissions of VOC from caulks and sealants were estimated at 22,667 tons for 1986; emissions
from adhesives were estimated at 9,350 tons in 1986.1 While it is difficult to separate consumer,
commercial and industrial uses of these products, consumer use is estimated at about five percent of the
above totals.12 The application of a product bought at a hardware store or "do-it-yourself* supply channel
is considered a consumer, rather than commercial, application. Most commercial uses of adhesives and
sealants are included under consumer use. These factors make it difficult, if not impossible, to estimate
the amount of pollutants emitted by consumer applications of adhesives and sealants.
Point/area source cutoff
Consumer use of adhesives and sealants will probably not result in ten TPY of emissions at any one time
or in any one place. Therefore, these emissions should be included as in the area source inventory.
Level of detail of information available
EPA has published speciation profiles for several solvent-based consumer goods, including profiles for
caulks, sealants and adhesives. There are three profiles for formulations of consumer sealants and caulks
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and seven profiles for consumer adhesives. By weight, VOC comprised zero to twenty percent of sealants
profiled. Based on equal market shares for each formulation, the average composition of sealants and
caulks is six percent isopropyl alcohol and 94 percent isomers of xylene. Data for associating
formulations with brand names are not complete nor are data on market share by brands or formulations
available. Therefore, it is not possible to develop a composite emission factor for sealants and caulks.
Consumer demand for sealants and caulks does not vary between regions in the United States; per
capita VOC emissions from caulks is estimated at 0.188 pounds.1
The formulations of consumer adhesives range from zero to 85 percent in VOC content. Of the seven
formulations, two contained petroleum oil and two contained toluene. Other VOC, including acetone, amyl
acetate, L-camphor, ethyl alcohol 740 P, nitropropane, ethylene glycol and tricresol phosphate, appear
in at least one formulation. In the two formulations with petroleum oil, the petroleum oil accounts for 100
percent of the VOC. Toluene accounts for 72 percent, by weight, of the VOC in one of the formulations
in which it is found and 100 percent in the other. Formulations are not always associated with brand
names and even when that information is available, data on market share by product name are not readily
available. Therefore, at this time it is not possible to determine an average VOC content or a species
profile for VOC in consumer adhesives.
Consumer and commercial demand for adhesives varies by region of the United States. Per capita VOC
emissions from consumer use of adhesives vary by region from 0.166 pounds per capita to 0.195 pounds
per capita. Estimates of VOC emissions from consumer and commercial applications are presented in
Table 1. There is not enough information available to separate these numbers into consumer and
commercial emissions.
TABLE 1. ESTIMATES OF PER CAPITA VOC EMISSIONS FROM ADHESIVES
Marketing Region VOC Emissions (lbs/capita)
New England 0.079
Middle Atlantic 0.079
North Central 0.083
South Atlantic 0.070
South Central 0.070
Mountain 0.082
Pacific 0.082
Level of detail required by users
Population of area
Marketing region of area
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Emission factor requirements
The amount of adhesives consumed by formulation (this may vary regionally depending on percentage
of sales of different brands)
The percentage of sealants and caulks consumed by formulation (this may vary regionally depending on
percentage of sales of different brands)
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Consumer use of sealants and caulks will not vary by geographic area (market surveys indicate that per
capita use of caulks and sealants does not vary regionally). There is some variation in use of adhesives
in different regions of the United States. The highest per capita use is in the North Central States and
the lowest is in the South Atlantic and South Central States. There is approximately a 17 percent
difference in amount of adhesives used in the high-consumption and low-consumption states.
Urban or rural characteristics
Per capita emissions from this source do not vary between rural and urban areas.
Methodology
To determine emissions from caulks, sealants and adhesives, emission factors that represent the brands
and formulations of these products must be developed. Although EPA has developed emission factors
and speciation profiles for different formulations used to make these products, a representative emission
factor cannot be developed until information on market share of different brands, and the formulation of
these brands, is available. Adhesives is a particularly difficult consumer market to identify because many
uses of adhesives are not included in most studies. Estimates of actual use of adhesives range from
twenty percent of the figure reported by the U.S. Bureau of the Census to many times the officially
reported number Data on consumer uses and markets for adhesives may not improve; consumer use
of adhesives is estimated at only five percent of the total market. Since product composition and market
shares for products are subject to constant change, it may not be possible or worthwhile to develop
overall speciation profiles for adhesives and sealants.'
EPA has presented per capita and by-formulation emission factors. An estimate of VOC emissions from
adhesives and sealants can be developed by applying population estimates to the appropriate per capita
emission factor. Another, more costly, method involves performing a consumer product survey for each
area of interest. This would involve identifying the most important product brands in the area and
conducting a shelf survey to determine approximate market shares for each of the products. Once the
product brands have been identified, formulation data may be obtained from an existing source or the
manufacturer may be contacted to provide more detailed composition data. Per capita consumption
estimates would be applied to population estimates to yield an estimate of total product consumed. Total
product can then be partitioned by market share of brands and the formulations of the brands to estimate
the VOC emissions from the product category.
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References
1. Compilation and Speciation of National Emission Factors (or Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April 1989.
2. 'Adhesives and Sealants '86: A Chemical Week Special Advertising Section,' Chemical Week, Vol.
138, No. 12, March 19, 1986.
3. 'Adhesives and Sealants: A Booming $4 Billion Business," Chemical Week, Vol. 140, No. 10, March
18, 1987.
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HOUSEHOLD CLEANERS AND POLISHES
Definition/description of category and activity
Household cleaners and polishes are any consumer products which are intended for household use to
clean, disinfect, wash or polish household surfaces, garments or fabrics. These products include, but are
not limited to, the following: furniture maintenance products, general purpose cleaners, glass cleaners,
toilet bowl cleaners, spot removers, metal polishes and shoe polishes.'2
Process breakdown
Household cleaners and polishes are classified as either aerosols or nonaerosols. These two categories
can be further broken down as aerosol propellants, aerosol solvents and nonaerosol solvents. Propellants
are used to propel aerosol products from containers, solubilize active ingredients and serve as part of the
diluent system. Solvents solubilize the product ingredients and affect the evaporation rate of the product.
Reason for considering the category
Aerosol propellants and solvents and nonaerosol solvents contain VOC that evaporate on use and are
carried into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, VOC photochemically react to produce ozone and
secondary particulate matter. Household cleaners and polishes represent significant sources of
unaccounted VOC.
Pollutants emitted
VOC
Estimate of the pollutant levels
AP-42 has calculated national emissions and per capita emission factors for commercial and consumer
solvents.1 Household cleaners and polishes are not specifically categorized. However, AP-42 lists two
major categories (household products and polishes and waxes) which include many of the same
individual items. The evaporative emissions from commercial and consumer solvent use for nonmethane
VOC are as follows:
National emissions for household products are 201,000 TPY
National emissions for polishes and waxes are 53,000 TPY
• Household product per capita emission factor is 1.9 lb/year or 5.2x10'3 lb/day.
• Polishes and waxes per capita emission factor is 0.49 lb/year or 1.3x10'3 lb/day.
VOC emissions estimated for consumer product categories are listed in Reference 3. Table 1 shows the
total VOC content for 49 consumer product categories for New York State, as estimated by Science
Applications International Corporation. Estimates from reports by Pacific Environmental Services and
CARB are included for some comparison. The values provided by CARB were estimated using state
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population ratios and a recent CARB staff report on proposed consumer product regulations. The
household cleaners and polishes are presented in Table 1 by numbers 3, 20, 21, 22, 29, 35, 36, 39, and
40. Estimated total VOC emissions from household cleaners and polishes in New York are 3,693 tons per
year.
California has taken a lead in developing consumer product emissions inventories and control measures
to reduce VOC emissions from consumer products.2 Table 2 presents aerosol propellant and solvent
emissions estimates for eight consumer product categories and 29 subcategories including household
products. However, only household cleaners have been inventoried and included in the category. VOC
emissions from propellants and solvents are estimated at about 56 TPD. Of these, solvent emissions
comprise 70.5 percent (39 TPD) and propellant emissions comprise 29.5 percent (16 TPD). The
household cleaners account for approximately 3.4 percent of total propellant and 4.5 percent of total
solvent emissions. As shown in Table 3, the nonaerosol consumer products solvent emissions inventory
consists of emissions estimates for five consumer product categories and 40 subcategories including the
household products category. Total nonaerosol solvent emissions were about 46 TPD. The household
cleaners and polishes accounted for 14.1 percent of the total VOC emissions.2
Point/area source cutoff
Due to the nature of use in household products, this category is considered an area source.
Level of detail of Information available
The CAAA are expected to require EPA to prepare a report to Congress on VOC in consumer and
commercial products and to promulgate regulations that would reduce VOC emissions from these
products. It is assumed that the inventory will be developed from individual brand formulations and sales
volumes and that these data will be obtained by a survey of the manufacturers. The best four major
studies publicly available are listed below and include information on comprehensive inventories of VOC
from consumer and commercial products.
Photochemically Reactive Organic Compounds Emissions from Consumer and Commercial
Products5
Compilation and Speciation of National Emissions Factor for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use6
. Analysis of Regulatory Alternatives for Controlling Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Emissions from
Consumer and Commercial Products in the New York City Metropolitan Area (NYCMA)7
Expansion of the New York Study: Evaluation of VOC Emission Reduction Alternatives from Selected
Consumer and Commercial Products8
Level of detail required by users
VOC emissions by county
Personal product consumption by county
Emissions per personal product
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TABLE 2. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM AEROSOL CONSUMER PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA
AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN (SCAB)2-'
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIONS
1987 SCAB PHISSIOHS
CONSUMER
PRODUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPD°
PERCENT OF TOTAL
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPO
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPOD
Paints and Finishes
Aerosol paints/primers/varnishes 10.67
Other
0.26
17.38
0.43
26.00
0.63
16.92
0.42
4.71
0.11
7.66
0.19
Subtotals
10.93
17.81
26.63
17.34
4.82
7.85
Household products
• Room deodorants/disinfectants 1.78
• Cleaners 2.58
• Laundry products 0.57
• Other 2.40
7.11
4.65
5.48
1.44
4.34
6.29
1.39
5.85
6.92
4.53
5.34
1.40
0.79
1.14
0.25
1.06
3.13
2.05
2.42
0.63
Subtotals
7.33
18.68
17.87
18.19
3.24
8.23
O
Personal care products
• Shaving lathers 0.79
• Hair sprays 6.62
• All other hair products 0.26
¦ Medicinals and pharmaceuticals 0.20
• Colognes/perfimes/aftershaves 0.08
• Deodorants and antiperspirants 5.35
• Other aerosol products, suntan 0.05
preps, lotions
• Subtotals 13.35
0.00
18.81
0.93
0.96
0.47
2.23
0.25
23.65
1.92
16.13
0.63
0.49
0.19
13.04
0.12
32.52
0.00
18.32
0.91
0.93
0.46
2.17
0.24
23.03
0.35
2.92
0.11
0.09
0.03
2.36
0.02
5.88
0.00
8.30
0.41
0.42
0.21
0.98
0.11
10.43
Automotive and industrial
• Refrigerants 0.00
¦ Aerosol uindshield/lock deicers 0.00
• Cleaners 0.10
• Engine degreasers 0.41
¦ Lubricants and silicones 1.61
• Spray undercoats 0.26
• Tire inflatants and sealants 0.42
• Carburetor and choke cleaners 0.59
• Brake cleaners 0.13
• Engine starting fluids 0.00
• Other 0.44
4.94
1.35
0.22
3.55
6.53
0.16
0.10
4.30
1.14
2.54
2.54
4.81
1.31
0.21
3.46
6.36
0.16
0.10
4.19
1.11
2.47
2.47
0.00
0.00
0.04
0.18
0.71
0.11
0.18
0.26
0.06
0.00
0.19
2.18
0.59
0.10
1.57
2.88
0.07
0.05
1.90
0.50
1.12
1.12
Subtotals
3.96
27.37
9.64
26.65
1.73
12.08
(continued)
-------
TABLE 2. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM AEROSOL CONSUMER PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA
AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN (SCAB)2'* (continued)
1987 CALIFORNIA EH) SSI QMS
1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
CONSUMER
PRODUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS.
IPOD
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
TPD
PERCENT OF TOTAL
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPOD
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPD
Animal Products
• Veterinarian and pet products 0.10 0.73 0.24 0.71 0.04 0.32
Food products
• All types (including pan 0.15 1.16 0.37 1.13 0.07 0.51
sprays)
Miscellancous
- Other aerosol products not 1.50 3.01 3.65 2.93 0.66 1.33
Iistcd above
Consumer pesticides
• Space insecticides 2.89 6.55 7.04 6.38 1.27 2.89
• Residual insecticides 0.83 3.74 2.02 3.64 0.37 1.65
• Subtotals 3.72 10.29 9.06 10.02 1.64 4.54
Grand totals 41.04 102.70 99.98c 100.0 18.08 45.29
Emissions are based on California Air Resources Board estimates. Emissions estimates are based on the assunptions that (1) all propellents and
solvents used in consumer products will eventually evaporate to the atmosphere and participate in photochemical reactions that produce ozone and
. (2) total organic compound emissions equal total volatile organic compound emissions.
TPD = tons per average annual day.
cTotal does not sun to 100 percent because of independent rounding.
-------
TABLE 3. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM NONAEROSOL CONSUMER
PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN (SCAB)2-*
CONSUMER
PRODUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
1987 CALIFORNIA
EMISSIONS
1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPD
PERCENT
OF TOTAL
EMISSIONS
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
Household products
¦ Room deodorants and disinfectants
Not estimated
• Cleaners
a. window cleaners
2.54
2.38
1.12
b. general cleaners
1.10
1.03
0.48
• Laundry products
a. spot removers
0.27
0.25
0.12
b. other
Not estimated
¦ Waxes and polishes
a. floor polishes
6.40
6.01
2.82
b. furniture polishes
3.90
3.66
1.72
c. metal polishes
0.59
0.55
0.26
• Ball point and porous tip pens
0.06
0.05
0.03
• Other household products
a. shoe polishes
0.22
0.21
0.10
b. adhesives and sealants
3.95
3.71
1.74
• Subtotals
19.02
17.85
1739
Personal care products
• Pre-shaving
0.53
0.50
0.23
• After shaves
4.22
3.96
1.86
• Hair sprays (punps)
7.07
6.64
3.12
• Other hair care products
a. hair tonics
0.05
0.04
0.02
b. shampoos
2.80
2.63
1.24
c. hair rinses
0.21
0.20
0.09
• Medicinals and pharmaceuticals
Not estimated
• Deodorants and antiperspirants
a. sticks
5.09
4.77
2.25
b. roll-ons
1.50
1.41
0.66
• Nail care products
1.23
1.16
0.54
¦ Rubbing alcohols
3.60
3.38
1.59
• Other personal care products
a. mouthwashes
3.06
2.87
1.35
b. creams
4.08
3.83
1.80
c. suntan lotions
0.83
0.78
0.37
d. hand lotions
1.87
1.76
0.82
e. cleaning lotions
2.54
2.38
1.12
• Subtotals
38.69
36.32
17.06
(continued)
CH-91.57
142
-------
TABLE 3. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM NONAEROSOL CONSUMER
PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN
(SCAB)2-* (continued)
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIONS 1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
CONSUMER SOLVENT PERCENT SOLVENT
PRODUCT CATEGORY/ EMISSIONS, OF TOTAL EMISSIONS,
SUBCATEGORY TPD EMISSIONS TPtT
Automotive and industrial
Windshield washer fluids
Cleaners
Lubricants and silicones
Carburetor and choke cleaners
Brake cleaners
Engine starting fluids
Brake fluids
Radiator antifreezes
• Subtotals
Consumer pesticides
• Insect sprays, space insecticides,
and residual insecticides
• Other
28.63
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
4. 07
16.15
4878A
Not estimated
Not estimated
26.87
3.82
15.15
12.63
1.79
7.13
21755
Hi seeI(aneous
• Pet products
• Food products
• Charcoal starter fluids
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
2.20
Grand totals
106.55
100.00
49.20
Emissions are based on California Air Resources Board (CARB) estimates (except as indicated by footnote c).
Emissions estimates are based on the assumptions that (1) all propellants and solvents used in consumer
products will eventually evaporate to the atmosphere and participate in photochemical reactions that
.produce ozone and (2) total organic compound emissions equal total volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions.
TPD = tons per average annual day. The CARB estimated total nonaerosol emissions to be 47.00 TPD in
1987. The CARB estimate did not include emissions estimates for charcoal starter fluids. Therefore, the
column showing percent of total emissions was based on 47.00 TPD.
cThe South Coast Air Quality Management District estimated VOC emissions from charcoal starter fluid to be
2.0 TPD in 1985, 2.5 TPD in 2000, and 2.8 TPD in 2010. Emissions for 1987 were estimated to be 2.2 TPD
based on linear extrapolation between the 1985 and 2000 emissions values.
143
-------
Emission factor requirements
VOC emissions by household cleaner and polish type
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
No regional or seasonal variability occurs.
Urban or rural characteristics
Household cleaners and polishes are used in urban, suburban and rural areas. Emissions vary directly
with population.
Methodology
Compile a list of all the household cleaners and polishes and their manufacturers.
. Determine sales volumes for each household product per county.
Conduct laboratory testing or use existing emission factors to determine emissions from each
household product. (Could also use generalized formulation data to develop product-type
emission factors.)
Calculate total annual emissions for each household product. Multiply the emission factor by the
sales in each county.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Letter and Attachments from Delao, Andrew P., California Air Resources Board to Strait, Randy,
Alliance Technologies Corporation. Consumer Product Emission Estimate Methodologies.
November 9, 1989. Section 3-6 Solvent Use - Aerosol Consumer Products and section 4-1,
Pesticide Application-Aerosol Consumer Product Pesticides.
3. Memorandum from Ryan, Ron, Alliance Technologies Corporation, to Moore, Bruce and Al
Vervaert, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Issues for Consumer Products Inventory Protocol. September 28, 1990.
4. Memorandum from Walata, Stephen and Ron Ryan, Alliance Technologies Corporation, to Bruce
Moore, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Manufactures and Distributors of Consumer Products. October 1, 1990.
5. Jones, A. et al., Photochemically Reactive Organic Compounds Emissions from Consumer and
Commercial Products, EPA-904/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1986.
CH-91-57
144
-------
6. Compilation and Speciation of National Emissions Factor for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April, 1989.
7. Analysis of regulatory alternatives for Controlling Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Emissions
from Consumer and Commercial Products in the New York City Metropolitan Area (NYCMA), Pacific
Environmental Services, January 1990.
8. Expansion of the New York Study: Evaluation of VOC Emission Reduction Alternatives from
Selected Consumer and Commercial Products, Pacific Environmental Services, February 1990.
CH-91-57
145
-------
PERSONAL PRODUCTS
Definition/description of category and activity
Personal products are any consumer products applied to the body of a human being including, but not
limited to the following: hair sprays, hair tonics, shampoos, hair rinses, colognes, perfumes, deodorants
and antiperspirants, pre-shaves, shaving lathers, aftershaves, nail-care products, rubbing alcohols, mouth
washes, suntan preps, suntan lotions, hand lotions, cleaning lotions and hand soaps.1,2
Process breakdown
Personal products are classified as either aerosols or nonaerosols. These two categories can be further
broken down as aerosol propellants, aerosol solvents and nonaerosol solvents. Propellants are used to
propel aerosol products from containers, solubilize active ingredients and serve as part of the diluent
system. Solvents solubilize the product ingredients and affect the evaporation rate of the product.
Reason for considering the category
Aerosol propellants and solvents and nonaerosol solvents contain VOC that evaporate on use and are
carried into the atmosphere. VOC photochemically react in the atmosphere to produce ozone and
secondary particulate matter. Personal products represent significant sources of unaccounted VOC.
Pollutants emitted
VOC
Estimate of the pollutant levels
AP-42 has calculated national emissions and per capita emission factors for commercial and consumer
solvents.1 Personal products are not specifically categorized. However, AP-42 lists toiletries which include
many of the same individual items. The evaporative emissions from commercial and consumer solvent
use for nonmethane VOC are as follows:
National emissions for personal products are 145,000 TPY
. Per capita emission factors are 1.4 lb/year or 3.8x10'3 lb/day
VOC emissions estimated for consumer product categories are listed in Reference 3. Table 1 shows the
total VOC content for 49 consumer product categories for New York State, as estimated by Science
Applications International Corporation, Pacific Environmental Services and CARB. The values provided
by CARB were estimated using state population ratios and a recent CARB staff report on proposed
consumer product regulations. The personal care products are represented in Table 1 by numbers 2,
12, 23, 25, 30, 31, 33, 38, 41, 43, 44 and 49. Estimated total VOC emissions from personal care products
in New York are 4,494 tons per year.
California has taken the lead in developing consumer product emissions inventories and control measures
to reduce VOC emission from consumer products. Table 2 presents aerosol propellant and solvent
CH-91-57
146
-------
TABLE 1. ANNUAL TONS VOC FOR NEW YORK STATE3
SAIC
% of
CUMULAT.
PES "
CARB
S PRODUCT CATEGORY
1986
TOTAL
%
1990
1990
1 Spray Paints, Primers, Varnishes
4,190
15.5
15.5
7,211
:* '2,?n-
" "UO.S
;",.26;3 ;
10,260
;10Ff::Ho;?COl
3 All Purpose Cleaners
'2,526'
•• "*"'9.4'
35.7 "
6,574
1,200
1~V','4'f Ins ec i ;'Sprays •" x ""•" 1''ij ;".'
'¦' 2,214"
"'8-2
:'43:9
Pli78ls;
loo '
5 Room Deodorants &. Disinfectants
1,758 ""
6.5
50.4""
""6,964'
2,000 '
x 6 "Car. P ol isheY & 'Waxes :~
"• "i.658 '
' '.'6.1*
•'';::"':^56;5T:;r
¦••;;•• V :T;nVv:x'<
7 Adhesives (excludes industrial)
1,602 "
"" 5.9
""'62.5 '
' 2,044
1 //ivAV. /-¦ X *v^»v..
i\'r:'8^'Ciul^gy&.Sejlmg Compounds. ^ ^:
9 "Moth Control Products
995""
""877 "
r.'2.i;3-7 .
3.3
': 662'* ~
v.-- - 'v.- •* AN<
69.4
i:
^IO^Windows&lGJass. Cleaners - ;
x"* - V~840~
~'™}'"'3;i:
¦"'•"r:;-;"72;5
",:Z:'y£l
li Herbicides & Fungicides
754""'
—-'2-g-
75.3
^.UZ^PersohHIpeodoranu" '
" ' "'"699 f
v~y:5 2.6
':":'v";"w'77:.9
i3 Auto Antifreezes
"" 487 "'
"l.8
79.7
? y:14:Car b u ret or' C h o ke Cleaners x
1.6.
" " - "K 81."4 7 "
15 Brake Cleaners
431"
>:'";i.6"
83.0
fA16^Engire/Degreasers ;'x
?77P^2i:7
:too:
:'84:'5'"""."
tWMM
i.tra.
17 "Engine Starting Fluids
397 ""
1.5
" 86.0
:§>18xR£ig:&::XJpEoIste^' .CIeaners:-%^.x71
389.':'':
®5x'xlI4 ••
19 Lubricants & Silicones
""'""""'"382 "'
i;4-
88.8
p:201Me ta 1JCleaners '&! Poiishe's 1 T -¦ ; xl7;H¦
" " I'.O
89.9 '
..... N.
"21 Waxes &. Polishes
273
"""' 1.0
90.9"
:i ;"""':'"r7ob"
rX;22.?'.Tile'vS:: 2 a tHroo a: CI e'acer's/ ;•( x
"'
-:" ""9i ;S
X y-x'" *
•- '' •• ioo;
23 Styling Mousse
" "" 227 "
0.8
'92.6
100'
^ ?24^rVyinBs^Ieid;^De:cjer): 1• ••'£
rf?P1209¥
sio;s;
•• •93:4 I":'
25 Pharmaceuticals
209"'
0.8
94.2
v-;26} jlnsec t:Re pel 1 & i
165
«r0:6"
'"94.8
;:v;"99.
. V S- V.V •
27 Starch & Fabric Finish
"""' 153
ore
"95.4 "
Wi2S''Auto'Clear.ers • H . Y:;j-i::xx?ix ¦ vix;;. x
; ;i4S"
0". 5-
:'.'x'/'y'xl\\'Zw'''':
29 Floor Waxes &. Poliihcs
127 "
" 0.5
96.4
6C0 :
1/30 ! Colognes 7" x"x ' : "• • •
:r. 127'"
PPi:o:5"'
" 96.'8
,:':xav>::'x x: ::: x :";;
31 Shaving Lathers
""'' 120 '"
0.4'
97.3
:«:P32.: Ah;mal\Ihsectic:3esxxj¦•)x:xj; ;xxx W-W-
x«:cy®07™
:o.4
Wt^Msn :7®<:s:
;lp:T82;
x-x v-s
33 Aftershaves
86
0.3
98.0
vi :3 4 V:: Uncfe r c'c a tin gs; ;x f; xx:: i
wzmz*
::'r';:-:<:'98'.3'r'
35 Shoe Polishes, Waxes, &. Colorants
• ~-77-
0.3
98.6"
i>36 ;Oven Cleaners ;¦
-¦ --;o.3'
" ",98.9 7 -•
;j' "'200j
37 Paints-other related products
71
0.3
" 99.1
•-^38''Perfumes"",".".'''
:.: 57"
-"""0.2:
V99.3 ""T"
ilS3HiSps
39 Spot Removers
50
0.2
99.5
;v\40 Waxes'<^PcIishesXiqui&,' "'
0.2'
"' '-'99.7--
41 Hair Care Products - Shampoos
~~37
"" "' 0.1
.. A'.V.V. . /• ,¦ A • • V ' '..VA^VfAH AT^.V.'.VA
99.8
g^42||C?^el]!D|^pftters v^~ *"¦ "T~
¦—r:"":"29 "'
"p^ron"
43 Suntan Lotions
' 16
""o.r
'100.0
•"'$4'.'depilatories.. .
o:o
"" •" ""100.0
Y,vv'?;T:V;:T:>
45 Anti-static Sprays
1 "'
0.0
100.0"
ewas^'Stjin^Removers
":.o"
::o-';;o:o-
"1C0.0 ,
.. . .
"";^";;h:5ooo
47 Drain Openers
' o "
0.0
"""100.0~"
7?4gAWihc3iHjeld Wisher Fluid "
";:';:;"v;T,700'v
4-1 Nail Polish Remover
" 300
TOTALS
26,979
100.0
CH-61-57
147
-------
TABLE 2. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM AEROSOL CONSUMER PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA
AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN2-*
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIONS
1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
CONSUMER
PRCOUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPD
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPOD
PERCENT OF TOTAL
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPD
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
Paints and Finishes
• Aerosol paints/primers/varnishes 10.67
• Other 0.26
17.38
0.43
26.00
0.63
16.92
0.42
4.71
0.11
7.66
0.19
¦ Subtotals
10.93
17.81
26.63
17.34
4.82
7.85
Household products
• Room deodorants/disinfectants 1.78
• Cleaners 2.58
• Laundry products 0.57
• Other 2.40
7.11
4.65
5.48
1.44
4.34
6.29
1.39
5.85
6.92
4.53
5.34
1.40
0.79
1.14
0.25
1.06
3.13
2.05
2.42
0.63
• Subtotals
7.33
18.68
17.87
18.19
3.24
8.23
¦C*
00
Personal care products
- Shaving lathers 0.79
• Hair sprays 6.62
• All other hair products 0.26
¦ Medicinals and pharmaceuticals 0.20
• Colognes/perfumes/aftershaves 0.08
• Deodorants and antiperspirants 5.35
- Other aerosol products, suntan 0.05
preps, lotions
0.00
18.81
0.93
0.96
0.47
2.23
0.25
1.92
16.13
0.63
0.49
0.19
13.04
0.12
0.00
18.32
0.91
0.93
0.46
2.17
0.24
0.35
2.92
0.11
0.09
0.03
2.36
0.02
0.00
8.30
0.41
0.42
0.21
0.98
0.11
Subtotals
13.35
23.65
32.52
23.03
5.88
10.43
Automotive and industrial
Refrigerants
0.00
4.94
0.00
4.81
0.00
2.18
Aerosol windshield/lock deicers
0.00
1.35
0.00
1.31
0.00
0.59
Cleaners
0.10
0.22
0.24
0.21
0.04
0.10
Engine degreasers
0.41
3.55
1.00
3.46
0.18
1.57
Lubricants and silicones
1.61
6.53
3.92
6.36
0.71
2.88
Spray undercoats
0.26
0.16
0.63
0.16
0.11
0.07
Tire inflatants and sealants
0.42
0.10
1.02
0.10
0.18
0.05
Carburetor and choke cleaners
0.59
4.30
1.44
4.19
0.26
1.90
Brake cleaners
0.13
1.14
0.32
1.11
0.06
0.50
Engine starting fluids
0.00
2.54
0.00
2.47
0.00
1.12
Other
0.44
2.54
1.07
2.47
0.19
1.12
Subtotals
3.96
27.37
9.64
26.65
1773
12.08
(continued)
-------
TABLE 2. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM AEROSOL CONSUMER PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA
AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN (SCAB)2 * (continued)
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIONS
1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
CONSUMER
PRODUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPO
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS
PERCENT OF TOTAL
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS
PROPELLANT
EMISSIONS,
TPO6
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
Animal Products
• Veterinarian and pet products 0.10
Food products
• All types (including pan 0.15
sprays)
Miscellaneous
• Other aerosol products not 1.50
listed above
Consumer pesticides
• Space insecticides 2.89
¦ Residual insecticides 0.83
• Subtotals 3.72
0.73
1.16
3.01
6.55
3.74
10.29
0.24
0.37
3.65
7.04
2.02
9.06
0.71
1.13
2.93
6.38
3.64
10.02
0.04
0.07
0.66
1.27
0.37
1.64
0.32
0.51
1.33
2.89
1.65
4754
Grand totals
41.04
102.70
99.981"
100.0
18.08
45.29
aEmissions are based on California Air Resources Board estimates. Emissions estimates are based on the-assunpt i ons that (1) all propellents and
solvents used in consumer products will eventually evaporate to the atmosphere and participate in photochemical reactions that produce ozone and
.(2) total organic compound emissions equal total volatile organic compound emissions.
TPD = tons per average annual day.
cTotal does not sum to 100 percent because of independent rounding.
-------
emissions estimates for eight consumer product categories and 29 subcategories including personal
products. VOC emissions from propellants and solvents are estimated at approximately 56 TPD. Of
these, solvent emissions comprise 70.5 percent (39.3 TPD) and propellant emissions comprise 29.5
percent (16.4 TPD). The personal care products category account for approximately 17.4 percent of total
propellant and 23.0 percent of total solvent emissions. As shown in Table 3, the nonaerosol consumer
products solvent emissions inventory consists of emissions estimates for five consumer product categories
and 40 subcategories including the personal products category. Total nonaerosol solvent emissions were
about 46 TPD. The personal care products category accounted for approximately 35 percent of the total
nonaerosol VOC emissions.
Point/area source cutoff
Due to the nature of personal product use, this category is considered an area source.
Level of detail of Information available
The CAM require EPA to prepare a report to Congress on VOC in consumer and commercial products
and to promulgate regulations that would reduce VOC emissions from these products. It is assumed that
the inventory will be developed from individual brand formulations and sales volumes and that these data
will be obtained by a survey of the manufacturers. The best four major studies which are publicly
available are listed below and include information on comprehensive inventories of VOC from consumer
and commercial products.
Photochemically Reactive Organic Compounds Emissions from Consumer and Commercial
Products'
. Compilation and Speciation of National Emissions Factor for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Uses
Analysis of Regulatory Alternatives for Controlling Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Emissions
from Consumer and Commercial Products in the New York City Metropolitan Area (NYCMAf
. Expansion of the New York Study: Evaluation of VOC Emission Reduction Alternatives from
Selected Consumer and Commercial Products7
Level of detail required by users
VOC emissions by county
Personal product consumption by county
Emissions per personal product
Emission factor requirements
VOC emissions by product
CH-91-57
150
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TABLE 3. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM NONAEROSOL CONSUMER
PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN (SCAB)2-'
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIONS 1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
CONSUMER SOLVENT PERCENT SOLVENT
PRODUCT CATEGORY/ EMISSIONS, OF TOTAL EMISSIONS,
SUBCATEGORY TPD EMISSIONS TPO
Household products
• Room deodorants and disinfectants
• Cleaners
a. window cleaners
b. general cleaners
• Laundry products
a. spot removers
b. other
¦ Waxes and polishes
a. floor polishes
b. furniture polishes
c. metal polishes
• Ball point and porous tip pens
• Other household products
a. shoe polishes
b. adhesives and sealants
Not estimated
2.54
1.10
0.27
Not estimated
6.40
3.90
0.59
0.06
0.22
3.95
2.38
1.03
0.25
6.01
3.66
0.55
0.05
0.21
3.71
1.12
0.48
0.12
2.82
1.72
0.26
0.03
0.10
1.74
Subtotals
19.02
17.85
8.39
Personal care products
• Pre-shaving
• After shaves
• Hair sprays (pimps)
• Other hair care products
a. hair tonics
b. shampoos
c. hair rinses
• Medicinals and pharmaceuticals
• Deodorants and antiperspirants
a. sticks
b. roll-ons
• Nail care products
• Rubbing alcohols
• Other personal care products
a. mouthwashes
b. creams
c. suntan lotions
d. hand lotions
e. cleaning lotions
0.53
4.22
7.07
0.05
2.80
0.21
Not estimated
5.09
1.50
1.23
3.60
3.06
4.08
0.83
1.87
2.54
0.50
3.96
6.64
0.04
2.63
0.20
4.77
1.41
1.16
3.38
2.87
3.83
0.78
1.76
2.38
0.23
1.86
3.12
0.02
1.24
0.09
2.25
0.66
0.54
1.59
1.35
1.80
0.37
0.82
1.12
Subtotals
38.69
36.32
17.06
(continued)
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TABLE 3. AVERAGE ANNUAL DAY VOC EMISSIONS FROM NONAEROSOL CONSUMER
PRODUCTS IN CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN
(SCAB)2-* (continued)
1987 CALIFORNIA EMISSIQMS
CONSUMER
PRODUCT CATEGORY/
SUBCATEGORY
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPD
PERCENT
OF TOTAL
EMISSIONS
1987 SCAB EMISSIONS
SOLVENT
EMISSIONS,
TPD0
Automotive and industrial
Windshield washer fluids
Cleaners
Lubricants and silicones
Carburetor and choice cleaners
Brake cleaners
Engine starting fluids
Brake fluids
Radiator antifreezes
¦ Subtotals
Consuner pesticides
- Insect sprays, space insecticides,
and residual insecticides
• Other
28.63
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
4.07
16.15
4 8.84
Not estimated
Not estimated
26.87
3.82
15.15
45784
12.63
1.79
7.13
21755
Hi see Ilaneous
• Pet products
• Food products
• Charcoal starter fluids
Not estimated
Not estimated
Not estimated
2.20c
Grand totals
106.55
100.00
49.20
Emissions are based on California Air Resources Board (CARB) estimates (except as indicated by footnote c).
Emissions estimates are based on the assumptions that (1) all propellants and solvents used in consuner
products will eventually evaporate to the atmosphere and participate in photochemical reactions that
.produce ozone and (2) total organic compound emissions equal total volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions.
TPD = tons per average annual day. The CARB estimated total nonaerosol emissions to be 47.00 TPD in
1987. The CARB estimate did not include emissions estimates for charcoal starter fluids. Therefore, the
column showing percent of total emissions was based on 47.00 TPD.
The South Coast Air Quality Management District estimated VOC emissions from charcoal starter fluid to be
2.0 TPD in 1985, 2.5 TPD in 2000, and 2.8 TPD in 2010. Emissions for 1987 were estimated to be 2.2 TPD
based on linear extrapolation between the 1985 and 2000 emissions values.
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Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Some products, such as suntan lotions, may exhibit regional and seasonal variations in use. However,
the use of most personal products should not vary with season or region.
Urban or rural characteristics
Personal products are used in urban, suburban and rural areas. Emissions vary directly with population.
Methodology
. Compile a list of all the personal products and their manufacturers.
Determine sales volumes for each personal product per county.
. Conduct laboratory testing or use existing emission factors to determine emissions from each
personal product.
. Calculate total annual emissions for each personal product. Multiply the emission factor by the
sales in each county.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Letter and Attachments from Delao, Andrew P, California Air Resources Board to Strait, Randy,
Alliance Technologies Corporation. Consumer Product Emission Estimate Methodologies.
November 9, 1989. Section 3-6 Solvent Use - Aerosol Consumer Products and section 4-1,
Pesticide Application-Aerosol Consumer Product Pesticides.
3. Memorandum from Ryan, Ron, Alliance Technologies Corporation, to Bruce Moore and Al
Vervaert, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Issues for consumer products inventory protocol. September 28, 1990.
4. Jones, A. et al.,Photochemically Reactive Organic Compounds Emissions from Consumer and
Commercial Products, EPA-902/4-86-001 (NTIS PB88-216940), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1986.
5. Compilation and Speciation of National Emissions Factor for Consumer/Commercial Solvent Use,
EPA-450/2-89-008 (NTIS PB89-207203), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, April 1989.
6. Analysis of Regulatory Alternatives for Controlling Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Emissions
from Consumer and Commercial Products in the New York City Metropolitan Area (NYCMA), Pacific
Environmental Services, January 1990.
7. Expansion of the New York Study: Evaluation of VOC Emission Reduction Alternatives from
Selected Consumer and Commercial Products, Pacific Environmental Services, February 1990.
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RESEARCH AND TESTING LABORATORIES
Definition/description of category and activity
Research and testing laboratories are low-level consumers of a wide variety of potentially toxic solvents
and chemical substances! Most laboratories are equipped with chemical fume hoods and building
exhausts which vent the emissions directly to the atmosphere. These laboratories are located in
institutions including universities and other academic institutions, research and development laboratories
and commercial laboratories, such as medical testing laboratories.
Process breakdown
Chemicals are likely to be emitted from various laboratory processes. Emissions may result from
chemical mixing for experiments or testing; chemical reactions during experiments or testing; glassware
and equipment cleaning and washing; and chemical storage (in laboratories and in stock rooms). These
emissions are transported to the atmosphere either from the stacks attached to the chemical fume hoods
in the building or from the vents used to ventilate the building air. Large medical research facilities are
likely to have on-site ethylene oxide sterilizers and toxic waste incinerators which also emit into the
atmosphere.
Reason for considering the category
While research and testing laboratories are not required to report any emissions under the requirements
of SARA Title III, they have been identified for review under Title III of the CAAA.1 It is likely that some of
these laboratories emit VOC which are considered toxic.2 On-site incinerators may be permitted by a state
regulatory agency, however other point sources of these air toxic emissions are largely unregulated.
