AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS OF
THE IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
FEBRUARY, 1971
for
Division of Air Quality and Emissions Data
Air Pollution Control Office
Environmental Protection Agency
Contract No. CPA 22-69-106
Prepared by
A. T. Kearney & Company, Inc.
Chicago, Illinois
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. Repuit No.
APTD-0806
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. Tide and Subtitle
AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS OF THE IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
5- Rrpc.rr Date
February 197..1
6.
7. Author(s)
8. Performing Organization Rept.
No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
A. T. Kearney & Company, Inc.
Chicago, Illinois
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contracl/Graqt No.
CPA 22-69-106.
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
Division of Air Quality and Emissions Data
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Programs
Research .Triangle Park, N. C.—27711
13. Type of Report ^Period
Covered
14.
is. supplement*./nws pjsCLAIMER:This report was furnished to the Office of Air Programs
by A. T. Kearney & Company, Inc., Chicago, Illinois in fulfillment of Contract
i6. <
A systems analysis study of the iron foundry industry is presented with particular
emphasis on the melting area. The study'presents detailed information on the
following topics: Trends of the iron foundry industry; The iron foundry process,
(which includes; iron production, raw material storage, furnace charge preparation,
iron melting, molding, pouring, shakeout, cleaning, heat treating, finishing, sand
conditioningMcoremaking, and pattern making); Emissions generated and their con-
trol; Recommended,for testing particulate emissions from iron foundry cupolas.;
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17a. Descriptors
Air pollution
Foundries
Foundry practice
Melti ng
Holding techniques
Foundry core making
Foundry core sands
Foundry ingots
Emi ss ion
17b. Idem if iers/Open-Ended Terms
Air pollution control equipment
Furnace cupolas
Electric arc furnaces
Induction furnaces
Reverbatory furnaces
17c. CUSAT1 Fie Id/Group
13B
18. Availability Statement
Un1imi ted
19. Security Class (This
Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. Security Class (This
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
21. No. of Pages
wr'ib 7)
22. Price
FORM NTIS*9B ( 10-70) , USCOMM' L)C 4032s) -f®7 1
CL
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OFFICE
AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS OF
THE IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY - FEBRUARY, 1971
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
I Summary
Introduction I - 1
The Emissions Problem I - 1
Conclusions 1-3
II Trends of the Iron Foundry Industry
Geographic Locations of Iron
Foundries II - 1
Iron Foundry Population II - 2
Iron Foundry Production II - 3
Iron Foundry Meeting Equipment II - 4
Other Equipment in Iron Foundries II - 6
Conclusions II - 6
III The Iron Foundry Process
Gray Iron Production III - 2
Ductile Iron Production III - 4
Malleable Iron Production III - 4
Raw Material Storage and Furnace
Charge Preparation III - 5
Raw Material Receiving and Storage III - 5
Scrap Preparation III - 6
Furnace Charge Preparation III - 7
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- 2 -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
SECTION PAGE
Iron Melting III - 7
Cupola Furnaces III - 8
Electric Arc Furnace III - 11
Induction Furnaces III - 12
Reverberatory Furnace III - 13
Inoculation III - 14
Molding, Pouring and Shakeout III - 15
Molding III - 15
Pouring III - 16
Shakeout III - 16
Cleaning, Heat Treating and Finishing III - 16
Sand Conditioning III - 17
Coremaking III - 18
Oil Sand Cores III - 19
Shell Cores III - 19
Silicate Bonded Cores III - 19
Furan Cores III - 20
Hot Box Cores III - 20
Pattern Making III - 20
IV Emissions Generated and Their Control
General Character of Emissions IV - 1
Raw Material Storage
and Charge Makeup IV - 1
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- 3 -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
SECTION PAGE
Melting Department
IV
-
2
Cupola
IV
-
2
Electric Arc Furnace
IV
-
10
Induction Furnace
IV
-
12
Reverberatory Furnace
IV
-
12
Preheaters
IV
-
13
Inoculation
IV
-
13
Molding, Pouring and Shakeout
IV
-
16
Molding
IV
-
16
Pouring
IV
-
17
Shakeout
IV
-
19
Cleaning and Finishing
IV
-
20
Sand Conditioning
IV
-
21
Coreraaking
IV
-
22
Inventory of Foundry Emissions
IV
-
24
Control of Foundry Emissions
IV
-
28
Raw Material Handling, Preparation
and Charge Makeup
IV
-
29
Cupola Melting
IV
-
30
Wet Caps
IV
-
31
Dry Centrifugal Collectors
IV
-
31
Wet Collectors
IV
-
32
Fabric Filters
IV
-
32
Electrostatic Precipitators
IV
-
33
Afterburners
IV
-
33
Preheaters
IV
m,
33
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- 4 -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
SECTION PAGE
Electric Arc Melting IV - 34
Fabric Filters IV - 34
Wet Scrubbers & Electrostatic
Precipitators IV - 35
Furnace Hoods IV - 35
Fourth Hole Ventilation IV - 36
Snorkel IV - 36
Electric Induction Melting IV - 36
Reverberatory Furnace IV - 37
Inoculation IV - 37
Molding Pouring, Cooling and Shakeout IV - 38
Sand Preparation and Handling IV - 40
Coremaking IV - 40
Cleaning and Finishing IV - 41
Miscellaneous Areas IV - 42
Cost of Emission Control Systems IV - 42
Cupola Melting IV - 45
Electric Arc Melting IV - 45
V Recommended Practice for Testing Particulate
Emissions From Iron Foundry Cupolas
Introduction V - 1
Raw Gas Test Locations V - 2
Cleaned Gas Locations V - 3
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- 5 -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
SECTION PAGE
Reasons for Sampling a Cupola V - 4
Cupola Operating and Test Conditions V - 6
Obtaining Meaningful Test Data V - 8
Sampling Procedures and Equipment V - 10
Section I - Sampling Raw Particulate
Emissions in the Cupola Stack V - 16
Recommended Test Method and
Procedures V - 16
Section II - Raw Gas Test Location
in Duct Ahead of Collector V - 25
Section III - Sampling Cleaned
Cupola Gases V - 26
General V - 26
VI Glossary of Terms
Appendix
A - Sampling and Analytical Techniques
B - Interview Guide for In-Plant Engineering
Survey
References
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- 6 -
LIST OF EXHIBITS
NUMBER TITLE
II-l Distribution of Iron Foundries
II-2 Geographical Distribution of Iron Foundries
II-3 Population Trends in the Foundry Industry
II-4 Iron Foundry Production Trends
II-5 Iron Foundry Cupola Trends
II-6 Iron Foundry Electric Furnace Trends
III-l Iron Foundry Process Flow
III-2 Process Flow Diagram - Gray, Ductile and Malleable Iron
III-3 Summary of Gray Iron Specifications
III-4 Summary of Ductile Iron Specifications
III-5 Summary of Malleable Iron Specifications
III-6 Process Flow Diagram - Raw Material and Furnace Charge
Makeup
III-7 Process Flow Diagram - Melting Department
III-8 Illustration of Conventional Lined Cupola
III-9 Illustration of Water-Cooled Cupola
111-10 Approximate Melting Rates and Gas Volumes for Lined
Cupolas
III-ll Approximate Melting Rates and Gas Volumes for Unlined
Cupolas
111-12 Illustration of Cupola Reaction Area
111-13 Typical Cupola Material Balance
111-14 Illustration of Electric Arc Furnace
111-15 Electric Arc Furnace - Heat and Material Balance
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- 7 -
LIST OF EXHIBITS
(continued)
NUMBER TITLE
111-16 Illustration of Channel Induction Furnace
111-17 Illustration of Coreless Induction Furnace
111-18 Coreless Induction Furnace - Heat and Material Balance
111-19 Illustration of Reverberatory Furnace
111-20 Illustration of Magnesium Treatment Methods for
Producing Ductile Iron
111-21 Process Flow Diagram - Molding, Pouring and Shakeout
111-22 Process Flow Diagram - Cleaning and Finishing
111-23 Process Flow Diagram - Sand Conditioning
111-24 Process Flow Diagram - Core Making
IV-1 Characteristics and Sources of Emissions in
Various Foundry Departments
IV-2 Chemical Composition of Cupola Particulate Emissions
IV-3 Particle Size Distribution - Cupola Emissions
IV-4 Particulate Emissions versus Specific Blast Rate
for Acid Lined Cupolas
IV-5 Effect of Specific Blast Rate and Coke Rate on
Particulate Emissions from Unlined Cupolas
IV-6 Results of Size Distribution and Chemical Analysis
for Three Electric Arc Installations
IV-7 Emissions Data from Electric Arc Melting Furnaces
IV-8 Relationship between Rate of Emissions and Heat
Cycle for Electric Arc Melting
IV-9 Treatment Agents for Producing Ductile Iron
IV-10 Molding Sand Gas Analyses
IV-11 Molding Sand Gas Evolution and Hot Permeability
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- 8 -
LIST OF EXHIBITS
^continued^
NUMBER TITLE
IV-12 Gas Volume Evolved as a Function of Volatiles
Contained in Molding Sand
IV-13 Effect of Baking Time on Gas Generated for
Various Baking Temperatures
IV-14 Effect of Sand to Oil Ratio on Amount of Core
Gas Generated during Pouring
IV-15 Inventory of Iron Foundry Emissions from
Melting Operations, 1969
IV-16 Inventory of Iron Foundry Emissions from Non-
Melting Operations, 1969
IV-17 Application of Emission Control Equipment
Systems to Foundry Processes
IV-18 Summary Statistics - Air Pollution Control
Equipment on Gray Iron Foundry Melting Furnaces
IV-19 Collection Efficiency of Emission Control
Equipment Systems
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A. T. Kearney & Company, Inc. gratefully acknowledges the
many people and organizations who cooperated and assisted in
this study.
We acknowledge the cooperation and assistance provided by
the American Foundrymen1s Society and the Gray and Ductile Iron
Founders1 Society in furnishing information.
We acknowledge the staff of APCO for their assistance and
guidance.
This report was prepared by a project team of A. T. Kearney
staff. The overall direction was under Mr. E. Stuart Files,
Vice President of A. T. Kearney & Company, Inc. The Project
Director was Mr. Joseph H. Greenberg, Principal, and the other
members of the team were Mr. Robert E. Conover, Senior Associate
and Mr. Bernard Gutow, Associate.
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JT-X
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OFFICE
AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS OF
THE IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
FEBRUARY. 1971
I - SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
The Air Pollution Control Office has the task of developing
technology for a national program for control of air pollution
and, as a part of this program, is conducting a series of sys-
tems analysis studies of various industries which are primary
sources of air pollution. These studies are being conducted by
the Division of Process Control Engineering. This study is
directed at the iron foundry industry, with particular emphasis
on the melting area.
For the purposes of this study, the iron foundry industry
is defined as those shops that melt iron (including iron and
steel scrap) in furnaces, pour the molten iron into molds, and
alloy and/or treat the iron in either the molten or cast state
with processes limited to making gray, malleable and nodular
or ductile cast iron. This definition excludes blast furnace
processes, processes for converting iron to steel, and processes
wherein molten iron is not cast in molds, such as metal abrasive
shot.
THE EMISSIONS
PROBLEM
The last 20-25 years have seen significant advances in
the technology of making iron castings, The use of cupolas
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1-2
as the main melting source is decreasing and being replaced
with the advanced technology of melting with electric arc and
induction furnaces. In addition to increasing the production
capacities of the foundries, the electric furnaces have made
it possible for the foundries to use charge materials such as
iron borings and steel turnings, sheet steel, etc., which were
previously considered impractical for use as cupola charge
without extensive preparation„ The availability and lower cost
of such materials, better control of the metallurgical process
involved in making molten iron, and freedom from the use of
coke as a fuel have made electric furnaces very popular with
some foundries. In spite of all these advancements, the cupola
has remained the main melting unit in the iron foundry industry
and continuing efforts are being made to improve its performance
and that of the charge material. Improvements in foundry melt-
ing technology have not resulted in full elimination of the
pollutants emitting from the foundries into the atmosphere.
The pollutants discharged by the iron foundry industry
are:
1. Emissions from melting furnace operations, such
as smoke, metallic oxides, oil vapors and carbon monoxide,
2„ Emissions from other dust-producing operations
within the plant, such as sand fines, metal dust and coke dust.
3„ Odors and gaseous compounds such as fluoride fumes,
vapors and facing fumes from both sources. The physical diffi-
culties of satisfactory collection of pollutants are not easily
solved and, in most cases, costs of satisfactory collection are
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1-3
quite high. Gases from foundry furnaces are hot and must be
cooled before collection. If recirculated water is used for
cooling and dust collection, corrosion problems may be intro-
duced. Cost of fresh water is often prohibitive requiring
recirculation in most cases. Most metallic oxides from melting
operations are extremely small in size, to about 0.7 microns,
and require very efficient equipment for collection.
Particulate emissions have been a point of focus for con-
centrated efforts in the control of air pollution. However,
gaseous emissions and odors from the foundries have not been
given much attention, and the foundry industry now has to take
steps to suppress these discharges into the atmosphere. Many
of the odors in the foundries result from coremaking and shell
molding operations, but the common gaseous emissions also in-
clude vapors from melting oily metal scrap, painting operations,
inoculation of metal, and from metal pouring into molds.
CONCLUSIONS
The lack of correlation between standard furnace design
factors and emissions levels requires that the explanation for
the wide variance in type and quantity of emissions lie with
cupola operating factors. This is borne out of the fact that
all variables proven to affect emissions levels, or indicating
a probability of affecting emissions levels, relate more to the
operation of the cupola than to its design. These operating
factors can be easily divided into two quite distinct group-
ings with some cross effects from one group to the other.
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1-4
The first group consists of variables related directly to
cupola operation, including specific blast rate, blast tempera-
ture, type of lining, and operating variables of the afterburner.
The afterburner itself is an emission control device but adjust-
ment of gas and combustion air is considered here as a variable
for the melting system. These variables are relatively inflex-
ible and are determined by required, or desired, operating char-
acteristics .
The second group of variables concerns the quantity and
quality of charge materials. These include metal to coke ratio,
use of oxygen or natural gas, and the use of briquettes which
often contain oil or cementitious materials. Also, contamin-
ants or alloying materials may occur in the metallic charge.
These factors are highly variable, often changing from charge
to charge. This second group is more controllable, but at some
cost.
Insufficient data prohibit the quantitative evaluation of
the total effect of all variables in the first group compared
to all variables in the second group. The data suggest, how-
ever, that the type and quantity of cupola emissions are affect-
ed more by the quantity and quality of charge materials. Cer-
tainly little or no limestone dust, coke particles, or oil vapor
and other combustibles will appear as emissions unless these
materials are charged into the cupola. Similar statements can
be made for zinc, lead, aluminum, chromium, cadmium, copper,
silicon and other oxides, particularly when their formation is
abetted by the injection of oxygen, or high blast rates.
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1-5
Certain relationships expected to be identified were not
discovered. Blast air temperature, with a demonstrable effect
on coke rate, must by extension show a secondary effect on the
emissions level. The use of afterburners in the cupola stack
has been shown to aid in the incineration of combustibles. In-
corporation of these devices would no doubt noticeably lower
the emission levels. The fact that these relationships are not
identified might be attributed to two factors possibly affect-
ing all the analyses: the quantity and quality of the test
data.
Stack testing is not an exact science at this time and no
single technique has been accepted by the industry. Methods
and equipment used to obtain the data are discussed later. Re-
producibility of results is difficult with any given technique
by a single testing firm, even for a stable emissions producing
system. With relatively unstable conditions as exist in cupola
furnaces and the generally poor working conditions existing at
the top of cupola stacks, variation in results would be expect-
ed. When this situation is further compounded by the use of
different techniques, equipment, and testing companies to ob-
tain data for comparison and analysis, the confidence level of
the data must suffer, despite the high degree of professional-
ism of the laboratories performing the tests. As a result of
this condition, all data used in this analysis have undergone
critical evaluation before acceptance.
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II - TRENDS OF THE IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
The iron foundry industry in the United States is in the
peculiar position of having its output increase in recent years
both on a tonnage and a dollar basis, while at the same time
there has been a decrease in the number of active installations
These foundries are located in 48 states, although 80% are lo-
cated in only 13 states. In fact, 1,116 or 62% are located in
25 major metropolitan areas of United States cities. Of all
iron foundries, only about 525, or 297<>, can be classified as
medium and large foundries, employing more than 100 people, and
only 91 can be called very large, employing over 500 people.
Thus, by far the majority of foundries are small installations,
many being located in small communities„
GEOGRAPHIC LOCATIONS
OF IRON FOUNDRIES
The distribution of iron foundries by states and by major
metropolitan areas is shown in Exhibit II-l. The highest con-
centration is in the states which border on the Great Lakes,
namely, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin,
New York and Indiana. This group of seven states contains
almost half of all of the iron foundries in the United States
and more than half of the iron castings capacity. The State
of California contains the greatest concentration of iron
foundries in the western half of the country, with one-third
of the iron foundries in that 17-state area being in California
Other areas of high iron foundry concentration are in the
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II - 2
southeastern states and in the northern states bordering on
the west bank of the Mississippi River.
The variations which have occurred in the distribution
of iron foundries by states during the period of 1963-1969
are given in Exhibit II-2„
IRON FOUNDRY
POPULATION
The population trends in the foundry industry have been
developed in Exhibit II-3.
The total number of foundries of all types has remained
relatively constant during the postwar period, ranging from
5,000 to 5,800 and averaging approximately 5,400. However,
the iron foundry population has shown a steady decline, from
3,200 in 1947 to 1,670 in 1969. If this decline is continued,
the number of foundries is projected to be approximately 1,000
by 1980„ However, the average size of iron foundries has been
increasing steadily, with average annual production per foundry
going from 3,800 tons in 1947 to 5,300 tons in 1959 and to
8,700 tons in 1969. By 1980, the average production per iron
foundry is projected to be approximately 16,500 tons per year.
An analysis of the population of iron foundries with re-
spect to size of foundry has shown that almost the entire de-
cline in foundry population has been among the small foundries,
with employment of under 100 per foundry. The number of medium
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II - 3
sized foundries has remained almost constant, while the number
of large foundries has increased slightly. The number of
small foundries has declined by one-third from 1959 to 1969
and is expected to further decline to only about half of the
1969 population by 1980.
IRON FOUNDRY
PRODUCTION
Annual castings production in the United States has varied
widely, depending on the economy, with the ranges during the
postwar period as follows:
1 2
Iron Foundry Production '
Production Tons per Year
Last 5-Year
Type of Metal Minimum Maximum Average
All Metals 13,200,000 20,800,000 20,000,000
All Reported Cast
Iron 11,032,000 17,084,000 16,329,000
Cast Iron from
Iron Foundries 10,000,000 14,486,000 13,817,000
Gray Iron 9,340,000 11,936,000 11,650,000
Malleable Iron 661,000 1,227,000 1,075,000
Nodular Iron - 1,570,000 1,092,000
The complete castings production picture has been shown
graphically in Exhibit II-4. The data, as reported by the
Department of Commerce, included the production of ingot molds.
However, only about 30% of ingot molds are produced from gray
ii*on melted in cupolas, with the rest being produced from
direct blast furnace metal. Since castings production from
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II - 4
direct metal was excluded from this study by definition, and
additionally has already been covered by the iron and steel
industry study, the estimated portion of ingot mold production
from this source was deducted from total iron castings produc-
tion.
IRON FOUNDRY
MELTING EQUIPMENT
The cupola is still the most common method of melting iron
with about 1,930 cupolas in 1969 for a combined capacity of
18,570 TPH. This is a decline of about 900 cupolas in the past
ten years0 This decline can be expected to continue, although
at a decreasing rate, as more foundries are abandoned, and
others convert from cupola to electric melting. The trend to-
ward decline in the number of cupolas is expected to continue
for the foreseeable future, with the projected number being re-
duced to approximately 1,000 by 1980„ The use of the cupola
from the postwar period is depicted in Exhibit II-5.
The trend toward electric melting in iron foundries has
been accelerating rapidly, as shown in Exhibit II-6. Although
some scattered electric melting installations existed in iron
foundries prior to the mid-1950's, the great majority of the
installations were made during the period of 1960-1970. The
most recent census of foundries, taken in 1969, has revealed
that there were some 374 electric arc furnaces installed in
176 iron foundries in the United States.
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II - 5
Since many foundries which produce both iron and steel
castings use the same melting furnace for both purposes, the
actual number of arc furnaces used for iron melting has been
estimated to be approximately 200, located in some 100 foun-
dries .
The number of arc furnace installations for iron melting
has been increasing at a rate of about 15 furnaces per year0
If this rate were to continue, the number of such furnaces
could be expected to reach approximately 350 by 1980.
For the most part, the electric arc furnace installations
have been for the replacement of cupolas in existing foundries,
although there have been several new foundries built in recent
years in which arc furnaces were installed. The number of arc
furnaces melting iron will, therefore, be higher than the straight
line projection, possibly in the range of 400 to 450 furnaces
by 1980.
In 1969, there also were 495 coreless induction furnaces
installed in 191 iron foundries. Approximately half of these
furnaces were in foundries which also produced steel castings.
Since many of these iron and steel foundries use the same fur-
naces for melting both metals, the actual number of these core-
less induction furnaces which are used for melting iron is es-
timated to be approximately 300, located in some 125 foundries.
The number of coreless induction furnace installations has been
increasing at a rate of approximately 50 per year. This trend
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II - 6
will probably accelerate, resulting in an estimated 700-800
furnaces in iron foundries by 1980.
OTHER EQUIPMENT
IN IRON FOUNDRIES
All foundries employ some kind of molding practice with
almost all iron foundries using sand molding. The trend is
toward modern mechanized or semiautomated molding, some of
which employ conveyors for moving molds past each of the
molding stations. This can be expected to increase as more
foundries automate or mechanize their operations.
Coremaking is another area that is undergoing rapid
changes, with the trend being away from oil-bonded, baked
sand cores, toward chemically bonded, thermally cured or
airset cores.
CONCLUSIONS
These figures and trends are of importance at this time,
in that they tend to emphasize certain factors having a di-
rect bearing on this study. These factors can be summarized
as follows:
1. The number of iron foundries is still declin-
ing, but at a lesser rate. However, there were about 1,670
installations in 1969.
2„ The number of cupola installations is still
declining, but also at a lesser rate. The majority of iron
foundries, however, still use cupolas for melting and will
no doubt continue to do so for many years.
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II - 7
3. Only 5% of the total number of iron foundries
can be classified as large foundries. However, 62% of all
iron foundries, including most of the larger ones, are lo-
cated in 25 large metropolitan areas.
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III - THE IRON FOUNDRY PROCESS
The iron foundry consists of a number of distinct but
strongly interconnected operations. In a large production
foundry, each of the operations can be highly mechanized, or
even automated, while the smaller foundries still may retain
many manual techniques.
All foundries utilize certain basic operations consisting
of:
1. Raw material storage and handling.
2. Melting.
3. Pouring into molds.
Other processes present in most, but not all, foundries
include:
1. Molding.
2. Sand preparation and handling.
3. Mold cooling and shakeout.
4. Casting cleaning, heat treating, and finishing.
5. Coremaking.
6. Pattern making.
A simplified, schematic flow diagram encompassing most
of these processes is presented in Exhibit III-l.
Each operation contains equipment and processes capable
of producing emissions which may include gas, fume, smoke and
particulate matter. The latter can range from metal dust from
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Ill - 2
grinding operations, that is relatively easy and inexpensive
to collect, to extremely fine ferrous and nonferrous oxides
from melting furnaces, that are very expensive to collect. The
sources of these emissions are schematically indicated in
Exhibit III-l, and the operations are described in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
GRAY IRON
PRODUCTION
Exhibit III-2, Process Flow Diagram for Gray Ductile and
Malleable Iron, outlines the most common flow pattern in the
iron foundry industry. The flow begins with the raw material
storage area including the scrapyard and stores facilities for
scrap, pig iron, alloys, sand, binders, and other raw materials.
The furnace charge is made up in, or adjacent to, the scrapyard
and consists of the metallics, flux materials, and, in the case
of cupola melting, coke for fuel.
Melting furnaces for iron include the following principal
types:
1. Cupolas
2. Electric Arc
3. Electric Induction
4. Reverberatory.
The charge material is transferred to the melting furnace,
and the resultant molten iron is tapped into a temporary hold-
ing unit or into a ladle for pouring into completed molds.
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Ill - 3
The holding unit may be a large ladle or forehearth to accommo-
date the constant flow of metal from a continuous-tap cupola or
it may be a gas fired or electric powered furnace also used to
increase the temperature of the iron. Holding furnaces are also
utilized with electric melters for accumulation of hot metal,
superheating, and analysis adjustment.
Molten metal from the forehearth or holding furnace is
transferred to a pouring ladle, from which molds are filled, or
to a large "bull" ladle used for filling a number of smaller
pouring ladles. In some production foundries, metal is trans-
ferred from the furnace by ladle to a channel induction holding
furnace adjacent to the pouring zone of a molding line where
the molds are filled from smaller pouring ladles or from an
automated pouring machine. The holding furnace is capable of
restoring heat lost during the transfer and providing superheat-
ing where desired. Chemical additions to the molten iron while
in the ladle normally include desulphurizing agents, usually
some form of sodium carbonate.
The molding area is supplied with molding sand mixed with
the required additives to permit the production of satisfactory
molds of green sand, dry sand, dry baked sand, shell or hot box
sand, or other molding material. After the mold has been com-
pleted and closed, it is filled with hot metal, cooled suffi-
ciently to insure solidification, and moved to the shakeout area
where the sand and casting are separated by manual or mechanic-
al means.
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Ill - 4
In green sand molding, the used sand from the shakeout,
plus spill and overflow sand, is returned to the sand prepa-
ration system for reconditioning and reuse. Used sand from
other molding processes is either disposed of or transferred
to a thermal wet or dry sand reclamation system.
After being separated from the molding sand in the shake-
out, the castings commonly are cooled, sorted, trimmed, and
then cleaned by shotblasting. Processing after cleaning in-
cludes chipping and grinding. Heat treatment may be specif-
ied for certain types of castings before machining. Surface
coating applications such as paint or ceramic coatings are
normally the final operation.
DUCTILE IRON
PRODUCTION
The manufacture of ductile iron castings is essentially
the same as the production of gray iron except for magnesium
treatment and minor analysis modifications, and for the more
extensive heat treatment which is sometimes required. The in-
oculants that produce the desired graphitic nodularization
are commonly added to the molten metal in the ladle at a spe-
cial station. The resultant smoke and fume emissions, as well
as the momentary pyrotechnics, generally require a ventilated
and partially shielded station to protect foundry personnel.
MALLEABLE IRON
PRODUCTION
Malleable iron process flow is also similar to gray iron
flow with the exception of an annealing operation required to
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Ill - 5
convert the as cast "white" iron into malleable iron, and the
press straightening sometimes required to correct the warping
that results from the annealing process. In other regards the
process flow for malleable iron is the same.
Specifications for various classes of gray, ductile, and
malleable iron are tabulated in Exhibits III-3, III-4 and III-5.
RAW MATERIAL STORAGE &
FURNACE CHARGE PREPARATION
Raw Material
Receiving and Storage
The raw materials used for iron production fall into the
following classifications:
1. Metallics
(a) Pig Iron
(b) Iron and steel scrap
(c) Turnings and borings (loose or briquettes)
(d) Ferroalloys
(e) Foundry returns
2. Fluxes
(a) Carbonate type (limestone, dolomite,
soda ash)
(b) Fluoride type (fluorspar)
(c) Carbide type (calcium carbide)
3. Fuels-Coke (for cupolas)
4. Refractories
These materials, except for foundry returns, are received
by railcar or truck, usually unloaded by crane and stored in
the foundry scrapyard. Exhibit III-6 Process Flow Diagram for
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Raw Material Storage and Furnace Charge Makeup, outlines the
common flow patterns in the iron foundry industry.
Although open stockyards are still common, the use of
covered storage areas is becoming more widespread as a means
of protection from weather, keeping materials dry, and assist-
ing in containing and eliminating dust and smoke which may be
generated.
Scrap Preparation
Scrap materials, including foundry returns, are usually
used in the as-received form. Where scrap preparation is re-
quired, the operations may involve any combination of the fol-
lowing :
1. Cutting to size by flame torch, shear or by
breaking.
2. Cleaning by degreasing, steam or by shotblasting.
3. Burning of surface coatings or oils in a confined
chamber or in the open air.
4. Drying or preheating.
With the exception of the cutting operations, scrap prep-
aration is not widely performed for cupola melting, or for top
charged electric arc furnaces. For electric induction furnaces
and side charged arc furnaces, a greater degree of preparation
is necessary to obtain dry scrap of the proper size.
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Furnace Charge
Preparation
The methods of makeup and handling of melting furnace
charges vary widely from completely manual systems where all
materials are hand shoveled or carried, to highly mechanized
systems where one man can control the handling, weighing, and
loading of all raw materials. Charge makeup for the cupola
is more complex than for electric furnaces, because of the
necessity of using coke and large quantities of flux.
Charges are normally loaded directly into the furnace
charging bucket, skip, or similar container. The prescribed
combination of metallics, flux and coke (for cupolas) is
weighed either before loading or while loading.
IRON MELTING
Four types of melting furnaces represent over 98% of the
installed melting systems. The following table, from a 1968
United States Department of Commerce^ study, shows the dis-
tribution of melting furnaces in the iron foundry industry.
Iron Foundry Melting Furnaces - 1968
Furnace Type
Cupola
Electric Induction
Number
Installed
Percent of
Total
1,232
73
89.5%
5.3
Electric Arc
42
3.1
Other Types
Total
29
2.1
U376
100.0%
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Ill - 8
The furnace census does not show the number of reverbera-
tory furnaces in use, but it would be expected that they con-
stitute the majority of the 2.1% indicated as "Other Types."
Despite the low incidence of use, this method of melting is of
interest because of its reported low emission of particulate
matter, and its increasing use in small foundries.
The reverberatory furnace is heated by coal, natural gas
or oil, while the induction and arc furnaces obtain their heat
from an electric induction coil or an electric arc. In the
cupola, coke is a portion of the furnace charge and the heat
required to melt the iron is derived from the combustion of
the coke in contact with the metallic and fluxing charge ma-
terials.
Exhibit III-7, Process Flow Diagram Melting Department,
illustrates the most 'common flow pattern.
Cupola
Furnaces
The cupola is a vertical furnace with a normally circular
cross section which is charged alternately with metal, coke, and
a fluxing material, to produce molten iron of a specified
analysis and temperature. Many fundamental cupola designs have
evolved through the years, two of which are widely in use at
this time--the conventional refractory lined cupola and the
more recent development, the unlined, water-cooled cupola.
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For all cupola design, the shell is made of rolled steel
plate. In the conventional design, an inside lining of re-
fractory material is provided to insulate the shell. The un-
lined, water-cooled cupola utilizes a steady flow of cooling
water on the outside of the unlined shell from below the charg-
ing door to the tuyeres, and an inside lining of carbon block
below the tuyeres to the sand bed, to protect the shell from the
interior temperature. Conventional lining is used at the charg-
ing door level and in the upper stack.
Illustrations of lined and water-cooled cupolas are shown
in Exhibits III-8 and III-9. Exhibits 111-10 and III-ll pre-
sent approximate melt rates and gas volumes for lined and unlined
cupolas.
The cupola bottom consists of two semicircular, hinged
steel doors, supported in the closed position by props during
operation, but able to be opened at the end of a melting cycle
to dump the remaining charge materials. To prepare for melting,
a sand bed 60 to 10 inches deep is rammed in place on the closed
doors to seal the bottom of the cupola. At the beginning of
the melting cycle, coke is placed on the rammed sand bottom
and ignited, preferably with a gas torch or electric starter.
Additional coke is added to a height of four or five feet above
the tuyeres after which regular layered charges of metal, lime-
stone and coke are placed on the coke bed up to the normal
operating height.
The air blast is turned on and the melting process begins.
As the coke is consumed and the metal charge is melted, the
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furnace contents move downward in the cupola and are replaced
by additional charges entering the cupola through the charging
door.
Combustion air is blown into the wind box, an annular duct
surrounding the shell near the lower end, from which it is piped
to tuyeres or nozzles projecting through the shell about three
feet above the top of the rammed sand.
Blast air entering the cupola through the tuyeres contains
21% oxygen which combines quickly with the carbon in the coke
as follows:
C + 02"^C02 + 175,900 BTU/pound mole
The oxidizing zone in which this reaction occurs is designated
the combustion zone. It is the zone of highest temperature and
extends from the tuyeres to a level where the following reaction
occurs:
C + C02->2 CO - 69,700 BTU/pound mole
The reduction of CO2 to CO starts before all oxygen in the
blast air is consumed. The maximum CO2 concentration is be-
lieved to be approximately 147a-18% at the boundary of the
oxidation and reduction zones at a maximum temperature of
2,800°-3,400° F. Both reactions noted are reversible and
proceed in both directions depending upon conditions at dif-
ferent levels. The reactions almost cease in the preheat
zone as energy is used to preheat the charge materials and
the gas temperature is lowered to the reaction temperature
below which further reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon
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Ill - 11
monoxide will not occur.^ A pictorial description of a cupola
reaction area is shown in Exhibit 111-12.
The tap hole through which the molten iron flows to the
spout is located at the level of the rammed sand bed. For
continuous tap operation, the slag also is discharged through
the tap hole and separated from the iron by a skimmer in the
spout. For intermittent tapping, molten iron collects in the
well with the slag floating on its surface, and a slag hole
is located at the level representing the height of the maximum
amount of iron desired to collect in the well. An opening is
provided in the cupola shell 15-25 feet or more above the
bottom plate for charging the cupola. The charging door open-
ing varies in size according to the intended method of charg-
ing and the diameter of the cupola. The upper stack is
extended sufficiently to pass through the building roof and
provide the required natural draft. A spark arrestor is
fitted to the top to reduce the hazard of fire.
Exhibit 111-13 shows examples of typical material balances
for lined and water-cooled cupolas0
Electric Arc
Furnace
The direct arc electric furnace consists of a refractory
lined, cup shaped, steel shell x^ith a refractory lined roof
through which three graphite electrodes are inserted. The
shell is arranged for tilting to discharge the molten charge.
Charging of the metal to be melted is accomplished by chuting
through a door opening in the side of the shell for fixed roof
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furnaces, or by raising the roof and swinging it aside to per-
mit the use of a bottom dump charge bucket for removable roof
furnaces. Exhibit 111-14 is an illustration of an electric arc
furnace.
Foundry furnace sizes usually range in diameter from about
3'0M up to 12'0" with holding capacities of 500 pounds to 25
tons, and melting rates from 250 pounds to 12 tons per hour.
In recent years, furnaces as large as 17*0" in diameter, hold-
ing 65 tons and with melting rates of over 20 tons per hour
have been installed in production foundries.
Exhibit III-15 is a typical heat and material balance for
an electric arc furnace.
Induction
Furnaces
The induction furnace is a cup or drum-shaped vessel that
converts electrical energy into heat to melt the charge. Un-
like the electric arc furnace, no electrodes are required.
Heat is produced by utilizing the transformer principle in
which a magnetic field is set up when the primary coil of the
transformer is energized. The magnetic field at a high flux
density induces eddy currents in the charge which are convert-
ed to heat by the electrical resistance of the charge itself.
Heat develops mainly in the outer rim of the metal in the
charge and then carries to the center by conduction until the
metal is molten. The electrical energy is converted into heat
by induction in two ways. In the channel induction furnace.
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the metal charge surrounds the transformer core, thereby form-
ing a loop or channel. In the coreless induction furnace, the
metal heated is both the core and the secondary coil. Furnace
coils are water cooled to prevent heat damage.
Exhibits 111-16 and 111-17 are illustrations of channel
and coreless induction furnaces.
The induction furnace lends itself to either continuous or
batch-type operations and is used as a melting furnace or for
holding or duplexing operations„ Generally, the coreless fur-
nace is better adapted to melting and superheating, whereas the
channel furnace is better suited to superheating, holding, and
duplexing, although it is also used for melting.
Induction furnaces are supported on a pedestal-type struc-
ture. A common arrangement contains pivot bearings for tilting
the furnace for tapping. The entire furnace must rotate through
about 100° to empty the vessel*
The furnace top of a coreless furnace is normally level
with the charging platform and the operating functions of charg-
ing and slagging are carried out on the platform.
Exhibit 111-18 is a typical heat and material balance for a
coreless induction furnace.
Reverberatory Furnace
The reverberatory type of fuel fired furnace is found in
two types of applications in the iron foundry. The large,
stationary reverberatory or air furnace is associated with
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Ill - 14
malleable Iron foundries, where it has long been used as a du-
plexing unit in conjunction with a cupola. These furnaces are
generally powdered coal fired, although oil and gas are also
used. They are not melters, but are used to receive molten iron
from the cupola, and to refine and superheat it for pouring.
These furnaces are long, rectangular units with arched or sus-
pended roofs, generally fired from one end, and with waste gases
exhausting into a stack from the opposite end. Temperatures of
2,900° F and higher are reached in these furnaces. Holding ca-
pacities range up to 40 tons.^> ^
The second type of reverberatory fuel fired furnace is
used for melting. It is generally small in size, up to two
tons capacity, and tilts for pouring. Furnaces of this type
are found in small foundries, where economical installations
and low emission melting are desired.
Exhibit 111-19 is an illustration of a reverberatory fur-
nace.
Inoculation
Inoculation is a process used in the production of ductile
iron or to improve the mechanical properties of castings.
In ductile iron production, inoculation serves to precipi-
tate carbon in the iron in the form of disconnected spheroids.
A matrix of low carbon ferrite forms which is required to make
ductile iron of satisfactory quality. Because of economics
and availability, magnesium is usually used for inoculation.
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Ill - 15
Pure magnesium can be applied, but a more common practice in-
volves using nickel, copper or silicon with magnesium in alloy
form. Magnesium impregnated coke is also popular. When the mag-
nesium compound is added to the molten iron, the reaction is more
or less violent depending upon the form of the magnesium.
Exhibit 111-20 illustrates several methods of magnesium
treatment.
MOLDING, POURING
AND SHAKEOUT
Molding
Many molding materials and types of equipment suitable for
the production of iron castings have been developed and are widely
used today. Molding techniques found in current practice include
green sand, dry sand, shell or hot box molding, full mold and the
Rheinstahl process. Green sand molds are usually least costly of
all molds to produce.
In general, mdlding sand is prepared by adding organic or
inorganic binders and water to clean silica sand and mulling the
material in a manner to insure that all sand grains are coated
with the binder mixture. The prepared sand is then discharged
from the mixer, or muller, and transferred to the molding area.
In mechanized foundries, the transfer is usually effected by
mechanical or pneumatic conveyor. Smaller foundries often use
front end loaders, tote boxes, or wheelbarrows.
The typical molding operation is done with the aid of mold-
ing machines. The complete operation is often performed in two
separate machines. Molding machines capable of molding cope
and drag simultaneously in one molding cycle are often utilized.
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Pouring
Pouring is generally done within a short time after the
molds have been prepared to prevent drying of green molding
sand. The molten metal is temporarily stored either in large
refractory lined holding ladles, or in furnaces designed to
maintain the tapping temperature, or to superheat the metal,
from which it is tapped off as needed.
Shakeout
The hot casting is commonly separated from the sand on a
heavy-duty vibrating screen. The sand flows through the screen
openings to the return or shakeout sand system for transfer to
the return sand bin of the sand conditioning system. The cast-
ings are removed from the shakeout manually, by hoist, or action
of the vibrating screen to a cooling and sorting conveyor or
to tote boxes.
Many foundries separate the casting from the sand manually,
particularly those foundries which are not highly mechanized.
Exhibit 111-21 illustrates a common process flow diagram
for molding, pouring, and shakeout,
CLEANING, HEAT TREATING
AND FINISHING
Cleaning and finishing of castings are the final opera-
tions performed in the foundry. Cleaning generally refers to
the operations involved in the removal of sand and scale; sprues,
gates, and risers; and fins, wires, chaplets or other metal not
a part of the casting. The castings, after they have been sep-
arated from sand at the shakeout screen, are cooled in boxes
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Ill - 17
or on a conveyor which moves them to the cleaning and finishing
area. For gray iron castings, the gating system may be broken
off by impact in the shakeout, or may be removed on a sprue re-
moval section of the casting delivery conveyor.
Exhibit 111-22 is a typical process flow diagram for clean-
ing and finishing.
Heat treatment of iron castings is performed for the
following basic reasons:
1. For Gray and Ductile Iron
Stress Relief - 1000° - 1250° F
Annealing - 1250° - 1650° F
Normalizing - 1650° F
Quench and Temper - 1550° - 1600° F
2. For Malleable Iron
Annealing - 1600° F
Generally, these treatments are carried out in batch-type
or continuous heat treating furnaces which may be gas or oil
fired, or electrically heated. Atmosphere control is sometimes
used for the higher temperature treatments.
SAND CONDITIONING
Most of the sand used in the foundry molding operation is
reused many times with the addition of binders and moisture for
each use. The cost of new sand, its handling and storage space
requirements, and additional cost for disposal of used sand
make single usage of new sand impractical. Therefore, most
foundries have effectively used sand collection and recondition-
ing systems.
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In general, sand conditioning systems consist of the fol-
lowing :
1. Raw material receiving and storage
2. Sand mixing system
3. Prepared sand delivery system
4. Spill sand recovery system
Exhibit 111-23 illustrates the sand conditioning process flow.
Reclamation equipment designed to remove the accumulated
buildup of clay and carbonaceous material on the sand grains
to extend the working life of molding sand is available. The
use of such equipment often becomes a desirable economic alter-
native to the purchase of new replacement sand. Sand is often
reclaimed by high production foundries with large molding sand
requirements and by foundries located in areas where suitable
molding sand is relatively expensive.
COREMAKING
Cores are normally made of silica sand, organic or in-
organic binders, and a liquid to activate the binding material.
The selection of the core formulation and process best suited
to a particular application requires consideration of many
factors including green strength, dry strength, porosity, core
complexity, quantity of cores required, and raw material, equip-
ment and production costs. The process flow diagram for core-
making is illustrated in Exhibit 111-24.
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The major coremaking processes in current use for castings
are:
Oil Sand Cores
Shell Cores
Silicate Bonded Cores
Furan Cores
Hot Box Cores
Oil Sand
Cores
Oil sand cores are widely used although silicate and resin
bonded cores are being used in greater numbers each year. Vege-
table or mineral oils are commonly used as binders. Cereal
binders and clay are often used in conjunction with core oils.
The cereal binders, mostly derived from corn flour, are added
to improve green and dry bond, decrease the oil required, and
improve collapsibility of the core. Clay is often added in
small amounts to increase the green strength.
Shell Cores
Shell cores for iron castings make use of round, clean
silica sand. The resin normally employed for iron castings is
phenolformaldehyde, Hollow shell cores are made by the invest-
ment process in a shell core machine, and small, solid cores
can be made in a hot box machine.
Silicate Bonded
Cores
Silicate bonded cores are made in a molding or core blow-
ing machine, and set by the application of carbon dioxide in a
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manner that permits the gas to completely permeate the core.
Since the storage life of silicate bonded sand is short when
exposed to the air, due to absorption of CO2, the mixed sand
must be stored in covered containers.
Furan Cores
Furan air set cores employ resins made from furfuryl alco-
hol, ureas, and formaldehydes. The resins are mixed with core
sand and phosphoric acid activator in conventional mixing equip-
ment. Binders are usually converted from liquid to solid at
room temperature.
Hot Box
Cores
Hot box core resins include furfuryl alcohol, urea-formal-
dehyde and phenol urea-formaldehyde. The liquid resin is mixed
with the core sand and activated in conventional mixing equip-
ment. Binders are converted from liquid to solid by heat sup-
plied by ovens, infrared lamps, dielectric ovens or heated
core boxes.
pattern
MAKING
Foundry patterns are normally made of wood or metal. Pat-
terns for small production runs tend to be the former and for
large production runs, the latter. Wood patterns generally
have a shorter useful life, although they can be repaired more
easily than the metal patterns which usually have a higher first
cost. A large production requirement, however, often results
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in a lower pattern cost per mold if metal patterns are used.
Wood pattern shop equipment includes different types of
saws, planers, joiners, lathes, edgers, routers and drill
presses. Metal pattern making equipment includes typical
machine shop tools.
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IV - EMISSIONS GENERATED
AND THEIR CONTROL
GENERAL CHARACTER
OF EMISSIONS
Emissions of particulate matter, dust, fume, smoke, and
gas are a by-product of most foundry processes and operations.
The type, concentration, size and hazards of foundry emissions
are tabulated in Exhibit IV-1 by foundry department and opera-
tion and are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Raw Material Storage
and Charge Makeup
The handling, preparation, and charge makeup of basic
foundry raw materials—scrap metal, coke, and limestone--produce
moderate amounts of emissions. The storage of coke and lime-
stone over extended periods results in degradation of these
materials from the action of the sun, rain, and repeated freez-
ing and thawing. Ferrous scrap corrodes rapidly. Subsequent
handling during the makeup of furnace charges causes the lime-
stone dust, coke breeze and rust to be released into the en-
vironment. Every conveyor transfer becomes a point where the
emission control is desirable, as well as storage bins, weigh
hoppers and the location where these materials are placed into
charging buckets. Rehandling of coke results in additional
degradation and, to a lesser degree, this is also true of lime-
stone .
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IV - 2
The preparation of metallic charge materials including the
breaking and cutting of large scrap, removing cutting oil
residue from machine shop turnings and borings in preparation of
briquetting, and cleaning of return scrap represent additional
sources of emissions. Breaking and cutting of scrap, and cen-
trifuging of oily turnings and borings are a minor source of
emissions. The removal of oil from turnings and borings by
ignition results in smoke and vapors. The amount of emissions
depends upon the quantity of oil remaining on the turnings and
the method of removal.
Melting Department
The melting department is responsible for a large proportion
of emissions, producing the need for emissions control equip-
ment on cupolas, electric arc furnaces, preheaters and dryers.
Emissions from coreless induction furnaces are usually insig-
nificant due to the normally higher quality of the scrap charge
and the fact that no combustion takes place in the unit.
Channel induction furnaces also produce minimal amounts of
emissions and are seldom provided with emissions control equip-
ment .
Cupola
The cupola is the largest single source of difficult-to-
collect emissions, producing fume, smoke, particulate matter,
dust and gases. Concentrations are affected by the quality and
quantity of charge materials, the use of techniques such as
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IV - 3
oxygen enrichment and fuel injection, the volume and rate of
combustion air, and the melting zone temperature.
Iron melting in a cupola produces heavy concentrations of
emissions ranging in size from greater than 44 microns to less
than 1 micron in a gas stream up to 2000° F. Concentrations
are affected by the quality and quantity of charge materials,
the use of techniques such as oxygen enrichment and fuel in-
jection, the volume and rate of combustion air, and the melting
zone temperature.
The range of concentrations of emission components re-
ported by seven foundries are shown in Exhibit IV-2 and are in
general agreement with those reported by Engels and Weber^
shown below.
Chemical Composition of Cupola Dust
Component Mean Range Scatter Values
Si02 20%-407a l07o-45%
. CaO 3-6 2-18
AI2O3 2-4 0.5-25
MgO 1-3 0.5-5
FeO(Fe203,Fe) 12-16 5-26
MnO' 1-2 0.5-9
Exhibit IV-2 portrays the major components of particulate
emissions from iron melting cupolas and the percentage by weight
of the various materials determined by chemical analysis of the
effluent of seven cupolas. The nine components can be grouped
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IV - 4
into three major categories: (1) metallic oxides, (2) silicon
and calcium oxides, and (3) combustible materials.
The amount of metallic oxides occurring in cupola emissions
is believed to be related to the presence of the respective met-
als in the scrap charge and their partial vapor pressures at
the temperature of the cupola melting zone. All metallic ox-
ides except those of iron indicate the presence of nonferrous
contaminants or alloying additions in the metallic scrap. Thus,
zinc oxide could result from the presence of galvanized scrap;
lead oxide from terne plate, lead bearing steel, or red or white
lead painted scrap; aluminum oxide from aluminum scrap, chromium,
and copper; and cadmium oxides from chrome plated materials.
Iron oxides are always to be found in cupola emissions, the con-
centration being dependent on such factors as scrap thickness,
degree of surface corrosion, and temperature in the melting zone„
The oxides of silicon and calcium, representing the second
category, derive from lining erosion, embedded molding or core
sand on foundry returns, dirt from the scrapyard adhering to
scrap, or from the limestone flux.
The third category of emissions, combustible material, in-
cludes coke particles, vaporized or partially burned oil and
grease and other contaminants swept up the stack by the top
gases. Certain other variables influence the amount of cupola
emissions.
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IV - 5
1. Blast rate. Specific blast rate, when increased,
produces more emissions by entrainment of metallic oxides and
mechanical dusts, such as coke and limestone. A portion of the
entrained particles is filtered out of the gas stream by the
burden, with a higher burden offering greater opportunity of
particle capture. Emission rates are greater during burn-down,
due in part to increased temperatures resulting in larger gas
volumes, higher gas velocity, lower collecting ability of the
smaller burden height, and greater formation of metallic oxide
vapors in the melting zone. Furthermore, the vertical height
of the reducing zone is shorter, with less potential for reduc-
tion of the already formed oxides.
2. Coke Rate. It is believed that cupola emissions
vary directly as the percent of coke in the charge and some
2
researchers have reported such a trend. A degradation of the
coke while weighing, charging, and moving downward in the cupola
shaft will result in an increase of coke dust in the furnace.
Therefore, any change in operating practice resulting in a
decrease in the coke charge, including heating of the blast
air, or injection of an auxiliary fuel, should have a beneficial
effect on the amount of particulates emitted.
3. Afterburners. The use of an afterburner, proper-
ly designed and installed, decreases the quantity of combustible
particles released to the atmosphere or control system. Suf-
ficient oxygen must be provided through the charging door to
permit complete combustion and the upper cupola stack must ex-
tend far enough to permit time for combustion before the particles
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IV - 6
are exhausted to the atmosphere or to the emissions control
equipment. Deficiency in either factor will tend to negate
the potential advantage of the afterburner.
4. Oxygen Injection. Oxygen injection in the blast
air tends to increase the quantity of particulate emissions by
increasing the oxidizing nature of the melting area, and in-
creasing the melting rate. Oxygen injection also increases
the melting rate tending to offset the increase of emissions
when considered as a function of metal melted.
5. Operating Practices. Operating practices have
noticeable effects on emissions levels. The use of wood or
paper products for igniting the coke bed results in smoke dur-
ing this part of the operating cycle. Fluctuating burden
height can result in higher emission rates. Coke and lime-
stone require careful handling to limit degradation, and should
be screened prior to weighing in order to limit the addition
of dust to the charge. Shotblasting of foundry returns and
cleaning of oil scrap will result in lower emissions.
Particle size distributions of cupola emissions for 19
installations are tabulated in Exhibit IV-3. A definitive
relationship between size distribution and chemical compos-
ition of emissions has not been discovered in the literature<,
It is believed, however, that a high percentage of less than
5 micron particles coincides with a finding of substantial
percentages of metallic oxides. Similarly, a high percentage
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IV - 7
of greater than 44 micron particles is believed to correspond
to large amounts of SiC^ from foundry returns and dirty scrap,
and combustibles, including coke breeze.
Cupola design parameters have no discernable affect on
emission type or quantity. Two trends are noted in recent
test data:
1. Particulate emission rates from acid lined cup-
olas ranged from 9.5 to 37 pounds per ton with a median rate
of 19 pounds per ton. For unlined cupolas the range was 7.5
to 66 pounds per ton with a median rate of 40.5 pounds per ton.
2. Those cupolas reported as using briquettes in
the metallic charges all have emissions rates greater than
average of all foundries for which emissions rates are avail-
able.
The data also indicate a significant correlation between
emissions and blast rate for acid lined cupolas expressed by
the formula:
E = .05 + .07 B
where:
E = particulate emissions in pounds per ton of melt
B = specific blast rate in SCFM per square foot furnace
area.
A plot of the data and the curve is shown in Exhibit IV-4.
Additional data for unlined cupolas indicate a significant
correlation between emissions and coke rate and specific blast
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IV - 8
rate, expressed by the formula:
E = 57 - 6.6 C + 0.1 B
where:
C »= metal to coke ratio.
The curve is shown in Exhibit IV-50
Oxygen enrichment and natural gas fuel injection have been
presented in recent years as techniques to reduce coke require-
ments, or to increase melting rates when using the same metal
to coke ratio0 These techniques have been partially accepted
by the industry because of their substantial advantages but
little research and development work has been done to date
that establishes their effect on cupola emissions.
The available data are inconclusive but some show an in-
crease in emissions resulting from oxygen enrichment. Other
data however, indicate that although total emissions are in-
creased, the improvement in the melting rate with oxygen en-
richment results in a slightly lower emission rate per ton of
metal melted. Additional testing is required to definitely
establish the effect of oxygen enrichment on emission levels.