Many research and development laboratories for industry groups use mini-batch reactors to test process
changes. Emissions from these sources are irregular, but can be substantial at times. No accurate
inventories exist for the emissions from research and testing laboratories. Other species that may be
emitted from some of the laboratories include radioactive materials, however these materials are controlled
by Federal Regulations.2
Pollutants emitted
VOC may be emitted from solvents such as acetone, chloroform, ethanol, etc., which are usually volatile
and potentially toxic. Some combustion pollutants (e.g., CO and NOJ may also be emitted from on-site
incinerators. However, the quantities emitted are likely to be insignificant and are not considered here.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
A recent survey of the University of California campus at San Francisco (UCSF) revealed use of
approximately 26 different chemicals.2 Based on usage data, eleven of these 26 chemicals were sampled
at the hood vents, revealing significant emissions as shown in Table 1.
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TABLE 1. CHEMICALS EMITTED FROM FUME VENTS AT UCSF2
Chemical Estimate of Campus Usage Percent Emitted
(mi/week)
Acetone
9,075
62
Chloroform
10,635
72
Diethyl ether
18,422
71
Ethanol
20,647
86
Ethyl acetate
3,071
38
Ethylene oxide
20,593
100
Formaldehyde
5,282
100
Hexane
7,929
91
Methanol
23,567
68
Methylene chloride
11,096
87
Xylenes
7,655
47
Point/area source cutoff
Research and testing laboratories should be considered as area sources since the total amount emitted
from a facility is unlikely to exceed 100 TPY of any pollutant. Some facilities may emit as much as 25 TPY
of total VOC at large research facilities, but not from any one point on campus.
Level of detail of Information available
The only data on emissions from a research and testing laboratory are found in the study conducted at
UCSF. The National Science Foundation (NSF) publishes several documents, including one which lists
the total amount of federal funds for research and development allocated to each state and one which
lists the annual NSF awards by state and institution.
Selected retail/wholesale chemical supply companies were contacted for sales data or distribution records
by regions. These companies have indicated that they do not reveal such information or have adequate
records.
Level of detail required by users
Data on consumption of solvents and other VOC sold in reagent grade to various laboratories on a
national, state or county level
Emission factor requirements
Number of research and testing laboratories in the study area and their operating budgets
Emissions of VOC per research lab per dollar spent
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Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
It is possible that these laboratories may be concentrated mostly in urban areas. Season and temporal
characteristics depend on the type of research laboratory. Universities would probably use the bulk of
their solvents from September through May. Most research and development laboratories would follow
five days per week and eight hours per day schedules.
Urban or rural characteristics
Probably an urban and suburban source
Methodology
To estimate emissions from research and testing laboratories, companies that manufacture reagent grade
solvents and other volatile organic compounds should be identified. If these companies can be assured
that confidentiality of their sales figures will be maintained, annual estimates of the volume of various
solvents sold can be obtained. The species that are consumed in significant quantities can then be
identified. These annual volumes can be allocated to various states based on the amount of federal funds
allocated to a state for research and development.34 This estimate of state solvent and chemical
consumption can then be allocated to each county based on SIC code 873 for employment in the
research, development and testing services sector as given in County Business Patterns.
References
1. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation with Calvin Overcash, Glaxo, Inc.,
Research Triangle Park, NC. Reporting requirements for research and testing laboratories under
SARA Title III. September 12, 1990.
2. Schmidt, C.E., LO. Edwards, R.R. Boyd, J.L Balzer. Technical Approach for Conducting an Air
Emissions Assessment at a Large Facility with Multiple Point Sources, In: Measurement of Toxic
and Related Air Pollutants, EPA-600/9-89-060 (NTIS PB90-186909), May 1989. Proceedings of the
1989 EPA/AWMA International Symposium.
3. Federal Funds for Research and Development: Fiscal Years 1988, 1989, 1990, Volume XXXVIII,
NSF 90-306, Detailed Statistical Tables, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC, 1990.
4. FY 1989 Awards by State and Institution, NSF 90-2, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC,
1990.
5. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
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OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION • WELL DRILLING
Definition/description of category and activity
Well drilling may be a source of hydrocarbons, particularly methane. Drilling emissions are associated
with gas, LPG and liquid fuel lines. Additionally, degassing of drilling fluids may be a source of
emissions.1,23
Process breakdown
Drilling of oil and gas wells is covered by SCCs 3-10-001-02, 3-10-001-99, 3-10-002-04 and 3-10-002-99.
Reason for considering the category
Only emissions of oil refinery activities are included in the NEDS and SIP area source methodologies;
activities in oil and gas fields, including drilling, may also be sources of emissions.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, methane, ethane and H2S and S02, CO, C02 and NO„ (if gas is flared)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Emissions from an individual drilling operation will probably not exceed ten tons per year.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from an individual drilling operation will most likely be less than ten tons per year and should
be included in the area source inventory.
Level of detail of information available
1) The American Petroleum Institute (API) has developed emission factors for each component of
gas- and oil-producing facilities. These factors can be used to estimate emissions that occur
during drilling. When drilling, the well is capped as soon as an oil and/or gas pocket is hit. In
states which allow gas to be flared (such as Indiana and Illinois), drilling emissions may be
associated with gas flaring. According to Reference 2, vented emissions are composed of
roughly 95 percent methane, four percent non-methane hydrocarbons and one percent other
gases. The biggest source of emissions associated with drilling may be the blowing off of gases
during the drilling process. States which do not regulate this activity may have higher emissions
from oil and gas drilling than states that do not allow the blowing off of gases.
2) In 1985, API published Well Completion and Footage Drilled in the United States, 1970-1982.4 If
these data have been updated, the most recent year's data can be used to estimate the number
of wells drilled in the United States. This report may contain information on sources of data
relating to well drilling.
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3) A study by Gebhart and Andersen (Reference 1) presents data on ambient concentrations of
hydrogen sulfide in and around working gas wells. This study suggests that H2S is released from
venting of tank and/or production gas. This paper does not include emissions factors, but
measures ambient concentrations under different conditions.
Level of detail required by users
Type and number of components of each drilling well in the United States
Number of wells drilled and their location (onshore or offshore) in the year for which emissions estimates
are being developed
Whether production and tank gas is vented, flared or captured
Emission factor requirements
Number of wells drilled in each county or state
State regulations relating to flaring of gases that are released during drilling
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Emissions from this source are limited to states which have exploratory drilling for oil and gas. In 1988,
there were 31 states with producing oil wells and 30 states with producing gas wells. The states which
have the most drilling activity are Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia.
In states which do not allow the flaring of gas (such as West Virginia), the emissions associated with
drilling may be minimal.
Urban or rural characteristics
Most onshore wells are located in rural areas. Offshore wells may be located off the coast of both urban
(e.g., Los Angeles) and rural areas.
Methodology
For states that do not allow venting of gas from drilling, emissions may be computed using the API
emission factors. Data needed to apply these emission factors include the number of wells drilled and
the components associated with each well. States that allow venting of gas during exploratory drilling
may have an additional source of emissions associated with this vented gas. However, data for the
emissions from the vented gas may not be readily available.
References
1. Gebhart, D. Howard, "Exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide in the Vicinity of Gas and Oil Wells,"
presented at the 81st Annual Meeting of the American Pollution Control Association, Dallas, TX,
June 1988.
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2. Telecon. Lynch, Teresa, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mike Uhl, State of West Virginia.
Emissions from drilling of oil and gas wells. September 10, 1990.
3. Fugitive Hydrocarbon Emissions from Petroleum Production Operations, Volumes I and II,
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, March 1980.
4. Well Completions and Footage Drilled in the United States 1970-1982, American Petroleum
Institute, Washington, DC, 1985.
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OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION - FIELD ACTIVITY
Definition/description of category and activity
Field activity components of oil and gas production include extraction operations during which oil and gas
are brought to the surface, separation of liquefied petroleum gases and sweetening of natural gas that
contains sulfur. The extraction and separation activities result in emissions of ethane, methane, heavier
hydrocarbons and H2S. Sweetening of natural gas emits H2S and S02. Hydrocarbon and H2S emissions
may result from leaks in the component parts of the wellhead and venting of gas during production
operations.1,2
Process breakdown
Oil and gas production are covered by SCCs 3-10-001-xx and 3-10-002-xx, respectively.
Reason for considering the category
Only emissions from oil refinery activities are currently included within the NEDS and SIP area source
methodologies; activities in oil and gas fields may also be sources of emissions. Since a greater
percentage of refinery components leak, as compared to production components, use of refinery emission
factors to estimate emissions from field activity may result in a 200 to 300 percent overestimation of
emissions.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, methane, ethane, H2S and S02
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Although individual wells may release less than ten tons of pollutants per year, an oil and gas field may
contain many wells from which total emissions may exceed ten tons per year.
Point/area source cutoff
Oil and gas field activity are currently not included in the point or area source inventories. Although an
individual well probably releases less than 25 tons of pollutants per year, an oil and gas field may contain
many wells whose emissions would probably sum to greater than 25 tons per year.
Level of detail of information available
1) The AP-42 emission factor for S02 emissions from gas sweetening is 1,685 lbs S02 x percent H2S
in the gas (molar basis).3
2) API has developed emission factors for each component of oil- and gas-producing facilities. To
estimate emissions from a facility, all components at the facility must be inventoried and the
corresponding emission factors must be applied. These emissions must then be summed to
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determine the total emissions. Emission factors for each component differ by type of production
(oil or gas) and the location of the well (onshore or offshore). Thus, if oil and gas production is
to be included as a source of emissions, each facility in the state must be inventoried by
production type, location of the facility and types and number of components.
3) Radian, Midwest Research Institute and CARB have also studied emissions from oil and gas
production. These studies were less comprehensive and had smaller sample sizes than the API
study. These studies also include emission factors for different components of oil and gas
facilities.
4) The Natural Gas Annual publishes data on the number of producing natural gas and condensate
wells in each state.4 These data are updated annually.
5) The World Oil Magazine publishes a forecast issue each February which contains data on the
number of producing oil wells in each state.5
Level of detail required by users
Number of wells in each county
Percent H2S in gas (molar basis)
Type and number of components per wellhead
Location of well (onshore or offshore)
Type of production (oil or gas)
If gas is vented during production (this may depend on state rules). Additional information on how long
and how often gas is vented may also be needed.
Emission factor requirements
Number of production days per year associated with each producing well (This should be 365 days,
unless a well is started up or closed off mid-year.)
(API has hydrocarbon field activity emission factors for methane, ethane, butane,propane, pentane, and
heavier hydrocarbons.)
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Production may vary significantly between and within states. In 1988, there were 31 states with producing
oil wells; Oklahoma and Texas accounted for almost half of these. In 1988, there were 30 states with
producing gas wells; six states (New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas and West Virginia)
accounted for over three-quarters of the wells.
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Urban or rural characteristics
Most onshore wells are located in rural areas. Offshore wells may be located off the coast of both urban
(e.g., Los Angeles) and rural areas.
Methodology
Consult with officials in each state to determine the reporting requirements for oil and gas field
activity. For states with strict reporting requirements, there may be enough data to estimate the
number of wells per county. For other states, a methodology will have to be developed to
estimate county-level activity based on the number of wells in the state. Determine if state laws
permit venting of gas during production. One way to estimate the county-level activity for a given
state is to correlate the county-level activity to the percentage of state employment for SIC
category 1311 in each county. Employment data are found in County Business Patterns.
. To determine S02 emissions, the average H2S content of gas in each state must be estimated.
Often, the sulfur removed during the sweetening process is sold; therefore, the amount of sulfur
- that is produced and sold by each county or state may be used to estimate the amount of H2S
in the gas.
The average number and types of components of a wellhead should be determined by state to
verify if the wellhead components vary by state. If these averages cannot be determined and it
is believed that there would be variation between states, the number and types of components
in each wellhead in each state must be inventoried. API may be able to provide average wellhead
composition based on fuel produced and location of the wellhead. State officials should be able
to provide information on wellheads in their states. If neither API nor state officials are able to
help in determining wellhead profiles in each state, data from wellhead studies by API, CARB and
others can be used to estimate the profile.
. After the wellhead profile is determined or estimated for each state, the emission factors reported
by API can be applied to estimate total emissions by hydrocarbon group.
References
1. Gebhart, D. Howard, "Exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide in the Vicinity of Oil and Gas Wells,"
presented at the 81st Annual Meeting of the American Pollution Control Association, Dallas, TX,
June 1988.
2. Fugitive Hydrocarbon Emissions from Petroleum Production Operations, Volumes I and II,
American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, March 1980.
3. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
4. Natural Gas Annual, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington,
DC. Annual publication.
5. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
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REFRIGERANTS - LEAKING COOLANT
Definition/description of category and activity
Leaking refrigerant coolant refers to upset leaks from all types of refrigeration equipment. These
categories include, but are not limited to, servicing and disposal of refrigerators and freezers in the
residential sector, servicing and disposal of residential air conditioners, servicing of chillers (large
commercial air conditioners), servicing mobile air conditioners and servicing industrial process refrigeration
systems.
Process breakdown
Refrigeration and air conditioning systems act to change the condition of the air inside an enclosed space
by controlling the air's moisture (humidity) and heat content (temperature). A refrigeration or air
conditioning system consists of a compressor, a condenser, an expansion device, an evaporator and a
refrigerant. The refrigerant is contained within the sealed vapor-compression refrigeration system.
Hermetically sealed systems are typically used on other smaller capacity refrigerant systems (such as
refrigerators and residential air conditioners) and are much less prone to leakage than mobile air
conditioners. Most emissions from residential refrigeration and air conditioning occur during disposal and
servicing. For residential refrigeration, servicing and disposal emissions represent 1.5 percent and 72
percent, respectively, of the initial refrigerant charge per year. Similarly, for residential air conditioners,
servicing and disposal emissions represent ten percent and 66 percent, respectively, of the initial
refrigerant charge per year.
Mobile refrigeration systems are designed to operate continuously, constantly recycling coolant. Since
a vehicle is subjected to constant vibration and movement while in operation, a mobile refrigeration system
is much more likely to develop leaks than any type of stationary air conditioning or refrigeration system.
Over time, leaks develop, resulting in CFC emissions and the introduction of moisture and other
contaminants into the system. This results in a decrease in air conditioning efficiency and an increase
in service and repair of the system. Abnormal leakage from system malfunctions involve the compressor
seals, hoses or metal tubing in the system. The largest source of mobile air conditioning emissions
results from servicing that requires the opening up of the air conditioning system (thus resulting in the
venting of any remaining charge). Auto accidents and vehicle scrappage may emit any remaining
refrigerant charge to the atmosphere. CFC emissions from mobile air conditioning include losses from
leakage, servicing and accident losses. These emissions represent six, ten and 2.5 percent, respectively,
of initial refrigerant charge per year.
Chillers are air conditioning systems used in large commercial and industrial buildings. The cooling
system consists of a central unit that chills a secondary refrigerant, typically water or brine, which is
circulated to cooling coils throughout the building. Chillers may use either centrifugal or reciprocating
compressors. Servicing losses are ten percent of the initial refrigerant charge.
Industrial process refrigeration consists of refrigeration processes in petrochemical or refinery applications,
as well as in the processing and storage of volatile organic liquids or compressed gases in paper mills,
dairy or meat packing plants and ice manufacture. Industrial refrigeration systems are quite large and
are often operated on a continuous basis with little time for unscheduled service or maintenance. Many
industrial refrigeration systems are built with multiple-part capacity units so that one failure does not result
in complete loss of production. Brine or chilled water is used in many industrial refrigeration systems as
a secondary refrigerant since this allows for better load-following capability. CFCs are chosen for
industrial refrigeration because of their combination of nontoxicity, nonflammability and high efficiency.
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Other refrigerants such as ammonia or hydrocarbons are used in this application to a greater extent
because industrial users are more accustomed to handling hazardous materials and can accept a higher
risk than commercial or residential users.
Reason for considering the category
EPA may be required to implement CFC emissions reduction targets as a result of global warming and
stratospheric ozone depletion concerns. If the use of greenhouse gas and ozone depletion chemicals
is banned, some users may substitute CFCs for photochemically volatile organic compounds that
participate in ozone formation. Potential CFC emissions per refrigerator or air conditioner are small;
cumulative emissions of ozone depletion chemicals are of interest.
Pollutants emitted
nonreactive VOC (CFCs)
NH3
hydrocarbons
Estimate of the pollutant levels
SCAQMD has estimated CFC emissions from disposal of residential refrigeration and air conditioning and
from servicing of refrigerators and air conditioners.1 Estimates are based on the Rand report Product
Uses and Market Trends for Potential Ozone-Depleting Substances, 1985-20002 Table 1 lists the amount
of CFCs emitted from servicing and disposal of refrigeration and air conditioning systems for the United
States in 1985.
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED 1985 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM EMISSIONS
Category
CFC Type
Servicing Emissions
Disposal Emissions
(Tons per year)
(Tons per year)
Residential Refrigerators
CFC-12
330
1,790
Residential Freezers
CFC-12
220
580
Residential Air Conditioning
HCFC-22
11,100
8,670
Mobile Air Conditioning
CFC-12
17,200
5,300'
Retail Store Refrigeration
CFC-12
5,300"
NAC
Centrifugal Chillers
CFC-11
4,380b
NAC
Centrifugal Chillers
CFC-12
1,650b
NAC
Reciprocating Chillers
CFC-12
280b
NAC
Industrial Process Refrigeration
CFC-12
620"
110
"Includes CFC emissions from accidents and scrappage.
"CFC-11 and CFC-12 1985 sales data represent fugitive, servicing and disposal emissions.
CNA • not available.
^Includes emissions for use and servicing.
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Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning systems would be considered point sources. The initial
refrigerant charge for refrigeration and air conditioning systems ranges from 7.5 ounces for a refrigerator
to 2,000 pounds for an industrial refrigeration system. Disposal and servicing emissions would be only
a fraction of the initial charge.
Level of detail of information available
Emission factors for disposal of refrigeration/air conditioning units are available from References 1 and
2 and include the following equipment types: residential refrigerators; residential freezers; residential air
conditioners; mobile air conditioning; and industrial refrigeration.
Emission factors for servicing of refrigeration/air conditioning units are available from References 1 and
2 and include the following equipment types: residential refrigerators; freezers and air conditioners;
mobile air conditioning; retail store refrigeration; and commercial chillers.
Motor vehicle population by county is available from state Departments of Motor Vehicles.
Number of households by region is available from the U.S. Department of Energy.3
Number of retail food stores is available from County Business Patterns.*
Production and consumption data for refrigerators and freezers are available at the national level from the
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census Current Industrial Reports,5
Level of detail required by users
Number and type of air conditioning and refrigeration units in service at a national, state or county level
Number and type of air conditioning and refrigeration units disposed of in a given year at a national, state
or county level
Emission factor requirements
Development of CFC emission factors by refrigeration unit type
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
CFC emissions from upsets (servicing and disposal) are uniform throughout the year. Emissions from air
conditioners may exhibit regional and seasonal differences.
Urban or rural characteristics
Refrigeration units may be concentrated in urban areas. Emission rates are not expected to show any
urban or rural differences.
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Methodology
SCAQMD has developed a methodology for estimating CFC emissions from refrigeration and air
conditioning systems.' Emission factors are based on engineering judgement. National sales data for
refrigeration units by year are available from the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Refrigerator and freezer sales
can also be obtained from the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers. Number of households with
air conditioners by region are available from the U.S. Department of Energy. County-level motor vehicle
population can be obtained from state Departments of Motor Vehicles. The percent of automobiles with
air conditioners will vary by state. The Motor Vehicle Manufacturing Association publishes the number
of new vehicles sold with air conditioning systems for the United States. The percent of new automobiles
with air conditioning for 1987 is 85 percent.
Emissions from residential refrigerators and freezers can be estimated by several methods. The first
method assumes that each household in a given county has one refrigerator and then applies the
appropriate emission factor. The second method uses national or state sales data and apportions the
number of refrigerators to the county level based on population. Emissions from disposing of refrigerators
and freezers can be estimated by using refrigerator and freezer sales data from 15 years ago and
assuming all 15-year-old refrigerators and freezers are disposed of in the current year.
Servicing emissions from air conditioners could be estimated by taking the percentage of households with
air conditioning units by region and multiplying by the number of households in each county and by the
emission factor. Emissions from disposal of air conditioners could be estimated using the same
methodology that was developed for refrigerators. The service life of an air conditioning system is ten
years.
Disposal and servicing emissions from mobile air conditioning systems by county could be estimated
using county level motor vehicle data, the percent of automobiles with air conditioners and the appropriate
emission factors.
Servicing emissions from large commercial air conditioners (chillers) by county could be estimated by
taking the total floor space of commercial and industrial buildings and applying an emission factor based
on cooling capacity.
Servicing emissions from retail food refrigeration could be estimated by county using the number of retail
stores in County Business Patterns and applying the appropriate emission factor. The number of industrial
refrigeration systems for the United States is not known. It will be difficult to estimate county level
servicing and disposal emissions for this category.
References
1. Zwiacher, Wayne, et al. Chlorofluorocarbon Emissions in the SCAQMD, South Coast Air Quality
Management District, Emissions Inventory Unit, El Monte, CA, November 22, 1989.
2. Hammitt, James K., et al. Product Uses and Market Trends for Potential Ozone-Depleting
Substances, 1985-2000, Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, May 1986.
3. Housing Characteristics 1987, Residential Energy Consumption Survey, U.S. Department of Energy,
Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, May 1989.
4. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
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5. Current Industrial Reports, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau ofthe Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
6. An Evaluation of Programs for Reduction of Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Emissions from Motor
Vehicle Air Conditioning Systems, Volume II Technical Analysis, California Air Resources Board,
Sacramento, CA, July 25, 1990.
7. Highway Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC. Annual publication.
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REFRIGERATION/AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
Definition/description of category and activity
Emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning equipment refers to (normal) operating fugitive emissions
from stationary refrigeration equipment. These categories include, but are not limited to, residential
refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners, retail store refrigeration, chillers (large commercial air
conditioners) and industrial process refrigeration systems.
Process breakdown
Refrigeration and air conditioning systems act to change the condition of the air inside an enclosed space
by controlling the air's moisture (humidity) and heat content (temperature). A refrigeration or air
conditioning system consists of a compressor, a condenser, an expansion device, an evaporator and a
refrigerant. The refrigerant is contained within the sealed vapor-compression refrigeration system.
Hermetically sealed systems are typically used on other smaller capacity refrigerant systems (such as
refrigerators and residential air conditioners) and are much less prone to leakage than non-hermeticalty
sealed systems. Fugitive emissions from refrigerators and freezers are 0.2 percent of the total refrigerant
stock per year.
Retail food store refrigeration systems are used to refrigerate food and beverages in display cases and
to store meat, produce, dairy products, frozen food and ice cream in walk-in coolers. Emission factors
for fugitive emissions from retail food store refrigeration have not been developed.
/
Chillers are air conditioning systems used in large commercial and industrial buildings. The cooling
system consists of a central unit that chills a secondary refrigerant, typically water or brine, which is
circulated to cooling coils throughout the building. Chillers may use either centrifugal or reciprocating
compressors. Leakage losses are 7.5 percent of the initial refrigerant charge.
Industrial process refrigeration consists of refrigeration processes in petrochemical or refinery applications,
as well as in the processing and storage of volatile organic liquids or compressed gases in paper mills,
dairy or meat packing plants and ice manufacture. Industrial refrigeration systems are quite large and
are often operated on a continuous basis with little time for unscheduled service or maintenance. Many
industrial refrigeration systems are built with multiple part-capacity units so that one failure does not result
in complete loss of production. Brine or chilled water is used in many industrial refrigeration systems as
a secondary refrigerant since this allows for better load-following capability. CFCs are chosen for
industrial refrigeration because of their combination of nontoxicity, nonflammability and high efficiency.
Other refrigerants such as ammonia or hydrocarbons are used in this application to a greater extent
because industrial users are more accustomed to handling hazardous materials and can accept a higher
risk than commercial or residential users.
Reason for considering the category
EPA may be required to implement CFC emissions reduction targets as a result of global warming and
stratospheric ozone depletion concerns. If the use of greenhouse gas and ozone depletion chemicals
is banned, some users may substitute CFCs for photochemically volatile organic compounds that
participate in ozone formation. Potential CFC emissions per refrigerator or air conditioner are small;
cumulative emissions of ozone depletion chemicals are of interest.
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Pollutants emitted
nonreactive VOC (CFCs)
NH3
hydrocarbons
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The Rand Corporation and EPA have estimated fugitive CFC emissions from residential refrigeration, retail
refrigeration and commercial air conditioning.1 Estimates are based on the Rand report Product Uses and
Market Trends for Potential Ozone-Depleting Substances, 1985-2000.'' Table 1 lists the fugitive CFC
emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning systems for the United States in 1985.
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED 1985 CFC EMISSIONS FROM REFRIGERATION/AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
Category
CFC Type
Fugitive Emissions
(Tons per year)
Residential Refrigerators
CFC-12
63
Residential Freezers
CFC-12
30
Residential Air Conditioning
HCFC-22
NA"
Retail Store Refrigeration
CFC-12
5,300b
Centrifugal Chillers
CFC-11
4,380"
Centrifugal Chillers
CFC-12
1,650b
Reciprocating Chillers
CFC-12
280"
Industrial Process Refrigeration
CFC-12
620c
*NA - Not available.
fiCFC-11 and CFC-12 1985 sales data represent fugitive, servicing, and disposal emissions,
'includes emissions for use and servicing.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning systems would be considered point sources. The initial
refrigerant charge for refrigeration and air conditioning systems ranges from 7.5 ounces for a refrigerator
to 2,000 pounds for an industrial refrigeration system. Fugitive emissions would be only a fraction of the
initial charge.
Level of detail of Information available
Fugitive emission factors for refrigeration/air conditioning units are available from Reference 1 and include
the following equipment types: residential refrigerators; residential freezers; commercial chillers; retail store
refrigeration; and industrial refrigeration.
Number of households by region is available from the U.S. Department of Energy.2
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Number of retail food stores is available from County Business Patterns.3
Production and consumption data for refrigerators and freezers are available at the national level from the
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census Current Industrial Reports.*
Level of detail required by users
Number and type of air conditioning and refrigeration units in service at a national, state or county level
Emission factor requirements
Development of CFC emission factors by refrigeration unit type
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
CFC emissions from leakage are uniform throughout the year. Emissions from air conditioners may exhibit
regional and seasonal differences.
Urban or rural characteristics
No urban or rural differences in emission rates are expected; however, refrigeration units may be more
concentrated in urban areas.
Methodology
Presently no methodology exists for estimating CFC emissions from air conditioning and refrigeration
equipment. SCAQMD is currently developing the first county level CFC emissions inventory.5 Emission
factors developed by the Rand Corporation and EPA are based on engineering judgement. Fugitive
emission factors for air conditioners, chillers, retail food refrigeration and industrial process refrigeration
have not yet been developed. National sales data for refrigeration units by year are available from the
U.S. Bureau of the Census. Refrigerator and freezer sales could also be obtained from the Association
of Home Appliance Manufacturers. Number of households with air conditioners by region are available
from the U.S. Department of Energy.
Emissions from residential refrigerators and freezers could be estimated by several methods. The first
method assumes that each household in a given county has one refrigerator and then applies the
appropriate emission factor. The second method uses national or state sales data and apportions the
number of refrigerators to the county level based on population.
Fugitive emissions from air conditioners could be estimated by taking the percentage of households with
air conditioning units by region and multiplying by the number of households in each county and the
emission factor.
Fugitive emissions from large commercial air conditioners (chillers) by county could be estimated by
taking the total floor space of commercial and industrial buildings and applying an emission factor based
on cooling capacity. Fugitive emissions from retail food refrigeration could be estimated by county using
the number of retail stores in County Business Patterns and applying the appropriate emission factor.
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The number of industrial refrigeration systems in the United States is not known. It will be difficult to
estimate county level fugitive emissions for this category.
References
1. Hammrtt, James K., et al. Product Uses and Market Trends for Potential Ozone-Depleting
Substances, 1985-2000, Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, May 1986.
2. Housing Characteristics 1987, Residential Energy Consumption Survey, U.S. Department of Energy,
Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, May 1989.
3. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
4. Current Industrial Reports, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
5. Zwiacher, Wayne, et al. Chlorofluorocarbon Emissions in the SCAQMD, South Coast Air Quality
Management District, Emissions Inventory Unit, El Monte, CA, November 22, 1989.
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REFRIGERATED TRUCKS
Definition/description of category and activity
The refrigerated trucks category includes all refrigeration units in trucks and trailers. CFC emissions
results from the leakage of refrigerant coolant.
Process breakdown
Mobile refrigeration systems act to change the condition of the air inside the truck or trailer by controlling
the air's moisture (humidity) and heat content (temperature). A mobile refrigeration system consists of
a compressor, a condenser, an expansion device, an evaporator and a refrigerant. The refrigerant, usually
CFC-12 (dichlorodrfluoromethane), is contained within the sealed vapor-compression refrigeration system.
The refrigeration system uses the alternate compression and expansion of the coolant to remove heat
from the air within the truck or trailer unit before it is re-introduced into the interior of the refrigerated unit.
In the single-stage refrigeration process, the compressor compresses the low-pressure, low-temperature
cold vapor from the evaporator to a high-pressure high-temperature gas. This gas is then fed into the
condenser. Outside air passes through the condenser, cooling the high-pressure refrigerant vapor and
causing it to condense into a high-pressure liquid. The liquid coolant then flows to an expansion valve
where its pressure and temperature are reduced. In the evaporator, the low-pressure liquid refrigerant
evaporates,thus removing heat from the surroundings and cooling the air blown through it by fans. At
the same time, moisture in the air condenses on the outside surface of the evaporator core and is drained
off as water. The cooled and dehumidified air then enters the refrigerated compartment, while the
vaporized, low-pressure coolant returns to the compressor to start the cycle.
Mobile refrigeration systems are designed to operate continuously, constantly recycling coolant. Since
a truck is subjected to constant vibration and movement while in operation, a mobile refrigeration system
is much more likely to develop leaks than any type of stationary air conditioning or refrigeration system.
Over time, leaks develop, resulting in CFC emissions and the introduction of moisture and other
contaminants into the system. This results in a decrease in air conditioning efficiency and an increase
in servicing and repairing the system.
Reason for considering the category
EPA may be required to implement CFC emissions reduction targets as a result of global warming and
stratospheric ozone depletion concerns. If the use of greenhouse gas and ozone depletion chemicals
is banned, some users may substitute CFCs for photochemically volatile organic compounds that
participate in ozone formation. Potential CFC emissions per refrigerated trucks and trailers are small;
cumulative emissions of ozone depletion chemicals are of interest.
Pollutants emitted
nonreactive VOC (CFCs)
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Estimate of the pollutant levels
No estimate of pollutant level is currently available. Total U.S. CFC emissions from refrigerated trucks and
trailers were calculated by estimating national values for refrigerated trucks and trailers from existing
California data and applying emission factors obtained from a manufacturer of transport refrigeration
equipment for trucks and trailers. Using this method, CFC-12 emissions for 1988 are 1.800TPY assuming
each refrigerated unit is leaking 100 percent per year of its initial refrigerant charge of 17.94 pounds.1
Percent of Commercial Trucks in California
= Number of Commercial Trucks in California/Total Number of Trucks in California
= 2,688,392/3,771,658 = 71.3%
Percent of Refrigerated Trucks in California
(7,134/2,688,392) = 0.27%
Percent of Trailers in California
(897,974/2,688,392) = 33.4%
Percent of Refrigerated Trailers in California
(12,368/897,974) = 1.4%
Total Number of Trucks in the United States for 1985
39,196,161
Estimated Number of Commercial Trucks in the United States
39,196,161 X (2,688,392/3,771,658) = 27,938,547
Estimated Number of Refrigerated Trucks in the United States
27,938,547 X (7,134/2,688,392) = 74,139
Estimated Number of Trailers in the United States
27,938,547 X (897,974/2,688,392) = 9,332,005
Estimated Number of Refrigerated Trailers in the United States
9,332,005 X (12,368/897,974) = 128,532
Assume each refrigeration unit contains 17.94 pounds of CFC-12 and that 100 percent of the initial charge
is leaked each year.
CFC-12 emissions = (74,139 + 128,532) x 17.94 x 1.00 = 3,635,918 pounds = 1,818 tons/year
A more accurate estimate by state could be developed using state Department of Motor Vehicle data.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from refrigeration units on trucks and trailers should be considered area sources.
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Level of detail of Information available
The number of refrigerated trucks and trailers can be obtained from state Departments of Motor Vehicles.
The population of transport refrigeration units by county can be estimated by taking the total number of
refrigeration trucks (nondetachable) and refrigeration trailers (detachable) in the state and disaggregating
them by the percent regular commercial trucks and trailers in each county, respectively. Emission factors
for leakage from refrigerated trucks and trailers have not yet been determined.
Level of detail required by users
Amount of coolant per refrigeration unit
Number of refrigerated trucks and trailers at a county or state level
Number of trucks and trailers at a county level
Emission factor requirements
Development of CFC emission factors by refrigeration unit type
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
CFC emissions from leakage are uniform throughout the year. Transportation of perishable goods occurs
seven days a week with slightly reduced activity on weekends. Transportation of fruit and vegetables
occurs 24 hours per day with the majority of the activity occurring during the daylight hours. Emissions
from refrigerated trucks and trailers may exhibit regional and seasonal differences.
Urban or rural characteristics
No urban or rural preference is expected.
Methodology
Emission factors for refrigerated trucks and trailers are not available. Emission factors for mobile
refrigeration units should be developed. The state refrigerated truck and trailer population can be
obtained from state Departments of Motor Vehicles. These values can be apportioned to the county level
based on the number of regular commercial trucks and trailers at the county level. These county
estimates can be multiplied by the emission factor to estimate county wide emissions from refrigerated
trucks and trailers.
References
1. Telecon. Cawkwell, Roger, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Patrick Martin, Jr., General
Cryogenics Incorporated, Dallas, TX. Information about CFC usage per transport refrigeration
unit. December 12, 1990.
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2. Methods For Assessing Area Source Emissions In California, California Air Resources Board,
Emission Inventory Branch, Stationary Source Control Division, Sacramento, CA, December 1982.
3. An Evaluation of Programs for Reduction of Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Emissions from Motor
Vehicle Air Conditioning Systems, Volume II Technical Analysis, California Air Resources Board,
Sacramento, CA, July 25, 1990.
4. Highway Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC. Annual publication.
5. Hamm'rtt, James K., et al. Product Uses and Market Trends for Potential Ozone-Depleting
Substances, 1985-2000, Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, May 1986.
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SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL STORAGE TANKS
Definition/description of category and activity
The synthetic organic chemical (SOC) industries manufacture organic chemicals for various uses in the
industrial, commercial and other sectors. Synthetic organic chemical storage may be a source of VOC
emissions.
Process breakdown
Manufacturer SOC storage
End-user SOC storage
Breathing losses (standing losses) are calculated separately from working losses (withdrawal losses).
AIRS guidance gives emission factors for each loss type.1
Reason for considering the category
State air pollution control agency personnel have expressed concern that many individual SOC storage
tanks are not being accounted for in the existing inventories.2 Also, several major organic chemicals
identified in Chemical & Engineering News (C&EN)3 are not included in the NAPAP inventory.4
Pollutants emitted
VOC (including air toxics)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The NAPAP inventory includes emissions estimates for many of the SOCs identified in C&EN. The SOC
types included in the NAPAP inventory account for approximately 86 percent (by production) of the SOCs
in the C&EN list. AIRS emission factors exist for six of the remaining 14 percent in the C&EN list. The
AIRS emission factors and C&EN production data are used to generate a rough estimate of emissions
from the sources comprising these six percent. This estimate assumes that SOCs are stored once at the
manufacturer and once at the end-user. The estimate also assumes that SOC storage capacity is equal
to one week's production or supply at the manufacturer or end-user. Combining this estimate with the
NAPAP estimate generates an estimate for emissions from 92 percent of the SOCs identified in C&EN.
The remaining eight percent are non-volatile organic compounds.
Note: NAPAP and AIRS classify chemicals by SCC. SCCs differentiate between fixed roof, floating roof
and pressure storage vessels; therefore, a particular SOC may have more than one SCC (e.g., ethylene
dichloride) if it is stored in more than one type of vessel.
Emissions Estimate: 1,492 TPY - included in NAPAP (86 percent of C&EN production)
1.125 TPY - estimated from AIRS and C&EN data (an additional six percent
of C&EN production)
2,617 TPY - total estimated emissions
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Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from individual storage tanks will generally be less than ten TPY However, individual storage
tanks are often located at facilities which qualify as point sources, due to the many emissions sources
located on the premises. Therefore, these tanks should be included in the point source inventory. Other
tanks should be considered in the area source inventory.
Level of detail of Information available
State-level production and consumption for each SOC may be available from various trade organizations.
Storage capacity data (at the national or state level) may be available through state agencies or trade
organizations.
NEDS/AIRS guidance contains emission factors for all volatile SOCs in the C&EN list. The breathing loss
emission factors are based on storage capacity and the working loss emission factors are based on
throughput. These emission factors are derived from various sources, including SOC-specific EPA
research and guidance such as AP-42.5 AP-42 contains detailed methods for calculating emission factors
based on parameters such as tank size, tank color and tank location (underground or above ground), as
well as storage capacity and throughput. The AIRS emission factors should be considered typical' or
"average* emission factors for use in estimating emissions from large numbers of tanks.
Level of detail required by users
County-level production, consumption and storage capacity for the relevant SOCs
Emission factor requirements
Since AIRS guidance contains emission factors for all volatile SOCs in the C&EN list, no additional
emission factors are required (see Level of detail of information available section, above). However, EPA
may wish to re-evaluate the current emission factors as more data become available.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
There may be some regional variation in VOC emissions from SOC manufacturers and end-users.
Manufacturers may concentrate around particularly industrialized areas or where base chemicals are more
readily available. SOC end-users may be more concentrated in industrialized and populated areas. It is
not likely that there is any seasonal or temporal variation for manufacture of SOCs, but there may be some
variation for some end-users. VOC emissions may vary due to seasonal and temporal temperature
variations.
Urban or rural characteristics
VOC emissions from SOC storage are presumably more urban than rural.
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Methodology
There are numerous areas for improvement in estimating VOC emissions from SOC storage. The
following list summarizes some of the major concerns:
. The magnitude of emissions from SCCs included in NAPAP is comparable to the rough estimate
of emissions from SCCs not included in NAPAP; however, the production of SCCs included in
NAPAP is approximately 17 times greater (by gallon) than production of SCCs not included in
NAPAP. This discrepancy may indicate that SOC storage may be significantly undercounted in
the current NAPAP inventory. Lack of reporting for many smaller SOC users may be one cause
of undercounting. Comparison of NAPAP activity data and other known data (obtained from
C&EN or other chemical trade groups) may be used to estimate the size of this discrepancy.
More extensive activity data need to be obtained for these undercounted sources.
Emission factors exist for several SOCs which do not appear in the NAPAP inventory. Activity
data and emission estimates should be obtained for these SOCs. The emissions estimate
generated above is extremely rough and is not a reasonable substitute for a more fully developed
estimate.
• Current AIRS methodologies (emission factors and activity data) do not differentiate storage tanks
by size, above ground/underground or various other parameters which may affect emission rates.
More specific emission factors (developed from methods in AP-42) and more detailed activity data
are necessary for improved emission estimates.
References
1. AIRS Facility Subsystem: Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing for Criteria Air
Pollutants, EPA-450/4-90-003 (NTIS PB90-207242), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, March 1990.
2. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Richard Dalebout, Michigan
Department of Natural Resources. Possible missing emission sources. June 1990.
3. "Facts and Figures for the Chemical Industry,' Chemical & Engineering News, Volume 63, No. 25,
June 18, 1990.
4. Saeger, M., et al. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers'Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91 -119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
5. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
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FARMING OPERATIONS
Definition/description of category and activity
Farming operations, including tilling, cultivating and harvesting, can result in emissions of particulate
matter (PM) from the dust that is loosened from soil. Some PM emissions may include PM10. In addition
to the soil components that comprise the PM, residue from fertilizer, defoliant and pesticide applications
can be found in the PM emissions released during agricultural activities.
Process breakdown
Farming operations, including tilling, cultivating and harvesting, are included in SICs 01 and 02. Each
activity may be broken down by crop (e.g., sugar cane, cotton, wheat, etc.), major soil type (e.g., clay,
silt, loam, etc.) and activity type (e.g., manual harvesting versus machine harvesting).
Reason for considering the category
The national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) for particulate matter was revised to include PM10.
Farming operations may be a significant source of PM,0.
Pollutants emitted
Particulate matter of all sizes, including PM,0. Residual matter from pesticides, defoliants and fertilizers,
as well as silica, may also be emitted.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The exact level of emissions from farming operations will depend on the size of the farm, the crops grown
and the agricultural practices used. Factors such as soil type and climate can also affect the level of
emissions. Some large farms may have emissions greater than 100 TPY
Point/area source cutoff
Farms having emissions greater than ten TPY should be included in the point source inventory.
Emissions from smaller farms may need to be aggregated in an area source inventory.
Level of detail of Information available
AP-42 contains PM emission factors for tilling of soil and harvesting of cotton and grain.1 A 1988 EPA
study, Gap Filling PM,0 Emission Factors for Selected Open Area Dust Sources, adjusts these factors to
make them specific to PM10.2
(1) The PM emission factor from agricultural tilling can be described by the following empirical
equation:2
E = k(5.38)(s)06 (kg/hectare) (1)
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where k = particle size multiplier
s = percent silt content of the surface soil
The k value for PM10 is 0.21, which reduces the equation to:
E = 1.13 (s)0 s (2)
A k value of 0.21 indicates that 21 percent of the total particulate matter emitted is less than 10
jim in aerodynamic diameter. Approximately 15 percent of the total particulate matter emitted is
less than 5 *im in diameter and approximately ten percent is less than 2.5 jim in diameter.
A methodology for determining silt content of soil, based on soil classification units, is described
in Emissions Inventory of Agricultural Tilling, Unpaved Roads and Airstrips, and Construction Sites.3
The methodology outlined in this document was used, along with detailed soil maps of the Great
Plains and North Central States and a more general soils map of the United States, to determine
silt content values for each county in the United States.
The PM emission factor derived above represents the emissions per hectare tilled as a function
of the silt content of the surface soil. The number of hectares tilled depends on the amount of
land devoted to agricultural production and the number of times per season that the land is tilled.
Number of annual tillings varies by crop; estimates of annual tillings for different crops are listed
below.3
Number of tillings
Crop
Der vear
Barley
3
Corn
3
Cotton
4,3 (East, West)
Oats
3
Sorghum
2,3 (East, West)
Soybeans
3
Wheat
3,2 (East, West)
If a county-specific silt content value cannot be determined, the default value is 18 percent. When
an actual silt value is used in Equation 2, the emission factor rating is B. If the default value is
used, the emission factor has an EPA rating of C.
(2) AP-42 lists PM, emission factors associated with different processes involved in the harvesting of
cotton. A 1988 study determined that PM,0 emissions are closely represented by the PM7 factors
in AP-42. The PM,0 emission factors that are presented here are the AP-42 factors for PM7.
The mechanical harvesting of cotton involves three operations: harvesting of the cotton, loading
the cotton into trailers and transporting the cotton on the trailers from the field. Emission factors
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have been developed for each of these operations for two types of harvesters, pickers and
strippers. The stripper factors are based on estimates that two percent of strippers are four-row
models with baskets, 39 percent are two-row models with pulling trailers and 59 percent are two-
row models with mounted baskets. The picker emission factor represents a two-rowed picker with
basket. The following assumptions are used: average machine speed of 1.34 meters per second
for pickers and 2.25 meters per second for strippers; a basket capacity of 109 kilograms, with six
baskets per trailer; lint cotton yield of 63 metric tons per square kilometer for pickers and 41.2 for
strippers; and a transport speed of 4.47 meters per second.3
Harvester Harvesting Trailer Loading Transport
Type (kg/km2) (kg/km2) (kg/km2)
Picker 0.46 0.07 0.43
Stripper 4.30 0.06 0.28
The free silica content of the particulate matter is 7.9 percent from pickers and 2.3 percent from
strippers. The maximum content of pesticides and defoliants is 0.02 percent from pickers and 0.2
percent from strippers. The EPA emission factor rating for this source is C.
(3) PM7 emission factors for grain harvesting, specifically wheat and sorghum, are available from AP-
42. A 1988 EPA study reported that these factors are representative of PM,0 emissions.3
Grain harvesting involves three operations: crop handling by the harvest machine, loading the
grain into trucks and transporting the grain from the field. Emission factors have been developed
for each of these operations for two different types of grains, wheat and sorghum. The following
assumptions are used: average combine speed of 3.36 meters per second; combine swath width
of 6.07 meters; field transport speed of 4.48 meters per second; truck loading time of six minutes;
truck capacity of 0.52 km2 for wheat and 0.29 km2 for sorghum; and a filled truck travel time of
125 seconds per load.
Emission Factors
Wheat
Sorghum
Operation
(a/km2)
fa/km2)
Harvest machine
170
1,100
Truck loading
12
22
Field transport
110
200
The EPA emission factor rating for this source is D.
Level of detail required by users
Acreage of land used for agricultural purposes
Use of agricultural land by crop type and area
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Number of tillings per year for each crop type
Silt content of the surface soil
Agricultural methods employed, including type of harvesting equipment
Emission factor requirements
AP-42 has emission factors for PM10 from tilling and from harvesting of cotton, wheat and sorghum.
Emission factors for harvesting of other crops grown in the United States must be developed to get a
complete inventory of PM10 emissions from agricultural harvesting.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Emissions from this source will be higher in the agricultural regions of the United States, specifically the
North Central States and the Great Plains. Emissions vary seasonally and regionally by type of crops
planted (harvested) and silt content of soil.
Urban or rural characteristics
PM10 emissions from agricultural activity are a rural source.
Methodology
Agricultural acreage and crop data can be obtained from the U.S. Department of Agriculture.'' Maps by
soil types in regions can be obtained from Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
The data from these maps can be used to apply the methodology outlined in Reference 2 to estimate
values for silt content of soil. If the data for acreage tilled are on a county-specific level, the values of silt
content can be applied to the AP-42 equations to determine PM10 emissions from tillage for each county
in the United States.
To determine emissions from harvesting operations, data on acreage and harvesting process can be
applied to the AP-42 equations. Emission factors for harvesting of other crops must be determined or
estimated to compile a complete inventory of PM,0 emissions from harvesting. Data on harvesting
methods must be determined to ensure that the correct emission factors are applied. An important
parameter for applying these emission factors is the number of tillings per year per crop. Although there
are crop-specific estimates for annual tillings, areas experiencing moderate or high soil erosion may be
experimenting with low or no-till farming methods. These minimum tillage approaches would greatly
reduce PM emissions. It is estimated that over 20 percent of U.S. farmland is moderately or highly
erosive; this land is concentrated in the Corn Belt, the Southeast, the Northeast, the Delta States, and
Appalachia. Given the importance of tilling practices on overall emissions, it may be necessary to obtain
county-specific estimates of annual tillings to develop more accurate emissions estimates.
References
CM-61-57
182
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1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Cowherd, C.C. Jr., Guenther, C.M., and Wallace, D.D. Emissions Inventory of Agricultural Tilling,
Unpaved Roads and Airstrips, and Construction Sites, EPA-450/3-74-085 (NTIS PB238-919), U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1974.
3. Grelinger, M.A. et a/., Gap Filling PM,0 Emission Factors for Selected Open Area Dust Sources,
EPA-450/4-88-003 (NTIS PB88-196225), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, February 1988.
4. 1987 Census of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington,
DC, May 1989.
CH-91-57
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LANDFILL ACTIVITIES - TSP
Definition/description of category and activity
Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills emit particulate matter due to traffic, materials handling and
temporary/permanent covering operations. These operations are generically covered in AP-42 (Section
11.2) under fugitive dust sources.1 VOC emissions are covered in current SIP categories and methods.
Although methane emissions are not considered by current SIP methodologies, review of landfills as
methane sources will be discussed separately because of the distinct difference in emissions sources
between particulate matter and methane.2
Process breakdown
Fugitive dust from unpaved road travel
Fugitive dust from earth moving, including excavation, waste debris, fill, compaction and daily cover
activities
Reason for considering the category
The number of MSW landfills and volume of waste in the United States represents a large potential for
emissions, even if emissions per landfill or unit waste are modest. One study on two Chicago area
landfills indicated that unpaved road travel contributed the major portion of PM10 emissions (82 to 84
percent), based on the fugitive dust emission factors currently in AP-42 and including cover and fill
handling and dozer activities.3 MSW handling and compaction activities and wind erosion were found to
be insignificant sources of PM10.
Pollutants emitted
TSP, PM10
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Based on a rough calculation using 1.8 kg/capita/day, one mile distance traveled from the landfill gate
to the fill site and a U.S. population of 236 million, potential PM10 emissions are 170,000 TPY
Point/area source cutoff
Landfills are currently considered point sources.
Level of detail of Information available
Average per capita waste generation rate: 1.8 kg/day
State and county population figures
CM-91-57
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Emission factor: 1 lb PM,(/cubic yard of waste/mile
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Waste disposal rates by county
Distance from landfill gate to disposal site
Emission factor requirements
The available emission factor uses both waste disposed (cubic yards) and distance traveled to waste
disposal cell from site entrance.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
Urban or rural characteristics
Waste generation is principally associated with urban areas and landfills are in proximity to urban sources.
Methodology
The existing PM,0 emission factor would have to be adapted to TSP and is subject to considerable
uncertainty. First, surface, soil and environmental conditions vary greatly between sites and may be
significantly different from the two Chicago area landfills on which the emission factor is based. Second,
dust control measures (such as water application) may vary from site to site. The two sites studied
regularly applied water for dust suppression. Third, the distance traveled is a parameter that will change
over time for each landfill and is, in any case, difficult to estimate.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Bingemer, H.G. and PJ. Crutzen, The Production of Methane from Solid Waste, J. Geophys. Res.
92(D2):2181-2187, 1987.
3. Cowherd, C. and M.A. Grelinger. PM10 Emission Factors for Specialized Open Dust Sources, In
Proceedings of the 81st Annual APCA Meeting. 1988.
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ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Definition/description of category and activities
Emissions from road construction primarily include fugitive dust emissions from unpaved roads.
Secondary concerns are associated with volatile organic compounds released from paving operations,
road striping and chemical dust suppressants. Cutback asphalt paving, once a major source of VOC
emissions associated with naphtha and kerosene, has largely been replaced by water-emulsified products.
According to the Asphalt Institute, only three percent of asphalt sold in the United States in 1989 was
cutback asphalt.1 VOC emissions from cutback and emulsified paving operations are currently included
in SIP inventories. OAQPS is exploring the possibility of using water-based paints in road striping
operations.2 (Road striping or traffic painting is discussed in another characterization.) Dust is primarily
controlled by spraying water, rather than chemical dust suppressants or waste oil which would release
volatile organic compounds.
Process breakdown
Road construction can be broken down into several activities: clearing activities, such as dynamiting,
burning and bulldozing; roadbed preparation, including landform reshaping, spraying chemical dust
suppressants and resurfacing unpaved roads; paving, including both cutback and non-cutback asphalt
paving; and road striping. Most road construction activity involves resurfacing paved roads, rather than
building new roads. Therefore, impacts associated with clearing and landform reshaping are nominal.
Likewise, because cutback asphalt and chemical dust suppressants have largely been replaced by water-
based products, their current contributions to VOC emissions are limited.''1'
Reason for considering the category
Road construction activities release PM10 and VOC and have the potential to affect an area's attainment
of NAAQS.
Pollutants emitted
TSP, PM10, VOC
Estimate of pollutant levels
The national total emissions of pollutants per year released due to road construction are difficult to
estimate and highly variable from year to year. Construction activity is short-term and directly dependent
on the fluctuations of federal and state economies, as well as the weather. A further restriction on
estimating emissions is the fact that the Federal Highway Administration does not keep records on total
acres or miles under construction at any given time. For these reasons, only emission factors are
presented below.7,8
CH-01-57
186
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Pollutant
Level
Source
Fugitive Dust
Fugitive Dust
TSP
4.939 Ibs/vehicle-mile
1.2 tons/acre/month
1,737.57 tons/year
unpaved roads/trucks
construction activities
unpaved roads at steel plant
Point/area source cutoff
Large long-term industrial projects likely result in greater than ten TPY fugitive dust emissions and should
be addressed as point sources. More typical operations on public roadways should be considered area
sources, since the amount of time that the surface remains unpaved and that paving operations take
place is limited to days or weeks.
Level of detail of Information available
For TSP/PM,0 associated with unpaved roads, traffic and road construction data are available from state
Departments of Transportation, usually by county. Mean vehicle speed and weight will vary substantially
depending on the nature of construction, and therefore should probably be estimated. Silt content may
be available from the Soil Conservation Service or may require field sampling. Precipitation data are
available from the National Weather Service.
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Average miles under construction by county
Emission factor requirements
Total TSP/PM,0 emission factors per mile of road construction
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Greater emissions occur in summer due to drier weather and higher amount of construction activity. For
the same reasons, greater emissions occur during daytime operations.
Urban or rural characteristics
Construction activity may occur in urban, suburban or rural areas.
Methodology
(1) AP-42 emission factors for fugitive dust on unpaved roads
E = k(5.9) (s/12) (S/30) (W/3)07 (w/4)05 (365-p/365), in pounds per VMT
CH-91-57
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where E = emission factor
k = particle size multiplier (dimensionless)
s = silt content of road surface material (percent)
S = mean vehicle speed (mph)
W = mean vehicle weight (ton)
w = mean number of wheels
p = number of days with at least 0.01 inch of precipitation per year
This algorithm should be adjusted to account for the temporary and seasonal nature of road
construction activities.
(3) VOC emissions from road striping paint are addressed in the Traffic Painting characterization.
(4) Emissions of VOC from dust suppression chemicals are assumed minimal since their use is rare
in road construction operations. Presumably, waste oil has not been used as a dust suppressant
since such activities were banned by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
3004(1) in 1980. Therefore, VOC emissions from waste oil need not be considered.
References
1. Telecon. Henning, Miranda, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Larry White, Asphalt Institute.
Road construction. July 1990.
2. Telecon. Henning, Miranda, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Robert McCrillis, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory. Road
construction. July 1990.
3. Telecon. Henning, Miranda, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Greg Creech, Barn Hill
Contracting. Road construction. July 1990.
4. Telecon. Henning, Miranda, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with George Gibson, North
Carolina Department of Transportation. Road construction. July 1990.
5. Telecon. Henning, Miranda, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Barney O'Quinn, North
Carolina Department of Transportation, Planning and Research Unit, Environmental Subunit.
Road construction. July 1990.
6. Telecon. Henning, Miranda, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Dick Schoneburg, Federal
Highway Administration, Air Quality Office. Emissions from road construction activity. July 1990.
7. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
8. Cowherd, C.C., Jr. et a/., Development of Emission Factors for Fugitive Dust Sources, EPA-450/3-
74-037 (NTIS PB238-262), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC,
June 1974.
9. Cowherd, C., C. Guenther, and D. Wallace. Emissions Inventory of Agricultural Filling, Unpaved
Roads and Airstrips, and Construction Sites, EPA 450/3-74-085 (NTIS PB238-919), U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1974.
CH-91-57
188
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10. Dyck, R.I.J, and J.J. Stukel. Fugitive Dust Emissions from Trucks on Unpaved Roads.
Environmental Science and Technology, 10(10): 1046-1048, 1976.
11. Morris, S.M., and D. Kilroe. USX/Gary Fugitive Dust Inventory, prepared for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Air Management Division, Air and Radiation Branch, Region V, by Alliance
Technologies Corporation, Bedford, MA, September 1987.
CH-91-57
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GRAIN GRINDING AND FEED PREPARATION
Definition/description of category and activity
Many grain grinding and feed preparation activities, including handling, mixing and milling of grains, are
sources of fugitive dust emissions. PM emissions result from loading, unloading and cleaning of feed in
grain elevators; receiving, handling, cleaning and drying of grains in the milling process; and receiving,
handling, grinding and cooling in the feed manufacturing process. Grain elevator facilities are used to
condition, handle and store grain as it moves from the farms to the markets. At country elevators, grain
is unloaded, weighed, stored and sometimes dried and cleaned before being shipped to a terminal
elevator or processor. Terminal elevators are used to furnish official weights of grain shipments; they are
generally located in the principal grain-marketing and shipping centers in metropolitan areas.1,2,3
Process breakdown
There are SCC groups for four phases of feed preparation: terminal grain elevators are covered by SCCs
3-02-005-xx; country elevators by SCCs 3-02-006-xx; milling by SCCs 3-01-007-xx; and feed manufacture
by 3-02-008-xx."
Reason for considering the category
The NAAQS for particulate matter was revised to include only particulate matter of less than 10 <:m in
diameter (PM,0).
Pollutants emitted
Pollutants emitted from these activities include particulate matter of all sizes, including PM,0. PM is the
only air pollutant emitted from these activities, with the exception of very small amounts of combustion
products emitted from grain dryers. These grain dryers usually operate less than three months per year
and burn natural or propane gas.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Emissions from elevators, milling and feed preparation depend on the size of the operation, the type(s)
of grain(s) handled and the control technologies in place. Large grain elevators may be sources of over
100 tons per year of PM emissions. PM10 emission factors need to be developed for each emissions
source associated with elevators. PM emissions from large grain milling establishments may exceed ten
TPY There is not enough information for each grain type to determine how many mills would exceed ten
TPY of PM10. Feed manufacturing establishments with over 50,000 tons of production per year probably
emit greater than ten TPY of PM,0. In 1969, approximately 3.6 percent of feed manufacturing
establishments were of such capacity. These establishments produced over 47 percent of the feed.12,3
Point/area source cutoff
Feed manufacturing establishments which process over 50,000 tons of grain per year may emit greater
than ten TPY of PM,0. Establishments which process less than 50,000 tons per year of grain accounted
CH-91-57
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for over 95 percent of the feed manufacturing establishments. These smaller establishments probably
emit less than ten TPY and may be included as an area source.
To determine if any grain milling establishments emit greater than ten TPY of PM,0, information on the
types of grains milled at each establishment must be gathered.
Some large grain elevators can emit 100 TPY or more of PM. To determine if PM,0 emissions from these
elevators exceed ten TPY emission factors need to be developed for each emissions source associated
with these elevators.
Level of detail of Information available
AP-42X and NEDS Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing* present PM emission factors
for grain elevators, grain mills and feed manufacturing facilities which are based on information found in
Emissions Control in the Grain and Feed Industry.2 This document also provides estimates of the particle
size distribution of PM (and thus PM10) emissions estimates for some of the sources. In addition,
SCAQMD has compiled an inventory of emissions, by SCC category, for pollutants including PM and
PM,0.5 This inventory was the basis of some of the estimates of the ratio of PM10 to PM emissions listed
in Tables 1 and 2 (PM emission factors for grain elevators and PM emission factors for grain processing
operations, respectively). Table 3 gives PM emission factors for feed manufacturing. The PM10/PM ratios
developed from the SCAQMD document are based on controlled emissions. This must be taken into
account if these estimates are to be applied to non-California sources.
Level of detail required by users
Amount and type of grain processed by country, terminal and export elevators
Amount and type of grain passing through each function of an elevator (receiving, handling, cleaning,
drying and shipping)
Amount and type of grain processed by grain milling facilities and the amount of grain affected by each
function of a mill (receiving, handling, cleaning, degerming and milling)
Amount and type of grain manufactured into feed and the amount of grain passing through each process
in feed manufacturing (receiving, shipping, handling, grinding and cooling pellets)
Emission factor requirements
Although several sources provide PM emission factors from grain grinding and feed manufacture, there
are not enough factors specific to PM,0 to allow the user to estimate emissions from these sources. PM10
emission factors must be developed for grain elevator activities, grain grinding and feed preparation
activities.
Development of emission factors for PM,0 must include better crop-specific factors for elevators.
Control equipment in place in elevators and granaries that is not subject to the New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS) must be detailed.
CH-91-57 191
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TABLE 1. PM EMISSION FACTORS FOR GRAIN ELEVATORS
lbs PM/ton
lbs PM/ton
of grain
shipped or
PM
Process
see
processed
received
size
Feed and Grain Terminal Elevators
3-02-005-xx
Cleaning
3-02-005-03
3.0*
0.6
Drying
3-02-005-04
1.2C
0.1
95% > 50umd
Unloading (receiving)
3-02-005-05
1.0
1.0
most > 100um'
Loading (shipping)
3-02-005-06
0.4
0.4
Removal from bins
3-02-005-07
1.4
2.8
most < 5umb
Elevator legs
3-02-005-08
1.6
4.8
Tripper (gallery belt)
3-02-005-09
1.0
1.7
Feed and Grain Country Elevators
3-02-006-xx
Cleaning
3-02-006-03
3.0°
0.3
Drying
3-02-006-04
0.8°
0.2
Unloading
3-02-006-05
0.6
0.6
Loading
3-02-006-06
0.4
0.4
Removal from bins
3-02-006-07
1.0
2.1
Elevator legs
3-02-006-10
1.6
5.0
Export Elevators
NA
Unloading
1.0
1.0
Loading
1.0
1.0
Removal from bins
1.4
1.7
Drying
1.0e
0.01
Cleaning
3.0"
0.6
Elevator legs
1.6
3.5
Tripper (gallery belt)
1.0
1.1
'Emissions are based on a cyclone system serving a dump truck unloading grain.2
^Approximately 70 percent of the grain dust emitted is composed of organic material and about 17 percent is silicon dioxide. Other
materials in the dust include particles of grain kernels, spores of smuts and molds, insect debris, pollens, herbicides and field dust.2
The dust emitted to the interior of the elevator creates problems that are not necessarily related to air pollution, i.e., dust which is
not emitted externally poses more of a safety and housekeeping problem than a non-safety health problem.
cEmission factors for drying are based on 1.8 pounds per ton for rack dryers and 0.3 pounds per ton for column dryers, weighted
by the distribution of these two types of dryers in each elevator category.
^Estimate from Reference 2.
*The emission factor of 3.0 pounds per ton for cleaning is an average value which may range from less than 0.5 pounds per ton for
wheat up to 6.0 pounds per ton for corn.
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TABLE 2. PM EMISSION FACTORS FOR GRAIN-PROCESSING OPERATIONS
lbs/ton of grain
Process
see
received
Barley Milling
3-02-007-Ox
Barley Cleaning
3-02-007-03
0.2
Barley Flour Mill
3-02-007-05
3.0
Milo Milling
3-02-007-04
Milo Cleaning
3-02-007-04
0.4
Durum Milling
3-02-007-1X
Grain Receiving
3-02-007-11
1.0
Precleaning/Handling
3-02-007-12
5.0
Cleaning House
3-02-007-13
-
Millhouse
3-02-007-14
-
Rye Milling
3-02-007-2X
Grain Receiving
3-02-007-21
1.0
Precleaning/Handling
3-02-007-22
5.0
Cleaning House
3-02-007-23
-
Millhouse
3-02-007-24
70.0
Wheat Milling
3-02-007-3X
Grain Receiving
3-02-007-31
1.0
Precleaning/Handling
3-02-007-32
5.0
Cleaning House
3-02-007-33
-
Millhouse
3-02-007-34
70.0
Dry Corn Milling
3-02-007-4X
Grain Receiving
3-02-007-41
1.0
Grain Drying
3-02-007-42
0.5
Precleaning/Handling
3-02-007-43
5.0
Cleaning House
3-02-007-44
6.0
Degerming and Milling
3-02-007-45
-
Wet Corn Milling
3-02-007-5X
Grain Receiving
3-02-007-51
1.0
Grain Handling
3-02-007-52
5.0
Grain Cleaning
3-02-007-53
6.0
Dryers
3-02-007-54
0.48
Bulk Loading
3-02-007-55
-
Milling
3-02-007-56
-
(continued)
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TABLE 2. PM EMISSION FACTORS FOR GRAIN-PROCESSING OPERATIONS (continued)
lbs/ton of grain
Process
see
received
Oat Milling
3-02-007-60
Total
3-02-007-60
2.5
Rice Milling
3-02-007-7X
Grain Receiving
3-02-007-71
0.64
Precleaning/Handling
3-02-007-72
5.0
Drying
3-02-007-73
0.30
Cleaning and
Millhouse
3-02-007-74
-
Soybean Mills
3-02-007-8X
Grain Receiving
3-02-007-81
1.6
Grain Handling
3-02-007-82
5.0
Grain Cleaning
3-02-007-83
-
Drying
3-02-007-84
7.2
Cracking and
Dehulling
3-02-007-85
3.3
Hull Grinding
3-02-007-86
2.0
Bean Conditioning
3-02-007-87
0.1
Flaking
3-02-007-88
0.57
Meal Dryer
3-03-007-89
1.5
Meal Cooler
3-03-007-90
1.8
Bulk Loading
3-03-007-91
0.27
TABLE 3. PM AND PM10
EMISSION FACTORS FOR FEED MANUFACTURING
PM
PM10
Process
see
(lb/ton)
(lb/ton)
Feed Manufacture
3-02-008-0X
Grain Receiving
3-02-008-02
2.5
0*
Shipping
3-02-008-03
1.0
0.66"
Handling
3-02-008-04
5.5
0.50a
Grinding
3-02-008-05
0.2"
-
Pellet Coolers
3-02-008-06
0.4*
1.0"
* These estimates are based on controlled emissions in California and, therefore, are based on control technologies in place in
California.
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Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Country elevators, which generally receive grains harvested within ten to twenty miles, are concentrated
in the grain-producing states in the Mid-Plains, South Plains and Great Lakes regions. Therefore,
emissions from this source will be higher in the grain-producing states. While country elevators are found
in rural areas, terminal and export elevators are concentrated in urban areas, particularly in the principal
grain-marketing and shipping centers. Grain-processing facilities are located in both rural and urban
areas. Feed manufacturing plants are located throughout the United States, with concentrations in the
Corn Belt and Texas. Emissions will be highest during the harvesting season.
Urban or rural characteristics
PM10 emissions from grain grinding and feed preparation can be a rural or urban source.
Methodology
Although there are some data available for estimating PM10 emissions from grain grinding and feed
preparation, these data do not provide enough information to develop county-level emissions estimates.
PM,0 emission factors for these activities must be identified or developed. Once emission factors are
available, information on elevator types and locations, as well as locations of granaries and feed
manufacturers must be developed. The Department of Agriculture will probably have many of these data.
Data on grain-handling facilities, including any dust control technologies in place, must also be gathered.
Newer grain-handling facilities will often have lower emissions due to advanced design and control
technologies. For example, if grain is handled in an area closed off from the wind, as is the case in some
of the newer facilities, emissions will be lower and easier to contain and capture.3 With PM10 emission
factors and data on amount and type of grain handled, uncontrolled emissions can be estimated; data
on design and controls of the facilities in the grain and feed industry can be used to develop estimates
of controlled emissions.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through September
1991.
2. Emissions Control in the Grain and Feed Industry, Volume l-Engineering and Cost Study, EPA-450/3-
73-003a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1973.
3. Review of the New Source Performance Standards for Grain Elevators, EPA-450/3-84-001 (NTIS
PB84-175744), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, January 1984.
4. NEDS Source Classification Codes and Emission Factor Listing, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, October 1985.
5. Summary of Emissions by Major Source and Control Category, 1987 South Coast Air Basin Draft
Inventory, South Coast Air Quality Management District, El Monte, CA, September 1990.
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ROAD SALTING AND SANDING
Definition/description of category and activity
Salt and sand are applied to road surfaces to increase traction and lower the freezing point of the water
in snow and icy conditions. Vehicular traffic entrains the particulate, principally the silt fraction, deposited
in the active lanes into the atmosphere. Additional silt is created due to the grinding action of vehicle
tires. Sand is generally applied in an abrasive mixture with salt. The ratio may range from 1:3 to 1:20
sand to salt. Other abrasives besides sand (such as very small pea gravel) can represent a minor
component of the abrasive mixture. Sodium chloride is the principal salt used; small amounts of calcium
chloride are used in certain special situations involving low temperatures and wet roadways.113
Process breakdown
Emissions of PM,0 are caused by the entrainment of the silt fraction from deposited particulates and of
the silt fraction created by the grinding action of vehicle tires. Emissions of particulates from both salt and
sand are associated with snow, sleet, freezing rain and ice on interstates and tollways, primary roads,
secondary roads and city streets. The amount of salt or abrasive mixture used, as well as the composition
of the mixture, is dependent on weather conditions, local availability and local regulations concerning the
composition of abrasive mixtures.
Reason for considering the category
Sand and salt represent a primary source of particulate matter available for entrainment from paved roads
by vehicles. PM10 generated in this manner occurs at the time of year that emissions are of particular
concern.
Pollutants emitted
PM10. Other particulate fractions are generated and emitted, but the amounts of these fractions are
known.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
An estimate of pollutant levels was made on three bases. First, salt consumption data from the State of
North Carolina were obtained. Second, these North Carolina data were used with EPA guidance to derive
a rough national estimate.4 Finally, data from the Salt Institute were used as the basis for a national
estimate.
Based on data supplied by the North Carolina Department of Transportation (DOT), state-maintained
roads use 40,000 TPY of salt over 24,000 lane-miles of roadway. Sand use is not monitored on a total
basis, but is used normally in a 20:1 mix of salt and sand.5 Based on EPA emission factors discussed
below, North Carolina emissions are calculated to be 200 tons PM,0 as salt and 25 tons PM10 as sand in
a typical year.
Based on a rough evaluation of the number of road miles and inclement (snow) days in other states,
northeastern, upper midwestern and northwestern states may use (and emit) more than ten times the salt
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and sand. A rough national estimate of 50,000 TPY assumes 2,000 TPY emitted per state and 25 states
receiving significant snowfall (ten or more days per year).
In fact, 1989 data from the Salt Institute indicate 1989 sales of 10,181,000 tons of salt for highway use (the
Salt Institute does not compile these data by state).6 Using the emission factor of ten pounds PM10 per
ton salt, the 1989 national estimate based on salt sales is 50,905 tons PM,0. No parallel data for sand
have been located, but based on the North Carolina example above, salt is expected to be the major
contributor.
Point/area source cutoff
Due to the nature of the activity, this category is considered an area source.
Level of detail of Information available
States track salt usage through state DOTs and may have sand estimates as well. Typical abrasive
mixtures applied are likely to be documented as well. Application rates (per lane-mile) are available or
can be estimated from available data. Municipalities also keep these data for city streets and city/county-
maintained roads.
Emission factors are available as PM10 per ton salt or sand applied, or can be related to application rate
(mass/lane-mile), snow days and maintained lane-miles. Percentage of PM10 in the silt and fraction of silt
in the salt and sand are necessary, but default values are available. Snow days are available from the
National Weather Service or can be estimated from state/local records. Lane-miles are also available from
state DOTs and local street maintenance departments in most cases.
The National Industrial Sand Association was also contacted for sales or tonnage data on salt and sand
for road application. Neither sales nor tonnage data sand used for road application are available.
Level of detail required by users
PM,0 emissions per county. Therefore, salt and sand quantities per county, or application rate, maintained
miles and snow days per county are needed. Apportionment from the state level is possible based on
percentage of county roadway to state roadway (lane-miles) or a combination of roadway and snow day
information.
Emission factor requirements
Emissions per ton salt and sand applied, or emissions per lane-mile per snow day per application rate:
SAND
PM,0 (lb/ton) = 2,000 x f x (s/100)
where: f = proportion of PM10 in the silt fraction (default = 0.0026)
s = percent silt content of the sand (default 0.35)
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SALT
PM,0 (lb/ton) = 10
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Emissions occur primarily in winter, although some fall and spring use of salt and sand occurs along the
northern tier of states. Amount of salt and sand used directly correlates with the number of snow and ice
days.
Urban or rural characteristics
Application and emission rates are related to maintained road miles. Emissions are directly related to
roadway density and would be higher in urban areas.
Methodology
EPA has proposed an emission factor (discussed above).4 Salt and sand usage from state DOTs and
municipalities would be required and are available from the individual states. The Federal Highway
Administration does not compile data on salt and sanding. A moderate effort would be required to
contact state DOTs, but collection of municipal data would entail identification of relevant municipalities
and collection of information from each locality. Using roadway mileage is a more appealing alternative,
but requires assumptions regarding application rates and occurrences. From a SIP viewpoint, contact
with state DOT and municipal street maintenance officials is a credible approach. National estimates
would be far easier to obtain using the roadway mileage/application rate approach or by apportioning salt
usage by state according to road mileage and snow days.
References
1. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Tom Benedict, Highway
Statistics, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC. Federal statistics on road deicing.
November 1990.
2. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with The Salt Institute,
Alexandria, VA. Quantities of salt sold for road deicing. November 1990.
3. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mr. Mularkey, National
Industrial Sand Association, Silver Spring, MD. Information on sand used for road deicing.
November 1990.
4. Grelinger, M.A., et al., Gap Filling PM10 Emission Factors for Selected Open Area Dust Sources,
EPA-450/4-88-003 (NTIS PB88-196225), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, February 1988.
5. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Dennis Carter, State Road
Maintenance Engineering, North Carolina Department of Transportation, Raleigh, NC. Deicing
operations on state-maintained roads. November 1990.
6. Salt Institute Statistical Report Analysis, The Salt Institute, Alexandria, VA, 1989.
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SANDBLASTING
Definition/description of category and activity
Abrasive cleaning is the use of natural or synthetic fine particulate to clean concrete or metal surfaces.
Sandblasting is the most recognizable type of abrasive cleaning. Other substances, including pulverized
coal slag and plastic pellets, are also used. Processes include architectural cleaning of concrete, brick
and metal surfaces; metallic cleaning, including shot blasting and peening, deburring, grinding and
polishing of large and small metal parts; and large-scale blasting of ships, bridges, etc., prior to repainting.
Process breakdown
Emissions are fugitive in nature. Emissions occur outdoors during architectural and large-scale metal
cleaning and indoors in industrial and commercial settings during metal parts cleaning.
Reason for considering the category
Abrasive cleaning is a noticeable, but sporadic, source of particulates in urban atmospheres. Occupational
standards exist due to the health hazards of crystalline silica (i.e., sand) inhalation.1 However, ambient
emissions and effects have not been studied.
Pollutants emitted
Particulate matter
Toxic components of paints and coatings cleaned from metal or brick surfaces
Estimate of the pollutant levels
No emission factors or activity data are currently available. Emissions depend on type of cleaning agent,
type of surface cleaned, environmental conditions, etc. Based on anecdotal evidence, the potential for
particulate emissions are high during outdoor cleaning of architectural surfaces or large-scale metal
cleaning.2
Point/area source cutoff
Abrasive cleaning is not currently inventoried. Existing point/area distinctions are appropriate to the
category and would likely result in point source listings for large, fixed operations such as ship drydocks.
Construction-related cleaning is likely to be smaller in magnitude for any single site and may be placed
in the area source inventory. Metal parts cleaning may be large or small scale and would probably need
to be addressed in both point and area source inventories.
Level of detail of Information available
No emissions or activity data are available. EPA and NTIS databases were searched for relevant
documentation and only bibliographic reports on abrasive processes were located. Occupational
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exposure and epidemiological data are available for abrasive-blasting operations. Construction
employment data are available. The National Industrial Sand Association does not separate sand used
for abrasive cleaning from other types of sand.3
Level of detail required by users
Emissions per process throughput or per county are required. Emissions estimation requires emission
factors and throughputs for point sources. Activity data, such as construction activity or SIC employment,
and emission factors are required for area sources.
Emission factor requirements
Emissions per ton abrasive cleaner or unit cleaned (e.g., ships)
Emissions per construction unit and/or per SIC employee in the construction sector
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Overall, abrasive cleaning should show trends similar to activity in the construction industry. However,
large-scale abrasive cleaners like shipyards and metal part cleaning probably do not exhibit regional or
seasonal characteristics.
Urban or rural characteristics
Primarily urban
Methodology
Point source emissions estimation requires identification of relevant industrial and commercial processes
and emission factor development for those processes. Area source methodologies can be based on
construction activity and SIC employment data, but they also require development of emission factors.
Currently, there are no test data on which to base emission factors.
References
1. Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Crystalline Silica Exposure, 75-
120, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH, 1974.
2. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation with Bill Shipman, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Development of
emission factors for abrasive cleaning. December 1990.
3. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mr. Mularkey, National
Industrial Sand Association, Silver Spring, MD. Information on sand sold for abrasive cleaning.
November 1990.
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STREET SWEEPING AND CLEANING
Definition/description of category and activity
Street sweeping and cleaning is the mechanical removal of dust from paved roads. Dust is deposited
from emissions sources, local erosion, wear of vehicle components and carry-out from vehicles working
in or hauling dirt or loose materials. Dirt removal is primarily accomplished by sweeping or vacuuming
and water flushing. Mechanical broom sweepers use large, rotating brooms to lift material from the street
and direct it to a hopper. Vacuum sweepers use a broom to loosen road dirt or a strong vacuum to pick
up dirt and a vacuum system to direct dirt to the hopper. Blasts of air may be used in conjunction with
the vacuum to dislodge dirt particles. Water flushing washes dust directly to storm drains and generally
is not used because of the washoff of toxic pollutants and the demand for water. Typically, residential
and some commercial areas are swept, but rarely highways and primary roads.1,2,3
Process breakdown
Emissions of TSP are caused by the dislodging of dirt from the road surface into the ambient air and
exhausted air from the hopper.
Reason for considering the category
Vehicular entrapment of paved road dust is considered a significant source of TSP and PM,0. Sweeping
is a common control strategy to reduce the pool of road particulates subject to reentrainment, but may
be a major cause of reentrainment due to the blasting action and exhaust of particulates.
Pollutants emitted
TSR including PM,0
Estimate of the pollutant levels
No information was located that indicated that sweeping is a source of TSP due to reentrainment. Studies
in Chicago measured the effect of sweeping on ambient suspended particulate levels and found no
statistical differences between swept and unswept areas on an averaged basis. During the sweeping
activity, particulates are raised into the ambient atmosphere, but the Chicago study and other literature
show that the net effect is either a reduction in overall emissions from paved roads or no measurable
effect, depending on the sweeper type, location, cleaning program and other individual variables. No
quantitative emissions estimates from sweeper action or exhaust were found.1,2,3,4
Point/area source cutoff
The nature of this source makes rt an area source.
Level of detail of information available
No data on emissions from street sweepers are available.