Chemical analysis of the metallic oxides in the cupola
emissions for one cupola, with and without oxygen enrichment,
is shown in the table on the following pageu
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IV - 9
Metallic Oxide Content of Cupola Emissions
with and without Oxygen Enrichment
Metallic Oxide
With Oxygen
Enrichment
Without Oxygen
Enrichment
MnO
1.0%
1.07>
PbO
5.0
3.0
ZnO
35.0
28.0
CuO
1.0
1.0
FeO
46.0
48„0
Si02
11.0
18.0
SnO
1.0
1.0
Total
100.07o
100.07.
The tabulated data show little change in the content of iron
oxide for the two operating conditions. It is reported that
a visual examination of the plume verifies that the emission
rate is higher with oxygen enrichment. Particle size distri-
bution data were not obtained for this test program.
Several research programs are currently in progress to
determine the effects of natural gas injection as a replace-
ment for part of the coke charge. The results of one such
2
program are shown below.
Coke
Burner Height Replaced with Production Emissions
Inches Gas Percent Tons/Hour Pounds/Ton Melt
07, 14.8 67.8
50 30 20.1 57.1
50 40 20.3 58o5
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IV - 10
The emission rate of 67.8 pounds per ton reported for the
control condition with no coke replacement is several times
higher than shown in Exhibit IV-4 for a specific blast rate of
272 CFM/SF. Two special conditions, one inherent in the test
program and the other a factor of weather conditions, could
O
account for the discrepancy.
The injection of other hydrocarbon fuels including coal
and fuel oil has been reported in the literature. Less im-
portance is attached to these efforts than the injection of
natural gas, and no data pertaining to the effect of these
fuels on emissions have been reported.
Electric Arc
Furnace
The number of electric arc melting installations in iron
foundries is relatively small, with less than 50 known to ex-
ist in 1959, and approximately 200 in 1969.
The emissions from iron melting in the arc furnace come
from two principal sources--the burning or vaporization of
combustible materials which are in the charged raw materials,
and the burning of the electrodes and some of the charge me-
tallies during meltdown. In both cases, the greatest evolu-
tion of gases occurs during the early part of the cycle, when
meltdown takes place and when the electric power consumption
is highest. Although the type and quantity of effluent from
combustion of impurities in the charged materials is highly
variable depending on the nature and cleanliness of these
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IV - 11
materials, the gases produced from combustion of the electrodes
are a known and comparatively constant and calculable source of
emissions,. Approximately 9-11 pounds of electrodes are consumed
per ton of iron melted, producing approximately 30 pounds of CO
and CO2 gases, plus 150 pounds of ^ from air induced into the
furnace. Additionally, a quantity of the metallics, principal-
ly iron, is oxidized and emitted as oxide fumes.
The electric arc furnace produces moderately heavy concen-
trations of particulates. From 50% to 80% of the total particles
are less than 5 microns in size when melting iron. The gas
stream is well over 2000° F, requiring cooling by infiltrated
air or water sprays.
The size distribution of particulate matter and chemical
analysis of the effluent from three electric arc furnaces are
given in Exhibit IV-6„ Emission rates are tabulated in Exhibit
IV-7 for 19 acid brick lined arc furnace installations with
capacities from 2 to 25 tons0
The wide range of emissions rates, from 4 to 40 pounds per
ton of charge metal, and the lack of correlation with furnace
size indicate that the rate at which emissions are produced is
relatively independent of these factors. A slight trend exists
toward a relationship between the rapidity with which melting
occurs and the rate of emissions produced, indicating that high
power inputs to produce short melt cycles will also produce
higher emissions. This conclusion is further verified by the
relationship depicted in Exhibit IV-8, in which the concentration
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IV - 12
of heavy rate of emissions is in the early or meltdown part of
the cycle. The less time devoted to the holding or refining
period, the more concentrated the emission rate will be during
the cycle.
Induction Furnace
Induction melting produces light concentrations of efflu-
ent consisting of fume, smoke, and oil vapor. The smoke and
oil vapor usually derives from small amounts of cutting oil ad-
hering to the steel or iron scrap.
Core less induction furnaces used as holding or superheat-
ing furnaces charged with molten iron only emit approximately
1„5 pounds of emissions per hour per ton of process weight and
therefore are rarely provided with emission control equipment.
Reverberatory Furnace
The reverberatory or air furnace for melting or duplexing
produces comparatively light to moderate concentrations of
emissions in the range of 1 to 3 grains per standard cubic foot.
Combustion occurs within the furnace but the gas or oil fuel is
burned in highly efficient burners above the metal bath. Smoke,
fume and fly ash are produced in this type of furnace. The
smoke results from combustion of oil on the scrap and other com-
bustible materials in the charge. Fume, mostly metallic oxides,
appears in the effluent, as it does in any melting furnace, and
is the result of nonferrous contaminants in the charge material,
vaporized along with a portion of the iron scrap in the molten
bath* The concentrations are related to the partial pressures
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IV - 13
of the oxides at the melting temperature.
Preheaters
Preheaters serve to raise the temperature of charge before
it goes into an induction furnace. As a result, electrical ef-
ficiency and melting rates of the furnace are increased and
melting time is reduced. Preheating also produces a clean,
safe charge because water, oil, emissions and other nonmetal-
lic contaminants are evaporated or burned off.
Preheat equipment includes a cover, base, bucket, combus-
tion chamber, burner and fans.
The type and concentration of emissions found in preheaters
are similar to that found in induction furnaces without pre-
heaters ,
Inoculation
The practice of producing ductile iron by ladle inocula-
tion of molten iron with magnesium, or other light metals which
produce similar effects, accounts for about 10% of total iron
tonnage cast„ The treatment agent is generally a form of mag-
nesium which can be introduced into the molten iron to produce
the desired effect. Exhibit IV-9 illustrates the various meth-
ods by xtfhich this can be accomplished.
The reaction produced during the inoculation process is a
violent one since magnesium vaporizes at a temperature beloxtf
that of molten iron. The degree of the violence varies with
the form and method of introduction of the magnesium. Because
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IV - 14
of this, only a relatively low percentage of the magnesium
which is introduced is actually involved in the reactions
which produce ductile iron, with the remainder being vapor-
ized and expelled as a gaseous fume. The actual yields vary
from as low as 15% to high as 807®, depending on the inocu-
lating agent used and the rapidity with which it is added to
the iron bath. The yield factor which is most generally ac-
cepted is about 35%.
Magnesium is the principal agent causing emissions during
inoculation, since the alloying materials which are used as
carriers of the magnesium either dissolve in the iron or ox-
idize to form slag. A major exception to this is the use of
magnesium impregnated coke which evolves CO and CC^ gas as
well as MgO fumes. The boiling point of magnesium is about
2,025° F, which is well below the temperature of molten iron
and which accounts for the violence of the reaction which
takes place0 The magnesium in the inoculant is used up in
three ways:
1. Reaction with any sulfur present to form MgS,
which becomes part of the slag. Although iron which is to
be used for ductile iron production is generally pretreated
with a basic material such as ^200^ or CaCO^ to remove sul-
fur, there is usually 0»027o to 0*03% of the sulfur remaining.
This will be effectively eliminated by the magnesium, using
about 0o5 pounds of magnesium per ton of iron.
2. A small quantity of magnesium will dissolve in
the iron, to the extent of about 0o04%. This amounts to about
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IV - 15
0.8 pounds of magnesium per ton of iron.
3. The remaining magnesium will boil off, forming
MgO upon contact with the air. The amount of magnesium which
is added will vary from 0.12% to 0.307o of the iron treated or
from 2o4 to 6C0 pounds of magnesium per ton of iron. Deduct-
ing the lo3 pounds of magnesium which was consumed by sulfur
reaction or dissolved in the iron leaves from 1.1 to 4.7
pounds of magnesium per ton or iron treated to form MgO fumes.
This will result in from about 2 to 8 pounds of MgO fumes gen-
erated per ton of iron treated.
The fumes from the inoculation process will be largely
MgO, with this material accounting for from 60% to 807o of the
total, depending on the form in which the magnesium was intro-
duced and the violence of the reaction. The more violent re-
actions, particularly when silicon-magnesium alloys are used,
will also produce Si02 particles in the emissions. Iron ox-
ide, as Fe203, will also be found in the emissions and will
constitute the second most important material present, after
MgO.
Particle size of the emissions will be fine for the MgO
and Fe203 portions with the silica and alumina particles gen-
erally of larger size,, These particles are under one micron
in size and are difficult to collect, requiring the use of
fabric filters or high energy wet scrubbers.
The reported results from the inoculation station of a large
gray and ductile iron foundry are as shown on the following page.
-------
IV - 16
Iron Treated
30 Tons per Hour
Inoculant Added
20-22 Pounds per Ton Iron
Inoculants Used
- 1 MgFeSi- (10%. Mg)
(Soda Ash
] >. •*-* <—« ~ /
<75% Fe
Emissions Produced - 100 Pounds per Hour
3.3 Pounds per Ton Iron
Emissions Analysis - 32.07* MgO
18.77o FepOo
9.57o C02
4.27o Si02
2.5% S
1.1% C
0.6% CaO
Balance Na20
This station was used for ductile iron inoculation, desulfuri-
zation and ferrosilicon inoculation, which explains the pres-
ence of such elements as sulfur and calcium in the catch. The
amount of magnesium in the inoculant was 2.25 pounds per ton of
iron treated. At a yield of 357o, this resulted in 1.45 pounds
vaporized, giving 2.4 pounds per ton of MgO. This amounts to
737, of the emissions actually captured.
Molding, Pouring
and Shakeout
The molding operation is not a major contributor to foun-
dry emissions. In green sand molding, the moisture in the sand
acts as a dust suppressant. Small quantities of dry parting
compound are emitted when the mold halves are dusted with this
material. Liquid partings used to prevent molding sand from
sticking to metal patterns or match plates have a kerosene base.
When sprayed on the patterns, a portion of the vehicle vaporizes,
Molding
-------
IV - 17
and the solids such as stearic acid are sprayed into the air
in the immediate environment. Sea coal is also used as a mold
spray and is released into the atmosphere. Concentrations are
light, approximately one grain per standard cubic foot.
Molding sands consist of silica, zircon, olivine, chamotte.
and occasionally other mineral grains bonded with clay, benton-
ite, portland cement, plaster of paris, petroleum residues and
bitumens. Additives are often added as cushioning materials,
with such materials as sea coal, pitch, wood flour, silica
flour, perlite, ground cereal hulls and chemicals in common use,
Binders and additives used to improve the strength, molding
properties, and casting properties of sand also contain amounts
of combustible materials which form gas which evolves during
the pouring and cooling of molds.
Green molding sands, which are most commonly used in iron
foundries, may contain the following additives.
Additive Amount by Weight
Wood flour 0.5% - 2.0%
Sea coal 2.5% - 8.07o
Cereal binder 0.5% - 1.0%
Silica flour 0.0% -15.0%
Pouring
Emissions from the pouring operation are much more severe
than molding and are usually more difficult to capture. The
hot metal, when poured into the mold, first ignites and then,
as oxygen in the mold is exhausted, vaporizes such materials in
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IV - 18
the sand as sea coal, cereal and synthetic binders, and core
binders. Steam is formed in green sand molds from the moist
sand and in the fall mold process, the complete pattern is
consumed. Emissions are affected by the quantities of the
different source materials required to produce satisfactory
castings.
Most of the emissions are steam, vapor, and smoke with
a smaller percentage of particulate matter. In the case of
the full mold process and many of the synthetic binders, the
emissions such as hydrogen chloride and methyl chloride are
toxic, and only the low concentrations per mold, coupled with
general foundry ventilating systems, prevent potentially seri-
ous physiological reactions in molders, pouring crews and
shakeout men. The concentration of smoke, fume, and vapors
is related to the hot metal temperature, length of time be-
tween pouring and shakeout, and the quantities of binders,
moisture and parting compounds required to make a satisfac-
tory mold.
The effect of molten metal during pouring is to vaporize
the volatile materials and the water contained in the molding
sand adjacent to the mold cavity* Although this effect de-
creases rapidly as the distance from the cavity increases, the
gases formed are forced through the molding sand and vent holes
and are expelled into the surrounding atmosphere. The nature
of these gases is illustrated in Exhibit IV-10. The combus-
tible portions of the gases are relatively high, consisting of
-------
IV - 19
from about 47c for dried molds to as high as 76% for molds with
a high percent of cereal and bentonite. The in the combus-
tibles comes from decomposition of water vapor, while the CO
comes from combustion of organic materials.
The volume of gas formed is illustrated in Exhibits IV-11
and IV-12, for various mold materials. Gas evolved ranges from
200 to as high as 700 cubic feet per cubic foot of sand at
1,800° F. Only a small portion of the sand adjacent to the
sand-metal interface approaches this temperature and gas forma-
tion drops off rapidly as the distance from the interface in-
creases. Although relatively small amounts of particulates are
involved, the toxicity of the unburned combustibles makes col-
lection a desirable factor. The high temperatures associated
with pouring often result in burning of gas as it leaves the
molds. This afterburning is desirable to completely convert
the combustibles to CO2 and water vapor and to eliminate explo-
sion and toxicity hazards, particularly if the mold contains
oil sand cores.
Examples of toxic emissions are carbon, styrene, low mo-
lecular weight polystyrene, ethylbenzene, methyl chloride,
chlorine, hydrogen chloride and decomposition of evaporative
products in addition to CO, CO2 and t^O.^"
Shakeout
At the shakeout, the action of separating castings from
- the mold brings the hot casting into contact with moist and
cooler molding sand originally located away from the mold cavity.
-------
IV - 20
The result is the creation of additional smoke, steam and vapor
of the same type emitted during the pouring operation. Concen-
tration of the emissions is momentarily high, over three grains
per cubic foot, but the casting is cooler than the molten metal
while pouring allowing the sand to be quickly separated from the
casting. The emissions are often able to be contained and re-
moved through the use of ventilated hoods.
Cleaning and
Finishing
Cleaning and finishing operations produce emissions less
troublesome than other foundry processes. Emissions are gener-
ally larger and easier to capture and separate from the air-
stream though concentrations can occasionally exceed three
grains per standard cubic foot, Particle sizes are as large as
five to seven microns and their concentrations are dependent
upon type and surface speed of the grindstone and the amount of
pressure exerted by the grinder. Chipping operations produce
such large particles that control of the effluent is not re-
quired. Abrasive shotblasting produces high concentrations of
metal particles, sand dust, and broken shot but modern blast
machines are provided with high efficiency fabric filters de-
signed for the purpose. The concentration of these emissions
is a function of the quantity of embedded sand on the castings,
fracture strength of the shot, and length of time in the blast
cabinet or room. Sand blasting, now rarely used, produces high
concentrations of sand dust with concentrations related to air
pressure, blast sand characteristics and length of time required
for cleaning.
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IV - 21
Effluent from annealing and heat treating furnaces is
minimal except when the castings have previously been oil
quenched. Concentration of the resulting smoke is a function
of temperature and amount of oil residue on the casting surfaces.
Painting is infrequently done by foundry departments.
Effluent from this operation consists primarily of vapors from
thinners and concentrations depend on the type and quantity of
the volatiles.
Sand Conditioning
New molding and core sand are ordered to a desired screen
test for specific use but always include some fines. The escape
of fines into the atmosphere varies with the method of handling.
Closed systems such as pneumatic conveyors release only small
amounts and are provided with exhaust connections at the inlet
and the receiver. Systems using belt conveyors and bucket
elevators release fines and dust at most transfer points between
conveying units.
Many smaller foundries unload and transfer sand to floor
level bins manually, or with front-end loaders. Load and un-
load points are generally uncontrolled. The handling of con-
ditioned molding or core sand presents fewer problems than new
sand because of the moisture content and binder additives.
Control equipment and hoods at transfer points are generally
not required.
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IV - 22
Shakeout or return sand produces more emissions because
it has been partially dried from contact with the hot metal.
Introduction of fresh spill sand from the molding floor and
excess prepared sand helps considerably in cooling, moistening
and decreasing dust and fines from being emitted at conveyor
transfer points. It is considered good practice to enclose the
transfer points and provide exhaust connection at these loca-
tions and also at the vibrating or rotating screen and the
return sand storage bin.
Moderate concentration of fines, in the range of one to
three grains per standard cubic foot, dust and binder materi-
als are emitted at the sand mixer. Concentrations are substan-
tially increased if the muller is equipped for sand cooling.
This is accomplished by directing a blast of cooling air either
over or through the sand while it is being mixed. The air
blast entrains small particles and must be exhausted to a con-
trol device to separate the particulate matter from the air
blast.
Coremaking
Emissions resulting from coremaking operations are gener-
ally in the form of fume and gas, the type and amount depending
on the nature of the core mix and the coremaking process. The
core mix is typically comprised of silica sand, binder and mois-
ture „ Sand emissions are light, under one grain per standard
cubic foot. The binders used in coremaking include linseed oil,
core oil, wheat flour, sulphite, pitch, oilless binders, resins,
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IV - 23
silica flour, fireclay, wood flour, iron oxide, bentonite, and
silica sand,
Core binders that generate a considerable volume of gas on
pouring of the mold are undesirable. A typical core mix for
malleable iron castings might be as follows:
Sand Cereal Moisture Oil Binder
92%-98%> „ 75%-1.25% 0%-5% 0%-l% 0%-.5%
Core mixes for gray iron castings vary greatly according
to the general size of the casting and the specific application
for the part. The rate of gas volume generated in a core
during the curing process is largely a function of baking time.
Exhibit IV-13 illustrates the effect of baking time on the
volume of gas generated at various baking temperatures. A
review of the curves quickly points out that the gas content
is reduced by baking at higher temperatures.
Resinous binders, normally used in shell molding processes,
cause various hazards. The decomposition of the products is ex-
tremely toxic. Dermatitis is the principal effect caused by an
excess of free phenol, formaldehyde, hexamethylenetetramine, or
alcohol. The extent of the hazard depends upon the specific
agent and the tolerance level for that agent. Phenol, for ex-
ample, can cause dermatitis and do organic damage to the body
at levels exceeding five parts per million. Formaldehyde is a
nuisance at levels exceeding five parts per million. Hexameth-
ylenetetramine can cause skin Irritations with direct contact.
-------
IV - 24
Other toxic and irritating materials include furfuryl al-
cohol, ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, urea, carbon monoxide and
silica dust. These can be released during shell operations.
Each has varying minimum levels of concentration before its tox-
icity or irritation are critical or a nuisance. Ventilation be-
comes the important factor in minimizing these hazards.
The sand-to-oil ratio has a bearing on the volume of gas
generated in a core during pouring. The effect of sand-to-oil
ratio on the amount of core gas given off during pouring is
illustrated in Exhibit IV-14. The relative amounts of gas
produced by various core binders is given in the table. Com-
position of gas has not been determined.
Cubic Centimeter
Core Binder Gas per Gram
Linseed 380 - 450
Petroleum 350 - 410
Urea Resins 300 - 600
Cereal 550 - 660
Inventory of
Foundry Emissions
An analysis of cupola and electric furnace emissions and
the factors affecting the rates of emissions shows that an aver-
age of 20.8 pounds of particulate emissions are produced per ton
of metal melted in an iron foundry cupola, and that an average
of 13,8 pounds of particulate emissions per ton of metal melted
results from direct electric arc furnace iron production.
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IV - 25
Exhibit IV-15 shows the total estimated particulate emis-
sions generated by melting operations in foundries using cupolas
and direct electric arc furnaces in 1969. The exhibit shows
total quantities for each of nine geographical regions and the
nationwide totals based on the molten iron production for the
year and the above emission rates. Based on a survey of iron
foundries, considering the number and capacity of furnaces
equipped with control systems, the effectiveness of the control
systems, and the number of uncontrolled furnaces, it is estim-
ated that 75% of the particulate emissions generated are pres-
ently being released to the atmosphere.
Exhibit IV-15 also shows estimated quantities of carbon
monoxide generated and emitted. The first estimate is based
on an average cupola operating with a 7/1 coke ratio, using
coke with a carbon content of 91%, and with 11.6% carbon mon-
oxide in the top gas. Under these conditions, 276 pounds of
carbon monoxide is generated per ton of metal melted.
The amount of carbon monoxide emitted to the atmosphere is
dependent on a number of factors including the temperature of
the top gas, the availability of infiltrated air to provide
oxygen for combustion, the completeness of combustion, and the
percent of the total time that burning of the carbon monoxide
occurs. With sufficient oxygen from the infiltrated air and
with constant combustion, the carbon monoxide content should be
completely burned. Several factors tend to work against this
ideal condition, including the flame being extinguished by each
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IV 26
charge addition, lack of immediate reignition either without
an afterburner, or with an improperly directed flame from an
afterburner, varying carbon monoxide content precluding con-
stant combustion, and variable air supply. A conservative es-
timate of 507o combustion efficiency has been applied to the
quantities of total carbon monoxide generated to obtain the
estimated weight of this gas emitted into the atmosphere.
The results of the calculations for emissions from melting
operations can be summarized as follows for 1969 nationwide
production levels:
Total castings produced 16,614,000 Tons
Total molten iron produced 24,367,000 Tons
Total particulate emissions
generated 243,000 Tons
Total carbon monoxide
generated 2,924,000 Tons
Total particulate emissions
emitted 182,000 Tons
Total carbon monoxide emitted
1,462,000 Tons
The above data are derived only from cupola and electric
arc furnace operation. Emissions from other melting equipment
including induction furnaces and reverberatory furnaces are
negligible, not only because of conditions inherent to these
types of furnaces but also because generally cleaner scrap
metal is used for furnace charges and a relatively small per-
centage of the total iron is melted in these furnaces. Pre-
heating of less clean scrap for charging into induction furnaces
will add significantly to the emissions inventory only when the
process is substantially more widely used than it is now. At
its present level of application, preheater emissions are also
negligible.
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IV - 27
Emissions from non-melting foundry processes, with a single
important exception, are often controlled as a standard practice,
have the most effect on the foundry environment, and are released
to the atmosphere in lesser quantities than the cupola and elec-
tric arc furnace emissions. The concentration of these emissions
at their source can be substantial as in the case of the shakeout,
abrasive cleaning, and grinding, but the particles emitted are
often large with a relatively high settling rate. The portion
of the particulate matter escaping the normal collection duct-
work tends to settle out within the foundry building.
The non-melting emissions posing the greatest current prob-
lem are those resulting from coremaking. A minor problem existed
in the past when practically all cores were made from oil sand„
This type of core, however, is thermally cured in a core oven,
and the emissions are relatively easy to capture from the core
oven stack for afterburning. The use of organic chemical bonding
agents, that are becoming more and more widely used, intensifies
the problem since these produce emissions extremely difficult to
capture due to their method of application.
Molds or cores made from air set sand are often set out on
the foundry floor or racks while the sand sets. The local envir-
onment in this situation is often extremely poor. Not only is
it difficult to capture the emissions over a large floor area,
but the dilution of the gaseous emissions by the air makes the
resulting mixture difficult and expensive to incinerate in any
type of afterburner.
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IV - 28
The situation in many foundries for thermally cured chemical
binders when making shell or hot box cores causes similar prob-
lems for the local environment as well as afterburning. The
resulting odors can be detected beyond the foundry property in
many cases.
Exhibit IV-16 shows estimated nationwide quantities of par-
ticulate emissions from non-melting operations by geographical
regionsc The exhibit shows that an estimated 1,504,000 tons of
particulates were generated, and that 76,600 tons of the total
are emitted into the atmosphere.
CONTROL OF
FOUNDRY EMISSIONS
The current state of the art of foundry emissions control
does not fully satisfy the needs of the industry. On a purely
technical basis, virtually all particulate and most gaseous
emissions can be controlled. However, the cost of such control
for several basic foundry processes may be beyond the present
financial ability of the small and medium foundries, which com-
prise approximately 90% of the industry.
The emissions more difficult to collect are by and large
those with large concentrations of very fine particles five mi-
crons and smaller., Conversely, the emissions easier to collect
are those consisting entirely of large particles.
The problems arising from each type of foundry contaminant
and the techniques of pollution control vary with the nature of
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IV - 29
the specific situation. Of all techniques available to control
foundry pollutants, emission collection equipment systems are
the most significant. These systems, which include dry centrif-
ugals, wet collectors, fabric filters and electrostatic precipi-
tators, vary widely in design, capabilities, cost and application.
A tabulation of different emission collection equipment designs
and their particular application to foundry processes is shown
in Exhibit IV-17.
In addition to the many dust collection equipment systems
which are in use, a variety of types of hoods, ventilating and
exhaust systems and various other techniques are employed to
capture or exhaust foundry emissions.
Exhibit IV-18 presents a summary of control equipment on
gray iron foundry melting furnaces and a review of the collec-
tion efficiencies of the control equipment is given in Exhibit
IV-19.
Raw Material Handling,
Preparation and Charge
Makeup
Few fixed emission points exist in typical yards where con-
trol can easily be applied; however, most of the emissions which
come from these areas are dusts of relatively large particle
sizes which settle readily. In a few cases, ventilation systems
and dry centrifugal collectors have been installed in the charge
makeup area, when it is located inside an enclosed building.
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IV - 30
The one area which has been receiving attention in recent
years involves those foundries in which metallic charge materials
are either burned to remove nonmetallic coatings or accompanying
nonmetallic debris, or are preheated to remove moisture or oily
coatings. Since these operations are almost always performed
in a fixed combustion unit of some type, emission control systems
are relatively easy to apply. Medium energy wet collectors have
been used where oil fumes were present, and dry centrifugal
collectors were applied where dry dusts were to be collected.
Cupola Melting
It is estimated that approximately 360 iron foundry melt-
ing systems in the United States are currently equipped with
some type of air pollution control equipment, ranging from wet
caps to fabric filters, wet scrubbers, and electrostatic pre-
cipitators. In fact, every known method, from simple spark
screens to complicated systems such as electrostatic precipita-
tors, has been tried with varying degrees of success. Although
selection of cleaning equipment varies with the purpose of the
installation, recent attention has centered on those techniques
which have been most successful in high efficiency control of
emissions, such as high energy wet scrubbers and fabric filter
baghouses„
The problem of selecting gas cleaning equipment for cupolas
depends essentially on the degree of efficiency required, need
to meet existing pollution codes, and the economic factors of
capital and operating costs.
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IV - 31
Wet caps, dry centrifugal collectors, wet collectors,
fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators are the different
collection systems which have been used for cupola emission
control.
Wet Caps
Approximately 95 gray iron foundries had cupola wet caps
in 1967. These collectors are placed directly on top of cupola
stacks and thus do not require any gas-conducting pipes and
2
pressure-increasing blowers. Wet caps are relatively simple
designs and usually consist of one or more inverted cones
surrounded by a collecting trough. Energy requirements are
low and collection efficiency is best for particles 44 microns
in size and larger. These systems are most practical in plants
having an existing supply of low cost water and the ability to
dispose of collected dust in sludge form.-' Furthermore, some
type of wet cap system is often employed in conjunction with
high energy wet collector installations on cupolas.
The low efficiency of the wet cap has caused it to decline
in use in recent years. Attempts are now being made to develop
higher efficiency of wet caps with multiple spray sections.
Dry Centrifugal
Collectors
This is a low energy unit designed for larger sized particles
in light to moderate concentrations. In a cupola installation,
ductwork and an exhaust fan to draw gases to the collector are
required„ These systems also necessitate capping the cupola and
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IV - 32
installing a cooling spray to reduce the temperature of exhaust
gases flowing to the collector. Often, dry centrifugal units
are used as precleaners of hot blast cupola top gases prior to
feeding into a recuperator. Furthermore, this type of collec-
tor is an integral part of most high efficiency emission collec-
tion systems. In 1967, approximately 15 gray iron foundries had
dry centrifugal installations which were not part of a larger
cupola emission collection system. The low efficiency of the
dry collector has resulted in almost no new installation on
cupolas in recent years, unless they were part of a larger system.
Wet Collectors
Several different medium and high energy designs have been
applied on cupolas. A wide range of capacities and collection
efficiencies is available„ These systems are usually used where
moisture and/or high temperature are present in the emission.
A complete installation requires ductwork, an exhaust fan and
capping of the cupola* As with wet caps, these systems are most
practical where low cost water and sludge disposal equipment are
c s
available. ' Although only 30 gray iron foundries had cupola
wet collectors in 1967, recent trends indicate that installa-
tions of this type system are increasing more rapidly than any
other.
Fabric Filters
When cupola collection efficiencies of 99% or higher are
required, the fabric filter is the system type often selected.
Although various fabric materials are available, glass fabric
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IV - 33
is typically chosen because of its resistivity to high temper-
atures. Complete installations may include numerous components
such as a baffle, raised cupola stack and lid, ductwork, exhaust
fan, spray coolers and other items in addition to the fabric
filter unit. Another type of installation involves using heat
exchangers instead of spray coolers. Fabric filter units can
be installed to handle more than one cupola if desired.^ Ap-
proximately 39 gray iron foundries were equipped with fabric
filters on cupolas in 1967.
Electrostatic
Precipitators
Rare applications of these systems have been made on cup-
olas. Excessive costs, operating and maintenance problems have
limited their use. Only one gray iron foundry was reported to
have a cupola electrostatic precipitator installation in 1967.
Additional installations have been made in the past few years.
Afterburners
In cupola installations, afterburners or gas igniters can
be employed for burning the combustible top gases, thereby re-
ducing the opacity of particles and CO discharged from the stack,
and for eliminating potential explosion hazards from cupola
gases. Afterburners are usually located just below or opposite
the charging door.
Preheaters
Burning of unburned products of combustion can also be ac-
complished at times with a type of blast air preheater which
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IV - 34
burns exhaust gases from the cupola. Not only is thermal
efficiency of the cupola capable of improvement, but the
preheater acts as a settling chamber for collecting coarse
dust.^
Electric Arc
Melting
A number of significant differences exist between the
electric arc and cupola air pollution problem. First, the
electric arc melting process and emissions problem are less
complex. Second, since the average particle size of elec-
tric arc emissions is considerably smaller than that of the
cupola, different collection objectives exist. Finally,
more uniform electric arc operating conditions and lower
emissions evolution tend to simplify the design of control
O
equipment for this process.
In 1967, approximately 24 gray iron foundries had some
type of air pollution control equipment for electric arc melt-
ing processes, but the number of installations has increased
substantially in the last few years.
Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are best suited for electric arc furnaces
and have been most frequently applied. This is due to the
extremely fine particle size of dust and fume emitted from
electric arc furnaces. Complete installation of a fabric fil-
ter unit to the furnace includes ductwork, an exhaust fan to
draw gases to the collector and a means of collecting the gases
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IV - 35
from the furnace.^ Approximately 20 gray iron foundries had
fabric filter installations on electric arc melting in 1967.
Wet Scrubbers and
Electrostatic
Precipitators
These collection systems are rarely used on electric arc
furnaces. Wet scrubber limitations include the existence of
too much fine dust and high energy requirements. Electrostat-
ic precipitators can encounter exhaust volumes too low for
their design requirements.^ Four foundries were reported to
have wet scrubber installations in 1967 on electric arc melt-
ing processes.
Furnace Hoods
Electric arc furnaces are also equipped with various types
of hoods to capture pollutants."^ Arrangement of electrodes
and gear above the furnace top as well as the method of charg-
ing and operating largely determines the hood type applied.
Often, some type of hood is used in conjunction with a collec-
tion unit.
1. Full Roof Hood - This type of hood is attached to
the top ring of the furnace. It requires stiffening to prevent
sagging at high temperatures and protection of electrodes to
prevent short-circuiting.
2. Side Draft Hood - This unit is located on the side
of the roof close to the electrodes to produce a lateral type of
control. An overhead hood at the charging door is also often
used with the side hood.
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IV - 36
3. Canopy Hood - A canopy hood, located above the
craneway, usually offers little interference with furnace op-
erating procedure. Effectiveness of these units is limited
due to equipment requirements needed to handle the large vol-
fi
uraes of infiltrated air.
Fourth Hole
Ventilation
In this system, a water-cooled probe is directly connected
to the furnace roof. The probe maintains a carefully controlled
draft in the furnace body.
Snorkel
This technique is similar to the fourth hole ventilation
method except that the extra hole serves as a natural pressure
relief opening for the furnace.^
Electric Induction
Melting
No combustion and only limited metal oxidation occur in
this type of furnace and since relatively clean scrap is used
for charge material, no serious emissions problem exists for
induction melting of iron.
Induction melting produces light concentrations of emis-
sions consisting of fume, smoke, and oil vapor. Control devices
are usually not provided or required. The smoke and oil vapor
usually derives fx'om small amounts of cutting oil adhering to
the steel or iron scrap, and can be eliminated by preheating
prior to charging into the induction furnace.
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IV - 37
The burning of oil residue on the scrap produces objection-
able effluents requiring the use of emission control equipment.
Afterburners and wet scrubbers on the preheater, either separ-
ately or in combination, are often used to reduce these emissions
to acceptable levels.
Reverberatory
Furnace
The emissions from this type of furnace come principally
from the combustion of oil or gas fuel, plus some slag and iron
oxide which is carried up the stack with the products of com-
bustion. The older installations are exhausted into the atmos-
phere through a stack or chimney. Medium energy wet scrubbers
with a 3 - to 20-inch pressure drop and fabric filter bag collec-
tors have been applied in a few cases.
The rotary reverberatory furnace has been only recently
utilized in small installations in iron foundries. A small
quantity of emission in the form of waste products of combus-
tion and slag particles is given off. None of these installa-
tions has been equipped with a collector.
Inoculation
The original installations of inoculation stations either
exhausted directly into the foundry building, or were equipped
with a ventilation hood which then exhausted into the atmos-
phere. In recent years, ductile iron inoculation stations have
been equipped with collecting hoods, or have been installed in
enclosed rooms, and the resultant gases have been drawn off by
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IV - 38
means of an exhaust fan, into a dust collection unit. Medium
energy wet scrubbers and fabric filter baghouses have been used
for dust collection for ductile iron inoculation stations.
Mold Pouring,
Cooling and
Shakeout
Capture of emissions resulting from pouring and cooling of
molds has been common for several decades for those high volume
production foundry installations where finished molds are set
out on continuous car-type mold conveyors, providing fixed lo-
cations for pouring, cooling, and shakeout operations. With
this type of equipment, side draft hoods are often provided for
the pouring area and side or bottom draft hoods at the shakeout,
with the mold cooling conveyor between these two points fully
hooded with sheet metal. Ducting is commonly provided from each
area to a single control device, usually a wet scrubber or dry
centrifugal collector.
Collection systems have been, and still are, uncommon for
those smaller production and jobbing foundries where completed
molds are set out on the foundry floor or on gravity roller
conveyors, and where the pouring and cooling utilize a substan-
tial percentage of the molding floor*, The problem for this
type of operation is related more to the cost of capture of the
effluent with a minimum amount of infiltrated air, than to sep-
aration of the effluent. With pouring and cooling in nonfixed
locations, and without hoods to capture the effluent, much of
the air in the foundry would require handling at a prohibitive
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IV - 39
cost, due to the volume processed. Furthermore, large particles
quickly settle out on the floor and machinery since the airflow
is far below the minimum capture velocity. A partial solution
to the problem in the pouring area has been provided in nonfer-
rous foundries by a traveling vent attached to the pouring ladle
bail, and ducted by means of flexible tubing and specially de-
signed connecting ducts to a suitable emission control unit.
This technique permits capture of effluent resulting from mold
pouring with a minimum of infiltrated air. Additional venting
is required during subsequent cooling, however, and this is not
practical when the ladle is moved on to pour the next mold, with
the result that significant emissions are still not collected.
There is no reason why similar equipment could not be developed
for iron foundries.
Large castings, such as automotive dies and machine beds,
can be cast by the full mold process. Generally, no central
pouring station is provided and the smoke generated is released
directly into the foundry building, creating an industrial hy-
giene problem.
The current method for controlling the smoke is through
the use of ventilating fans. A properly designed arrangement
of fans and makeup air systems may produce a relatively clear
shop environment, but as the smoke is exhausted from the foun-
dry, an air pollution problem is created. The problem is further
complicated by the fact that ventilating fans exhaust large vol-
umes of low pressure air and are not designed to be connected to
a duct and collector arrangement.
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IV - 40
Sand Preparation
and Handling
Processes such as mechanical sand handling systems and
sand mixing or reconditioning equipment produce an emissions
problem. Medium energy wet collectors are best suited for
effluent control. Occasionally, fabric filters are employed
only when dry sand conditions exist. Often, some type of
hood is used to capture emissions in sand conveyor systems
especially at transfer points. As with many other processes,
ductwork and an exhaust fan are required in a complete col-
lection system.^
Coremaking
The gases emitted from bake ovens and shell core machines
are a serious problem and difficult to control. Usually these
gases are permitted to exhaust to the atmosphere through a
ventilation system. Sometimes, catalytic combustion devices
are used on core ovens to burn gases to noncombustible analysis.
Other coremaking processes present a less serious air
pollution problem capable of control. In core-blowing or
core-shooting, fabric filters are usually selected if control
equipment is desired. In rare instances, medium energy wet
collectors are used. For core grinding, cotton or wool fab-
ric filters and medium energy dry mechanical and wet scrubbers
are frequently selected.^
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IV - 41
Cleaning and
Finishing
Dusts from gate and riser removal are generally controlled
with local exhaust systems connected to dry mechanical collec-
tors, medium energy wet collectors, or possibly cotton or wool
fabric filters. Sometimes exhaust hoods are provided above the
work station. Other cleaning processes such as abrasive shot-
blasting and tumbling are commonly controlled with fabric fil-
ters or medium energy wet collectors. Applications of dry
mechanical collectors are also made for abrasive cleaning pro-
cesses.
Most of the trimming and finishing operations generate
pollutants and require control. Chipping and grinding opera-
tions are normally provided with local exhaust hoods connected
to either high efficiency centrifugals or fabric filters. Wet
collectors are used if central sluicing systems are employed
or where grinding exhaust is combined with other cleaning room
operations.
Surface painting requires ventilation to reduce the hazard
due to volatile materials being atomized in the air. Exhaust
systems are generally used where dip painting is performed.
Open tank installations are also provided with local ventilation
hoods,9
Heat treating furnaces for malleableizing or for other
treatments of iron castings present the usual problem of emis-
sions from combustion of liquid or gaseous fuels. In most
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IV - 42
foundries, these are exhausted into the foundry building, or
through a stack to the atmosphere. Medium energy wet scrubbers
are an effective means of cleaning these exhaust gases, but
have not been applied in many cases.
Miscellaneous
Areas
Some of the non-manufacturing areas are sources of air
pollution in foundries. These include the pattern shop and
crating or boxing for shipping, where woodworking operations
occur. Dry centrifugal collectors are commonly used to col-
lect the wood dust and chips from these operations. Machine
shops and metal pattern shops usually present minor problems
of collecting the dust from machining or grinding of cast
iron. Dry collectors are commonly used for this purpose.
COST OF EMISSION
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Generally, all foundry emissions are expensive to control,
and since the collected material has little or no value, its
collection adds no value to the foundry's product. The instal-
lation and operating costs of control systems vary over a wide
range.
The cost of an emissions control system depends on the
following variables:
- Properties of emissions, including size distri-
bution, density, chemical composition, corrosiveness, solubility,
combustibility, and concentration.
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IV - 43
- Difficulty of capturing the emissions in an
air, gas, or water stream of moderate temperature and volume.
- Difficulty of separating emission particles
from the captor medium.
Properties of the matter to be collected are generally
fixed by the process and raw materials, although modifica-
tion of the equipment could possibly alter the properties.
Assuming them to be fixed for a given operation, the first
consideration is the cost of capture. If the operation oc-
curs in an enclosed and fixed location such as a melting
furnace or oven, capture may be relatively simple and may
be accomplished at low cost although emission collection
and separation costs could be high. If the location of the
operation is not fixed and occurs in the open, such as pour-
ing of molds set out on the foundry floor, then capture is
difficult and more expensive. In the latter case, with pour-
ing emissions dispersed throughout the plant, much of the air
in the building must be processed through the control system
to collect the emissions. A system of this capacity would
be expensive to install and operate.
The third factor of system cost is the difficulty of
particle separation from the captor medium. Large, dense
particles, such as metallic fragments from grinding opera-
tions, can usually be separated by the use of relatively low
cost dry centrifugal collectors. Submicron-sized metallic
oxide particles from a melting furnace, however, require
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IV - 44
more costly collection equipment such as high energy wet scrub-
bers or fabric filters.
The basic and auxiliary equipment costs are the main com-
ponents of the total capital cost. These equipment costs varied
on the average from 42% to 66% of the total capital cost. On
an individual foundry basis, the ratio of equipment to total
investment varies considerably. The following information il-
lustrates the average ratios observed for cupola installations.
Equipment Costs as a Percentage o-f
Total Investment Cost
Equipment Cost/Total Investment
Control System Average" Range
Wet Caps 42% 36% - 67%
Mechanical Collectors 55 36 - 79
Low Energy Wet Scrubbers 65 48 - 80
High Energy Wet Scrubber 66 48 - 85
Fabric Filter 65 41 - 82
The wide variance in the range of equipment cost as a per-
cent of total investment is caused by several factors. The data
represent installations at many foundries which have many dif-
ferent requirements. Some foundries had available space for the
control equipment while others required some plant modifications
to install the equipment. The age of the foundry affects the
cost. In some new foundries, the pollution control equipment
was designed as an integral part of the facility, while in old
foundries, additional costs must be incurred for adaptation of
facilities.
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IV - 45
Cupola Melting
The approximate installed cost of control equipment is
given in the following table:
Approximate Ins tailed Cost, $/ACFM for Cupola
System Cost
High Energy Scrubber $6.50-$8.50
Low Energy Scrubber 1.75- 2„50
Fabric Filter 7.50- 9.00
Mechanical Collector 3.00- 5.00
The annual operating costs are given in the following
table:
Approximate Annual Cost $/Ton
Above Charge Below Charge
System Door Take-Off Door Take-Off
High Energy Scrubber $2.10-$9.00 $1.00-$4.00
Low Energy Scrubber .90- 5.00 .35- 3.50
Fabric Filter 2.00-10.00 1.00- 4.00
The wide range in operating cost is due to variations in
cupola utilization. Foundries operating at 4,000 hours per
year will approach the lower limit of the range and foundries
operating at 1,000 hours per year or less will approach, and
possibly exceed, the higher value.
Electric Arc
Melting
The approximate installed cost of control equipment is
given in the following tab*le.
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IV - 46
Approximate Installed Cost, $/ACFM for Electric Arc
Local Hood Remote Canopy Hood
. . , a i -r . « . T*""1 . ^ . •
Roof
Diameter
Intermittent
Operation
Continuous
Service
Intermittent
Operation•
Continuous
Service
6 feet
$2.10
$2.50
$1.25
$1.85
8 feet
1.90
2.50
1.25
1.75
10 feet
1.85
2.35
1.25
1.70
12 feet
1.85
2.30
1.25
1.60
14 feet
1.80
2.25
1.25
1.60
Annual operating costs of fabric filters are given in the
following table:
Approximate Annual Costs $/Ton
System Canopy Hood Local Hood
Fabric Filter $2.90-$8.00 $1.70-$4.00
The range in annual costs, as in the case of the cupola,
is due to variations in electric arc utilization. Furnaces
operated at 4,000 hours per year will approach the lower limit
and foundries operating at 1,000 hours per year will approach
the higher value.
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V - RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR TESTING
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM
IRON FOUNDRY CUPOLAS CD
by A„F,S, & G.D.I.F.S.
INTRODUCTION - -
The iron foundry industry has had many air pollution studies con-
ducted on cupola emissions at their various plants. Of great concern to the
industry and to the individual firms that have conducted such testing are the many
varied and diverse test methods and test procedures used by the variety of independent
organizations conducting such tests. The diverse methods and equipment used in
performing such tests have made comparison and evaluation of results impractical
or a near impossibility. Many of the tests conducted have shown marked incon-
sistencies between individual test runs by the same test group and also in
comparing the results on the same system by different testing organizations.
A number of the procedures used in cupola testing suffer from
obvious inadequacies when they are carefully scrutinized. Consequently, it has
been deemed desirable and necessary that a reconrr,ended test procedure and testing
method be made available to assist the metal casting industry in achieving the
maximum in emission control with the minimum of wasted and misdirected effort
and expense. Since the industry is unique in the large, nonproductive investments
needed to gain compliance with air pollution control requirements, it is especially
significant that its emissions be evaluated by test methods and procedures able to
produce consistently reliable results detailing these emissions, but do not
unnecessarily and unfairly penalize the plant.
Particulate emission tests of cupola stack gases are done under
varied conditions and in several different locations, depending on the test objec-
tive. Both location and objective influence the test equipment employed although
the two usual purposes will be:
1} to determine nature and/or quantity of emissions released
in the raw cupola gases
Note: The recommended procedure discussed in this section has,
of this date, not been endorsed by any bodies other than
A.F.So and G„D„IoF.S. and is presented for information only.
-------
2) to determine nature and/or quantity of emissions on the
cleaned gas side of a control unit.
Raw gas test locations:
a) In cupola stack, above charging door. This is the most
difficult location for testing. Gas flow is extremely
uneven and the flow rate is relatively low; gas temperature
is high - often 1200°-2200°F - and fluctuating; dust loading
is extremely uneven because of channeling caused by indraft
of much cold outside air drawn into the cupola stack through
the charge door. This test location is necessary where a
cupola has no control systems or has a wet cap type collector.
b) In inlet duct ahead of dust collector. This is an easier
location if a reasonably straight duct run is available.
Duct velocities and dust loadings are more uniform and confined
in a smaller cross section. Normally gases will be cooled to
500°F or lower at the sampling point from evaporation of
cooling water. The added volume of water vapor must be measured
and considered in gas density calculations and dust loadings
if reported in grains per standard cubic feet dry gas.
Inlet and outlet samples should be supplemented wherever
possible by using the catch as a check for the test data.
Catch can be more readily obtained from dry collector
types especially for a complete melting cycle.
c) Catch plus outlet loadings. Where dry collectors are employed,
the entire test procedure is simplified by actual weighing of
collected material. The higher the efficiency of the collecting
device the more nearly the catch will represent the raw
sample. Chances for error are diminished because of quantity
-------
of collected material available although it will
be difficult to obtain accurate catch quantities
except for a complete melting cycle - thus providing
an averaging of the peaks and valleys of emission
concentrations.
See comments for outlet loading under "Cleaned Gas Locations".
Cleaned Gas Locations:
a) After dry collector. Conventional dust sampling tech-
niques will be satisfactory for such locations. Coarse
particles will be removed by a dust collector so the
importance of a large diameter sampling probe diminishes.
Water vapor content of the gas should cause no condensation
problems with 350° to 550°F gas temperatures. Collecting
device in sampler can be influenced by intended analysis -
gross weight, particle size distribution, chemical compo-
sition, particle count, etc.
b) After wet collector. Sampling problems are more complicated
than after dry collectors because gas stream is saturated or
nearly so. Close coupling of sampling components is essential
and heating of the sampled air often required.
Exception: Wet cap type of collectors have too short a
contact time to bring gas stream close to saturated con-
ditions. Sampling after the collector will be questionable
value unless gases are gathered in a discharge stack of
several diameter lengths.
In recognition of these differences in purpose and location for
testing emissions the following procedure is divided into three sections.
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V - 4
Section I deals exclusively with sampling raw particulate emissions
in the cupola stack.
Section II deals exclusively with sampling raw particulate emissions
in the inlet duct connecting the cupola to the dust collector.
Section III deals exclusively with sampling cupola gases after they
have been cleaned.
REASONS FOR SAMPLING A CUPOLA
Basically sampling is done for three reasons:
1) to determine if a collecting device is of a high enough
efficiency so that its effluent does not exceed a pre-
determined level.
2) to meet regulatory requirements that specify a minimum
efficiency of removal of particulate from the gas stream,
expressed as a percentage of uncontrolled emission.
3) to obtain information regarding particulate emission
which will be used for designing gas cleaning devices.
Officials of local, regional or state regulatory bodies should
be consulted prior to testing except when the testing is being done for purely
informational data for the cupola owner or operator.
If source testing is being done to determine compliance with legal
requirements the appropriate control officials should be consulted. If the
control body has experience and is equipped to perform cupola testing, they
may wish to perform their own tests to determine compliance.
Generally control bodies will not accept the results of tests
performed by the owners, operators or vendors of collection devices unless
standard procedures were followed and test data and reports show evidence
that experienced personnel conducted the tests.
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V - 5
In most cases it will be necessary for the owner or operator of a
cupola to employ the services of an organization capable of performing these tests.
When this is done the control authorities should have given prior approval of the
testing organizations capabilities and acceptability of their test results. In
any event, it is advisable to notify the proper authorities in advance so that
they may have on site observers present if they so desire.
The foundryman should select a testing organization with proven
capability, a good reputation and in whom he has complete confidence. As test
data can have major economic consequences and as the foundryman usually cannot
check the quality of the testing procedures confidence in the organization is a pre-
requisite.
The next step is consultation with the appropriate control author-
ities. The foundryman along with the testing organization must involve them-
selves in this because regulations are sometimes not easily understood, and fre-
quently interpretation is modified by political and community attitudes. Authori-
ties will be aware of changes in enforcement policies, or pending changes in
legislation, and the foundryman cannot expect outside testing organizations to
be cognizant of these considerations.
The number and type of tests to be taken must be agreed on in
advance by all parties concerned. Frequently, meeting the specifications of the
pertinent code dictate the number and kind of samples to be run. At other times
the purchase agreement between vendor and foundryman specifies testing methods.
If discretion can be used the use of several short tests is recommended over one
longer one. When several results can be compared, any large differences are
evident. If these differences are not as a result of operational changes or
adjustments they may indicate error in the test procedure or malfunction of the
test equipment. One test of long duration gives only one answer with no basis
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V - 6
for comparison. Accuracy and precision of testing is controlled as much by the
care exercised and quality of the testing personnel as it is by the test procedure.
Errors in each manipulation such as weighing, measuring gas volume,
and calculating results must not exceed 1 percent and should be kept under that
if possible. In this way cumulative errors can be held to little more than 1
percent.
CUPOLA OPERATING AND TEST CONDITIONS
Due to the various possible modes of operation of cupolas and
cupola systems, it is recommended that cupola emissions be evaluated under con-
ditions that characterize normal or average cupola operations at any particular
plant.
Particulate matter emitted via raw cupola stack gases consists
principally of iron oxides and silica from the charge metal and impurities adhering
to the charge metal plus combustible matter. Secondary combustion in the upper
portion of a cupola stack will tend to reduce the combustible portion of the
particulate emissions to ash if temperature and retention time are sufficient.
Cupola stack gas will also contain some vapor from substances which
reaches the melting zone and is volatilized. These substances include silicon,
zinc and silica (sand). The degree of volatilization will depend on melting zone
temperature which is influenced by changes in the fuel (coke and/or gas) ratio,
preheating of the blast air or scrap and enrichment of the blast air with oxygen.
Consequently, it is of utmost importance that the factors affecting melt zone
temperature be normal before testing begins. Equally as important, materials that
can cause fuming, such as galvanized iron, sand, and silicon, for example, be added
in normal amounts during the test period. Changes from normal melt process can
result in emissions which are markedly better or worse than will be obtained
during everyday operation. Either result will be unsatisfactory.
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V - 7
The particulate matter emanating from a cupola has a wide range
of particle size distribution which influences the correct choice of stack testing
method. For many cupolas, peaks in particle sizes can be found on distribution
curves at three ranges. These are in the 200 to 500 micron range, the 20 to 50
micron range and the 5 micron and below range.
Many factors influence the particulate emission rates of a cupola
system. These include the rate of cupola operation, the character, cleanliness
and method of introduction of the charge, material, the type, size and amount of
the coke used, the frequency, length of time and number of periods when tuyere
blast air is operative or inoperative during any period, the type of metal being
melted, the method and type of alloy introduction, and other diverse factors.
It is necessary, therefore, that each cupola and cupola system be
individually analyzed to determine conditions under which stack or source
emission tests are needed to define the full range and character of its emissions.
One of the factors having a most profound effect in cupola emis-
sions is the rate of cupola melting; as cupola blast air and coke input is
increased to accommodate higher melting rates, cupola emissions increase signifi-
cantly. It is important, therefore, that cupola source-emission tests be conducted
at melting rates approaching the normal expected rate of cupola operation if the
results are expected to characterize emissions for the system. Often times it is
not practical to operate at maximum melting rates since melting rates must
reflect current production and pouring schedules. It should be appreciated,
however, that cupola charging and melting rates have a profound influence on
cupola emissions.
If for any reason tests during either start-up or burn down periods
are made such tests should be kept and evaluated separately from each other as
well as all others.
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V - 8
If various metals are produced at various times from the same
cupola (such as gray and cutile iron) it is desirable that the emissions be
evaluated for each type produced if there is a difference in melting conditions.
The melting conditions that would tend to require evaluation in terms of
differences in emissions would be reflected by variations in blast air rates,
coke rates and charge metal characteristics.