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Level of detail required by users
Activity data such as frequency, efficiency, equipment type, etc., are required. Emission factors are
specific to each equipment type.
Emission factor requirements
Emissions per curb-mile swept (if this source is determined to be a net emissions source)
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Frequency of street sweeping is weather related. Colder, wetter meteorological conditions require less
sweeping due to snow or frequent washing from rain.
Urban or rural characteristics
Urban and suburban areas
Methodology
At this time, street sweeping is not considered a net source of particulates (TSP or PM10) to the urban
ambient atmosphere.12,3 4 Rather, it is used as a control strategy to reduce particulate reentrainment from
paved roads and to reduce potential urban stormwater contaminants/sediment loadings.
References
1. Chow, J.C., etal. Evaluation of regenerative-air vacuum street sweeping on geologic contributions
to PM,0. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 40:1134-1142. 1990.
2. Cowherd, C., G.E. Muleski and J.S. Kinsey. Control of Open Fugitive Dust Sources, EPA-450/3-88-
008 (NTIS PB89-103691), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC,
1988.
3. Gatz, D.F., S.T. Wiley and LC. Chu. Characterization of Urban and Rural Inhalable Particulates,
ENR Document No. 83/11, Illinois State Water Survey, Champaign, IL, February 1983.
4. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation with Dennis Shipman, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Street sweeping
as a source of particulates. October 1990.
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INFLIGHT AIRCRAFT
Definition/description of category and activity
Current aircraft emissions estimation methods base emissions on landing/take-off (LTO) cycles for three
categories: civil, commercial and military aircraft. Emission factors are further defined by aircraft type
within each category (e.g., jet, turboprop, piston, helicopter, etc.). The AP-42 mobile source emissions
estimation methods for the category make it possible to estimate emissions based on engine
manufacturer.1 Emissions are estimated for the following modes: approach, taxi/idle in, taxi/idle out, take-
off and climb-out. Only emissions produced below 915 meters (m) altitude are considered, although
emissions at any altitude can be computed if the depth of the inversion layer is known. Inflight emissions
occur above the 915 m level. Emissions of greatest interest occur between 915 m (current AP-42
assumption) and the top of the actual inversion layer.
Process breakdown
Jet Engine Inflight Helicopter Inflight
Turboprop inflight Small Piston Engine Inflight
Piston Engine Inflight
Reason for considering the category
Environment Canada does compute inflight emissions for their inventory.2 3 Emissions potential in the
United States is unknown, but some major urban centers could be affected under some meteorological
conditions.
Pollutants emitted
S02, NO,, VOC, TSP and CO
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Canadian estimates have been requested from Environment Canada. Based on Environment Canada
emission factors and an assumption of a one-hour flight, inflight emissions would be about ten percent
of LTO emissions for jets, five percent for turboprops, and equal to or slightly more for other aircraft types.
Based on 1985 NAPAP data, national emissions may be 10,000 to 20,000 TPY NOx and VOC (each).4
Point/area source cutoff
Not applicable, as aircraft are considered an off-highway mobile source.
Level of detail of information available
FAA records and county airport and aircraft registration data are used to estimate LTO cycles. Time in
mode can be estimated along with aircraft type to compute weighted average emission factors. Aircraft
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routes and flight frequencies are available from the FAA and most airports. Meteorologic data are
available in Local Climatologies! Data?
Level of detail required by users
Height of the inversion layer on a daily and/or average basis by airport. Because mixing height shows
diurnal variation, morning and afternoon traffic could be considered separately.
Aircraft route and frequency data
Aircraft type (including engine manufacturer)
Time in mode
Emission factor requirements
Existing AP-42 factors are adequate, providing these factors are updated as engine designs change. To
consider altitudes above (or below) the 915 m level, time-in-mode for approach and climb-out are
extended or shortened. Canada considers total inflight emissions and has used AP-42 emission factors
to develop inflight emission factors for all altitudes above 915 m.6
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Air traffic dependent - large urban centers and military bases would be major contributors and have peak
hours during daylight hours.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source. If all inflight emissions are considered, rather than only those below the
inversion layer, the area of impact would be greater. Aircraft that typically fly at lower altitudes (including
civil aviation and helicopters) will contribute little to inflight emissions.
Methodology
Total inflight emissions could be computed with existing emission factors (AP-42) and FAA and military
data on air traffic activity and aircraft censuses. Inclusion of only emissions below the inversion layer
requires specific meteorological data. The method envisioned would then require extending existing
'climbout' emissions estimation to another altitude. This, in turn, requires assumptions about flight time
to that altitude. Current AP-42 methods allow for this kind of computation to be made.
Conversations with Environment Canada staff indicated the mapping of flight paths and frequencies was
a long and tedious process they would not repeat. It appears the estimated emissions potential does not
justify this level of effort.8
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References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume II: Mobile Sources, Fourth Edition and
Supplements, AP-42, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC,
September 1985.
2. VOC Emissions Methods Manual, Environment Canada, Environmental Analysis Branch, August
1988.
3. Methods Manual for Estimating Emissions of Common Air Contaminants from Canadian Sources,
ORTECH International (in development).
4. Saeger, M., et al. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers' Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91 -119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
5. Local Climatological Data: Annual Summary with Comparative Data, U.S. Department of
Commerce, Washington, DC. Annual publication.
6. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Tony Kosteltz, Environment
Canada. Inflight aircraft emissions methodology. July 1990.
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COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS VEHICLES
Definition/description of category and activity
Since the 1960s, many fleet vehicles have been converted (retrofitted) to compressed natural gas (CNG)
as an alternative energy source to gasoline and diesel fuels. Most vehicles operating on CNG are
modified versions of vehicles designed for operation on liquid fuels. Some conversions allow the alternate
use of either CNG or gasoline and are known as dual-fuel vehicles. Currently, there are no vehicles
produced specifically for operation with CNG. These production CNG vehicles would operate on CNG
as a sole source of fuel, with design specifications optimizing the use of CNG as fuel. The discussion of
emission rates in this report is based on the rates from conversions. These emission rates are expected
to vary appreciably for production CNG vehicles.1'7
Process breakdown
Two basic vehicles categories can use CNG as a fuel:
• retrofit vehicles, originally designed for gasoline or diesel fuel use
• production.CNG fueled vehicles, specifically designed for CNG use
Within each of these categories are two types of vehicles: those using CNG as the sole fuel and dual-fuel
vehicles that can operate on either gasoline or diesel in addition to CNG. Most information available on
CNG emissions is based on tests with retrofit vehicles. However, there are wide differences in emissions
estimates from different agencies/research groups, even for the same model vehicle. Emissions estimates
are affected by the type of pollution control equipment installed on the vehicle; the manufacturer of the
retrofit conversion kit; the adjustment of the timing and tuning of the converted vehicle; whether the
vehicle is a dual-fuel vehicle; and the changing technologies being considered for use in converting
vehicles to CNG. Production CNG vehicles are not currently available; therefore, the discussion of
emissions includes only retrofit vehicles.
Reason for considering the category
Emissions from CNG-fueled vehicles and dual-fueled vehicles have not been addressed previously in
emissions inventories. Nationally, there are an estimated 30,000 vehicles currently operating on CNG. As
the economic and technological barriers disappear, the use of CNG as a vehicle fuel will most likely
increase. Emissions from this source category may increase in importance if SIP and FIP plans in ozone
and/or CO nonattainment areas require using CNG vehicles as a control strategy.
Pollutants emitted
CO, NOx and hydrocarbons (mostly methane) are emitted from CNG-fueled vehicles. The percent
difference in pollutant emissions from CNG- versus gasoline-fueled vehicles is presented in Table 1. The
relatively lower amounts of reactive hydrocarbons and CO from CNG make this fuel especially attractive
for CO and ozone nonattainment areas.
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TABLE 1. CHANGE IN EMISSIONS IN A VEHICLE CONVERTED FROM GASOLINE TO CNG FUEL
Pollutant
Change In Emissions Comments
Reactive
Hydrocarbons
-40%
Includes effect of reduced reactivity
due to high methane fraction.
CO
-50%
NO,
X
+40%
NO, emissions generally increase with CNG due
to its high flame temperature. This reflects an
average of the data range.
Evaporative
Hydrocarbons
-100%
Assumes no evaporative emissions.
However, there may be some leakage of
methane upon refueling.
Estimate of pollutant levels •• general considerations
Emissions estimates exist for some individual retrofit vehicles. However, the emissions estimates vary
widely, based on several considerations. The primary consideration is whether the vehicle operates on
CNG as the sole fuel or operates as a dual-fuel vehicle. A vehicle operating on two fuel types is not as
efficient in either fuel as a vehicle running exclusively on one fuel. Even with dedicated CNG service, a
deterioration of driveability and power loss may be experienced and readjustments for better operation
would affect emissions. Furthermore, there are several different conversion kits available. Each one can
have a wide variation in emissions, depending on proper installation and changes made to the vehicle's
operating parameters (i.e., timing, fuel mix, etc.). In addition, each model vehicle may have different
emission characteristics, even when the same conversion kit is properly installed.
A critical assessment of the contribution of this category to area-wide emissions was not undertaken in
this effort and none of the references cited gave any estimate on the overall emissions from this source
category. Additional effort is warranted to adequately assess the population of vehicles using CNG as
a fuel and to develop the appropriate emissions estimates based on specific factors for each population
subgroup.
Estimate of pollutants levels ~ gasoline engines
A vehicle operating on CNG (either a dual fuel vehicle or a dedicated CNG vehicle) will generally show
a reduction in CO emissions. CNG vehicles operate more efficiently when the engine timing is advanced
and the compression ratio is higher. However, CNG use is often incompatible with current emissions
control hardware. Conversion kits have little interaction with control hardware or computers. NOx
emissions may then increase due to a lack of control of the stoichiometric mix with CO and hydrocarbons.
Stopping gasoline flow when CNG is used may cause gumming and corrosion in fuel lines and injectors,
causing error codes to be stored in the onboard computers designed to operate emission control
equipment and system failure. Development of appropriate fuel metering systems will allow proper
performance in engine and emission controls.
Total hydrocarbon emissions (mostly methane) are greater in CNG vehicles when operating on CNG, but
there is a 40 percent reduction (approximately) in reactive hydrocarbons. CO emissions are 25 percent
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less in CNG vehicles; other research has indicated a 19 percent reduction in the total of greenhouse
gases produced when compared to operation of the same engine on gasoline.
No data are available on aldehyde emissions or other toxic air pollutants from late model vehicles. One
test with earlier models showed a decrease in aldehyde emissions.
Estimate of pollutants levels -- dlesel engines
All tests performed with compression ignition (diesel) engines were performed without a changeover to
spark ignition when in the CNG operational mode. CO and hydrocarbons emissions were higher when
the vehicle was operated with CNG; PM emissions were substantially lower. Aldehyde emissions were
also higher when the method of fuel addition was direct injection instead of fumigation or a mixing of fuel
and air before entering the ignition chamber. Aldehyde emissions may be lower when CNG is added by
fumigation.
It is estimated that NO, and PM emissions may be reduced by conversion of diesel engines to CNG, but
at an unknown power/performance trade-off.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from this category should be included in the area or mobile source portion of the emissions
inventory.
Level of detail of Information available
The information currently available for CNG vehicles is based on a limited number of tests with only a few
vehicle model/conversion kit combinations. Information on VMT, consumption of CNG for vehicular use
and types of vehicles using CNG are currently not available.
Level of detail required by users
The least amount of information necessary to determine the contribution of CNG vehicles to mobile source
emissions would be an inventory of the types and sizes of vehicles using CNG, how many of each
type/size are dual-fuel vehicles, and VMT and fuel consumption for each combination of characteristics.
Emission factor requirements
The specific emission factors for the vehicle type, conversion type (dedicated CNG versus dual-fuel) and
control equipment need to be established.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
No regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics are expected in the use of CNG as a vehicle fuel.
However, CNG has superior cold start characteristics, making this fuel more efficient than gasoline at low
ambient temperatures.
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Urban or rural characteristics
CNG use is dependent on fuel availability and access to refueling stations. The driving forces in CNG use
include the economies of scale (i.e., the cost of construction and operation of refueling stations require
a large number of vehicles using the facility to make it feasible) and emissions reductions in nonattainment
areas. Therefore, urban areas will most likely be more heavily involved in using CNG vehicles.
Methodology
The methodological guidelines used to develop emission factors (the Federal Test Procedures, or FTP)
are the same as those used for gasoline-fueled vehicles. Estimates of fuel usage will most likely be
available through distributors. Information on type of conversion (dedicated or dual-fuel), the vehicle
converted, the conversion kit used and driving conditions will need to be obtained before an accurate
emissions estimate can be made.
References
1. Alson, J.A. The Emission Characteristics of Methanol and Compressed Natural Gas in Light
Vehicles, 88-99.3, 81st Annual Meeting of APCA, Dallas, TX, June 19-24, 1988.
2. An Analysis of the Economic and Environmental Effects of Natural Gas as an Alternative Fuel, EA
1989-10, American Gas Association, Arlington, VA, December 1989.
3. Natural Gas Vehicles: The International Experience, Issue brief 1988-9, American Gas Association,
Arlington, VA, May 1988.
4. Natural Gas Vehicles: An Update, GRI 89/0303, NTIS PB90-158312, Gas Research Institute,
Chicago, IL, November 1989.
5. Rajan, J.B., M.K. Singh and W.J. Walsh. Environmental, Health, and Safety Concerns Associated
with Nonpetroleum Fuel Use in U.S. Transportation, NTIS DE90-004367, prepared by Argonne
National Laboratories for U.S. Department of Energy, June 1989.
6. Singh, M.K. State of Knowledge of Environmental Concerns Related to Natural Gas-Fueled
Vehicles, NTIS DE84-015894, prepared by Argonne National Laboratories for U.S. Department
of Energy, April 1984.
7. Guidance on Estimating Motor Vehicle Emission Reductions from the Use of Alternative Fuels and
Fuel Blends, EPA/AA/TSS/PA/87/4 (NTIS PB88-169594), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Ann Arbor, Ml, January 1988.
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MOBILE SOURCE EVAPORATIVE AND RUNNING LOSSES
Definition/description of category and activity
Mobile source emission factors (i.e., grams of non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) per mile) are currently
estimated using the MOBILE4 emission factor model.1 MOBILE4 model calculates emission factors for
eight individual motor vehicle types. NMHC emission factors are separated into four categories: exhaust,
evaporative, refueling losses and running losses. Running losses are not included in MOBILE3, the
previous motor vehicle emission factor model. In addition, evaporative emissions are now based on the
user input minimum and maximum daily temperatures, fuel Reid vapor pressure (RVP) and the fractions
of vehicles assumed to experience hot soaks and diurnal emission generation cycles.
Process breakdown
The most significant change to MOBILE4 is the addition of running loss emission factors. Running loss
emissions are defined as evaporative emissions occurring while the vehicle is in operation. Running
losses are in part the result of insufficient evaporative canister purging during vehicle operation, i.e., the
canister reaches saturation and evaporative emissions continue to be generated. As a result of fuel tank
temperature increases, these emissions are released from the vehicle into the atmosphere. Vehicle fuel
system leaks may also contribute to running loss emissions. Running losses are a function of temperature
and fuel volatility and depend on average vehicle speed, vehicle type, vehicle age and the evaporative
control system.
Evaporative emissions occur while the vehicle is standing. Evaporative emissions are caused by the
inability of existing carbon adsorption fuel vapor control systems to handle evaporative emissions as a
result of fuel tank temperature increases. Evaporative emissions are also generated through leaks in
hosing and connections in the evaporative systems. Evaporative emission factors have been modified
since the introduction of the MOBILE3 model. In the MOBILE4 model, there are three major differences
in the calculation of evaporative emission rates: diurnal and hot soak rates are now based on the user
input minimum and maximum daily temperatures; diurnal and hot soak rates are dependent on the user
input fuel RVP; and the fractions of vehicles assumed to experience hot soaks and diurnal emission
generation cycles are based on analysis of a large amount of detailed trip information. Hot-soak
emissions from the carburetor system occur after the engine is shut down at the end of a trip. Diurnal
emissions are caused by diurnal changes in ambient temperature resulting in the expansion of the air-fuel
mixture in a partially-filled fuel tank. As a result, gasoline vapor is expelled to the atmosphere. Each of
these changes results in more accurate and realistic evaporative emission factors.2
Reason for considering the category
The previous mobile source emission factor model, MOBILE3, did not consider running losses.
Evaporative emission rates did not vary on the basis of temperature information input by the user or on
the basis of fuel volatility. These changes cause a significant increase in the mobile emission factors.
On-road mobile sources account for 37 percent of the total VOC emissions nationally.
Pollutants emitted
VOC
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Estimate of the pollutant levels
Total on-road mobile source emissions from the 1985 NAPAP Inventory are estimated to be 7,363
thousand tons of VOC.3 National mobile source VOC emissions for 1985 have increased from 24.7 to 29.0
percent of the total to adjust for running losses and evaporative emissions that MOBILE3 does not include.
Table 1 lists the percent increase in emission factors using MOBILE4 instead of MOBILE3 for each state.
TABLE 1. MOBILE SOURCE EMISSION FACTOR INCREASES RESULTING FROM THE
SUBSTITUTION OF M0BILE4 FOR MOBILE3
EMISSION FACTOR INCREASE IN PERCENT
FROM MOBILE3 TO MOBILE4
EXCESS
ANNUAL AVERAGE EVAPORATIVE RUNNING TOTAL
STATE TEMPERATURE (°F) LOSS LOSS ADJUSTMENT
Alabama
62.5
24.7
1.4
26.1
Arizona
67.5
24.7
4.3
29.0
California
65.1
24.7
2.9
27.6
Florida
67.3
24.7
4.2
28.9
Georgia
60.7
24.7
0.4
25.1
Louisiana
65.4
24.7
3.1
27.8
Mississippi
63.2
24.7
1.8
26.5
Nevada
67.5
24.7
4.3
29.0
North Carolina
60.1
24.7
0.1
24.8
South Carolina
62.7
24.7
1.5
26.2
Texas
65.7
24.7
3.2
27.9
Note: All remaining states and the District of Columbia were based on average temperatures below 60 degrees
Fahrenheit. VOC emissions were adjusted by the factor 24.7 percent for excess evaporative loss and zero
percent for running losses.
Point/area source cutoff
Not applicable, as running and evaporative losses from mobile sources are considered in the mobile
source inventory.
Level of detail of Information available
Climatological data are available from the National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, North Carolina.
State- level VMT data are available from Highway Statistics*
Level of detail required by users
VMT by county
Minimum and maximum ambient temperatures
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Fraction of vehicles experiencing hot soaks and diurnal emissions (fraction of vehicles operating in a cold
start condition, hot start-up condition and hot stabilized condition)
RVP of gasoline used
Vehicle speeds
Emission factor requirements
NMHC emissions per VMT
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Greater emissions occur in summer due to higher temperatures and higher VMT Running losses occur
mainly during daytime operations. Evaporative emissions, diurnal and hot-soak, vary throughout the day.
Urban or rural characteristics
An urban and rural source
Methodology
A methodology for estimating VOC running and evaporative emissions is described in Procedures for
Emission Inventory Preparation, Volume IV: Mobile Sources.5 This document provides guidance for
selecting inputs for the MOBILE4 emission factors model. VOC emission factors from MOBILE4 are
multiplied by county VMT data to obtain county level VOC emissions. There are several methods for
allocating state VMT data. These methods involve apportioning state VMT by county gasoline sales, total
roadway inventory data, county vehicle registration data or county population.
References
1. User's Guide to MOBILE4 (Mobile Source Emission Factor Model), EPA-AA-TEB-89-01 (NTIS PB89-
164271), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Mobile Sources, Ann Arbor, Ml, February
1989.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume II: Mobile Sources, Fourth Edition and
Supplements, AP-42, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC,
September 1985.
3. Saeger, M., ef al. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory (Version 2): Development of the Annual Data
and Modelers' Tapes: Final Fieport, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91-119669), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
4. Highway Statistics, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
DC. Annual publication.
5. Procedures for Emission Inventory Preparation, Volume IV: Mobile Sources, EPA-450/4-81-026d
(Revised), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, July 1989.
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MOTOR VEHICLE RACING
Definition/description of category and activity
Air emissions from motor vehicle racing result from combustion of fuels and disturbance of dust on dirt
tracks. While AP-421 lists emission factors for sources very similar to these two activities, these emission
factors require some adjustment for application to motor vehicle racing and substantial amounts of data
must be collected.
Calculating motor vehicle racing emissions is complicated by several factors. First, emissions from
automobiles are not calculated uniformly for all inventories and for all states within a given inventory. An
example of the various sources of VMT data for the 1986 NEDS inventory is included in Table 1. In cases
where emissions are based on gasoline sales taxes, motor vehicle racing may already be accounted for
in those states which tax off-highway use of gasoline and for those race classes which use gasoline.2
A second complicating factor is the paucity amateur racing statistics, non-racing miles and non-car races.
Finally, professional car races are administered by five different organizations. Data available from the
National Association for Stock Car Racing (NASCAR), Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART), Sports
Car Club of America (SCCA), American Race Car Association (ARCA) and the National Hot Rod
Association (NHRA) vary widely in accessibility, detail and quality. Comparisons among the different
classes of races are difficult due to variations in fuel type (methanol, nitrous oxide and gasoline), fuel
efficiency (which varies from 1.8 to 15 mpg) and percent of participating cars completing each race.
Process breakdown
Air emissions from motor vehicle racing results from fuel combustion and disturbance of dirt on unpaved
tracks. While the dust disturbance can not practically be further subdivided, fuel combustion can be
addressed in great detail. A variety of classes of motor vehicle races are held in the United States, as
listed below:
I. Motorcycles
A. Off Road
1. Ice racing
2. Outdoor motocross
3. Supercross
4. Enduroracing
5. Trials (obstacle course)
6. Hill climbing
7. Flat track
B. Road Racing
1. Club racing (amateur)
2. Grand prix
3. V-twin
4. Superbikes
C. Schools
II. Cars
A. National Hot Rods Association
B. Sports Car Club of America
1. Proracing
a. TransAm
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TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF 1986 NEDS VMT DERIVATION
State
Total VMT3
State4
EPA4
(Thousands)
Reported
Calculated
Alabama
33,241,875
X
Arizona
26,473,579
X
Arkansas
19,603,671
X
California
202,312,067
X
Colorado
25,039,081
X
Connecticut
23,367,776
X
Delaware
6,019,228
X
District of Columbia
3,287,389
X
Florida
92,363,721
X
Georgia
60,270,210
X
Idaho
7,139,806
X
Illinois
76,708,774
X
Indiana
43,586,456
X
Iowa
21,820,696
X
Kansas
21,164,321
X
Kentucky
30,003,628
X
Louisiana
33,827,725
X
Maine
9,222,839
X
Maryland
36,733,245
X
Massachusetts
31,887,274
X
Michigan
74,273,888
X
Minnesota
35,327,926
X
Mississippi
20,521,124
X
Missouri
44,643,996
X
Montana
6,559,189
X
Nebraska
3,665,884
X
Nevada
8,395,582
X
New Hampshire
7,738,618
X
New Jersey
59,140,388
X
New Mexico
14,089,772
X
New York
98,520,232
X
North Carolina
51,892,668
X
North Dakota
6,102,354
X
Ohio
79,967,791
X
Oklahoma
27,736,640
X
Oregon
24,076,063
X
Pennsylvania
75,108,939
X
Rhode Island
6,491,566
X
South Carolina
7,784,880
X
South Dakota
6,715,422
X
Tennessee
42,950,680
X
Texas
156,448,887
X
Utah
12,774,697
X
(continued)
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TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF 1986 NEDS VMT DERIVATION (continued)
State
Total VMT3
(Thousands)
State4
Reported
EPA4
Calculated
Vermont
Virginia
4,980,745
46,434,434
32,926,795
13,781,168
33,170,412
6,006,467
X
X
X
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
X
X
X
TOTAL
1,842,300,568
854,075,794 988,224,774
b. World Challenge
c. Race Trucks (light duty pick up trucks)
d. Formula type
2. Club racing and Amateur
C. Championship Auto Racing Teams
1. Indy Cars
D. Auto Racing Club of America
1. Stock cars
2. Pro-fours
3. Midgets
4. Figure-eights
E. National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing
1. Senior circuit
2. Weekly circuit
F. Schools
A. Monster Trucks
B. Demolition Derby
C. Tractor pulls
D. All Terrain Vehicles
E. Non-racing miles for all of the above
1. Time trials
2. Practice laps
3. Victory laps
F. Amateur races for all of the above
Reason for considering the category
Because motor vehicles contribute the majority of CO, VOC and NO, emissions as well as a substantial
proportion of PM10 emissions. All types of motor vehicle use should be inventoried. Emissions from motor
vehicle racing, although likely to be negligible on a national aggregate basis, may be large enough to
affect compliance status at a local level. Furthermore, each of these pollutants can cause significant
health effects, visibility impairment and ecological damage.
CH-91-57 2 1 5
III. Other
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Pollutants emitted
CO, NO,, VOC and PM,0
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Due to the variability of race characteristics and the paucity of recorded data, it is beyond the scope of
this characterization to estimate national levels of pollutant emissions from motor vehicle racing.
Point/area source cutoff
Racing vehicles, like other motorized vehicles, may be addressed as area sources. Individual race
courses may be inventoried as point sources.
Level of detail of Information available
As stated above, the level of information available varies enormously between classes of vehicles. Virtually
no data are maintained on racing schools, motorcycle events or the categories labeled "Other* in the
process breakdown. Since most unpaved tracks are amateur circuits, information on PM10 emissions from
dirt disturbance during racing will be extremely difficult to evaluate. Data on professional car racing were
provided by NHRA, SCCA, CART ARCA and NASCAR. Approximately 90 percent of United States
professional car races are administered by these five organizations.5
NHRA has collected much of the data necessary for emissions calculations, which will be forthcoming.
NHRA administers approximately 3,000 events annually, all of which are 0.25 mile races in which five to
1,000 cars participate.6
Mr. Lars Hanson of SCCA provided sports car race statistics. Fuel efficiency forTransAm race cars is five
to six miles per gallon. Mr. Hanson did not identify the types of fuels used by TransAm racers. SCCA
sponsors 15 TransAm races per year, all of which are 100 miles in length. Thirty-five cars typically race
in each TransAm event. Fuel efficiency for World Challenge race cars is ten to 12 miles per gallon of
gasoline. Eight World Challenge events are held per year, five of which are 40 miles in length and three
of which are 150 miles in length. Typically, 35 vehicles race in each World Challenge event. Fuel
efficiency for SCCA's race trucks is approximately 15 miles per gallon of gasoline. SCCA sponsors eight
road races for trucks: two races are 20 miles long, four races are 40 miles long and two races are 150
miles long. Usually, 12 trucks participate in each event.7
CART administers a single class of car races: eight-cylinder, rear engine, purpose-built, single seat, open
cockpit, open wheel vehicles known as Indy cars. CART requires these cars to get at least 1.8 miles per
gallon of pure methanol. The maximum VMT per car per season in this circuit is 3,567.3, while the
average is 3,000. Sixteen races are sponsored annually, with 26 cars participating in each event. Total
annual VMT in CART events is 78,000.®
ARCA administers four classes of race cars, including stock cars, midgets, figure-eights and pro-fours.
With the exception of midgets, which use methanol, all of the race car classes burn gasoline. Seventy to
80 races are held by ARCA annually, ranging in length from one-quarter mile to 500 km. Between 18 and
42 racers participate in each event.8
NASCAR administers a senior racing circuit as well as 85 weekly tracks in 37 states. The senior circuit
has 16 paved tracks which run a total of 29 races each season. In addition, the senior circuit includes
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three races on road courses, which are 150, 219 and 187 miles in length. Each of the weekly tracks hold
approximately 20 races annually.9
Level of detail required by users
Emission factors by vehicle type or fuel type
VMT by vehicle type or fuel type
Fuel efficiency by vehicle type
Emission factor requirements
CO, NO,, VOC, PM,0 emissions per county, by vehicle class
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Motor vehicle races are held in most states, although the activity is concentrated in the South, Midwest
and California, New York, Florida and New Jersey. Racing is less common in the Northwest, Alaska,
Hawaii, New Mexico, Texas, North Dakota and South Dakota. Professional events are held during a
specific season, usually running from February to November. Most events are held in the afternoon and
evening.
Urban or rural characteristics
Most racing events are very localized, in that they are restricted to oval tracks. These races are largely
held in rural areas. Grand Prix events and other major races are held exclusively in cities.
Methodology
Determine which states base their VMT estimates on fuel taxes. Determine which of those states
tax off-highway gasoline use. Assume that those states have already accounted for the majority
of motor vehicle races in their inventory.
. Calculate VMT attributable to motor vehicle racing for the remaining states. Allocate VMT to
counties based on locations of race tracks.
Determine which emission factors are most applicable to the various classes of race cars; if none
are, develop new emission factors through field studies.
. Compute pollutant emissions attributable to fuel combustion by motor vehicle racing, by vehicle
class and county.
« Survey racing agencies and clubs to inventory unpaved tracks by state or county.
• From previous calculations, apportion VMT on unpaved tracks by county.
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Adjust existing emission factors for unpaved roads to address racing activity or develop new
emission factors through field studies.
Compute PM,0 emissions attributable to dirt disruption on unpaved race tracks, by county.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Personal communication. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mark
Smith, Alliance Technologies Corporation, Chapel Hill, NC. Mobile sources inventories. December
17, 1990.
3. NEDS Data Files, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Data Branch, Research
Triangle Park, NC, July 1990.
4. Personal communication. Smith, Mark, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Sue Kimbrough,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Data Branch, Research Triangle Park, NC.
State-reported VMT. July 17, 1990.
5. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mel Pool, Director of
Communications, Championship Auto Racing Teams. Racing statistics. November 30, 1990.
6. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Wayne McMurtry,
National Hot Rod Association, Glendora, CA. Racing statistics. November 30, 1990.
7. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Lars Hanson, Sports Car
Club of America. Racing statistics. December 3, 1990.
8. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Jim Clark, American
Race Car Association. Racing statistics. December 3, 1990.
9. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Les Richter, National
Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, Daytona Beach, FL Racing statistics. December 18,1990.
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PETROLEUM VESSEL LOADING AND UNLOADING LOSSES
Definition/description of category and activity
Evaporative VOC emissions from ocean-going ships and barges carrying petroleum liquids result from
loading losses, ballasting losses and transit losses. Loading losses are the primary source of evaporative
emissions from marine vessel operations.' Ballasting losses are a major source of evaporative VOC
emissions associated with unloading petroleum liquids at marine terminals. In addition to the losses
associated with loading and unloading, evaporative VOC emissions also occur while the cargo is in transit.
These transit losses are similar in many ways to breathing losses associated with petroleum storage.
Marine vessels transport both crude oil and refined petroleum products. About 46 percent of the crude
and refined petroleum is transported by water.2 In 1988, approximately 590,000,000 gallons of petroleum
were transported between Petroleum Administration for Defense (PAD) districts by barge and tanker
ships.3 This figure does not appear to take into account the volume of petroleum imported into the United
States, almost all of which is brought into the country on tanker ships.
Process breakdown
VOC emissions result from three processes: loading, ballasting and transit.
Loading Losses
Loading losses occur as organic vapors are displaced from the cargo tanks to the atmosphere as the
liquid is loaded into the tanks. These vapors are formed by three processes: (1) formation of vapors in
the empty tank by evaporation of the residuals from the previous cargo; (2) vapors transferred to the tank
in vapor balance systems as product is being unloaded; and (3) vapors generated in the tank as the
product is being loaded. The quantities of vapor generated and eventually emitted depend on several
factors, including the physical and chemical characteristics of the cargo and the method of loading the
cargo. Emission factors for loading loss emissions are given in AP-42.1
Ballasting Losses
It is common practice for marine vessels to load several cargo tanks with sea water after the petroleum
is unloaded. This water, or ¦ballast,' acts to improve the stability of the empty vessel. Ballasting
techniques vary with the port and size of ship. However, VOC emissions occur from the empty cargo
tanks when the vapors are displaced to the atmosphere as the cargo tank is loaded with sea water. VOC
emission factors for various ballasting conditions are given in AP-42.
Transit Losses
Additional evaporative losses occur while the petroleum cargo is in transit. Transit losses are similar in
many ways to the breathing losses associated with petroleum storage tanks in bulk terminals. Emissions
are dependent on the pressure in the tank at the start of the trip, vapor pressure of the transported fuel,
pressure relief valve settings, vapor tightness of the tank and degree of fuel vapor saturation of the space
in the tank during transportation. Emissions factors due to transit losses are given in AP-42.
Reasons for considering the category
As mentioned above, waterborne transport of petroleum represents a significant percentage of the total
petroleum transported in the United States. In 1987, the United States imported about 2,004,000 barrels
CH-91-57
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of petroleum products per day and 4,674,000 barrels of crude oil per day, almost all of which was brought
to the country aboard maritime tankers.* Also in 1987, approximately 676,000 barrels of petroleum
products per day and 599,000 barrels of crude oil per day were transported by water between PAD
districts. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory estimated that approximately 21,315 tons of VOC were
emitted from loading and unloading crude oil onto waterborne tankers.5 An additional 27,248 tons of VOC
were emitted from loading and unloading petroleum products onto waterborne tankers. These emissions
do not seem to be consistent with the activity data for waterborne commerce published by the U.S. Army,
Corps of Engineers. For instance, the Waterborne Commerce of the United States statistics show that
Mobile harbor in Alabama handled approximately 161,000 short tons of jet fuel in 1987.® The NAPAP
inventory for emissions from marine vessel loading shows no throughput of jet fuel for Mobile County,
Alabama.5 Such inconsistencies between activity data and emissions need to be addressed.
Pollutants emitted
Mostly VOC, but can include some small quantities of other hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane
Estimate of the pollutant levels
The 1985 NAPAP Inventory estimated that 48,564 TPY of VOC were emitted from marine vessels handling
petroleum products and crude oil as cargo.5 This estimate is probably somewhat lower than the actual
emissions from this source category.
Point/area source cutoff
Although there may be certain ports where loading large marine tankers results in emissions greater than
100 TPY VOC emissions in most ports do not exceed 100 TPY Marine vessels should be considered
area sources and thus better account for VOC emissions from transit losses.
Level of detail of information available
Tables 4.4-2, 4.4-4 and 4.4-6 in AP-42 give emission factors for various marine vessel sources such as
loading operations on ocean tankers and barges, tanker ballasting and transit losses of VOC for the
following fuels: gasoline; crude oil; jet naphtha; jet kerosene; distillate oil No. 2; and residual oil No. 6.
The throughput of petroleum through each port in the United States is published by the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers in Waterborne Commerce of the United States.
Waterborne Commerce of the United States also contains information on the number of vessels passing
through each port.
Level of detail required by users
VOC emissions from petroleum marine vessel sources in each county
Amount of fuel, by type, passing through port
Number of vessels, by type, passing through port
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Properties of fuel transported such as the vapor pressure, temperature, molecular weight and density
Emission factor requirements
The following emission factors are not given in AP-42 and should be developed:
. emission factors for tanker ballasting petroleum products such as jet naphtha, jet
kerosene, distillate oil No. 2 and residual oil No. 6
• emission factors for tanker lightering (Tanker lightering is a process by which some
very large supertankers unload petroleum to smaller barges, since when fully laden
these tankers are unable to enter a harbor.7)
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
The emissions from this source are likely to be concentrated in urban coastal areas and ports on inland
waterways. There are unlikely to be any seasonal or temporal differences, unless a port freezes over in
winter and is inaccessible.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
Methodology
The weight of various petroleum cargo shipments in short tons received and shipped through each port
(inland and coastal) in the United States is given in Waterbome Commerce of the United States. This
document also provides statistics on the number of tankers and barges, vessel draft in the water and the
direction of travel, i.e., if they are inbound or outbound into a coastal port or upbound or downbound at
an inland port. Once the draft and number of vessels are known at each port, an estimate can be made
for the amount of petroleum shipped in tankers versus barges. VOC emissions at each port can be
estimated by converting the short tons of petroleum into 1,000 gallons and multiplying this by appropriate
multipliers and emission factors for tankers or barges available in AP-42.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. National Transportation Statistics, Annual Report, DOT-TSC-RSPA-90-2, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, July 1990.
3. Petroleum Supply Annual, Volumes 1 and 2, DOE/EIA-0340(88)/1 and 2, U.S. Department of Energy,
Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, June 1989.
4. Petroleum Storage and Transportation, Petroleum Liquids Transportation, Volume V, National
Petroleum Council, Washington, DC, April 1989.
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5. Saeger, M., et al. The 1985 NfiPAP Emissions Inventory, (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91-119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
6. Waterborne Commerce of the United States, Parts 1-5, U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of
Engineers, Water Resources Support Center, New Orleans, LA. Annual publication.
7. Methods for Assessing Area Source Emissions in California, California Air Resources Board,
Sacramento, CA, 1982.
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DRINKING WATER TREATMENT WITH OZONE
Definition/description of category and activity
Ozone is used in the treatment of potable water primarily as a disinfectant agent. Since 1906, Europeans
have been treating water with ozone and more than 200 plants currently use this technique.' There are
40 water treatment facilities using ozone in the United States and many more installations are planned.1
Ozone has also been found effective in various stages of water treatment including the control of taste
and odors; the reduction of color, turbidity, and trihalomethane precursors; the oxidation of reduced
inorganic chemicals such as iron and manganese; and the control of algae and aquatic growths.
Ozonation is most effective when employed in a number of stages or as a single step near the end of
treatment after other processes have reduced the ozone demand. In a 1989 survey of the 40 U.S. plants
equipped with ozonation technologies, half had single stage contractors. The survey noted that the
increased use of multiple stage reactors with longer contact times may be necessary to meet new
bacterial and virus inactivation regulations.2
Process breakdown
The unit treatment operation consists of ozone generation, ozone contact with treated water, and the
treatment of offgases. All gaseous ozone used in the operation is prepared onsite using ambient air or
liquid oxygen as raw feed-gas for electric discharge ozone generators. These generators range in size
from two pounds per day to nearly one ton per day. Contact between target pollutants in the water
influent and ozone is then achieved by dispersing ozone gas bubbles at a concentration level ranging
from two to ten mg per liter into covered columns or mechanically agitated vessels via fine-bubble
diffusers and aspirating turbines.
Typical water depth of fine-bubble contactors in the 1989 survey ranged from ten to 25 feet, most in
excess of 15 feet.2 Offgases from the contactor units are captured and concentrations of contaminants
are reduced to an acceptable level using heated catalytic ozone-destruction units, thermal destruction,
dilution, and recycling to the liquid stream.
No emission factors have been developed for this process. Potential sources of ozone emissions are
fugitive losses from the ozone generator and the ozone contactor and residual ozone in the treated offgas
(Figure 1). Open systems using diffuse ozone aeration of treatment basins may result in fugitive losses
from the basin.
OFFGAS
FUGITIVES
FUGITIVES
>-
Influent
Ozone Generator
Treated Effluent
Contactor
Ozone Destructor
or Recycling
Figure 1. Schematic representation of closed loop water ozonation.