Prior to any field test period the testing firm should be con-
sulted for recommendations as to the number of de^ys and number of test runs to
be conducted to define the full range of cupola emissions consistent with cupola
operating practices and other pertinent considerations. It is important that the
plant's full range of operations be evaluated consistent with the stated objec-
tives of the emission test program.
OBTAINING MEANINGFUL TEST DATA
For short run jobbing cupolas, it is recommended that a minimum of
three dustloading test determinations be conducted of cupola emissions as part
of any emission study. A volumetric determination should be conducted for each
of the three test periods. To make the emission data be the most meaningful it is
necessary and desirable that detailed records be kept of cupola operating con-
ditions concurrent with the emission studies.
The emission test program can usually be conducted in one to three
days of field sampling by an experienced testing organization. The following
minimum information is considered necessary in establishing and fixing cupola
operating conditions. It is necessary that these cupola operating data be
secured concurrently with stack emission studies:
?-
1) Nature, weight and constituents of all cupola charges.
2) Number and time of all cupola charges made on the test
date(s).
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V - 9
3) Cupola blast air record showing volume changes during
test. Verify that records indicate volume introduced
but not quantities diverted as a means of throttling.
4) Presence of, type, number, capacity and location of
afterburners.
5) Existence of gas ignition in the stack.
Ample precedents exist for evaluating the emission performance of
only one cupola in a bank of two cupolas that are operated on alternate days.
This situation is particularly valid if both cupolas are of the same size,
oerate from the same tuyere blast air supply, are used in the production of
similar types of iron and are operated at the same approximate rates.
If there are marked variations or changes in the operation of a
2-bank cupola system, particularly with respect to the factors outlined above,
it is recommended that each cupola be evaluated individually for its emission
potential. The design of a single emission control system serving a dual bank
of cupolas must be predicated on achieving conformance with regulations for the
most severe conditions of cupola operation during the normal production part of
the melt cycle. For the larger job-shop cupola-operators and for the production
foundry it is recommended that a minimum of two days field testing of cupola
emissions be conducted. This type of test program will permit the operation
and evaluation of both cupolas in a two unit bank.
The cupolas themselves should be operated at normal melting rates
during the test period. Test dates should be selected when foundry pouring
schedules will permit normal operation.
It is not necessary to obtain a gas analysis to determine gas
density from the cupola because the difference in weight between air and the
combustion gases is insignificant for exhaust volume calculation purposes.
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V - 10
SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT
A major problem in sampling and analysis is that high accuracy
and precision must be obtained in a working foundry, where conditions are
not conducive to laboratory-type manipulations. To achieve effective installation
and operation of a sampling train in a foundry requires someone who is not
overly worried with minute detail. On the other hand, when the critical ana-
lytical measurements and manipulations are made, the greatest attention to
cleanliness, accuracy, and detail is required.
The sampling equipment required for this work must fit the same
pattern. It must be simple, rugged, and yet capable of high accuracy. In general,
it must be highly portable. Reliable equipment is available from several vendors,
and all qualified testing groups have their own.
a. Filtering Media
A good filtering medium is a prerequisite to accurate
sampling. Efficiency of collection must be at least 99
percent for all particulates encountered. An ideal filter
medium should be very light so that accurate weight dif-
ferences can be obtained from small samples. The filter
should also be strong and resistant to both heat and moisture.
No medium available has all these properties so a
compromise must be made. Readily available media and some
of their characteristics are listed below. Reliable
suppliers will give the characteristics of their products
on demand.
FILTER PAPER
Conventional filter paper, made from cellulose, comes
in hundreds of grades; most of them are not suited to fine
particulate filtration, but some are specially designed for
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V - 11
this service. They have good mechanical strength, good
resistance to moisture, and reasonable heat resistance.
Conventional paper must be dried and desiccated before
each weighing, and must weighed on a balance from which
moisture can be excluded. Ideally the paper should be
allowed to reach equilibrium in a constant-humidity room,
and should be weighed there.
GLASS FIBER FILTER PAPER
Glass fiber filter paper will withstand higher temperature
than conventional paper, but it should be remembered that
a plastic binder is used in the manufacture of most of this
paper and that the binder lowers temperature resistance.
Some paper is made without binder and this is much more resistant
to temperature. However, this material lacks mechanical strength,
and the unbonded variety is particularly weak. Glass fiber filter
paper has the great advantage that it is not sensitive to humidity
and so can be used where a dessicator is not available.
THIM3LES
The Soxhlet thimble has been used widely in the past. The
thimbles are made of two materials, paper and ceramics. The
paper thimbles have the same strengths and weaknesses as ordinary
paper, and the same precautions apply. The ceramic ones come
in a variety of porosities. If the pores are small enough for
this work, rates of filtration will be extremely small. In
addition, ceramic thimbles are very heavy so that large samples
must be weighed to obtain accuracy. Thimbles of any type are
not recommended for this work.
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V - 12
A variety of cloth materials are used for filtering
particulates. Usually efficient filtration results
only after a coating of particulate has been built upon
the cloth. This buildup occurs most rapidly when the
sampled gases contain large amounts of particulate,
hence sampling error is minimized.
When particulate loading is low, such as when sampling
cleaned gas, significant error can be Introduced unless
the fabric is 99 percent efficient on the first material
that deposits,
b. Weighing
The first steps in sampling is weighing the filter paper,
or other medium. Each paper should be marked with a number
before weighing. The common practice of writing the weight
on the paper after it has been obtained creates an error
equal to the weight of the ink used. Much larger errors can
result from the handling required to write on the paper.
Lastly, and most importantly, the practice is poor technique,
and, if allowed, will encourage other slovenly practices.
The atmosphere in an ordinary analytical balance can be dried
to some extent if a small beaker of concentrated sulfuric
acid or container of silica gel is placed inside and the
doors are kept closed.
If filter papers are weighed on one balance initially,
and on a second when loaded, the second balance should be
checked for consistency with the first. This can best be
done by checking the weight of pre-weighed paper, and
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V - 13
applying a correction if required. Accuracy on the total
weight is not vital, but the difference between initial
and final weights, which represents the weight of the sample,
is critical.
c. Flow Measuring
Volume flow rate measuring devices must be preceded by
system components to minimize the surging or pulsating effects
normal in cupola operation and sampling. The use of flow
rate measuring devices in testing effluents from a dynamic
system, such as a cupola, requires that frequent readings
be taken (2 or 3 minutes reading cycle should be the maximum
time period between readings) and that all readings must
be conducted on a stopwatch timed basis.
It is recommended that sampling volume flow rate measure-
ments be taken using two different flow measuring mechanisms
in any high volume sampling train. The average of the two
sampling volume rate measurements and computed sampling volumes
should then be used in the subsequent dustloading calculations.
d. Flushing the Sampling Train
At the end of each dustloading test run it is imperative
that the sampling train (nozzle, connecting tube or hose and
sampler) be thoroughly cleaned and flushed. Distilled water
should be used and introduced into the nozzle at high veloci-
ties to aid in scrubbing the sampling train.
The particulates flushed from the sampling train should be
handled, weighed and separately determined. Significant
quantities of particulates are deposited in any sampling train,
so it is important that this material be included with the
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V - 14
sampled catch when computing the dustloading test results.
e. Velocity-Volumetric Tests
An S-type pi tot tube is preferred to a regular pi tot tube
because it is not as prone to plugging. Stainless steel, Iconel
or other high temperature resistant material should be used
.in the pi tot tube construction. A ruggedly constructed inclined
draft gage is recommended for use in the velocity and dustloading
tests. The pi tot tube should be checked and calibrated according
to the manufacturers recommendations at regular intervals to
establish the proper correction factor to be used in the volu-
metric calculations.
f. Sampling Trains and Sampling Equipment
Few emission sources offer the trying field test conditions
attendant to sampling as do cupola systems. The need also
cannot be emphasized enough for rugged field sampling equipment
for this testing. A schematic diagram of sampling apparatus
for the static balanced tube method of sampling, incorporating
recommendations for cupola effluent source emission sampling
is presented in Fig. 1.
A possible commercial source for various components of the
sampling train is indicated in Table 2. This is not to be
construed as an endorsement of any particular manufacturer
but is illustrative only of the rugged type of test equipment
recommended for cupola source sampling.
When assembling sampling equipment, joint sealing materials
should not be exposed to the sampled gas stream where adherence
of the particulate could occur. Long-radius bends should be used
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V - 15
instead of elbows to facilitate cleaning. The probe should
be just long enough for the task at hand. The rest of the train
should be assembled and tested for leaks. If the meter is a dry
gas meter, it is to be calibrated before each use. If an orifice
meter, or flow-meter type, is used it must also be calibrated
each time, and it must, in addition, have enough sensitivity
so that readings can be read to less than 1 percent. Finally,
if volume is obtained by multiplying an instantaneous reading
by the time of operation, fluctuations must be kept to 1 percent.
The vacuum pump or compound air ejector must be the last
element of the sampling train unless it can be proved that there
is no leakage through the packing, etc., under the worst con-
ditions that can be visualized,
g. Analysis of Captured Particulate
It is recommended that the procedure for weighing and
determining size distribution of the captured particulate
be used as stated in the ASME PTC 27-1957 Section 4 Paragraphs
75-79 (see Appendix).
Fine particulate matter should be sized and analyzed
within 24 hours after the sample is taken to minimize agglome-
ration and a possible change in character. It is most
desirable if the sample is dried immediately after the test
has been run to prevent degradation.
The minus 44 micron fraction of the collected particulate
must be carefully handled and analyzed because of the strong
tendency to agglomerate.
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V - 16
SECTION I - SAMPLING RAW PARTICULATE EMISSIONS IN THE CUPOLA STACK
Recommended Test Method and Procedures
A thorough and complete review of the available test methods and
procedures used in the conduct of source emission studies has resulted in the
recommendation of the following basic requirements as essential to an acceptable
evaluation of the test methods:
1) In order to obtain a truly representative sample of coarse
particulates from the gas stream a large volume sampling
train should be used. The sampling nozzle should be
constructed of stainless steel having a minimum inside
diameter of 3/4 inches, since raw cupola emissions cover
a broad range of particle sizes, with individual particles
not uncommonly ranging up to 3/8 inch diameter or larger.
2) Particulate matter is defined consistent with the definition
accepted by the dust collection industry and as adopted
in the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Performance
Test Code 21-1941, Dust Separating Apparatus and Performance
Test Code 27-1957, Determining the Dust Concentration in
a Gas Stream. See item 1 in the Appendix. In essence, this
defines particulate matter as all filterable solids present
at standard temperature in an effluent gas stream.
3) It is necessary that a truly "isokinetic" sample of gases
and solids be secured by the sampling system. This requirement
is a practical consideration dictated by the wide range of
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V - 17
particle sizes involved and, therefore, the special
need for securing a truly isokinetic sample of the
effluent solids.
When sampling in the cupola stack, water-cooled
corrosion-resistant, sampling probes and sampling nozzles
are required. This is a practical requirement since
cupola temperatures in excess of 12Q0°F are common, and
sample contamination by corrosion products formed in the
nozzles and probes of the sampling system must be prevented.
Water-cooling also serves to preserve the sampling probes
from deterioration and distortion.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Performance
Test Code 27-1957, Determining Dust Concentration in a
Gas Stream, with modifications as outlined below offers the
best and most practical test method and test procedures
for the conduct of source emission studies from cupolas.
The following are additional important considerations in
the sampling of cupolas and cupola systems when utilizing as
a broad base the test procedures and techniques embodied in
ASf€ PTC 27-1957, Determining Dust Concentration in a Gas
Stream. See item 2 in the Appendix. The criteria supplement
the methods and procedures contained in ASME PTC 27, when
applied to cupola source emission testing:
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V - 18
a. Test Location and Test Openings
A test location in a cupola stack must at best be a
compromise. The location should be as far above the top
of the charge door opening as practical but be at least
one equivalent cupola inside daimeter below the top of the
cupola stack. This location will require that protective
shelter be provided since test personnel and equipment may
be subjected to possible fallout of particles.
Test ports should consist of tv/o six inch pipe nipples
(schedule 40) installed radially in the cupola shell and
cupola lining at 90 degrees to each other. Both 90 degree
test ports must be accessible from the sheltered test plat-
form. Six-in test ports are usually required to accommodate
high volume sampling nozzles. An acceptable test platform
can usually be constructed using temporary steel scaffolding.
Corrugated metal sheeting can be used for the roof of the test
platform. The six-inch pipe nipple test ports should protrude
out a few inches from the cupola shell and should be flush with
the inside of the cupola lining. The test port nipples should
be fillet-welded to the cupola shell. The threads of the pipe
nipples should be graphited and six-inch pipe caps installed
hand tight so that they can be readily removed during the test
period.
b. Method of Subdividing Cupola Stack
The cupola stack cross-sectional area should be measured
at the test elevation. Due to refractory erosion and/or the
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V - 19
buildup of slagged deposits which affect the cupola cross
section, it is important that the cupola cross section and
cross sectional area be determined at the test elevation.
The ASME PTC 27 test code prescribed procedure (see item 2
in Appendix) should be followed in determining the location
of the test points to be used in both the volumetric or
pitot tube traverses and during the test runs.
A minimum of 12 points should be used as sampling
locations 1n traversing a cupola stack in the dustloading
test runs. Additional sampling points should be used when
the maximum to minimum velocity variation in the velocity
profile approaches, or exceeds, a 2 to 1 figure.
It is important that dust sampling be conducted at each
test point and that the dustloading test-data sheet reflects
the sampling conditions at each test point in traverse of the
cupola from each test port. The practice of using a much
smaller number of test points during the dustloading test
runs, as compared to a large number of points used in the
velocity checks, is almost certain to bias the test results
and cause the results to be of a questionable nature with
respect to securing a representative cupola sample,
c. Number and Duration of Test Runs
Test runs shall consist of a minimum of 60 minutes
actual dust sampling. Based upon a minimum of 12 points of
dust sampling of the cupola cross section from the two 90
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V - 20
degree test ports, an acceptable minimum sampling schedule
would consist of sampling for 5 minutes at each of the
12 points. The field test data sheets and the test report
must clearly reflect the location and the time of sampling
at each of the sampling points used. A minimum of three
sets of flow, temperature and pressure readings should be
taken at each sampling point. The field data shall be logged
and should reflect the dynamic conditions of cupola flows and
sampling rates at each test point.
Readings of sampling flow rates, temperatures, pressures,
gas analyses and other pertinent test data which are part
of each dustloading test run should be taken on a 2 (maximum
3) minute cycle at each sampling point during each dustloading
test run. The total sampling program should be conducted under
stopwatch timing precision.
Three dustloading test runs and 3 velocity-volumetric test
runs should be conducted in a single day of field sampling,
as previously mentioned,
d. Sampling Probes
Sampling probes used in the dustloading test runs of raw
gas should be of water-cooled, stainless steel construc-
tion. The sampling probes should be a minimum of 3/4 inch inside
diameter, and preferably of larger inside diameter for tests
conducted on raw gas emissions. Conventional smaller diameter
test probes are suitable for use on the downstream side of
dust collectors, but should not be used in raw gas sampling.
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V - 21
Either a standard or null type probe may be used for
sampling raw cupola gases. Whichever probe is employed, a
truly isokinetic sample must be taken at all test points
during all test runs.
A null sampling probe of either the balanced static
pressure type or balanced impact pressure type can be used.
Null type probes are prone to introduce minimum error as
their diameters increase and as the velocity of the flow
system increases.
A null sampling probe must be calibrated and of such
a size as to give the minimum sampling error (deviation from
isokinetic) for the expected sampling velocity range.
Either type probe presents certain shortcomings which
must be compensated for under the adverse, dynamic and widely
varying flow conditions attendant to normal cupola operation.
Cupola velocities can be expected to range from 600 to
2400 ft/min. depending upon the size of the cupola and the
rate of cupola operation. Normal operating velocity ranges
can be expected to be 1000 to 1800 ft/min.
Fixed rate sampling trains, based upon an occasional
velocity determination made at some fixed time, are unaccept-
able for cupola source sampling since such methods completely
ignore the dynamic nature of the cupola melting process,
e. Filter Media
Due to the need for a large diameter sample probe and the
necessity of isokinetically sampling the gas stream, a high
volume sampling train is mandatory. The filtering media used
for removing particulate from the gas stream must be of
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V - 22
sufficient size to maintain the sampling rates necessary
without imposing undue pressure drop restrictions on the
sampling train.
The advantages and disadvantages of some of the various
filtering media that can be used in removing the particulates
from the sampled gas stream are stated in ASHE PTC 27
Section 4 Paragraph 59 (See Appendix).
FOOTNOTE: Cloth is often used as the filtering media because of its high
collection efficiency, good flow permeability, ability to be
shaped or adapted to any sampler configuration, and freedom
from plugging or excessive pressure buildup under minimum
condensation conditions.
In the event that a cotton sateen fabric is selected it
must be thoroughly washed and rinsed prior to use to be free
of starch and sizing materials. This filter medium has as
its most serious limitation a humidity or moisture pickup
tendency. This problem can be adequately dealt with by
proper and skilled weighing and handling techniques using
an enclosed single pan desiccated analytical balance.
Sampler units housing the filter medium should be made
or lined with corrosion resistant material and must permit
ready and free insertion and removal of the filter medium.
Sampler units must consist of airtight enclosures to ensure
that all sampled gases pass through the filter medium, be
capable of easy field cleaning and of conserving the sampled
dusts with a minimum of sample loss in filter handling.
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V - 23
To facilitate transfer of collected material and prevent
the possibility of incandescent particles from contacting
the final filter medium it may be desirable to incorporate a
small stainless steel cyclonic collector ahead of the ultimate
filter medium. Such cyclones tend to remove the larger
particulates and prolong the sampling period before the pressure
buildup on the filter medium restricts isokinetic sampling,
due to reduced sampling flow rate capability.
Such cyclones offer the additional advantage of providing
a convenient method of measuring the gas sampling flow rate.
This can be accomplished by calibrating the pressure drop across
the cyclone collector unit entailing the measurement of the
pressure differential across the cyclone, the temperature and
the static pressure at that location.
FOOTNOTE: Scrubber (impinger) or condensing systems are considered unsatis-
factory for particulate filtration in cupola sampling trains. Such
systems promote and cause the formation of reaction products which
were not present in the cupola gas stream. Since most available
impinger or wet collecting apparatus, are associated with low
volume sampling rates (not to exceed 1.0 cfm), it can be seen
that they do not lend themselves well to high volume rate
sampling without the use of multiple, parallel units.
While it may be of interest in some instances to determine if
condensible material is present in cupola effluents such deter-
minations are beyond the scope of this recommended practice for
particulate.
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V - 24
When a gas analysis is desired it is recommended that a con-
tinuous carbon dioxide and/or a continuous oxygen analyzer be
used to measure these gas constituents. Periodic checks can
also be made using an Orsat gas analyzer to verify the performance
of the continuous gas analyzer or to check on the total gas
composition (CC^j C^, CO, The continuous gas analyzer
should be read on a two or three minute cycle throughout each
test run and the time noted. Results of each Orsat gas analysis
conducted should be clearly indicated on the field data sheets
and in the test report.
Sulfur oxide emissions from cupola systems are of such a low
order that it is usually unnecessary to measure them in light
of present day standards.
f. Sampling Volume Flow Rate
The need for a high volume sampling system to secure repre-
sentative samples from cupola raw gas effluents often mitigates
against the use of an integrating gas meter for measuring the
sample gas volume although such are available to handle the
flow ranges covered by 3/4 to 2 inch inside diameter dust
sampling nozzles. However, portability requirements for
such meters leave much to be desired and adverse field
conditions in cupola sampling often preclude the use of
such meters.
Sampling volume flow rate measurements can be made by
flowrator systems, calibrated pressure drop mechanisms such
as orifices, Venturis or other similar flow measuring devices.
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V - 25
SECTION II - RAW GAS TEST LOCATION IN DUCT AHEAD OF COLLECTOR
Tests are often conducted to determine performance of collectors
installed for cupola gas cleaning. Often a sample location in the connecting duct
will have advantages over that of a cupola stack location because -
1. Gases v/ill be cooled, usually by evaporation of water,
to temperatures belov/ 500°F.
2. Location more accessible.
3. Dustloadings and gas velocity more uniform thru cross
section of sampling area.
(Duct velocities usually in teh 3000 - 5000 fpm range.)
In such locations:
a. Number of sample points can correspond to ASKE PTC 27
and need not be the minimum of 12 recommenced for the
cupola stack.
b. Gas volume will include substantial proportion of
water vapor and influence gas density.
c. Some dust, especially of the coarser fractions, can
bypass the sample area if there is substantial run-
off of cooling water or for dust fallout in cooling
towers, external combustion chambers, etc.
Whenever possible, catch from collector should be obtained and checked
against calculated collected quantity from inlet and outlet samples. It is often
difficult to get a sample covering only the test period, but often feasible to
obtain quantity collected during a complete melting cycle. In the latter case,
daily average data can be compared to short test runs of the sampling equipment.
Comparison of coarse fraction in the catch with the quantities re-
ported by sarr.plirig v/ill also give an indication of effectiveness of the sampling
technique of such fractions. When indicated, catch from the collector needs to be
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V - 26
augmented by inclusion of fallout in preceding system elements as noted in Item c.
SECTION III - SAMPLING CLEANED CUPOLA GASES
General
Sampling behind a gas cleaner alleviates some of the problems
experienced when sampling raw cupola gases. Extremely large particles are ;',o
longer present permitting the use of conventional 1/4" or 3/8'' diameter scrrolinc
probes and lower sampling volumes. The violent velocity fluctuations experienced
in a cupola stack have been moderated; and the high temperatures of raw cupola
gases have been reduced. On the other hand, a different problem is accentuated.
Gas cleaning equipment is expensive, and is usually sold to meet a specified
emission standard. Since performance curves for emissions become asymptotic,
small changes in performance can cause large expenditures in equipment alteration,
therefore accuracy of testing becomes more critical.
Because the gas sampled is hot and humid, the probe or filter
holder must be heated to stop condensation on the walls of the apparatus from
occuring. Such condensate will interfere with the filtration of particulate.
Cupola off-gases are almost always cooled by direct contact with
water, so it can be a-sumed that they are hunrid after they have passed through a
cleaning device, whether a wet scrubber or not. Consequently, a condenser must
be inserted in the filtering train. This serves two purposes. First, it
removes excess water which may condense and damage the gas meter. Secondly,
and of vital importance, a condenser gives assurance that the gas passing
through the train is saturated at an identifiable point. This provides the
basis for exact calculation of the volume of dry gas metered, converted
to standard conditions.
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V - 27
An acceptable procedure for testing is "Determining Dust
Concentration in a Gas Stream", PTC 27-1957, published by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
While isokinetic sampling is not as critical for cleaned gases
because of the small particle sizes involved, its use is recommended, foil civ; no
the same procedure of test locations, sample time, pitot traverse and data
log recommended in Section I and II.
-------
FIGURE 1
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SAMPLING APPARATUS
WET AND DRY BULB
THERMOMETERS
ORIFICE
SURGE
DRUM
PRESS.
DROP
"H20
STATIC BALANCED TUBE METHOD OF SAMPLING
SAMPLER
CYCLONE
THERMOMETER
DUST
BAG
SAMPLING
RATE
VALVE
\,
'AN
CYCLONE
PRESSURE DROP
"h2o
WATER JACKETED
S.S. PROBE
INCLINED
DRAFT GAUGE
'EV*V*V*>
PYROMETER
STACK
CYCLONE
ORSAT
GAS FLOW
T/C
-------
V - 29
TABLE 2 - REPRESENTATIVE SOURCES OF
COMMERCIALLY MANUFACTURED COMPONENTS
. Component
1. Stainless steel, water-cooled
static balanced, tube sampling
nozzle-3/4 in. minimum ID.
2. Inclined draft gage and holder,
pitot tube.
3. Stainless steel cyclone
4. Sampler
5. Manometer
6. Thermometer
7. Industrial exhauster
8. Continuous gas analyzer
9. Orsat gas analyzer
10. Pyrometer and thermocouple
Source
Individually designed and constructed
to meet nozzle diameter and probe
length needs. Fitted with 6 in. pipe
cap and pipe sleeve. Nozzles are to
be calibrated to effect isokinetic
sampling with minimum sampling error
at the optimum velocity range for each
different probe diameter. An acceptable
nozzlehead design is schematically il-
lustrated in ASME PTC-27 (Fig. 2).
Industrial Engineering Instrument
Co., Allentown, Pennsylvania
UOP Air Corrections Division
Darien, Connecticut
Fabricate to meet filter media con-
finement and handling requirements.
The Meriam Instrument Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio
Weston Electrical Instrument Corp.,
Newark, New Jersey
Clements Manufacturing Co.,
Chicago, Illinois
Thermco Instrument Corp.,
LaPorte, Indiana
Hayes Corp.,
Michigan City, Indiana
Alnor Instrument Co.,
Division 111. Testing Laboratories, Inc.
Chicago, Illinois
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VI - glossary of terms
ACFM -
Acid Lining -
Additive -
Aerosol -
Afterburner -
Agglomeration
Air Cleaner -
Air Filter -
Air Furnace -
Air
Pollution -
Anneal
Actual cubic feet per minute; refers to the
volume of gas at the prevailing temperature
and pressure.
A refractory furnace lining essentially of
silica.
A substance added to another in relatively
small amounts to impart or improve desirable
qualities, or suppress undesirable qualities.
As additives to molding sand, for example,
cereal, sea coal, etc.
Small particles, liquid or solid, suspended in
the air. The diameters vary from 100 microns
down to 0.01 microns or less; for example,
dust, fog, smoke.
A device for burning combustible materials that
were not oxidized in an initial burning process.
Gathering together of small particles into
larger particles.
A device designed for the purpose of removing
atmospheric airborne impurities such as dusts,
gases, vapors, fumes and smokes.
Any method used to remove gases and particulates
from the environment and stack emission; it may
be of cloth, fibers, liquid spray, electrostatic,
etc.
A reverberatory-type furnace in which metal is
melted by heat from fuel burning at one end of
the hearth, passing over the bath toward the
stack at the other end.
The presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one
or more air contaminants or combinations thereof
in such quantities and of such duration that
they are or may tend to be injurious to human,
plant or animal life, or property, or that
interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of
life or property or the conduct of business.
A heat treatment which usually involves a slow
cooling for the purpose of altering mechanical
or physical properties of the metal, particularly
to reduce hardness.
A.T. KEARNEY «c COMPANY, Inc.
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VI - 2
Baghouse -
Baked Core -
Balanced
Blast -
Basic Lining
Bed -
Blast -
Blast Volume
Briquette -
Burden
Burned Sand
Canopy Hood
A large chamber for holding bags used in the
filtration of gases from a furnace to recover
metal oxides and other solids suspended in the
gases. It's a form of dust collector and the
bags may be constructed of natural, synthetic,
or glass fibers.
A core which has been heated through sufficient
time and temperature to produce the desired
physical properties attainable from its
oxidizing or thermal setting binders.
Arrangement of tuyeres in a cupola which pro-
vides for distributing or balancing the blast
as required between upper and lower levels of
the melting zone.
In a melting furnace, the inner lining and
bottom composed of materials that have a basic
reaction in the melting process, usually either
crushed burned dolomite, magnesite, magnesite
bricks or basic slag.
Initial charge of fuel in a cupola upon which
the melting is started.
Air driven into the cupola furnace for combustion
of fuel.
The volume of air introduced into the cupola for
the burning of fuel. This volume governs the
melting rate of the cupola and approximately
30,000 cubic feet of air is required per ton of
metal melted.
Compact cylindrical or other shaped block formed
of finely divided materials by incorporation
of a binder, by pressure, or both. Materials
may be ferroalloys, metal borings or chips,
silicon carbide, coke breeze, etc.
A collective term of the component
parts of the metal charge for a cupola
melt.
Sand in which the binder or bond has
been removed or impaired by contact with
molten metal.
A metal hood over a furnace for collecting
gases being exhausted into the atmosphere
surrounding the furnace.
A.T.KEARNEY 6c COMPANY, Inc.
-------
VI - 3
Cantilever
Hood -
Cast Iron -
Catalytic
Combustion
Centrifuging -
Cereal
Binder
Charge -
Charging
Door -
Coke -
Coke Breeze
Convection ¦
Cope -
Core -
A counterbalanced hood over a furnace that can
be folded out of the way for charging and
pouring the furnace.
Essentially an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon
in which the carbon is present in excess of the
amount which can be retained in solid solution
in austenite at the eutectic temperature.
A device for burning combustible gases, vapors,
aerosols and odorous substances, reducing them
to water vapor and carbon dioxide.
A method of casting, employing a core and
depending on centrifugal force to make the metal
more dense and strong in the outer portion of
the casting. The mold cavities are usually
spaced symmetrically about a central sprue, and
the whole assembly is rotated about that axis
during pouring and solidification.
A binder used in core mixtures and molding
sands, derived principally from corn flour.
The total ore, ingot, metal, pig iron, scrap,
limestone, etc. introduced into a melting fur-
nace for the production of a single heat.
An opening in the cupola or furnace through
which the charges are introduced.
A porous gray infusible product resulting from
the dry distillation of bituminous coal, which
is used as a fuel in cupola melting.
These are fines from coke screenings.
The motion resulting in a fluid from the differ-
ences in density and the action of gravity due
to temperature differences in one part of the
fluid and another. The motion of the fluid
results in a transfer of heat from one part to
the other.
The upper or topmost section of a flask, mold,
or pattern.
A separate part of the mold which forms cavities
and openings in castings which are not possible
with a pattern alone. Cores are usually made
of a different sand from that used in the mold
and are generally baked or set by a combination
of resins.
A.T.KEARNEY fife COMPANY. Inc.
-------
VI - 4
Core Binder
Core Blower
Core Oven -
Core Sand -
Crucible -
Cupola -
Cupola, Hot
Blast -
Cupola Stack
Cyclone -
(centrifugal
collector)
Cyclonic
Scrubber
Density -
Desulfurizing
Direct Arc
Furnace •
Drag -
Any material used to hold the grains of core
sand together.
A machine for making cores by blowing sand into
the core box by means of compressed air.
Specially heated chambers for the drying of
cores at low temperatures.
Sand for making cores to which a binding material
has been added to obtain good cohesion and
porosity after drying.
A vessel or pot made of a refractory such as
graphite or silicon carbide with a high melt-
ing point and used for melting metals.
A cylindrical straight shaft furnace usually
lined with refractories, for melting metal in
direct contact with coke by forcing air under
pressure through openings near its base.
A cupola supplied with a preheated air blast.
The overall top column of the cupola from the
charging floor to the spark arrestor.
A device with a control descending vortex
created to spiral objectionable gases and dusts
to the bottom of a collector cone for the purpose
of collecting particulate matter from process
gases.
Radial liquid (usually water) sprays introduced
into cyclones to facilitate collection of
particulates.
Ratio of the weight of gas to the volume, nor-
mally expressed as pounds per cubic foot.
The removal of sulfur from molten metal by the
addition of suitable compounds.
An electric arc furnace in which the metal being
melted is one of the poles.
The lower or bottom section of the mold, flask
or pattern.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY.Tvc.
-------
VI - 5
Ductile Iron -
Duplexing -
Dust -
Dust
Collector
Dust Loading -
Efficiency -
Effluent -
Electrostatic
Precipitator-
Elutriation
Emission -
Endothermic
Reaction -
Equivalent
Opacity -
Iron of a normally gray cast type that has been
suitably treated with a nodularizing agent so
that all or the major portion of its graphitic
carbon has a nodular or spherulitic form as
cast.
A method of producing molten metal of desired
analysis. The metal being melted in one furnace
and refined in a second.
Small solid particles created by the breaking
up of larger particles by processes such as
crushing, grinding, drilling, explosion, etc.
An air cleaning device to remove heavy particu-
late loadings from exhaust systems before dis-
charge to outdoors.
The concentration of dust in the gas entering
or leaving the collector, usually expressed
as pounds of particulate per 1,000 pounds of
dry gas or grains per standard cubic foot.
With regard to dust collectors, it is the ratio
of the weight of dust trapped in the collector to
the weight of dust entering the collector. This
is expressed as a percent.
The discharge entering the atmosphere from
the process.
A dust collector utilizing a high voltage
electrostatic field formed by negative and
positive electrodes; the positive, uncharged
electrode attracts and collects the gas-borne
particles.
The sizing or classifying of particulate matter
by suspension in a fluid (liquid or gas), the
larger particulates tending to separate by
sinking.
The total pollutants emitted into the atmosphere
usually expressed as weight per unit of time
such as pounds per hour.
Designating, or pertaining to a reaction which
occurs with the absorption of heat from the
surroundings.
The determination of smoke density by comparing
the apparent density of smoke as it issues from
a stack with a Rineelmann chart. In effect, it
is a measure of the light obscurity capacity
of the plume.
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
-------
VI - 6
Exothermic
Reaction
Fabric
Filter -
Facing Sand -
Fines -
Flask -
Flux
Fly Ash -
Forehearth -
Foundry
Effluent -
Fourth Hole
Ventilation
(Direct Tap)
Fume -
Chemical reactions involving the liberation
of heat; such as burning of fuel and deoxidizing
of iron with aluminum.
A dust collector using filters made of synthetic,
natural or glass fibers within a baghouse for
removing solid particulate matter from the air
or gas stream.
Specially prepared molding sand mixture used
in the mold adjacent to the pattern to produce
a smooth casting surface.
A term the exact meaning of which varies.
1. Those sand grains that are
substantially smaller than
the predominating grain size.
2. That portion of sieved material
that passes through the mesh.
Metal or wood frame without top or without
fixed bottom used to retain the sand in which
a mold is formed; usually consists of two
parts, cope and drag.
Material or mixture of materials which causes
other compounds with which it comes in contact
to fuse at a temperature lower than their nor-
mal fusion temperature.
A finely divided siliceous material, usually
oxides, formed as a product of combustion of
coke. A common effluent from the cupola.
Brick lined reservoir in front of and connected
to the cupola or other melting furnaces for
receiving and holding the melted metal.
Waste material in water or air that is discharged
from a foundry.
In air pollution control, using a fourth hole
in the roof of an electric furnace to exhaust
fumes.
A term applied to fine solid particles dispersed
in air or gases and formed by condensation, sub-
limation, or chemical reaction.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
-------
VI - 7
Gas »
Gate -
Gray Iron ¦
Green Sand
Griffin
System -
Heat Balance »
Heat
Treatment
Heel -
Holding
Furnace -
Hood
Hot Blast -
Indirect Arc
Furnace -
Induction
Furnace -
Inlet
Volume -
Formless fluids which tend to occupy entire
space uniformly at ordinary temperatures and
pressures.
The portion of the runner in a mold through
which molten metal enters the mold cavity.
Cast iron which contains a relatively large
percentage of its carbon in the form of graphite
and substantially all of the remainder of the
carbon in the form of eutectoid carbide.
A naturally bonded sand or a compounded molding
sand mixture which has been tempered with water
and additives for use while still in a damp or
wet condition.
A method operating in two stages, to recoup and
preheat air by using the latent heat of cupola
gases.
A determination of the sources of heat input and
the subsequent flow of heat usually expressed in
equation form so that heat input equals heat output.
A combination of heating and cleaning operations
timed and applied to a metal or alloy in the
solid state in a manner which will produce
desired properties.
Metal left in ladle after pouring has been com-
pleted. Metal kept in induction furnaces during
standby periods.
A furnace for maintaining molten metal, from a
larger melting furnace, at the proper casting
temperature.
Projecting cover above a furnace or other equip-
ment for purpose of collecting smoke, fume or
dust.
Blast which has been heated prior to entering
into the combustion reaction of a cupola.
An electric arc furnace in which the metal
bath is not one of the poles of the arc.
A melting furnace which utilizes the heat gen-
erated by electrical induction to nfelt a metal
charge.
The quantity of gas entering the collector from
the system it serves (in cubic feet per minute
at a specified temperature).
A. T. KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
-------
VI - 8
Inoculant -
Inoculation
Ladle
Addition -
Latent Heat -
Lining -
Magnesium
Treatment
Malleable
Iron -
Material
Balance
Melting Rate
Micron -
Mist -
Mold -
Muller
Material which when added to molten metal modi-
fies the structure changing the physical and
mechanical properties of the metal.
The addition to molten metal substances designed
to form nuclei for crystallization.
The addition of alloying elements to the molten
metal in the ladle.
Thermal energy absorbed or released when a sub-
stance changes state; that is, from one solid
phase to another, or from solid to liquid or
the like.
Inside refractory layer of firebrick, clay,
sand or other material in a furnace or ladle.
The addition of magnesium to molten metal to
form nodular iron.
A mixture of iron and carbon, including smaller
amounts of silicon, manganese, sulfur and
phosphorous, which, after being cast as white
iron, is converted structurally by heat treat-
ment into a matrix of ferrite containing nodules
of temper carbon, and substantially free of all
combined carbon.
A determination of the material input to the
cupola and the output to fully account for
all material.
The tonnage of metal melted per unit of time,
generally tons per hour.
A unit of measurement which is 1/25,000 of an
inch or a millionth of a meter. Often desig-
nated by the Greek letter mu.
Visible emission usually formed by a condensa-
tion process or vapor-phase reaction, the liquid
particles being sufficiently large to fall of
their own weight.
The form, usually made of sand, which contains
the cavity into which molten metal is poured
to produce a casting of definite shape and
outline.
A type of foundry sand mixing machine.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY. Ikc
-------
VI - 9
Nodular Cast
Iron -
Opacity -
(See Ductile Iron)
The state of a substance which renders it partially
or wholly impervious to rays of light. Opacity as
used in an ordinance refers to the obscuration of
an observer's view.
Outlet Volume - Quantity of gas exhausting from the collector
(in cubic feet per minute at a specified
temperature).
Oxidizing
Atmosphere
Oxidation
Losses -
Particulate
Matter -
Parting
Compound -
Pattern -
Plume
Pollutant -
Preheater -
Process
Weight -
Recuperator -
Reducing
Atmosphere
An atmosphere resulting from the combustion of
fuels in an atmosphere where excess oxygen is
present, and with no unburned fuel lost in the
products of combustion.
Reduction in amount of metal or alloy through
oxidation. Such losses usually are the largest
factor in melting loss.
Solid or liquid particles, except water, visible
with or without a microscope, that make up the
obvious portion of an exhaust gas or smoke.
A material dusted, brushed or sprayed on patterns
or mold halves to prevent adherence of sand and
to promote easy separation of cope and drag
parting surfaces when cope is lifted from drag.
A form made of wood, metal or other materials
around which molding material is placed to make
a mold for casting metals.
A visible, elongated, vertical (horizontal when
windblown) column of mixed gases and gas-borne
particulates emitted from a smoke stack.
Any foreign substance in the air or water in
sufficient quantities and of such characteristics
and duration as to be injurious to human, plant,
or animal life or property, or which unreasonably
interferes with the enjoyment of life and property,
A device used to preheat the charge before it
is charged into the furnace.
The total weight of raw materials, except air,
introduced into any specific process, possibly
causing discharge into the atmosphere.
Equipment for transferring heat from hot gases
for the preheating of incoming fuel or air.
An atmosphere resulting from the incomplete
combustion of fuels.
A.T.KKARNEY 6c COMPANY, Inc.
-------
VI - 10
Refractory -
Reverberatory
Furnace -
Ringelmann's
Scale -
(chart)
Riser -
Rotary
Furnace
SCFM -
Sea Coal -
Sensible Heat
Shakeout -
Shell Molding
Shotblasting -
Slag -
Heat resistant material, usually nonmetallic,
used for furnace linings, etc.
A large quantity furnace with a vaulted ceiling
that reflects flame and heat toward the hearth
or the surface of the charge to be melted.
A system of optical charts reading from all
clear to solid black for grading the density
of smoke emissions.
An opening in the top of a mold which acts as
a reservoir for molten metal and connected
to the casting to provide additional metal to
the casting as it contracts on solidification.
A furnace using pulverized coal, gas or oil;
of cylindrical shape with conical ends, mounted
so as to be tipped at either end to facilitate
charging, pouring and slagging.
Units standing for Standard Cubic Feet per Minute.
The volume of gas measured at standard conditions,
one atmosphere of pressure and 70° F.
A term applied to finely ground coal which is
mixed with foundry sands.
That portion of the heat which changes only
the temperature, but does not cause a phase
change.
The operation of removing castings from a
sand mold.
A process for forming a mold from thermosetting
resin bonded sand mixtures brought in contact
with preheated metal patterns, resulting in a
firm shell with a cavity corresponding to the
outline of the pattern.
Casting cleaning process employing a metal
abrasive propelled by centrifugal force.
Nonmetallic covering which forms on the molten
metal as a result of the flux action in com-
bining impurities contained in the original
charge, some ash from the fuel and silica
and clay eroded from the refractory lining.
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY. Inc.
-------
VI - 11
Smoke -
Spark
Arrestor -
Sprue -
A type of emission resulting from incomplete com-
bustion and consisting predominantly of small
gas-borne particles of combustible material
present in sufficient quantity to be observable
independently of the presence of other solids
in the gas stream.
Device over the top of the cupola to prevent
the emission of sparks.
The channel, usually vertical, connecting the
pouring basin with the runner to the mold
cavity. In top pour casting the sprue may
also act as a riser.
Standard Air -
Superheating
Tapping -
Air with a density of .075 pounds per cubic
foot, generally equivalent to dry air at 70° F
and one atmosphere of pressure (14.7 psia).
Heating of a metal to temperatures above the
melting point of the metal to obtain more com-
plete refining or greater fluidity.
Removing molten metal from the melting furnace
by opening the tap hole and allowing the metal
to run into a ladle.
Tuyere
The nozzle openings in the cupola shell and
refractory lining through which the air blast
is forced.
Vapor -
Ventilation
System -
Venturi
Scrubber
Wet Cap
The gaseous form of a substance normally in the
solid or liquid state and which can be returned
to these states either by increasing pressure
or decreasing temperature.
In the foundry, the exhaust ventilation and dust
control equipment for the health, safety, comfort
and good housekeeping of those who work there.
In air pollution control, a high velocity gas
stream directed into the throat of a venturi of
a wet scrubber to separate out particulates.
A device installed on a cupola stack that
collects emissions by forcing them through a
curtain of water. The device requires no
exhaust fan but depends upon the velocity
pressure of the effluent gases.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY. Inc.
-------
VI - 12
Wet
Scrubber -
Wind Box
In air pollution control, a liquid spray device,
usually water, for collecting pollutants in
escaping foundry gases.
The chamber surrounding a cupola through which
air is conducted under pressure to the tuyeres.
-------
EXKlrIT IT-1
DISTRIBUTION OF IRON FOUNDRIES
1969
~ NONE
~ 1-10
E3 11-25
26-75
OVER 75
MAJOR CONCENTRATIONS
SOURCE. PENTON fUlUSHING CO.
-------
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF IRON FOUNDRIES
Ductile Iron
Malleable
1969
196?
1965
1963
1969
1967
1965
1963
1969
196?
1965
1963
Alabama
56
56
59
65
17
16
17
12
2
3
2
2
Alaska
1
-
-
_
-
-
_
-
_
_
_
Arizona
4
3
3
4
:
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
Arkansas
10
11
10
10
l
1
1
1
-
-
-
-
California
88
86
95
102
29
23
24
23
1
l
1
4
Colorado
15
17
18
20
4
3
4
3
-
-
.
1
Connecticut
24
23
24
29
7
6
6
5
4
5
5
5
Delaware
1
2
2
2
-
_
_
_
-
_
-
_
District of Columbia
-
-
1
1
-
-
1
1
-
-
_
Florida
17
19
19
20
3
3
2
2
-
-
_
-
Georgia
32
29
32
35
8
6
6
7
-
-
-
-
Hawaii
3
4
3
3
-
_
-
_
-
-
-
_
Idaho
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
-
-
-
_
Illinois
97
104
107
113
32
31
29
28
9
10
11
11
Indiana
75
81
75
84
16
12
12
11
4
4
4
5
Iowa
36
37
38
43
8
6
5
5
1
2
1
2
Kansas
24
22
22
23
9
6
7
7
-
-
-
-
Kentucky
11
15
16
16
2
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
Louisiana
10
10
16
13
2
2
2
1
-
-
-
-
Maine
8
8
8
9
1
-
-
_
-
-
_
_
Maryland
13
12
13
14
5
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
Massachusetts
53
56
57
67
13
9
9
7
3
3
5
3
Michigan
114
122
127
133
36
32
28
28
7
8
6
6
Minnesota
36
35
35
38
8
5
4
3
2
1
1
1
Mississippi
7
7
8
8
-
-
_
_
-
-
_
1
Missouri
28
30
29
33
6
5
3
4
-
-
1
2
Montana
2
2
2
4
-
_
_
-
-
-
-
_
Nebraska
7
8
8
8
1
_
_
_
-
_
_
_
Nevada
1
1
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
New Hampshire
8
45
5
4
8
2
1
-
-
1
1
1
1
New Jersey
44
48
56
12
10
10
9
2
1
1
2
New Mexico
-
1
2
1
-
-
.
.
-
_
_
_
New York
82
88
97
103
17
16
19
17
9
7
10
North Carolina
30
33
36
41
7
5
4
6
-
_
_
_
North Dakota
3
2
2
2
*
_
_
-
_
_
_
Ohio
151
162
159
163
61
52
46
46
16
18
16
18
Oklahoma
17
14
14
17
12
6
6
5
-
_
_
Oregon
13
16
17
16
5
7
7
6
-
_
_
1
Pennsylvania
155
183
189
198
48
43
41
34
16
14
13
14
Rhode Island
8
15
9
9
10
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
South Carolina
16
15
17
4
5
5
2
-
„
South Dakota
1
2
2
3
-
_
_
-
_
_
Tennessee
41
45
48
52
7
8
7
5
1
_
_
_
Texas
56
63
61
68
18
17
11
8
1
1
1
2
Utah
11
9
10
10
5
4
5
5
-
_
1
_
Vermont
8
33
8
10
10
1
_
_
-
_
1
Virginia
34
37
37
7
5
5
3
-
_
_
_
Washington
21
21
23
23
8
7
6
5
1
1
1
1
West Virginia
12
12
12
13
5
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
Wiscons in
84
82
85
87
28
25
23
22
10
10
11
11
Wyoming
-
-
-
-
"
-
-
.
-
-
-
-
Total United States
1,571
1.653
1.712
1.837
459
387
361
328
93
95
104
Source: Foundry Magazine Census of Foundries.
-------
POPULATION TRENDS IN THE FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
5,€CO
5.200
4,800
4,400
4,000
2300
2.400
2,000
1,600
SMALL FOUNDrIcSTLESS
MEDIUM ¦ ' | 100 -
LARGE " OVW
THAN I04i CMn.OlUt
-500 B
1(400
1,200
1,000
soo
600
400
WON FOUNDRIES
(UtA)
¦CI
200
53
•9
69
49
77
79
YEAR
SOUlCti PENTON PUItiSHINO CO.
-------
AVERAGE TONS CAST
PER FOUNDRY, XIO3
ANNUAL PRODUCTION, T0H3 OF CASTINGS XIO1
-------
to
<
o
a.
o
DC.
LJ
m
5,200
4,800
^400
4,000
3,600
3,200
2,800
2,400
2,000
1,600
1,200
800
400
IR0
N F0
UNDF
*Y CI
JP0L
A TR
ENDS
a
JPOLAS (
JSA)
HOT
BLAST CI
P0LAS
USA a C
INADA)
_ ^ i
• * *
WATE
RCOOLEC
(usa a
HOT BL/
CANADA)
1ST CUPO
LAS
1947 49
51
53 55 57 59
SOURCE: PENTON PUBLISHING CO.
63 65 67 69
YEAR
73 75 77 79 81
-------
IRON FOUNDRY ELECTRIC FURNACE TRENDS
800
CORELESS INDUCT ON
ELECTRIC ARC
1957 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81
YEAR
SOURCE
DATA PROVIDED BY FURNACE MANUFACTURERS
-------
METAl UCS
COKE
IRON FOUNDRY
PROCESS FLOW
SOURCES OF EMISSIONS
'¦) GAS AND
PARTICULATE
EMISSIONS
GAS AND
PARTICULATE «v\
EMISSIONS
METAL
MELTING
'• / ' 1 ; ' ]\ V /
GAS AND
PARTICULATE
CUPOLA
jhi emissions
FLUXES
ELECTRIC
SHIPPING
DUCTILE IRON
INNOCULATION
FINISHING
DUST
DUST
SAND
RETURN ,/
SAND GASES
DUST
HOT
METAL
' GASES
INDUCTION
CASTING
SHAKEOUT
BINDER
RETURN
SAND r~
COOLING AND
CLEANING
--S. DUST
POURING
SPILL
SAND
DUST
BAKING
SAND
PREPARATION
CORE SAND
AND BINDER
CORES
MOLDING
CORE
MAKING
-------
ii(-z
PRXEfs FI.O* n I AfiRAv
c..T
ha. ; ill rp.n>
car
v'Ai f i;c
fJANT
r r>:: ~> r t r DN INC
VA1 'TAP" F 'Kf;y
FR'T "
"TFM ,ITF^
HrAT
TREAT
VA'ZT"V. \>Tt
VAL*.KAP/
;ftn dMi.:
si*aFAw:-
1 ^ ^ Cf'iAT
<;kay, i.ik ni-K A>:r fv,u.rAB:.r :^r rxrjss o-vF^vir,--: y.m\y.
-------
SUMMARY OF GRAY IRON SPECIFICATIONS
Tensile
Strength Brinell Total Silicon
Specifying Specifying Minimum Hardness Carbon Percent Percent
Body Number Class PSI Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
American
G2000(110)
20,000
-
187
3.40
3.70
2.30
2.80
Society
for
G3000(lll)
30,000
170
223
3.20
3.50
2o 00
2.30
Testing
and
G3000a(113)
30,000
179
229
3.40
-
1.10
2.10
Materials
A159-62T
G4000b(114)
40,000
207
269
3.40
-
1.10
1.80
Society
nf
G3500c(115)
35,000
187
241
3.50
-
1.10
1.80
OX
Automotive
J431a
G3500(120)
35,000
187
241
3.10
3.40
1.90
2.20
Engineers
G4000(121)
40,000
202
255
3.00
3.30
1.80
2 o 10
General
G4500(122)
45,000
217
269
3.00
3.30
1.80
2.10
Services
Administra-
QQ-1-653
G4000d(123A)
40,000
248
311
3.10
3.40
2.10
2.40
tion
G4000e(123B)
40,000
248
311
3.10
3.45
2.10
2.40
G4000f(123C)
40,000
248
311
3.40
3.75
2.10
2.35
Source: Gray and Ductile Iron Founders' Society, Inc.
-------
11
ess
Max
202
211
171
202
193
273
185
193
201
SUMMARY OF DUCTILE IRON SPECIFICATIONS
Use
Class
or
Grade
Tensile
Strength
M in imum
PS I
Yield
Strength
Minimum
PSI
Total
Carbon
Percent
Min. Max.
D-2
58,000
30,000
3.00
Austenitic Ductile
D-2B
58,000
30,000
3.00
Iron Castings
D-2C
58,000
28,000
2.90
D-3
55,0u0
30,000
2.60
D-3A
55,000
30,000
2.60
D-4
60,000
-
2.60
D-5
55,000
30,000
2.40
D-5B
55,000
30,000
2.40
Silicon
Percent
Manganese
Percent
Phosphorus
Percent
N Lckel
Percent
Chromium
Percent
Min.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min. Max.
Min,
Max.
Min.
Max.
1.50
3.00
.70
1.25
.08
18.00
22,00
1.75
2.75
1,50
3.00
.70
1.25
.08
18.00
22.00
2.75
4.00
1.00
3.00
1.80
2.40
.08
21.00
24.00
-
.50
1.00
2.80
-
1.00
.08
28.00
32.00
2.50
3.50
1.00
2.80
-
1.00
.08
28.00
32.00
1.00
1.50
5.00
6.00
-
1.00
.08
28.00
32.00
4.50
5.50
1.00
2.80
-
1.00
.08
34.00
36.00
-
.10
1.00
2.80
-
1.00
.08
34.00
36.00
2.00
3.00
Ferritic Ductile Iron
Castings for Valves, 60-45-15 60,000 45,000 3.00 - - 2,50 - - - o08
Flanges, Pipe Flanges,
Pipe Fittings and
Other Piping
Components
and Ductile Iron Founders' Society, Inc.
-------
SUMMARY OF MALLEABLE IRON SPECIFICATIONS
TYPICAL COMPOSITION RANGES
Type
Ferritic Malleable
Iron
Grade
32510
35018
Carbon
Percent
Silicon
Percent
Manganese
Percent
Sulfur
Percent
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
2.30 2.65
2„00 2.45
,90 1.65
,95 1.35
.25
.25
o 55
.55
.05
.05
,18
,18
Phosphorus
Percent
Min. Max.
.18
.18
Pearlitic Malleable
Iron
2.00 2.65
,90 1.65
.25 1.25
.05
,18
.18
Source: American Society for Metals
Handbook, Vol. 1, 1961.