CH-91-57 223
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Reason for considering the category
The use of ozone in water treatment has been steadily rising due to significant improvements in ozone
technology and the concern over the use of chlorine disinfection as a source of toxic chloroorganics.
Pollutants emitted
Ozone (potential)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
For an average contacting system with a practical yield of 90 percent (i.e., 90 percent of the ozone added
to the contactor reacts with the aqueous phase) and an initial concentration of the process gas around
ten ppm, the approximate concentration of ozone in the untreated offgas may approach one ppm.
Heated catalytic and thermal ozone destruction units with ozone removal rates of 99 and 100 percent,
respectively, are utilized by many larger capacity plants. In other processes which include repeated
injection, preozonation, dilution and recycling, the final concentration of ozone in the offgas is reduced
to 0.1 to 0.25 ppm. Emissions concentrations resulting from these processes may be vented directly up
to the threshold limit value (TLV) of 0.1 ppm ozone.3 4
Assuming a typical system generating 100 pounds of ozone per day, approximately ten pounds of ozone
per day would not react in the water stream and would be present in the untreated offgas. Based on a
99 percent removal rate, treated and released offgas may contain only 0.1 pounds of ozone per day
(about four pounds per year) barring upsets. Additional ozone may be emitted due to fugitive leaks at
the generator and contactor. Large treatment systems may approach 100 pounds of ozone emitted per
year, but total U.S. emissions of ozone from water treatment may be only a few tons or less at this time.
However, no emissions studies are available to confirm this assumption.
Point/area source cutoff
The size of treatment plants using this process ranges from small to large. A major limitation to selection
of ozone disinfection is the large capital outlay and operational costs. Emissions of ozone are likely to
be small at all plants due to the operation of ozone destructors prior to release of the process gases.
Apparently, small point-of-use units are also available to domestic users, though no information on the
potential market penetration of these systems or potential emissions is available.
Level of detail of Information available
No studies on atmospheric ozone emissions from ozonation of water treatment have been documented.
Location of treatment works employing ozone and their capacities are available from the American Water
Works Association (AWWA) Research Foundation and from state permitting systems.
Level of detail required by users
Location of relevant water treatment plants
Emissions rate by plant and process (fugitives and offgas)
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Million gallons of water treated by plant
Emission factor requirements
Ozone emitted per million gallons per day water treated
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
„Urban or rural characteristics
Although associated with urban areas, treatment plants may be in or outside the urban area.
Methodology
Because only 40 plants using ozonation are currently online, these plants represent only a small fraction
of the total water treated for disinfection in the United States. It is likely that potential emissions of ozone
during normal operating conditions are very small due to the ozone destruction technologies employed
prior to offgassing. The category should therefore be treated as an area source for emissions estimation
purposes. However, these plants can be identified through the AWWA or state permits and included
either as point sources in an inventory or individually evaluated prior to inclusion in an area source
category. Development of any methodology is predicated on the determination of an emissions factor
based on source testing and related to the flow of treated water in a plant.
The AWWA Research Foundation is currently publishing a new reference, Ozone in Water Treatment:
Applications and Engineering (Lewis Publishers). This text should be available in early 1991 and the
AWWA will notify Alliance Technologies upon its release. A review of current research and information
on existing systems, planned installations, and current and anticipated technologies will be included.
References
1. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Debbie Brink, AWWA
Research Foundation. Prevalence of the use of ozone in water treatment and ambient emissions.
November 1990.
2. Fujikawa, E.G., B.T. Farver and C.M. Robson. 'Ozone Equipment: Profit from Experience," Wafer
Engineering & Management, February 1990.
3. Rice, R.G., and A. Netzer, eds. Handbook of Ozone Technology and Applications, Volume 1, Ann
Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Ml, 1982.
4. Rice, R.G., and M.E. Browning. Ozone Treatment of Industrial Wastewater, Pollution Technology
Review No. 84, Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ, 1981.
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EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE (EHV) TRANSMISSION LINES
Definition/description of category and activity
EHV transmission lines transport electrical power at 765 kilovolts (kV). Ozone emissions occur when
corona is discharged in the air from electrical apparatus (transmission lines). Corona is generated when
an electrodeless discharge is induced in air passing through an alternating electric field. Corona starts
at points along the transmission line where, due to scratches, solid particles or water droplets, the local
voltage gradient is high.1'7
Process breakdown
Ozone production is associated with the ionization of the molecular constituents of air, oxygen and
nitrogen in the vicinity of transmission-line conductors. 59 kcal of energy is required to produce a mole
of ozone from oxygen by electric discharge. With the ionization of the oxygen molecule the following
reactions are possible:
02 ->0 + 0 and 0 + 02 -» 03
Thus, the highly active agent ozone is formed. Another reaction, although less likely, is the disassociation
of N2 to form N0X. Corona loss or discharge is affected by temperature, humidity, conductor diameter
and, especially, precipitation. Corona loss during foul weather is about 45 times higher than corona
losses during fair weather. Foul weather is defined as conditions of 95 percent relative humidity, fog or
actual precipitation. However, higher corona losses during foul weather do not increase ozone levels
since moisture accelerates the decomposition of the ozone. The half-life of ozone under normal
atmospheric conditions is one hour. In water, the half-life of ozone reduces to about 20 minutes. The
ozone production rate tends to decrease with the increase of conductor diameter, temperature and
humidity. The following general equation relates conductor diameter, temperature and humidity to ozone
production:5
Z = A(d)Exp -(T/Bw + E/80)
where: Z = ozone production rate, g/kWh (ozone production to corona loss ratio)
T = °C
E = partial pressure of water vapor, mmHg
A and B are coefficients depending on the conductor diameter d.
Reason for considering the category
Sources of direct ozone production are not covered in typical SIP inventories. The corona developed
around EHV power lines produces ozone. Unlike lower voltage power lines, it is not economically feasible
to totally exclude corona discharges from EHV power lines.
Pollutants emitted
Ozone, NO,
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Estimate of the pollutant levels
No estimates of ozone emissions from EHV transmission lines have been found in the literature. Total
ozone emissions are the product of corona loss, ozone production to corona loss ratio and length of
transmission line. Total ozone emissions from EHV transmission lines in the United States are estimated
for this characterization to be approximately 870 TPY calculated as follows:
Fair weather corona losses: 3 kW per mile
Foul weather losses: 135 kW per mile
Average ozone production to corona loss ratio: 1.92 g/kWh
Assume bad weather occurs 20 percent of the time
Average corona loss
= (0.20 x 135 kW/mile) + (0.80 x 3 kW/mile)
= 29.4 kW/mile
Ozone production
= (corona loss) x (ozone production to corona loss ratio)
= (29.4 kW/mile) x (1.92 g/kWh)
= (56.4 g/mile-hr) x (8,760 hr/yr)
= (56.4 g/mile-hr) x (8,760 hr/yr) x (1 lb/454g) x (1 ton/2000 lb)
= 0.545 tons/mileyr
There are approximately 1,600 miles of EHV transmission lines based on the Energy Information
Administration map dated December 31, 1977. (This estimate includes lines in the following states:
Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia and Ohio.)
Tons ozone = (1,600 miles) x (0.545 tons/mile yr)
= 870 tons/year
Convert ozone ratio into maximum ground-level oxidant concentration.
NU = Q/(»e/2)'A-u-h
where: Q = production rate/length of line, 0.0351 kg/km-hr
u = wind speed, 1.6 km/h
h = line height, 12.2m
Nmax = (0-847 kg/km• day)/(3.14x2.718/2)% x (1.6 km/h) x (12.2m)
= 8.64 x 10'7 g/m3
= 0.4 ppb
Therefore, ozone from EHV lines would increase ground-level oxidant concentration by 0.4 ppb.
CH-91-57
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Point/area source cutoff
EHV transmission lines would not be considered point sources since emissions from transmission lines
would not exceed the point source cutoff for an inventory. In addition, the nature of the activity requires
that EHV transmission line emissions should be considered area sources.
Level of detail of Information available
production rate of ozone generation per corona loss during foul weather conditions (laboratory and field
results)1"4,5
corona losses (laboratory and field results)2,3A5
Level of detail required by users
length of EHV transmission lines
ozone production rate per corona loss
corona losses
Emission factor requirements
Development of ozone emission factors for EHV lines for different types of atmospheric conditions', dry,
humid, cold, warm and foul weather conditions. Climatic data will be needed to develop regional emission
factors.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Greater emissions occur during periods of foul weather.
Urban or rural characteristics
An urban and rural source
Methodology
Presently no methodology exists for estimating ozone emissions from EHV transmission lines. Average
ozone emission factors developed for EHV transmission lines may not represent actual emissions since
temperature, pressure, humidity and precipitation vary significantly from month to month and from state
to state. Emission factors would need to be developed for several different atmospheric conditions.
County-wide ozone emissions can be estimated by determining the number of miles of EHV transmission
lines in each county and multiplying by the appropriate emission factor.
CH-91-57
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References
1. S.A. Sebo, J.T. Heibel, M. Frydman, C.H. Shih. Examination of Ozone Emanating from EHV
Transmission Line Corona Discharges, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE),
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-95, No. 2, pp. 693-703, March/April 1976.
2. J.F. Roach, F.M. Dietrich, V.L Chartier, H.T. Nowak. Ozone Concentration Measurements on the
C-Line at the Apple Grove 750 kV Project and Theoretical Estimates of Ozone Concentrations Near
765 kV Lines of Normal Design, IEEE, Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-97,
pp. 1392-1401, July/August 1978.
3. H.N. Scherer, Jr., B.J. Ware, and C.H. Shih, Gaseous Effluents Due to EHV Transmission Line
Corona, IEEE, Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-92, pp. 1043-1049,
May/June 1973.
4. J.F. Roach, V.L Chartier, and F.M. Dietrich. Experimental Oxidant Production Rates for EHV
Transmission Lines and Theoretical Estimates of Ozone Concentrations Near Operating Lines, IEEE,
Transactions of Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-93, pp. 647-657, March/April 1974.
5. M. Frydman and C.H. Shih. Effects of the Environment on Oxidants Production in AC Corona, IEEE,
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-93, pp.436-443, January/ February 1974.
6. M. Frydman, A. Levy, and S.E. Miller. Oxidant Measurements in the Vicinity of Energized 765
kV Lines, IEEE, Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-92, pp. 1141-1148,
May/June 1973.
7. W.J. Fern and B.I. Brabets. Field Investigation of Ozone Adjacent to High Voltage Transmission
Lines, IEEE, Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-93, pp. 1269-1280,
September/October 1974.
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PHOTOCOPIERS AND LASER PRINTERS
Definition/description of category and activity
Photocopiers and laser printers are direct producers of ozone (OJ and may be considered area sources
of ozone emissions.
Process breakdown
The corona assemblies (electrical modules creating electric fields sufficient to ionize atmospheric gases)
found in laser printers and photocopiers generate ozone gas as a by-product of the electrophotographic
process. Ozone is only generated while the equipment is printing (while the coronas are energized).1
Reason for considering the category
Sources of direct ozone production are not covered in typical SIP inventories. The rising popularity of
laser printers and photocopiers justifies preliminary study of emissions from these devices.
Pollutants emitted
Ozone
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Underwriters' Laboratories tests office equipment to determine whether equipment violates air quality
standards. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) air quality standard for ozone
emissions requires that photocopiers and laser printers not increase the sustained ambient ozone
concentration by more than 0.1 parts per million by volume (ppm) above background levels. Peak ozone
levels may not exceed 0.3 ppm above background levels. The tests are performed in a 1,000 cubic foot
room at constant temperature and humidity with air changeover rate not to exceed 500 cubic feet per
hour. These test limits approximate typical equipment performance at moderate humidity levels.2 Using
the sustained ozone concentration as a performance standard, a per-machine emission factor can be
determined as follows:
1.5 x (1,000 ft3) x (0.1 x 10®) x (28.32 l/ft3) x (2.14 g 03/l) = 0.009 g 03/hr
Data estimating the number of photocopiers and laser printers sold annually in the United States are
available through the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association in an annual
publication.3 The cost of this publication is not justified for this preliminary emissions estimate.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from photocopiers and laser printers are widespread and relatively small and should be treated
as area sources.
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Level of detail of Information available
Reference 3 includes estimates of annual sales of laser printers and photocopiers. Employment data
which may be used to distribute national emissions to counties are available in County Business Patterns/
Level of detail required by users
National population of photocopiers and laser printers
National and county-level total employment in service, finance, insurance and real estate
Emission factor requirements
The emission factor used in this study is a preliminary estimate. More accurate emission factors would
relate the size or function of a piece of equipment to its emissions rate.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
No regional or seasonal characteristics are observed. Since photocopiers and laser printers are used
more often during business hours and weekdays, the majority of emissions should be allocated to
weekdays between 8:00 am. and 6:00 p.m.
Urban or rural characteristics
Photocopiers and laser printers are most often used in businesses, institutions and industry, all of which
are more common in urban than rural areas.
Methodology
I. Estimate national emissions levels
A. Estimate the national population of photocopiers and laser printers
1. Determine the annual sales of the equipment
2. Determine the typical useful life of the equipment
a. Use survey data
b. Default value - three years
3. Multiply the annual sales and the useful life to estimate the national population of
equipment
B. Determine the emissions rate of the equipment
1. Use field testing data if possible
2. Default value: 0.009 g/hr
C. Determine the activity level
1. Use survey data if possible: hrs/yr of activity
2. Default value: 2,080 hrs/yr (8 hrs/day x 260 days/yr)
D. Multiply the results from A, B and C to estimate national emissions
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II. Distribute national emissions to the county level according to total county employment
References
1. LaserJet IID Printer User's Manual, Hewlett-Packard Company, Japan, August 1988.
2. Telecon. Winkler, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with John Brelloch, Underwriters'
Laboratories. Ozone emissions from photocopiers and laser printers. December 13, 1990.
3. The Information Technology Industry Data Book., The Computer and Business Equipment
Manufacturers' Association, Washington, DC. Annual publication.
4. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
CM-81-57
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PULP BLEACHING WITH OZONE
Definition/description of category and activity
Most pulp is bleached using chlorine, hypochlorite, oxygen, chlorine dioxide and/or peroxide in a series
of one to ten stages. Each step includes three processes: mixing, retention and washing. The number
of stages depends on the pulp qualities that are desired. Due to the environmental effects of chlorination
processes, particularly in the wastewater effluent, non-chlorinated bleaching processes (e.g., bleaching
with ozone) are being developed. Currently, no full-scale ozone bleaching operations are in service,
although the first is scheduled to come online within two years. Prototypical ozone systems are closed,
recycling both wastewaters and gases. Ozone is generated onsite from recycled and make-up oxygen.
The ozone is completely consumed in the closed reactor.12
Process breakdown
AP-42 emission factors have been developed for many paper and pulp manufacturing processes.3
However, no emission factors for pulp bleaching with ozone are available from AP-42 or the National
Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI). Potential sources of ozone are
fugitive losses from the ozone generator and the ozone reactor (below the flutters shown in Figure 1).
Reason for considering the category
Pulp bleaching with ozone is a new, innovative technology which replaces traditional pulp bleaching
emission sources by employing ozone directly.
Pollutants emitted
Ozone (potential)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Based on literature descriptions of pilot plants, closed bleaching reactors and recycling of waste gases
should eliminate the potential for any significant ozone emissions. The potential for corrosion from
significant fugitive sources during the generation or bleaching process should ensure minimization of any
fugitive emissions. As ozone bleaching capacity is brought online, studies of atmospheric emissions will
serve to test these assumptions regarding ozone and other atmospheric emissions.
Point/area source cutoff
Pulp and paper plants are typically large point sources due to their boilers emissions.
Level of detail of Information available
Pulp and paper plants are identified in the point source inventories.
No studies on atmospheric emissions from the ozone bleaching process have been undertaken.
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?
at
L»
I - atont
£ - (Outi>r ei»»ot«'0»
P -
0,'0
n
rui '*
mii i
-U
Copyrighted, TAPPI Pmss, 1979. Reprinted with permission.
Figure 1- Pulp bleaching with ozone.'
-------
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by plant and processes for point source inventories
Emission factor requirements
If applicable, ozone or other pollutants emitted per ton air-dry pulp
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
Urban or rural characteristics
None
Methodology
Point source inventories are structured to include potential emissions if ozone or other emissions are
detected after these processes are implemented on a full-scale basis. Pulp and paper mills are already
in point source inventories due to boiler and pulp cooking emissions.
References
1. The Bleaching of Pulp, Third Edition, R.R Singh, ed., TAPPI Press, 1979.
2. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Dr. John Pinkerton, National
Council of the Paper Industry on Air and Stream Improvement. Pulp bleaching. August 1990.
3. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through September
1991.
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ULTRAVIOLET (UV) AND ELECTRON BEAM (EB) CURABLE COATING
Definition/description of category and activity
Radiation curable coatings and inks (ultraviolet (UV) and electron beam (EB)) are high-solid formulations
used as substitutes for conventional solvent-based thermal curable systems. Traditionally, coatings
consist of a solid polymer dissolved in a solvent and further diluted with solvent. The solvent ranges from
50 to 90 percent of the coating formulations.1 After the coating is applied, the substrate being coated is
sent through a dryer to evaporate the solvent. Radiation curable coating technology appears to be
transferable to most conventional ink and coating applications. The technology is currently being used
in the applications listed in Table 1.
TABLE 1. CURRENT APPLICATIONS OF UV CURABLE TECHNOLOGY
Surface Treatment
Graphic Arts
Wood Finishes
Metal Coatings
Plastic Coatings
Paper Varnishes
Resilient Flooring
Electronics
Printed Circuits (negative photoresists)
Sealants (encapsulation)
Protective Coatings (optical fibers)
Patterning (video disks)
Pigmented Resins
UV Curable Inks
Printing Plates
Dental Materials
Adhesives
Laminates
Sealants
Bonding
Pressure Sensitive
The radiation source for these systems is either an ultraviolet light or an accelerated electron beam.
Theoretically, radiation curable coatings can be solvent-free, but to retain desirable properties such as
viscosity and easy application, some solvent is added. Generally, radiation curable coatings use 40 to
60 percent less solvent by weight than conventional thermal cure systems.2-3 The surface coating and
printing industries have adopted UV curable coating technology in large part because of EPA's increasing
regulation of VOC and the disposal of solvents; the Department of Housing and Urban Development's
(HUD's) regulation of formaldehyde in particle board and the coatings used in cabinet construction; and
OSHA's concerns in limiting exposure to formaldehyde for workers.
Process breakdown
UV finishing uses UV energy to initiate free-radical polymerization of certain chemicals. Typically, the main
component of a UV coating is an acrylate resin (oligomer) to which a photoinitiator has been added. The
photoinitiator assures the proper reaction rate of the formulation under the UV light. The introduction of
CH-91-57
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different monomers to the coatings has ameliorated some initial problems with toxicity and allergic
reactions on the part of employees working with radiation curable coatings.
UV curable systems convert light energy into chemical energy; EB systems convert electrical energy into
chemical energy. In EB systems, electrons are accelerated to a high velocity and directed at the
substrate/coating. The electron bombardment causes crosslinking of the monomers in the coating and
the liquid film becomes solid instantaneously.
Reason for considering the category
UV and EB curing technologies are emerging as a potential method for significantly reducing VOC
emissions from conventional coating processes. However, the level of ozone and toxic pollutant emissions
from these technologies are not yet well characterized.
Pollutants emitted
Radiation curable coating systems which use solvent-containing coatings emit VOC. Particulate matter
may be emitted when paint sprays are atomized. Ozone formation may result under certain
circumstances at very low wavelengths. In addition, some radiation curable coating components are
thought to be mildly toxic, but not much is known about long-term exposure to coating formulas used in
UV and EB curing. Each commercial formulation would need to be examined individually to determine
toxicity. Some highly reactive coatings (i.e., acrylate, methacrylate) may cause skin and eye irritation. A
monomer (2-ethylhexyl acrylate) and a crosslinker (neopentyl glycol diacrylate) were found to cause
tumors in mice when exposed to chronic dermal contact.4 Several journal articles indicate that the second
generation of acrylate coatings is considerably less toxic than the original acrylate coatings.
Estimate of pollutant levels
Point and area source VOC emissions from coating operations in furniture manufacturing and flatwood
production were reported as 116,493 tons and 19,148 tons, respectively, in 1985.5 Assuming that a typical
UV or EB curable coating contains half as much solvent as a conventional thermal cure coating and full
use of UV and EB coating technology in all coating industries, 1985 furniture manufacturing and flatwood
production emissions for UV and EB coating would be half those of conventional coatings.
Point/area source cutoff
UV and EB curable coatings are replacing current coatings-related point and area sources. Their
production and use would have large point source, small point source and some area source
components.
Level of detail of information available
Although some broad generalizations would need to be made, emissions from UV and EB curable
coatings could be estimated at the national level and then allocated to the county using surrogates such
as manufacturing or industrial employment. Market penetration of UV and EB curable coatings is difficult
to determine; however, most sources indicate that UV and EB curable coating use is increasing in almost
all surface coating applications.
CH-91-S7
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Level of detail required by users
Amount and type of coatings used, by facility
Number of coating facilities per county
Emission factor requirements
More research must be done to determine emission factors for UV and EB curable coatings. Current
estimates assume solvent use (and therefore, emissions) in UV and EB coatings at half the conventional
coatings' solvent use.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
The use of UV and EB curable coatings is not expected to have any regional, seasonal or temporal
characteristics.
Urban or rural characteristics
Since most UV and EB curable systems are expected to be used in industrial rather than consumer or
commercial settings, these systems may have a more urban characteristic.
Methodology
Two methods could be used to determine VOC emissions from UV and EB curable coatings processes.
The first would use current assumptions concerning solvent use in UV and EB coating and emission
factors for conventional coating applications. The result might be a range of emissions representing 40
to 60 percent of the VOC emissions from conventional uses of solvents in the applicable coatings
categories (e.g., the categories listed in Table 1). The second method may be developed when more
information is available on UV and EB curable coating use, market penetration, solvent content, emission
factors for air toxics and ozone, etc. The second methodology would result in more detailed emissions
estimates than use of the first methodology.
References
1. Lankford, Albert P. II. "History and Growth of Radiation Curing in the Converting Industry," Radiation
Curing, August 1983, p. 20-27.
2. Riedell, A. "Back to Basics to Beat VOC Emission Problem," Furniture Design and Manufacturing,
Vol. 61, No. 1, January 1989, p. 32-34.
3. Currier, Greg. "Interest in UV-curable Coatings on the Rise," Furniture Design and Manufacturing,
Vol. 61, No. 6, June 1989, p. 54-58.
4. DePass, L.R. "Carcinogenicity Testing of Photocurable Coatings," Radiation Curing,. Vol. 9, No. 3,
1982, p. 18-23.
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Saeger, M., et al. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory, (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91-119669), U.S Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
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WELDING
Definition/description of category and activity
Welding is the joining of two metallic surfaces using heat and a metallic filler. There are three general
types of welding: true welding includes fillers with melting points at or below the melting point of the base
metal and greater than 450°C and involves melting of the base metal; soldering encompasses filler
melting points less than 450°C in which the base metal is not melted and a mechanical joint is produced;
and brazing where fillers have melting points greater than 450°C but below that of the base metal
resulting in a metallurgical joint that does not require the base metal to be melted. Prior to welding, a flux
is used to dissolve oxides and promote release of trapped gases and slag from the metallic surface.
These fluxes typically contain boron, fluorine, chlorine, potassium and/or sodium.123
The heat source is usually a torch or an electric arc. Torches are fueled with mixtures of oxygen or air
and acetylene, hydrogen, methane, natural gas, LPG, etc. In torch welding, the filler is a metallic alloy rod;
in arc welding, the filler is the electrode material and/or a filler rod. The rod has a chemical coating (e.g.,
a mineral organic coat). Arcs may or may not be shielded by a gas generated from a chemical coating
on the electrode or injected around the arc. Typical gases are argon, helium and C02. These gases may
have some oxygen in the mixture, depending on the application.1,23
Process breakdown
Welding occurs both indoors and outside. Fumes and gases may be directly vented to the atmosphere
or subject to control (e.g., fabric filters or electrostatic precipitators (ESP)). Welding equipment may range
from a small torch and cylinder for small or patch jobs ranging to large industrial units for repetitive
applications. Figure 1 indicates the relation of welding types.
Reason for considering the category
This source was originally considered a direct ozone source from electric arc welding. Direct ozone
sources are not currently inventoried. However, other pollutants including NOx, CO, VOC species and
particulate matter are also emitted.
Pollutants emitted
Ozone, NO,, CO, particulate matter and VOC (including aldehydes, alcohols, ketones and many other
hydrocarbon species) are emitted from welding activities. The principal source of emissions is arc
welding. Ozone is generated from the action of UV from the arc on 02 in the atmosphere. N02 can result
from a photochemical dissociation of N2, but is principally formed from reaction of atmospheric nitrogen
and oxygen at high temperatures. CO is formed from C02 in shielding atmospheres and oxidation of
carbon in steel welding. VOC emissions originate from the coating on the electrode or filler and from any
residual degreasing agent (typically trichloroethylene) on the metal surface. According to one reference,
typical carbon steel electrodes may contain zero to 30 percent organics by weight. Particulate matter is
generated from the vaporization and rapid condensation of electrode and flux materials and are typically
metal oxides, including toxic species.4,5
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other
plasma
TIG
flux
cored
submerged
arc
other
MMA
gaa
shield
(MIG)
others
torch
dip
furnace
resist-
ance
other
induc-
tion
resist-
ance
laser
plasma
flame
other
friction
arc
air
flame
FUSION
WELDING
HEATING
gas
THERMAL
CUTTING
electron
beam
PRESSURE
WELDING
SOLDERING.
BRAZING
arc
consumable
electrode
arc
non-consumable
electrode
KEY: Categories in bold are principal welding types of concern for emissions.
*TIG is Tungsten Inert Gas
MMA is Manual Metal Arc
Figure 1. General categories of welding.
CH-91-57
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Estimate of the pollutant levels
One estimate placed total emissions at 0.5 to 1.0 percent of total welding consumables (gases, fluxes,
fillers and electrodes). In the United Kingdom, this estimate is approximately 400 Mg/year. (The estimate
was not speciated.)4
Gaseous emissions from arc welding have been measured at three to 150 ppm CO and 0.25 to seven
ppm N02 in one study.5
Fume generation processes involved during welding are complex and not completely understood. Each
combination of equipment, filler, electrode, base metal, gas and flux has distinct emissions characteristics.
Point/area source cutoff
Individual welding processes are likely to be small emitters of any currently inventoried pollutant and are
not represented in the point source inventory.
Level of detail of information available
No emission factors were found.
Consumable welding material totals are likely to be available, but at an unknown level of resolution
(contact the American Welding Society).
Construction and metal fabrication activity
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Ozone, CO, NOx and particulate matter emissions by welding type or application
Emission factor requirements
One approach would use emission factors based on consumption of welding materials. This approach
implies welding materials could be resolved by application. Alternately, construction and metal fabrication
activity are potential surrogate indicators if an appropriate emission factor could be derived.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None known
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
CH-91-57
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Methodology
The material researched to date indicates no current methodology. Average emission factors on a unit
basis (per welding hour, per unit gas consumed, per filler rod) were not found. Another option using
construction and metal fabrication activity as surrogates would also require development of an emission
factor. Due to the many different types of welding and applications (see Figure 1), development of
emission factors would likely be difficult. Research has been done as to the types and concentrations
of particulates (oxides) and gases emitted to ensure compliance with OSHA standards for exposure to
some of the toxics emitted. No data on ozone formation rates in arc welding were located. Further
information may be available in the industry and scientific literature.
References
1. Galyen, J., G. Sear, and C.A. Tuttle. Welding Fundamentals and Procedures, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, NX 1984.
2. Davies, A.C. The Science and Practice of Welding, Volumes 1 and 2, Cambridge University Press,
1989.
3. Schwartz, M.M. Brazing, ASM International, 1987.
4. Moreton, J. and N.A.R. Falla. Analysis of Airborne Pollutants in Working Atmospheres: the Welding
and Surface Coatings Industries, Analytical Sciences Monograph Number 7, The Chemical Society,
London, England, 1980.
5. Fumes and Gases in the Welding Environment, American Welding Society, Miami, FL, 1979.
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FIREPLACES
Definition/description of category and activity
Wood combustion produces smoke which is a complex mixture of PM10, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen,
organic material (including polycyclic organic matter (POM)) and mineral constituents. Emissions of
organic material, CO and PM,0 from fireplaces result from incomplete combustion of the wood. The
mixture of constituents of the smoke emitted can vary with the design of the fireplace, length of time for
the burn, type of wood, size of the wood and moisture content in the wood.'2 Like wood stoves,
fireplaces are used in residences, lodges, etc., for supplemental heating as well as aesthetic effects.
Unlike wood stoves, fireplaces are usually not used continuously and thus do not emit pollutants in the
large quantities associated with wood stoves. Generally, fireplaces are less efficient at combustion than
wood stoves.
Process breakdown
Since fireplaces are not enclosed fireboxes (as are wood stoves), fugitive emissions often escape into the
room being heated. Fireplaces are equipped with duct work leading to stacks to vent the emissions from
wood combustion. The plume rise associated with these emissions is minimal. The two types of
fireplaces include masonry or brick fireplaces, which are integral to the structure, and prefabricated
fireplaces (usually metal) installed on site as a package. While PM from masonry fireplaces are slightly
higher than those from prefabricated fireplaces operated at the same burn rate, CO emissions are
substantially higher.3 The State of Colorado has established that the particulate emission factors for
fireplaces are sensitive to the burn rate, with higher burn rates resulting in lower emissions. The same
study also showed that CO emissions are considerably higher at low burn rates.3
Reason for considering the category
A recent estimate puts the number of residential wood combustion (RWC) units (i.e., fireplaces and wood
stoves) in the United States in 1989 at 30 million.2 Slightly more than 50 percent of RWC units are
fireplaces and the remainder are wood stoves. These devices are considered among the largest
anthropogenic sources of PMl0 and CO in the country.2 Typically, RWC units are used in the winter when
organic and NOx emissions from this source are not likely to have any significant impact on ozone
formation in a study area. However, given the stability of the cold air in the winter, PM10 emissions can
seriously impair visibility in a given area. EPA research indicates that emissions of CO in the winter
months from RWC units can have some significant detrimental effects on the health of the population in
a given area.
Pollutants emitted
Pollutants emitted from fireplaces include CO, NO,, SO,, organic material (such as POM and aldehydes)
and PM,0.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Emissions estimates for total U.S. residential wood combustion (fireplaces and wood stoves) in the 1985
NAPAP Inventory are as follows:4
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11,077 TPY of SO„
80,774 TPY of NO,
1,459,464 TPY of VOC
1,088,598 TPY of TSP
6,721,128 TPY of CO
The State of Oregon estimated the following emissions from a 1987 state inventory of 335,632 fireplaces:5
7,012 TPY of PM,0
44,812 TPY of CO
Point/area source cutoff
Residential wood combustion in fireplaces is not considered a point source because emissions per
fireplace fall well below ten TPY
Level of detail of information available
(1) AP-42 emission factors for residential fireplaces, based on tests burning primarily oak, fir or pine,
with moisture content ranging from 15 to 35 percent:
14 g TSP/kg of wood burned
0.2 g SO„/kg of wood burned
1.7 g NOykg of wood burned
85 g CO/kg of wood burned
13 g VOC/kg of wood burned
(2) Emission factors from Environment Canada for fireplaces:6
25 g TSP/kg of wood burned
0.8 g SOykg of wood burned
0.5 g NOykg of wood burned
90 g CO/kg of wood burned
(3) Emission factors from the State of Colorado for fireplaces:3
14.4 g TSP/kg of wood burned
76 g CO/kg of wood burned
1.7 g POM/kg of wood burned
(4) A State of Colorado survey showed that an average of 1.28 and 0.61 cords of wood are burned
in stoves and fireplaces, respectively, during an average season in the Denver metropolitan area.7
CH-91-57
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(5) The State of Oregon has compiled an inventory of total number of fireplaces in the state and
estimated the total amount of wood consumed by fireplaces was 301,257 cords in 1987.
(6) New emission factors for fireplaces are currently being developed by EPA.8
Level of detail required by users
Amount of wood used by fireplaces (by county)
Number of fireplaces per county
Amount of wood used per fireplace
Emission factor requirements
Amount of pollutant emitted per unit use of wood
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Residential wood combustion in fireplaces usually occurs in winter to supplement heating needs or for
aesthetic purposes.
Urban or rural characteristics
An urban and rural source
Methodology
Traditionally, emissions from fireplaces are estimated using the AP-42 emission factors expressed in grams
of pollutant emitted per kilogram of wood burned and multiplying them by the amount of wood burned.
The AP-42 emission factors are based on tests at an average burn rate, and thus a more thorough
emission factor representative of the type of wood and burn rate in an airshed may be needed. More
accurate emissions could be determined if new emission factors were developed distinguishing between
fireplace type (masonry or prefabricated), burn rates and type of wood (softwoods or hardwoods) burned.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Davis, B. and B. Read, Guideline Series: Guidance Document for Residential Wood Combustion
Emission Control Measures, EPA-500/2-89-015 (NTIS PB90-130444), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1989.
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3. Colorado Fireplace Report, prepared for Colorado Department of Health, Air Pollution Control
Division, prepared by Shelton Research, Inc, March 1987.
4. Saeger, M., ef al. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory, (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers' Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91-119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
5. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Steve Crane, Oregon Air Pollution
Control Division. Estimates of emissions from wood stoves and fireplaces in Oregon. August 1,
1990.
6. Methods Manual for Estimating Emissions of Common Air Contaminants from Canadian Sources,
ORTECH International (in development).
7. Denver Metro Woodburning Survey, Colorado Department of Health, Air Pollution Control Division,
Denver, CO, June 1988.
8. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Michael Hamlin, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Revision of
existing AP-42 emission factors for wood stoves and fireplaces. July 23, 1990.
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KEROSENE SPACE HEATERS
Definition/description of category and activity
Kerosene space heaters are used throughout the United States, usually as a supplementary heat source
to electric, fuel oil or natural gas furnaces. The use of kerosene space heaters has increased dramatically
from approximately 3,400 kerosene heaters sold in 1973 to about ten million sold by 1988.1 There are
three basic designs: radiant heaters (blue flame), convective heaters (white flame) and two-stage
convective heaters. Most portable kerosene space heaters use K-1 grade kerosene fuel; some early
models also used K-2 fuels.2 ,5
Process breakdown
Emissions from kerosene space heaters result from fuel combustion and fuel evaporation (fugitive
emissions).
Most emissions from kerosene space heaters are trapped indoors where the heater is being used. Most
kerosene space heaters are unvented, thereby emitting all off-gases and particulate matter within the room
or house being heated. In addition, there is a potential for evaporative emissions of kerosene from
spillage during filling of the fuel tank and leaking tanks and lines. The amount of pollutants emitted to the
outdoors is dependent on the pollutant and the relative tightness" of the house. Particulate matter and
many volatile components may settle or become adsorbed to surfaces in the house while gaseous
pollutants have a greater tendency to migrate from the structure.2'15
Reason for considering the category
The increase in the use of kerosene space heaters is a relatively recent occurrence and was considered
a minor source in previous emission inventories. There have been no AP-42'6 factors and little guidance
on assessing kerosene space heater emissions.
There are a number of gaps in the existing base of knowledge:
Usage statistics for kerosene space heaters are not well compiled.
. Most data have been generated using a limited range of heater ages,
conditions and operational settings. Until better usage statistics are
available, more laboratory testing may be unwarranted.
Emission rates of organic compounds from indoor combustion sources
are not well known.
SOx emissions may not be adequately understood, especially in the
conversion of S02 to S03 in new, catalyst-equipped kerosene heaters.
Many of these data gaps will need to be filled to adequately assess the magnitude of kerosene space
heater emissions. Improvements in test methodologies and the use of test houses in studies would allow
for the development of realistic emission factors.
CH-01-57
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Pollutants emitted
CO, C02, NO, NOj, S02, formaldehyde (HCHO), suspended particles and a number of potentially
hazardous and toxic hydrocarbons are emitted from kerosene space heaters.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Many of the cited references include emission factors and estimates of the levels of pollutant emissions
from individual heaters. However, a critical assessment of these and other sources not cited was not
undertaken in this effort and none of the references cited gave estimates of the overall emissions from
this source category. Additional effort is warranted to adequately assess these data sources.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from individual heaters are less than ten tons per year. The emissions potential from individual
heaters and the potential number of heaters in use indicate that this category should be inventoried as
an area source.
Level of detail of information available
Information on the use, grade and distribution of kerosene by small scale retail outlets may be available
from the same sources supplying gasoline and diesel distribution information. Information on the age,
burner type and condition of kerosene space heater equipment is not currently available from the
literature, but may be available from industry sources. Emission factors are available from U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE), EPA and U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission studies and literature.
However, usage patterns, age of heaters, grade of kerosene and regional variability have not been
characterized.
Level of detail required by users
The number, condition and annual usage pattern for kerosene space heaters and the usage rates and
grade of kerosene used in the defined area are required to estimate the emissions from this source
category.
Emission factor requirements
Emission factors based on heater type, age, condition and fuel type (K-1 or K-2 grade kerosene) need
to be developed. Much of the information needed to generate these emission factors has been presented
in EPA and DOE studies. However, the methodology to attain usage statistics for both fuel and heaters
also requires development. The development of fuel efficient burners will change the emission rates over
time. Table 1 shows the average emission factors from the cited references for each type of heater with
some consideration of the burn characteristics (initial start-up, steady state burning after start-up or a
combination of the two).
CH-01-57
249
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TABLE 1. AVERAGE EMISSION FACTORS FOR KEROSENE SPACE HEATERS
FROM CITED REFERENCES
Heater
Burn
Averaae Emission Factor (Grams Per Gallon Kerosene)'
Type
Type
CO
S02
NO
NOx
HCHO
Particulates
Convective
Initial
14.79
0.00
0.11
0.65
0.03
0.02
Convective
Steady
18.76
0.00
0.07
0.59
0.06
0.02
Convective
Combined6
13.48
1.31
1.15
2.10
0.03
1.80
Radiant
Combined
12.04
1.33
0.06
0.55
0.02
0.97
Two-Stage
Combined
1.30
0.00
0.61
0.31
0.03
0.24
*The averages are developed from several references where the type of heater and the burn characteristics were defined.
'The combined burn emission factors do not reflect the combination of factors from initial and steady burn studies, but the results
of separate studies.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
As a supplementary heat source, kerosene heaters are used when the temperature is relatively low
(primarily during the winter months). Their use would be expected to be greatest in northern regions and
least in the southwest, although kerosene space heaters are used throughout the country.
Urban or rural characteristics
No urban or rural preference is expected.
Methodology
No methodological guidelines have been developed to date. Information on fuel usage will most likely
be available through distributors. Information on heater age, type and condition should be developed
before an accurate assessment of emissions can be undertaken.
A possible methodology to estimate emissions from kerosene space heaters would assume a certain
population of heaters with defined characteristics giving a derived number of heaters. This derived
number of kerosene heaters would then be multiplied by the average amount of fuel burned for the
prevailing weather conditions of the region and an appropriate emission factor. The emission factor may
be weighted to reflect differing characteristics among the kerosene heater population.