M
X!
33
M
W
M
H
M
(-1
M
I
Ui
-------
EXHIBIT III-6
PROCESS FLQU' DIAGRAM
RAW MATERIAL STORACF *ND
FURNACE CHARGE MAKE1.P
FROM FOUNDRY
FROM FOUNDRY
RECK: V
SHOT
il.AST
r~t
TURNINGS
FLO
FOUNDRY
IRON
STEEL
ALT.OYS
AND
IRON
RETURNS
SCRAP
SCRAP
BORINGS
DECREASE
SCRAP
PREPARATION
SCRKEN
carbonatesfluorides
BRIQUFT
TRIM
PLATFORM
w.-;igh
WEIGH
CARBIDES
DRY OR
PREHEAT
CHARGING
MECHANISM
CHARGING
MKCHANISM
FUKNA'JK
-------
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
MELTING DEPARTMENT
FUEL
FLUX
CHARGE
FUEL
CHARGE
METALI. ICS
CHARGE
LADLE
LADLE
ADDITION'S
FOREHEARTH
DUPLEXING
FURNACE
CUPOLA
FURNACE
REVF.RBERATORY
AIR
FURNACE
HOLDING
FURNACE
ELECTRIC
apt
FURNACE
ELECTRIC
INDUCTION
FURNACE
POUR
-------
EXHIBIT III-8
ILLUSTRATION OF CONVENTIONAL LINED CUPOLA
llolf) \
BntK I'lsnq
Cotl MOf I'fHiiy
Cho'Q'" 'J c:io
Chcc -.g.
n ^ I
Wrrd bo*
r- Sioc'*
y RefradDiy I ^ifig
Uios» dt-ct
ypfp
"TrpMI* (v .'cA
islcg bole is ibO0
cpposce)
,N~ Sard t>ocr
Ccnvenlionol cjpolo
Source: Metals Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol,, 5,
Forging and Casting, American Society
for Metals, 1970, p. 337.
-------
EXHIBIT III-9
ILLUSTRATION OF WATER-COOLED CUPOLA
ilol?)
Brck intr.Q
Lost iron 'imrc
Cho'Q'-g doc
Wojc o'Jie
5'ce' ouKi' s*eH ^
ir-ftCf 5htll
C 5^
• fl> Ljrrl/-
V.nlf ntpi —
j ( * 'Aird bO*
Wuu-r cyo'ed
IjyCfe
.T. * » > I ... | j., y r
cam
S'ac end
ir Of> t'C uO"
one red
DoO» (1 of ?)
i j Corhc;
Woter-coc ed e-pe'o (wotpf wo'D
bkip-ncsS' foi'
V-c'Z)
j CicQ'-q
one* i"-inq-
*
CuM "On Iir.ng —
ChO'qif"} door —
/
Vfoif f'uw beiwe*n
mpi and c jic shell
Sc.id
v wo"'*
nonlipid
steel s^eit-\
/-De*' duct
BlO-al due'
wo'er
cuflo-n
^¦Wotc-coc-ied
luy€'€
nohrip
Water
Ireuqri -
- Sioq one)
KC'i MOygh
Cofben I
block--^
Sc^d bes
" Doc i• c1Z)
Prop
Wote»-coo:ed cupola (flood cooled)
Source: Metals Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 5,
Forging and Casting, American Society
for Metals, 1970, p. 337.
-------
APPROXIMATE MELTING RATES AND GAS VOLUMES
FOR LIKED CUPOLAS
FCE
Lined
Dia.
Kelt Rate TPH
ketal to Coke Ratio
Blast
Air
(SCFM)
Av.
Chg. Door
(Sq. Ft.)
Indraft
(CFM)
Above-
Door Total
(SCFM)
Below-
Door Total
(SCFM)
Above
Door
(ACFM)
Below
Door 0-850° F
(ACTO)
6/1
8/1
10/1
12/1
18
3/4
1
-
-
570
650
2,000
23
1
1-1/2
-
-
940
10
3,000
3,940
1,050
7,700
3,000
27
1-3/4
2-1/4
-
-
1,290
10
3,000
4,290
1,450
8,500
4,000
32
2-1/2
3-1/4
4
-
1,810
10
3,000
4,810
2,000
10,800
5,000
37
3-1/4
4-1/4
5-1/4
-
2,420
11-1/4
3,380
5,800
2,700
13,100
7,000
42
4
5-1/2
7
-
3,100
16-1/2
4,950
8,050
3,500
18,100
9,000
45
4-1/2
6-1/4
8
-
3,600
22
6,600
10,200
4,000
23,000
12,000
48
5-1/2
7-1/4
9
10-3/4
4,100
45
13,500
17,600
4,600
34,500
16,000
54
7
9-1/4
11-1/2
13-3/4
5,200
50
15,000
20,200
5,800
39,500
18,000
60
9
11-1/4
14
17
6,400
50
15,000
21,400
7,100
42,500
20,000
66
10-1/2
13-3/4
17
20-1/2
7,700
52
15,600
23,300
8,500
51,000
23,000
72
12-1/4
16-1/4
20-1/4
24-1/2
9,200
52
15,600
24,800
10,500
56,000
28,000
78
15
19
23-3/4
28-3/4
10,700
60
18,000
28,700
12,000
65,000
32,000
84
17
22-1/4
27-3/4
33-1/4
12,500
63
18,900
31,400
14,000
71,000
37,000
Adapted from Useful Information for Foundrymen published by Whiting Corporation.
Assumptions:
1. No door closure
2. No oxygen enrichment
3. No fuel injection
4. Indraft at 300 FPM
-------
APPROXIMATE MELTING RATES AND
GAS VOLUMES FOR UNLINED CUPOLAS
FCE
Dia.
Melt Rate TPH
Metal to Coke Ratio (1000" F Hot Blast)
Blast
Air
(SCFM)
Av. Chg.
Door
(Sq. Ft.)
Indraft
(CFM)
Above-
Door Total
(SCFM)
Below-
Door Total
(SCFM)
Above
Door
(ACFM)
Below
Door @ 850° F
(ACFM)
5/1
6/1
7/1
8/1
9/1
10/1
36
4-1/2
4-3/4
5
5-1/2
5-3/4
6-1/4
2,300
12
3,600
5,900
2,600
13,300
7,000
42
6-1/4
6-1/2
6-3/4
7-1/4
7-3/4
8-1/4
3,100
16-1/2
4,950
8,050
3,500
18,100
9,000
48
8
8-1/4
9
9-3/4
10-1/2
11-1/4
4,100
45
13,500
17,600
4,600
34,500
16,000
54
10
10-1/2
11-1/2
12-1/4
13-1/4
14-1/4
5,200
50
15,000
20,200
5,800
39,500
18,000
60
12-1/2
13
13-1/2
15-1/4
16-1/4
17-1/4
6,400
50
15,000
21,400
7,100
41,500
20,000
66
15
15-1/2
17
18-1/4
19-3/4
20-3/4
7,700
52
15,600
23,300
8,500
51,000
23,000
72
17-3/4
18-1/2
20
22
23-1/4
25
9,200
60
18,000
27,200
10,500
59,200
28,000
78
20-3/4
21-3/4
23-1/4
25-1/2
27-1/4
29
10,700
60
18,000
28,700
12,000
65,000
32,000
84
24-1/4
25-1/4
27-1/4
29-1/4
32
34
12,500
63
18,900
31,400
14,000
71,000
37,000
90
27-3/4
29
31-1/;
34-1/4
36-1/4
39
14,300
95
28,500
':2,800
16,000
93,000
42,000
96
31-3/4
33
34-1/2
39
41-1/2
44
16,300
110
33,000
49,300
18,000
105,000
48,000
102
36
37-1/4
48-1/2
44
47
50
18,400
120
36,000
54,400
21,000
115,000
56,000
108
40
41-1/2
45
49
52-1/2
56
20,600
128
38,400
59,000
23,000
128,000
62,000
Adapted from Useful Information for Foundrymen published by Whiting Corporation.
Assumptions:
n No door closure
2. No oxygen enrichment
3. Ho fuel injection
4. Indraft at 300 FPM
x
X
-------
EXHIBIT III-12
ILLUSTRATION OF CUPOLA REACTION AREA
W:# r
ft I
:::w I
METAL CHARGE
nrrTTTTTri
metal charge
COKEr CHARGE
O
ITUYEREI
MOLTEN SLAG
SUPERHEATED METALt
Fig 3.3. Cross-section of cupoln showing reoction areas.
A — O2 + CO2 D — High CO: CO; ratio
B — Area high in Oj K — High CO: CO2 ratio
C - - CO -f- co2
Source: The Cupola and its Operation;
published by the American
Foundryuien1 s Society, Third
Edition, 1965, p. 26.
-------
EXHIBIT III-13
TYPICAL CUPOLA MATERIAL BALANCE
Lined
Cupola
Water-Cooled
Cupola
Inputs
Pounds
Percent
Inputs
Pounds
Percent
Metal Charge
2,004
52.08%
Metal Charge
1,992
47.42%
Pig Iron
0
0.00
Pig Iron
233
5.56
Returns
802
20.83
Returns
996
23.71
Steel Scrap
1,137
29.56
Steel Scrap
739
17.60
Iron Scrap
0
0.00
Iron Scrap
0
0.00
Ferroalloys
65
1.69
Ferroalloys
23
0.56
Coke
167
4.33
Coke
253
6.03
Natural Gas
29
0.75
Natural Gas
0
0.00
Fuel Oil
0
0.00
Fuel Oil
0
0.00
Flux and Additives
65
1.69
Flux and Additives
58
1.38
Air
1,556
40.43
Air
1,898
45.18
Oxygen
0
0.00
Oxygen
0
0.00
Cupola Lining
27
0.71
Cupola Lining
0
0.00
Total Input Materials 3,848
100.00%
Total Input Materials
4.201
100.0%
Outputs
Outputs
Molten Iron
2,000
51.97%
Molten Iron
2,000
47.60%
Slag
32
0.83
Slag
44
1.04
Emissions Dust
14
0.37
Emissions Dust
19
0.45
Top Gases
1,802
46.84
Top Gases
2,139
50.90
Nitrogen
1,188
65.91
Nitrogen
1,449
67.77
Carbon Dioxide
507
28.10
Carbon Dioxide
468
21.87
Carbon Monoxide
99
5.49
Carbon Monoxide
220
10.29
Hydrogen
9
0.47
Hydrogren
2
0.07
Sulfur Dioxide
0
0.02
Sulfur Dioxide
-0
-0.00
-------
EXHIBIT III-14
ILLUSTRATION OF ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE
TRANSFORMER
ELECTRONIC
CONTROLS
MAINTAIN ...
PROPER ARC
CHARGING
MACHINE
CHARGES
THROUGH
THIS DOOR
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
ELECTRODES
i
ARC-
BATH
CONTROL
PANEL
FLOOR CUT AWAY
TO SHOW TILTING
MECHANISM
TAPPING SPOUT
SLAG
Source; The Picture Story of Steel,
published by the American Iron
and Steel Institute, 1952,
p. 18.
-------
HEAT BALANCE
BTU/Ton
(xlOOO)
Input Heat
Electrica 1
Energy 1,907
Output Heat
Melting and
Superheating
Iron 1,132
Heat Content
of Slag 81
Decomposition
of Water 9
Cases
Sensible Heat 231
Latent Heat -138
Heat, Electrical
and Cooling
Losses 592
MATERIAL BALANCE
Percent Input Material
Pounds Percent
100.0
59.3
4.3
.5
12.1
7.2
31.0
Returns
Steel Scrap
Ferroalloys
Carbo-Coke
Electrodes
Air
Moisture
Lining
Total
Output Material
Molten Iron
Slag
Particulate
Emissions
Gaseous
Emissions
1,388
630
17
31
10
318
8
38
2,440
1,997
93
14
336
56.9
25.8
.7
1.3
.4
13.0
.3
1.6
100.0
81.8
3.8
.6
13.8
Total
1,407
100.0
Total
2,440
100.0
NOTE: Energy quantities include
only theoretical requirements
for heating, melting, and
superheating to 2800° F,
and normal electrical, trans-
mission and heat losses. The
total is less than the average
used in normal practice since it
does not include allowances for
holding, or normal operating
delays.
ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE - HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE
Electrodes (3)
Electrode
Holder
Tapping
Spout
Furnace Roof
Charge
Metal
Lining
-------
EXHIBIT III-16
ILLUSTRATION OF CHANNEL INDUCTION FURNACE
I ADJ-MTUN
IN-DjC'O5
N5.JI J'ON
COIL
Source: "Electric Melting for Mass Production
in U.S. Iron Foundries "
Modern Casting, July, 1968, p. 47.
-------
F.XHTBTT III-17
ILLUSTRATION OF CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE
\
-a
A. HYDRAULIC TfLT CYLINDERS
B. SHUNTS
C. STANCHION
D. COVER
E. COU
F. LEADS
G. WORKING REFRACTORY
H. OPERATOR'S PLATFORM
I. STEEL SHELL
J. TIE RODS
K. CLAMPING BOLTS
L. COIL SUPPORT
M. SPOUT
N. REFRACTORY BRICK
O ACCESS PORT
P. LID HOIST MECHANISM
Source: "Electric Melting for Mass Production
in U.S. Iron Foundries,"
Modern Casting, July, 1968, p. 47.
-------
HEAT BALANCE
INPUT HEAT
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
OUTFUI HEAT
MELTTNG AND SUPER-
HEATING IRON
ELECTIRCAL LOSSES
TRANSMISSION LOSSES
HEAT LOSS
TOTAL
BTU/TON
(x 000)
1,669
1,131
325
81
132
PERCENT
100.0
68.4
19.1
4.7
7.8
1.669
100.0
NOTE: ENERGY QUANTITIES INCLUDE
ONLY THEORETICAL REQUIREMENTS
FOR HEATING, MELTING, AND
SUPERHEATING TO 2800° F,
AND NORMAL ELECTRICAL,
TRANSMISSION AND HEAT LOSSES.
THE TOTAL IS LESS THAN THE
AVERAGE USED IN N3RMAL PRAC-
TICE SINCE IT DOES NOT INCLUDE
ALLOWANCES FOR HOLDING, OR
NORMAL OPERATING DELAYS.
MATERIAL BALANCE
INPUT MATERIALS
RETURNS
STEEL SCRAP
IRON CHIPS
FERROALLOYS
LINING
CARBO-COKE
TOTAL
OUTPUT MATERIALS
MOLTEN IRON
SLAG
EMISSIONS
GASEOUS
PARTICULATE
TOTAL
POUNDS
378
1,351
188
43
6
61
2,027
2,000.0
10.0
15.5
1.5
2.027.0
PERCENT
18.6
66.7
9.3
2.1
.3
3.0
100.0
98.7
.5
.7
.1
Charging
Opening
Tapping
Spout
Charge -
Metal
Tilting -
Cylinder
100.0
Lining
Coil
Furnace Shell
Cables
CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE - HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE £
""""—————-—______ ^
j—i
ca
h-H
H
-------
EXHIBIT III-19
>
ILLUSTRATION OF REVERBERATORY FURNACE
ECLIPSE CENTRIFUGAL
BLOWER CHARGING HOPPER
RECUPERATORS
a ^ a HIGH CAPACITY GAS
REMOVABLE ARCH OR OIL BURNER
POURING SPOUT
ALLOYING AND
INSPECTION DOOR
Source: The Wheelabrator Corporation.
-------
F.XHTBIT III-20
ILLUSTRATION OF MAGNESIUM TREATMENT METHODS
FOR PRODUCING DUCTILE IRON
P«£SSURE LADLE
p \ GAS
PRESSURE CHAMBER
DETACHABLE BOTTOM LADLE
(MAG-COKE)
TRiCKLING-IN (GA2AL)
plunging
POUR-OVER
plunging
Source: "Comparing Processes for Making
Ductile Iron," E. Modi, FOUNDRY,
July, 1970, pp. 44-46.
-------
PROCESS n.(V DIAGRAM
MOLDING. PCH'RINO (, SHAKEOCT
m
cd
SAN"? Tr ^AND CONDITION'tN'G. KECI.AMATIOr: OK REFl'S!."
COPE MOLDING
MISCELLANEOUS - PARTING CCM?0l"\'D, WASH, CHAFl.ETS, ETC.
-------
EXHIBIT III-22
-------
EXHIBIT 111-23
-------
EXHIBIT III-24
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
CORF, MAX TNG
OTHER
ADDITIVES
GASSING
STATION
CORE
OVEN
RESIN
CORE SAND
CORE
FINISHING
CORK
BENCH
CORE
MOLDING
MACHINE
CEREAL BiNDER
CORE SAND
STORAGE
CLAY
CORF
EXTRUDING
MACHINE
ACCELERATORS
SAND MIXER
WATER
CORE OIL
TO MOLDING AREA
-------
CHARACTERISTICS AND SOURCES OF EMISSIONS
IN VARIOUS FOUNDRY DEPARTMENTS
.EMISSIONS
DEPARTMENT
OPERATION
TYPE
CONCENTRATION
PARTICLE
STZF.
RAW MATERIAL STORAGE
AND CHARGE MAKEUP
Store tneeal scrap, coke, limestone,
dolomite, fluorspar, silica sand-
Dust: Coke,
limestone and sand.
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
Moderate
(Microns)
Fine to coarse
30 to 1,000
Centrifuge or heat metal borings
and turnings to remove cutting oil
Oil vapors
Smoke
Unburned hydrocarbons
Light
Light
Light
.03 to 1
.01 to .4
Weigh charge materials
Coke dus t
Limestone dust
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
Moderate
Fine to coarse
30 to 1,000
MELTING
Cupola furnace melting
Fly ash, dust
Coke breeze
Smoke
Metallic oxides
Sulfur compounds
Oil vapors
Carbon monoxide
.2 to 5gr./cu.ft.
5gr./cu.ft. & up
Heavy
Moderate to heavy
Light
Light
Heavy
8 to 20
Fine to coarse
.01 to .4
To .7
.03 to 1
Electric furnace melting
Smoke
Metallic -oxides
Oil vapors
Heavy
Moderate
Heavy
.01 to .4
To .7
.03 to 1
Induction furnace melting
Oil vapors, metallic
oxides
-
Reverberatory (Air) furnace
Smoke
Oil vapors
Metallic oxides
Fly ash, sulfur com-
pounds
Smoke , dus t
Oil vapors
Metallic oxides
Metallic oxides
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
.2 to 5gr./cu.ft.
.01 to .4
.03 to 1
To .7
8 to 20
Furnace charge preheating or drying
Light to heavy
Light to heavy
1. 24#/ton
.41#/ton
.01 to .4
.03 to 1
757.-5 to 60 bottom fired
0 to 20 top fired
Holding furnaces
Iron oxide
Oil vapor
Light
Light
Fine to medium
.03 to 1
Duplexing furnaces
Oil vapor
Metallic oxides
Light
Light
.03 to 1
To .7
Inoculation
Metallic oxides
Heavy
To 0.7
MOLDING, POURING AND
SHAKEOUT
Molding
Dust, mist
Vapor
Light
Coarse
-------
CHARACTERISTICS AND SOURCES OF EMISSIONS
IN VARIOUS FOUNDRY DEPARTMENTS
1 EMISSIONS
DEPARTMENT
OPERATION
TYPE
CONCENTRATION
PARTICLE
SIZE
MOLDING,
SHAKEOUT
POURING AND
(Cont' d)
Pouring
Gray and ductile iron
Malleable
Core gases
Facing fumes
Metallic oxides
Fluoride fumes
Magnesium oxide fumes
Synthetic binder
Smoke and fumes
Heavy
Heavy
Light
Heavy
Heavy
Moderate to
heavy
(Microns)
Fine to medium
.01 to .4
-
Shakeout
Dust
Smoke
S team
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
Heavy
Heavy
50%-2 to
.01 to .4
15
CLEANING
AND FINISHING
Abrasive cleaning
Dust
3gr./cu.f t.& up
507.-2 to
15
Grinding
Metal dust
Sand dust
Abrasive dust
Wheel bond material
Vitrified resins
5gr./cu.ft.& up
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
.5 to 2gr./cu.ft.
Light
Light
Above 7
Fine to medium
507.-2 to 7
Fine
507.-2 to 15
Annealing and heat treating
Painting
Spray and dip
Oil vapors, gas products
of combustion
Solvent vapors
Paint spray carry-over
Water spray carry-over
.5 to 2gr./cu.ft
.03 to 1
507.-2 to
7
SAND CONDITIONING
New sand storage
Dus t
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
507.-2 to
15
Sand handling system
Dust
Steam
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
507.-2 to
15
Screening
Dus t
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
507.-2 to
15
Mixing
Dus t
Flour
Bentonites
Sea coal
Cellulose
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
507.-2 to 15
Fine to medium
Fine to medium
Fine to medium
Fine to medium
Drying and reclamation
Dust
Core gases
1/2 to 2gr./cu.ft.
507.-7 to
.03 to 1
15
-------
DEPARTMENT
COREMAKING
OPERATION
Sand storage
Coremaking
Baking
CHARACTERISTICS AND SOURCES OF EMISSIONS
IN VARIOUS FOUNDRY DEPARTMENTS
TYPE
EMISSIONS
CONCENTRATION
PARTICLE
SIZE
(Microns)
Fine
507.-7 Co 15
Fine to medium
Fine to medium
Dust
Flour
Binders
Resin dust
Sand dust
Heavy
3 to 5gr./cu.ft.
Heavy
Light
Vapors, gases
Smoke
-------
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CUPOLA PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
Percent by Weight in Cupola Effluent
Foundry
Number
Iron
Oxide
Magnesium
Oxide
Manganese
Oxide
Lead l
Oxide
Aluminum
Oxide
Zinc
Oxide
Silicon
Dioxide
Calcium
Oxide
Combustibles
66
11.1%
12.3%
85
14.7
1.3%
1.4%
28.7
24.0%
90
56.3
42.0%
0.9
113
8.6
3.7%
o 05%
31.8
3.1
27.0
116
10.0
5.0
10.0
5.0
1.0%
10.0
3.0
5.0
146
33.0
1.0
5.0
38.0
20.0
1.0
150
11.6
1.0
5.5
20.0
1.4
14.7
30.1
1.1
Note: Quantities as reported. They do not add up to 100%,.
M
X
EC
M
CO
I—I
i-3
M
<
I
ro
-------
Found
9
14
18
26
32
67
67
146
151
A1
1
B1
C?
22
$
2
a;
B2
EXHIBIT IV-3
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION-CUPOLA EMISSIONS
Cumulative Percent by Weight
Diameter in Microns
-2
-5
11
It-1
o
-20
-50
-100
30%
50%
65%
82%
90%
99%
64
82
98
99
2
12
34
92
99
13
28
45
55
60
54
86
98
99
99
14 15
15
21
99
19
25
99
99
99
0.6 2 3
8
99
99
4
5.5
7
13.7
75
80
11
13
32
53
75
94
8
12
17
28
69
89
18
25
38
62
17
26
36
53
24
28
23
42
26
30
32
44
0
7
25
32
34
41
56
61
0
7
24
41
47
32
69
81
lo The Cupola and Its Operation,
Third Edition, 1965 .
American Foundrymen s Society,
p„ 82„
2o Air Pollution Engineering Manual,
Public Health Service Publication,
No„999-AP-40, 1967
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare„
-------
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
VS. SPECIFIC BLAST RATE
FOR ACID LINED CUPOLAS
=.05 + .07B
MULT. R.= 0.6530
F RATIO = 4.46
100 200 300 400
SPECIFIC BLAST RATE - SCFM/SQUARE FEET
500
M
X
«
M
W
<
I
4>
-------
EFFECT OF SPECIFIC BLAST RATE AND COKE
RATE ON PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM UNLINED CUPOLAS
SPECIFIC BLAST RATE
SCFM/S.F
COKE RATIO
-------
EXHIBIT IV-6
Page I ot L
SIZE DISTRIBUTION FOR THREE ELECTRIC
ARC INSTALLATIONS
Particle Size
Distribution, Microns
Foundry A*
Foundry B
Foundry C
Less than
1
5%
8%
18%
Less than
2
15
54
61
Less than
5
28
80
84
Less than
10
41
89
91
Less than
15
55
93
94
Less than
20
68
96
96
Less than
50
98
99
99
Note: ^Foundry A provided an agglomerated sample and is,
therefore, less representative.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY. Inc.
-------
EXHIBIT IV-6
PageT~oT~T~
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC ARC EMISSIONS
Oxides
Foundry A
Foundry B
Foundry <
Iron
757o~8570
75%-85%
75%-8 57=
Silicon
10
10
10
Magnesium
2
0.8
1
Manganese
2
2
2
Lead
1
2
0. 5
Aluminum
0.5
1
0.5
Calcium
0.3
0.2
0.8
Zinc
0.2
2.
0.3
Copper
0.04
0.03
0.01
Lithium
0.03
0.03
0.03
Tin
0.03
0.3
0.02
Nickel
0.02
0.03
0.01
Chromium
0.02
0.07
0.02
Barium
0.02
0.07
0.01
Loss on Ignition
8.87
3.1
0
Ash
91.93
96.9
100
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
-------
EXHIBIT IV-7
EMISSIONS DATA FROM
ELECTRIC ARC MELTING FURNACES
Number
Furnace
Shell
Diameter
Feet
Furnace1
Charge
Tons
Furnace
Cycle
Hours
Emissions
Prodxtced
Lb/Ton Charge
1
11.0
15
1.15
12.0(Est.)
2
12.0
20
1.5
6.0
3
8.0
5
1.0
20.0
4
12.0
20
2.5
18.3
5
7.0
3
1.75
10.0
6
12.0
25
4.0
4.0
7
8.0
5
1.0
40.0
8
7.0
3
1.75
12.7
9
7.0
2
2.0
10.7
10
7.0
2
1.3
13.4
11
7.0
3
2.0
5.3
12
9.0
6
2.3
15.3
13
9.0
6
2.0
12.8
14
11.0
18
3.0
6.1
15
9o0
6
1.2
29.4
16
9.0
6
1.75
12.7
17
8.0
4
2.0
11.0
18
11.0
14
1.75
7.5
19
12.0
19
1.7
15.0
Sources: 1- 4
5- 9
10-19
Foundry Visits
AFS Foundry Air Pollution Manual
Los Angeles Air Pollution Manual
-------
EXHIBIT IV-8
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATE OF EMISSIONS
AND HEAT CYCLE FOR ELECTRIC ARC MELTING
100 n
Em
w
h 40
CO
20-
90 100
40
60
70
80
50
30
20
0
HEAT TIME-PERCENT
Source: Coulter, 1954, Los Angeles Air Pollution Manual.
-------
TREATMENT AGENTS FOR PRODUCING DUCTILE IRON
15-20% Mg-Ni-Si
-Cu
-Fe
5-357= Mg-Si-Fe-Ca
MASTER ALLOYS
Ce
La
Metal ) „
> Pure
Vapor )
Coke with 43% Mg
Oxides
MgO + CaO
+ Al/.C
Ca
Metal
Salts
Mg + Ca-)Chlorides
+ Ce-jFluorides
OZ
Ca Si + 570 Ce
+ 3% Mg
Reactive slags
Ca Si + Ca-
, .. .Chlorides
+ Mg-(Fluorides
+ Le-;
Source: Modi, Comparing Processes for Making Ductile Iron, Foundry, July, 1970.
-------
Molding Sand Gas Analyses
A B C D E F
1.57, Cereal
47, 47, 47, 47, 47, Core Oil 1.0%
Sand Bentonite Bentonite Bentonite Bentonite Bentonite Kerosene 1.07,
Composition Oven Dried 2.57, H£0 57, Water 17, Cereal Dried 17, Cereal 3.47, H2O Dried
CO?
4.9
3.3
2.0
6.5
2.8
5.0
02
9.2
6.2
2.9
7.4
1.7
5.2
CO
2.4
6.3
11.3
10.8
11 „ 5
30.4
H2
0.9
33.0
46.1
2.5
50.3
25.6
Paraffins
0
1.2
0
0.4
2.9
2 „ 2
N2
82.6
49.7
37.7
72.4
30.8
31.6
Percent 02
of O2+N2
15.7
20.2
21.7
21.0
25.0
44.5
C0/C02
0.49
1.91
5.7
1.66
4.10
6.08
Percent C
7.3
9.6
13.3
17.3
14.3
35.4
47, Cereal 47, Cereal 1 J K Steel
Sand 47, Bentonite 47, Bentonite Oil Oil Oil Cavity
Composition 47, Water Dry Drag Check Cope & Sprue
CO 2
2.5
2.3
6.4
6.4
6.8
5.0
02
3.0
6.2
4.3
5.5
8.9
9.4
CO
30.5
28.7
7.9
11.1
2 „ 5
4.1
h2
46.0
24.8
2.6
7.5
0.6
0.5
Paraffins
4.6
0.6
0.1
0
0
0.2
N2
13.2
37.4
78.7
69.5
81.2
80.8
Percent O2
of O2+N2
63.0
39.0
15.7
17.4
17.2
16.9
CO/CO2
12.2
12.5
1.23
1.73
.37
0.82
Percent C
33.0
31.0
14.3
17.5
9.3
9.1
Source: "Nature of Mold Cavity Gases," Locke & Ashbrook, AFS Transactions, 1950.
M
X
X
M
CO
<
I
-------
MOLDING! SAND
GAS EVOLUTION AND HOT PERMEABILITY
Bond Clay Added
Percent
Tempering
Water
CC Gas Evolved
per Gram
of
: Sand
Cubic Feet
at 1,800°
per Cubic F
of Sand
Gas from Dried Specimen
Steam 0
212° F.
Total
Has
1/2 Minute
3 Minutes 7 Minutes
212u F.
1,800° F.
Washed and Dried Silica Sand plus
Bond Clays
5% Western Bentonite
2.5
.50
2.50 2.50
40.0
43.3
145.2
233.8
47o Southern Bentonite
2.5
3.50
3.50 3.50
41.5
46.1
154.9
247.8
117o Ohio fireclay
3.5
3.00
3.00 3.00
56.5
60.3
203.0
824.8
Silica Sand Bonded with 5 Percent
Western
Bentonite and
Other Binders
1-10 Sea Coal (Vol.)
3.0
9.00
19.50 19.75
49.8
76,2
256.0
409,6
1-35 Pitch (Vol.)
2.9
4.25
7.50 7.50
48.2
58.2
195.5
312.8
1% Cereal Binder
3.4
7.25
9.50 9.50
56.5
69.0
231.8
370.9
1% Resin Binder
3.4
5.25
7.00 7.00
56.5
65.4
219.7
351.5
1% Special Binder A
3.5
4.25
7.00 7.00
58.0
67.3
220.0
381.6
1% Special Binder B
2.0
2.25
3.75 3.75
33.2
87.7
126.7
202.7
1% Dextrine
3.5
8.00
8.75 8.75
58.0
69.6
234.0
74.4
Silica Sands
Bonded with 5 Percent Western Bentonite and 1-10 Sea Coal Volume
Washed and dried Ottawa
8.0
9.00
19.50 19.75
49.8
76.2
256.0
409.6
Western Michigan core sand
2.9
5.00
15.25 15.25
48.2
68.4
229.8
367.7
Michigan bank sand
2.8
10.25
25.00 25.50
46. 5
80.3
270.0
432.0
Gas Evolution from Sands
in
Actual Use
Steel foundry-old sand
2.0
4.50
5.25 5.25
33.2
40.1
134.7
215.5
Steel foundry-facing sand
3.1
12.25
13.25 13.25
51.4
69.1
232.0
371.2
Malleable foundry-system
sand
3.7
9.75
18.00 18.25
61.5
85.5
288.0
460.8
Malleable foundry-facing
sand
3.8
18.25
27.75 27.75
63.0
99.4
334.0
534.4
Gray iron foundry-system
sand
3.8
11.25
28.75 33.00
63.0
106.5
358.0
572.8
Synthetic Sand vs. Naturally Bonded Sand
95% Washed and dried Ottawa
5% Western Bentonite 2.5
New Albany sand 4.8
New Ohio sand 7.8
.50
9.00
11.00
2.50
11.00
15.25
2.50
11.00
15.25
40.0
78.0
124. 8
43.3
93.3
145.0
145.2
314.0
480.5
232.3
502.4
778.3
Source: "Gas Developed in Molds," Dunbeck, Foundry, September, 1944.
-------
EXHIBIT IV-12
GAS VOLUME EVOLVED AS A
FUNCTION OF VOLATILES
CONTAINED IN MOLDING SAND
130
120
E no
100
50-
0
2
1.
4
6
3
8
10
12
ENDOTHERMIC VOLATILES (MOISTURE, VOLATILES IN BINDER & ADDITIVES)
LB. VOLATILES/FT.3 SAND
Note: Adapted from an article by F. Hoffman, "Property Changes
and Conditioning of Repeatedly Circulating Foundry
Sand Systems," Modern Casting, October, 1967.
-------
EXHIBIT IV-13
EFFECT OF BAKING TIME ON
GAS GENERATED DURING POURING
FOR VARIOUS BAKING TEMPERATURES
Nl
^"1
350°F
\
\Q1
V.
^400°F
^450°?^
12 3
BAKING TIME T.N HOURS
Note: Adapted from Foundry Core Practice by
11. Dietert, 1966, p. 172.
-------
EXHIBIT TV-14
EFFECT OF SAND TO OIL
RATIO ON AMOUNT OF
CORE GAS GENERATED
DURING POURING
1 56:1
SAND RATIO BY WEIGHT
Source: Foundry Core Practice, H. Dietert, 1966.
-------
EXHIBIT IV-15
Region
New England
Ma 1 ne
New Hampshire
Ye ruiont
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
INVENTORY OF IRON FOUNDRY EMISSIONS
FROM MELTING OPERATION'S. 1969
Total
Particulate Carbon
Castings Molten Iron Emissions Monoxide
Production Production Generated, Generated,
Tons(1)
2.35,000
Tons m Tons (31
362,000
3,800
Particulate Carbon
Emissions Monoxide
Emitted, Emitted,
Tons CO Tons (4) Tons (5)
49,000
2,800
24,500
Middle Atlantic
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
East K. Central
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
3,501,000 5,143,000
51,000 594,000 38,000 297,000
8,225,000 12,613,000 126,000 1,541,000 54,500 770,500
Weft: N'. Central
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
Nebraska
Kansas
K. Dakota
S. Dakota
607,000 8ft!,000
9,100 115,000 6,800 57,500
South Atlantic
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
W. Virginia
K. Carolina
S. Carolina
Georgia
Florida
473,000 662 ,000
6,800
88,000
5,100 44,000
East S. Central
Kentucky
Mississippi
Alabama
Tennessee
2,300,000 2,887,000 27,700 304,000 20,800 152,000
»'est S. Central
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
531,000 748,000
7,700 100,000 5,800 50,000
fountain
Vnnt ana
Cr. lorn do
Arizona
Nevada (2)
Idaho
New Mexico (2)
Wvor.ing (2)
Pacific
Washington
Oregon
California
Hawa i i
Alaska
243,000 332,000
499,000 739,000
3,300 38,000 2,500 19,000
7,600 95,000 5,700 47,500
Total
16.614.000 24.367.000 243,000 2,92.4,000 182,000 1 ,462^,000
Notes: (1) Casting?, and molten iron production quantities from cupolas and electric
arc furnaces only.
(2) No iron foundries are located in Nevada, New Mexico, and Wyoming.
(3) Particulate emissions ana carbon monoxide generated are the estimated
maximum produced.
(4) Particulate emissions emitted are estimated at 75/> of maximum produced,
with en average 25% being collected.
(5) Carbon monoxide emitted is estimated at SOX being burned and 507. re-
leased to the atmosphere.
-------
EXHIBIT IV-16
INVENTORY OF IRON FOUNDRY EMISSIONS
FROM NON-MELTING OPERATIONS. 1969
Region
Castings
Production
Tons
Molten Iron
Production
Tons
Tota 1
Particulate
Emiss ions
Generated
Tons
Particulate
Eni s s i ons
Emitted
Tons
New England 239,000 368,000 21,000 1,100
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Connect icut
Middle Atlantic 3,643,000 5,603,000 319,400 16,200
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
East North Central 8,453,000 13,001,000 741,100 37,700
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
West North Central 677,000 1,041,000 59,300 3,000
Minnesota
Iowa
Mi ssouri
Nebraska
North Dakota
South Dakota
South Atlantic 485,000 746,000 42,500 2,200
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carol inn
Georgia
Florida
East South Central 2,327,000 3,579,000 204,000 10,400
Kentucky
Miss iss ippi
Alabar.ia
Tennessee
West South Central 551,000 847,000 48,300 2,500
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
Mountain 249,000 383,000 21,800 1,100
Montana
Colorado
Arizona
Nevada (1)
Idaho
New Mexico(1)
Wyoming (1)
Pacific 531,000 817,000 46,600 2,400
Washington
Oregon
California
Hawaii
Alaska
Total 17.155.000 26.385.000 1,504.000 76.600
Note: (1) No iron foundries are located in Nevada, New Mexico and
Wyoming,, '
-------
APPENDIX A
"Page 1
SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION
Sampling arid analytical techniques for the determination
of emission rates from industrial processes have been stan-
dardized for many specific particulate and gaseous materials„
The techniques described in the following paragraphs are those
most widely used in the testing of iron foundry emissions
testing. The format and wording for most procedures correspond
to the source indicated for each procedure.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Scope
The primary objective of stack testing is to determine
the nature and/or quantity of emissions being released into
the atmosphere. Sampling procedures that follow are applicable
to the cleaned gas side of the control unit0
Apparatus
The accuracy of emission testing results is dependent
upon qualified personnel conducting the test and the use of
the proper apparatus for the material to be collected. Figure
1 illustrates information on sampling locations and apparatus
most commonly involved in stack testing.
Sampling Principles
The location and number of sampling points are based on
size and shape of the duct, uniformity of gas flow in the duct,
A.T.KEARNEY «c COMPANY. Inc.
-------
APPENDIX A
Page 2
availability of an adequate sampling port, and the space re-
quired to set up the equipment. Unfortunately, ideal condi-
tions are seldom found in field testing and agreement on these
factors must be reached before conducting the test.
To insure constancy of test conditions and results, com-
plete information must be developed as to continuous or cyclic
operation; nature, weight and composition of materials; gas
volume and fluctuations; pressure; temperature and humidity;
presence of other devices such as afterburners; and related
conditions affecting the operation and equipment. These
factors will regulate the time, number and duration of test
runs o
Stack Gas Velocity
To determine particulate concentration in an exhaust
stack, isokinetic source sampling must be used0 This is the
condition that exists when the velocity in the nozzle of the
sampling tube is exactly the same as that in the stack0
Isokinetic sampling is not mandatory when only gaseous sub-
stances are to be assayed.
In isokinetic sampling, the traverse area of the duct
must be divided into equal areas and a pitot traverse taken.
The use of the S-type pitot is recommended where particulates
are involved to avoid any possibility of partial plugging
and faulty readings., The velocity at each point must be
calculated, and the volume of flow required to maintain that
A.T.KEARNEY 6c COM PAN Y, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 3
velocity in the sampling tip should volume fluctuate. Provi-
sions must be made so that the volume can be recalculated im-
mediately each time the pressure changes at the meter. However,
when sampling is downstream from a gas cleaner, the volume is
controlled by the system's fan and remains relatively constant
and this procedure may not be necessary.
Detailed procedures on conducting velocity measurements
are given in Bulletin WP-50 of the Western Precipitation
Company, ASME Performance Test Code 27-1957 and the Industrial
Ventilation Manual of the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists.
Concurrent with conducting the pitot traverse, it is es-
sential to determine the temperature of the stack gas. The
measuring device will be dependent on the temperatures involved.
Sample Probe
In assembling the sampling probe, teflon tape should al-
ways be used instead of pipe dope to prevent adherences of
particulates. Long radius bends should be used instead of el-
bows to facilitate cleaningo The probe should be just long
enough for the task at hand. The rest of the train should be
assembled and tested for leaks.
Temperature and Humidity
If the gas sampled is hot and humid, condensation may
occur in the probe or in the filter holder„ The probe or
filter holder must be heated to stop condensation from occurring
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 4
because the water formed will trap water on the walls of the
apparatus and will interfere with the filtration of particulates.
Temperature control baths may be required for gas absorbers.
In some cases the probe can be provided with a water cooling
jacket.
Condensation
A condenser in the sampling train is required if the gas
is humid. This serves two purposes„ First, it removes excess
water which may condense and damage the gas meter„ Second,
and of vital importance, a condenser gives assurance that the
gas passing through the train is saturated at an identifiable
pointo This provides the basis for exact calculations of the
volume of dried gas metered and conversion to standard condi-
tions ,
Collection Devices
The characteristics of the material in the stack will
determine the collection method required. Dry filter mediums,
of a variety of types, are most commonly used for particulate
matter„ Although in some cases the wet impingement method
followed by a thimble is used* Gases are collected in ab-
sorbers with a proper absorbing solution. Grab sample units
are available for spot samplings
Flow Meters
If a dry gas meter is used, it must be calibrated before
each use. If an orifice meter, or flow-type meter, is used
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Paga 5
it must also be calibrated each time, and it must have enough
sensitivity so that readings can be obtained to less than one
percent, Finally, if volume is obtained by multiplying an
instantaneous reading by the time of the operation, fluctuations
must be kept to one percent.
Vacuum Source
A vacuum source is required to draw the sample from the
stack through the sampling train„ A variety of pumps or ejec-
tors are available for this purpose. Their capacity must be
sufficient to draw the gas through the sample train at the re-
quired volume„ The range is from one liter to several cubic
feet per minute.
Sampling time will be dependent upon the factor of ob-
taining a representative sample of the operation. It may vary
from several long continuous integrated samples of 30 to 60
minutes or a number of short samples of 5-10 minutes„
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Introduction
Analytical procedures for a number of materials are given
in the sections that followu All calculations must be accord-
ing to standard procedures and the standard conditions of tem-
perature at 70 degrees Fahrenheit and an atmospheric pressure
of 29.92 inches of mercury.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY. Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 6
Particulate Matter
(a) Scope
The definition of particulate matter accepted by the dust
collection industry is given in the ASME Performance Test Codes
21-1941 and 27-1957. In essence, this defines particulate mat-
ter as all filterable solids present at standard temperature in
an effluent gas stream.
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
- Filter Media
- Balance
- Drying Oven
- Desiccation
Efficiency of collection must be
at least 997c for all particulates
encountered and must be resistant
to both heat and moisture.
Macro analytical balance or
equivalent.
Suitable for drying filters for
about 5 hours at 105° C.
To retain dried filters before
weighing.
(c) Sampling
Procedure
The first step in sampling is to prepare the filtering
mediumo An identification number should be provided for each
filter and recorded on a separate data sheet. Prior to weigh-
ing, the filter should be dried for about 5 hours at about 105°
C and then weighed immediately. This weight should be recorded
on the data sheets and not on the filter. In order to keep
weighing errors at a minimum, careful handling of the filters
is required,,
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 7
Preferably the pitot traverse, temperature and humidity
readings should be taken not more than one-half hour before
sampling is begun. Assemble the sampling train as shown in
Figure 1 and proceed with the sampling by inserting the probe
into the test stack. Continual observation of the sampling
train during the entire sampling period is required to record
any changes in pressure, temperature and airflow. This infor-
mation, along with barometric pressure, sampling time and rate,
is recorded on the sampling data sheet. Complete information
on the process should also be noted on the sampling data sheet.
Length of the sampling time, at any specific point in the
stack, will be contingent upon changes, if any, in the process
or fluctuations of air volume0 The sampling time should at
least cover a complete cycle and will vary from 30-60 minutes.
If airflow is not uniform in the stack, 5- to 10- minute samples
at each of the traverse points should be obtained. Samples
taken during start-up and burn-down periods should, as a rule,
be considered separately from those taken during the production
cycle of the cupola„
After a run is completed the probe must be cleaned of
retained particulate matter. An acceptable procedure is to
brush with a long flexible brush while the sample train is
pulling in clean air. For other contaminants, follow pro-
cedures, if any, indicated for the specific material.
A. T. KEARNF.Y 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page-S"
(d) Sample
Preparatlon
Collected samples should be dried and placed in a desic-
cator to reach equilibrium before weighing. The difference
between the original weight and final weight is the total
amount of particulate matter collected,
(e) Calculations
The total particulate matter collected is expressed in
grams. From this value, calculations can be made to express
the findings in grains/SCF, pounds/hour, or pounds/1,000 pounds
of gas, using the following constants:
One (1) gram = 15.43 grains
One (1) pound = 7,000 grains
One (1) gram = 0„002205 pounds
One (1) standard cubic foot of air = 0*075 pounds
1. Grains/SCF
Grains/SCF = (Grams) (15o43)
Total SCF sampled
2. Pounds/Hour
Pounds/hour = 60 (grains/SCF) (total gas volume to atmosphere - SCFM)
7,000
3. Pounds/1,000 Pounds Gas
Pounds/1,000 Pounds gas = (grams) (2.205)
(0.075) (total SCF sampled)
Arsenic
Source: American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists.
A. T. KEARNEY fic COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 9
(a) Scope
Stack sampling for arsenic is based on the reaction of
arsine with silver diethyldithiocarbamate. The amount of
arsenic, in the air sample, is read directly from the calibra-
tion curve,
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
Greenberg-Smith Impinger0
Beckman DU Spectrophotometer with photomultiplier
or equivalent
Arsine Generator (See Figure 2)
(c) Reagents
Silver Diethyldithiocarbamate - a cooled solution of
silver nitrate (107 g in 100 ml distilled water) is added to
a cooled solution of sodium diethyldithiocarbamate (2.25 g in
100 ml distilled water). The lemon yellow precipitate is
filtered off, washed thoroughly with distilled water and dried
in a vacuum desiccator below 20° Ce
Pyridine - Mallinckrodt reagent grade pyridine is passed
through an alumina column 1 inch in diameter and 6 inches in
depth, at the rate of approximately 150 ml per hour. This
process may remove a considerable quantity of colored material.
Arsine Absorbing Solution - Dissolve 1 g of silver
diethyldithiocarbamate in 200 ml of chromatographed pyridine
and filter the solution0
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 10
Hydrochloric acid - Baker's analyzed, specific gravity
1.19.
Potassium Iodide Solution - Dissolve 15 g reagent grade
potassium iodide in 100 ml distilled water.
Stannous Chloride Solution - Dissolve 40 g stannous
chloride dihydrate in 100 ml hydrochloric acid.
Zinc - Baker's analyzed; granular 20 mesh„
Lead Acetate - Dissolve 10 g reagent grade lead acetate
in 100 ml distilled water.
Arsenic Standard Stock Solution - Dissolve 1.320 g arsenic
trioxide in 10 ml of 407c sodium hydroxide and diluted to 1
liter with distilled water. (Various strengths of standard
solutions are prepared by further diluting this stock solution
with suitable volumes of water, triple distilled in glass,)
Nonag - Stopcock grease, Fischer Scientific Co.
(d) Sampling Procedure
Assemble sampling train of probe, impinger with 100 ml of
distilled water, flow meter and vacuum pumpc Sampling rate is
at 1 CFM for a period long enough to provide a minimum of 30
cubic feet at standard conditions,;
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 11
(e) Analytical Procedure
Calibration curve - known microgram amounts of arsenic
(1-15 micrograms) in the form of standard arsenic solution
are pipetted into 125 ml Erlenmeyer flasks. Distilled water
is added to make the total volume 35 ml. To the flasks are
added 5 ml hydrochloric acid, 2 ml 15% potassium iodide
solution, and 8 drops of stannous chloride solution. The
flasks are swirled and allowed to stand for 15 minutes.
Three ml of the pyridine solution of silver diethyldi-
thiocarbamate are placed in the absorbing tube, which is
attached to the scrubber containing glass wool impregnated
with lead acetate, (See Figure 2.)
The ground joints are lubricated with "Nonag" stopcock
grease, 3 g of granulated zinc are added to the solution in
the flask, and the receiving tube is inserted immediately,,
Arsine evolution is completed in about 30 minutes.
At the end of this time, the absorbing solution is
transferred to a 1 cm square cell and the absorbance measured
at 560 millimicrons in the Beckman spectrophotometer. Plotting
measured absorbances against micrograms of arsenic taken pro-
duces the standard curve.
Air samples, after the previously described preparation
treatment, are treated in the same manner as the standards„
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Tmc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 12
(f) Calculations
Arsenic, in the form of arsine, displaces an equivalent
amount of silver from silver diethyldithiocarbamate..
mg As/M^ = V'Y
MOO-vVa
Where v = aliquot (ml)
V = total sample (ml)
Y = micrograms in v
Va = gas sample volume, in cubic meters,
at standard conditions
Beryllium
Source: Michigan Department of Public Health.
(a) Scope
This method describes a procedure for determining
beryllium in stack gases.
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
- Millipore filters and holder,,
Bausch & Lomb Large Littrow Emission Spectrograph
or equivalents
(c) Reagents
Platinum Internal Stock Solution - Purchase directly from
Jarrell-Ash Company a 107o platinic chloride solution* This
calculates out to be 57088 mg platinum in 1 ml solution.
Platinum Internal Standard Working Solution - Pipette 1 ml
of platinum stock solution containing 57.88 mg Pt per ml into a
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY,!nc.
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ABPMDIX A
Page 13
25 ml volumetric flask, take to volume with water giving a
solution containing 116 micrograms platinum/.05 ml.,
Standard Beryllium Solutions:
10 Beryllium stock solution,, Dissolve „0982 g of
BeS04'4H20 in 10 ml of redistilled 1:1 hydrochloric acid
and dilute to 100 ml with distilled water. Solution contains
5.0 mg beryllium per 100 ml or 2.5 micrograms Be/.05 ml.
2. Working beryllium standard solutions0 These
should be prepared from the stock solution just before use.
Suggested concentrations are from „003 to .5 microgram Be/.05
ml.
Nitric Acid - To clean all laboratory glassware.
(d) Sampling
Procedure
Assemble sampling train of probe, millipore filter and
holder, flow meter and vacuum pump* Sampling rate at 1 CFM
for a period long enough to provide a minimum of 10 CF at
standard conditions.
(e) Analytical
Procedure
The millipore filter containing the sample is transferred
to a chemically clean 125 ml beaker. The filter and sample are
wet ashed with nitric acidc The residue is then dissolved in
3 ml of concentrated nitric acid and 1-2 ml of distilled water,,
Transfer to a graduated centrifuge tube, rinse the beaker with
water and add the rinsing to the sample solution. Evaporate to
A. T. KEARNEY Sc COMPANY.Ikc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 14
a volume of 0.2 ml and if an appreciable amount of salt is
present, a volume of more than 0.2 ml may be required.
The standard curve is plotted on log-log paper and
micrograms Be per „05 ml is plotted versus the intensity
ratio of Be 2348.6 line over Pt 2357.1 line. The standard
curve is usually set up in the range of .003 microgram Be/.05
ml to o5 microgram Be/.05 ml. Six beryllium concentrations
used to establish the working curve are prepared as follows:
For the first 3 concentrations, the stock solution
containing 50 micrograms Be/ml is diluted 1 ml to 100 in
distilled water giving a working solution of c5 microgram
Be/mlo
1, „003 microgram Be/.05 mlc Pipette 1.2 ml of
working standard beryllium solution (.5 microgram Be/ml) into
a 10 ml volumetric flask and take to volume with water„
2o c.005 microgram Be/. 05 ml0 Pipette 2 ml of
working standard beryllium solution (.5 microgram Be/ml) into
a 10 ml volumetric flask and take to volume with water0
30 o01 microgram Be/.05 ml. Pipette 4 ml of
working standard beryllium solution (.5 microgram Be/ml) into
a 10 ml volumetric flask and take to volume with water„
4. «05 microgram Be/.05 ml„ Pipette .2 ml of stock
beryllium solution (50 micrograms Be/tnl) into a 10 ml volumetric
flask and take to volume with waterc
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Ixc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 15
5. .1 microgram Be/.05 ml0 Pipette .4 ml of stock
beryllium solution (50 micrograms Be/ml) into a 10 ml volumetric
flask and take to volume with water„
60 .5 microgram Be/.05 ml. Pipette 2 ml of stock
beryllium solution (50 micrograms Be/ml) into a 10 ml volumetric
flask and take to volume with water.
Spectrographic apparatus, materials and exposure conditions
are as follows:
lc Optical conditions - 10 micron slit is used in
the spectrograph.
2C Densitometer - Non-recording National Spectro-
graph Spec Reader0
30 Electrodes - Upper Electrode (cathode) United
Carbon Products Company, 3/16" diameter, sharpened to a point
in a regular de-leaded pencil sharpener. Lower Electrode
(anode). United Carbon Products Electrode, catalog No. 100-LS
1/4" diameter, crater is 3/16" diameter and 5/32" deep.
4. Exposure conditions - 220 volts DC arc, operating
at 7.5 amperes with a constant gap of 5 mm maintained between
the anode and cathode, exposure time is until burn-out of
lithium chloride buffer.
5„ Photographic - Eastman Kodak Spectrum Analysis
No. 1 Plate, developed 305 minutes in Eastman D-19 Developer
at 68° F and fixed for 8 minutes in Eastman Koda Fixer (National
Spectrographic Developing machine)„ Emulsion is calibrated by
use of the two-step filter in front of the slit. The density of
A.T.KEARNEY Sc COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page l6
the filter section is given by Bausch and Lomb Company, makers
of the filter,,
60 Nitrogen - AirCo dry nitrogen, flow rate regu-
lated by F. W. Dwyer Manufacturing Company flow meter, maximum
flow rate 6 liters per minute, regulator 3,000 pounds„ The
nitrogen flow around the electrode is between 3-4 liters per
minute.
Preparation of the electrodes for both standard curve and
sample analysis is as follows: A 1/4" diameter electrode is
waterproofed by immersion in Dow Corning silicone solution
(27o in acetone), and air dried for at least 30 minutes, A 10
mg charge of lithium chloride-graphite buffer is placed in the
electrode and packed by tapping gently on the table top.
Into the electrodes prepared as described above is pipetted
c05 ml of the platinum internal standard working solution (116
micrograms/.05 ml). The electrodes are placed in a 60° C oven
and allowed to dry. Upon removal from the oven, o05 ml of the
standard beryllium solution is pipetted into the appropriate
electrodes. From the centrifuge tubes, where the samples have
been evaporated down, is pipetted .05 ml into the appropriate
electrodesc The electrodes are then returned to the 60° C oven
and maintained at that temperature until dry. The temperature
is then brought up to 105° C and maintained at that temperature
for 1 hour. The electrodes are now removed from the oven and
are ready for analysis„ After the spectrograph and power
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY. Intc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 17
supply have been set as previously described, the electrodes
are placed in the respective electrode holders. The nitrogen
flow is turned on and set at a rate of between 3-4 liters per
minute around the lower electrode. With the shutter open during
the entire exposure the arc is lit and allowed to run until
burn-out of the lithium chloride buffer which is indicated by
a vanishing of the red lithium color.
After the plate has been developed and dried as described
previously, it is placed on the densitometer and the percent
transmission set to 100 on a clear portion of the plate. The
percent transmittance value of Be 2348.6 and the background
adjacent to this line is read. The percent transmittance
value of Pt 2357c1 line is also read0 Through the use of the
gamma curve the percent transmission values of the bismuth line
and the background adjacent to it and the Pt line are trans-
formed to I values and a ratio taken of I value Be 2348„6 over
I value Pt 2357.1 made. Each one of the varying concentrations
of beryllium standard curve and of the sample is run in tripli-
cate and an average of these taken for the final calculation
The amount of beryllium per o05 ml sample is read from the
standard curve.
(f) Calculation
micrograms Be/M = V* Y
v* Va
where v = aliquot (ml)
V = total sample (ml)
Y = micrograms in v
Va = gas sample volume, in cubic meters,
at standard conditions
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 18
Cadmium
Source: Michigan Department of Public Health.
(a) Scope
Stack testing for cadmium can be accomplished by the
polarograph method using a dropping-mercury electrode with
the sample as the electrolyte.
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
Sargent Polarograph - Model XXI, recording type or
equivalent.
(c) Reagents
Standard Lead Solution - Dissolve approximately 25 grams
of C.P. Pb(N03)2 in minimum of hot water and cool with stir-
ring. Filter with suction on small Buchner funnel„ Repeat
recrystallization„ Dry crystals at 100°-110° C to constant
weight, cool in desiccator and store in tightly stoppered pyrex
bottleo The product has no water of crystallization and is not
appreciably hygroscopic. Weigh exactly 0.1599 grams of recry-
stallized C.P„ Pb(N03)25 put into 500-ml volumetric flask, and
take to volume with 0*1 N HC1. This gives a standard lead
solution containing 200 micrograms Pb/ml with 0.1 N HC1 as the
electrolyte. The 0.1 N HC1 should be prepared from constant
boiling hydrochloric acid.
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appendix a
Page 19
Standard Cadmium Solution - Weigh exactly 0.2744 grams of
Cd(NO3)2*4H20 into a 500-ml volumetric flask and take to
volume with 0.1 N HC1. This gives a standard cadmium solution
containing 200 micrograms cadmium per ml with 0.1 NHC1 as the
electrolyte. As in the lead solution the 0.1 N HC1 should be
prepared from constant boiling hydrochloric acid.
Oxygen Absorbent for Purification of Nitrogen - Pass
nitrogen through a first scrubbing flask (a midget impinger)
containing concentrated NH4OH and copper turnings„ Caution:
Make certain hole in impinger is not plugged before turning
nitrogen under pressure on. Then pass nitrogen through a
second scrubbing flask containing concentrated sulfuric acid,
again making certain this is not plugged before applying
pressure.
0.2 N hydrochloric acid - Prepare this from constant
boiling hydrochloric acid according to outline in Lange's
Handbooko
Clean, Dry Mercury - Purchase from Eberback & Son
(d) Sampling
Procedure
Assemble sampling train of probe, impinger with 100 ml
of 5% nitric acrid, flow meter and vacuum pump„ Sample at
rate of 1 CFM for a period long enough to provide a minimum of
30 cubic feet at standard conditions.
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 20
(e) Analytical
Procedure
Sample Preparation - Transfer the collecting solution
from the impinger into a 250 ml beaker, wash out impinger with
hot 5% nitric acid and all taken down to dryness on a hot plate„
Cool and add 25 ml of 0„2 N HC1. Heat just to boiling and
transfer to a 50 ml volumetric flask. Dilute to volume with
distilled water which will dilute the 0,2 N HC1 to 0.1 N HC1
which is the electrolyte.
Transfer a 10-ml aliquot from the 50-ml volumetric flask
into the polarographic cell, add 1 ml of 200 micrograms Pb per
ml solution, and remove oxygen from the cell by bubbling
nitrogen, which is being purified as described under reagents,
through for three to five minutes. The initial voltmeter is
set at .3 volts, the span voltmeter is set at .6 volts, there-
by giving a range from -.3 volts to -.9 volts. This is suffi-
cient as lead "comes off" at approximately -.44 volts and
cadmium at approximately -.66 volts. The sensitivity setting
might have to be found by trial and error; 0.020 suffices for
most samples although if the cadmium is low the sensitivity will
have to be increased (decreasing the number of microamperes/mm,,) .
If there is a possibility that Pb is present in the sample
an aliquot of the sample should be run in the polarographic cell
first, without any internal standard added. If there is Pb
present in the sample, this must be taken into account when Pb,
the internal standard, is added„
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX. A
Hgefl
Standard Curve - Into the polarographic cell is introduced
1 ml of 200 micrograms Pb per ml solution, 1 ml of 200 micro-
grams Cd per ml solution and 9 ml of 0.1 N HC1. This gives a
total amount of solution in the cell of 11 ml, thereby enabling
a later removal of 10 ml of the sample and 1 ml of 200 micro-
grams Pb per ml internal standard solution. Also, there is
an electrolyte in the cell of 0.1 N HC1. Both the volume of
liquid in the cell and the electrolyte for standard curve and
sample are critical for a proper analysis.
On the standard curve the heights of the Pb and Cd curves
are measured in mm„ The Cd to Pb ratio is found, which is
divided by the number of micrograms of Cd used giving a factor
for 1 microgram Cd versus 200 micrograms Pb. It is suggested
that 200 micrograms Pb be used as an internal standard in each
sample for Cd thereby simplifying the calculations. The factor
for 1 microgram Cd versus 200 microgram Pb, found at the be-
ginning of the series of samples being analyzed, will be used
for the calculations throughout this series„
(e) Calculations
For the sample "polarogram" the heights of the Pb and
Cd curves are measured in mm. and the Cd to Pb ratio found in
the same manner as the standard curve. The ratio found here
is divided by the factor found in the standard curve for 1
microgram Cd versus 200 micrograms Pb giving the number of
micrograms of Cd in the aliquot put into the polarographic cello
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page22
mg Cd/M3 = V»Y
1,000-v-Va
Where v = aliquot (ml)
V = total sample (ml)
Y = micrograms in v
Va = gas sample volume, in cubic meters,
at standard conditions
Fluoride
Source: Talvitie method modified by Michigan Department
of Public Health.
(a) Scope
This method describes a procedure for determining fluoride
in stack gases„
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
Standard impinger with fritted glass bubbler.
250 ml Claissen flasks.
100 ml Nessler Tubes.
(c) Reagents
Standard Sodium Fluoride - Make a solution containing 1 mg
of fluoride per ml (2.21 g of sodium fluoride to 1 liter)„
Take 10 mis of this solution and dilute to 1 liter; 1 ml of
this dilution contains .01 mg fluoride.
Color Forming Reagent - Dissolve 36„99 g of sodium sulfate
in about 500 ml of hot distilled water and 17.7 g of sodium
formate in about 200 ml of hot distilled water. Mix together
and when cooled, add 0o1436 g thorium nitrate tetrahydrate and
11 ml of 907o formic acid.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPAMY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 23
Alizarin monosodium sulfonate indicator 128.25 mg dissolved
in 1 liter of distilled waterc
Nitric Acid - About 5 ml concentrated acid, diluted to a
liter with distilled water.
Sodium Hydroxide ¦ ,5 N. (20 g dissolved in 1 liter of
water).
Silver Sulfate.
Concentrated Sulfuric Acidc
(e) Sampling
Procedure
Assemble sampling train of probe, impinger with fritted
glass bubbler containing 100 ml of a 27=> sodium hydroxide
solution, flow meter and vacuum pump*, Sample at a rate of
1 CFM for a period long enough to provide a minimum of 15
cubic feet at standard conditions,
(f) Analytical
Procedure
Sample Preparation - Transfer the collecting solution from
the impinger into a Claissen flask. Slowly add 35 ml of con-
centrated sulfuric acid (using small long stem funnel) to
content, submerging and swirling flask in cool-cold water
while adding the acid--this offsets the loss of HF„ Add
boiling chips and silver sulfate (to cover the end of a spatula).
Close the flask with a two-hole rubber stopper, through which
passes a thermometer and a 6 mm 0.Do glass tube drawn to
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APPENDIX A
Page 24
capillary size and extends down into the solution. Connect
tube to a separatory funnel containing water. This is to
slowly add water to both cool the flask and to replenish the
water boiled off due to distillation in the Claissen flask.
The distillation flask should be placed on a pad of
transite or asbestos, or on a plate of aluminum with a hole
about 2 inches in diameter made to fit the flask perfectly.
Regulate the heat under the steam distillation flask so
that the distillate being collected remains cool» Adjust the
application of heat to the still so that a temperature of 165°
C is maintained. Collect the distillate in a 250-ml volumetric
flask or in a 250-ml beaker, and then make up to exactly 250 ml
in a volumetric flask. Stopper the flask and mix. Pipette 25
ml into a 100-ml-long form Nessler tube. Add 5.0 ml of alizarin
indicator. Titrate carefully with a .5 N sodium hydroxide un-
til the solution changes from yellow to a decided pink. Back
titrate with the dilute nitric acid until the solution changes
to a pure yellow. Dilute to about 90 ml, add 3 ml of thorium
reagent, make up to exactly 100 ml and mix well. After 30
minutes, compare with the standards„ If the same is beyond
the range of the standards, use a smaller aliquot. If it is
too close to the standard containing no fluorine, double or
treble the aliquot.
A blank must be carried through all the steps of the pro-
cedure, using the same amounts of reagents as are used in the
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, I.\c.
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APPENDIX A
Page 25
samples. An aliquot of 75 ml is usually necessary to determine
the amount of fluorine present in the blank.
(f) Calculations
Calculate the total amount of fluorine present in the
blank and subtract this from the total fluorine found in each
s amp1e o
mg F/M^ = V* Y
1,000-vVa
where v = aliquot (ml)
V = total sample (ml)
Y = micrograms in v
Va = gas sample volume, in cubic meters,
at standard conditions
Lead
Source: Michigan Department of Public Health.
(a) Scope
Stack testing for cadmium can be accomplished by the
polarograph method using a dropping-mercury electrode with
the sample as the electrolyte„
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
Sargent Polarograph - Model XXI, recording type, or
equivalent.
(c) Reagents
Standard Lead Solution - Dissolve approximately 25 grams
of C.Pc Pb(N03)2 in minimum of hot water and cool with stir-
ring. Filter with suction on small Buchner funnels Repeat
A. T. KEARNEY Sc COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 2 6 ~~
recrystallization. Dry crystals at 100°-110° C to constant
weight, cool in desiccator and store in tightly stoppered pyrex
bottle. The product has no water of crystallization and is not
appreciably hygroscopic. Weight exactly 0.1599 grams of recry-
stallized C.P. Pb(N03)2, put into 500-ml volumetric flask, and
take to volume with 0.1 N HC1. This gives a standard lead
solution containing 200 micrograms Pb/ml with 0.1 N HC1 as the
electrolyte. The 0.1 N HC1 should be prepared from constant
boiling hydrochloric acid.
Standard Cadmium Solution - Weight exactly 0.2744 grams
of Cd(N03)2*4H20 into a 500-ml volumetric flask and take to
volume with 0,1 N HC1. This gives a standard cadmium solution
containing 200 micrograms cadmium per ml with 0.1 N HC1 as the
electrolyte. As in the lead solution, the 0„1 N HC1 should be
prepared from constant boiling hydrochloric acid.
Oxygen Absorbent for Purification of Nitrogen - Pass
nitrogen through a first scrubbing flask (a midget impinger)
containing concentrated NH4OH and copper turnings. Caution:
Make certain hole in impinger is not plugged before turning
nitrogen under pressure on„ Then pass nitrogen through a
second scrubbing flask containing concentrated sulfuric acid,
again making certain this is not plugged before applying
pressure.
0.2 N„ Hydrochloric Acid - Prepare this from constant
boiling hydrochloric acid according to outline in Lange1s
Handbook.
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY. Inc.
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APPENDIX A
lage 27
Clean, Dry Mercury - Purchase from Eberbach and Son.
(d) Sampling
Procedure
Assemble sampling train of probe, impinger with 100 ml 5%
nitric acid solution, flow meter and vacuum pump. Sample at
rate of 1 CFM for a period long enough to provide a minimum
of 30 cubic feet at standard conditions.
(e) Analytical
Procedure
Sample Preparation - Transfer the collecting solution to
a 250-ml beaker, wash out impinger with 5% hot nitric acid and
all taken down to dryness on a hot plate. Cool and add 25 ml
of 0.2 N HClo Heat just to boiling and transfer to a 50-ml
volumetric flask. Dilute to volume with distilled water which
will dilute the 0.2 N HC1 to 0.1 N HC1 which is the electrolyte.
Transfer a 10-ml aliquot from the 50-ml volumetric flask
into the polarographic cell, add 1 ml of 200 micrograms Cd per
ml solution, and remove oxygen from the cell by bubbling nitro-
gen which is being purified as described under reagents, through
for three to five minutes. The instrument used is a Sargent
Polarograph - Model XXI and the settings are as follows: A.C.
switch down (on), D.M.E. - up (negative), Damping - down (off),
Initial E.M.F. - up (additive), D.C. E.M.F. - down (1.5 V
span), Chart drive - up (on), Operation - up (E.M.F. increasing).
The initial voltmeter is set at .3 volts, the span voltmeter is
set at .6 volts, thereby giving a range from -.3 volts to -.9
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY. Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Pa^e 2B-
volts. This is sufficient as lead "comes off" at approximately
-.44 volts and cadmium at approximately -.66 volts. The sen-
sitivity setting might have to be found by trial and error,
0.020 suffices for most samples although if the lead is low
the sensitivity will have to be increased (decreasing the
number of microamperes/mm).
If there is a possibility that Cd is present in the sample,
an aliquot of the sample should be run in the polarographic
cell first, without any internal standard added. If there is
CD present in the sample this must be taken into account when
Cd, the internal standard, is added„
Standard Curve - Into the polarographic cell is introduced
1 ml of 200 micrograms Pb per ml solution, 1 ml of 200 micro-
grams Cd per ml solution and 9 ml of 0.1 N HC1. This gives a
total amount of solution in the cell of 11 ml thereby enabling
a later removal of 10 ml of the sample and 1 ml of 200 micro-
grams Cd per ml internal standard solution. Also, there is an
electrolyte in the cell of 0.1 N HC1. Both the volume of liquid
in the cell and the electrolyte for standard curve and sample
are critical for a proper analysis.
On the standard curve the heights of the Pb and Cd curves
are measured in mm, The Pb to Cd ratio is found, which is
divided by the number of micrograms of Pb used giving a factor
for 1 microgram Pb versus 200 micrograms Cd. It is suggested
that 200 micrograms Cd be used as an internal standard in each
sample for Pb thereby simplifying the calculations. The factor
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY. Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 29
for 1 microgram Pb versus 200 micrograms Cd, found at the
beginning of the series of samples being analyzed, will be
used for the calculations through this series.
(f) Calculations
For the sample "polarogram" the heights of the Pb and
Cd curves are measured in mm and the Pb to Cd ratio found in
the same manner as the standard curve. The ratio found here
is divided by the factor found in the standard curve for 1
microgram Pb versus 200 micrograms Cd giving the number of
micrograms of Pb in the aliquot put into the polarographic
cell.
mg Pb/M^ = V«Y
1,000-v.Va
where v = aliquot (ml)
V = total sample (ml)
Y = micrograms in v
Va = gas sample volume, in cubic meters,
at standard conditions.
Mercury
Source: American Conference of Governmental Industrial
HygienistSc
(§i Scope
Divalent mercury forms an orange-yellow complex with
dithizone in dilute acid solution which can be extracted by
chloroform. An additional extraction in the presence of
chloride and bromide ions eliminates the interference of other
metals.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Isc.
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APPENDIX A
fage 30
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
Beckman DU Spectrophotometer or equivalent.
Squibb separator funnels.
Cuvettes.
(c) Reagents
HC1-0.1 N.
Meta Cresol Purple Indicator - Dissolve 0.05 g of the
power in 6 ml of 0.05 N NaOH; then dilute to 100 ml with dis-
tilled water.
Buffer Solution - Dissolve 300 g anhydrous Na2HP04 and
75 g K2CO3 in distilled water to make 2 liters of solution
(Macllvaine's Buffer Solutions).
Treated Chloroform - Chloroform treated with hydroxylamine
hydrochloride as per the method of Hubbard, Industrial Engi-
neering Chemistry, Anal„ Ed., 9, 493 (1937)„
Dithizone Solutions - Make up a stock solution containing
0.5 mg dithizone per ml of chloroform. Other strength dithizone
solutions can be made up as needed. It is advisable to allow
the dithizone solutions to stabilize overnight before use.
Potassium Bromide Solution - 40% KBr in distilled water.
Ammonium Citrate - 40/L Mix 40 g citric acid, monohydrate,
with about 20 ml distilled water„ Add sufficient ammonium
hydroxide slowly with constant stirring to make solution
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
"tage 31
alkaline to phenol red and make to volume with water. Purify
by shaking with dithizone in chloroform and clear with pure
chloroform.
Mercury Standard Solutions - Dissolve 0.1354 g mercuric
chloride, C.P., special reagent grade in 1 N HC1 and make up
to 100 ml with the acid. This solution contains 1 mg Hg per
ml and is quite stable. If any cloud or sediment develops,
it should be discarded. Other strength solutions can be made
by dilution with distilled water as the need arises.
Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride - 207o solution in distilled
watero
(d) Sampling
Procedure
Assemble sampling train of probe, impinger with 100 ml of
0„257o iodine in a 3% aqueous solution of potassium iodide.
Sampling rate of 1 CFM for a period long enought to provide a
minimum of 30 cubic feet at standard conditions,,
(e) Analytical
Procedure
Sample Preparation - The contents of the impinger flask
and washings are made up to a known volume with distilled
water. A proper aliquot is taken to place the mercury con-
centration within range of the method0 Add 5 ml of ammonium
citrate, 1 ml hydroxylamine hydrochloride and shake. Add 2
drops of phenol red indicator„ (Always add the hydroxylamine
hydrochloride before the phenol red„) Titrate with ammonium
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 32
hydroxide to the full color end point pH of 8.5. Extract with
5 ml portions of 20 mg/liter dithizone solution, withdrawing the
chloroform layers into another 250 ml Squibb separatory funnel,
into which has been placed 50 ml of 0.1 N HC1. Continue to
extract with and withdraw 5-ml portions until the dithizone in
the chloroform layer does not change color.
Shake the above dithizone extract with 50 ml 0.1 N HC1
for 2 minutes„ Draw off the chloroform into a clean separatory
funnel„ Wash the aqueous phase with two, 3-5 ml portions of
treated chloroform and add to the extracts. Discard the aqueous
phase. To the chloroform extracts, add 50 ml of 0ol N HC1 and
10 ml of the 40% KBr reagent. Shake for 2 minutes. The Hg
goes into the aqueous phase as l^HgBr^ while the Cu and Bi
remains in the dithizone which is discarded. Wash the aqueous
phase with a few ml of treated chloroform* Let the phases
separate well and discard completely all chloroform droplets.
An aliquot of the stripping solution may be taken if necessary
so that the amount of Hg will fall on the standard curve. If
an aliquot is taken, make up to 50 ml volume with 0„1 N HC1.
Add 10 ml buffer solution to bring the pH to 6, and 10 ml
of 10 mg/liter dithizone solution. Shake well for 2 minutes.
Avoid any exposure to direct sunlight or exceedingly bright
artificial light.
NOTE: If the separatory funnel was not washed thoroughly with
distilled water, the dithizone may be oxidized0
A.T.KEARNEY (k COMPANY, Ixc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 33
By means of a cotton swab on an applicator stick, remove
any traces of moisture from the stem of the funnel after the
stopcock has been opened for a second to allow the chloroform
to fill the bore. Loosely insert a small cotton plug in the
stem of the funnel. Rinse a cuvette twice with 1-2 ml portions
of the chloroform layer and draw off the remaining dithizone
into the cuvette. Place in the spectrophotometer and read at
point of maximum light absorption (485 millimicron) against
distilled chloroform,, A blank on reagents should be carried
through the entire procedure and this blank subtracted from
the final result.
Standard curve - Suitable concentrations of mercury to
give coverage over the entire range are used to establish a
particular curve. Three or four points are sufficient.
Place 5 ml of the 407= KBr reagent, 10 ml of the buffer
solution and the proper amount of standard mercury solution in
a 125 ml Squibb separatory funnel. Add enought 0.1 N HC1 to
make the final volume 65 ml. Then add 10 ml of 10 mg/liter
dithizone solution and shake for 2 minutes. Flush the stem of
the separatory funnel and remove moisture by means of a cotton
swab, withdraw the chloroform layer and read in the spectro-
photometer as described above.
The 10 mg/liter dithizone solution is of sufficient
strength to cover the range from 0 to 15 micrograms of mercury.
By using 20 ml instead of the standard 10 ml of this reagent,
A. T. KEARNEY (k COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 34
the concentration range covered can be doubled„ It is not re-
commended to add more than 20 ml of 10 mg/liter dithizone to
any sample0
For only an occasional mercury analysis, it is better to
bracket the sample with standard amounts rather than prepare
an entire curve„
(f) Calculation
mg Hg/M3 = V»Y
1,000-v«Va
where v = aliquot (ml)
V = total sample (ml)
Y = micrograms in v
Va = gas sample volume, in cubic meters,
at standard conditions
Zinc
Source: Michigan Department of Public Health,,
(aj Scope
Stack testing for zinc can be accomplished by the polaro-
graph method using a dropping-mercury electrode with the sample
as the electrolyte.
(b) Auxiliary
Apparatus
Sargent Polarograph - Model XXI, recording type, or
equivalent.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 35
(c) Reagents
Stock Zinc Solution - Weigh exactly 5.0 grams of dry
reagent zinc (30 mesh or finer) into a 500-ml volumetric
flask and add a minimum amount of constant boiling hydrochloric
acid to get the zinc in solution. Boil until solution is
complete and make up to volume with distilled water. The
solution contains 10.0 mg zinc per ml.
Working Standard Zinc Solution - Pipette 5.0 ml of stock
zinc solution (10.0 mg zinc per ml) into 500-ml volumetric
flask and take to volume with 0.2 M KC1, The solution contains
100 micrograms zinc per ml with 0.2 M KC1 as the electrolyte.
0,2 M KC1 Solution - Weigh 14.9 grams reagent grade KC1
into 1 liter volumetric flask and take to volume with distilled
waterc
Standard Cadmium Solution - Weigh exactly 0^2744 grams
of Cd(N03)2*4H20 into a 500-ml volumetric flask and take to
volume with 0„2 H KC1„ The solution contains 200 micrograms
Cd per ml with 0.2 M KC1 as electrolyte.
Oxygen Absorbent for Purification of Nitrogen - Pass
nitrogen through a first scrubbing flask (midget impinger)
containing concentrated NH4OH and copper turnings. Caution:
Make certain hole in impinger is not plugged before turning
nitrogen on under pressure. Then pass nitrogen through a
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 36
second scrubbing flask containing concentrated sulfuric acid,
again making certain this is not plugged before applying
pressure.
Clean, Dry Mercury - Purchase from Eberbach & Son.
(d) Sampling
Procedure
Assemble sampling train of probe, impinger with 100 ml
5% nitric acid solution, flow meter and vacuum pump. Sample
at rate of 1 CFM for a period long enough to provide a minimum
of 30 cubic feet at standard conditions.
(e) Analytical
Procedure
Sample Preparation - Transfer the collecting solution
from the impinger into a 250 ml beaker, wash out impinger
with 5% hot nitric acid and all taken down to dryness on a
hot plate. Add 2 ml concentrated nitric acid, wetting the
sample thoroughly„ Add 6 drops perchloric acid and swirl to
mixc Evaporate to dryness on a hot plate at 350°-400° C.
Repeat the acid treatment to obtain complete digestion., Cool
and add 10 ml of 0.2 M potassium chloride solution. Loosen
the solids with a rubber policeman, rinse policeman and beaker
walls with 3-5 ml of 0.2 M potassium chloride solution. Cover
with a watch glass and boil 2-3 minutes. Filter the solution
into a 50-ml volumetric flask washing the filter with 0,2 M KC1„
Dilute to volume with 0.2 M KC1 giving the sample in 50 ml with
0c2 H KC1 as the electrolyte.
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY. Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 37
Transfer 10 ml aliquot into polarographic cell, add 1 ml
of 200 micrograms Cd per ml solution, and remove oxygen from
cell by bubbling nitrogen through for three to five minutes.
The initial voltmeter is set at .4 volts, the span voltmeter is
set at 1 volt, thereby giving a range from -.4 volts to -1,4
volts. This is sufficient as cadmium "comes off" at approxi-
mately -.66 volts and zinc at approximately -1.05 volts„ The
sensitivity setting will vary depending on the amount of zinc
present. The setting used for the standard curve is 0o02
microamperes /mm.
If there is a possibility that Cd is present in the sample
an aliquot of the sample should be run in the polarographic cell
first, without any internal standard added. If there is Cd
present in the sample this must be taken into account when CD,
the internal standard, is added.
Standard curve - Into the polarographic cell is introduced
1 ml of 100 micrograms Zn per ml solution, 1 ml of 200 micro-
grams Cd per ml solution, and 9 ml of 0,2 M KC1 solution. This
gives a total amount of solution in the cell of 11 ml thereby
enabling a later removal of 10 ml of the sample and 1 ml of
200 micrograms Cd per ml internal standard solution. Also,
there is an electrolyte in the cell of 0»2 M KC1. Both the
volume of liquid in the cell and the electrolyte for standard
curve and sample are critical for a proper analysis,,
A. T. KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 35
On the standard curve the heights of the Zn and Cd curves
are measured in mm. The Zn to Cd ratio is found which is
divided by the number of micrograms of Zn used giving a factor
for 1 microgram Zn versus 200 micrograms Cd. It is suggested
that -200 micrograms Cd be used as an internal standard in each
sample for Zn thereby simplifying the calculations. The factor
for 1 microgram Zn versus 200 micrograms Cd, found at the
beginning of the series of samples being analyzed, will be used
for the calculations through this series.
(f) Calculations
For the sample "polarogram" the heights of the Zn and Cd
curves are measured in mm and the Zn to Cd ratio found in the
same manner as the standard curve. The ratio found here is
divided by the factor found in the standard curve for 1 micro-
gram Zn versus 200 micrograms Cd giving the number of micro-
grams of Zn in the aliquot put into the polarographic cell.
mg Zn/M3 = V-Y
1,000*v«Va
where v = aliquot (ml)
V = total sample (ml)
Y = micrograms in v
Va = gas sample volume, in cubic meters,
at standard conditions
A. T. KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 39
Nitrogen Oxides, Phenoldisulfonic
Acid Method
Source: Public Health Service.
(a ) Scope
When sulfur dioxide, ammonia, iron or other compounds
that interfere with the hydrogen peroxide method are present
in the gas to be sampled and/or the concentration of the
nitrogen oxides is below about 100 ppm, this method is used„
Accuracy below 5 ppm is questionable. This test is unsuitable
for atmospheric sampling,,
(b) Apparatus
Sampling Probe
Collection Flask -
Orifice Assembly -
Adapter with
Stopcock
Three-way Stopcock.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
Stainless steel (type 304 or
316) or glass tubing of suit-
able size (1/4-inch-OD, 6-foot-
long stainless steel tubing has
been used)„
A 2-liter round-bottom flask
with an outer 24/40 joint for
integrated samples or a 250-
ml MSA sampling tube for grab
samples <,
The size of the glass capillary
tubing depends on the desired
sampling period (flow rates of
about 1 liter per minute have
been used). Use of this orifice
is not mandatory,,
Adapter for connecting col-
lection flask to sampling "T".
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APPENDIX A
Page 40
Manometer - A 36-inch Hg manometer or
accurate vacuum gage.
Spectrophotometer - Beckman Model MB" or
equivalent.
(c) Reagents
Thirty Percent Hydrogen Peroxide - (reagent grade)«
Three Percent Hydrogen Peroxide - Dilute 30% H2O2 with
water at 1:10 ratio0 Prepare fresh daily.
Concentrated Sulfuric Acid.
0.1 N (approximate) Sulfuric Acid - Dilute 2.8 ml con-
centrated H2SO4 to 1 liter with water.
Absorbing Solution - Add 12 drops 3% H2O2 to each 100 ml
0.1 N H2SO4. Make enough for required number of tests.
1 N (approximate) Sodium Hydroximde - Dissolve 40 gm NaOH
pellets in water and dilute to 1 liter.
Concentrated Ammonium Hydroxide.
Fuming Sulfuric Acid - 15 to 18 weight percent free
sulfuric anhydride (oleum)„
Phenol (reagent grade).
Phenoldisulfonic Acid Solution - Dissolve 25 grams of
pure white phenol in 150 ml concentrated H2SO4 on a steam bath*
Cool and add 75 ml fuming sulfuric acido Heat to 100° C for 2
A. T. KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 41
hours. Store in a dark stoppered bottle. This solution should
be colorless if prepared with quality reagents.
Potassium Nitrate (reagent grade).
Standard Potassium Nitrate Solution - Solution A:
Dissolve 0„5495 gram KNO^ and dilute to 1 liter in a volumetric
flask. Solution B: Dilute 100 ml of Solution A to 1 liter.
One ml of Solution A contains the equivalent of 0.250 mg NO2
and of Solution B, 0.0250 mg NO2.
(d) Sampling
Procedure
Integrated Grab Sample - Add 25 ml freshly prepared ab-
sorbing solution into the flask. Record the exact volume of
absorbing solution used.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3, attach the
selected orifice. Purge the probe and orifice assembly with the
gas to be tested before sampling begins by applying suction to
it. Evacuate the system to the vapor pressure of the solution:
this pressure is reached when the solution begins to boil.
Record the pressure in the flask and the ambient temperature,,
Open the valve to the sampling probe to collect the sample„
Constant flow will be maintained until the pressure reaches
0o53 of the atmospheric pressure,, Stop before this point is
reached. During sampling, check the rate of fall of the
mercury in one leg of the manometer in case clogging, especially
of the orifice, occurs, At the end of the sampling period,
record the pressure, temperature, and barometric pressure.
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 42
An extended period of sampling can be obtained by following
this procedure. Open the valve only a few seconds at regular
intervals. For example: Open the valve for 10 seconds and
close it for 50 seconds; repeat every 60 seconds.'
Grab Sample - Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4
for high concentrations (200-3000 ppm) or the apparatus as shown
in Figure 4 for low concentrations (0-200 ppm) but delete the
orifice assembly. The same procedure is followed as in the
integrated method except that the valve is opened at the source
for about 10 seconds and no orifice is used.
Calibration curves are made to cover different ranges of
concentrations. Using a microburette for the first two lower
ranges and a 50-ml burette for the next two higher ranges,
transfer the following into separate 150-ml beakers (or 200-ml
casseroles).
lo 0-100 ppm: 0.0 (blank), 2.0, 4„0, 6.0„, 8o0,
10.0, 12o0, 16.0, 20.0 ml of KNO3 Solution B.
2. 50-500 ppm: 0.0 (blank), 1„0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0,
4C0, 6.0, 8«0, 10.0 ml of KNO3 Solution A.
3o 500-1500 ppm: 0.0 (blank), 5.0, 10.0, 15.0,
20.0, 25.0, 30.0 ml of KNO3 Solution A.
4. 1500-3000 ppm: 0.0 (blank), 15.0, 30„0, 35.0,
40.0,'45.0., 50.0, 55.0, 60.0 ml KNO3 Solution A„
Add 25.0 ml absorbing solution to each beaker. Follow as
directed in the Analytical Procedure section starting with the
addition of 1 N NaOH.
A.T.KEARNEY «c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 43
After the yellow color has developed, make dilutions for
the following ranges: 50 to 500 ppm (1:10); 500 to 1,400 ppm
(1:20); and 1,500 to 3,000 ppm (1:50). Read the absorbance of
each solution at 420 millimicron.
Plot concentrations against absorbance on rectangular
graph paper. A new calibration curve should be made with each
new batch of phenoldisulfonic acid solution or every few weeks.
(e) Analytical
Procedure
Shake the flask for 15 minutes and allow to stand over
night.
Transfer the contents of the collection flask to a beaker.
Wash the flask three times with 15-ml portions of H2O and add
the washings to the solution in the beaker. For a blank add
25 ml absorbing solution and 45 ml H2O to a beaker. Proceed
as follows for the bank and samples.
Add 1 N NaOH to the beaker until the solution is just
alkaline to litmus paper. Evaporate the solution to dryness
on a water bath and allow to cool0 Carefully add 2 ml
phenoldisulfonic acid solution to the dried residue and
triturate thoroughly with a glass rod, making sure that all
the residue comes into contact with the solution. Add 1 ml
H2O and four drops concentrated Heat the solution on
the water bath for 3 minutes, stirring occasionally.
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 44
Allow to cool and add 20 ml F^O, mix well by stirring,
and add 10 ml concentrated NH4OH, dropwise, stirring constantly.
Transfer the solution to a 50-ml volumetric flask, washing the
beaker three times with 4- to 5-ml portions of H2O. Dilute to
mark with water and mix thoroughly. Transfer a portion of the
solution to a dry, clean centrifuge tube and centrifuge, or
filter a portion of the solution.
Read the absorbance of each sample at 420 millimicron. If
the absorbance is higher than 0„6, make a suitable dilution of
both the sample and blank and read the absorbance again.
(f) Calculations
ppm NOo = (5.24 x 105) (C)
VS
Where C = concentration of NOo, mg (from calibration
chart)
Vs= gas sample volume at 70° F and 29,,92 in
Hg, ml.
Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfur Trioxide,
Shell Development Company Method
Source: National Air Pollution Control Administration
Publication 999-AP-130
(a) Scope
This method describes a procedure for determining sulfur
dioxide and sulfur trioxide in stack gases<>
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 45
(b) Apparatus
- Sampling Probe
- Filter
- Adapter
- Heating Tape
- Dry Gas Meter
- Vacuum pump„
- Thermometers
- Manometer
- Absorbers
Glass tubing (preferably boro-
silicate or quartz) of suitable
size with a ball joint at one
end and a removable filter at
the other (a 1/2-inch-OD, 6-
foot-long tube has been used.)
A filter is needed to remove
particulate matter, which may
contain metal sulfates and
cause interference during
analysis. Borosilicate glass
wool, Kaolin wool, or silica
wool are suitable filters for
removing particulate matter.
Six plug-type connecting tubes
T 24/40, one with a 90° bend
and a socket joint.
An insulated heating tape with
a powerstat to prevent con-
densation in exposed portion
of probe and adapter. Alter-
native: glass wool or other
suitable insulators.
A 0„1-cubic-foot-per-revolution
dry gas meter equipped with a
fitting for a thermometer and a
manometer. Alternately, a
calibrated tank or a rotameter
calibrated at the operating
pressure may be used.
One 10°-50° C, + 1° C; and
one 0°-300° C + 5° C are
suitable.
A 36-inch-Hg manometer
Two U-shaped ASTM D 1266 lamp
sulfur absorbers with coarse-
sintered plates.
A. T. KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
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APPENDIX A
Page 46
Filter Tube
One 40-mm-diameter Corning
medium-sintered plate.
Scrubber for
Purifying Air
An ASTM D 1266 lamp sulfur
absorber with coarse-sintered
plate.
Teflon Tubing
Teflon tubing, 1/4-inch ID,
for connecting absorbers.
Alternative: 8->mm pyrex tubing
with butt-to-butt connections
held together with Tygon.
(c) Reagents
Water - Distilled water that has been deionizedo
Isopropanol, Anhydrous.
Eighty Percent Isopropyl Alcohl - Dilute isopropanol with
water at a ratio of 4 to 1.
Thirty Percent Hydrogen Peroxide - (reagent grade)»
Three Percent Hydrogen Peroxi'dfes^ ;v,Dilute 30% hydrogen
peroxide with water at a ratio of 10 to 1, Prepare fresh
daily.
Barium Chloride - (BaCl2*2H20J reagent grade).
0.0100 N Alcoholic Barium Chloride - Dissolve 1.2216 grams
BaCl2«2H20 in 200 ml of water and dilute to 1 liter with
isopropanol. Standardize this solution with 0„01 N alcoholic
sulfuric acid solution
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Imc.
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appendix a
Page 47
(As an alternate titrating solution to 0.01 N alcoholic
barium chloride, in American Petroleum Institute Study Group
uses 0.01 N alcoholic barium perchlorate because they believe
that it gives a sharper end point during titration,,)
Thorin Indicator - 1-(O-arsonophenylazo)-2 naphthol-3,
6-disulfonic acid, disodium salt.
0.2 Percent Thorin Indicator - Dissolve 0.2 gram thorin
indicator in 100 ml water. Store in polyethylene bottle.
(d) Sampling
Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 5. Place 30 ml
of 80% isopropyl alcohol in the first absorber and 10 ml in
the filter tube. The add 50 ml of 3% hydrogen peroxide to the
second absorber. A light film of silicone grease on the upper
parts of the joints may be used to prevent leakage. Wind the
heating tape in a uniform single layer around the exposed
portion of the probe and adapter and cover the heating tape
with asbestos tape wound in the opposite direction. Place a
thermometer between the heating tape and asbestos as near the
adapter joint as possible. Connect the heating tape to a
powerstat, switch on the current, and maintain the probe and
adapter at a temperature at which no condensation will occur
(about 250° C). Sample at 0„075 cubic foot per minute until
2 cubic feet or a suitable volume of gas has been sampled.
Record the meter readings, temperatures and pressures at
A.T.KEARNEY 8c COMPANY, Inc.
-------
APPENDIX A
Page 48
10-minute intervals. Note the barometric pressure. Do not
sample at a vacuum of more than 8 inches Hg.
Disconnect the asbestos tape, heating tape, probe, and
adapter and allow them to cool. Connect the scrubber for
purifying air to the inlet of the isopropyl alcohol absorber
and add 50 ml of 37c hydrogen peroxide. Replace the water in
the ice bath with tap water. Draw air through the system for
15 minutes to transfer residual sulfur dioxide to the hydrogen
peroxide absorber. Disconnect the purifying air scrubber.
(Although the use of air for removal of sulfur dioxide from
isopropyl alcohol should not result in oxidation of sulfur
dioxide to sulfur trioxide, the American Petroleum Institute
Joint Study Group uses 99% nitrogen to preclude any possibility
of oxidation,,) Remove the filter and wash the probe and
adapter with 807o isopropyl alcohol. Place the washings in the
isopropyl alcohol absorber.
Disconnect the hydrogen peroxide absorber and transfer
the contents and the water washings to a 250-ml volumetric
flask. Dilute the water to the mark. Analyze for sulfur
dioxide.
Stopper the isopropyl alcohol absorber and apply suction
to the filter end. Remove the suction line and allow the
partial vacuum in the absorber to draw the solution from the
filter. Rinse the filter tube with 80% isopropyl alcohol be-
fore the suction is lost. Transfer the contents of the isopropyl
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
-------
APPENDIX A
-
alcohol absorber and its washings to a 250-ml volumetric flask
and dilute to the mark with 80% isopropyl alcohol* Analyze for
sulfur trioxide.
(e) Analytical
Procedure
Sulfur Trioxide - Pipette a suitable aliquot to a flask
and dilute to 100 ml with 80% isopropyl alcohol. Add a few
drops of thorin indicator (enough to give a yellow color).
Titrate with 0»01 N BaCl2 to the pink end point. Make a blank
determination in parallel.
Sulfur Dioxide - Transfer a suitable aliquot to a flask
and add 4 times this volume of isopropyl alcohol. Dilute to
100 ml with 80% isopropyl alcohol, add enough thorin indicator
to give a yellow color, an titrate with standard 0,01 N BaCl2
to the pink end point. Run a blank determination in parallel.
(f) Calculations
ppm SOo or SO3 by volume = 24(A-B) (N) (F) (T)
(Vo) (P)
Where A = 0„01N BaCl2 used for titration of sample
B = ml 0o01N BaCl2 used for titration of blank
N = exact normality of BaCl2
F = dilution factor
T = average meter temperature, °R
Vo = observed volume of gas sample, cu ft
P = average absolute meter pressure, in. Hg
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
-------
WIND
3-D
MINIMUM
SAMPLE PORT
10 D PREFERRED
6 D MINIMUM
BREECHING
y3
WHERE REQUIRED, PLACE IN
HEATED ENCLOSURE TO -
PREVENT CONDENSATION
CONDENSER IF REQUIRED
(BEFORE OR AFTER COLLECTING UNIT)
1
STAINLESS STEEL
( 304OR 316 )
"PROBE
NULL OR INTERCHANGEABLE
OR SINGLE SIZE NOZZLE
S - TYPE
PITOT TUBE
INCLINED
DRAFT GUAGE
7^
TEMPERATURE
MEASURING
STACK
PARTICULATE - FABRIC, PAPER,
GLASS, MEMBRANE, CERAMIC,
OR METAL FILTER MEDIA
It
PARTICULATE OR
GAS ABSORPTION
TEMPERATURE
"CONTROL BATH
WHEN REQUIRED
FREEZE - OUT TRAP
ADSORPTION
ACTIVATED CARBON,
-SILICA GEL,
ALUMINA, ETC.
GAS - INTEGRATED GRAB SAMPLE
=&c
>£=
GAS - GRAB SAMPLE
PUMP
WATER, STEAM OR
COMPRESSED AIR
t,~
EJECTOR
A P 2 T2
ORIFICIAL FLOWMETER
CRITICAL ORIFICE
r
ROTAMETER
V
GAS METER
FIG. I SAMPLING LOCATION & TRAIN COMPONENTS
-------
appendix a
Figure 2
A GENERATOR
125 ml Erlenmeyer
B 19/38
C SCRUBBER
lead acetate on pyrex wool
D 12/2 ball joint
E ABSORBER
12 ml heavy wall
centrifuge tube
FIGURE 2
Arsine Generator
-------
APPENDIX A
Figures 3 oc 4
PROBE
12 5
THREE-WAY
19 38
ORIFICE ASSEMBLY
STOPCOCK
MERCURY
MANOMETER
24 40
f 24JTER FLASK
STAINLESS STEEL
PROBE
GLASS
CAPILLARY
TUBE
TEFLON
glass-fiber
FILTER
TYGON
SLEEVE
— TO VACUUM
/ PUMP
FIGURE 3
APPARATUS FOR INTEGRATED GRAB SAMPLES
TO VACUUM
PUMP
7
250-ML FLASK^^
MERCURY MANOMETER
VI
FIGURE 4
APPARATUS FOR GRAB SAMPLES
-------
APPENDIX A
Figure_5_Z
Filter Tube
Sample
Probe
Glass
Wool
Ball &
Socket
Joint
Adapter
Ice Bath
SO3 S02
Absorbers
FIGURE 5
Sulfur dioxide - sulfur trioxide sampling train.
-------
Appendix 8 .
Page 1
Budget Bureau No. 85-S69044
Approval expires: Sept. 30, 1970
Date:
Team:
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF EMISSIONS AND EMISSIONS CONTROL
IN THE IRON FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR IN-PLANT
ENGINEERING SURVEY
BY
A„ T. Kearney & Company, Inc.
For
NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
Contract CPA 22-69-106
IDENTIFICATION
A. Name and location of company AFS Code
1. Name
2. Number and Street 3„ County
4. City
5. State
Zip
6, Code
B. Location of foundry if different from above
1. Number and Street
2. City
4„ State
3* County
Zip
5„ Code
C. Person to contact regarding this report
Area Code/
Is Name 2. Phone
-------
AFS Code
Zip Code
Appendix B
Page' 2
Section I - GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Type of Metal Cast
1..
2.
3
Metal Cast
Percent Cast
Tons/Month Melt
Grav Iron
Malleable Iron
Ductile Iron
Average number of production workers for 1968
I I I. Under 10
EH 2- 10*49
0 3. 50-249
n 4. Over 250
To what industry do you supply castings?
1 1 1. Automotive
I I 2. Agricultural
I 1 3. Cast Iron Pipe
I [ 4. Industrial and Electrical Equipment
I I 5. Valves and Fittings
I I 6. J obb ing
Weight range of castings produced.
I I 1. Under 10 lbs.
~ 2. 10-49
~ 3. 50-99
~ 4. 100-500
~ 5. Over 500 lbs.
5. What is the basic product cast. (i.e., Brake drum, pipe,
machinery bases, railroad, etc.)
-------
6. CHARACTERISTICS OF FURNACE
FURNACE
NUMBER
FURNACE TYPE
LINING
OR
COIL
USE
SIZE
MODEL
MELT
RATE
UTILIZATION
HR/PAY
BLAST
CHARCE
DOOR
HEIGHT CHARGING DOOR SILL
ABOVE FLOOR, FEET
PREHEAT
CHARGE
1-PREHEAT
2-DRIED
3-BOTH
4-NONE
FUEL
INJECTION
OR
OXYGEN
ENRICHMENT
AFTERBURNERS
1
>«
2
a.
3
CO
ac
«
b
a.
CHARGING
1 - TOP
2 - SIDE
i
CODE
1-ACID
CODE
FURNACE LINED
DIAMETER, INCHES
HOLDING CAPACITY,
TONS
MANUFACTURER &
MODEL NUMBER
AVERAGE DAILY
MELT RATE
TON/HR.
MELTING
POURING
OTHER
TYPE
VOL *.PRFS<
TFWP
SIZE, SQ. FT.
1 - OPEN
2 - CLOSED *
1 - NATURAL GAS
2 - OXYGEN
3 - OTHER(SPECIFY)
C/i
cu u
O 1
> •
gg
Ee
O CO
NUMBER |
SIZE, BTU/HR.
LOCATION
1 - ABOVE DOOR
2 - BELOW DOOR
DISTANCE AFTER-
BURNER TO GAS
TAKE-OFF, INCHES
1 - CUPOLA
2 - CHANNEL IND.
3 - CORELESS INI
4 - DIRECT ARC
5 - INDIRECT ARC
6 - AIR FURNACE
7 - OTHER
(SPECIFY)
3-NEUTRAL
4-UNLINED
5-SIN
OPEN CH.
6-S IN
CLOSED
CHANNEL
7- DOUBLE
CHANNEL
1 - MELT
2 - HOLD
3 - DUPLEX
1 - HOT
2 - CJARM
3 - COLD
; VOLUME, -SCFM
I AND PRESSURE,
i OZ. WATER
DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
—
10
NOTES:
* 1. IF CLOSED, DESCRIBE CONSTRUCTION, CONTROL STATION, FAIL SAFE FEATURES, ETC.
2. NOTE NATURE OF BLAST HEATING, E.G.f RECUPERATIVE, EXT. FIRED, RECUP. & EXT. FIRED.
3. NOTE WHETHER LINE, MEDIUM OR HIGH FREQUENCY FOR CORELESS INDUCTION.
m
L>
03
¦u
OP
¦d
n>
CD
3
OO
a.
H*
X
w
-------
Appendix B
Page 4
AFS Code
7. Characteristics of charge for each furnace
Charge
Furnace Number
1
2 3
4
5
6
a. Metallic (lbs. Total)
1„ Remelt
2. Pig Iron
3. Purchased Cast Iron
4. Purchased Steel
5, Briquettes
6. Punchings and/or Turnings
b. Fluxes (lbs. Total)
1. Limestone
2, Dolomite
3. Soda Ash
4. Fluorspar
5. Other (specify)
c. Carbo-coke(lbs0)
d. Additives (lbs. Total)
1.
2.
3.
4.
e. Metal to Coke Ratio
f. Sulphur Content of Coke, 70
g. Desulphurizing Agents (lbs)
1. Caustic Soda
2. Soda Ash
3. Other (specify)
h. Quality of Scrap
1. Rusty 3= Oily
2. Dirty 4. Clean
io Charging Method fRur.kPt-, ^
-------
Appendix B
Page 5
AFS Code
8. How is the scrap prepared and treated?
9.
Stack Analysis
Furnace
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7, c6
70 C02
% N2
Stack Gas Temp. (3
Top of Burden. °F
10° Alloy additions to the ladle
Operation
Type
Additions in lbs.
Ladle Size Tons
Nodularization
Alloys
1.
2.
3.
4.
Other
1.
2.
11. Average length of time for "light-up" per day, min,
12. Method of light-up
~
1.
Wood
~
2.
Gas
~
3.
Oil
~
4.
Electric
~
5.
Other (specify)
-------
Appendix B
Page 6
AFS Code
13o Have you in the last ten years replaced cupolas?
a. Type of furnace.
Q 1. Electric Arc
~ 2. Induction, Coreless
Q 3. Induction, Channel
Q 4. Other (specify)
b. When, 19
c. Reason
14. Pouring Smoke Control
a. Furnace Tapping
10 Ventilation
Q 1. General
~ 2. Local
2, Effectiveness
p 1. Excellent
~ 2. Good
~ 3. Fair
b„ Mold Pouring
1. Ventilation
~ 1. General
~ 2. Local
2» Effectiveness
~ 1. Excellent
~ 2- Good
Q 3. Fair
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
Page 7
Section III - CONTROL SYSTEM
15. Identification of control system. Complete columns (b) through
(g) for each control system.
Control
Number
fa}
Control
System
fb)
Furnace(s)
Controlled
(c)
Year
Instailed
(d)
Gas
Vol.
cfm
fe)
Gas
Temp.
°F
(f)
Pressure
Drop
Inches Water
(s.)
1
19
2
19
3
19
4
19
(a) Control System Identification Number is for reference
in succeeding items.
(b) Type of control system. Please use the following code:
Sys tem
Code
Fly ash and spark arrester
1
Afterburner
2
Wet Cap
3
Mechanical Collector
4
Wet Scrubber
5
Fabric Filter
6
Electrostatic Precipitator
7
Where a control system consists of several pieces of
connected equipment such as an afterburner, mechanical
collector, and electrostatic precipitator indicate the
sequence by 2/4/7.
(c) Furnaces serviced by the control system. Use the furnace
identification number from Item 6. Furnaces not listed
here will be assumed to have no control system.
(d) Year the control system was installed
(e) Rated gas volume in std. dry cubic feet per minute at the
exhauster inlet.
(f) Gas temperature at the exhauster inlet in degrees fahrenheit.
(g) Static pressure drop through the exhauster in inches of water.
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
Page 8
16. Characteristics of the control systems. Complete the applicable
items below:
Control Systems
1
2
3
4
a. Height of exhaust stack above
ground level (ft.)
b, Combustion chamber size in
Btu's/hour
c, Water consumption in gallons/min„
1. Dust collector
2. Gas cooling
3. Recirculated
d. Noise control (y")
e. Heat exchanger. Type or make
f. Type of filter media
Media
1. Natural fibre
2. Synthetic fibre
3. Glass fibre
g„ Air to cloth ratio
h. Effluent and gas take-off
Take-off
1. Above charging door
2. Below charging door
3. Into side draft hood
4. " full roof hood
5. " canopy hood
6. " snorkel
7. Direct shell evaluation
8. None
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
Page y
17 • Operation of control system
Report below for each control system.