References
1. Telecon. Woodall, George, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Dr. Harold Smith of the
National Kerosene Heater Association. Kerosene space heater statistics. November 2, 1990.
CH.01'57
250
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2. Apte, M.G. and G.W. Traynor. Comparison of Pollutant Emission Rates from Unvented Kerosene
and Gas Space Heaters, NTIS DE86-015133, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, May
1986.
3. Dudney, C.S., et al., Impact of Kerosene Heater Usage on Indoor S02 Exposures in 50 East
Tennessee Homes, NTIS DE88-016813, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Health and Safety
Research Division, Oak Ridge, TN, 1988.
4. Hawthorne, A.R., et al., Indoor Air Quality in 300 Homes in Kingston/Harriman, Tennessee, NTIS
DE88-014607, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Health and Safety Research Division, Oak Ridge,
TN, July 1988.
5. Jackson, M.D., et al., Particulate and Organic Emissions from Unvented Kerosene Heaters, Test
House Study, EPA-600/D-88/226 (NTIS PB89-118400), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, October 1988.
6. Lewtas, J. Toxicology of Complex Indoor Air Pollutants, EPA-600/D-89/243 (NTIS PB90-129289),
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1989.
7. Lionel, T., R.J. Martin, and N.J. Brown. A Comparative Study of Combustion in Unvented Space
Heating Devices, NTIS DE85-000673, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, October 1984.
8. Tichenor, B.A. etal., Evaluating Sources of Indoor Air Pollution, EPA-600/D-88/086 (NTIS PB88-
211685), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, May 1988.
9. Traynor, G.W. et al., Comparison of Measurement Techniques for Quantifying Selected Organic
Emissions from Kerosene Space Heaters, EPA-600/7-90-006 (NTIS PB90-187022), U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, February 1990.
10. Traynor, G.W. et al., Selected Organic Pollutant Emissions from Unvented Kerosene Heaters, NTIS
DE86-011553, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, June 1986.
11. Traynor, G.W. et al., Selected Organic Pollutant Emissions from Unvented Kerosene Heaters, EPA-
600/D-86/142 (NTIS PB86-218443), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, July 1986.
12. Traynor, G.W. et al., Indoor Air Pollution from Portable Kerosene-Fired Space Heaters, NTIS DE83-
009140, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, February 1983.
13. Traynor, G.W. ef al., Indoor Air Pollution from Portable Kerosene-Fired Space Heaters, Wood-
Burning Stoves, and Wood-Burning Furnaces, NTIS DE82-013014, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
Berkeley, CA, March 1982.
14. Tucker, W.G. Characterization of Emissions from Combustion Sources: Controlled Studies, EPA-
600/J-87/072 (NTIS PB88-104146), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
NC, February 1987.
15. Woodring, J.L., T.L. Duffy, J.T. Davis, and R.R. Bechtold. Measurements of Emission Factors of
Kerosene Heaters, NTIS DE83-014326, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, 1983.
16. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
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ROCKET LAUNCHES AND TEST FIRINGS
Definition/description of category and activity
Rocket launches and test firings release large quantities of hydrogen chloride, chlorine, aluminum oxide,
NOx, CO, C02 and PM, resulting in a temporary localized degradation in air quality near the launch or
test site. In addition, these activities may release pollutants to the upper atmosphere which contribute
to the problems of acid rain and depletion of the ozone layer. At this time, the Space Shuttle Program
is the most significant source of air pollution in this category.12,3
The main air quality effect at launches and test firings is from the combustion of the Space Shuttle's solid
rocket motors (SRMs). During a normal launch, a ground cloud composed of hot exhaust products from
the SRMs, the main liquid propulsion engines, steam from launch platform cooling and acoustic damping
water injection, and sand and dust, forms at the base of the launch platform. At higher altitudes, the
release of hydrogen chloride can produce acid rain under certain meteorologic conditions. As the Space
Shuttle passes through the stratosphere, hydrogen chloride, nitric oxide and aluminum oxide particles may
be emitted, possibly resulting in the destruction of ozone molecules.12,3
Process breakdown
Rocket launches and test firings are two different processes and should be separated for the purpose of
characterizing emissions. Rocket launch emissions are commonly broken down into atmospheric layers.
They should be addressed by rocket type. If possible, emissions should be separated by stage in the
launch or test firing sequence.
Reason for considering the category
These sources emit large amounts of toxic pollutants during the launch or test firing sequence. The
category should be consistently regulated, as is the test facility in Utah. Expected emissions generated
from SRM static tests at the facility will exceed 250 tons per year.2 Therefore, the facility is considered
a major point source and subject to Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) regulations.
Pollutants emitted
Estimate of the pollutant levels
National emissions estimates are not available. However, data in an Environmental Impact Statement of
the Morton Thiokol, Incorporated facility indicate that the SRM contains approximately one million pounds
of propellant. Emission levels from a single two-minute test firing are as follows:
Aluminum oxide
Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen chloride
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Particulate matter
PM10
Chlorine
Aluminum oxide
Carbon monoxide
166 tons/fire
133 tons/fire
CH-91-57
252
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Chlorine
Water
Hydrogen chloride
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
Others (N2, H2, etc.;
Particulate matter
PM,0
118 tons/fire
20 tons/fire
8 tons/fire
65 tons/fire
9 tons/fire
104 tons/fire
12 tons/fire
52 tons/fire
Point/area source cutoff
Expected emissions from launching and test firing exceeds 250 tons per episode. Therefore, launch sites
and test sites should be considered major point sources.
Level of detail of Information available
Environmental Impact Statements for all the launch and test firing sites involved in the Space Shuttle
Program are available. It is not known if the data for any other rocket types are available. The National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has conducted intensive analytical studies and developed
mathematical models which use the characteristics of the rocket exhaust products and launch site
meteorology to predict the rise, growth and dispersal of the ground cloud.4 National security concerns
limit access to some activity data, but most activity data are available from the Department of Defense and
NASA.
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by site
Site locations
Launch or test frequency, rocket type, activity type, fuel
Emission factor requirements
Emission factors for the various pollutants have been calculated as pounds of pollutant per test firing.
The emissions reported in the Environmental Impact Statements should be examined individually to
determine the volatility of the pollutants.5
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
These activities are restricted to Space Shuttle facilities, including Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama;
Kennedy Space Center, Florida; White Sands Test Facility, New Mexico; Thiokol/Wasatch Division, Utah;
and Vandenberg Air Force Base and Santa Susana, California. Figure 1 shows the locations of space
shuttle facilities. Launches and test firings are conducted year-round and may take place at anytime of
the day.2
CHB1-57 253
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Urban or rural characteristics
Principally a rural source
Methodology
. Compile sites of launches and test firings.
. Determine the number of launches and test firings per year.
. Break down the category by launch or test fire and the type of rocket and fuel involved.
. Conduct field test or use existing emission factors to determine emissions of pollutants/site/year.
. Calculate total annual emissions by county (by multiply the emission factor by the activity data).
References
1. New/Modified Source Plan Review for Morton Thiokol Inc., Utah Bureau of Air Quality, Salt Lake
City, UT, 1988.
2. Environmental Impact Statement for the Space Shuttle Program, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Washington, DC, 1977.
3. Telecon. Henning, Bruce, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Jack Martin, Morton Thiokol
Inc., Brigham City, UT Emissions inventories. September 7, 1990.
4. Telecon. Henning, Bruce, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Willard Hanks, Florida
Department of Environmental Regulation, Jacksonville, FL. NASA air pollution permitting.
September 7, 1990.
5. Telecon. Henning, Bruce, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mark Armtrout, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV, Atlanta, GA. Environmental impact statements.
September 10, 1990.
CH-91-57
254
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THIOKOL/WASATCH DIVISION
SOLID ROCKET MOTOR
DRYDEN FLIGHT
RESEARCH CENTER
HORIZONTAL
FLIGHT TEST
PALMDALE
FINAL
ASSEMBLY OF
ORBITER
AMES RESEARCH
CENTER
TEST OF THERMAL
PROTECTION SYSTEM
VANDENBERG AIR
FORCE BASE
LAUNCH AND LANDING
FLIGHT READINESS
SANTA SUSANA
MAIN ENGINE COMPONENT
AND SU8SYSTEM TEST
CANOGAPARK
MANUFACTURE AND
ASSEMBLY OF MAIN
ENGINE
OOWNEY
INDUSTRIAL PLANT
ORBITER
SUBASSEMBLY
AND COMPONENT
MANUFACTURE
AND TEST
LANGLEY
RESEARCH CENTER
TEST OF THERMAL
PROTECTION SYSTEM
WHITE SANOS.
TEST FACILITY
TESTS OF:
ORBITAL MANEUVERING
REACTION CONTROLS
AUXILIARY POWER.UNIT
MATERIALS
MARSHALL SPACE
FLIGHT CENTER
STRUCTURE TEST OF
EXTERNAL TANK
SRBSTRUCTURE TEST
SRB MANAGEMENT
KENNEDY SPACE CENTER
LAUNCH AND LANDING
FLIGHT READINESS
NATIONAL SPACE
TECHNOLOGY LABORATORIES
ORBITER ENGINE TEST
ORBITER PROPULSION
SYSTEM TEST
JOHNSON SPACE CENTER
PROGRAM MANAGEMENT
MISSION CONTROL
TRAINING
AVIONICS
TEST ANO VERIFICATION OF
THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM
VIBROACOUSTIC TEST
MICHOUD ASSEMBLY
FACILITY
EXTERNAL TANK
ASSEMBLY
Figure 1. Locations of the Space Shuttle facilities.2
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SMALL ELECTRIC UTILITY BOILERS
Definition/description of category and activity
Electric utility boilers which release less than 100 TPY of any of the priority pollutants (CO, VOC, S02, NO,
and TSP) are unaccounted for in the NEDS/AIRS inventory. These small boilers are the primary electric
generators for many rural communities. Although small boilers are currently defined as those boilers
releasing less than 100 TPY of any priority pollutant, new SIP guidelines require cutoffs of ten TPY for
some nonattainment areas.1 The wide variety in engineering designs, fuels and regulation practices
results in a range of possible emissions and complicated characterization.
Process breakdown
Small electric utility boilers can be categorized by the following characteristics: fuel source, such as
natural gas, distillate oil, residual oil, anthracite coal and bituminous coal; boiler type, such as cyclone
furnace, spreader stoker or overfeed stoker; capacity, in megawatts generated; and location, such as
county. Emissions from a given boiler may originate from cooling towers or smoke stacks or may be
fugitive emissions.
Reason for considering the category
Presently, only large electric boilers which release greater than 100 TPY of any criteria pollutant are
inventoried. Although data are available to adequately consider smaller utility boilers as point sources,2
NEDS does not address small boilers as either point or area sources.
Contributions to air pollution by small boilers may be significant since they are the primary generators of
electricity for many midwestern and western communities, emissions may not be closely regulated and
often they are older facilities lacking pollution control devices. For example, according to U.S. Department
of Energy records, 86 of Utah's 89 electricity generating units are small, with capacities of less than 50
megawatts.3
Pollutants emitted
CO, NO„, S02, VOC, TSP
Estimates of pollutant levels
Based on Energy Information Administration (EIA) and NAPAP data, it is estimated that in 1988, small
fossil fuel steam electric generating units emitted a maximum of 563,569 tons of S02 and 310,799 tons
of NO, nationwide. Therefore, a maximum of 3.4 percent of all S02 and 4.5 percent of all NO, emissions
from electric-generating boilers can be attributed to small (and unaccounted) boilers. Note that both
values are within the margin of error for the NAPAP inventory and could be due to differences in
methodologies. Comparable data are not available for VOC, TSP or CO.45
AP-42 provides emission factors for a variety of fossil fuel combustion types.6 However, AP-42 does not
document to what extent these factors are applicable to small electricity-generating units. However, facility
designs for small and large units are comparable enough that these emission factors should provide
adequate estimates until more specific factors are developed. Tables 1 through 4 are taken from AP-42
CH-B1-57
256
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TABLE 1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR EXTERNAL BITUMINOUS AND SUBBITUMINOUS COAL COMBUSTION
{AP-42 TABLE 1.1-1)
Partlculateb
Sulfur Oxldese
Nitrogen Oxides*
Carbon
Monoxide*
Nonmethane
VOC*-'
Methane*
Firing Configuration
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
Pulverized coal fired
Dry bottom
5A
10A
19.5S
(17.5S)
39S(35S)
10.5
(7.5)9
21
(15)°
0.3
0.6
0.04
0.07
0.015
0.03
Wet bottom
3Sfi.h
7A*
19.5S
(17.5S)
39S(35S)
17
34
0.3
0.6
0.04
0.07
0 015
0.03
Cyclone furnace
1A"
2Ah
19.5S
(17.5S)
39S(35S)
18.5
37
03
06
0.04
0.07
0.015
0.03
Spreader stoker
Uncontrolled
3
-------
Expressed as S02 , including S02, S03 and gaseous sulfates. Factors in parentheses should be used to estimate gaseous SO( omission (or subbitumlnous coal. In all cases, 'S'
Is weight % sulfur content of coal as fired. See Footnote b for example calculation. On avorage for bituminous coal, 97% of fuel sulfur Is emitted as S02, and only about 0.7% of
fuol sulfur is emitted as SO., and gaseous sulfate. An equally small percent of fuel sulfur is emitted as particulate sulfato (References 9, 13). Small quantities of sulfur ar also retained
in bottom ash. With subbituminous coal generally about 10% moro fuel sulfur is retained in the bottom ash and particulate because of the more alkaline nature of the coal ash.
Conversion to gasoous sulfate appears about tho same as for bituminous coal.
Expressed as N02. Generally, 95 - 99 volumo % of nitrogen oxides presont in combustion exhaust will be in the form of NO, the rest N02 (Referenco 11). To express factors as NO,
multiply by factor of 0.66. All factors represent emission at baseline operation (i.e., 60 - 110% load and no NO, control measuros, as discussed In text).
Nominal values achiovable under normal operating conditions. Values one or two ordors of magnitude highor can occur when combustion is not complete.
Nonmethane volatile organic compounds (VOC), expressed as C2 to C(8 n-alkaline equivalents (Roference 58). Because of limited data on NMVOC available to distinguish the effects
of firing configuration, all data wore averaged collectively to dovolop a single average for pulvorized coal units, cyclones, spreaders and overfeed stokers.
Parenthetic value is for tangentially fired boilors.
Uncontrolled particulate emissions, when no flay ash reinjection is employod. When control device is installed, and collected fly ash Is reinjected to boiler, particulate from boiler
reaching control equipmont can Increase by up to a factor of two.
Accounts for fly ash sottling in an economizer, air hoator or breeching upstream of control device or stack. (Particulate directly at boiler outlet typically will be twice this level.) Factor
should be applied even when fly ash is reinjected to boiler from boiler, air heater or economizer dust hoppers.
Includes traveling grate, vibrating grate and chain grate stokers.
Accounts for fly ash settling in breeching or stack base. Particulate loadings directly at boiler outlet typically can be 50% higher.
See text for discussion of apparently low multiple cyclone control efficiencies, regarding uncontrolled emissions.
Accounts for fly ash settling in breeching downstroam of boiler outlet.
-------
TABLE 2. UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS FOR ANTHRACITE COMBUSTION
{AP-42 TABLE 1.2-1)
Particulate"
Sulfur Oxldesc
Nitrogen Oxldesd
Carbon
Monoxide*
Volatile Organlcs
Boiler Type
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
Nonmethane
Methane
Pulverized coal
fired
f
f
19.5S
39S
9
18
f
f
f
f
Traveling grate stoker
4.6fl
9.1°
19.5S
39S
5
10
0.3
0.6
f
f
Hand fed units
5h
10h
19.5S
39S
1.5
3
f
f
f
f
* Factors oro (or uncontrolled emissions and should bo applied to coal consumption as firod.
6 Basod on EPA Method 5 (front hall catch).
c Assumes, as with bituminous coal combustion, most fuel sulfur is emitted as SO,. Limited data in Reference 5 verify this for pulverized anthracite fired boilers. Emissions are mostly S02,
with 1 - 3 % SOj. S indicates that weight % sulfur should be multiplied by the value given.
d For pulverized anthracite fired boilers and hand fed units, assumed to be similar to bituminous coal combustion. For traveling grate stokers, soe References 8, 11.
* May increase by several orders of magnitude with boilers not properly operated or maintained. For traveling grate stokers, based on limited information In Reference 8. For pulverized coal
fired boilors, substantiated by additional data in Reference 14.
' Factors in Table 1.1-1 may be usod, based on similarity of anthracite and bituminous coal.
9 Roferences 12-13, 15-18. Accounts for limited fallout that may occur in fallout chambers and stack breeching. Factors for Individual boilers may be 2.5 - 25 kg/Mg (5-50 lb/ton), highest
during soot blowing.
h Reference 2.
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TABLE 3. UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS FOR FUEL OIL COMBUSTION
(AP-42 TABLE 1.3-1)
Boiler type*
Volatile Otyanlc/
Partkulito Matter*
Sulfur Dioxide*
SuNur TrloiM*
Carbon Monoxide/*
Nitrogen Oxtde"
kg/19*l Ib/lff'gat kg/10*l lb/10*gal kg/IO*! Ib/io'gal kg/IO*! Ib/10*gal kgHO1! 'Ib/io'oal ko/10*l fc/10*gal kg/iO*! lb/10*Qa1
Utility Boilers
Residual Oil
at/*
00
(12.6) (5)'
67
(105) (42)'
Industrial Boilers
Residual Oil
Distillate Oil
0
0.24
19S
17S
1579
142S
0 24S
024S
2S
2S
00
0.6
eef
2.4
5Sf
20
0.034
0.024
0.28
0.2
012
0.006
10
0092
Commercial Boilers
Residual Oil
Distillate Oil
193
17S
157S
142S
0.24S
0.24S
2S
2S
0.6
0.6
6.6
2.4
55
20
0 14
0.04
1.13
0.34
0.057
0.026
0.470
0.216
Residential Fumac«s
Distillate Oil
ro
CJ)
o
a Boilers can be approximately classified according to their gross (higher) heat rate as shown below:
Utility (power plant) boilers: > 106 x 109 J/hr (> 100 x 10? Btu/hr)
Industrial boilers: 10 6 x 109 to 106 x 109 J/hr (10 x 10? to 100 x 1O?0tu/hr)
Commercial bollera: 0.5 x lO^to 10 6 x 109 J/hr (0.5 x 10^ to 10 x 10? Btu/hr)
Residential furnaces: <0 5 x 10° J/hr (<0.5 x 10^ Btu/hr)
^ References 3-7 and 24-25. Particulate matter Is defined In this section as that material collected by EPA Method 5 (Front half catch).
c References 1-5. S indicates that the weight % of sulfur In the oil should be multiplied by the value given.
^ References 3-5 and 6-10. Carbon monoxide emissions may increase by factors of 10 to 100 If the unit Is Improperly operated or not well maintained.
* Expressed as NO; References 1 -5, 0-11, 17 and 26. Test results Indicate that at least 95% by weight of NOx Is NO for all boiler types except residential furnaces, where about 75% Is NO.
f References 18-21. Volatile organic compound emissions are generally negligible unless boiler Is Improperly operated or not well maintained, In which case emissions may Increase by several orders of magnitude.
' Particulate emission factors for residual oil combustion are, on average, a function of fuel oil grade and sulfur content:
Grade 6 oil: 1.25(S) ~ 0.38 kg/10* liter (10(S) + 3 lb/10* gal] where S is the weight % of sulfur In the oil. This relationship Is based on 61 Individual tests and has a correlation coefficient of 0.65.
Grade 5 oil: 1.25 kg/IO5 liter (10 lb/10* gal)
Grade 4 oil. 0 00 kg/IO* liter (7 Ib/IO* gal)
* Reference 25.
1 Use 5 kg/10* liters (42 lb/10* gal) for tangentlally fired boiler*, 12.6 kg/IO* liters (105 Ib/10*ga1) for vertical fired boilers, and 8.0 kg/10* liters (67 lb/10* gal) for all others, at full loed and normal (>15%) excess air. Several combustion modifications
can be employed for NOx reduction: (1) limited excess air can reduce NOx emissions 5-20%, (2) staged combustion 20-40%, (3) using low NOz burners 20-50%, and (4) ammonia injection can reduce NOx emissions 40-70% but may Increase emissions
of ammonia. Combinations of these modification have been employed for further reductions In certain boilers. See Reference 23 for a discussion of these and other NOK-reducing techniques and their operational and environmental Impacts.
' Nitrogen oxides emissions from residual oil combustion in Industrial and commercial boilers are strongly related to fuel nitrogen content, estimated more accurately by the empirical relationship:
kg NOyiO* liters = 2.75 + 50(N)^ (lb NOyiO*gal « 22 + 400(N)^) where N is the weight % of nitrogen In tho oil. For residual oils having high (>0.5 weight %) nitrogen content, use 15 kg NOyiO* liter (120 lb NOyiO* gal) as an emission factor.
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TABLE 4. UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS FOR NATURAL GAS COMBUSTION
{AP-42 TABLE 1.4-1)
Furnace Size & Type
(10* Btu/hr heat Input)
Volatile Organlcs
Particulate1*
Sulfur Dloxldec
Nitrogen Oxides''
Carbon Monoxide*
Nonmethane
Methane
kg/10*mJ
Ib/loV
kg/io'm3
Ib/loV
kg/10*m5
Ib/loV
kg/1 o'm®
Ib/loV
kg/io'm3
Ib/ioV
kg/io'm3
Ib/io'ft1
Utility boilers (> 100)
16 - 80
1 - 5
9.6
0.6
8800"
55CP
640
40
23
1.4
4.8
03
Industrial boilers (10 - 100)
16 - 80
1 - 5
9.6
0.6
2240
140
560
35
44
28
48
3
Domestic and commorcial
boilers (< 10)
16-89
1 - 5
9.6
0.6
1600
100
320
20
84
53
43
2.7
'Expressed as weight/volume fuel fired.
^References 15-18.
"Reference 4. Baaed on avg. sulfur content of natural gas, 4600 g/10flm3 (2000 gr/10a scf).
"References 4-5, 7-8, 11, 14, 18-19, 21.
'Expressed as N02. Tests Indicoto about 95 weight % NO„ is N02.
'References 4, 7-8, 16, 18. 22-25.
"References 16, 18. May increase 10-100 tlmos with improper operation or maintonance.
hFor tangentially fired units, use 4400 kg/106 m3 (275 lb/109 ft3). At reduced loads, multiply factor by load reduction coefficient in Figure 1.4-1. For potential NO, reductions by combustion modification,
see text Note that NO, reduction from those modifications will also occur at roduced load conditions.
to
o>
-------
and summarize emission factors for bituminous and subbituminous coal, anthracite coal, fuel oil and
natural gas combustion, respectively.
Point/area source cutoff
Electric-generating boilers which release greater than 100 TPY of CO, S02, NO,, TSP or VOC are already
included in the inventory as point sources. Those which release smaller quantities of pollutants, presently
unaccounted for in NEDS, could either be grouped as area sources or treated as individual point sources.
Level of detail of information available
Adequate data are available to quantify pollutant emissions from small utility boilers as individual point
sources.2 3,7 8 9 The EIA provides data on quantity and type of fossil fuel consumed by every electric
generating unit in the United States.7 Facility names and county location are specified. The EIA has also
supplemented this facility-specific data with information on capacity, unit design and air pollution control
devices employed by each plant.3 Emission factors are available from AP-42.
Level of detail required by users
S02, NOx, VOC, CO and TSP emissions by county for small electric utility boilers
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Small electric utility boilers are likely to dominate energy supplies in sparsely populated regions of the
country, such as the midwestern, southwestern and mountain states. In areas where small towns are
isolated by large expanses of land, small electric utility boilers are likely to be the only source of electricity
generation. As is the case with larger facilities, peak demand varies with season and time of day. Winter
and the hours between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. have increased usage and, therefore, increased
emissions. Peaking units which operate only during periods of high energy demand contribute emissions
on a sporadic and short-term basis.
Urban or rural characteristics
Small electric utility boilers are prevalent in rural areas and small towns.
Methodology
The EIA has inventoried all electric utility boilers for each state on a county level, as described above.3
Large units which are already assessed in NEDS as point sources should be identified and removed from
that inventory. EIA fuel consumption data for small units should be integrated into this database. AP-42
emission factors should then be applied to each small boiler on a unit-by-unit basis. Finally, emission
values could be adjusted for pollution control devices.
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References
1. Kersteter, Sharon L. Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of
Ozone, Volume I, EPA-450/4-88-021 (NTIS PB89-152409), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1988.
2. Electric Power Annual (and associated data tapes), DOE/EIA-0348(88), U.S. Department of Energy,
Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, 1988.
3. Inventory of Power Plants in the United States (and associated data tapes), DOE/EIA-0095(88),
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, 1988.
4. Federal Energy Data System (FEDS) Statistical Summary Update, DOE/EIA-0192, U.S. Department
Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC. Annual publication.
5. Saeger, M., ef al. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory, (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers' Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91 -119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
6. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
7. Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants (and associated data tapes), DOE/EIA-0191 (88),
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, 1988.
8. State Energy Data Report, Consumption Estimates 1960-1988 (and associated data tapes),
DOE/EIA 0214(88), U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington,
DC, 1988.
9. 1980 National Emissions Data System (NEDS) Fuel Use Report, EPA-450/4-82-011 (NTIS PB82-
237173), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1982.
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WOOD STOVES
Definition/description of category and activity
Wood combustion produces smoke which is a complex mixture of PM,0, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen,
organic material, POM and mineral constituents. Emissions of organic material, CO and PM10 from wood
stoves result from incomplete combustion of the wood. The mixture of constituents of the smoke emitted
can vary with the design of the stove, length of time for the burn, type of wood, size of the wood and
moisture content in the wood. Typically, wood stoves are enclosed fire boxes and are used domestically
for space heating to supplement conventional heating systems. Fires in wood stoves are generally
maintained continuously throughout the winter season.1,2
Process breakdown
As indicated above, most wood stoves are fairly airtight and vent emissions through a stack in the roof.
These stacks are usually low with very little plume rise. There are two types of stoves, the conventional
and the catalytic stove. Catalytic stoves typically have lower emissions than conventional stoves. Higher
burn rates (amount of wood burned per hour) generally result in lower emission factors for all stoves.
However, lower burn rates result in lower emission rates for particulate emissions from catalytic stoves.
Lower burn rates do not affect particulate emissions in any definite way and vary with stove type.3 The
lowest particulate emission factors occur when the wood moisture content is 20 to 26 percent (wet basis).
Moisture contents above or below this range result in higher emission factors.3 Larger "charge size"
generally results in higher emission factors for TSP, CO and VOC and larger fireboxes in stoves generally
result in higher particulate emissions. Larger wood pieces result in lower emission factors for CO, VOC
and TSP.
Reason for considering the category
A recent estimate puts the number of RWC units (i.e., fireplaces and wood stoves) in the United States
in 1989 at 30 million. Slightly more than 50 percent of RWC units are fireplaces and the remainder are
wood stoves. These devices are among the largest anthropogenic sources of PM10 and CO in the
country.2 Typically, RWC units are used in the winter when organic and NO, emissions from this source
are not likely to have any significant impact on ozone formation in a study area. However, given the
stability of the cold air in the winter, PM,0 emissions can seriously impair visibility in a given area in the
winter. EPA research indicated that winter CO emissions from RWC units can have some significant
detrimental effects on the health of the population in a given area.2
Pollutants emitted
Pollutants emitted from wood stoves include CO, NO,, SOx, organic material (such as POM and
aldehydes) and PM,0.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Emissions estimates for total U.S. residential wood consumption (fireplaces and wood stoves) in the 1985
NAPAP Inventory are as follows:4
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11,077 TPYof SO,
80,774 TPY of NO„
1,459,464 TPY of VOC
1,088,598 TPY of TSP
6,721,128 TPY of CO
The State of Oregon estimated the following emissions for the state from a 1987 inventory of 384,848
wood stoves:5
27,588 TPY of PM10
186,688 TPY of CO
Point/area source cutoff
Residential wood combustion in wood stoves is not considered a point source, since emissions per stove
do not exceed ten TPY
Level of detail of Information available
(1) AP-42 emission factors for combustion in residential wood stoves for four different categories of
stoves:1
VOC VOC
Stove Type PM,„ SO. NO, CO (methane) (nonmethane)
Conventional
noncatalytic 15 0.2 1.4 140 32 14
Noncatalytic
low emitting 9.6 0.2 - 130
Pellet-fired
noncatalytic 1.6 0.2 6.9 18
Catalytic 6.6 0.2 1.0 39 13 8.6
(2) Emission factors from Environment Canada for slow combustion wood stoves:8
25 g TSP/kg of wood burned
0.8 g SO^kg of wood burned
0.5 g NO„/kg of wood burned
175 g CO/kg of wood burned
(3) Emission factors from Environment Canada for conventional wood stoves:8
33 g TSP/kg of wood burned
0.8 g SOykg of wood burned
0.5 g NO^kg of wood burned
110 g CO/kg of wood burned
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(4) A State of Colorado survey showed that an average of 1.28 and 0.61 cords of wood are burned
in stoves and fireplaces, respectively, during an average season in the Denver metropolitan area7
(5) The State of Oregon has compiled an inventory of total number of wood stoves in the state and
estimated the total amount of wood consumed by wood stoves (800,071 cords in 1987).5
(6) New emission factors for wood stoves are currently being developed by EPA.8
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Amount of wood used by wood stoves (by county)
Number of wood stoves per county
Amount of wood used per unit (stove)
Emission factor requirements
Amount of pollutant emitted per unit use of wood
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Residential wood combustion in wood stoves usually occurs in winter when stoves are used for
supplementing heating.
Urban or rural characteristics
An urban and rural source
Methodology
Emissions from wood stoves
pollutant emitted per kilogram
burned) and multiplying them
are estimated using the AP-42 emission factors expressed in grams of
of dry wood burned (or in pounds of pollutant emitted per ton of dry wood
by the amount of wood burned.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985.
2. Davis, B. and B. Read, Guideline Series: Guidance Document for Residential Wood Combustion
Emission Control Measures, EPA-500/2-89-015 (NTIS PB90-130444), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1989.
CH'01'57
266
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3. Technical Support Document lor Residential Wood Combustion, EPA-450/4-85-012, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1986.
4. Saeger, M., ef al. The 1985 NAPAP Emissions Inventory, (Version 2): Development of the Annual
Data and Modelers Tapes, EPA-600/7-89-012a (NTIS PB91 -119669), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, November 1989.
5. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Steve Crane, Oregon Air Pollution
Control Division. Estimates of emissions from wood stoves and fireplaces in Oregon. August 1,
1990.
6. Methods Manual for Estimating Emissions of Common Air Contaminants from Canadian Sources,
ORTECH International (in development).
7. Denver Metro Woodbuming Survey, Colorado Department of Health, Air Pollution Control Division,
Denver, CO, June 1988.
8. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Michael Hamlin, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. Revision of
existing AP-42 emission factors for wood stoves and fireplaces. July 23, 1990.
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BACKYARD CHARCOAL GRILLS
Definition/description of category and activity
Organic gases are emitted when charcoal lighter fluid is used to soak and light charcoal briquettes in
backyard grills. The lighter fluid, composed almost entirely of volatile constituents such as petroleum
naphtha and petroleum distillates, evaporates to contribute to the VOC burden in the atmosphere. Some
VOC are also emitted during the combustion of the charcoal and increase as the flame dies down.1 NO,
and CO are also emitted from charcoal grills.
Process breakdown
Not applicable for this category
Reason for considering the category
In 1989, SCAQMD was the first regulatory agency to investigate charcoal lighter fluid as a source of
atmospheric VOC. SCAQMD performed a detailed investigation of pollutant emissions from various
methods of igniting charcoal in grills.1 Additional work was done by the Clorox Company and AEERL to
estimate VOC emissions from evaporation of lighter fluid and ignition of charcoal.2 However, no standard
emission factors are currently available for estimating VOC, NOx or CO emissions from charcoal grills.
SCAQMD has proposed a working group with the barbecue industry to develop a standard emissions test
procedure and ultimately develop emission factors.3 Emissions estimates from charcoal grills are
important since grills have fairly significant VOC emissions and activity typically occurs in the summer
months which coincides the ozone season.
Pollutants emitted
VOC from evaporation and combustion
NO, and CO during combustion
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Based on estimates provided by the Barbecue Industry Association (BIA) for 1989 U.S. lighter fluid sales,4
AEERL derived a best estimate of 1,110 tons of VOC emitted from evaporation of lighter fluid and 14,500
tons of VOC from evaporation and combustion combined.2
Point/area source cutoff
Due to the nature of the activity, backyard grills are not considered to be point sources.
Level of detail of information available
Some emissions estimates have been reported by EPA based on test data from Clorox and AEERL.
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The BIA has consumption estimates for lighter fluid and charcoal in the United States.
Some information is available on the types (i.e., gas, electric, charcoal, etc.) and numbers of background
grills used.
Level of detail required by users
Data on consumption of lighter fluid and charcoal on a county level
Estimate of population of grills by type on a county level
Emission factor requirements
Amount of lighter fluid and charcoal used in the study area
Emissions of VOC, NOx and CO per unit use of charcoal and lighter fluid
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Charcoal grills are used primarily in the summer months.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
Methodology
BIA national estimates of annual consumption of lighter fluid and charcoal briquettes may be apportioned
by assuming that 80 percent is used in the ozone season and 20 percent is used in the non-ozone
season. Emissions generated in the non-ozone season may be allocated to counties, based on the
number of single family dwellings in each county. Multiplying this estimate by the emission factors will
result in estimates of county-level emissions from charcoal grilling generated during the non-ozone
season. In the ozone season (summer), charcoal grills are used in backyards, parks and other recreation
areas. Total ozone season usage can then be apportioned to type of use (backyards or recreation areas).
Usage in recreation areas can be allocated to the various recreation areas based on attendance records;
multiplying the resulting usage by an emission factor would yield emissions for the recreation area. The
remaining percent of national ozone season usage can be used to estimate emissions from backyard
grilling. The county-wide emissions from this source can be estimated by apportioning this usage to
counties by the number of single family dwellings and multiplying by the emission factors.
References
1. A Comparative Study of Organic, Carbon Monoxide, and Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions from Various
Charcoal Igniting Methods. South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD), El Monte,
CA, 1989.
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2. Campbell, D.L and Stockton, M.B., Estimation of Emissions from Charcoal Lighter Fluid and
Review of Alternatives, EPA-600/2-90-003 (NTIS PB90-186313), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, January 1990.
3. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Suzanne Vetrano, The Clorox
Company, Pleasanton, CA. Lighter fluid emissions testing methodologies. July 31, 1990.
4. Telecon. Chadha, Ajay, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Sandy Burton, Barbecue Industry
Association, Naperville, IL Lighter fluid statistics. July 24, 1990.
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COMMERCIAL CHARBROILING
Definition/description of category and activity
Charbroiling is the most common method of cooking meat at fast food and full service restaurants. The
typical pollutants emitted from commercial charbroiling consist of VOC, mainly aldehydes, and PM, mainly
fat, grease and carbon, where 93 percent of PM is less than one ^m in size. Charbroilers are used to
cook steaks, hamburger patties, chicken and other foods.' Full sen/ice restaurants normally operate
flame-fired broilers during dinner hours, whereas fast-food establishments have direct-flame patty broilers
with peak operations from 11:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. and from 5:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m.
Process breakdown
Charbroilers consist of three main components, a heating source (typically natural gas), a high
temperature radiant surface and a grated grill. The meat is placed on the grill typically located above
the radiant surface. Grease from the cooked meat falls on the surface and causing both VOC and PM
emissions. These emissions are typically vented to the atmosphere by means of a mechanical exhaust.
The configuration of the vent can vary with the location of a charbroiler within an individual facility.
Reason for considering the category
Restaurants and fast-food establishments are typically concentrated in urban areas where VOC and PM
emissions are of most concern. Most of these emissions are largely uncontrolled, although these
establishments must comply with local building and fire codes, as well as with standards for odor and
nuisance. It is likely that these emissions could contribute to the formation or build-up of ozone.
Pollutants emitted
The pollutants emitted consist mostly of reactive VOC and PM. Charbroilers using natural gas for heating
source also emit small amounts of NO„, SOx, C02 and CO.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
SCAQMD has estimated that 1985 daily VOC and PM emissions from charbroilers in the South Coast Air
Basin were 1.9 tons and 7.4 tons, respectively.'
Point/area source cutoff
Individual commercial charbroilers are unlikely to emit more than 100 tons per year of any pollutant, and
thus would not be considered as point sources.
Level of detail of information available
A1977 study conducted for EPA estimated that approximately nine percent of eating establishments used
meat-firing grills.2 The same study also provided emission factors for VOC and PM emissions from
charbroilers in California restaurants, as given below:
CH-91-57 271
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1,000 lbs VOC/year-restaurant
3,000 lbs PM/year-restaurant
Level of detail required by users
An inventory of commercial eating establishments that use charbroilers to fire the meat
Emission factors which reflect the amount of meat used at various types of establishments and the type
of meat used
Emission factor requirements
A more accurate characterization of the emissions resulting from commercial charbroilers (e.g., using
source testing equipment)
An estimate of amount and type (chicken, beef, pork) of meat used by establishments of various sizes
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
A typical restaurant operates six or seven days a week, from 10:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m.. Emissions are
likely to be highest during lunch (11:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m.) and dinner (5:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m.) hours. It
is unlikely that this source will show much regional differences.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
Methodology
• Obtain the number of restaurants in an area from County Business Patterns3 and assume that a
certain percent of these establishments use charbroilers.
Obtain estimates of sales of various meats to commercial establishments in a given county.
• Using the emission factors based on amount and type of meat fired in commercial establishments,
calculate emissions of VOC and PM.
References
1. Final Air duality Management Plan 1989, South Coast Air Quality Management District, El Monte,
CA, March 1989.
2. Methods for Assessing Area Source Emissions in California, California Air Resources Board,
Sacramento, CA, December 1982.
3. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
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COMMERCIAL DEEP FAT FRYING AT RESTAURANTS
Definition/description of category and activity
Deep fat frying involves the cooking of foods in hot oils or greases. Potatoes are considered the most
commonly fried food; other foods include doughnuts, fritters, croquettes and breaded and batter-dipped
fish and meat. VOC, PM and entrained fat particles are emitted during frying. In general, fish and meat
products, which contain higher percentages of fats and oils, produce greater emissions than vegetable
products.1 Where natural gas is used to heat the oil, small amounts of NO„, SO,, C02 and CO and
additional amounts of PM may be emitted.2
Full service restaurants normally operate deep-fat fryers during dinner hours, whereas fast-food
establishments have deep-fat fryers in peak operations from 11:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. and from 5:00 p.m.
to 9:00 p.m.3
Process breakdown
Preparation of food before deep frying may involve slicing (potatoes), dough-making (doughnuts, fritters,
croquettes) and breading or batter preparation (breaded or batter-dipped fish and meat).
The principal frying equipment is an externally heated cooking oil vat. Oil temperatures are usually
controlled to between 325 and 450 degrees Fahrenheit. Electricity, gas or other energy sources can be
used to heat the vat. The products to be fried are either manually or mechanically inserted into the hot
oil and removed after a definite time interval.1
During frying, moisture in the foods is released as steam. Some cooking oils, as well as animal or
vegetable oils from the food, are steam distilled and released as VOC or as oil droplets during frying.
Excessive smoking (PM release) may be due to overheating of the food or to steam distillation of finely
divided fat and oil products from old cooking oil or the food. Some meat product fryers require control
equipment to bring them into compliance with visible emission regulations.'
Natural gas consumption is included in the fuel combustion category; therefore, NO„, SOx, C02, CO and
PM emissions from natural gas combustion for deep fat frying is not counted in the deep fat frying
category.
Reason for considering the category
Restaurants and fast food establishments are typically concentrated in urban areas where VOC, PM, NO,,
SO,, C02 and CO emissions are of greatest concern. Most of these emissions are largely uncontrolled,
although these establishments must comply with local building and fire codes, as well as with standards
for odor and nuisance.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, PM, NOx, SOx, C02 and CO
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Estimate of the pollutant levels
SCAQMD has estimated the following emissions from deep-fat frying in the South Coast Air Basin during
1987:3
VOC 1,687 tons per year
PM 901 tons per year
Point/area source cutoff
Individual restaurant deep fat frying activity is unlikely to emit more than ten tons per year of any pollutant
and should be considered an area source.
Level of detail of Information available
Reference 3 estimates reactive organic gas (ROG) and PM for the SCAQMD using the following:
• Estimate of the process flow during peak and off-peak hours
• Estimated number of deep fat fryers in each county in the District (distributed to
individual basins by population)
• Total organic gas (TOG) and PM emission factors based on limited source tests
TOG 135 lbs TOG per year-fryer
PM 54 lbs PM per year-fryer
ROG emission estimates are obtained by multiplying TOG emissions by a factor
of 0.749 tons ROG per ton TOG.
District, basin and county population estimates
VOC emissions are assumed to be the same as ROG emissions (the VOC definition excludes ethane;
otherwise, the two definitions are identical).
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
County-level deep fat frying food production, by food type (vegetable product, meat product, breaded or
batter-dipped, and other categories)
Emission factors for each food type
Emission factor requirements
The source tests used by SCAQMD are limited to potato fryers. More testing is necessary to develop
emission factors for other food products, particularly the meat products, which have higher percentages
of fats and oils.
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Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
A typical full service restaurant will operate deep fryers mostly in the evenings. Peak times for fast food
restaurants are from 11:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. and from 5:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m.3 Emissions are likely to be
highest during these times. It is unlikely that this source will show much regional variation.
Urban or rural characteristics
Principally an urban source
Methodology
Estimates can be made using the SCAQMD and related emission factors.
. The SCAQMD emission factors are given as tons per year-fryer. Data provided by SCAQMD can
also be used to generate alternative per year-person or per year-restaurant emission factors.
. The emission factors and production figures (or surrogates) can be used to estimate emissions
in each county.
Alternatively, if product-specific emission factors are developed (emissions per pound of product fried),
more precise emission estimates can be made.
Much more specific information will be needed in order to use these emission factors.
Product-specific deep fat frying quantities will be needed.
. The emission factors and production figures (or surrogates) can be used to estimate emissions
in each county.
References
1. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition, AP-40, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, May 1973.
2. Area Source Emissions for C/Y1987 from Residential Fuel Combustion of Natural Gas for Cooking
in the SCAQMD Air Basins, CES No. 54585, South Coast Air Quality Management District, El
Monte, CA, June 15, 1988.
3. Area Source Emissions from Deep Fat Frying, CES No. 66811, South Coast Air Quality
Management District, El Monte, CA, October 19, 1988.
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RESIDENTIAL DEEP FAT FRYING
Definition/description of category and activity
Deep fat frying involves the cooking of foods in hot oils or greases. Commonly fried foods include
potatoes, breaded and batter-dipped fish and meat, and foods such as fritters or doughnuts. VOC, PM
and entrained fat particles are emitted during frying. In general, fish and meat products, which contain
higher percentages of fats and oils, produce greater emissions than vegetable products.1 Where natural
gas is used to heat the oil, small amounts of NO,, SO,, C02 and CO and additional amounts of PM may
be emitted.2
Process breakdown
Preparation of food before deep frying may involve slicing (potatoes), dough-making (doughnuts, fritters,
croquettes) and breading or batter preparation (breaded or batter-dipped fish and meat).
The principal frying equipment is an externally heated cooking oil vat. Electricity, gas or other energy
sources can be used to heat the vat. The products to be fried are manually inserted into the hot oil and
removed after a definite time inteival.'
During frying, moisture in the foods is released as steam. Some cooking oils, as well as animal or
vegetable oils from the food, are steam distilled and released as VOC or as oil droplets during frying.
Excessive smoking (PM release) may be due to overheating of the food or to steam distillation of finely
divided fat and oil products from old cooking oil or the food.'
Natural gas combustion is included in the fuel combustion category; therefore, NO,, SO,, C02, CO and
PM emissions from natural gas combustion for deep fat frying are not counted in the deep-fat frying
category.
Reason for considering the category
In urban areas, VOC, PM, NO,, SO,, C02 and CO emissions are of most concern. Most kitchens have
hood filters over the stove, which may trap some particulate matter or suspended oils or fats from frying
done at the stove. Deep fat frying may or may not be conducted under the hood, however, if a self-
contained deep fat fryer is used. Any emissions which are not vented to the atmosphere may be an
indoor air pollutant concern.
Pollutants emitted
VOC, PM, NO,, SO,, C02 and CO
Estimate of the pollutant levels
No estimate is available; however, residential deep-fat frying emissions to outdoor air are most likely
insignificant.
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Point/area source cutoff
Individual home deep fat frying activity is unlikely to emit more than ten tons per year of any pollutant and
should be considered an area source.
Level of detail of information available
SCAQMD has estimated the emissions of ROG and PM from commercial cooking of potatoes in deep-fat
fryers. VOC emissions are assumed to be the same as ROG emissions (the VOC definition excludes
ethane; otherwise, the two definitions are identical). The SCAQMD study can be used to generate an
emission factor based on fried food production. The SCAQMD emission factor is based on emission tests
using commercial, deep-fat potato fryers.3
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
County-level deep-fat frying food production, by food type (vegetable product, meat product, breaded or
batter-dipped and other categories)
Emission factors for each food type
Emission factor requirements
The source tests used by SCAQMD are limited to potato fryers. More testing is necessary to develop
emission factors for other food products, particularly the meat products, which have higher percentages
of fats and oils. The SCAQMD emission factors may be a reasonable approximation for commercial deep-
fat frying, given the assumption that potatoes are the most frequently fried product. This may not be a
reasonable assumption for residential cooking, where meats may be the more frequently fried products.
In addition, the SCAQMD emission factors have been developed from controlled frying processes. There
are likely to be more variations in cooking temperature, cooking time and moisture content in residentially
prepared foods. AP-40 identifies these variables as important factors affecting the amount of emissions
expected from deep-fat frying.1
Since commercial emission factors are likely to be inappropriate for estimating emissions from residential
deep-fat frying, it is necessary to develop improved emission factors for residential cooking.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Emissions are likely to be highest during mealtimes. No regional or seasonal variations are expected.
Urban or rural characteristics
None identified
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Methodology
County-level residential deep fat frying activity estimates need to be made for the different commonly fried
food products.
Activity estimates can be used with the SCAQMD emission factors for rough estimates of VOC and PM
emissions.
Preferably, residential, food-specific emission factors should be developed for better estimates of VOC and
PM emissions from residential deep-fat frying. These emission factors can be used with the county-level
deep-fat frying activities developed for individual food products.
References
1. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition, AP-40, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, May 1973.
2. Area Source Emissions for CfY 1987 from Residential Fuel Combustion of Natural Gas lor Cooking
in the SCAQMD Air Basins, CES No. 54585, South Coast Air Quality Management District, El
Monte, CA, June 15, 1988.
3. Area Source Emissions from Deep Fat Frying, CES No. 66811, South Coast Air Quality
Management District, El Monte, CA, October 19, 1988.
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CIGARETTE SMOKE
Definition/description of category and activity
Cigarette smoke contains combustion products (including tobacco-related organics) which are released
into the indoor and outdoor atmospheres. Smoke contains volatile organics and metals that are
considered toxic. Although cigar and pipe smoking are similar sources, they represent only a small
fraction of the total tobacco smoked.
Process breakdown
Smoldering cigarettes
Active inhalation/exhalation
Reason for considering the category
Approximately 575 billion cigarettes are smoked in the United States annually. Although the potential
emissions per cigarette are small, cumulative emissions of priority pollutants and air toxics are of interest.
Environment Canada currently estimates emissions in this category as a part of Canada's area source
inventory.2
Pollutants emitted
TSP, CO, NOx, VOC, methane
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Based on data from the United States Centers for Disease Control, Office on Smoking and Health, 1987
U.S. emissions are estimated below.3 These data are for unfiltered cigarette smoke and assume
combustion of the entire cigarette. On this basis, these estimates may be maximum levels due to
presumed reductions from filters and unconsumed cigarette portions.
TSP
CO
NO.
VOC
14,000 TPY
12,000 TPY
12,000 TPY
44,000 TPY
1,000 TPY
Methane
Point/area source cutoff
Cigarette smoking activity should be considered an area source category.
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Level of detail of information available
National/state/county cigarette consumption/sales data
Detailed analysis of mainstream cigarette smoke (U.S. Surgeon General) per cigarette
Level of detail required by users
Cigarette consumption by county
Emissions per cigarette
Emission factor requirements
Emissions per cigarette:34
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
Urban or rural characteristics
Emissions vary directly with population
Methodology
Data from the U.S. Surgeon General and the Office on Smoking and Health are sufficient to estimate the
number of cigarettes smoked and their average smoke analysis.34 According to one source, emissions
do not vary significantly between cigarette brands. The consumption data are updated annually and
could be projected based on current trends. TSP, CO, NO,, VOC and methane can be estimated at the
desired level of resolution in this manner. Specific air toxic components have been identified and can be
estimated individually.
Pollutant
ma/cigarette (unfiltered)
Particulate matter
Organic vapor
22.5
67.5
19
0.35
1.5
CO
NO,
Methane
References
1. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Tanner Wray, U.S. Office
on Smoking and Health. Cigarette smoking. July 1990.
2. Cigarette Smoking Area Source Methodology A40, Environment Canada, Unpublished, 1985.
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Smoking, Tobacco and Health, (CDC)87-8397, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Office on Smoking and Health, Washington, DC, October 1989.
Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking: 25 Years of Progress, Surgeon General, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Office on Smoking and Health, 1989.
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BARGE, TANK, TANK TRUCK, RAIL CAR, AND DRUM CLEANING
Definition/description of category and activity
As of 1978, barges, tanks, rail cars, tank trucks and drums have been used to transport about 700
different commodities. Rail tank cars and most tank trucks and drums are in dedicated service (carrying
one commodity only) and, unless contaminated, are cleaned only prior to repair or testing. Nondedicated
tank trucks (approximately 20,000 trucks or 22 percent of the total in service) and drums (approximately
5.6 million, or 12.5 percent of the total) are cleaned after every trip. Emissions from cleaning these
containers and transportation vehicles can be as varied as the types of commodities transported. The
commodity transported, the cleaning agent and the management of chemical residues determine emission
levels. Cleaning agents include water, steam, detergents, bases, acids and solvents, which are applied
with either hand-held pressure wands or with rotating spray nozzles.12,3,4
Process breakdown
Emissions from cleaning barges, tanks, tank trucks, rail cars and drums result from two sources. First,
emissions associated with the chemical residue are extremely variable, depending on the compound and
the quantity remaining in the container. They may be affected both by viscosity (which affects the quantity
remaining inside the container after unloading) and vapor pressure (which affects the quantity which
evaporates). Second, emissions associated with cleaning agents used to clean the receptacles depend
primarily on the type of agent used, quantity, ambient temperature and recovery method. The process
may be further characterized by location, vehicle or container type and commodity or waste contained.4
Reason for considering the category
Localized emissions may be large, especially at treatment, storage and disposal facilities, and at other
cleaning stations for the chemical transport industry. Cleaning activities have been the subject of several
occupational hygiene reports, some of which describe worker deaths while cleaning toxic chemicals in
confined spaces.56,7 0 At least two tank truck cleaning terminals are included in the CERCLIS database
of hazardous waste sites, suggesting that releases from this activity are hazardous to human health and
the environment.9,10 '1,12
Pollutants emitted
Primarily VOC; also NO, and PM,0
Estimate of the pollutant levels
No national total emissions data are available, since much of the necessary activity data are missing.
However, Section 4.8 of AP-42 provides certain emission factors as follows:1
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Compound
VP
Vise.
lb/car
a/car
RAIL TANK CAR CLEANING
Ethylene glycol
low
high
0.0007
0.3
Chlorobenzene
med
med
0.0346
15.7
o-Dichlorobenzene
low
med
0.1662
75.4
Creosote
low
high
5.1808
2350
TANK TRUCK CLEANING
lb/truck
a/truck
Acetone
high
low
0.686
311
Perchloroethylene
high
low
0.474
215
Methyl methacrylate
med
med
0.071
32.4
Phenol
low
low
0.012
5.5
Propylene glycol
low
high
0.002
1.07
Pollutant
DRUM BURNING
Particulate
N0X
VOC
Controlled
lb/drum q/drum
0.02646 12
0.00004 0.018
negligible
Uncontrolled
lb/drum
q/drum
0.035 16
0.002 0.89
negligible
Reference 2, which first compiled the above values, also estimated that tank truck and rail tank car
cleaning contribute less than 0.02 percent to both state and national organic air pollutant burdens. Total
particulate emissions from drum burning contribute less than 0.023 percent of any state emissions burden
and 0.0007 percent of national emissions burden, while total hydrocarbon emissions from drum washing
or burning are negligible. Estimated hydrocarbon emissions in metric tons per year are broken down by
state; national totals from trucks and rail cars are 538.05 and 87.47, respectively. However, given that
these data are 13 years old and that major legislation (RCRA, Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments
(HSWA), and the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act) has been enacted since this study was
completed, the data should be evaluated carefully. Additionally, these data do not address emissions
associated with cleaning tanks which previously held waste, hazardous or otherwise.
Point/area source cutoff
Emissions from these activities occur in strictly defined locations, suggesting that this source could be
considered a point source. However, it is unlikely that the activity releases greater than ten TPY of VOC,
PM,0 or trace metals emissions at each site. Therefore a more appropriate designation is as an area
source category.
Level of detail of Information available
Activity data are extremely limited. Mr. Cliff Harveson of the National Tank Truck Carriers Conference
stated that no data are collected on dedicated versus nondedicated transport vehicles or frequency of
cleaning. No state requires transporters to register this information. He estimates, however, that 15,000
tank trucks in the United States are cleaned on a regular basis, approximately two times during every ten
day period. In 1980, AP-42 reported that 20,000 rail tank cars and tank trucks (22 percent of the total)
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are in nondedicated service and would therefore require cleaning between loads of different materials.
Approximately 12.5 percent of all drums (5.6 million) are cleaned after every trip. Also presented are
breakdowns of major commodity groups and frequency of tank car cleaning (four to ten per day). AP-42
states that the average amount of residual material cleaned from each rail tank car is 550 pounds, while
220 pounds of material are removed from each tank truck. Approximately 60 gallons of liquid are used
per tank truck steam cleaning and 5,500 gallons are used for full flushing. Since drums are difficult to
clean, they are often burned. As detailed above, AP-42 provides emission factors for six cleaning agents.
Current breakdowns on the basis of geography, commodity or cleaning agent are not available.
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county
Barge, tank truck, tank, rail car and drum cleaning stations by county
Annual number cleaned by county
Emission factor requirements
At present, emission factors have been computed for six cleaning agents. Ideally, emission factors should
be compiled for all the types of cleaning agents and for general classes of commodities transported.
These factors should address VOC, NO, and PM10 releases.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Freight transport and the associated cleaning operations occur in industrialized regions of the country.
The only seasonal restrictions are likely to be associated with extremes in temperature, when the ambient
temperature is either higher than the flash point or below the freezing point of either the compound or the
cleaning agent. Since transport operations are conducted 24 hours per day, no substantial temporal
characteristics should be exhibited. Cleaning operations, however, are probably only 8:00 a.m. to 5:00
p.m. operations.
Urban or rural characteristics
Cleaning activities are likely limited to industrialized areas.
Methodology
. Define all cleaning agents used in the transportation industry. Conduct field tests to estimate
emission factors for each cleaning agent.
. Break down commodities transport into major categories of concern. Conduct field tests to
estimate emission factors associated with each category of commodity.
. Determine geographical breakdown of cleaning stations, including private industrial stations and
commercial truck washes. Estimate number of vehicles cleaned annually by cleaning agent and
commodity carried.
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. Calculate annual emissions by county by multiplying usage data by emission factors.
References
1. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through
September 1991.
2. Earley, D.E. et al., Source Assessment: Rail Tank Car, Tank Truck, and Drum Cleaning, State of
the Art, EPA-600/2-78-004g (NT1S PB280726), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, NC, April 1978.
3. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Cliff Harveson, National
Tank Truck Carriers Conference. Activity data September 1990.
4. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Cynthia Hilton,
Chemical Waste Transportation Council. Cleaning methods. September 1990.
5. Request for Assistance in Preventing Death from Excessive Exposure to Chlorofluorocarbon 113
(CFC-113), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH, May 1989.
6. Wolf, F. and M.E. Cassady. Industrial Hygiene Survey, Stauffer Chemical Company, Salt Lake City,
Utah, July 16-25, 1975, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH, July
1975.
7. Cassady, M.E. Industrial Hygiene Survey of Agrico Chemical Company, Pierce Chemical Works,
Pierce, FL, June 22-26, 1975, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH,
June 1975.
8. Fatal Accident Circumstances and Epidemiology (FACE) Report: Worker Dies While Cleaning Freon
113 Degreasing Tank in Virginia, November 21, 1986, National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health, Cincinnati, OH, December 1986.
9. Health Assessment for Matlack, Incorporated, Swedesboro, Gloucester County, New Jersey, Region
2, CERCLIS No. NJD043584101. Preliminary Report, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, Atlanta, GA, January 1989.
10. Health Assessment for Chemical Leaman Tank Lines, Inc. (CLTL) National Priorities List Site, Logan
Township, Gloucester County, New Jersey, Region 2, CERCLIS No. NJD047321443. Final Report,
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, Georgia, April 1989.
11. Superfund Record of Decision (EPA Region 6): Stewco Inc. Site, Harrison County, Texas,
September 16, 1988, First Remedial Action, Final Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC, September 1988.
12. Astleford, W.J., T.B. Morrow, and J.C. Buckingham. Hazardous Chemical Vapor Handbook for
Marine Tank Vessels, Final Report, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, October 1983.
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INNOVATIVE WASTE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Definition/description of category and activity
The innovative waste treatment category is part of a group defined as emerging technologies. Many of
these technologies are in bench-, pilot- or field-scale testing. A few technologies have had more extensive
testing or are already established. These waste treatment technologies have been spawned by the need
for hazardous waste destruction and remediation activities. Current technologies under development by
private corporations, some developed under the auspices of the Superfund Innovative Technology
Evaluation (SITE) Program, have been reviewed. These technologies include soil cleaning, vacuum
extraction, UV oxidation, steam stripping and thermal stripping and have the potential to emit VOC during
application of the processes.12,3 4,5
These technologies are typically in place for a few months to a few years for remediation purposes.
Contaminated materials treated offsite at treatment, storage and disposal facilities are already accounted
for in SIP and NEDS inventory methods. For some of these processes, there may be several similar
proprietary processes developed by several companies that use different equipment or chemicals but
employ the same strategy. The VOC are either inherent in the hazardous waste or are integral to the
treatment process. In most cases, VOC control is provided in the process application. Some systems
are designed to recover solvents using steam regeneration of the activated carbon or direct condensation
of the collected gases. As with any process, however, failure to apply applicable controls or failure of the
control system can create the release of VOC.
Process breakdown1234,5
Soil Cleaning - Soil and groundwater cleaning involves the use of agitation and surfactants to
remove adsorbed contaminants from soils. Contamination from waste oil refining,
tar chemistry and paint fabrication have been treated in this way. The wastewater
is then treated to remove the organic and toxic contaminants such as chlorinated
hydrocarbons, aromatics, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), phenols, etc. The
treatment may include an air stripping step to eliminate VOC.
Vacuum Extraction -
UV Oxidation
VOC and semi-volatiles are removed from soil vapor by drilling wells and creating
a negative pressure to draw vapor from the soil. As vapor is removed, organic
liquids, organics in soil water and adsorbed organics are driven into the vapor
phase and also removed. This technology has been successfully used in the
United States and Europe to remove up to several tons of VOC per site.
Activated carbon filters are employed to treat the removed vapors before they are
released to the atmosphere. The process is also referred to as vapor extraction.
Also referred to as advanced UV oxidation, this treatment uses UV light, ozone
and H202 to treat waste and groundwater. The oxidative environment destroys
chlorinated organics, pesticides, petroleum components, etc. Off-gases may also
be treated using carbon adsorption to ensure capture of VOC and destruction of
residual ozone. Residual ozone levels released to the atmosphere have been
measured at less than 0.1 ppm in the ambient environment. The three treatment
components, UV, ozone and H202 can be used separately for oxidative treatment,
but the combination yields higher cleaning efficiencies.
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Steam/Air Stripping - In this process, steam and/or air are injected into the ground through hollow bars.
The combination of increased temperature and air motion serves to evaporate
VOC and carry them from the soil via the hollow bars to the surface. There the
VOC are collected in a metal shroud and treated using carbon adsorption or
captured via condensation. Pilot-scale testing indicates that this type of collection
system may lose up to ten percent of the released VOC to the atmosphere.12
Some systems use direct flaring of collected VOC.
Thermal Stripping - Thermal stripping involves the indirect heating of soil. Contaminated soil is
placed in a heated vessel (i.e., oven). The heat dries the soil and drives off VOC.
An afterburner destroys VOC released from the dryer. This treatment requires
excavating the soil for treatment and includes the potential for release of trapped
soil gases and evaporation of soil liquid during the excavation.
Reason for considering the category
Innovative waste treatment technologies continue to be developed and applied to remediate longstanding
water and soil contamination problems and accidental spills. Many technologies have been developed
for application to Superfund sites. Remediation may proceed over the course of weeks, months or years
and involve the cleanup of a few to hundreds of tons of toxic materials (such as solvents) over the
remediation period. There are currently about 1,000 Superfund sites and potentially more than 22,000
sites requiring remediation in the United States. Depending on their locations, VOC removed from
contaminated soil or water are likely to be treated prior to release to the atmosphere. However, these
sites also have the potential for uncontrolled emissions. Onsite remediation activities are not covered in
existing NEDS or SIP inventories. Emissions from fossil fuel combustion used to provide heat for the
process are already counted in current area source methodologies.
Pollutants emitted
VOC (Species emitted are dependent on the particular site, but may include nonreactive VOC as well
as volatile and semi-volatile air toxics.)
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Pollution levels are unknown. Per site estimates range from a few pounds to a few hundred tons
(uncontrolled estimate). One source summarized existing data on in situ ventilation (this covers soil
cleaning, vacuum extraction and steam/air stripping).6 This source indicated uncontrolled VOC emission
rates of one to 110 kg/site and uncontrolled VOC emissions of 0.01 to 1.1 kg/day.
Point/area source cutoff
There are no current point or area source categories for these waste treatment technologies. Remediation
activities would be easily tracked as point sources through the Superfund Record of Decision (ROD)
database.7
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Level of detail of Information available
Method used for remediation and quantity remediated are available on a site-by-site basis through
Superfund records, either through the Superfund Health and Safety Coordinator or through Regional
Superfund offices. Because these are innovative technologies, manufacturers and consultants have test
results on removal efficiency, control equipment and control efficiency. Operations are closely monitored
for potential releases.
Level of detail required by users
Emissions per site
Species emitted
Remediation period
Remediation type
Emission factor requirements
Emission factor for each innovative technology or emissions estimate from each remediated site need to
be developed.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
Urban or rural characteristics
No special characteristics
Methodology
Emissions from innovative waste technologies may be tracked through point source inventories. Although
these sources will be temporary, sites are identifiable through the Superfund program. Identification of
sites with VOC contamination can be made first through the ROD database (contact Carol Jacobson,
(703)308-8369). Regional Superfund or contractor personnel have the data necessary to estimate the
types and amounts of air emissions from waste treatment operations. These data may need to be
collected through the regional Superfund offices or on a site by site basis. The Superfund Health and
Safety Coordinator (Joe Cocalis, (703)308-8356) has documentation on the locations and types of
releases. Collection of these data on a regional or national scale will be time consuming.
Some technologies, such as UV oxidation, may also be used at TSDFs or in other wastewater treatment
operations. The emissions from innovative technologies can be tracked through existing point and area
source categories by defining emission factors and activity levels for these technologies. Because these
technologies undergo extensive lab and field testing prior to full-scale remediation, developers and
manufacturers of these technologies will have extensive emissions test data. Manufacturers of successful
technologies and applications should be able to provide test data at the appropriate time. Alternatively,
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published test results may be used to develop emission factors. Given the extensive variation of
technologies and the number of manufacturers, successful field applications should precede emission
factor development.
References
1. Remedial Action, Treatment, and Disposal of Hazardous Waste, EPA-600/9-90-037 (NTIS PB91-
148379), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, August 1990.
2. Abstract Proceedings: Forum on Innovative Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies: Domestic
and International (2nd), EPA-540/2-90-009 (NTIS PB91-145649), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, OH, September 1990.
3. Forum on Innovative Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies: Domestic and International, EPA-
540/2-89-056 (NTIS PB90-183799), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH,
September 1989.
4. The Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program: Technology Profiles, EPA-540/5-88-003
(NTIS PB89-132690), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, November 1988.
5. 1987 Oak Ridge Model Conference: Proceedings: Volume 1, Part 2, Waste Management, DE88-
007804, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge Operations, Oak Ridge, TN, 1987.
6. Eklund, B. and J. Summerhays. Procedures for Estimating Emissions from the Cleanup of
Superfund Sites. JAWMA 40:(1):17-23. 1990.
7. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Mr. Smith, Superfund
Hazardous Site Control, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Crystal City, VA. Air emissions
during site investigation and remediation. December 1990.
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LANDFILL METHANE
Definition/description of category and activity
Landfill gas is produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic waste. The gas has a typical
composition of 50 percent methane, 50 percent carbon dioxide and trace constituents of nonmethane VOC
which include air toxics and compounds contributing to tropospheric ozone.1
Process breakdown
After an initial aerobic decomposition stage exhausts the available oxygen in a landfill, anaerobic bacteria
decompose organic materials. These anaerobic bacteria produce methane as a byproduct. The amount
of methane produced varies widely among landfill facilities and is primarily determined by the characteristics
of the landfill facility (e.g., degradable organic and moisture content of the landfill) and the local climate
(e.g., precipitation and temperature).
Reason for considering the category
Landfills are an important anthropogenic source of methane, a radiatively important trace gas (RITG) which
is estimated to represent 20 percent of the radiative forcing associated with global climate change. Landfill
methane has been estimated to account for between four and 15 percent of the global methane budget., !
Although current SIP guidance includes a methodology for estimating VOC emissions from landfills, no
guidance is listed for estimating methane emissions from landfills.3
Pollutants emitted
Methane (CHJ
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Using the methodology outlined in Reference 1, the U.S. emissions of methane from landfills are
approximately 15,000 tons per year.
Point/area source cutoff
Landfills are now considered point sources of emissions (reactive VOC or CHJ.
Level of detail of Information available
Available municipal landfill information varies widely among municipalities and states. Depending on the
resources and legal reporting requirements within a state, state and local agencies may keep detailed
information regarding specific landfill facilities. The background information document for estimating air
emissions from landfills in dry areas (less than 23 inches of precipitation annually) estimates annual VOC
emissions from landfills as 13.6 tons per million tons of waste in place, and estimates that VOC constitute
about 2,650 parts per million by volume (ppmv).4 Using information from Reference 4 on gas generation
Ch-91-57
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rate, gas content and waste disposal rate, an emission factor of 860 tons CHJyt x 108 ton waste was
calculated.
Areas with more than 23 inches of precipitation annually are advised to use an additional multiplicative
factor of 2.6 (yielding an emission factor of 6,672 tons CH4 per year per million tons of waste).
Level of detail required by users
number of landfills per county
tons of waste per landfill
annual precipitation
Emission factor requirements
Emission factors are available in current EPA guidance,3 but are based on studies yielding a high
uncertainty (the standard deviation is slightly larger than the emissions rate).1 Predictive models included
in the research require facility-specific gas generation data which are not generally available. Improved
emissions estimation depend on the development of a more accurate emission factor. Using the emission
factor detailed in this report will ensure consistency between estimations of VOC and methane emissions
from landfills.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Regional emissions rates may vary due to variations in the precipitation rate. Although the generation rate
of methane is sensitive to temperature, the exothermic nature of the decomposition process helps to
regulate the actual landfill temperature.' No significant seasonal or temporal variations are expected.
Urban or rural characteristics
Landfills are principally urban facilities.
Methodology
Consult with state, county or local waste management officials to determine the number of landfill
facilities and the amount of waste in each facility.
Using the area's annual precipitation rate as the determining factor, select the proper emission
factor.
Multiply the waste (in millions of tons) in place in the landfill by the emission factor to determine the
methane generation rate.
CH-91-57
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References
1. Bingemar, H.G., and RJ. Crutzen. The Production of Methane from Solid Wastes, Journal of
Geophysical Research, 87 (D2): 2181-2187. 1987.
2. Sheppard, J.C., et al. Inventory of Global Methane Sources and Their Production Rates, Journal
of Geophysical Research, 87 (C2): 1305-1312. 1982.
3. Kersteter, Sharon L Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of
Ozone, Volume I, EPA-450/4-88-021 (NTIS PB89-152409), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1988.
4. Radian Corporation. Air Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste Landfills, Background Information
Document for Proposed Standards. EPA-450/3-90-011A (NTIS PB91 -197061), prepared for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, March 1991.
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PACKAGE PLANTS (WASTEWATER TREATMENT)
Definition/description of category arid activity
Package plants refer to small, automated (usually) domestic waste treatment plants that do not require full-
time supervision. In general, these facilities treat less than one million gallons per day (MGD). Operators
visit these plants one to several times per week for testing and maintenance. For example, package plants
may be used for subdivision or golf course waste treatment. Principal sources of VOC in wastewater are
considered to be from industrial discharge to the plants. However, runoff and domestic household wastes
do contain VOC that are detectable in domestic wastewater influent.1'2
Process breakdown
Emissions may originate from a variety of treatment processes depending on the specific treatment scheme.
These processes include treatment impoundments and tanks, junction boxes, lift stations, sumps and weirs.
VOC are stripped to the ambient air as a result of the treatment processes and air-to-water interface.
Reason for considering the category
VOC emissions from POTWs are already included in both NAPAP (SCC 100) and SIP methodologies.
However, small wastewater treatment plants may not be well represented in the national database (The
Needs Survey3). The Needs Survey also explicitly excludes military installations, national park systems and
private wastewater treatment.4 The current national (NAPAP) methodology relies on the Needs Survey for
overall and industrial flow in order to allocate POTW emissions. Inclusion of small wastewater systems in
SIP inventories relies on the state or local source for flow data.5
Pollutants emitted
VOC, including some toxic compounds
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Using the default emission factor discussed below (0.00011 pounds VOC per gallon industrial wastewater5)
and assuming 16 percent industrial waste, a small wastewater treatment plant (one MGD) would emit at
most three TPY VOC. These assumptions are likely to be conservative because most small plants are
expected to treat less industrial waste and treat less than one MGD. Although there are 11,000 small
wastewater treatment plants (one MGD or less or serving less than 10,000 people), not all these small
plants are missing from the Needs Survey. Total national estimates for all POTWs are in the range of
25,000 to 80,000 TPY.2
If the Office of Water completes and publishes its study of small systems, this document could be useful
to better define the potentially missed emissions. Preliminary results cannot be released and no publication
date is set.
Recent data from California at a small (0.125 MGD) domestic wastewater treatment plant measured three
micrograms VOC per liter wastewater. At a one MGD plant, this translates to only ten pounds per year.
'The key missing data are a characterization of the amount and types of wastewater loading to these plants.
CM-91-57
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Research in the Chicago Metropolitan Sanitation District modeled a 1.2 MGD plant's VOC emissions.®
Results predicted a minimum of 0.00 TPY emitted to the air (based on a model accounting for volatilization,
biodegradation and adsorption) to 0.5 TPY maximum based on a mass balance of influent and effluent
concentrations.
Point/area source cutoff
POTWs can be considered point or area sources. Point sources are assigned SCC 5-01-007-xx, but most
small wastewater treatment operations are expected to fall below 25 TPY VOC (see above discussion on
estimate of pollutant levels).
Level of detail of information available
Total wastewater flow and industrial contribution for most plants are available from Needs Survey.
Wastewater flow for all plants is available from EPA throuqh the Water Quality Control Information System
(STORET).7
Process-specific PC-based emissions estimation software' available through OAQPS as the Surface
Impoundment Modeling System (SIMS).8
Level of detail required by users
Emissions by county or emissions by plant
Wastewater flow by county or plant and VOC loading as industrial contribution to total flow
Emission factor requirements
VOC emissions per unit flow of wastewater or industrial wastewater. The current EPA-recommended default
values are sixteen percent industrial wastewater of total flow and 0.00011 pounds VOC emitted per gallon
industrial wastewater.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Probably little variation, although sources such as golf courses may have higher flows in summer months.
Urban or rural characteristics
Urban and suburban areas
Methodology
National Methodology. The current methodology for estimating emissions from package plants relies on
the results of the most recent Needs Survey (1988) to identify county-level wastewater flows and industrial
contribution. The Needs Survey may not include of all small wastewater treatment systems. However, an
analysis is currently underway by the EPA Office of Water to characterize reporting compliance by small
CH-91-57
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(less than one MGD) treatment systems.8 STORET may be a more complete database for identifying
wastewater discharges through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), but does not
track industrial flow and can be costly to access.7 The sources currently missing from the inventories could
be computed by cross-indexing Needs Survey sources and STORET data to identify and locate the
unaccounted sources and retrieve flow data. Point sources should be checked for any wastewater
treatment systems reported there.
SIP Inventories. Because SIPs are prepared by state and local agencies, Needs Survey data may or may
not be used, depending on data availability for a given area. The same strategy of using STORET data on
NPDES permits to check for any missing sources is applicable. Where facility-specific data are available,
emissions may be estimated at the process level using SIMS. This strategy effectively shifts the sources
with sufficient facility-specific information to the point source inventory.
References
1. Caballero, R.C. and P. Griffith. VOC Emissions from POTWs. Presented at the Joint WPCF/EPA
Workshop on Air Toxics Emissions and POTWs, February 1990.
2. O'Farrell, T.P., P. Trick, and F. Sweeney, Report to Congress on the Discharge of Hazardous Waste
to Publicly Owned Treatment Works (The Domestic Sewage Study), EPA-530/SW-86-004 (NTIS
PB86-184017), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, February 1986.
3. 1984 Needs Sun/ey User's Manual, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
October 1983.
4. Telecon. Zimmerman, David, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Ruby Cooper, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Needs and Costs, Needs and Priorities Branch, Office
of Water. 1988 Needs Survey. October 1990.
5. Kersteter, Sharon L. Procedures for the Preparation of Emission Inventories for Precursors of
Ozone, Volume I, EPA-450/4-88-021 (NTIS PB89-152409), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, December 1988.
6. Noll, K.E. and F.T. DePaul. Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from the Sewage Treatment
Facilities of the Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago. Presented at the Joint WPCF/EPA
Workshop on Air Toxics Emissions and POTWs, February 1990.
7. Water QualiPy Control Information System STORET User Handbook, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, February 1982.
8. Watkins, S.L. Background Document for the Surface Impoundment Modeling System (SIMS) Version
2.0, EPA-450/4-90-019b (NTIS PB91 -156729), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, NC, September 1990.
9. Nichols, A.B. Eighty-seven Percent of POTWs Met July 1988 Deadline. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation 60(9):1486-1490. September 1988.
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RECYCLING PROCESSES
Definition/description of category and activity
Recycling is an "umbrella term that encompasses any use, reuse, or reclamation in any manner.'1 Materials
most frequently recycled include paper, plastics, glass, solvents and metals. Each material has a different
process associated with its recycling, which leads to a broad variety of potential emissions. With few
exceptions, recycling processes are energy intensive and the emissions associated with power generation
should be considered as an integral part of the activity. However, emission factors provided in AP-42 and
detailed below neglect this important source of air pollution. Waste oil disposal and waste combustion are
addressed in separate characterizations.
Process breakdown
Paper: The paper recycling process may be broken down into four key components including power
generation, deinking, bleaching and repulping. Each of these processes may release air emissions. In
addition to the emissions associated with the generation of energy to power the paper recycling process,
breakdown products of the chemicals used in deinking and bleaching may contribute emissions.
Chemicals typically used in these two processes include sodium hydrosulfide, hypochlorous acid, chlorine
and hydrogen peroxide. The fourth process of concern in paper recycling is repulping.3
Plastic: Plastic recycling may be subdivided by the type of resin processed. Low density polyethylene
(LDPE) and high density polyethylene (HPDE) recycling account respectively for 32 percent and 31 percent
of plastic recycling activity. Eleven percent of the plastic recycled is polystyrene, while ten percent is
polypropylene. An additional seven percent of recycled plastic is polyethylene terephthalate (PET), while
the remaining five percent is polyvinyl chloride (PVC).4
Glass: All glass undergoes basically the same recycling process, involving glass grinding and melting.
Solvents: Waste solvents are organic dissolving agents that are contaminated with suspended and
dissolved solids, organics, water, other solvents and/or any substance not added to the solvent during its
manufacture. Reclamation is the process of restoring a waste solvent to a condition that permits its reuse,
either for its original purpose or for other industrial needs. Sources of waste solvents include solvent
refining, polymerization processes, vegetable oil extraction, metallurgical operations, pharmaceutical
manufacture, surface coating and cleaning operations (dry cleaning and solvent degreasing).