Control System
I
3
a. Particulate Concentration
1. Inlet,gr/dry scf., lbs./lOOO lbs. gas,
lb./hr.
2. Outlet,gr/dry scf., lbs./lOOO lbs. gas,
lb./hr.
b. Catch, lb. Dust/Ton Melt
c. Collection Efficiency, \
d. Melt rate at which measurements were made, Ton/hr.
e. Particle Proportion, 7»
Distribution
1. Less than 2 microns
2. " " 5 microns
3. " '' 10 microns
4. " 20 microns
5. " " 50 microns
6. " " 1U0 microns
7. " " 200 microns
8. " " 500 microns
9. " " 1000 microns
f. Gas Analysis, "L
1. CO?
2. CO
3. 02
4. N2
5. H?
b. S02
7. H20
g. Catch Proportion, 7o
1. Less than 2 microns
2. '' " 5 microns
3. " " 10 microns
4. " " 20 microns
5. " " 50 microns
6. " " lOo microns
7. " " ZOO microns
8. " " 500 microns
9. " " 1000 microns
h. Chemical Composition of Catch, 7»
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. «
7.
i. Combustible Analysis
1.
3.
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
Page 10 "
18. Controlled non-melting operations
Foundry
Operation
to
Control
System
to
Control Equipment
Type
(c)
Year
Installed
(d)
Rated
Size (cfm)
to
Collection
(#/week)
(f)
Collection
Efficiency(%)
to
19
19
19
19
19
19
From the following list indicate in column (a) above, the code number of
each of the operations in which your foundry employs air pollution control
equipment.
Operation Code
Metal pouring and mold cooling 1
Coremaking operations 2
Sand drying and sand reclamation 3
Sand conditioning 4
Sand handling 5
Mold and casting shakeout and conveying 6
Abrasive cleaning 7
Tumbling operations 8
Grinding operations 9
Annealing and heat treating furnaces 10
Pattern shop sawdust and chip systems 11
Casting surface coating 12
Welding 13
In column (c) above indicate the code number for the type of control
equipment.
Control Equipment Code
Afterburner 1
Mechanical collector 2
Wet scrubber 3
Fabric filter 4
-------
Appendix B
te* *> • ¦¦¦
Page II
AFS Code
19. For the operations listed below provide the following:
Capacities, number of units, and equipment types.
Operation
Number
of Units
Capacity
Equipment
Type
and Size
a.
Molding
Automatic Molding Lines
Holding Machines
Sand Slingers
Other (specify)
b.
Sand Conditioning Systems
e.
Core Room
Batch Ovens
Tower Ovens
Horizontal Oven
Core Blowers
Molding Machine
Core Sand Plant
Other (specify)
d.
Shakeouts
Mechanical
Manual
e.
Cleaning Rooms
Shot Blast Machines
Tumbling Barrels
Grinders
Other (specify)
f.
Heat Treatment
Oil Fired Ovens
Gas Fired Ovens
Oil Quench
g.
Paint Booths
-------
AFS code
Appendix B
Page 12
Section IV - COSTS OF POLLUTION CONTROL
20, Investment costs. Report on lines 1-5, the designated
costs associated with each of the control systems.
Investment Cost Categories
Control Systems
on Furnaces
All Other
Control
Systems
(e)
1
(a)
2
3
(c)
4
f<*}
1. Basic Equipment
2, Auxiliary Equipment
3. Engineering
4. Installation
5. Total
Described below are examples of the items to be included in each
type of investment cost. The column headed "All Other Control
Systems" should include investment cost totals for all non-melting
control systems as reported in item 18.
1. Basic equipment. Include taxes and shipping charges with
F.0.3, price on the "flange to flange" costs of basic
equipment. If you manufactured the basic control equipment,
estimate the cost of fabrication.
2. Auxiliary equipment. Include the following items essential
to the successful operation of a control system but not gen-
erally manufactured by gas cleaning equipment suppliers:
a. Air movement equipment
(1) Fans and blowers
(2) Electrical; motors, starters, wire conduit,
switches, etc.
(3) Hoods, duct works, gaskets, dampers, etc.
b. Liquid movement equipment
(1) Pumps
(2) Electrical; motors, starters, wire conduit
switches, etc.
(3) Piping and valves
(4) Settling tanks
c. Storage and disposal equipment
(1) Dust storage hoppers
(2) Sludge pits
(3) Draglines, trackway, roadway, etc.
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
Page 13
d. Support construction
(1) Structural steel work
(2) Cement foundation, piers, etc.
(3) Insulation (therman)
(4) Vibration and/or anti wear materials
(5) Protective cover
e. Instrumentation: measurement and/or control of:
(1) Air and/or liquid flow
(2) Temperature and/or pressure
(3) Operation and capacity
(4) Power
(5) Opacity of flue gas (smoke meters, etc.)
3. Engineering. Allocate the cost of research and engineering
expenditures required for the selection of the specific
control system, including such items as: material specifi-
cations, gas stream measurements, pilot operations, etc.
4. Installation. Include the following items when applicable:
Labor to install
Cleaning the site
Yard and underground
Building modification
Design contingency
Inspection
Field contingency
Overtime
Existing facilities protection
Supervision and engineering
Field Office charges
System start-up
Profit reduction attributable to plant shutdown for
installation
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
Page 14
21. Annual costs.
Report in lines 1-6 the designated annual costs associated
with each of the control systems.
Control Systems
on Furnaces
,A11 Other
Control
Annual Cost Categories
1
(a)
2
(b^
3
fc>
4'
(d)
Systems
(e)
1. Operating
2. Maintenance
3. Depreciation
4. Overhead
5. Process and eauipment chanees
6. Total
Described below are examples of the items to be included in each
type of annual cost. The column headed "All Other Control
Systems" should include annual cost totals for all non-melting
control systems in item 18.
Annual Cost Categories
1. Operating costs
a. Utilities needed to operate such as electricity,
water, and gas
b. Waste disposal operations
c. Materials consumed in operating the system
2. Maintenance costs include labor and materials for:
a. Replacement of parts and equipment
b. Supervision and engineering
c. Repairs
d. Lubrication
e. Surface protection (cleaning and painting)
3. Depreciation is the straight line allocation of total
investment costs over the accounting life of the equipment
4. Other overhead for the control system includes:
a. The cost of capital at 7% of the total investment
cost
b. Property taxes
c. Insurance
d. Miscellaneous
-------
Appendix B
AFS Code ge 15
5. Process and equipment changes: include here changes
in melting processes, melting equipment and furnace
charge which were made when pollution control equipment
was installed.
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
Page 16
22, List and evaluate any benefits from controlling your air
pollution such as reduced plant maintenance, reduced roof
maintenance, increased property value, by-product recovery,
reduced insurance premiums and fewer complaints by employees
and neighbors, and/or problems incurred due to the control
equipment such as design problems, start-up problems, and
production delays.
-------
AFS Code
Appendix B
»l r r ¦ ¦
Page 17
23. Remarks.
(Coke Analysis)
-------
¦f
REFERENCES
SECTION II
1. Foundry Magazine, "Foundry Census," July, 1970, pp. 94-95.
2. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, "iron and Steel Foundries and
Steel Ingot Producers, Summary for 1968," July, 1970.
3. Foundry Magazine, "inventory of Foundry Equipment,"
1968, 1960, 1954, 1957.
SECTION III
1. UoS. Department of Commerce News, Business and Defense
Services Administration, BD 69-14, March 13, 1969.
2. The Cupola and Its Operation published by the American
Foundrymen's Society, 3rd edition, 1965.
3„ Metals Handbook: Volume 5 Forging and Casting, pub-
lished by the American Society for Metals, 8th edition, 1970.
4. Principles of Metal Casting, R. Heine, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1955, pp. 550-553.
SECTION IV
1. The Cupola and Its Operation, American Foundrymen's
Society, Des Plaines, Illinois, 3rd edition, 1965
2. Kupolofenentstaubung, G. Engels and E. Weber, Giesserie-
verlag G.m.b.H., Dusseldorf, translated by P. S. Cowen, Gray and
Ductile Iron Founders' Society, Cleveland, Ohio.
A. T. KEARNEY Sc COM PA NY, Inc.
-------
- 2 -
3. "Reader's Comment. Letter from Institut fur
Giessereitechnik," Dusseldorf, Germany, Foundry, December, 1969,
p. 48.
4. Conference on Foundry Ventilation and Dust Control,
Harrogate, England, 1965. British Cast Iron Research Associa-
tion, Alvechurch, Birmingham.
5. Dust Collectors, American Foundrymen's Society, 1967.
6. Control of Emissions from Metal Melting Operations,
American Foundrymen's Society, no date.
7" Cupola Dust Collection, W. Witheridge, The Foundry,
March, 1950, pc 88.
8. Foundry Air Pollution Control Manual, American Foundry-
men's Society, 1967.
9. Private communication.
10. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U0S0 Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Publica-
tion No. 999-AP-40, 1967.
SECTION V
1. "Recommended Practice for Testing Particulate Emissions
from Iron Foundry Cupolas," edited by a joint committee of
American Foundrymen's Society and The Gray & Ductile Iron Foun-
der's Society, Inc.
A.T.KEARNEY & COMPANY, Inc.
-------
EXHIBIT
APPLICATION OF EMISSION CONTROL EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS TO FOUNDRY PROCESSES
Drv Mechanical
Foundry Process
R.tw Material Handling
and Preparation
Meltlnt Processes
Cupola
Electric Arc
Electric Induction
Inoculation
Mold Pouring & Cooling
Shakeout
Enclosed Hood
Side Hood
Sand Preparation & Handling
Shakeout Molding Sand
New Sand
Core Sand
CorenaklnR
Mechanical Material Handling
Pneuoat ic
Bake Oven
Crindlng
Casting Cleaning
Airless Abrasive
Blast Rooms
Tumbling Mills
Sprue
Grinding
Snagging
Swing Frame
Portable
Boiler Fly Ash
Chain Crate
Spreader Stoker
Pulverizer
Point Ovens
Oil Burn-off Furnaces
Pattern Shop
Low Press
Loss
Cvclone
Rare
Rare
Rare
Frequently
Rare
Rare
Medium
Pressure
Loss
Frequently
Lew Pressure
Loss
(Wet Cap)
Frequently
Occasionally
Occasionally
Occasional ly
Occasionally
Rare
Rare
Rare
Occasionally
Frequently
Frequently
Frequently
Occasionally
Usual
Usual
Med iu
Pressure
Loss
"4-8"
Frequently
U'et Scrubber
Rare
Rare
Usual
Usual
Usual
Usual
Usual
Frequently
Frequently
Usual
Usual
Usual
Frequently
Frequently
Usual
Intermediate
Pressure
Loss
"9-20"
Frequently
Rare
Occasionally
Occasionally
fflgK
Pressure
Frequently
Occasionally
Cotton or
Wool
Fabric Filter
Frequently
Usual
Usual
Usual
Usual
Frequently
Frequently
Usual
Orion or
Dacron Nome*
Rare
Usual
Occasionally Rare
Occasionally
Occasionally
Rare
Occasionally
Occasionally
No
No
No
Occasionally Frequently
Rare No
No
No
Frequently
Catalytic
Coobust ion
Frequently
Frequently
Frequently
Usual
Frequently
Occasionally
Occasionally
Sources: Foundry Air Pollution Control Manual, American Foundrywen1s Society, 1967.
American Air Filter, Dust Collector Selection Cuide, Bulletin 268-A, October,
Personal notes of John Kane.
1966.
-------
EXHIBIT IV-18
Page 1 ot 2
SUMMARY STATISTICS - AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EOUIPMENT
ON GRAY IRON FOUNDRY MELTING FURNACES
(Number ot Foundries)
Group by Size (1967 Value
of Gray Iron Shipments)
Total respondent foundries
Under $500,000
$500,000 to $999,999
$1,000,000 to $2,499,999
$2,500,000 to $9,999,999
$10,000,000 and over
Value not reported
Total respondent foundries
without furnace air pollution
control equipment
Under $500,000
$500,000 to $999,999
$1,000,000 to $2,499,999
$2,500,000 to $9,999,999
$10,000,000 and over
Value not reported
Total respondent foundries
with furnace air pollution
control equipment
Under $500,000
$500,000 to $999,999
$1,000,000 to $2,499,999
$2,500,000 to $9,999,999
$10,000,000 and over
Value not reported
Type of equipment
Wet Cap
Fabric filter
Particulate wet scrubber
Mechanical collector
(Cyclone)
Electrostatic precipitator
Type of Furnace
Electric Electric
Cupola Arc
Induction Other Total
1,232
525
223
221
172
29
62
1,052
514
200
178
107
7
46
180
~TT
23
43
65
22
16
95
39
30
15
1
42
JU
4
10
3
3
2
18
IT
1
2
24
4
6
3
2
20
4
73
32T
11
16
5
4
3
73
3S
11
16
5
4
3
29
2
1
1
29
TS
2
1
1
1,376
240
247
180
37
68
1,172
213
198
112
13
52
204
TO
27
49
68
24
16
95
59
34
15
1
-------
EXHIBIT IV-18
Page 2 ot Z
SUMMARY STATISTICS - AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT
ON GRAY IRON FOUNDRY MELTINGFURNACES
(Number of Foundries)
Type of Furnace
Electric
Electric
Group by Census Regions
Cupola
Arc
Induction
Other
Total
Total respondent foundries
1,232
42
73
29
1,376
New England
87
-
T
~zr
95
Middle Atlantic
229
4
11
3
247
East North Central
428
14
23
7
472
West North Central
115
2
2
2
121
South Atlantic
121
4
5
1
131
East South Central
100
2
5
1
108
West South Central
62
-
7
4
73
Mountain
18
2
6
1
27
Pacific
72
14
10
6
102
Total respondent foundries
without furnace air pollution
controls
1,052
18
73
29
1,172
New England
78
-
T
86
Middle Atlantic
207
11
3
221
East North Central
356
6
23
7
392
West North Central
103
1
2
2
108
South Atlantic
110
2
5
1
118
East South Central
88
1
5
1
95
West South Central
59
-
7
4
70
Mountain
15
1
6
1
23
Pacific
36
7
10
6
59
Total respondent foundries
with furnace air pollution
controls
180
24
-
-
204
New England
~~9"
-
-
-
—5"
Middle Atlantic
22
4
-
-
26
East North Central
72
8
-
-
80
West North Central
12
1
-
-
13
South Atlantic
11
2
-
-
13
East South Central
12
1
-
-
13
West South Central
3
-
-
-
3
Mountain
3
1
-
4
Pacific
36
7
-
-
43
Source: Based on a survey conducted on BDSA Form 807--Gray Iron Foundry--
Air Pollution Control.
-------
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY OF EMISSION CONTROL EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS
Foundry
Application
Melting
Gray Iron Cupola
Electric Arc
Screens and Transfer Points
Dry Sand Reclaimer
Sand Cooler
Abrasive Cleaning
Grinding
Shakeout
Particle
Size
Coarse to Fine
Fine
Medium
Coarse to Fine
Medium
Fine to Coarse
Coarse to Medium
Fine to Medium
Typical
Inlet
Loading
Gr/SCF
1/2-10
1/2-2
1/2-3
10-40
1-20
1/2-5
1/2-2
1/2-1
Typical Outlet Loading Gr/SCF
Wet
Cap
0.4
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Wet Scrubber
6"-30"
30"-?0"
0.3
0.2
0.005-0.01
0.1
0.01-0.05
0.01-0.05
0.01
Low
Efficiency
Cyclone
Fabric
Filter
Electrostatic
Precipitator
0.01
0.05
0.4
CT.01
0.036
0.02
X
0.01
X
X
X
0.01
X
02-0.05
X
0.01
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0.01
X
X
0.1
0.01
X
X
X
X
X
Note: Particle Size
Coarse +20 Microns
Medium 2-20 Microns
Fine -2 Microns
X = Not applicable or rarely used.
Underlined outlet loading is lowest for that application.
tn
x
SB
M
CD
M
H
Sources: Foundry Air Pollution Control Manual, American Foundrymen's Society; "p
Air Pollution Engineering Manual, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, #999-AP-40.
-------
NEFES / 7 7—2
SMDS ms WK
m©y?E
Produced by the
NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION
in cooperation with the
NORTHEASTERN DEER STUDY GROUP
and its sponsor, the
ASSOCIATION OF NORTHEAST GAME,
AND CONSERVATION COMMISSIONERS
utM H
\
USDA FOREST SERVICE GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT NE-9
1974
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
When the Northeastern Deer Study Croup, sponsored by
the Association of Northeast (lame. Fish, ami Conservation
Commissioners, agreed to take on the job of producing this
handbook. Chairman James S. Lindzey of the Pennsylvania
Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit appointed Stephen A.
Liseinsky of the Pennsylvania Game Commission and John
D. Gill of the U.S. Forest Service, to lead the project. They
in turn called 011 Hubert D. McDowell of the University of
Connecticut, Rai l F. Pat.ricof the New York State University
College of Forestry, and Ward M. Sharp of the USD! Bureau
of Spoi l Fisheries and Wildlife for advice and review of plans.
Deer Study Group members in nearly all the northeastern
states and provinces participated in selecting the species
included in the report and in recruiting authors. At least 21
people functioned as key-men for individual areas or agencies.
We cannot name all of them, but Joseph S. T-arson of the
University of Massachusetts and Stuart. L. Free of the New
York Department of Environmental Conservation were
especially active; in recruiting authors. When word of the
handbook spread beyond the Northeast, we got. additional
help from Forest W. Stearns, then with the North Central
Forest Experiment Station at Rhinelander, Wisconsin.
Stearns' interest confirms that this handbook should be useful
in the Great Lakes area as well as in the Northeast.
The work of must of the authors who are employed by state
conservation departments and of several other biologists who
are not specifically named here was supported by Federal
Aid in Wildlife Restoration Funds. Francis B. Schuler of the
USD1 Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife at Boston has
consistently encouraged the kind of cooperation among
agencies that this handbook reflects.
So many other people helped that we do not have space
to name all of them. But we must particularly thank Earl I,.
Core, who helped and encouraged us throughout this project.
JOHN I). GILL and WILLIAM M. HEALY
NCRTHFAS7FRN FOREST EXPFRlMFNT STATION
FOREST SERVICE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
6816 MARKET STREET. UPPER DARBY, PA. 19C82
WARREN T. DCOliTTlE, DIRECTOR
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA 1. Report No. i 2.
SHEET NEFES/7 '-2
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. Title and Subtitle
Shrubs and Vines for Northeastern Wildlife
5. Report Date April 1974
Publication date
6.
7. Author(s) Compiled and revised by
John D. Gill, and William M. Ilcaly
8. Performing Organization Kept.
N°' GTR-NE-9
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
6816 Market Street
Upper Darby, Pa. 19082
10. Project/Task/Work Unit N'o.
11. Contract/Grant No.
12. Sponsoring Organization Naaie and Address
Northeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Resource Agency
(No permanent address)
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
14.
15. Supplementary Notes
In cooperation with the Northeastern Deer Study Group
16. Abstracts
A non-technical handbook in which 34 authors discuss management of 97 native and
3 naturalized shrubs or woody vines most important to wildlife in the Northeast—
Kentucky to Maryland to Newfoundland to Ontario. Topics include range, habitat,
life history, uses, propagation, and management; but not identification.
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. l7o. Descriptors
Shrubs
Vines
Plant Ecology
Wildlife Management Habitat
Plant Management
Plant Culture
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
17c. C0SAT1 Field/Group
18. Availabil ity Statement
Release Unlimited
19.. Se curity Class (This
Report)
liNCI.A^lfirp
-------
mmm am vmzs
vm wmi
Compiled and revised by
JOHN D. GILL, and WILLIAM M. HEALY
JOHN D. GILT, leads the Northeastern Forest Experiment
Station's wildlife-habitat research project at the Forestry
Sciences Laboratory, 180 Canficld Street. Morgantown, West
Virginia 26505, in cooperation with West Virginia University.
Gill is a member of the University's graduate faculty in the
Division of Forestry, lie joined the Forest Service in 1967
after service in the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and
Game fOrono, 1955 to 1967 ) and the West Virginia Conser-
vation Commission (Elkins, 1950 to 1955). While attending
Michigan State University (1947 to 1950) he worked part
time for the Michigan Game Division.
WIT J JAM M. HEALY, associate research wildlife biologist.,
has worked with Gill since completing master's degree studies
at the Pennsylvania State University in 1967. His research
mostly concerns habitat requirements of wild turkeys. He
also holds the rank of instructor in the West Virginia Univer-
sity Division of Forestry and is working toward a I'h.D degree
in animal behavior.
Manuscript received for publication- 12 march 1973
-------
€©Kl!FiOT§
A HANDBOOK ON SHRUBS AND VINES
1
John D. Gill and William M. Hcaly
ECOLOGY OF SHRUBS AND VINES
2
Ward M. Sharp
ALDERS
6
William M. Hcaly and John D. Gil!
BITTERSWEET
10
Jack I. Cromer
BLUEBERRIES
12
Robert Rogers
BRAMBLES
16
Earl L. Core
CHECKERBERRY W1NTKRGREEN
20
Sadie I Robinette
CHERRIES:
COMMON CHOKECHERRY
23
James R. Vilkitis
PIN CHERRY
26
John. R. Fullon
CRAB APPLE
29
Robert W. Donuhoe
DOGWOODS (four species)
32
Walter A. Leaser and Jean D. Wistendahl
GRAY DOGWOOD
¦12
Stephen A. Liscinsky
RED OSIER DOGWOOD
44
Margaret Smithberg
ELDERS
48
I) Michael Worley and Charles M. Nixon
GRAPE
52
Lynn M. Shutts
GREENRRIF.RS
54
Robert I,. Smith
HAWTHORNS
r.9
Ward M. Sharp
HAZELS
G".
Forest W. Stearns
HONEYSUCKLES
71
Lawrence W. Jackson
HOPHORNBEAM
83
Tom S. Hamilton, Jr.
HORNBEAM
86
Robert W. Donohoe
HUCKLEBERRIES
89
William M. Healy and Sadie L-. Robinetle
MAPLES:
MOUNTAIN MAPLE
03
Paul E. Hosier
STRIPED MAPLE
96
Paul E. Hosier
MOUNTAIN ASHES
98
Steve Eabry
MOUNTA1N-L AIJRK L
102
Sadie L. Robinette
MULBERRY
IOC
Earl L. Core
OAK
108
Leonard J. Wolpmt
PARTRIDGEBERRY
111
Charles M. Nixon and I) Michael Worley
RHODODENDRON
11,°>
Sadie L. Robinette
ROSES
116
Margaret Smithberg and John 1). Gill
SASSAFRAS
122
Tom S. Humilton, Jr.
SERVICEBERRIES
12(>
Joseph S. Larson
SPICE BUSH
129
Gene IV. Wood
SPIREAS
1H2
Earl /,. Core
SUMACS
134
llanley K. Smith
SWEETFERN
138
Sanlord D. Sche.mnitz
VIBURNUMS
140
James A. Rollins
WILLOWS
147
James W. Rawson
WINTERBERRY
150
Arthur W. Holwef!
W ITCH-H A ZE L
154
Gene W Wood
YEW
158
Arthur M. Martell
LITERATURE CITED
161
GLOSSARY
176
INDEX
178
-------
A ©.JO
am© vjjn]^5
By John D. (j ill and William M. Hcaly
USDA Forest Service
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Forestry Sciences Laboratory
Morgantown, West Virginia
This handbook was prepared to provide
practical information about managing the
shrubs and vvoodv vines of the Northeast that
are important to wild birds and mammals for
food and protective cover.
This work stemmed from forest,-wildlife re-
search needs expressed in a series of analyses
begun within the Northeast Section of The
Wildlife Society and later sponsored by the
Association of Northeast Game. Fish, and
Conservation Commissioners. A committee or-
ganized by federal-aid supervisors in the
USDI Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
at Boston recommended preparation of a
handbook to pull together available informa-
tion that, would be useful in the management
of shrubs and vines for wildlife. The commit-
tee noted that, though several recently pub-
lished handbooks provided information about
commercially valuable tree species, no such
handbook was available for the smaller woody
plants.
Work on the handbook began in 1967 when
the Northeastern Deer Study Group, spon-
sored by the Commissioners, agreed to Lake on
the job.
As the first step in planning the handbook,
we listed nearly all the shrubs and woody
vines that had been reported to have some
kind of value for wildlife. Then biologists
throughout the Northeast were asked to re-
view the list and rate the plants to help us se-
lect the most important species to include.
The selected list includes plants in 36 gen-
era and 100 species. Besides the native plants,
we included three exotics that, have become
widely naturalized: a rose and two honey-
suckles.
There may be some bias in the selection, be-
cause most of the wildlife biologists who par-
ticipated in selecting the plants had been
working almost exclusively with game species,
and many were specialists on deer. However,
we feel that this bias is not serious, because
many groups of game animals and non-game
animals have similar habitat requirements.
We made no attempt to illustrate the plants
for purposes of identification. Illustrated field
guides to woody plants are readily available,
as are state and provincial flora publications.
The handbook contains 41 chapters by dif-
ferent authors. To avoid repetition, literature
references have been consolidated into a single
list at the back of the book. A glossary of
terms is also appended.
The authors hope that this handbook will
prove useful not only to wildlife managers, but
also to anyone who owns or manages land or is
interested in providing favorable habitat for
wildlife.
1
-------
ic©i©@¥ o? mmm
mi® yjMs
By Ward M. Sharp
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Warren, Pennsylvania
The ecology of shrubs and woody vines con-
cerns the interactions among shrubs and vines,
other plants, animals, and the environment.
As examples, interactions of shrubs with other
plants and with fire have an impact on the
welfare and development of shrubs in the
landscape. Animals play a key role, exerting
both beneficial and detrimental effects.
Shrubs cannot be defined exactly. Gener-
ally, they are low, erect, woody plants, usually
under 25 feet in height, and usually have sev-
eral stems. Any definition is arbitrary because
of the great variation in height and form. The
person who is not familiar with either trees or
erect shrubs may encounter difficulty in dis-
tinguishing tree regeneration or small trees
from shrubs.
GROWTH FORMS
Individual species fall into one, or in some
cases more than one, of the following catego-
ries: (1) erect shrubs, either clonal, multi-
stemmed, or single-stemmed; and (2) climb-
ing or trailing shrubs or vines.
Clonal shrubs and vines form dense colonies
from underground, horizontal rootstocks. Col-
onies may develop from a single seedling.
Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) grown from
seed will start clonal development by the fifth
year. Other plants of clonal habit, for example,
are lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium spp.),
gray-stemmed dogwood (Cornus racemosa),
blackberries {Rubus spp.). and the low service-
berries (Amelanchier spp.). In optimal sites
American elder (Sambucus canadensis) may
become clonal. Fire stimulates seed germina-
tion in all clonal species, and some species such
as lowbush blueberries need to be burned on
a rotation basis.
The multi-stemmed shrubs include those
that produce numerous stems from a common
root collar. Typical examples are the highbush
blueberries, witherod (Viburnum cassinoides),
and mountain laurel (Kalmia lati.foUa).
Single-stemmed shrubs include many of the
tall species. Shrubs in this group grow from a
single stem, or sometimes two or more stems
may originate from near ground level. Flower-
ing dogwood (Cornus florida), hawthorns
(Crataegus spp.). and hophornbeam (Ostrya
virginiana) belong in this category.
Climbing or trailing woody shrubs or vines
are ecologically similar to erect- shrubs, al-
though in appearance the relationship may
seem remote. The vine growth form may hold
for all species of a genus such as grape (Vil.is)
or greenbrier (Smilax), but not for all species
of genera such as honeysuckle (Lonicera) or
bramble (Rubus).
The climbing vines often use erect shrubs or
trees for support and access to sunlight.
Woody vines, like wild grape, usually become
established at the same time as new tree and
shrub regeneration. Once established, they
2
-------
grow along with their supporting plants. They
seldom take hold in forest stands once the
trees attain pole-timber size. Trailing vines
such as dewberries (Rubus spp.) usually grow
in open fields. They compete for sunlight with
grasses and forbs by trailing over the herba-
ceous plants.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The principal factors that interact on
shrubs are (1) physical--sunlight, soils and
moisture, temperature, and fire; and (2) bio-
logical—browsing, insects and disease, and seed
dispersal by animals.
Sunlight
Among all the environmental factors, full
sunlight is most important for nearly all spe-
cies. When luxuriant shrubs are shaded by the
dense canopy of invading trees, most species
become suppressed and wane regardless of
other factors such as moisture, temperature,
and soil nutrients. When taller shrubs are
shaded after they reach normal height, they
may persist longer than the low-growing spe-
cies. Those that persist are suppressed. Their
vigor wanes and their fruiting potential de-
clines.
There are exceptions to this, however. A few
species grow well in partial or full shade. But
the majority grow best and produce the most
fruit in openings such as road edges, old fields,
and clearcut forest stands.
From the importance of full sunlight in the
life span of most shrub communities, one may
reason that shrubs evolved in a grassland or a
forb-grass environment. They transformed
these sites into savannas that later were in-
vaded by trees. Man and fire have played
leading roles in perpetuating sunlight exjx)-
sure in the shrub community.
Soils and Moisture
Soil and moisture are combined here be-
cause shrubs tolerate a wide range of soil and
moisture conditions. Some shrubs occur in wet
sites while others need dry upland sites. This
requirement varies even among species of the
same genus, such as blueberries, lxiwhush
blueberries require dry upland soils; native
highbush blueberries establish best in wet soils
or soils that are waterlogged in spring.
Some shrubs prefer soils of limestone origin;
others prefer acid soils of sandstone origin;
and others are tolerant of a wide range of soil
and moisture conditions. This trait also varies
among species within a genus such as service-
berry, dogwood, and hawthorn. The shrubby
roundleaf serviceberry (A. sanguined) occurs
in Pennsylvania on limestone soils, while
downy serviceberry {A. arborea) is common
throughout the stale.
If is pointless to fry to lay down hard and
fast rules on the soil and moisture require-
ments of shrubs and vines in general. These
needs are as variable as the needs among tree
species.
Temperature
Temperature is most important during flow-
ering and setting of the fruit crop. When tem-
peratures drop below freezing during flower-
ing, the entire fruit crop may be eliminated.
In other respects, native shrubs in the region
are adapted to temperature extremes in win-
ter.
Fire
Fire has been a key factor in the shrub com-
munity for so long that many species evolved
through periodic occurrence of fire. Conse-
quently. many shrubs are fire-adapted. The
known fire-adapted species are those that
form clonal colonies from a horizontal root
system. Many of the multi-stem groups bene-
fit from the influence of periodic burning.
Shrubs of the heath family such a blueberries,
huckleberries, and mountain laurel are reju-
venated by periodic burning.
Fire serves four roles in shrub management.
It is a pruning and sanitation agent for clean-
ing up dead or decadent stems; it tends to set,
back tree regeneration; it is conducive to
breaking seed dormancy and stimulating ger-
mination; and it helps control disease and in-
sects.
For fire to serve best, it must be used peri-
odically and in a prescribed manner. Except
for lowbush blueberries, the optimum intervals
between burnings have not been resolved. Pre-
3
-------
scriptions should give season, moisture condi-
tions, and the method under which fire is
used. Optimal benefits are usually derived
from burning in early spring. Burning in
droughty periods or after leaves have unfolded
may be more detrimental than beneficial. The
beneficial role of fire in shrub management is
neither widely recognized nor practiced in
wildlife management.
Browsing
The impact of browsing on shrub or vine
species depends largely on their palatability to
browsing animals, mainly deer, rabbits, ro-
dents, and livestock. Most shrubs are vulner-
able only at a particular stage in their life
cycle, such as the seedling and early regenera-
tion stages.
The tops of some clonal and multi-stem
shrubs never grow beyond the reach of brows-
ing mammals. Therefore these shrubs have de-
veloped growth qualities that resist browsing.
Crowns of low hawthorns, for example, become
hedged from browsing; and the thorny,
hedged crowns prevent overbrowsing. Inhibit-
ing substances which render some shrubs un-
palatable are known. Mountain laurel is toxic
to some hoofed animals, especially sheep; and
elderberries are unpalatable to cattle.
The effects of browsing by deer may vary
because of changes in factors other than the
browsing itself. For example, Pennsylvania
had a lage deer herd in 1930 to 19G0. In that
period, a closed-canopy poletimber forest, also
developed. Such shrubs as mountain laurel
and the scrub oaks -lightly browsed by deer
and intolerant to shading—died beneath the
closed canopy of trees. Therefore all factors of
the shrub environment must be evaluated be-
fore damage is attributed exclusively to deer.
Cottontails and woodchncks prefer seeding
shrubs under 24 inches in height. In my at-
tempts to propagate American elder in wildlife
areas, vvoodchucks and cottontails were as de-
structive as deer. Mice girdle shrubs at ground
level; consequently, their damage may go un-
detected.
Insects and Diseases
The detrimental impact of insects and fun-
gous diseases may be greater than that of
browsing mammals. This impact may be local, it
may go undetected, or it may be more preva-
lent among certain groups of shrubs than
among others.
Insects arc principally defoliators, but some
attack the succulent shoot tips or the woody
branches. Defoliators are periodic as a rule,
hut, complete defoliation even for one season
can trigger a decline in shrub vigor. I have ob-
served that defoliation in a colony of gray
dogwood was followed by failure to set fruit in
the following years and by top dieback. Suck-
ing insects such as lace bugs and aphids may
destroy the leaf chlorophyll, leaving the foli-
age with a seared to brownish appearance by
August. Aphid attacks on succulent shoot tips
in seedling shrubs can weaken plants so that
they succumb to winter-kill or drought.
The fungous diseases most frequently en-
countered among shrubs are those that attack
the flowers, fruits, leaves, and stems. Those at-
tacking the rootstocks are little known except
by pathologists and may go undetected. Rust,
leaf spot, and mildew arc the diseases most
frequently observed.
Many of the fungi may affect the flowers
and fruits, thus reducing fruit quality and
yield. Affected fruits either drop prematurely
or those that persist, are deformed or mummi-
fied (Heald 1926). Fruits of wild grapes arc
commonly mummified bv fungous diseases,
liust diseases may be fatal. For example, haw-
thorn rust is often fatal where the alternate
host, eastern redcedar (-Junipcrus virginiana),
is common. Leaf spot diseases kill parts of the
leaves, thus reducing photosynthetic activity.
They also affect the flowers and fruits. The
impact of disease on shrubs results in un-
thrifty or undernourished plants or total kill.
Prescribed or controlled burning in shrub
communities will help control fungous dis-
eases, such as leaf spot, and some defoliating
insects. But rust control is realized only by re-
moval of the alternate host. Fungicidal sprays
are not considered economically feasible for
native shrubs. Spraying insecticides for leaf
defoliators is also impractical in managing
shrubs in a unit of wildlife range.
4
-------
Seed Dispersal
t»y Animals
Shrubs and vines that produce berries or
fleshy fruits depend on birds and mammals for
seed dispersal. Seeds of these fruits are mostly
small with hard seedcoats; and when eaten by
most birds and some mammals, they are pas-
sed through the digestive tract either un-
harmed or treated so as to increase germina-
tive capacity (Krefting and Roe 1949).
Birds are more efficient, disseminators than
mammals. In bird droppings, seeds are more
widely dispersed, and fewer seeds are depos-
ited at one site. Mammals such as raccoons
and foxes deposit numerous seeds at a spot.
But birds and mammals may destroy those
seeds that have a large endosperm, such as ha-
zelnuts (Corvlus spp.), scrub oak acorns
(Quercus ilicifolia), or chokecherry (Prunits
virginiarui). Small rodents, in particular, con-
sume the embryo along with the endosperm.
LAND USE
The era of native shrubs and vines probably
reached its peak between 1900 and 1920 in the
Middle Atlantic and Northeastern States. Up
to thai, time, vast, acreages had been converted
to farm and pastureland. Livestock production
equalled that, of row crops. Luml>eriiig opera-
tions had converted extensive areas to brush-
land. Use of fire in the landscape was a com-
mon and accepted practice. The period before
1920 was the agricultural era in the region.
Farm and pasture abandonment was char-
acteristic of the decades after 1920. Beginning
about 1933, fence rows between fields were
being eliminated in a move toward clean farm-
ing. Land in farms and pastures in New York,
for example, totalled 22,600,795 acres in 1910,
but by 1950 farm abandonment had reduced
this area by 10 percent to 13,672,937 acres
(Conkli.n 1954). A similar or even greater
abandonment of farm and pasture land since
1910 or earlier has occurred in most northeast-
ern states. (Frey et al. 1957). The trend is
continuing.
It has not been generally realized that in
the agricultural era, conditions of rural living
(including clearing and burning, extensive
acres of pastureland, fence rows, and early
lumbering operations) enabled native shrubs
to flourish and increase in abundance. Now,
with dean farming, use of herbicides, and con-
version of abandoned farms to a closed-canopy
forest, native shrubs have declined in sites
where they were formerly abundant. These
conditions point up the need for an aroused
interest in the ecology and management of na-
tive shrubs and vines.
Beginning in the 1930s, shrubs from other
parts of the world took precedence over native
species. Much emphasis has been placed on ex-
otic species for wildlife and soil-erosion plant-
ings since that time. Consequently, native spe-
cies received little study except by a few indi-
viduals who recognized the limitations and
risks of exotics compared to native species.
Even with the emphasis on planting millions
of exotics in wildlife habitats, they have con-
tributed Utile forage or fruits for wildlife.
Having conducted studies in shrub ecology
over the past two decades in Pennsylvania, 1
can only view the future with concern if inter-
est in native shrubs continues to lag as in the
past four decades.
-------
SPECKLED ALDER, Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng. Also
called Hoary or Tag Alder.
HAZEL ALDER, Alnus Serrulata (Ait.) Willd. Also called Com-
mon, Smooth., and Streambank Alder.
By William M. Healy and John D. Gill
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Morgantown, West Virginia
RANGE
The combined ranges of the two species in-
clude the entire region. Speckled alder occurs
from Newfoundland to British Columbia and
southward to Maryland, West Virginia, Ohio,
northern Indiana, and Minnesota. Hazel alder
grows as far north as Maine and ranges south-
ward to Florida and Texas (Gleason 1963b).
HABITAT
Speckled alder is the more northern species.
It is most common along the northern bound-
ary of the United States (Brick man 1950)
and is restricted to higher elevations at the
southern edge ol' its range. In West Virginia,
hazel alder grows mostly at elevations below
2,600 feet, while speckled alder is common in
the mountains above 2,600 feet (Strausbaugh
and Core 1952-64). Optimum growing condi-
tions for the alders have not been described,
but it is possible that climatic factors limit
both species at the edges of their ranges.
Alders most commonly occupy poorly
drained soils. Typically, they border stream-
banks and form thickets where surface drain-
age is slow and the ground-water level is near
the surface during part of the growing season.
Saturated soil appears to be required for seed
germination.
One study showed that saturation for inter-
vals of 1 to 16 days stimulated growth of
newly emerged hazel alder seedlings (Mo
Dermott 195-1). In a study in northern Michi-
gan, Brickman (1950) found speckled alder
growing only on sites that had a saturated soil
during the spring months, although some alder
sites became dry during late summer. From
this and other observations, he felt that speck-
led alder requires a saturated soil on which
t o germinat e arid become established.
Speckled alder grows well on a variety of
soils, including rocky till, sandy loam, gray
forest soils, and muck. The range of tolerance
to alkalinity or acidity could not be found, hut
is probably similar to that of European alder
( A. glu.li.nosa | L.] Gaert.n.) and European
speckled alder (A. incana [L.] Moench.),
which grew well on Ohio spoil banks with a
pH range of 3.4 to 7.7 (Lowry et nl 1967).
In the oak-hickorv region, flood plains com-
monly support stands of alders and willows; if
undisturbed, these shrubs give way to Ameri-
can sycamore, elms, red maple, and sweetgum.
6
-------
In northern forests, alders grow with willows
and heath shrubs as well as tamarack, birches,
aspens, and conifers (Shelf ord 1963).
About 80 species of plants were found grow-
ing in hazel alder stands in Pennsylvania, but
silky dogwood, black willow, jewelweed (Im-
patiens spp.), and sensitive fern (Onoclra sen-
sibilis) were the most characteristic (Liscin-
sky 1972:35). Blackberries, common choke-
berry, American elm, goldenrod (Sohdago
spp.), bluegrass (Poa spp.), and asters (Ast.tr
spp.) were also common associates (Liscinsky
1972:35).
LIFE HISTORY
Individual alders bear male and female flow-
ers on separate catkins. Flowering occurs in
April-May on catkins formed during the pre-
ceding year (Basset et al 1961). Wind spreads
the pollen. The seed matures in egg-shaped
conelets. Seed occasionally ripens as early as
August and is usually fully ripe by September
or October (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
No information about the youngest or old-
est seed-bearing age in speckled alder was
found, and little is known about geographical
differences in seed production. Other alder
species bear seed when less than 10 years old
and yield good seed crops almost every year.
Winds spread the seeds during September
through April. Spreading distances and (he
number of seeds produced per plant are not
definitely known.
Alders reproduce from seeds, sprouts, layer-
ing, underground stems, and suckers. Seed is
the primary sou re*? of new stands on freshly
exposed soil. Perpetuation and spread of estab-
lished stands result mostly from sprouting or
other vegetative means.
Growth rates depend on many factors, in-
cluding site conditions, competition, and type
of growth (seedling or sprout). The largest
speckled alder stand observed in a Michigan
study was 26 years old and had stems averag-
ing 5.5 inches d.b.h. and 25 feet tall (Brick-
man 1950). Clearcutt.ing one aspen-balsam pop-
lar-speckled alder stand in northern Michi-
gan resulted in a dense stand of alder sprouts,
which reached a maximum height of 6 feet the
second year after cutting (Day 1956). Eight
speckled alder stands in Ontario showed great
variation in height./age relationships among
individual stems. The alder stands were grow-
ing on peat-covered clay soils and had origi-
nated after clearcutting black spruce. The
tallest, stem measured was 12 feet high and 13
years old, while the oldest was 30 years old
and only 5.5 feet high. The average height of
the speckled alder canopy varied from to 6
feet, and the annual height growth declined
steadily after 9 to 10 years of age (Vincent
1964).
Hazel alder stands in Pennsylvania had sim-
ilar growth patterns. Stern growth was most
vigorous from 1 to 8 years. Stems were more
than 15 feet tall at 10 years of age, but height
increased little during the next 10 years. After
about 20 years of age, many stems began to
die and few stems reached 30 years of age
(Liscinsky 1972:36).
The alders are primary invaders of denuded
areas with saturated soil. Both species grow
more vigorously in full sunlight than in shade,
and they are intolerant to intermediate in tol-
erance to shading. In general, sprouts are
more tolerant of shade than seedlings (Brick-
man 1950) and speckled alder may be more
t olerant than hazel alder.
Hazel alder stands in Pennsylvania seldom
regenerate themselves, and they are usually
replaced by trees (Liscinsky 1972). Speckled
alder stands in northern Michigan an; often
overtopped by species such as balsam fir,
northern white-cedar, and red maple, but it
takes many years for these species to replace
alder (Brickmari 1950). In the same area,
speckled alder is common beneath stands of
tamarack, balsam poplar, aspen, and birch;
and on some sites it may even replace aspen
and balsam poplar (Brickman 1950). Speckled
alder has been recommended for ornamental
plantings in shady areas (Kammcrer 193-1).
USE BY WILDLIFE
Moose, muskrats, beavers, cottontails, and
snowshoe hares feed on twigs and foliage.
Deer browse alders, but. most, investigators
rate the plant low in preference. Woodcock
and grouse eat. small quantities of buds, cat-
kins, and seeds. Alder seeds are also eaten by
some smaller birds, particularly redpolls and,
7
-------
to a lesser extent., goldfinches (Martin et al
1951).
Alder is an important cover plant for wood-
cock and grouse. Woodcock use alder covers
from early spring through fall for nesting,
feeding, and resting. They prefer the edges
more than centers of large evenage thickets
(Liscinsky 1965). Alder stands were consid-
ered important grouse cover in Michigan, par-
ticularly where deer had eliminated other
shrubs. Speckled alder provided the high
shrub cover needed around grouse drumming
sites (Palmer 1963). Beavers commonly use
alders in darn construction.
PROPAGATION
II is usually best to collect and process local
shrubs. Seed or seedling stock is seldom avail-
able commercially. Conelcts can be harvested
in September and October from standing or
felled alders. Seeds are easily shaken out of
dried conelets, but it is difficult to fan or
screen out impurities (U.S. Forest Service
1948).
The following information pertains to hazel
alder seeds gathered in Pennsylvania (Liscin-
sky 1972:63). When seed was plentiful it took
1 hour to pick 4 gallons of cones, which pro-
duced 1.6 pounds of seed (3.2 quarts). When
seed was scarce, it took 1 hour to pick 1 gallon
of cones, which yielded 0.4 pounds of seed. It
took 2.5 gallons of cones to produce 1 pound
of seed. Purity of seed ranged from 60 to 90
percent, and soundness ranged from 30 to 60
percent. Germination capacity varied from 2
to 60 percent. One pound of seed had a vol-
ume of 2 quarts and contained h total of
300,000 seeds.
The number of speckled alder seeds per
pound is variable. Separate studies yield the
ranges of 256,000 to 625,000 (Van Dersal
1938) and 473,000 to 890,000 (U. S. Forest
Service 1948) seeds per pound. The latter
group averaged 666,000 seeds per pound, 41
percent pure and 51 percent sound (U. S. For-
est Service 1948). Yields of usable plants per
pound of seed have been reported as 10,000
for speckled alder and 40,000 for hazel alder
(Van Dersal 1938).
The easiest way to handle alder in the nurs-
ery is to sow fresh clean seed in November
(licit 1968:15). Seed should be broadcast or
drilled in and lightly covered with either
washed sand or sand mixed with hardwood
humus. Either was superior to nursery soil or
leaf litter for covering speckled alder seedbeds
(U. S. Forest Service 1948). Seedbeds should
be mulched for overwinter protection, but the
mulch should be removed when germination
begins in the spring. The beds should be kepi
moist and shaded until late summer of the
first season ([/. S. Forest Service 1948).
Seed may be planted in the spring if it is
first stratified in moist sand or vermiculife for
60 to 90 days. Speckled alder seeds stratified
for 2 months at 32 to 40° F. gave excellent
germination within 10 days after sowing
(Daly 1966). Hazel alder seeds stored at
41 ^F. for 206 days gave 30 percent germina-
tion, which was mostly complete 10 days after
sowing. Keeping the seeds in complete dark-
ness had no effect on percent or time of germi-
nation (McDermott 1953).
For long-term storage, seeds should be thor-
oughly cleaned, air-dried and refrigerated in
sealed containers. Alder seeds kept in this
manner at 34 to 38'F. were viable after 10
years (Heit 1967e).
Two- and 3-year-old seedlings should be
used for field plantings; 1-year-old hazel alder
stock had very low average survival in the
field (Liscinsky 1972:61). Plantings succeeded
on a variety of sites, but not on extremely dry
soil. Heavy sod should be scalped back before
planting; competition from dense herbaceous
vegetation can cause planting failures.
Direct seeding of hazel alder in the field has
been successful in Pennsylvania (Liscinsky
1965, 1972). Seedbeds prepared by disking
produced 35 percent more seedlings than un-
treated plots, but good catches occurred even
when seed was sown directly on sod. Cool,
moist sites were best for direct seeding, and
the sites closest to the stream produced the
most seedlings. Generally, the best results
were obtained when fall-collected seed was
sown during the following February and
March. Seeding rates were about Va pint
(% pound) per 100 square feet. Attempts to
propagate hazel alder in the field from stem
and roof cuttings were unsuccessful (Liscin-
sky 1972:61).
8
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MANAGEMENT
Alders, along with other desirable species,
are good for reforesting various kinds of spoil
hanks. Alders are also ideal as streambarik
cover and for increasing the fertility of bot-
tomlands. Fertility increase is from nitrogen-
fixation by root nodules and from fallen
leaves. The amount of nitrogen added to the
soil varies, but in general the alders compare
favorably with legume crops and black locust
(Daly 1966, Lawrence 1958, Lowry ft ul
1967). European foresters plant alders be-
neath conifers to increase soil nitrogen and
stimulate the growth of crop trees.
Alder stands can be established by planting
seedlings or by direct-seeding on cool, moist
sites. Where alders are present but sup-
pressed, fire and most logging practices favor
alder over competing species. Large stands of
alders commonly form after spruce and fir are
logged from wet ground.
Large stands arc probably best managed for
wildlife on a rotation of 30 years or less, based
on the lime the alders require to reach matu-
rity or grow so tall that they handicap hunt-
ers. Cutting schemes should provide patches
of various age classes, well dispersed through-
out the stand. A cutting cycle of approxi-
mately 25 years, with cutting at <1- to 5-year
intervals, has been recommended for manag-
ing alder coverts for woodcock in Pennsyl-
vania (Liscinsky 1972).
Overmature thickets can be opened up by
clearcutting. Spring and winter cutting will re-
sult in the most rapid sprout, growth; July and
August cutting will produce the thinnest
stands and least height growth (Brickman
1950). Stands overtopped by larger trees re-
spond well to release cutting, but slumps of
pole-size hardwoods should be poisoned to re-
duce sprouting. Competition from tree seed-
lings, particularly conifers, should not limit
stump sprouting of alders.
Several formulations of the herbicides
2,4,5-T and 2,4-D effectively control alders
when applied as stump, basal, or foliage sprays
(Liscinsky, personal communication).
9
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Celuxtrux ncanderis L.
Also called (Climbing, False, or Shrubby Bittersweet; and
Waxwork.
By Jack I. Cromer
West Virginia Department of Natural Resource.s
Elkins
RANGE
American bittersweet occurs from southern
Quebec to southern Manitoba and southward
to Georgia, Alabama. Louisiana, Oklahoma,
Texas, and New Mexico.
HABITAT
This vine grows under a diversity of cli-
matic conditions, but no information about
climatic optima or limits was found.
It is common along stream banks, in old
lields, in low thickets, and in feneerows. It tol-
erates a variety of soil textures (sand, loam,
and clay), but prefers soils with a nearly neu-
tral pH (Wherry 1957). It grows well in par-
tial shade or full sunlight, but best in sunny
locations, either on banks or where the vines
can ascend a supporting structure (Holiveg
1964, Jlosley 1938).
Associated plants in Minnesota were moon-
seed (Menispermum eanadense), frost grape
(Vitis spp.), and prickly ash (Xanthoxylum
arnericanum.) (Daubenmire 1936): and in
Missouri redbud (Cercis canadensis), herba-
ceous mandrake (Podophyllum peltatum),
goosegrass (F.kusine indica), and Miami-mist
(Phacelia purshii) (Shelford 1963).
LIFE HISTORY
Greenish-yellow flowers appear in late May
and June. On individual plants, flowers are
mostly unisexual. The primarily female-flower
plants usually have enough male flowers for
fertilization (Hosley 1938), but plants of both
sexes should be fairly close together to insure
good fruiting (Ilolweg 1961). Fruits ripen in
September and October; some may persist on
the plants as late as March, although most
drop before late winter (Petrides 1912).
Seed production starts at 3 years in vigor-
ous plants growing in full sunlight, (Spinner
and Ostrom 1945), but may be delayed a year
or longer in less vigorous plants. Good seed
crops are commonly produced each year.
Bittersweet may reproduce by layering or
from stolons.
Growth rate of plantings is variable; in Ver-
mont. Delaware, and West Virginia, average
lengths of 7-year-old stems ranged from 15
inches to 12 feet. Generally, stem growth aver-
aged 12 to 30 inches in 3 years, 30 to 60 inches
in 5 years, and about 6 feet in 7 years, with
little additional growth afterwards (Edmin-
st.er and May 1951).
On good sites, bittersweet is aggressive and
competes well with other vegetation. However,
10
-------
plantings along pasture fences arc commonly
browsed hack to stubs whenever they are
within reach of cattle (Edminster and May
1951). Plantings in New York were also re-
tarded by browsing deer (Smith 1962) and
rabbits (Pet rides 1942).
USE BY WILDLIFE
Fruits, buds, and leaves are potential food
for ruffed grouse, pheasants, quail, wild tur-
keys, and other birds. Rabbits and squirrels
relish the fruits; rabbits and deer eat the
leaves and stems.
The twining vines form excellent wildlife
cover. Bittersweet, along with wild grape and
elderberry, provides outstandingly acceptable
nesting sites for hedgerow birds (Petrides
1942).
PROPAGATION
Bittersweet can be propagated easily from
cuttings of mature shoots, layerings, or roots
(Fuller 1910). Female plants are preferred as
stock. Root cuttings, either softwood in sum-
mer or hardwood in fall and winter, have been
used successfully (Hosely J938).
Seeds can be collected in mid-September
and later, as long as the fruit capsules hang
on. They should be spread out and allowed to
air-dry for 2 or 3 weeks. Cleaned seeds aver-
age 26.000 per pound (12,000 to 40,000). Av-
erage purity of commercial seed was 93 lo 98
percent and soundness was about 8-1 percent
(U. S. Forest Service 1948).