Pollutants may be released during solvent storage and handling, initial treatment, distillation, purification
or waste disposal. Before and after reclamation, solvents are stored in containers ranging in size from 55
gallon drums to 20,000 gallon tanks. Most include venting systems designed to prevent solvent vapors
from creating excessive pressure or vacuum inside fixed tank roofs. Uncontrolled venting systems are a
likely source of VOC emissions. Another potential source of fugitive emissions exists in handling
procedures. These primarily include loading waste solvent into process equipment and filling drums and
tanks prior to transport and storage.2
Waste solvents are initially treated by vapor recovery or mechanical separation. Vapor recovery entails
removal of solvent vapors from a gas stream in preparation for further reclamation. In mechanical
separation, undissolved solid contaminants are removed from liquid solvents. Vapor recovery or collection
methods employed include condensation, adsorption and absorption. Condensation of solvent vapors is
accomplished by water-cooled condensers and refrigeration units. Activated carbon adsorption is the most
common method of capturing solvent emissions. Absorption of solvent vapors is accomplished by passing
the waste gas stream through a liquid in scrubbing towers or spray chambers. Initial treatment of liquid
CH-91-57
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waste solvents is accomplished by mechanical separation methods. This includes both removing water by
decanting and removing undissolved solids by filtering, draining, settling and/or centrifuging.2
After initial treatment, waste solvents are distilled to remove dissolved impurities and separate solvent
mixtures. Separation of dissolved impurities is accomplished by simple batch, simple continuous or steam
distillation. Mixed solvents are separated by multiple simple distillation methods, such as batch or
continuous rectification. In simple distillation, waste solvent is charged to an evaporator. Vapors are then
continuously removed and condensed, and the resulting sludge or still bottoms are drawn off. In steam
distillation, solvents are vaporized by direct contact with steam which is injected into the evaporator.2
After distillation, water is removed from solvent by decanting or salting. Decanting is accomplished with
immiscible solvent and water which, when condensed, form separate liquid layers, one or the other of which
can be drawn off mechanically. During purification, reclaimed solvents are stabilized, if necessary. Buffers
are added to virgin solvents to ensure that pH level is kept constant during use.2
Metals: AP-42 describes the process breakdowns for recycling aluminum, copper, lead, magnesium and
zinc. While the specific processes differ for each metal, as shown in the different schematics, each
recycling process can be characterized by pretreatment, smelting and refining or casting. These general
process stages are described as a whole below, although emissions associated with each type of metal
recycling are treated independently in later sections.
Scrap pretreatment involves receiving, sorting, cleaning and concentration to prepare materials for smelting.
Mechanical, pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques are used for this purpose. Smelting is the
production of purified metals by melting and separating the compound from metallic and nonmetallic
contaminants and by reducing oxides to their elemental level. Refining and casting is the use of kettle type
furnaces in remelting. alloying, refining and oxidizing processes.2
Reason for considering the category
Although each recycling process by itself may not amount to significant contributions to air pollution
emissions, considered as a whole the source may be substantial. In addition, as treatment costs increase
in the future, industries are likely to emphasize the potential for recycling; a true accounting of all of
financial, social and environmental costs and benefits should be available to industries as they consider
their various options for waste management.56
Pollutants emitted
VOC, CO, NO„, SO,, PMi;j, Pb. Table 1 provides a more detailed analysis of pollutant emissions.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Very few studies have been conducted which estimate emissions releases from recycling processes.
However, emission factors have been developed and are detailed in Tables 2 through 9.
Point/area source cutoff
It is unlikely that individual recycling plants release greater than 100 tons per year of any of the criteria
pollutants. However, some processes may emit ten TPY or greater. Recycling processes may be few
enough in number and easy enough to track that it will be feasible to treat them as point sources.
CH-91-57
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TABLE 1. POLLUTANTS EMITTED FROM RECYCLING PROCESSES2,4'7
Pb
Particulate
(PM-10)
SO,
NO,
CO
voc
(03)
Paper
X
(X)
(X)
(X)
Plastic
X
(X)
(X)
(X)
X
Glass
X
(X)
(X)
(X)
Solvents
E
(X)
(X)
(X)
E
Metals
aluminum
E
(X)
(X)
(X)
magnesium
E
(X)
(X)
(X)
lead
E
E
(X)
(X)
(X)
copper
E
E
(X),E
(X)
(X)
zinc
E
(X)
(X)
(X)
Note:
X = pollutant associated with process; no emission factor available
(X) = pollutant associated with energy generation integral to process
E = pollutant associated with process; emission factor available
TABLE 2. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR SECONDARY ALUMINUM OPERATIONS*
(AP-42 TABLE 7.8-1)
Uncontrolled Baghouse Electrostatic Emission
precipitator factor
Operation kg/Mg lb/ton kg/Mg lb/ton kg/Mg lb/ton rating
Sweating furnace0
7.25
14.5
1.65
3.3
...
... .
c
Smelting
Crucible furnace6
0.95
1.9
...
...
...
...
C
Reverberatory furnacec
2.15
4.3
0.65'
1.3®
0.65
1.3
B
Chlorine demagging11
500
1000
25
50
...
...
B
"Reference 2. Emission factors for sweating and smelting furnaces expressed as units per unit weight of metal processed. For
chlorine demagging, emission factor is kg/Vg (lb/ton) of chlorine used.
"Based on averages of two source tests.
Uncontrolled, based on averages of ten source tests. Standard deviation of uncontrolled emission factor is 1.75 kg/Mg (3.5
lb/ton), that of controlled factor is 0.15 kg/Mg (0.3 lb/ton).
"Based on average of ten source tests. Standard deviation of uncontrolled emission factor is 215 kg/Mg (430 lb/ton); of
controlled factor, 18 kg/Mg (36 lb/ton).
This factor may be lower if a coated baghouse is used.
TABLE 3. EMISSION FACTORS FOR MAGNESIUM SMELTING (AP-42 TABLE 7.12-1)
Particulates'
Type of furnace
lb/ton
kg/MT
Pot furnace
Uncontrolled
4
2
Controlled
0.4
0.2
"References 2 and 3. Emission factors expressed as
units per unit weight of metal processed.
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TABLE 4. EMISSION FACTORS FOR SOLVENT RECLAIMING* (A/M2 TABLE 4.7-1)
Emission factor average
Source
Criteria
pollutant
lb/ton
kg/MT
Storage tank
b
vent
Condenser
vent
Incinerator
c
stack
Volatile
organics
Volatile
organics
Volatile
organics
0.02
(0.004-0.09)
3.30
(0.52-8.34)
0.02
0.01
(0.002-0.04)
1.65
(0.26-4.17)
0.01
Incinerator
stack
Particulates
1.44
(1.1-2.0)
0.72
(0.55-1.0)
Fugitive
emissions
Spillage0
Volatile
organics
0.20
0.10
Loading
Volatile
organics
0.72
(0.00024-1.42)
0.36
(0.00012-0.71)
Leaks
Volatile
organics
NA
NA
Open
sources
Volatile
organics
NA
NA
aData obtained from state air pollution control agencies and presurvey sampling. All emission factors are for uncontrolled process
equipment, except those for the incinerator stack. Average factors are derived from the range of data points available Factors for
these sources are given in terms of pounds per ton and kilograms per metre ton of reclaimed solvent. Ranges in parentheses. NA
= not available.
bStorage tank is of fixed roof design.
cOnly one value available.
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TABLE 5. FUGITIVE EMISSION FACTORS FOR SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSING*
{AP-42 TABLE 7.11 -2)
Operation
Particulate
Lead
kg/Mg
lb/ton
kg/Mg
lb/ton
Sweating
0.8 - 1.8
1.6 - 3.5b
0.2 - 0.9
0.4 - 1.8C
Smelting
4.3 - 12.1
8.7 - 24.2
0.88 - 3.5
1.75 - 7.0
Kettle refining
0.001
0.002
0.0003
0.0006
Casting
0.001
0.002
0.0004
0.0007
'Based on amount of lead product, except for sweating, which is based on quantity of material charged to furnace. Fugitive emissions
estimated to be 5% of uncontrolled stack emissions.
^Sweating furnace emissions estimated from nonlead secondary nonferrous processing industries.
cAssumes 23% lead content of uncontrolled blast furnace flue emissions.
300
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TABLE 6. EMISSION FACTORS FOR SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSING* (AP-42 TABLE 7.11-1)
Pollutant
Sweating Leaching
Smelting
Reverberatory . Blast (cupola)c
Kettle
refining
Kettle
oxidation Casting
Particulate"
Uncontrolled (kg/Mg)
(lb/ton)
Controlled (kg/Mg)
(lb/ton)
Lead''
Uncontrolled (kg/Mg)
(lb/ton)
Controlled (kg/Mg)
(lb/ton)
Sulfur dioxidem
Uncontrolled (kg/Mg)
(lb/ton)
Emission Factor Rating
16-35
32-70
4-8*
7-16*
Neg®
Neg*
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
162 (87-242)
323 (173-483)*
0.50 (0.26-0.77)
1.01 (0.53-1.55)
32 (17-48)'
65 (35-97)'
40 (36-44)
80 (71-88)
C
153 (92-207)
307 (184-413)
1.12 (0.11-2.44)
2.24 (0.22-4.88)
52 (31-70)*
104 (64-140)*
0.15 (0.02-0.32)m
0.29 (0.03-0.64)""
27 (9-55)
53 (18-110)
0.02'
0.03/
Neg
Neg
0.006/
0.01'
Neg
Neg
<20®
<40®
0.02'
0.04'
Neg
Neg
o.oof
0.01'
Neg
Neg
'Neg = negligible. Dash = not available. Ranges in parentheses.
"Estimated from sweating furnace emissions from nonlead secondary nonferrous processing industries. Based on quantity of material
charged to furnace.
"Blast furnace emissions are combined flue gases and associated ventilation hood streams (charging and tapping).
"Particulate and lead factors based on quantity of lead product produced, except as noted.
"Determined negligible, based on average baghouse control efficiency >99%.
'Lead content of kettle refining emissions is 40%.
'Essentially all product lead oxide is entrained in an air stream and subsequently recovered by baghouse with average collection efficiency
>99%. Factor represents emissions of lead oxide that escape a baghouse used to collect the lead oxide product. Based on the amount
of lead produced and represents approximate upper limit for emissions.
*Based on assumption that uncontrolled reverberatory furnace flue emissions are 23% lead.
'Uncontrolled reverberatory furnace flue emissions assumed to be 23% lead. Blast furnace emissions have lead content of 34%, based on
single uncontrolled plant test.
'Blast furnace emissions have lead content of 26%, based on single controlled plant test.
'"Based on quantity of material charged to furnaces.
CH-91-57
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TABLE 7. PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR FURNACES USED IN SECONDARY COPPER
SMELTING AND ALLOYING PROCESSES'* (AP-42 TABLE 7.9-1)
Particulate Lead
Control
kn/Mfs
lb/Con
lb/Con
Furnace and charge type
equipment
average
r^ngc
average
range
Cupola
Scrap Iron
None
0.002
• -
0.003
-
-
-
Insulated copper wire
None
120
-
230
-
-
-
ESP0
5
-
10
-
-
-
Scrap copper and brass
None
3-5
30-40
70
60-60
-
-
F.SP
1.2
1-1.4
2.4
2-2.8
-
-
Reverberatory
High lead alloy (58Z
Lead
None
-
-
-
-
25
50
Red/yellow bras9 (15Z
Lead
None
-
-
-
-
6.6
13.2
Other alloys (7! lead)
None
-
-
-
-
2.5
5.0
Copper
None
2.6
0.4-15
5.1
0.8-30
-
-
Baghouse
0.2
0.1-0.3
0.4
0.3-0.6
-
-
Brass and bronze
None
18
0.3-35
36
0.6-70
-
-
Baghouse
•1.3
0.3-2.5
2.6
0.6-5
-
-
Rotary
Brass and bronze
None
150
50-250
300
100-500
-
-
ESP .
7
3-10
13
6-19
-
-
Crucible and pot
Brass and bronze
None
11
1-20
21
2-40
-
-
ESP
0.5
3-10
1
6-19
-
-
Electric Arc
Copper
None
2.5
1-4
5
2-8
-
-
Baghouse
0.5
0.02-1
1
0.04-2
-
-
Brass and bronze
None
5.5
2-9
11
A-18
-
-
Baghouse
3
-
6
-
-
Electric Induction
Copper
None
3.5
-
7
-
-
-
Baghouse
0.25
-
0.5
-
-
-
Brass and bronze
None
10
0.3-20
20
0.5-40
-
-
Baghouse
0.35
0.01-0.65
0.7
0.01-1.3
-
-
"Factors (or high lead alloy (58 percent lead), red and yellow brass (15 percent lead), and other alloys (7 percent lead) produced in
the reverberatory furnace are based on unit weight produced. All other factors given in terms of raw materials charged to unit. Dash
indicates no available information.
^The information for particulate in Table 7.9-1 was based on unpublished data furnished by the following:
Philadelphia Air Management Services, Philadelphia, PA
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Trenton, NJ.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Metro Field Office, Springfield. NJ.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Newark Field Office, Newark, NJ.
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, New York, NY
The City of New York Department of Air Resources, New York, NY.
Cook County Department of Environmental Control, Maywood, IL.
Wayne County Department of Health, Air Pollution Control Division, Detroit, Ml.
City of Cleveland Department of Public Health and Welfare, Division of Air Pollution Control, Cleveland OH.
State of Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Columbus, OH.
City of Chicago Department of Environmental Control, Chicago, IL.
South Coast Air Quality Management District, Los Angeles, CA.
eESP equals electrostatic precipitator.
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TABLE 8. UNCONTROLLED PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR SECONDARY
ZINC SMELTING* (AP-42 TABLE 7.14-1)
Operation
Reverberatory sweating
clean metallic scrap
general metallic scrap
residual scrap
Rotary sweating
Muffle sweating
Kettle sweating
clean setalllc scrap
general metallic scrap
residual scrap
Electric resistance sweating
Crushing/screening
Sodium carbonate leaching
crushing/screening
calcining
Kettle (pot) melting
Crucible melting
Reverberatory melting
Electric induction melting
Alloying
Retort and muffle distillation
pouring
casting
muffle distillation
Graphite rod distillation
Retort distillation/oxidation b
Muffle distillation/oxidation6
Retort reduction
Galvanizing
kg/Mg
Negligible
6.5
16
5.5-12.5
5.4-16
Negligible
5.5
12.5
<5
0.5-3.8
0.5-3.8
44.5
0.05
DNA
DNA
USA
DNA
0.2-0.4
0.1-0.2
22.5
Negligible
10-20
10-20
23.5
2.5
Ealsslons
lb/ton
Negligible
13
32
11-25
10.8-32
Negligible
11
25
<10
1.0-7.5
1.0-7.5
89
0.1
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
0.4-0.8
0.2-0.4
45
Negligible
20-40
20-40
47
5
"Expressed as units per unit weight ol feed material processed for crushing/screening, skimming/residues processed; for kettle (pot)
melting and retort and muffle distillation operations, metal product. Galvanizing factor expressed in units per unit weight of zinc used.
DNA: Data not available.
^Factor units per unit weight of ZnO produced. The product zinc oxide dust is totally carried over in the exhaust gas from the furnace
and is recovered with 98-99% efficiency.
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TABLE 9. FUGITIVE PARTICULATE UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS FOR
SECONDARY ZINC SMELTING* (AP-42 TABLE 7.14-2)
Particulate
Operation kg/Mg lb/ton
Reverberatory sweating^
Rotary sweating*5
Muffle sweating*5
Kettle (pot) sweating*5
b
Electric resistance sweating
c
Crushing/screening
Sodium carbonate leaching
Kettle (pot) melting furnace*5
Crucible melting furnace**
Reverberatory melting furnace
b
Electric induction melting
Alloying retort distillation
Retort and muffle distillation
Casting*5
Graphite rod distillation
Retort distillation/oxidation
Muffle distillation/oxidation
Retort reduction
b
0.63
1.30
0.45
0.90
0.54
1.07
0.28
0.56
0.25
0.50
2.13
4.25
DNA
DNA
0.0025
0.005
0.0025
0.005
0.0025
0.005
0.0025
0.005
DNA
DNA
1.18
2.36
0.0075
0.015
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
"Expressed as units per end product, except (actors for crushing/screening and electric resistance furnaces, which are expressed as
units per unit of scrap processed. DNA: Data not available.
'Estimate based on stack emission factor given in Reference 1, assuming fugitive emissions to be equal to 5% of stack emissions.
eAverage of reported emission factors
^Engineering judgment, assuming fugitive emissions from crucible melting furnace to be equal to fugitive emissions from kettle (pot)
melting furnace.
CH-91-57
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Level of detail of information available
Recycling Resources, Inc. has compiled the Directory of U.S. and Canadian Scrap Plastic Processors and
Buyers,8 Comparable directories do not appear to be available from any of the trade associations for glass,
paper, metal, solid waste or used oil recyclers. Alternatively, individual states have likely inventoried such
facilities as part of their recycling oversight activities.
Emission limits specified on state air permits are probably the most complete and accurate source for
facility-specific data. As an alternative to this time-intensive effort, data from representative plants in each
category may be used to develop emission factors, in cases where they do not yet exist.
An additional source for data and estimates is a forthcoming report by Levin et at. of Alliance Technologies
Corporation which is expected to thoroughly quantify air emissions from recycling operations.
Level of detail required by users
Although the various processes used in recycling vary considerably with the material processed, each of
the technologies utilize emission factors in the format of pounds of pollutant emissions released per ton of
material recycled. In each case, the number of processing facilities per county must be determined. The
amount of material processed should also be estimated for each facility. In addition, operation/unit-type
activity levels by material type should be defined and developed.
Emission factor requirements
VOC, PM,0, NO,, SO,, Pb, CO emissions per ton of material recycled, broken down for paper, plastic,
glass, solvents and metals.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Recycling activities occur in more industrialized regions of the country. They operate year-round or on an
as-needed basis. Depending on demand for recycled goods and supply of scrap, they may be operated
either twenty-four hours per day or only during day-time hours.
Urban or rural characteristics
Most industrial recycling activities are conducted in or near industrial regions.
Methodology
• Determine the number of recycling facilities by county from County Business Patterns9 or from survey
of states or trade organizations.
Estimate tons of material recycled per year at each facility type.
Apply emission factors for solvent reclamation and secondary metals processes.
Develop emission factors for paper, plastic and glass recycling.
References
1. Fortuna, Richard C. and David J. Lennett. Hazardous Waste Regulation, The New Era, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, NX 1987.
2. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Fourth Edition and Supplements, AP-42, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1985 through September
1991.
CH-91-57
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3. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with John Pinkerton, National
Council for Air and Stream Improvement, New York, New York. Paper recycling processes and
emissions. October 1990.
4. Thayer, Ann M., 1989. Solid Waste Concerns Spur Plastic Recycling Efforts, Chemical and Engineering
News 67(5):7-15.
5. Gordon, Judith, G. Assessment of the Impact of Resource Recovery on the Environment, EPA-600/8-79-
011 (NTIS PB80-102874), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, August 1979.
6. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Steve Teslick, Council on
Solid Waste Solutions, Washington, DC. Recycling processes. October 1990.
7. Telecon. Henning, Miranda Hope, Alliance Technologies Corporation, with Jose Fernandez, Center for
Plastics Recycling Research, Rutgers University, Camden, NJ. Emissions from plastic recycling.
October 1990.
8. 1990-91 Directory of U.S. and Canadian Scrap Plastic Processors and Buyers, Recycling Resources,
Inc., Portland, OR, 1990.
9. County Business Patterns, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Annual publication.
CH-91-57
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REFINERY SLUDGE DEWATERING
Definition/description of category and activity
Petroleum refineries generate sludge from API separators, DAF units and biological waste from wastewater
treatment. These sludges contain organic components from the petroleum products. In some cases, the
sludge is applied directly to landfarms for treatment, but often the sludge is dewatered by centrifuge,
vacuum filtration, plate and frame filtration and belt press filtration. Of these methods, the most common
is belt filtration because of its high-throughput capacity and comparatively low cost. Sludges may be
heated during dewatering to improve efficiency and handling.1
Figure 1 displays the belt press dewatering process at a refinery. The dewatering process is usually open
to the atmosphere. The resulting filter cake may be landfarmed, landfilled or transported offsite for disposal.
Filtrate is directed to wastewater treatment operations.1
LANDFILL
or
LANDFARM
or
OFFSITE
FILTER
CAKE
-WASHWATER
POLYMER
BELT PRESS
1.
F
I
L
T
R
A
T
E
API SLUDGE
DAF FLOAT
BIOLOGICAL SLUDGE
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT FACILITY
Figure 1. Refinery sludge dewatering process.
Process breakdown
VOC emissions occur at the dewatering operation. Although the equipment is enclosed, the process is
vented to the atmosphere with or without controls. Currently, the API separators and wastewater treatment
systems at refineries are included as point sources under SCCs 3-06-005-03/4 and 3-06-005-05/6,
respectively. Separators with emissions too small to be accounted in point source inventories are treated
in the NAPAP area source inventory with other refinery fugitive VOC. Treatment, storage and/or disposal
of the wastewaters and filter cake are contained in the NAPAP TSDF area source category.
307
-------
Reason for considering the category
Other components of refinery and refinery waste emissions are contained in existing categories. Previously,
dewatering was not considered to be a source of VOC, but recent test data indicate the dewatering process
may be a significant source.1
Pollutants emitted
VOC, including xylenes, trimethyl benzene, trimethyl hexane, ethylbenzene, methylcyclohexane, n-
heptane, n-hexane, toluene, benzene, ethyltoluene and other petroleum hydrocarbons
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Limited test data are currently available. These results are reported in pounds of emitted species per hour
during the test (e.g., pounds xylenes emitted per hour) or pounds of emitted species per pound of influent
species (e.g., pounds xylenes emitted per pound xylenes in influent stream). Estimation of total VOC
emissions involved summation of the reported species emissions per hour and assumption of a 24 hour
per day schedule. Data on refinery throughput per day were then compiled to develop VOC emitted per
1,000 barrels throughput for each of the three tested refineries.2 The calculated VOC emissions per 1,000
barrels was then applied to 1989 U.S. refinery throughput to estimate total VOC emissions. The generated
emission factors range from 0.7 to 6.2 pounds VOC per 1,000 barrels throughput for the three refineries.
Based on total 1989 U.S. refinery throughput of 4,891,381 thousand barrels, estimated uncontrolled
emissions are 1,500 to 15,000 tons per year. (Some sludges are not dewatered prior to further treatment
or disposal; the estimates given do not account for this practice.)
Point/area source cutoff
There are no current point source categories for dewatering. However, the preliminary data presented
indicate that belt presses may contribute ten to 100 TPY VOC at a refinery. These levels meet the
standards for inclusion in point source inventories for at least some dewatering operations. Emissions
below ten TPY should be included in the area source inventory.
Level of detail of information available
Because refinery data are already available from point source inventories, data on refinery throughput are
available. The emission test data discussed under Estimate of Pollutant Levels defines amounts of the
predominant hydrocarbon species emitted. The Petroleum Supply Annual publishes yearly refinery
throughputs by refinery location.2
Level of detail required by users
Identification of sludge treatment process by refinery
Refinery throughput or sludge throughput
Amount of sludge directly landfarmed or landfilled
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Emission factor requirements
Emission factor(s) in pounds VOC per throughput (refinery or sludge) for each dewatering process type
(i.e, belt, centrifuge, vacuum or plate and frame) need to be developed.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
Urban or rural characteristics
None
Methodology
Dewatering operation emissions are apparently large enough for inclusion in point source inventories.
Individual refineries should be asked to identify sludge dewatering processes and define sludge and refinery
throughputs, as well as existing control equipment. Dewatering operations that fall below the point source
emissions criteria could be treated in the same way that API separators are now treated in area source
inventories. Refinery throughput or sludge generation unaccounted for in inventoried point sources could
be subtracted from county-level overall refinery throughput. The unaccounted portion could then be applied
to the appropriate emission factor to develop county level area source estimates.
There remains a potential for double counting of emissions if the existing TSDF methodologies are altered
to include this source. At present, dewatering is apparently unaccounted for in existing SIP and NEDS
inventories. Sludge dewatering will not be covered in the draft Control Technologies Guidance for
petroleum wastewater facilities due in 1991. Other industries may also have emissions from sludge
dewatering if organics are used in the processes that generate the sludge. No information on other
industries has been located to indicate the potential for emissions, although it is likely that the petroleum
industry has a higher emission potential due to the significant organic content and large throughput of
refinery sludges.
References
1. Ponder, TC. and C. J. Bishop. Field assessment of air emissions from hazardous waste dewatering
operations. In Remedial Action, Treatment, and Disposal of Hazardous Waste, EPA-600/9-90-037 (NTIS
PB91-148379), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, August 1990.
2. Petroleum Supply Annual T989, DOE/EIA-0340(89)/1, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information
Administration, Washington, DC, May 1990.
CH-91-57
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WASTE INCINERATION: DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGIES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE
Definition/description of category and activity
The passage of federal and state waste clean-up and control statutes over the last ten years has spurred
development of waste disposal technologies to replace landfilling, disposal impoundments, deep-well
injection, etc. Techniques such as waste minimization, reuse, biological treatment, stabilization and
advanced incineration offer alternatives. Incineration, the thermal decomposition of organics via thermal
oxidation, provides the highest overall degree of destruction for the broadest range of wastestreams.
Incineration and other thermal destruction technologies are expected to show significant growth in the
future.' 2 Some of these technologies are listed in Table 1.
Many different incineration technologies are currently in use or under development. Established incineration
technologies include liquid injection, rotary kiln, hearth, fume, fluidized bed reactors and others. A 1986
survey located 208 incinerators, predominantly liquid injection (95) and rotary kiln (42).' The other types
represented were hearth (32), fume (25) and fluidized bed and others (14). Many other designs under
development are expected to compete in the near future. A number of these technologies are mobile or
transportable systems that can be delivered to the waste site. EPA has operated a mobile incinerator at
the Denny Farm site in McDowell, Missouri since 1985 and has combusted 12.5 million tons of solids and
237 thousand tons of liquids in this period.3 Several private companies are now developing mobile
incineration equipment.
TABLE 1. DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGIES FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION1*4'5*7'"
Anaerobic Pyrolysis
Circulating Fluidized Bed
Cycling Cyclone Incinerator
Electric Pyrolysis
Fluidized Bed Calciner
Fluid Wall Reactor
High-temperature Slagging Incinerator
Indirectly-fired Rotary Kiln
Infrared Reactor
Low-temperature Fluidized Bed Reactor
Microwave Plasma Generator
Molten Salt
Multisolid Fluidized Bed
Plasma Arc
Plasma Dust Process
Plasma Incinerator
Pyrolyzing Rotary Reactor
Revolving Fluidized Bed
Thermal Desorption
Thermolytic Detoxification
There are currently about 40 commercial hazardous waste incineration facilities in addition to transportable
and mobile systems in the United States. Transportable systems tend to be larger, requiring up to 60
trailers to complete transport, but are capable of handling five to twenty tons of waste per hour. Mobile
systems may be delivered onsite in just a few trailers, but tend to have smaller capacities.12 These systems
may be onsite for periods of months or years.
Process breakdown
Figure 1 displays the typical subsystems associated with incineration systems. Emissions may be
generated during with waste preparation (fugitives) and combustion (stack). Most existing incinerators have
some type of air pollution control device, including quench, scrubbers, absorbers and ESP
CH-91-57 3 1 0
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WASTE PREPARATION
0
P
T
1
O
N
HASTE -
1 Blend
Screen
Shred
Atomize
Ram
Gravity
i r
COMBUSTION
Liquid
Injection
Rotary Kiln
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
i r
Quench
Heat
Recovery
Venturi
Wet ESP
Wet Scrubber
Packed Tower
Spray Tower
Tray Tower
EMISSIONS
«
WASTE
FEED
WASTE
PREP
ASH
DISPOSAL
RESIDUE
TREATMENT
ACID
GAS
REMOVAL
DEMISTER
AND
STACK
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
PARTICULATE
REMOVAL
COMBUSTION
GAS
CONDITIONING
POTW
RETURN TO
PROCESS
Figure 1. Typical Incinerator subsystems and component options.
-------
Reason for considering the category
Innovative waste destruction technologies such as incineration continue to be developed and applied to
meet hazardous waste disposal needs. Many mobile and transportable technologies have been
developed for application to Superfund sites or wastes. Other incinerators, specifically municipal solid
waste incinerators and commercial/industrial solid waste incinerators, are covered in point source
inventories. Mobile and transportable onsite systems are not in current SIP or NEDS inventories and
these technologies are not covered currently in emissions estimation methodologies. Changes in and
expansion of hazardous waste incineration technologies may need to be reflected in future emissions
inventories.
Pollutants emitted
Pollutants emitted are waste- and fuel-dependent and may include S02, NO,, VOC, CO, PM, air toxics,
metals, acid gases and others.
Estimate of the pollutant levels
Emissions from current hazardous waste incineration practices and projection of future emissions trends
are difficult to define. Current RCRA standards call for 99.99 percent destruction and removal efficiency
(DRE) for principal organic waste constituents. The most recent survey indicates 300 million tons of
hazardous waste are generated annually, although only a small fraction (perhaps three million tons) is
incinerated.2 Precise wastestream information is not available due to the intermittent basis on which
wastes are handled and the generic nature of some EPA standard waste codes. Substances include
solvents, paints, motor oils, agricultural chemicals, contaminated soils, etc.
Typical uncontrolled emissions for PM and VOC range from 0.3 to 15 g/hour (PM) and 0.065 to 325
mg/hour (VOC).9
Point/area source cutoff
Mobile and transportable units are expected to emit less than ten TPY and should be included in the area
source inventory. Commercial (fixed) facilities, if properly operated, will also emit less than ten TPY and
should be considered as area sources.
Level of detail of information available
Emissions test results for each incinerator or incinerator type
Estimates of amounts and types of hazardous waste treated by incineration
Level of detail required by users
Incinerator population by type and location (county)
Emissions per incinerator type and wastestream type
CH-91-57
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Wastestream volumes and content
Emission factor requirements
Emissions per amount of waste burned by waste type
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
None
Urban or rural characteristics
No special urban or rural characteristics
Methodology
Emissions from hazardous waste incinerators may be tracked through point source inventories.
Commercial operations can be identified through state permits. Although many of the sites are temporary,
they may be identified through either the Superfund program or state permitting agencies. Emissions can
then be estimated by defining emission factors and activity levels for the different technologies employed.
However, based on available trial burn data, the emissions generated from properly run incinerators are
expected to be very small to meet RCRA, Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 (Superfund) (CERCLA) and/or state
permit regulations. Emissions of some toxic species may still be of interest for modeling applications and
risk analysis.
References
1. Oppelt, E.T Incineration of hazardous waste: a critical review. JAPCA 37(5):558-594. 1987.
2. Tillman, D.A., A.J. Rossi and K.M. Vick. Incineration of Municipal and Solid Wastes, Academic
Press, New York, New York. 1989.
3. Gupta, G.D. Mobile incineration for toxic wastes, ES&T 24(12):1776-1777, December 1990.
4. Remedial Action, Treatment, and Disposal of Hazardous Waste, EPA-600/9-90-037 (NTIS PB91-148-
379), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, August 1990.
5. Abstract Proceedings: Forum on Innovative Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies: Domestic
and International (2nd), EPA-540/2-90-009 (NTIS PB91-145649), U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, OH, September 1990.
6. Forum on Innovative Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies: Domestic and International, EPA-
540/2-89-056, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, September 1989.
7. The Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Program: Technology Profiles, EPA-540/5-88-003
(NTIS PB89-132690), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, November 1988.
CH.91.57
313
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1987 Oak Ridge Model Conference: Proceedings: Volume 1, Part 2, Waste Management, DE88-
007804, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge Operations, Oak Ridge, TN, 1987.
Eklund, B. and J. Summerhays. Procedures for Estimating Emissions from the Cleanup of
Superfund Sites, JAWMA 40(1 ):17-23, 1990.
314
-------
WASTE OIL DISPOSAL
Definition/description of category and activity
Estimates of waste oil generation range from 4.3 billion liters (1.1 billion gallons) annually to 9.8 billion
liters in 1980.' Waste oil categories include industrial process oils (e.g., hydraulic oils, lubricants, etc.)
and motor vehicle crankcase oils. Historically, most studies have focused on disposal of crankcase oils.
Federal regulations for hazardous waste disposal (used oil is considered a hazardous waste under RCRA)
have become increasingly strict and encourage the recycling of used oil. It is often more economical for
industries to handle oil recycling or combustion internally rather than dispose of it. Waste oil may be
stored or disposed of in a variety of ways. Figure 1 illustrates the breakdown of use, disposal and
unknown fate of the estimated 4.3 billion liters of waste oil generated each year in the United States.2
Process breakdown
Air pollutants from waste oil disposal may enter the atmosphere as a result of evaporation of oil used as
a dust suppressant or combustion of waste oil in boilers, kilns, diesel engines and waste oil heaters.
Because of the dangers associated with the ultimate fate of waste oil used as a dust suppressant (e.g.,
runoff into streams and lakes and possible seepage into ground water), this use of waste oil is not
encouraged. However, it is practiced by waste oil collectors, local government agencies and private
industries nationwide. An estimated 92 percent of the waste oil is used for combustion.2 In addition,
waste oil may be stored for periods of time in underground storage tanks, above-ground storage tanks
(AGSTs) and oil drums. These containers may leak due to problems with ancillary equipment (e.g., pipes,
pumps, valves, etc.), tank failure, vandalism, fire, explosions, natural disasters and operational error
(overflow). Waste oil may be contaminated with PCBs and other toxics; additives such as sodium nitrite,
ethanolamines, phenol, halogenated and aromatic solvents; metalworking substances; and heavy metals,
such as lead and cadmium, which may be released when the oil is burned. These substances may be
of concern for air toxics depending on the concentrations at which they are released from waste oil
combustion.
The ultimate fate of waste oil exposed to air is a function of the type and composition of the oil, the type
of exposure and climatic conditions. The environmental impacts of pollutants emitted when waste oil is
combusted depend on the composition of the waste oil, the number of sources burning waste oil, the
stack heights, meteorological conditions, the type of combustion and the extent of use of emissions
control equipment.
Reason for considering the category
Although some waste oil combustion in industrial boilers may be included in current point source
inventories, coverage is not likely to be complete. Other methods of waste oil disposal are not accounted
for in current area source methodologies.
CH-91-57
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LITERS
1100
GALLONS PERCENT OF TOTAL
300
NOT RECEIVED
LITERS
GENERATION
GALLONS
1150
PERCENT OF TOTAL
100
TOTAL
BURNING
ROAD OILING
LAND DISPOSAL/
DUMPING
LUBE OIL
OTHER
3200 050
1900-2500 500-660
190-300 50-100
950-1100 250-300
310-300
190-300
USE AND DISPOSAL
LITERS
GALLONS PERCENT OF TOTAL
90-100
50-100
43-57
4-9
22-26
ALL VALUES IN MILLIONS
OF LITERS AND MILLIONS
OF GALLONS
Figure 1. Quantities of waste oil generated annually and their uses and disposal.2
-------
Pollutants emitted
Air pollutants emitted due to the evaporation of waste oil will consist largely of VOC species. Combustion
of waste oil will produce SOs, NO,, CO, C02, VOC, PM and some toxic materials and heavy metals. It
is estimated that about 50 percent of the metals present in the waste oil will be released to the
atmosphere during combustion.2
Estimate of pollutant levels
Assuming that 1.1 billion gallons of waste oil are generated yearly and that 50 percent of this waste oil
is used as fuel, TSP emissions are calculated (using the AP-42 emission factor for TSP) as follows:
(1.1 x 109 gallons)(.50)(61 lbs TSP/103 gals oil)(0.005 ash) = 167,750 lbs
or 84 TPY TSP
(from combustion only)
In addition, AP-42 provides an emission factor for lead from waste oil combustion of 42 pounds multiplied
by the weight percent of lead in the waste oil per 1,000 gallons combusted.3 In a study by EPA and
Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, gaseous emissions from combustion in waste oil heaters were similar to
conventional distillate (No. 2) oil combustion emissions.' NO, and SO, emissions were higher than
conventional distillate oil combustion due to higher fuel nitrogen and sulfur concentrations. NO, emissions
from waste oil combustion were about twice as high as NO, emissions from combustion of No. 2 oil and
SO, emissions were about four times as high. Particulate emissions were also significantly higher. Of the
waste oil not used for combustion, some is stored for recycling or disposal, some is used as a dust
suppressant and some is reprocessed. No evaporative emission factor for waste oil was found. Estimates
of emission factors for oil spills may be modified to develop waste oil emission factors.
Point/area source cutoff
Waste oil combustion in industrial boilers could most easily be accounted for in the point source inventory.
However, unless the release of waste oil from oil storage occurs at a source otherwise counted as a point
source and the leak is substantial, oil leaks are not included in the point source inventory. Waste oil used
as a dust suppressant would be considered an area source due to its dispersed nature.
Level of detail of information available
The NRC collects data concerning any type of releases to the environment. Over fifty percent of the
information reported to the NRC concerns spills and releases of fuel oil and some may involve waste oil.5
The type of fuel may be specified by the person filing the report. The NRC requests information on the
address/location of the spill and the date, if known. Attempts are being made to include the county
location also. Monthly and yearly summary statistics are also tabulated. No estimate of the percentage
of spills covered by the NRC is available; however, personnel at the NRC commented that many more
reports are filed in the summer than in the winter.
National information on the storage and combustion of used industrial and engine crankcase oils seems
to be relatively easy to obtain or estimate. This information could be allocated to the county level based
on industrial statistics and motor vehicle registration information.
CH-SM-57
317
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Level of detail required by users
For the purposes of the SIP and NEDS inventories, emissions will need to be estimated on the county
level. The amount of waste oil generated, the use of the waste oil (e.g., combustion, dust suppression
and waste oil storage) and the location of the waste oil in each county are needed.
Emission factor requirements
Emission factors are needed to describe the evaporation of volatile oils from dirt and gravel road surfaces
as well as concrete pads or asphalt areas where AGSTs may be located. Combustion emission factors
for lead and particulate matter are available \r\AP-42. S02, NO,, C02, VOC and CO emission factors may
be derived from existing distillate or residual oil combustion emission factors.
Regional, seasonal or temporal characteristics
Combustion in waste oil heaters occurs predominantly in the winter when automotive repair shops heat
mechanics' bays with that waste oil. Other forms of waste oil combustion (e.g., industrial) should occur
independent of season, but occur in more industrialized areas. Waste oil use for dust suppression occurs
most commonly in rural areas.
Urban or rural characteristics
The use of waste oil as a dust suppressant is probably more prevalent in rural areas and in areas where
there is a concentration of mining, logging, construction or agricultural activities. These industries
produce significant quantities of waste oil and often apply the oil to their own roads. Other uses of waste
oil (e.g., waste oil combustion and waste oil storage) are not expected to have distinctly urban or rural
characteristics.
Methodology
To determine county-level estimates of pollutants from waste oil disposal, this category should be
subdivided into the following three activities: the combustion of waste oil; the use of waste oil as a dust
suppressant; and the storage of waste oil. National estimates of waste oil generated can be allocated
to the county level based on industrial employment and motor vehicle registration data. These county-
level estimates can then be divided into the estimated use fractions (e.g., percent combusted, percent
applied to dirt/gravel roads, percent stored, other) and the emissions associated with the various uses
calculated. For example, AP-42 provides emission factors for particulate matter and lead from waste oil
combustion and emission factors for other pollutant species from combustion could be estimated from
distillate or residual oil combustion. Rough estimates based on laboratory simulations are available which
describe the rate of evaporation of hydrocarbons from a surface. More research should be focused on
obtaining evaporation emission factors.
References
1. Gabris, Tibor. Emulsified Industrial Oils Recycling, U.S. Department of Energy, Bartlesville Energy
Technology Center, Bartlesville, OK, April 1982.
CH-91-57
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2. PEDCo Environmental, Inc., A Risk Assessment of Waste Oil Burning in Boilers and Space Heaters,
EPA/530-SW-84011 (NT1S PB85-103034), prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC, August 1984.
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CH-61-57
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