Seed dormancy is broken by pre-chilling for
2 to 6 months. Stratification in moist sand or
peat for 90 days at. 41 F. is recommended
(Barton 1939). Seeds stored in a cool-damp
basement gave no germination after 1 year,
but seeds that had been air-dried and stored
in sealed glass containers at 34 to 38UF. re-
tained excellent germination capacity after 4
to 8 years (Heit 1967e).
If stratification is impractical, seeds can be
sown in the fall; however, emerging seedlings
are susceptible to decay by soil-inhabiting
fungi. For outplanting. 2-year-old seedlings
are apparently best. At each planting site, all
competing vegetation should be removed from
at least 1 square foot (Edminster and May
1951) around the plant.
MANAGEMENT
Aside from having food and cover value lor
wildlife, bittersweet is a desirable ornamental
and can also l>e used to control erosion. The
fall leaf color is yellow, and the persistent or-
ange fruits add attractive color to landscapes
during fall and early winter. This species is es-
pecially well adapted for training over out-
buildings and for climbing over walls, trellises,
trees, and shrubs (Hosley 1938).
Plantings have generally survived well, and
they spread by runners; but growth and fruit
production have often been retarded by rabbit
and deer browsing (Smith. 1962). The high
palatability of this plant requires caution in
selection of planting sites. The best use of bit-
tersweet may be as a filler among plantings or
natural growths of other shrub species (Ed-
minster and May 1951).
Aggressiveness of bittersweet should also be
considered, because rapid spread on exception-
ally favorable sites may lead to control prob-
lems. No specific information about control
methods was found.
MISCELLANY
The fruiting branches are valuable for com-
mercial use or as home decorations; however,
bittersweet fruits are thought l.o be poisonous
if eaten by humans (Grimm 1952).
11
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MUEIBMiiS
LOWBUSH BLUEBERRY, Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. Also
called Lowsweet, Dwarf or Sugar Blueberry, Sweethurts, an<]
Strawberry-Huckleberry.
HIGHBIJSH BLUEBERRY, Vaccinium corymbosum L. Also
called Tall or Swamp Blueberry. Wortleberry, and Seedy
Dewberry.
By Robert; Rogers
Rutgers University
The State University of New Jersey
New Brunswick
RANGE
Lowbush blueberry, the more northerly spe-
cies, occurs from the tundra in Canada,
throughout the New England States, in the
Piedmont and mountain areas of Pennsylvania
and New Jersey, and south down the Appa-
lachian Mountains to northern Virginia (Bor-
row and Moore 1966). Iiighbush blueberry oc-
curs along the Atlantic ('oast from eastern
Maine to northern Florida and also in the
Great Lakes region, including northern Indi-
ana, northern Ohio, northwestern Pennsyl-
vania, southern Wisconsin, and southern On-
tario (Darrow and Moore 1966).
HABITAT
Both species arc acclimated to climatic ex-
tremes in the southern pari of the region. Tn
the northern part of the region, growth of
highbush blueberry is limited by growing sea-
son and extreme winter temperatures. A mini-
mum adequate growing season of 160 days is
required for highbush blueberry (Chandler
1913). Temperatures below —20CF result in
winter-kill, and temperatures below 30'F
will kill plants to ground or snow level (Cain
and Slate 1953). Although lowbush blueber-
ries border the tundra in Canada, they are fa-
vored by a minimum growing season of 125
days (Chandler 19-13). Lowbush blueberry is
found farther north than highbush blueberry,
perhaps because its prostrate form accommo-
dates it to a protective snow cover (Eal.ori
1919). Summer temperatures in excess of
120 'F can cause mortality in young plants
(Ketider and Brightwell 1966).
Blueberries, like most members of the
Heath family, prefer acid soil. They make
their best growth on light, well-drained acidic
soils high in organic-matter content (Render
and Brightwell 1966, Van Dersal 1938). Soils
developed from limestone are not conducive to
good blueberry growth.
Lowbush blueberry is the typical upland
blueberry in the Appalachian Mountain areas
from West Virginia north to the New England
States. Stony, silt, and clay loam soils devel-
12
-------
oped from sandstones, shales, and glacial drift
commonly support colonies of lowbush blue-
berry. These colonies often occur on dry,
rocky, open upper slopes and ridgetops
(Braun 1950, Fernald 1950, Darrow and
Moore 1966, Van Dersal 1938).
Highbush blueberry is frequently found at
lower elevations along the Atlantic Coast and
in the Great Lakes region, where it occurs
along the edges of swamps, within open areas
of moist woodlands, and occasionally in moist
upland fields (Fernald 1950, Darrow and
Moore 1966). Highbush blueberries grow: on
soils consisting of sandy loams developed on
Coastal Plain sands and clays in Maryland,
Delaware, southern New -Jersey, Long Island,
and southeastern Massachusetts; sands and
loamy sands developed on glacial drift; and on
stony and gravely silt and clay loams devel-
oped on glacial drift, which frequently have a
hardpan in the soil profile (Beckwith and Co-
ville 1931, Johnston 1942, Treuett, 1962, Van
Dersal 1938).
Heavy soils with poor drainage prevent root
penetration and thereby increase the probabil-
ity of frost heaving; and coarse sandy soils
present droughty conditions during summer
months despite normal rainfall. During dry
periods, blueberries are hindered in water up-
take because they lack root hairs (Ballinger
1966, Kender and Brightwell 1966). Optimum
growth of blueberry occurs when soil pH is be-
tween 4.3 and 4.8 (.Kender and Brightivell
1966). However, blueberries are commonly
found on soils having pH values ranging from
3.5 to 5.5, although soil pH values higher than
5.2 seem to limit growth (Ballinger 1966).
Blueberries are relatively intolerant to
shade, and tend to flourish in open areas.
Shading reduces vegetative growth and flower-
bud formation in both species (Hall 1958. Rei-
ners /.96V). Throughout the region, both spe-
cies are found in association with other mem-
bers of the Heath family, especially mountain
laurel, huckleberry, and azalea. On moist sites
along the Atlantic Coast, highbush blueberry
may grow with alder, gray birch, blackhaw, ar-
rowood, silky dogwood, and red and black
chokeberry. It may be succeeded by red
maple, blackgum, ash, sweetgum, elm, ye'low-
poplar, pin oak, white oak, black oak, and
shagbark and mockernut hickories. The chief
shrub competitor of lowbush blueberry in the
northern forest is mountain laurel (Hall. 1963,
Shelford 1963). Invasion of the shrub layer by
pioneer tree species rapidly reduces the abun-
dance of lowbush blueberry (Shelford 1963).
LIFE HISTORY
Blueberry flowers appear with I,he leaves in
spring. Flower buds are formed during the
previous season, and the pinkish-white bell-
shaped flowers are arranged in elongated clus-
ters (Eck 1966, Glcason 1963b, Shutak and
Marucci 1.966'). Insects, specifically wild and
honey bees, are the chief pollinating agents of
highbush and lowbush blueberries. Both fruit
yield and fruit size are a function of the bee
population in a given area (Martin 1966; Ma-
rucci 1966; Shutak and Marucci 1966). High-
bush blueberry fruit matures from 50 to 90
days after bloom, while lowbush blueberries
mature from 90 to 120 days after bloom. Low-
bush blueberry flowers from April to June.
The fruit is available from July to September
(Van Dersal 1938). Highbush blueberry flow-
ers from May to June, and the fruit is avail-
able from June to August (Kender and Bright-
well 1966, Van Dersal 1938).
Highbush blueberry plants bear fruit when
8 to 10 years old, but some plants may bear
fruit as early as (he third year (Taylor 1962).
An established mature bush can be expected
to yield 8 to 10 pints of fruit per year; how-
ever, fruit production may vary with local con-
ditions (Taylor 1962). Fruit yield of lowbush
blueberry is usually lower than that of high-
bush blueberry because of relatively poor blos-
som set. This reduced ability to set blossoms
is attributed to various degrees of self-sterility
in large clones (Aa'.ders and Hall 1961). Also,
velvet-leaf blueberry pollen is incompat ible
with lowbush pollen. If velvet-leaf blueberry
(V. myrtilloides Michx.) is present in the
stand, lowbush pollen will be diluted and fruit
production will be reduced (Aalders and Hall
1961).
Blueberries reproduce from seeds, sprouts,
underground stems, and suckers. Seed is dis-
seminated chiefly by animals, from June
through September. On sites previously unin-
habited by blueberry plants, seedlings become
13
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established in open areas on exposed mineral
soils. Highbush blueberries are usually crown-
forming plants 6 to 15 feet, high, which may
consist of several stems. Individual plants
sometimes tend to sucker at the base and form
extensive colonies. Lowbush bluelwrries may
form extensive colonies by means of under-
ground stems (damp 1945). Growth of both
species is comparatively slow even on the best
sites. Highbush blueberry will attain a height
of 6 to 15 feet in 8 to 10 years (Taylor 1962).
I found no growth-rate figures for lowbush
blueberry. The maximum height growth for
lowbush blueberry is about 2 feet.
Both species arc intolerant to shade and are
found in open woods or clearings. Encroach-
ment by shade-tolerant species restricts blue-
berries to openings in the stand or quickly rel-
egates them to suppression and eventual elimi-
nation if no openings are provided. After fire
or logging, lowbush blueberry will become
reestablished from roots within the area (Hall
19.55).
USE BY WILDLIFE
Blueberries are important to American wild-
life (Martin et al 1951). For several species of
grouse, blueberries are among the most impor-
tant summer and early fall foods. They also
are part, of the diet, of other upland game birds
such as bobwhite, wild turkey, and mourning
dove. Many song birds, including the scarlet
tanager, bluebird, and thrush, also feed on
blueberries. Fur and game mammals such as
the black bear, red fox, cottontail rabbit, east-
ern and spotted skunk, and the fox squirrel
utilize the fruit, twigs, and foliage of the blue-
berry. Part of the diet of the white-footed
mouse consists ol' blueberry fruit. White-
tailed deer browse the branches and foliage and
eat the fruit (Martin et al 1951: Van Dersal
193S). Because of the dense shrubby growth
often produced by highbush blueberry, and its
high food value, it can be a desirable hedgerow
plant, providing both food and cover for a va-
riety of song birds, ruffed grouse, and cotton-
tail rabbit.
PROPAGATION
Seed and stock are available commercially
for highbush blueberry, but are not commonly
available for lowbush blueberry. Highbush
blueberries are commonly propagated by hard-
wood cut tings obtained from healthy shoots of
the past season's growth, ^j-inch diameter or
less. Shoots are gathered in the spring just be-
fore bud growth starts-15 March to 10 April
in New Jersey (Doehlert. 1953). Fruit buds
are undesirable on shoots used for cuttings
and should be rubbed off if present (Mainland
1966). Shoots should be cut. into pieces 3 to 5
inches long, using either a sharp knife or prun-
ing shears. The cut, is usually made below the
bud for small quantities of twigs, but, for large
quantities a bench saw is used and bud posi-
tion is ignored.
The cuttings should lie treated with a fungi-
cide and set in either a box frame, solar frame,
or open frame containing an equal mixture of
sand and horticultural peat (Doehlert 1935).
About 75 percent of the cuttings should root.
Rooting has taken place when the terminal
bud begins to green. Liquid fertilizer (either
15-30-4 or 18-26-13, at 1 ounce of concentrate
per 2 gallons of wafer) can lie applied to
rooted cuttings during the summer, but its use
should be discontinued in time to allow ade-
quate tissue hardening—mid-August, in New
Jersey (Doehlert 1953). Young plants can be
left in the propagating beds over winter, or
they can be transplanted into nursery beds in
early fall to allow adequate root growth before
winter.
Seeds are commonly used to propagate low-
bush blueberry; this method may also be used
to propagate highbush blueberry. Berries
should be collected when ripe, and chilled at
SOT for several days. Seeds can be removed
from the berry by shredding in a food blender
for 30 seconds (Morrow et al 1951). Sound
seeds will settle to the bottom. Stratification
may be beneficial in hastening germination.
Seeds should be planted in a mixture of sand
and horticultural peat. Seedlings will begin to
emerge in a month and will continue to
emerge for a long period thereafter. Seedlings
can be transplanted to other flats after they
are 6 to 7 weeks old. Seed may be kept under
normal refrigeration and will remain viable for
14
-------
as long as 12 years (Darrow and Scott 1954).
Young highbush blueberry plants can be
transplanted into the field after the first season.
Spacing between plants ranges from 4 to 8
feel between plants and 8 feet between rows.
Lowbush blueberries may be established in
barren areas by using a golf-hole cutter to re-
move sod containing roots from a vigorous
stand and transplanting it to the desired area
(Hitz 1949, Eggert 1955). The distance be-
tween holes should be no more than 8 inches.
Blueberries are exacting in their site require-
ments and attempts at establishment, on less
favorable sites have been disappointing (Ren-
der and Brightwell 1966). Tf blueberries are
present naturally, in most situations a desir-
able stand can l)e cultured.
MANAGEMENT
Lowbush blueberries are often found in the
undergrowth of open forest stands in a sup-
pressed stage in which they rarely flower and
bear fruit. Removal of competing vegetation
will stimulate the blueberry's root system and
increase the vigor, abundance, and fruit yields
of the plants (Hall 1955, 1963). For maximum
flowering and fruiting of blueberries, compet-
ing vegetation should be reduced to a mini-
mum. This can be accomplished by shallow
cultivation or, in the case of lowbush blueber-
ries, light burning in the spring once every ?.
or 3 years (Chandler 1943. Shutak and Ma-
rucei I960). Care must be taken to avoid fires
hot: enough to destroy the roots from which
new shoots will appear. Pruning is beneficial
to both species because fruit is borne abun-
dantly on 1-year shoots rather than on old
mature branches.
When enlarging a field from an adjoining
woodland, it is advisable to clear the land
slowly by cutting and burning a strip 2 fir 3
feet wide each year. The overstory must be re-
moved gradually over a period of several years
(Hall 1955). The herbicides 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T
applied on foliage, stems, or stumps will con-
trol blueberries.
-------
Also called Blackberry, Dewberry, Groundberry, and Rasp-
berry.
ALLEGHENY BLACKBERRY, Rubus allegheniensis Porter
BLACKCAP RASPBERRY, Rubus occidental L.
CANADIAN or THORNLERS BLACKBERRY, Rubus cana-
densis L.
FLOWERING RASPBERRY, Rubu.» odomtus L.
NORTHERN DEWBERRY, Rubus flagellars Willd.
RED RASPBERRY, Rubus strigosus Michx.
SWAMP GROUNDBERRY, Rubus hispidus L.
By Earl L. Core
West. Virginia University
Morgantown
SPECIES
No one knows how many kinds of brambles
there are in eastern North America, but more
than 500 have been named. Classification of
the brambles has been thoroughly treated in
other publications (Bailey 1941-45; Bailey
1947; Bailey 1949; Davis et al 1967-70).
Blackberries have erect stems, usually an-
gled in cross-section, and armed with large
sharp spines. There are usually five leaflets.
Dewberries and groundberries have prostrate,
trailing stems. Raspberries have erect canes,
usually white-powdered, round in cross-sec-
tion, and often without spines or with weak
hairlike spines. There are usually three leaf-
lets. Also, in raspberries the fruit is thimble-
like or cap-like, the dry receptacle remaining
on the bush; while in blackberries the recep-
tacle itself becomes fleshy and is removed with
the fruit.
RANGE
Brambles are found throughout the North-
east. Those listed above are common and
widespread, but many other important species
occur (Davis and Davis 1953, Fernald 1950,
Strausbaugh and Core 1953). Red raspberry,
Canadian blackberry, swamp groundberry,
and northern dewberry are common in the
higher elevations and northward, while Alle-
gheny blackberry, blackcap raspberry, and
flowering raspberry are more abundant at
lower elevations and latitudes (Shelf ord
196,1).
16
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HABITAT
LIFE HISTORY
Typically the brambles are plants of old
fields and woodland clearings. The various
species are acclimated to practically all the ex-
tremes thai occur in the Northeast.
Brambles grow well in a great variety of
soils and topographic conditions. Red rasp-
berry is frequent in acid barrens at the higher
elevations, where it grows with other acid-lov-
ing plants such as blueberries, huckleberries,
menziesia, azaleas, mountain laurel, great lau-
rel, and teaberry. Swamp groundberry is wide-
spread in mountainous areas in low boggy
places or upland mossy lands. It is associated
with cranberries in sphagnum bogs or with
teaberry and other plants in mossy uplands.
There are numerous other similar species of
groundberries. Northern dewberry is most
common northward, but despite its name,
ranges south to Georgia, trailing in dry fields
and along road banks.
Blackberries generally occupy an intermedi-
ate temporary stage in old fields, associated
with hawthorns, crabapples, sassafras, fire
cherry, black cherry, and other pioneer trees.
They are quickly eliminated as overgrowing
trees provide too much shade. Allegheny
blackberry and many other blackberries are
common in dry places from lowlands to up-
lands, open places in woodlands, along road-
sides, in old fields, fence-rows, clearings, and
thickets. Canadian blackberry, one of the
taller and later-flowering species, is very com-
mon in woods, old fields, cool hollows, and
along roadsides, mostly in the mountainous re-
gions.
Flowering raspberry is abundant in shady-
places in woods, along roads and in thickets
Blackcap raspberry is common in woods, bor-
ders, fields, fence-rows, and thickets, it is
often associated with black walnut trees, a sit-
uation unfavorable to many plants. In a study
of succession on abandoned farm fields in
southern Illinois, blackcap raspberry first ap-
peared 3 years after abandonment and was
still present after 40 years. It remained impor-
tant as long as fields were open and decreased
with the increase of woody vegetation. Sassa-
fras, persimmon, and winged sumac were
among the first; woody invaders (Bazzaz
1968).
Brambles are perennial; in most species the
root lives for many years and the stems live
for only 2 years. First-year stems are usually
sterile and have leaves unlike those of the sec-
ond year. Flowers and fruit are borne the sec-
ond year. In most species, flowers appear in
May and June, and fruits are ripe in early
summer. In the Canadian blackberry, how-
ever, ripe fruits persist into September. No fig-
ures on seed production per plant were noted.
The seeds are spread mostly by birds.
Brambles reproduce from seeds, sprouts,
layers, and underground stems. Vegetative
propagation is the primary source of develop-
ment of the dense colonies often seen in old
fields. New colonies on freshly exposed areas
develop from seeds. Growth of most brambles
is more vigorous in full sunlight than in shade.
Blackberries grown in shade are often nearly
or quite thornless, but produce few fruits. Tn
full sunlight, the thornless habit disappears,
but fruit production is greatly enhanced.
Raspberries, in contrast, seem to do better in
partial shade. In the Southeast their habitat
preference often puts the brambles in direct,
competition with Japanese honeysuckle.
USE BY WILDLIFE
Blackberries and raspberries stand at the
top of summer foods for wildlife. Even dried
berries persisting on the canes are eaten to
some extent into fall or early winter; the prin-
cipal use, however, is while the fruits are juicy.
Nearly all species are palatable to human
tastes, and probably are equally so to wildlife
(Chapman 1947d). Another important factor
is the widespread availability of brambles in
all parts of the Northeast—indeed, in nearly all
parts of the United States and Canada.
Birds are especially prominent as users of
the fruits. Blackberries and raspberries are im-
portant to game birds such as grouse, ring-
necked pheasant., and bobwhite quail, and to
such common songbirds as catbird, cardinal,
yellow-breasted chat, pine grosbeak, robin, or-
chard oriole, summer tanager, brown thrasher,
thrushes, and towhees. Blackberry and rasp-
berry fruits are also important foods of rac-
coons, chipmunks, and squirrels, as well as
17
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other small animals. Deer and rabbits make
extensive use of leaves and stems (Martin el
al 1951).
Because of their habit of forming extensive
colonies the various species of brambles have
much value as cover for wildlife. The thorny
canes create nearly impenetrable thickets
where birds, rabbits, and other animals find
relative security- In winter, rabbits nibble the
stems while at the same time finding security
from enemies. Colonies of brambles are com-
mon nesting sites for small birds (Martin at al
1951).
PROPAGATION
Horticultural varieties of blackberry and
raspberry are readily available from nurseries.
Dewberry or groundberry stock is also avail-
able, although less readily. Since commercial
culture is usually for fruit production, nurser-
ies propagate brambles vegetatively from tip
layers, root cuttings, and suckers.
Brambles tolerate a wide range of soil types,
textures, and pH values; but adequate soil
moisture is critical for fruit production. Com-
mercial stands produce best on deep sandy
loam with a large supply of humus. Trans-
planting is done during the dormant season,
usually in early spring, and transplanting after
growth has started is avoided. Growing stock,
propagated in any manner, is generally cut
back to ground level when transplanted (Me-
cartnuy 1945, Darrou: and Waldo 1948).
Tip layering is a simple, naturally occurring
process recommended for raspberries (Mecart-
ney 1945). Raspberry canes grow so that by
late August or September the tips reach the
ground, and many of these will form new
plants naturally. To insure large numbers of
new plants, cane tips should be set 4 to 6
inches straight down into the ground, and the
soil should be formed around them, Canes are
ready for layering when the tips have elon-
gated so that a bare portion extends 3 to 6
inches beyond the last small set of leaves.
Rooting will begin in about a week, and rooted
tips can be cut from the parent plant and
transplanted the next spring (Darrow and
Waldo 1948).
Blackberries send up suckers, and new-
plants are usually obtained by digging and
transplanting these suckers (Mecartney 1945,
Darrow and Waldo 1948). Root cuttings pro-
vide another simple method of propagating
blackberries. Roots Vi inch or more in diame-
ter are dug in the fall or early spring, and di-
vided into pieces 3 inches long. These are
planted horizontally in trenches about 3
inches deep, and bv the following fall new
plants will have developed (Darrow and
Waldo 1948).
Brambles can be propagated from seed in
the field or nursery. Blackberry seeds have ex-
tremely hard coats. Untreated seeds germi-
nated over a period of 3 to 5 years, with very
little germination the first year (Heit 1967b).
To obtain maximum germination the first
year, the seeds must be treated so that water
can penetrate the coat. Cleaned seed should
be soaked in concentrated sulphuric acid for
50 to 60 minutes at 75 to 80"F (Heit 1967a).
Shorter treatments are less effective and
longer ones will cause injury. Seeds should be
thoroughly washed immediately after acid
soaking, and planted in late August or early
September. In nurseries seeds are sown on
peat moss or light soil; in the field they should
be sown on mineral soil.
Raspberries do not have the extreme hard
seedcoat of blackberries. A long warm-and-
cold stratification period will usually give good
germination, and fresh cleaned seed may be
sown in late summer. However, better and
more uniform germination can be obtained if
raspberry seeds are given a 10- to 30-minute
sulphuric acid treatment before sowing in late
summer (Heit 1967. pt. 7). Treated black-
terry and raspberry seeds may be planted in
early spring, but they require a 1- to 3-month
cold stratification period at 34 to 38 F. This
stratification treatment is recommended for
seeds of all brambles that are to be spring-
planted (Heit 1967b).
MANAGEMENT
Besides providing food and cover for wild-
life, brambles have great erosion-control value.
Many species form dense thickets rapidly, and
some form dense mats on the ground. Most
species grow satisfactorily in very barren and
infertile soils; and they invade and rapidly oc-
cupy burns, eroded areas, old fields, and
18
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logged areas (Barrett,Farnsworth, and Ruther-
ford 1962; Van Dental 193R). Because there
are so many species and they are so abundant,
it is seldom necessary to establish brambles.
Direct-seeding would be justified if it were im-
portant to establish cover quickly or to insure
development of the desired species in a new
opening.
Openings arc the key to managing bramble
patches, because invading trees and shrubs
quickly eliminate most brambles. Bramble
patches can be encouraged or rejuvenated by
removing overhead shade, mowing, light burn-
ing, or deep cultivation. Mowing and burning
stimulate sprouting in addition to removing
consisting vegetation. Deep cultivation (6 to 9
inches) cuts the roots of existing brambles,
and causes the formation of large numbers of
sucker plants.
Benzabor (disodium tetraborate pentahy-
drate 54.50 percent and disodium tetraborate
decahydrate 35.5 percent with trichloroben-
zoic acid 8 percent,), applied with hand-oper-
ated mechanical spreaders or blast guns in
early spring and summer, is effective against
brambles (Waeste.meyer 1963).
19
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cirJECjMi^say yyjjxJ75iidxJ55jNJ
Gaultheria procumbcns L.
Also called Checkerberry, Grouse Berry, Mountain Tea,
Partridge Berry, Teaberrv, Winterbcrrv, Wintergreen, and many
other common names (Krochmal et al 1969).
By Sadie L. Robinette
West Virginia University
Morgantown
RANGE
Checkerberry wintergreen or teaberrv occurs
from Newfoundland to Manitoba south to Vir-
ginia, Kentucky, and Minnesota, and in the
mountains to Georgia (Gleason 1963c).
HABITAT
Checkerberry wintergreen is hardy through-
out the Northeast. It requires acid soil and
usually grows within the pll range of 4.0 to
6.0 (Wherry 1920 and 1957) In a mature
beech-maple forest in Ohio, checkerberry win-
tergreen was found growing where the pH of
the soil ranged from 3.f» to 6.9 on the surface
to 4.0 to 6.0 below the surface. Its distribution
was independent of pll value within these
ranges (Stone 1944). However, a pH of 4.5 to
6.0 has been reported as optimum for the
growth of checkerberry wintergreen, with 7.0
the maximum pH it will tolerate (Spunvay
1941)
As long as the soil is acidic, checkerberry
wintergreen will grow well on many soil types,
including peat, sand, sandy loam, and coal
spoil banks. It will tolerate site conditions-
ranging from dry to poorly drained (Wilde
1933).
Checkerberry wintergreen is commonly
found in heath shrub communities that are
characteristic beneath many forest types, in-
cluding both pine and hardwoods in New Eng-
land, and jack pine and spruce-larch forests in
the Lake States (Braun 1950. Hontey 1938,
Kittredge 1934). It also occurs in bogs and as
an invader of old fields in many parts of the
region (Strausbaugh and Core 1958:708).
Mountain-laurel, rhododendron, azaleas, blue-
berries, huckleberries, and trailing arbutus are
the most common heath associates of checker-
berry wintergreen.
In Maine, rheekerberry wintergreen is
abundant in grouse coverts in both upland and
lowland hardwoods and mixed hardwood-coni-
fer stands. The tree associates are yellow
birch, sugar maple, beech, white birch, a>:>en,
and spruce; and the ground cover associates
include bunchberry, clover, partridgeberry, cel-
andine, and shinleaf (Drown 1916). In Mas-
sachusetts, checkerberry wintergreen colo-
nized abandoned farmland along with common
juniper, flowering raspberry, and sumacs
(Hosley and Ziebarth 1935). It also volun-
teered on coal spoil banks in central Pennsyl-
vania, where it formed part of the shrub layer
beneath aspen-fire cherry stands. The common
20
-------
shrubs growing with it; were sweet fern, Alle-
gheny blackberry, smooth and staghorn
sumac, and prairie willow (Bramble and Ash-
ley 1955).
LIFE HISTORY
Checkerberry wintergreen's small, white,
perfect flowers are borne from June to Sep-
tember. The bright red fruit ripens in the fall,
and often remains on the plant until early the
next summer ([/. S. Forest Service 1948:187).
The fruit is rather dry and consists of fleshy
flower parts surrounding a dry capsule, which
contains many minute seeds (U. S. Forest
Service. 1948). There are approximately 2,800
fresh fruits per pound, and about 3,000 dried
fruits per pound (Swingle 1939, V. S. Forest
Service 1948, Van Dersal 1938). Individual
plants usually bear 2 to 6 berries.
I found no information concerning the lon-
gevity of this perennial plant, or the age at
which it first produces fruit. The growth rale
is slow, and there is little hazard of spreading
from planted specimens (Rufftier 1965).
Checkerberry wintergreen reproduces vege-
tatively from root suckers (Hosley 1938).
Seeds are probably the source of new plants
colonizing old fields, and birds may dissemi-
nate Hie seeds.
Checkerberry wintergreen is shade-tolerant,
but most, fruiting occurs in openings (Edmin-
st.er 1947:120). Heavy fruiting often follows
cutting of timber (Hosley 1938).
USE BY WILDLIFE
Checkerberry wintergreen is not taken in
large quantities by any species of wildlife, but
the regularity of use enhances its importance
(Edminster 1947, Martin et al 1951). It is a
year-round fruit producer, and one of the few
sources of green leaves in winter (Brown 1946,
McAtee 1914).
White-tailed deer and ruiled grouse are the
most important users of checkerberry winter-
green. Grouse eat both fruit and leaves
throughout the year, and in some localities
teaberry is one of the most important grouse
foods (Brown 1946, Edminister 1947, Hosley
1938). White-tailed deer browse teaberry
throughout the region, and in some localities
it is an important winter food (Hosley and
Ziebarth 1933, Watts 1964).
Other animals that eat checkerberry winter-
green are wild turkey, sharp-tailed grouse,
bobwhite quail, ring-necked pheasant, black
bear, white-footed mouse, and red fox (Hosley
1938, Martin et al. 1951, Van Dersal 1938).
Teaberries are a favorite food of the eastern
chipmunk, and the leaves are a minor winter
food of the gray squirrel in Virginia (Dud-
derar 1967, Van Dersal 1938).
PROPAGATION
Checkerberry wintergreen has l>een culti-
vated at various times in the past, but seed
and growing stock are not usually available
from nurseries (Rehder 1940:739). Commer-
cial seed consists of the dried fruits, which
number about 3,000 per pound. Seed may be
collected locally at any time in the fall after
ripening (usually early September). Seed is
extracted by drying the fruit until it is brittle
and powdery and then rubbing it through a
30-mesh screen (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
The number of clean seeds per pound has been
reported as 163,000 and 2,870,000 to 4,840,000
(Swingle 1938, U. S. Forest Service 1948).
The seed has a dormant embryo, so it must
be either planted in the fall or stratified before
spring planting. Probably the easiest way to
propagate small quantities of teaberry is by
sowing whole fruits soon after collection in the
fall. Fruits should be sown outdoors in moist,
acid soil in a shady location. Seedbeds should
l>e protected from rodents over winter.
For spring planting, seed should be cleaned
soon after collection, and then stratified for 30
to 75 days at 41°F before planting. Because
of its minute size, clean seed should be scat-
tered on or pressed into peat, and then pro-
tected with a pane of glass placed about 4
inches above the soil. Seedbeds should be
shaded. The soil should be moist, porous, and
acidic; mixtures of sand and peat are usually
used (U. S. Forest. Service 1948).
Checkerberry wintergreen can be propa-
gated at any time during the spring and sum-
mer by simple layering. It reproduces vegeta-
tively from root suckers, and new plants may
be obtained during the spring or fall by dig-
ging and transplanting suckers. Clumps of
21
-------
checkcrbcrry wintergreen can also be divided
and transplanted during the spring or fall
(Bailey 1950. Laurie and Chadivick 1931).
Establishment in the field should he limited
to acid sites, and plants will do best in partial
shade.
MANAGEMENT
Cheekerberry wintergreen is ordinarily
plentiful in the woodlands of the Northeast,
and no special care is needed to keep it grow-
ing (Ilosley 1938). Fruit production can be
stimulated by thinning timber stands and re-
moving overtopping vegel-ation.
Cheekerberry wintergreen is recommended
to the suburban gardener as an ornamental
and for attracting songbirds {Mason 1945,
McAt.ee 1914 and 1936). It can be planted
under taller shrubs and in other partially
shaded acid sites. Attractive groups of ground
cover plants can be formed from cheekerberry
wintergreen, partridgeberry (Mitchella re-
pens), bearberry (Arct.o.staphylos uva-ursi),
bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), and Canada
beadruby (Maianthemum. canadetise) (Mason
1945). Song birds will eat the fruits year-
round, particularly during winter when few
other fruits are available.
Cheekerberry wintergreen was controlled by
droplet spraying of the foliage with D-T, an
equal mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. A D-T
mixture was more effective than 2,4-D alone.
A 0.25-percent concentration of D-T killed
cheekerberry early in the growing season, but
a 0.5-percent solution was more effective later
in the summer (Egler 1949).
22
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ClrOHHllSQil)
COMMON CHOKECHERRY, Prunus virgimana L. Also called
Black Chokecherry or Chokeberry, Cabinet Cherry, California
Chokecherry, Caupulin, Cerisier, Chokecherry, Eastern Choke-
cherry, Rum Chokecherry, Western Chokecherry, Whiskey
Chokecherry, and Wild Black Cherry.
By James R. Vilkitis
University of Massachusetts
Amherst
RANGE
Chokecherry grows from the Arctic Circle
to Mexico and is one of the most widely dis-
tributed shrubs or small trees of North Amer-
ica. It occurs from Newfoundland and eastern
Quebec across the continent to British Colum-
bia, south to California, Arizona, New Mexico,
Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland,
and Maine, and also southward in the Appa-
lachians to parts of Kentucky, Virginia, North
Carolina, and Georgia (Little 1953). In the
mountains, in West Virginia at least, choke-
cherry has a scattered distribution (Straus -
baugh and Core 1952-04).
HABITAT
Chokecherry is a hardy plant that, once es-
tablished. defies northern extremes of climate.
It occupies adverse sites such as moving sand
dunes (Schlatzer 1964) and frost pockets
where temperatures drop to 40"F below zero
{Harlow 1957).
Occurring commonly in almost all soils of
the Northeast, chokecherry can be found in a
wide variety of habitats, from rocky hills and
sand dunes to liorders of swamps. It is even
found on the spurs of ML Katahdin, Maine, at
an elevation of 4,000 feet (Mathews 1915).
Chokecherry sometimes occurs in open wood-
lands, but it is more often associated with old
fields, fence rows, roadsides, river banks, for-
est margins, and waste-corner thickets of
farms. The species grows best in rich, well-
drained, moist, soil with ample sunlight, but it
is also found in the shade on poor, dry soils
(Van Dersal 1938). Optimum soil pll was re-
ported as 6.0 to 8.0 (Spurway 1941).
Throughout its entire range, chokeeherry is
found in nearly all wooded areas (Harlow
1.957, Rogers 1906). In the moving, slightly
acid sand dunes it is a pioneer species asso-
ciated with P. besseyi, P. serotina, Pyrus bac-
cata, Spiraea, billiardii, and Lonicera ledehou-
rii (Schlatzer 1964). In dune depressions and
sand flats it grows with Carer pensylvaniea
var. digyna, Symphoricurpos occidentalis,
Rosa woodsii, and Agropyron spp. (Hulett et
al. 1966). In the Nort hern Great Plains, choke-
cherry grows in shelter belts in combination
with TJImus pumila, Fraxinus pcnnsylvanica,
Acer negundo, and Prunus americana (George
1936). On moist sites it is found with Cratae-
gus douglasii, Amelanchier florida, Rosa spp.,
and Sy mphoricar pos spp. (Shelford 1963).
23
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LIFE HISTORY
The white, densely elongated clusters of
strongly-scented flowers bloom from April to
July. In northern areas the flowers open later.
The thick-skinned, edible fruit is about 5/16
inch in diameter. It ripens from July to Sep-
tember but remains astringent until ripe. Typ-
ically, the lustrous clusters of red or amber
fruit turn dark red to purplish black at matu-
rity. However, some varieties of chokecherry
have different fruit colors. For example, in P.
virginiana var. leucocarpa, the fruit is canary
yellow when mature. Fruiting is abundant in
most years, but production per plant is un-
known. No information was found regarding
seed-bearing age of trees.
Birds and mammals are the chief means of
seed dispersal. Pits are dropped by birds
throughout the fruit-bearing season and later.
Primary reproduction of chokecherry is
through seed. Once established it grows rap-
idly and often forms dense thickets of suckers
and sprouts from an extensive lateral root sys-
tem. (Brown 1922. Otis 1960, Van Dersal
1938, Vines 1960).
In most of its range chokecherry is a tall
shrub. Only under the most favorable climatic
and soil conditions does it become a small
tree, 20 to 30 feet high, and it rarely exceeds 8
inches dbh.
Chokecherry is a very competitive shrub,
due to its tolerance of adverse climatic and
site conditions such as cold temperatures,
shade and drought, and its ability to sprout
prolifically. The adaptability of chokecherry is
indicated by its exceptionally wide geographic
distribution. However, chokecherry is subject
to many disease and insect attacks, notably
black knot disease (Hepting 1971, Hosley
1938) and defoliation by tent caterpillars.
Chokecherry is a host of the apricot ring
pox virus, twisted leaf in sweet cherry (Lott
and Keane I960), and the notorious X-disease
virus that infects peach and cherry trees (Gil-
mer et. al. 1954, Wolfe 1955). Infected trees
can be symptomless. X-disease spreads rapidly
and can ruin an orchard in 3 or 4 years. This
disease has caused considerable damage to
peach orchards in New York since 1938 (Pal-
miter and Hildebrand 1943). It has been re-
ported in the Maritime Provinces (Callahan
1964), Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania,
and Connecticut. In areas where chokecherry
is rare, as along Lake Ontario, X-disease is un-
known (Parker and Palmiter 1951).
USES
Good crops of fruit are born in most years
(Vines 1960), and about 70 species of game or
song birds seek out fruits as soon as they be-
come available (Bump et al 1947, Longe-
necker and Ellarson 1960, Van Dersal 1938).
Chokecherries are readily eaten by ruffed
grouse through the fall till December, but may
be less important locally than pin or black
cherries (Edminster 1947). The fruits are also
eaten by small mammals (Grimm 1951), and
the buds and twigs are browsed by ruffed
grouse during winter (Phillips 1967). Rabbits
have little taste for the bitter twigs of choke-
cherry (Harlow 1957), but repellents may not
keep them from eating the bark (Delroux and
Fouarge 1952, Vines 1960). Chokecherry
stems ranked fairly high in winter feeding of
cottontails in Connecticut (Dalke and Sime
1941).
In northern forests during winter, white-
tailed deer and snowshoe hares eat choke-
cherry, but utilization differs with locality. In
southern forests use of cherry species is low
(Taylor 1961). Moose on winter range in Wy-
oming showed a high preference for choke-
cherry (Harry 1957), and black-tailed deer in
Utah used it as a summer staple (Smith
1952).
Chokecherry has fair cover value for small
mammals and nesting birds, particularly
where it forms thickets (Longencckcr and El-
larson 1960) but is of questionable value for
landscaping, because of insect and disease sus-
ceptibility. Erosion control and shelterbelts
are other important uses. And in some in-
stances the fruit is eaten by humans; it makes
a jelly with an almond-like flavor (Hosley
1938).
PROPAGATION
Because of the genetic variability of choke-
cherry and its wide geographic range, seed
should be collected or purchased near the area
of planting to insure local adaptability and
24
-------
prevent introduction of strains that may be
undesirable.
Seed can be gathered in August to Septem-
ber, either from the ground or by flailing fruit
from the trees onto ground cloths, (/leaned
seed is sometimes available commercially, and
samples have proved 97 percent pure and 94
percent sound (17. S. Forest Service 1948).
Reported numbers of cleaned seed per pound
averaged 5,800, ranging from 3,000 to 8,400
(Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941, U. S. Forest
Service 1948, Van Dersal 1938, Vines I960).
Yields of clean seed per 100 pounds of fruit
averaged 16 pounds, ranging from 7 to 24
pounds (Swingle 1939).
Optimum seed storage conditions are un-
known, but good results were obtained from
sealed dry storage at. 26 F (U. S. Forest
Service 1948), and seeds of pin cherry have
kept for as long as 10 years when stored in
sealed containers at 34 to 38"F. Tempera-
tures warmer than about 40°F would proba-
bly reduce viability.
Sowing in either September or spring has
been recommended. If seeds arc to be sown
shortly after collection, depulping is not essen-
tial, but seed cleaning and a water soak before
planting may be beneficial (Hcit 1968).
("leaned seed to be used in spring planting
should be stratified in moist sand or peat for
120 to 160 days at 41 "F (Krefting and Roe
1949) or for 60 to 90 days at 50°F (Barton
1939) before sowing. Seed may germinate in
stratification if held too long. Stratified seed
should be sown in the spring in drills at 25
seeds per linear foot, covered with V2 inch of
mulch until germination begins, and protected
from birds and rodents (U. S. Forest. Service
1948). The germination rates in one study
were between 30 and 70 percent, with a 4:1
ratio between viable seed sown and usable
seedlings produced (Engstrom and Stoeckeler
1941).
In the nursery, chokecherry is sometimes
attacked by the fungus Coccomyces lutescens
and the bacteria Bacterium prunii. Spraying
with 4-6-50 or 3-4-50 bordeaux mixture or a
2-percent solution of lime sulfur will control
the fungus (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
Field planting of various species of cherries
is usually done with 1-0 stock on deep well-
drained soil in sunny locations free of frost
pockets (Lr. S. Forest Service 1948). Specific
suggestions on field planting of chokecherry
were not found, but this species grows better
in partial shade than most other cherries.
MANAGEMENT
Chokecherry is a useful species for wildlife
food and cover, erosion control, shelterbelts,
and ornamentals. However, the usefulness of
the species is impaired by its disease-hosting
qualities and livestock-poisoning risk. The
leaves are poisonous when wilted (Ilarlow
1957), and chokecherry should not be planted
or maintained in pasturage (Van Dersal
1938). Its use as an ornamental may also be
limited where risk of tent caterpillar infesta-
tion is high, but has been recommended for
dry, shady locations (Curtis and Wyman
1933, Kammerer 1934).
25
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PIN CHERRY, Prunns pensyluanica L.f. Also called Bin!
Cherry, Cerises d'Ete, Fire Cherry, Northern Pin Cherry,
Petit Merisier, Pigeon Cherry, and Wild Red Cherry.
By John R. Fulton
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station
Morgantown, H-'esf Virginia
RANGE
Pin cherry occurs from Newfoundland and
southern Labrador to northern Ontario and
west across Canada to British Columbia and
south to the Rocky Mountains in Minnesota.
Iowa, northern Illinois, northern Indiana,
Pennsylvania, and New York and in moun-
tains southward to Virginia, North Caro-
lina, northern Georgia, and eastern Tennessee
(Little 1953).
HABITAT
Pin cherry is a northern species; south of
Pennsylvania it occurs only in the mountains.
Throughout its range, the number of days of
snow cover varies from 1 to 10 in the south to
120 (Jays or more in the north, and the aver-
age growing seasons are 100 to 210 days (Van
Dersat 1938). Average annual precipitation
varies from 30 inches in Canada to 80 inches
in the Great Smokey Mountains (V. S. De-
partment of Agriculture 1941).
Pin cherry grows on many kinds of soil,
from infertile sand to rich loam (Hosley 1938,
Keeler 1915). Optimum soil pll is about 5.0 to
6.0 (Spurway 1941). In the north, pin cherry
is found in nearly all forest types, usually in
clearings, where it often forms thickets. In the
south it grows at elevations of about 2,500 to
4,500 feel (Core 1929, Stupka 1964). Pin
cherry attains its largest size on western
slopes of the Great Smokey Mountains in
eastern Tennessee (Sargent 1949).
A shade-intolerant pioneer species, pin
cherry often invades roadsides, old fields,
burns, and similar openings. It often domi-
nates these sites either in pure stands or with
s{>ecies such as aspen, red maple, black cherry,
and white or gray birch (Society of American
Foresters 1967). It is characteristic as a
short-lived tree in hemlock, northern hard-
woods, and spruce-fir forests (Core 1929,
Shanks 1954). Pin cherry is a dominant natu-
ral revegetation species of coal-spoil banks in
Pennsylvania (Bramble and Ashley 1955).
LIFE HISTORY
Pin cherry flowers from April to early June,
when the leaves are half grown. The flower is
perfect, white. % inch across, and is born on a
slender stalk in a four- or five-flowered group
which usually is clustered with two or three
other groups. The fruit is a red drupe. % inch
in diameter, and is thin-skinned and sour.
Fruits ripen from July to August and may
persist on the trees until October or later
26
-------
(Keeler 1915, U. S. Forest Service 1948).
Seed dispersal by birds and gravity occurs
from July into the winter months (Keeler
1915, II. S. Forest Service 1948).
In a 4-year study in West Virginia involving
pin cherries with an average dbh of 4.7 inches,
the average fruit yield was 0.68 quarts per
tree, half the trees bore fruit, and fruit yields
varied substantially among years. The average
fruit-ripening date was 31 August, and the lat-
est date of fruit persistence was 6 October
(Park 1942).
Pin cherry usually occurs as a tree 31 to 40
feet tall at maturity, but in the southern Ap-
palachians specimens up to 91 feet tall and 5
feet 4 inches in circumference have been found
(Stupka. 1964). Pin cherry aggressively in-
vades cleared areas and grows fast, particu-
larly when young (Keeler 1915). Once estab-
lished, it will reproduce by suckering and
sometimes forms thickets on poor soils
(Wright 1915). However, it is susceptible to
several fungous diseases and parasitic insects,
and has a shallow root system. Pin cherry sel-
dom lives over 30 years and is usually replaced
by shade-tolerant trees (Hosley 1938).
USE BY WILDLIFE
Pin cherry is an important, wildlife food
source. The fruit is eaten in summer and fall
by at least 25 species of non-game birds, sev-
eral upland game birds, fur and game mam-
mals, and small mammals (Martin et al 1951).
Pin cherry fruit constituted 4.5 percent, of the
fall diet of raffed grouse in the Northeast (Ed-
minater 1947). The buds are used by upland
game birds, especially sharptailed and ruffed
grouse. Foliage and twigs are browsed by deer
(Martin et al 1951); however, a study showed
the foliage to have an undesirably high cal-
cium to phosphorus ratio for good deer nut ri-
tion (Bailey 1967). Pin cherry is also browsed
by the cottontail rabbit. (Sweetman 1944).
Pin cherry provides only fair nesting cover
and materials for birds (Longenecker and El-
larson I960), but this value would presumably
be greater where pin cherries form dense
thickets.
Beaver will cut pin cherry, sometimes com-
pletely removing small stands at the detri-
ment of other wildlife.
PROPAGATION
The ripened fruits can be collected in late
summer from trees or the ground. They should
then be cleaned of pulp and can be sown early
in the same fall, by planting 1 inch deep in
mulched beds. Soaking the seeds in water be-
fore planting may be of benefit., but searifica-
tion is not necessary (licit 1967c). If seeds
are to be held over winter, they should be
stratified in moist sand for 60 days at 68 to
86'F, then for 90 days at 41"F (II. S. Forest
Service 1948). Seeds of pin cherry have re-
tained viability for as long as 10 years when
stored in sealed containers at 34 to 38°F
(licit 1967e).
The yield of cleaned seed was reported as
16 pounds per 100 pounds of fruit, and the
number of cleaned seed per pound averaged
15,700 (LI. S. Forest Service 1948). Seed may
be available commercially from at least one
source, but planting stock apparently is not
sold (NF. Regional Technical Center 1971).
Pin cherry is used as grafting stock because
the wood unites readily with that of sour
cherry (P. cerasus) (Wright 1915). Stocks are
worked more commonly by budding than by
grafting (Bailey 1950).
Little is known about field propagation of
pin cherry, but, recommendations for nursery
practices may suggest field techniques. Once
established, pin cherry usually maintains itself
until it is overtaken by competing trees. It
suckers readily and should grow well from root
cuttings (Bailey 1950).
MANAGEMENT
Pin Cherry is a convenient species for use
by wildlife managers who desire a fast-grow-
ing, aggressive, small tree that, is widely util-
ized by game and other animals. It will pro-
vide quick cover on denuded land because it
tolerates extreme soil conditions. Seeds of pin
cherry have very hard coats and accumulate in
the humus layer of the forest floor. They will
germinate profusely when influenced by fire or
lumbering operations (Hosley 1938).
Pin cherry will produce well under moderate
to heavy deer browsing, and should be
browsed at least, moderately to keep plant
growth within reach of deer (Aldous 1952).
27
-------
Rul, most commonly, the wildlife values of
pin cherry are obtained incidentally to its
occurrence rather than through purposeful
management. Despite its desirable qualities of
wildlife use, soil-binding capability, and stock
for commercial cherries, pin cherry is not
widely cultivated.
Pin cherry is plagued by several diseases
and parasites, which may spoil its appearance,
at least. The most prominent leaf disease is
cherry leaf spot, caused by the fungus Cocco-
myces hiemalis. This disease results in charac-
teristic holes in the leaves and premature leaf
fall. Repeated attacks reduce vigor of the tree.
Another common disease is black knot, caused
by the fungus Dibatrynn morbosum. This can
be recognized by the numerous large black
galls on the brandies and twigs (Hepting
1971). The eastern tent caterpillar (Maloca-
soma disstria) sometimes completely defoliates
cherries. Although pin cherries withstand re-
peated attacks of these insects, dead limbs,
defects, and growth loss may occur (Kulman
1965).
Pin cherry has been controlled by spraying
mixtures of 2,4-D and kerosene on foliage,
stems, or stumps (Day 1948). Equal mixtures
of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T also have proved ellective
in killing seedlings and suckers (Eglc.r 1949).
-------
mm m?ipo,[
Malus cororiaria (L.) Mill.
(Pyrus cororiaria L.)
Also called American Crabapple, Crabapple, Fragrant Crab,
Garland-Tree, Narrow-Leaf Crab-Apple, Scented Crab, Wild
Crab, Wild Crab Apple, and Wild Sweet Crab Apple.
By Robert W. Donohoe
Ohio Department of Natural Resources
New Marshfield
RANGE
Sweet crab apple does not occur naturally
in the New England States or the Maritime
Provinces. Range of the typical form is from
central New York and southern Ontario to
southern Wisconsin, south to Delaware, and in
uplands to South Carolina, Tennessee, and
Missouri. The variety dasycalyx is common in
the western part of this area, particularly in
Ohio and Indiana, and ranges to Minnesota
and Kansas. Along the southern Appalachians,
sweet crab apple occurs up to altitudes of
3,300 feet (Fernald 1950, Little 1953, Sargent
1922),
HABITAT
The range limits of sweet crab apple indi-
cate that it is not adapted to the colder cli-
mates, northward or at high elevations, within
the Northeast. Within its range limits, crab
apple occupies a wide variety of soils and top-
ographical situations (Charles M. Nixon, per-
sonal communication concerning Ohio; Van
Dersal 1938). The tree does best in full sun-
light on moist but well-drained, fairly heavy
soils (Hough 1907, Van Dersal 1938). The soil
pH preferences are not documented, but may
approximate those for prairie crab apple (M.
ioensis): 6.0 to 6.5 for nursery soils and 5.5 to
8.0 for field soils (Wilde 1946). Although
sweet crab apple does best on moist, rich soils,
it will tolerate drier soils of moderate fertility
{Edminster 1947, Van Dersal 1938).
Sweet crab apple is often found in forest
glades among taller trees (Hough 1907). In
Ohio it is associated with old-field succession
and commonly occurs with hawthorn, elm,
ash, hickory, and sumac (Charles M. Nixon,
personal communication). In southeastern
Ohio, sweet crab apple on slopes of northern
exposure is associated with pawpaw, flowering
dogwood, hawthorn, American hophornbeam,
sourwood, pin cherry, and sassafras; on ridges
with serviceberry, pawpaw, flowering dogwood,
common apple, and sassafras; and on flood
plains with pawpaw, spicebush, wahoo, wild
plum, and elderberry (Hart 1951).
A survey of spoil resulting from strip-min-
ing for limestone in northeastern Ohio (Stark
County) revealed good natural plant invasion
and establishment after 21 years. Sweet crab
29
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apple had become established along with
white ash, black cherry, American elm, red
elm, Cottonwood, sassafras, hawthorn, and
red-osier dogwood (Riley 1952).
LIFE HISTORY
The flowers of sweet crab apple appear in
March to May and are white and flushed pink.
The fruits ripen in late summer or early fall,
arc yellow-green in color, and are 1 to 1V4
inches in diameter (IJ. S. Forest Service 1948,
Van Dersal 1938). Leaf color in the fall is yel-
low, and nearly all leaves are off by November
1.
In Michigan an 8-year study of fruit pro-
duction by 13 species of plants that may be
used by wildlife showed that crab apple had
the largest mean weight (103 g, range 1.2 to
162.9 g) per square foot of crown surface
(Gyscl and Lemmicn 1961). In another Michi-
gan study, sweet crab apple was considered to
be a heavy and consistent fruit producer. The
fruits ripened by October; nearly all had fallen
by December 1, but some persisted until Jan-
uary 1. Fruits softened after falling and were
badly discolored by December 1 (Honley
1938). A fruit-production survey on sweet
crab apple in southern Ohio (Scioto County)
for three successive years revealed that out of
a sample of 100- trees, 40 percent produced
fruit in 1935, 10 percent, produced fruit in
1936, and 50 percent produced fruit, in 1937
(Chapman 1938).
The fruit of sweet crab apple contains 4 to
10 small- to medium-size dark seeds. Heavy-
seed crops are produced every 2 to 4 years,
and medium to light crops in intervening
years. One pound of cleaned seed can be ob-
tained from 100 pounds of fruit (Swingle
1939). The average number of cleaned seed
per pound was reported as 14,000, but may be
as much as 70,000 (Edminster 1947, Iscly
1965). In nature, the seed i.s disseminated by-
gravity and animals (U. S. Forest Service
1948).
Sweet crab apple reproduces primarily from
seed. The tree attains the height of 25 to 30
feet, has a trunk rarely more than 12 to 14
inches in diameter, and when isolated develops
a broad fop, 20 to 25 feet in diameter, with
rigid branches bearing many short branchlets
terminating in sharp spur-like leafless tips
(Hough 1907).
The sweet crab apple is not shade-tolerant.
It is part of the old-field succession and often
forms dense spiny thickets when it does not
have competition from overstory trees. It is
sometimes found growing in the forest under-
story; however, in this situation, growth is poor
and fruit production is minimal.
USE BY WILDLIFE
The apples include about 25 species, many
of which are of value to wildlife, and one of
the chief uses of sweet crab apple is for wild-
life food (U. S. Forest Service 1918).
Data about use of sw-eet crab apple are
scanty. But the following information about
all apple species collectively seems to apply
reasonably well to sweet crab apple. Huffed
grouse, ring-necked pheasant, and bobwhite
quail eat the fruit, seeds, and buds of apple.
The purple finch, grackle, blue jay, baltimore
oriole, orchard oriole, robin, yellow-bellied
sapsucker, starling, tufted titmouse, rufous-
sided towhee, cedar waxwing, and the downy,
hairy, red-bellied, and red-headed woodpeckers
eat the fruits and seeds. The fruit and bark of
the apple are eaten by the black bear, gray and
red fox, opossum, porcupine, cottontail rabbit,
raccoon, eastern skunk, fox squirrel, deer and
pine mouse, and Allegheny wood rat. The
twigs and foliage are browsed by white-tailed
deer (Martin et al 1951).
A food-habit study of white-tailed deer in
Ohio showed that fruit of the sweet crab apple
ranked first, in the diet of animals from the
eastern part of the state (Nixon and McClain
1966).
Sweet crab apple provides excellent cover
for many wildlife species, especially where it
forms dense spiny thickets in old fields.
PROPAGATION
Ripe crab apples can be picked from the
trees or gathered from the ground in Septem-
ber or later. A bushel of fruit yields 2 to 3
pounds of cleaned seed; and. as a rule of
thumb, a pound of cleaned seed may produce
about 2,000 usable seedlings (Edminster
1941).
30
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Seeds can be extracted by macerating the
fruit in water and floating off or screening the
pulp. The wet seed mass can be fermented, in
a waterbath with yeast added, but must not
remain in the bath longer than 48 hours (Ed-
minster 1947). Cleaned seed should then be
dried, and, if necessary, can be stored in
sealed containers, at temperatures just above
freezing. Apple seeds (M. pumila) stored in
this way retained viability for at least 2%
years (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
Seeds can be stratified in moist sand or peat
at <11CF for 60 to 120 days. The longest pe-
riod, 120 days, hastened subsequent germina-
tion (within 21 days), whereas the germina-
tion time was longer (within 104 days) follow-
ing 60-day stratification. In other words, total
time to germination was about 21 weeks with
120-day stratification and over 23 weeks with
60-day stratification (U. S. Forest Service
1948).
Fresh seeds can be sown in the fall, at the
rate of 1 pound of seed per 100 square feet of
soil, and then covered with ]/4 inch of soil
plus mulch (Kdminster 1948). Seeds of a
closely related species (M. ioensis), collected
when slightly green and sown immediately,
germinated 100 percent the following spring.
Alternatively, stratified seed can be sown in
the spring, preferably in drills (U. S. Forest
Service 1948).
Optimum planting density in the nursery is
about 10 plants per square foot. Seedlings are
ready for outplanting when about 6 inches tall
by 3/16 inch diameter above the root collar,
as 1-0 or 2-0 stock (Edminster 1947).
Sweet crab apples can be outplanled in a
variety of soils and site conditions. They do
best when grown in a moderate temperate cli-
mate on a clay-loam soil (U. S. Forest Service
1948). Fallow fields, fields in the early sueces-
sional stages, and forest openings are places
where sweet crab apple can be established.
Flowering crab apple (Mains sp.), at least,
can also be propagated by whip grafting onto
apple seedling roots in January or February.
The stocks are dug in the fall and stored until
used. Six- or 8-inch scions should be used on
about. 3-inch root pieces. The unions are tied
with waxed string, and the grafts arc stored
overwinter like hardwood cuttings, or set sin-
gly in boxes of moist peat and lined out. in a
similar way in the spring. If set deep in the
soil, many of them develop their own roots
(Laurie and Chadwick 1931).
MANAGEMENT
Sweet crab apple in old fields can be man-
aged by preventing the invasion o! ovcrstory
species. Cutting, girdling, or using herbicides
on invading trees, which would eventually
cause shade, may be the best management,
technique.
Sweet c.rab apple may Ik; controlled in part
by using herbicides equivalent to 2,4-D, or
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T (equal parts of each). When
used at the rate of 3,000 parts per million, di-
luted in water and applied to foliage, these
herbicides gave good control on young seed-
lings, but only fair control on older trees (Ru-
dolf and Watt 1956).
MISCELLANY
The wood of sweet crab apple is heavy,
close-grained, not strong, light, red, with yel-
low sapwood of 18 to 20 layers of annual
growth. It is used for levers, tool handles, and
many small domestic articles. The tree is
sometimes planted in gardens in northern and
eastern states (Sargent 1922).
The fruit of sweet crab apple makes a deli-
cious marmalade or jelly (Fcrnaid and Kinsey
1943), or cider and vinegar (Iseiy 1965).
Crab apples are susceptible to air-pollution
damage from HC1, Cl_. and ozone (Sucoff and
Bailey 1971).
31
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FLOWERING DOGWOOD, Cornus florida L. Also called Arrow-
wood, Boxwood, Cornelius-Tree, Dogwood, False Box, Florida
Dogwood, Nature's Mistake, White Cornel.
ALTERNATE-LEAF DOGWOOD, Cornus alternifolia L.F. Also
called Blue Dogwood, Gray Dogwood, Green Osier, Osier,
Pagoda Dogwood, Red Osier.
ROUNDLEAF DOGWOOD, Cornus rugosa Lam. Also called
Bois de Calumet.
SILKY DOGWOOD, Cornus amomum Mill. Also called Kinni-
kinnik, Red Willow, Silky Cornel, Squawbush.
By Walter A. Lesser
Department of Natural Resources
Elkins, West Virginia
and
Jean D. Wistendahl
Ohio University
Athens
RANGE
The four species of dogwood discussed here
are found in most of the Northeast, but two
are rare or absent in Canada.
Flowering dogwood ranges north from Flor-
ida and Texas to southwestern Maine and
southern New Hampshire and Vermont, west
to southern Ontario and Michigan and south
to Missouri and Kansas (I At tic 1953).
Alternate-leaf dogwood ranges farther
north, into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia
and westward along the St. Lawrence valley to
the northern shores of Lake Superior and to
eastern Minnesota. The southern limits are
eastern Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Mary-
land, Delaware, and New Jersey (Sargent
1922).
Silky dogwood ranges from southern Maine
to southern Illinois and Indiana south to
South Carolina and Alabama (Gleason and
Cronquist 1963). Roundleaf dogwood, a more
northern species, is found from Quebec to
northern Ontario, south to New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, northern Ohio to northeastern Iowa,
and in the mountains to Virginia (Gleason
and Cronquist 1963).
HABITAT
These dogwoods are found either as under-
story species in many forest types or as thick-
et-forming shrubs of fields and wet areas.
Within the ranges of these four dogwoods, an-
nual precipitation varies from a low of 30
inches per year in the north to a high of 80
inches in Florida, where there is no snowfall,
to more than 50 inches of snow in the north.
Temperature extremes are from - -30° to
115"F (Fowells 1965). The growing season
ranges from 160 days in southern Michigan to
300 or more days in Florida (Fowells 1965).
32
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Dogwoods tolerate a wide variety of climatic
conditions, but roundleaf dogwood does not
range beyond the southern reaches of the
Northeast except in the mountains to Virginia
(Gleason and Cronquist 1963).
Flowering dogwood is one of the most,
adaptable and widely distributed understory
trees of the eastern deciduous forests—growing
in a variety of soils from well-drained uplands
to the deep, moist soils of streambanks (Fow-
ells 1965). It is commonly found on soils hav-
ing pll values of 5 to 7 (Spurway 1941); and
optimum growth occurs in moist fertile loam
that is slightly acid (Powells 1965). In cut-
over loblolly pine stands on the Virginia
coastal plain, flowering dogwood was most
common on soils having good drainage and
light texture; it was almost absent on poorly-
drained, heavy soils (Wenger 1956).
Alternate-leaf dogwood grows in rich wood-
lands, along the margins of forests and along
streams in moist well-drained soils (Amnions
1950, Sargent 1922) as well as in dry woods
and on rocky slopes (Fernald 1950). Silky
dogwoods occurs in more moist situations, es-
pecially along streams (Ammons 1950, Glea-
son and Cronquist 1963) and in swamps and
thickets (.Fernald 1950). Roundleaf dogwood
occurs mostly in dry woodlands and on rocky-
slopes (Fernald 1950).
Although flowering dogwood is most promi-
nent in two forest types, scarlet oak and white
oak-red oak-hickory, it is found in many
hard wood and conifer types (Fowells 1965).
In the scarlet oak type, dogwood associates
are: scarlet, southern red, chestnut, white, and
post oaks; hickories; blackgum; sweet gum;
black locust; and pitch, shortleaf, and Virginia
pines. In the white oak-red oak-hickory type,
flowering dogwood is associated with yellow-
poplar; pignut, shagbark, and mockernut hick-
ories; white ash; red maple; beech; and black-
gum (Fowells 1965).
The following species are associated with
flowering dogwood in the moist, climax forest
understory: magnolias (Magnolia tripetala, M.
macrophylla, and M. fraseri), sourwood,
striped maple, redbud, American hornbeam,
eastern hophornbeam, American holly, and
downy serviccbcrry (Braun 1950). In the hill
section of Indiana, flowering dogwood is con-
spicuous in the understory. It is a dominant
understory species in the white oak forests of
the Shenandoah Valley (Braun 1950).
Alternate-leaf dogwood is among the shrubs
that are generally abundant in moist woods,
along with spicebush, witch-hazel, pawpaw,
and wild hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens)
(Braun 1950). In oak forests at moderate ele-
vations, the understory may include alter-
nate-leaf dogwood, witch-hazel, mountain-ca-
mellia (Stewartia ovata), mountain winter-
berry, and Virginia creeper. Rhododendron
and mountain-laurel may be present, particu-
larly if eastern hemlock is in the canopy
(Braun 1950). In the sugar maple-white elm
areas in Alger County, Michigan, alternate-
leaf dogwood, prickly gooseberry (Ribes cy-
nosbati), and virgin's-bower (Clematis virgi-
niana) are widely distributed along with more
northern species such as American vew, moun-
tain maple, red-berried elder, beaked hazel,
and American fly honeysuckle (Braun 1950).
In Colebrook, Connecticut, alternate-leaf dog-
wood along with witch-hazel, mapleleaf vi-
burnum, and American fly honeysuckle are
frequently found in mature forests (Braun
1950).
In the sugar maple-basswood 1'oresLs of the
Midwest, roundleaf dogwood and bush-honey-
suckle (Diervilla lonicera) are the northern
species of shrubs indicative of the transitional
nature of this zone (Braun 1950). In the mixed
forest of the hemlock-white pine-northern
hardwoods region, there are a large number
of shrubs and small trees including round-
leaf dogwood, alternate-leal dogwood, moun-
tain maple, serviceberry, eastern hophorn-
beam, American mountain-ash, gooseberries
(Ribes spp), beaked hazel, rope-bark (Dirca
palustris), bush-honeysuckle, American fly
honeysuckle, and thimbleberry (Rubus parri-
florus) (Braun 1950).
In a study of old fields on the floodplain of
the Raritan River in New Jersey, silky dog-
wood was found in association with blackber-
ries, poison ivy, shining sumac, smooth sumac,
blackhaw viburnum, southern arrow-wood,
Carolina rose, bay berry (Myrica pensylvan-
ica), gray dogwood, and grape (Wistendahl
195H).
33
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LIFE HISTORY
The flowers of flowering dogwood are green-
ish white to creamy, perfect, in heads sur-
rounded by four showy, petal-like, white, decid-
uous bracts (pink in the form rubra) (Pres-
ton 1966). The flowers open at the same time
the leaves expand—in March at the southern
end of the range to June in northern areas
({/. S. Forest Service 1948). The light cream-
colored flowers of alternate-leaf dogwood are in
broad flat open clusters that open from May in
the south to June in the north (Ammons
1950). Flowers of the two other species are
white, in flat clusters, and appear from May to
July (Ammons 1950).
Fruiting time varies with species and loca-
tion. Flowering dogwood has ovoid scarlet
fruits J/2 inch long and lA inch wide with thin,
mealy flesh (Fowe.Un 1965). The fruits ripen
from September to late October (U. S. Forest
Service 1948). Alternate-leaf dogwood has a
dark blue, globe-shaped fruit about '/:s inch in
diameter when it ripens in September (Am-
mons 1950). The fruit clusters are loose,
spreading, and red-stemmed (Brush 1957).
The pale blue fruits of silky dogwood are also
in loose clusters and ripen in Septeml>er (Am-
mons 1950). Fruits of roundleaf dogwood are
light blue and sphere-shaped; they ripen from
August to October (Ammons 1950, Fernald
1950).
Flowering dogwood bears good seed crops
about every other year, but seeds from iso-
lated trees are frequently hollow (U. S. Forest
Service 1948). Both wild and nursery-grown
flowering dogwoods fruited for the first time at
6 years of age (Spinner and Ostrom 1945).
Seed is dispersed in October to late November
or later, by gravity, birds, and other animals
(11. S. Forest Service 1948). The number of
seeds per ounce averaged 280, with a range
from 200 to 390 (U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture 196la). The yield of seed per 100 pounds
of fruit ranged from 22 to 46 pounds, and the
average number of cleaned seed per pound was
4,500 (17. S. Forest Service 1948).
In a yield and fruit-persistence study of
flowering dogwood in West Virginia for a 4-
year period, 71 percent of the plants produced
fruit, a%'erage date of ripening was September
20, and the latest date of fruit persistence on
the plants was December 2. The plants exhib-
ited a crop failure in 1 of the 4 years (Park
1942). In Texas, 88 percent or more of trees
3i'2 inches dbh and larger fruited each year.
Year-to-year differences were more pro-
nounced in the smaller diameter classes. The
fruit ripened in September and some persisted
on trees until January. Average fruit produc-
tion was 37.9 pounds per square foot of basal
area (Lay 1961). Flowering dogwood yields
fruit under a heavy overhead canopy even in a
poor seed year if the site is fair to good
(Crawford 1967).
Alternate-leaf dogwood yields of cleaned
seed ranged from 5,900 to 9,500 and averaged
8,000 seeds per pound (U. S. Forest Service
1948, Vines I960). Seed is dispersed from
July through September ((/. S. Forest Service
1948).
Silky dogwood seeds are dispersed from
September to mid-October. Seed yields were
17 pounds of cleaned seed per 100 pounds of
fruit and 10,900 to 11,600 cleaned seeds per
pound (U. S. Forest Service 1948). In south-
west Michigan, fruits remained on the shrubs
for about 90 days after ripening (Gysel and
Lemmien 1955). The average germination of
silky dogwood was reported to be 10 percent.
(Forbes 1955). Annual fruit production for an
8-year period on the Kellogg Forest in Michi-
gan ranged from 0.7 g per square foot of crown
surface to 46.6 g and averaged 17.9 g (Gysel
and Lemmien 1964).
No information was found on seed produc-
tion of roundleaf dogwood. This species occurs
only infrequently throughout its range (Am-
mons 1950).
Natural germination of dogwood seed oc-
curs in the spring after the seed lias fallen and
lain on the ground over winter. All species of
dogwood show delayed germination due to em-
bryo dormancy and, in some species, to im-
permeability or hardness of (he seed coat
(U. S. Forest Service 1948). The best natural
seedbeds are moist, well-drained, rich loams
(Vimmerstedt 1957).
Flowering dogwood seedlings usually show
rapid root growth. Height growth is relatively
fast during the first 20 to 30 years but then
practically ceases, although individual plants
may live 125 years IFowells 1965). Flowering
34
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dogwood has a long growing season. In a Mas-
sachusetts nursery, flowering dogwood dis-
played a height growth pattern different from
that of any other species studied. The dog-
woods grew from 24 April to 4 September, and
90 percent of growth occurred during 95 days
from 15 May to 18 August. The most rapid
growth occurred during the first week in Au-
gust, then growth suddenly slowed down.
This species has been reported to grow
nearly all summer, but to stop temporarily
during periods of adverse conditions (Kozlow-
ski and Ward 1957). In the Georgia Pied-
mont, the most rapid radial growth of stems
occurred during an 80- to 89-day period. Half
of the total radial growth was completed in 40
to 49 days (Jackson 1952).
Soil moisture was the most important factor
determining survival of 1-year-old flowering
dogwood seedlings in the North Carolina Pied-
mont (Ferrcll 1953). In another North Caro-
lina Piedmont study, flowering dogwood seeds
were planted in three situations: in an open
field, under pine stands, and on the margins of
pine stands. Survival was significantly higher
on the margins of pine stands than on the
other Lwo sites, but there was no significant
difference in survival between the open field
and the pine forest. The intermediate light in-
tensity of the margins provided some advan-
tage that compensated for a reduced water
supply. However, dogwood growth was greater
in the open than in the margin or the pine for-
est. Seedlings in the forest were the smallest
(Kramer el al 1952).
Flowering dogwood reproduces by sprout-
ing, and it sprouts most profusely when cut in
late winter (Bucll 1910). It also reproduces
extensively by layering (Spector 1950, IJ. S.
Forest: Service 1948. Vines 1960).
Maximum height for (lowering dogwood on
good sites is about 40 feet, with a dbh of 12 to
18 inches, attained in 20 to 30 years (Powells
1965). Near the northern limits of its range,
flowering dogwood becomes a many-branched
shrub (Vimmerstedt 1957). Alternate-leaf
dogwood, under favorable conditions, becomes
a small tree not more than 30 feet in height,
with a short trunk 6 to 8 inches in diameter
(Sargent 1922). Silky dogwood, with its up-
right to spreading form, grows to a height of 3
to 10 feet (Vines 1960). Roundleaf dogwood is
a shrub reaching 6 to 10 feet (Ammons 1950).
Flowering dogwood is well adapted as an
understory tree. It has the ability to carry on
maximum photosynthesis at one-third of full
sunlight, which helps explain how it survives
and grows under a forest, canopy (Powells
1965). Flowering dogwood is comparable in
shade tolerance to white oak (Vimmerstedt
1957).
Because flowering dogwood has thin bark, it
is readily injured by fire. In the Northeast,
fires killed the above-ground parts of all the
flowering dogwoods on a study area after 1
year (Stickel 1935). Fire-damaged trees, how-
ever, have ability to sprout profusely (Vim-
merstedt 1957). Once trees reach 10 to 15 feet
in height they can withstand infrequent win-
ter burns of low intensity (Halls and Oefinger
1969).
Flooding is also detrimental to flowering
dogwood. In one experiment, flooding killed all
potted seedlings in 1 to 3 weeks (Parker
1950). Flowering dogwood is also susceptible
to drought, although it can tolerate low and
high temperatures. In prolonged periods of
drought, the leaves often turn red and curl,
and severe dieback of the top may result
(Vimmerstedt 1957).
USE BY WILDLIFE
The dogwoods are extremely valuable for
wildlife. The seed, l'ruii, buds, flowers, twigs,
bark, and leaves are utilized as food by var-
ious animals.
As a wildlife food, the most distinguishing
quality of flowering dogwood is its high cal-
cium content. Samples collected in southern
pine-hardwood forests contained 1.72 percent
calcium in leaves, 1.44 percent in twigs, and
0.89 percent in fruits. These amounts are well
above those needed by wildlife for good skele-
tal growth (Halls arid Oe finger 1969). Com-
pared with other fruits, flowering dogwood is
outstanding for its content of calcium and fat.
Fruit collected in Texas had file following per-
centage composition: protein 5.19, fat 16.17,
fiber 24.(54, ash 4.96, phosphorus 0.6, and cal-
cium 1.10. Leaves and twigs contained 1.75 to
2.90 percent calcium (Lay 1961).
Alternate-leaf dogwood was deficient in
35
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phosphorus, as were 11 of the 20 plant species
analyzed in a study of the mineral content of
deer browse on the Huntington Wildlife For-
est in New York (Bailey 1967).
Flowering dogwood has been recorded as
food taken by at least 36 species of birds, in-
cluding ruffed grouse, bob-white quail, and
wild turkey. Records of mammals eating this
dogwood include eastern chipmunk, white-
footed mouse, gray fox, skunk, cottontail rab-
bit, white-tailed deer, beaver, and gray squir-
rel (Chapman 1947a, Van Dersal 1938, Vines
1960). In the Missouri Ozarks, flowering dog-
wood contributed as much or more than any
other soft-fruited species to the diet of wild
turkeys, and was prominent in the diet of tur-
keys from fruit ripening in September until
February (Dalke et al 1942). Dogwood fruit
was in 10 percent of 115 crops from wild tur-
keys collected on the George Washington Na-
tional Forest during three falls and early win-
ters. Dogwood was fourth in importance
among all foods (Martin et al 1939). Flower-
ing dogwood ranked 21st on a list of quail
food plants of the Southeast, and was listed as
a preferred food of the wild turkey (Vines
1960). In east Texas, fruit of flowering dog-
wood was found in 16 percent of 49 deer stom-
achs collected in November and December.
Fruit remains were also found in deer pellet
grouj>s (Lay 1965a). In a study of cottontail
rabbits in southwest Michigan, flowering dog-
wood rated second among 18 winter food
plants (Haugeri 1942). In Massachusetts, win-
ter food choices among 100 species of woody-
plants were analyzed for relative attractive-
ness as food of the cottontail rabbit. Browsing
by rabbits severely injured the flowering dog-
wood but injured alternate-leaf dogwood only
slightly (Swcetman 1944).
Fruits of alternate-leaf dogwood have been
reported eaten by at least 11 species of birds,
including ruffed grouse. Black bears may be
especially fond of this fruit (Chapman 1947a).
Leaves and stems are eaten by white-tailed
deer and cottontail rabbits (Van Dersal 1938,
Vines 1960).
Silky dogwood fruit is utilized by at least 10
species of birds (including rufTed grouse, bob-
white quail, wild turkey, and ring-necked
pheasant), and cottontail rabbit, woodchuck,
raccoon, and squirrels. Cottontails eat the
fruit and browse the stems (Holweg 1964, Van
Dersal 1938). In West Virginia, wood ducks
readily eat silky dogwood fruits in late sum-
mer and fall, before and after ripening. Wood
ducks have been seen reaching as far as they
can from the water to strip the shrubs of fruit .
Roundleaf dogwood fruit has been found in
stomachs of ruffed grouse and sharp-tailed
grouse, and feeding observations have been
made of the blue-headed vireo, cottontail, and
moose (Van Dersal 1938). A ruffed grouse
from Delaware County, New York, had eaten
226 roundleaf dogwood fruits on December 20
(Bump et al 1947).
All species of dogwoods possess cover value,
but, that of roundleaf is least due to its infre-
quent occurrence (Korschgen 1960, McAfee
1936). Animals trapped or observed in plant-
ings of silky dogwood on the Kellogg Forest in
Michigan included short-tailed shrew, striped
ground squirrel, red squirrel, white-footed
mouse, meadow vole, and meadow jumping
mouse (Gysel and Lemmicn 1955). A study of
power line right-of-way vegetation and animal
use in southern Michigan revealed that, the
silky dogwood-willow shrub community was
used by cottontails, raccoon, red squirrels, and
opossums (Gysel 1962). In West Virginia,
silky dogwood on streambanks provides brood
and escape cover for wood ducks. The thick-
et-forming silky dogwood also provides cover
for woodcock.
PROPAGATION
Because these dogwoods, except roundleaf,
are highly prized for ornamental purposes,
seed (dried fruit or cleaned stones) and plant-
ing stock are available from commercial grow-
ers. Dogwoods can be grown from root cut-
tings, layering, and by division, as well as from
seed (Fuwells 1965). If seed is to be collected,
isolated plants should be avoided because they
often have a high percentage of empty stones,
in flowering dogwood at least ([7. S. Forest
Service 1948).
Because the fruit pulp contains an unknown
chemical that delays germination (Goodwin
1948), cleaned seeds are preferable for germi-
nation in the nursery. The pulp may be re-
moved by soaking fruit in water for a few days
36
-------
until the covering is soft and easy to remove
(Free 1957). Large quantities of fruit may be
macerated in water or run through a hammer
mill, allowing pulp and empty stones to wash
away (U. S. Forest Service 1948). Dogwood
seed should then be dried and .stored in an air-
tight container at 34 to 38" F.
Stratification is necessary to break seed
dormancy. The seed can be stratified in moist
sand or peat moss for four months at 33 to
4 I F. Seed can be sown in drills or broadcast
and covered with % to V2 inch of nursery soil
depending on the size of the seed. Forty of the
smaller seeds are sown per square foot and
mulched with leaves or straw. The mulch is re-
moved as soon as germination begins (U. S.
Forest Service 1948).
In nurseries where small lots of seeds
are used, broadcast sowing is recommended;
and for fall sowings, heavy mulch is needed for
winter protection. A heavy mulch prevents
solid freezing of seeds during an open winter
and may induce much higher germination the
following spring (Heit 1968). For seeding in
the fall, seeds should be gathered just as they
go into the meaty stage, but before the out-
side coat becomes hardened or impervious to
moisture and air.
In one test, seeds of alternate-leaf dogwood
gathered and planted on 8 July attained a ger-
mination of 100 percent the following spring.
Roundleaf dogwood seed gathered and planted
on 2 September also had a germination of 100
percent the following spring (Titus 1940). Rut
seeds of alternate-leaf and roundleaf dogwoods
usually are extremely dormant and probably
should be sown in July or early August or
stored, stratified, and seeded in the spring as
previously described. Silky and flowering dog-
wood seed are less dormant and may be fall-
seeded in September or October (Heit 1968).
One author reported greater success with
spring seeding than fall seeding and used
builders sand as the stratification medium
(Miller 1959). Nursery germination of flower-
ing dogwood seed may range from about 77
percent to 85 percent (U. S. Forest Service
1948).
The number of usable plants (1-0 or 2-0
stock) per pound of clean seed was 200 for
flowering dogwood and 1,400 for silky dog-
wood (Bump et al 1947).
Dogwoods are reproduced vegetatively by
various means: softwood cuttings in summer,
hardwood cuttings in winter, grafting in win-
ter or spring, layering in spring and summer,
from suckers and divisions in spring, and bud-
ding in the summer (Mahlstede and Haber
1957). Vegetative reproduction is necessary to
propagate plants for characteristics such as
color of flowers and fruit retention.
Flowering dogwood roots readily from cut
tings taken in June or immediately after the
plants bloom. The advantages of taking cut-
tings early in the season are that they obtain
maximum growth and harden off before the
first winter. Only terminal shoot tips should
be used, trimmed to 3 inches in length and
leaving two to four leaves (Pease 1953). One
author claimed that rooting was faster when
four leaves were retained rather than two
(Doran 1957). Dogwood cutting results were
better when a medium of sand or sandy soil
was used rather than peat, moss (Doran 1957,
Pease 1953, Vermeulen 1959). The cutting
bases should be dipped in a mixture of indolc-
butvric acid crystals and talc, one part acid
crystals to 250 parts talc by weight. Cuttings
are then set 1-1/4 inches deep in the rooting
medium. The cuttings should be removed in
early August and placed in a cold frame in
light, well-drained soil with a pll of about 5.0
(Pease 1953). Cuttings from young trees
usually show better growth after rooting than
do cuttings from mature trees; also the sur-
vival of rooted cuttings from old trees may be
poor (Doran 1957, Pease 1953). In addition to
the indolebutyric acid treatment, one author
reported that wounding the cuttings provided
h better distributed root system (Bridgers
1955).
The red form of flowering dogwood (C. f.
rubra) is difficult to start from cuttings and is
usually propagated by budding in late summer
or whip-grafting in winter on flowering (log-
wood seedlings (Hartmann and Kester 1968).
Dogwoods can be propagated successfully
by grafting during the winter or early spring
months. Scions may be collected in advance of
the grafting work, and stored for 3 or 4 weeks
in plastic containers with a small amount of
sphagnum moss to prevent drying. Scions
should be restricted to wood of the previous
growing season. Wood to be used as scions
37
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should be about the diameter of a lead pencil,
8 to 12 inches long, and should contain three
or 4 sets of buds (Coggesfui.il 1960). Crafting
techniques most, commonly used include the
whip-and-tongue method, side graft, and
bench or bare-root graft (Coggcshall 1960.
Wells 1955). A disadvantage in the whip-and-
tongue method is the total loss of the seedling
rootstock in the event of graft failure. This
does not occur when a side graft is used (Cog-
geshall 1960).
Some dogwood graft failures have been at-
tributed to a black mold fungus appearing as a
crumbly, crust-like black layer on cut surfaces
of both the rootstock and scion. The mold pre-
vents callus formation. Growers have reported
losses as high as 60 to 70 percent of their
grafts. Control of this fungus is through sani-
tation and use of healthy vigorous stock {Col-
lins 1960).
Dogwoods are budded in late July or early
August, using 1-year-old seedlings in the field.
The shield or T-bud method is normally used,
placing the bud as low as possible and on the
southwest side of the seedling. This results in
a straight plant. The following spring, before
the bud starts growth, the tops of the seed-
lings are removed by cutting just, above the
new bud union (Shadow 1959).
Layering is a satisfactory method of propa-
gating dogwoods. Plants produced by layering
soft, growing shoots are often superior to
those raised from hardwood cuttings. Layering
is done by starting against the base of the
stock plant and working out, layering the
shortest shoots first. A slight twist is all that
is needed, but small pegs should be used to
keep the layers firm. The layers are lifted the
following spring and lined out 1 foot apart
(Shcat 1953).
Division of dogwoods is carried out just be-
fore spring growth. Plants are lifted, pulled
apart with small divisions, and lined out about
10 inches apart (Sheat 1953).
Transplanting flowering dogwoods with a
root ball is preferred over bare-root trans-
planting, although both methods can be suc-
cessful. Plants entering their third year are
well suited for planting in permanent loca-
tions. Plants of this age are usually 2 to 3 feet
tall and can be dug easily without, excessive
disturbance to the root system, thereby insur-
ing unchecked growth after transplanting. The
transplants may be fertilized with a mixture of
cottonseed meal and superphosphate in early
spring at the rate of 5 to 7 trowels-full per
plant, (Miller 1959). Alternate-leaf dogwoods
are easily transplanted with bare roots when
the shrubs are less than 3 feet in height
(Brush 1957). Dogwoods should be trans-
planted only in the spring (De Vos 1953, Wis-
tcr 1950).
MANAGEMENT
Although flowering dogwood fulfills require-
ments of many wildlife species for food and
cover, it is seldom planted for this purpose,
but may be a practical means of improving
wildlife habitat where fruit-producing hard-
woods are scarce (Halls and Oefinger 1969).
Flowering dogwood has been suggested for
planting along streams, at the edge of farm
woodlots, and around farm ponds (Chapman
1947a). It certainly commands attention in
the management of understory plants for for-
est game habitat.
Silky dogwood was highly regarded by game
managers for use in ruffed grouse management
in southern Michigan (Zorb 1966). This shrub
has been especially useful for streambank sta-
bilization when planted in combination with
grasses (Porter and Silberberger 1960). Silky
dogwood has also been used successfully in
strip-mine reclamation (Bramble 1952, Hart:
and Byrnes 1960).
Field plantings of flowering dogwood in the
Northeast have not been especially successful.
Survival in 22 plantings after 5 to 12 years
ranged from poor to excellent, being satisfac-
tory in only 13 plantings. Most plantings had
grown only about 3 feet in 5 to 8 years. None
had reached site domination or a complete
canopy. Retarding factors seemed mainly to
be poor soil and herbaceous plant competition
(Edminst.fr and May 1951).
In a study of flowering dogwood survival in
the North Carolina Piedmont, improvement of
forest soil moisture conditions was considered
the most important initial step in securing sat-
isfactory reproduction. Soil moisture condi-
tions may be improved by the use of a heavy
harrow or disk plow to break up the surface
38
-------
organic matter and cut out some of the com-
peting roots. This should be a good method for
use in a good seed year, but. an immediate cut-
ting of the overstory is not desired. The result
from exposing mineral soil should be a satis-
factory stand of dogwood reproduction even
under a fairly dense canopy. Releasing this re-
production at a later date would be important
(Ferrell 1953).
Flowering dogwood may be reproduced from
stump sprouts by cutting trees in late winter.
Tallest dogwood sprouts have been produced
by cutting in March. For discouraging dog-
wood sprouting, midsummer cutting is recom-
mended (Buell 1940).
Of 59 silky dogwood plantings in the North-
east. 37 had excellent and 19 had good sur-
vival. The few failures were attributed to ex-
cessive grass competition or infertile soil. Sur-
vival was about the same from Vermont to
West Virginia. After 12 or 13 years, plantings
had reached heights of 8 to 12 feet on better
soils but only 5 to 6 feet on some poorly
drained, acid soils in New York (Kdminsler
and May 1951). When 20-year-old plantings
were checked in New York State, silky dog-
wood was found to have grown vigorously and
dominated all the sites (Smith 1962). Survival
of silky dogwood on strip-mine spoilbank
plantings has ranged from 45 to 72 percent,
and it is a promising species for spoilbank re-
clamation (Bramble 1952, Bramble and Ash-
ley 1949, Hart and Byrnes 1960).
When silky dogwood is to be planted, 1- or
2-year-old nursery-grown seedlings arc recom-
mended. The top growth of nursery stock
should be pruned back to a height of 3 to 6
inches just before planting. Like most hard-
wood shrubs, competition from other plants
retards early growth. Hence, plantings should
be made in plowed furrows or scalped sod
areas. For complete site dominance, silky dog-
wood seedlings should be spaced 3 to 4 feet
apart. (Kdminsler and May 1951).
Use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer has stim-
ulated radial growth of dogwoods of various
ages on soils of low to moderately low fertility.
Nitrogen was applied as ammonium nitrate,
32 1/2 percent, at various rates. Marked
growth response occurred the first, growing
season after fertilization. The response was
less favorable the second year and insignifi-
cant the third year. A nitrogen application of
500 pounds per acre resulted in almost maxi-
mum growth response (Curlin 1962).
The quality of flowering dogwood browse
has been improved by controlled burning, es-
pecially burning in the spring rather than in
fall or winter. Summer burning probably
would be as good as spring burning. Burning
increased the protein and phosphoric acid con-
tent of browse (Lay 1957).
Diseases and parasites that attack the dog-
woods include noninfectious diseases resulting
from an unfavorable environment, parasitic di-
seases, nematodes, and insects. Noninfectious
diseases include sun scald, mechanical and
drought, injury, freezing, and improper soil nu-
trient balance (Beecher et al 1964). Diseases
and insects may kill dogwoods, but in most
cases are only detrimental to the health and
vigor of the trees.
The common diseases of flowering dogwood
include spot anthracnose caused by the fungus
Elsinoe corni and Septoria leaf spot. The spot
anthracnose fungus attacks leaves, bracts,
stems, and ripe fruits and affects mostly the
lower crown. The symptoms are spots about 1
mm in diameter on the blooms and leaves.
Centers of the small spots fall out. giving a
shot-hole appearance to the leaves. The ap-
pearance of the blooms may be seriously af-
fected. If the disease is not controlled, it may
become so severe that flower buds never open
(Beechcr et al 1964, Cleveland 1951). This
infection can be controlled by spraying four
times per year with either captan 50 percent
wettable powder, 1 1/2 tablespoons per gallon
of water; 3/1 tablespoons of maneb 80 percent
wettable powder per gallon of water; or folpet
75 percent wettable powder at the rate of 2 ta-
blespoons per gallon of water. The first appli-
cation is made in early spring when the flower
buds are beginning to open. The second spray
is applied as soon as the bracts have fallen,
the third spray 4 weeks later, and the fourth
in late summer alter the new flower buds are
well formed (Beechcr et al 1961).
Septoria leaf spot, appears on flowering dog-
wood about mid-June in Virginia. It is caused
by the fungus Septoria cornieola. which over-
winters on leaves, either on the ground or on
39
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leaves remaining attached tu the iree. The
symptoms are numerous small angular spots
bordered by veins. The spots are purple at
first, then become paler in the center, hut
rarely drop out. The spots may also blacken
and roughen the fruit. Control consists of
spraying with water solutions of captan,
maneb. or zineb. Adding 1/4 teaspoon of a liq-
uid household detergent to each gallon of
spray helps insure complete foliage wetting.
The first application should be made in early
spring when the buds begin to open. A second
application is necessary in June and a final
spraying in August (Reecher et. at 196-1. Hept-
ing 1971).
Additional information about these and
other foliage diseases of flowering dogwood is
given in a recent handbook by Hepting
(1971).
Trunk canker, a steam disease most fre-
quently found on low-vigor flowering dog-
woods, is caused by the fungus Phytoph.thnra
cactorum. This disease is also called crown
canker or collar rot. Twigs and large branches
die as the disease progresses. Infected trunk
tissues are discolored, and a black fluid often
exudes from the canker. The canker slowly en-
larges, extending completely around the base
of the tree; and a collar of rot develops, even-
tually followed by (he death of the tree. No
satisfactory control for this disease is known.
Small cankers, if detected in time, may lie cut
out and the wound dressed, but large cankers
usually cannot be removed successfully. This
is a disease of ornamental flowering dogwood
that often follows injuries such as those
caused by lawn mowers or boring insects
(Reecher et a! 196-1, Hepting 1971).
The most common stem disease of forest-
grown flowering dogwood is the target canker
caused by Nectria galligena. Only occasional
trees are infected (Hepting 1971).
The most damaging insect enemies of the
dogwoods are the dogwood borers. They feed
in the bark and cambium but not the sap-
wood. The larvae frequently kill young trees,
and reduce the vitality and kill branches on
older trees. Trees infested with borers have
swollen areas on the trunk near the ground or
at the main crotches. Since larvae enter only
through a definite break in the outer bark, all
injuries to the trunk and branches of a dog-
wood should be avoided to prevent infestation.
Pruning wounds or injuries should be treated
with wound dressing. Some borers enter ter-
minal twigs. Dead twigs should be pruned
back to healthy wood and the wound dressed.
The pruned twigs should be burned to destroy
the borers. The trunks of newly transplanted
trees may be wrapped with crepe paper to pro-
tect these trees from borer attack through un-
noticed injuries, insecticides may be used to
control the overwintering borers (Bcecher ct
ai 1964, Schread 1957, Westcott 1951).
Dogwood club gall is caused by infestation
with midge larvae (Mycodiplosin alterriata
Felt) and has become serious in some areas.
The orange-colored maggots overwinter in the
soil under dogwood trees. Pink flowering dog-
woods seem to be infested most often; serious
infestation will stunt the trees and kill most of
the flower and leaf buds that develop beyond
the galls. Excellent control of the gall may be
obtained by spraying with carbaryl at the rate
of 2 pints per 100 gallons of water. The spray
material should he applied at weekly intervals
from late May until the end of June. Trees
sprayed six times were free of galls (Schread
1964).
Dogwoods are usually desirable, but, certain
situations may warrant control of these
plants. In the South, complete control has
been obtained hy the application of picloram
at the rate of 0.7 pounds per 100 gallons of
spray. Leaf-stem application produced the
best results. The degree of coverage by the
spray material on thickets of dogwood was not
critical (Nation and I Achy 1964). Picloram
plus 2,4,5-T ester, 1 \'i pounds of each per
acre, was also effective; 74 percent, of flowering
dogwoods were top-killed at the end of the
second growing season alter treatment (Brady
1969). But 2,4,5-T alone resulted in a lower
kill of flowering dogwood, 22 percent, when
helicopter-sprayed at the rate of 2 pounds acid
equivalent per acre on logged and uncut areas
in West Virginia (Wendel 1966).
In the South, flowering dogwood was suc-
cessfully controlled by injection of 2.4-D
amine concentrate (Mover 1967) and was re-
ported as susceptible to either 2,4-D amine or
40
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fenuron pellets (Cech and Mulder 1964).
However, in recent observations in West Vir-
ginia, flowering dogwood was highly resistant
to treatment, with fenuron (25 percent,) pellets
broadcast at rates of 20, 40, and 60 pounds
per acre. Each treatment, readily killed the
overstory oaks, whereas the dogwoods re-
sponded to being released by growing and
fruiting vigorously during the 4 years of obser-
vation after the treatments. This observation,
and another in Pennsylvania (Shipman and
Schmitt 1971), shows that fenuron can be
used successfully to release (lowering dogwood
and other shrubs overtopped by low-value
hardwood trees.
Flowering dogwood is beneficial in limiting
movement of nutrients (particularly calcium)
through the soil profile, thus keeping them
available in the rooting zone of other species
(Thomas 1967). Having a very high content
of calcium in the foliage, flowering dogwood
often creates its own high soil pH. Dogwood
litter decomposes very rapidly, thereby mak-
ing il a prime soil builder when compared with
low-calcium species such as oaks or pines
(Hr.plirig 1971).
41
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SiMY ©@(SW©@©
GRAY DOGWOOD, Cornus racemosa Lam. Also called Gray-
Stemmed and Panicled Dogwood.
By Stephen A. Liscinsky
Pennsylvania Game Commission
State College
RANGE LIFE HISTORY
This species occurs in all but the northern
and easternmost parts of the region. It grows
from central Maine to southern Ontario and
southward to Maryland, West Virginia, Ken-
tucky, Missouri, and Oklahoma.
HABITAT
The wide range of gray dogwood indicates
the many climatic conditions it will tolerate.
Its ability to grow on a variety of sites is
equalled by few other shrubs. In central Penn-
sylvania alone it is found from moist lowlands
to dry uplands in medium- to heavy-textured
soils (Heyl 1954). The top 4 inches of soil in
these Pennsylvania sites had the following
ranges in characteristics: pH 4.6 to 7.8; per-
centage organic matter 1.3 to 5.0; phospho-
rous 0.0 to 7.5 ppm; and potassium 15 to 338
ppm (Heyl 1954).
Gray dogwood is most commonly found
growing in thickets along fencerows and woods
edges and in abandoned fields. Although
found mostly in pure thickets, it will persist
for a considerable time in mixtures with other
species. Hawthorns, elms, and ashes are com-
mon overstory associates, while grasses,
sedges, goldenrod, and cinquefoil are common
ground cover companions (Liscinsky I960).
In June or July the shrub is often covered
with small pyramidal clusters of little creamy-
white blossoms, which are followed in Sep-
tember and October by showy clusters of
white berry-like and brightly red-stalked
fruits. If not eaten by wildlife, the fruit per-
sists long after the leaves have fallen. Gray
dogwood is well known for producing good to
heavy crops of seed annually. Dissemination
of the seed is largely credited to wildlife, espe-
cially birds.
Gray dogwood thickets seem to originate at a
central point from seedlings that in turn
spread by means of root suckers.
Gray dogwood is a slow-growing shrub. At
10 years of age a stand of gray dogwood is sel-
dom more than 6 feet in height, with maxi-
mum stem diameters of 1 inch. At about '20
years it reaches its maximum height of 9 feet
and stem diameters up to 1 % inches. Matu-
rity is reached at this time, and the stand ei-
ther gives way to more tolerant, longer-lived
species, or regenerates itself if there is no com-
petition. Stand density decreases from 120 to
20 stems per 100 square feet from ages about
5 to 15 years (Liscinsky I960).
Tolerance to shade is considered intermedi-
ate. Removal of some overstory competition
has been found beneficial to gray dogwood.
42
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USE BY WILDLIFE
The fruits of gray dogwood are readily
eaten by wildlife, especially by birds. Gray
dogwood is an important cover plant, for wood-
cock and ruffed grouse. Woodcock use thickets
of gray dogwood from spring to fall for nest-
ing, feeding, and resting. Grouse may be
flushed from these thickets at any time of the
year, but. there is no record of nesting in them.
For food and cover for wildlife, and its many-
other desirable attributes, gray dogwood is a
highly desirable plant for wildlife. Deer browse
the plant, but it is low on the preference scale.
PROPAGATION
Seed and stock are usually available com-
mercially, but less available than other dog-
woods such as flowering and silky dogwoods.
Seeds average about 12,000 per pound, and
average germination in tests was 31 percent,
though a potential of 50 to 75 percent, can be
expected (U. S. Forest Service 1948). Dog-
wood seeds are dormant and require several
months of warm, moist treatment lx;fore cold
stratification for satisfactory germination
(Heit 1968). The ideal way to handle the spe-
cies is to collect mature fruit, clean the seeds,
and plant them in early August (Heit 1968).
In one case, seeds collected green in July and
sown immediately gave full germination the
next spring. Cleaned seeds may also be strati-
fied and held for planting in April or early
May. For long-term storage, seeds should be
cleaned, air-dried at low humidity, placed in
sealed containers and kept at 84 to 38°F
(Heit 1967e). Seed stored this way will retain
excellent germination and vigor for 4 to 8
years (Heit 1967e).
The seeds are usually sown in drills, some-
times broadcast, and are covered with 1/4 to y>i
inch of soil. Forty seeds per square foot are
recommended S. Forest Sermc.e 1948).
I had some success in planting 1-year-old
seedling stock, but, recommend 2-year-old
stock. Success was definitely better on the
more fertile soils and where the sod was re-
moved before planting (Liscinsky 1960).
Generally speaking, success in planting this
dogwood has not been as good as with others.
However, most dogwoods can be grown from
seeds, from root cuttings, by layering, and by
division (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
MANAGEMENT
Management of this species is not difficult.
Emphasis should be placed on caring for
stands that become established naturally.
This involves provision for some direct sun-
light and elimination of some competing trees.
Crowing in thickets, adjacent to hawthorn
and alder patches, this species is especially
beneficial to wildlife. Fist.ablishment by plant-
ing should be reserved for areas where no gray
dogwood exists and where the soil is suitable.
-------
mmi©m
RED-OSIER DOGWOOD, Cornus stolonifera Michx. Also called
Hartes Rouges, Kinnikinnick, Red-Stemmed Cornel, and
Squawbush.
By Margaret Smithberg
University of Minnesota
St. Paul
RANGE
Red-osier is most common in glaciated areas
of the northeastern and midwestern states and
provinces. South of the glaciated areas, it oc-
curs locally near Washington, D. C., and in
West Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,
and Nebraska.
HABITAT
Although optimum conditions for the spe-
cies have not been described, red-osier dog-
wood is somewhat restricted by high tempera-
tures. Its southernmost limit is Washington,
D. C., while in Canada it extends up to the
tundra lines.
The species is characteristic of swamps, low
meadows, and river and creek banks. However,
it is also found commonly in drier situations
such as fields and woods borders and may be
cultivated in drier soils (Grimm 1952).
It is highly adaptable to soil type, being
found for example on rich-woodland soil, silt
loam, fine sandy loam, poorly drained muck,
gravelly sand, boulder till clav, sandy upland
soil, calcareous gravel, dolomite sandstone,
heavy clay with peat, bottomland silt, and dry
humus peat.
Red-osier dogwood, as a dominant member
of "edge" vegetations, is also adaptable to soil
reaction. It is tolerant of alkaline soils (Vara
Dersal 1938) and was found in a wide range of
pH values: 8.0 near lake outlets, 6.0 for sedge
and northern white-cedar swamps, and 3.2 for
sphagnum mats (Jewel and Brown 1929).
Since red-osier dogwoods growing in the
poorer soils are likely to grow slowly and pro-
duce less fruit, the characteristics of soils that
yield vigorous growth are more useful in
choosing high-quality planting sites or suita-
ble nursery soils. A Wisconsin sampling of vig-
orous stands led to these soil fertility stand-
ards for red-osier dogwood; pH 5.0-6.0, base
exchange capacity 6.0 M.E./I00 g., total ni-
trogen .07 percent; and these amounts of nu-
trients in pounds per acre: N—15, P/)-—75,
K^O-150, and replaceable calcium-1,200
(Wilde 1946).
The species plays a major role in many
plant communities. It is commonly ^resent
along stream banks and shores with alder,
birch, and willow, and is a dominant in wet
lowlands with sedges, poplars, and black
spruce. It is one of the earliest shrubby plants
to become dominant in bogs and swamps, due
to its ability to live with its roots often im-
mersed in water (Conway 1949).
Iri moderately moist: situations, it is found
44
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with mountain maple, alder, meadow rose, and
blackberries. It often invades grasslands,
where it produces single, very large plants
(Stallard 1929). Along forest margins, be-
tween forest, and moist areas especially, il, as-
sumes an invader's role, as do hazel and gray
dogwood. Rut where the latter two remain
marginal, the red-osier dogwood soon extends
into the moister regions.
LIFE HISTORY
Flowering occurs in May-June, but second
flushes of bloom are common in late summer.
The fruit, which is white to lead-color, ripens
from July to early fall. The seed may germi-
nate in the following spring or may lie over
until the second spring.
Data are not available on the age for com-
mercial seed-bearing (I;. S. Forest Service
1948). The typical ages of first fruit-bearing,
among unshaded or lightly shaded plants in
Connecticut, were 4 years for wildlings and 3
years for nursery stock. Fruit yields were
small compared to older plants (Spinner and
Ostrum 1945). Little is known about geo-
graphic differences in seed production; how-
ever, in a species with such a wide distribution
it is quite likely that differences exist.
Number of cleaned seeds per pound varies:
13,800 to 26,700 (U. S. Forest Service 1948)
and 17,300 (Van Dersal 1938). The seed is
heavy and is thus spread mostly by birds.
The species reproduces in a numlier of
ways. As its specific name denotes, it produces
stolons (runners). In a study in various habi-
tats, this form of reproduction was noted pri-
marily in very moist situations and in wet
sedge meadows (Smithberg 1964). Reproduc-
tion also occurs from stems touching or grow-
ing under the ground, from seed, and even by
shoot growth from roots. Tt was observed that
when a branch is near death, a new branch
may arise from the base of the old one. This
occurrence accounts for the large many-
stemmed forms often found.
Growth is fairly rapid. An average plant
measured at the end of the first growing sea-
son, under clean cultivation, grew 443 inches
of twigs (1,125 cm among all branches over
three cm long) (Smithberg and Weiser 1968).
The average plant height the first season was
above 3 feet.
When found in meadows with close grass
cover, the species tends to remain in single
large plants, because layering cannot occur.
Light intensity no doubt, plays an important
role in limiting the spread of red-osier dog-
wood. It is suppressed in shade and thus is
never a dominant understory plant (Spector
1956, Stallard 1929). Under shade conditions
it often reaches a height of more than 10 feet.
USE BY WILDLIFE
The species is commonly browsed by deer
(Dahlberg and Guettinger 1956, Meagher
1958, Murie 1951, Smith 1964). I noted in
Minnesota that the species was preferred over
gray dogwood when they were found growing
together.
At Isle Royale in Lake Superior it is an im-
portant, winter browse for moose (Hosley
1949). In Montana it is browsed extensively
by elk, in winter, and by mountain goats
(Murie 1951). Black bear and beaver include
it in their diet (Martin et. al 1951, Rue 1964),
as do mule deer, cottontail rabbit, and
snowshoe hare (Van Dersal 1938). Fruit,,
wood, and foliage are utilized.
Red-osier also provides food for many song-
birds and upland game birds. In New England
ii was found in the diet of 93 different bird
species (McKenny 1933). It, is a favorite fall
food of ruffed grouse (Bump et al 1947) and is
one of the preferred foods of both pheasant
and turkey (Korschgen 1960).
The fruits of the species are readily identifi-
able in stomach analyses because of the
unique two-celled character of the nutlets.
Red-osier dogwood is an important cover
species for birds. In a study of vegetation and
animal use of power line rights-of-way, the
species provided dense summer cover, and the
winter stems provided partial cover (Gysel
1962). It is an important cover for pheasant
(Korschgen I960) and is commonly found
near ruffed grouse drumming logs in lowland
vegetation types (Palmer 1961).
In fishery management, red osier is recom-
mended for streambank plantings to stabilize
eroding banks and to provide shade and cooler
45
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water for summer protection of fish (Black
1954).
PROPAGATION
Plants of Cornus stolonifcra arc often avail-
able commercially. However, Cornus alba si-
birica, a very closely related plant, is much
more common. Some taxonomists feel that the
two are one species, Cornus stolonifera on this
continent being a geographic variant of the
Eurasian Cornus alba.
Propagation is jjossible either from seed or
cuttings, and each source can be handled in
various ways. With seed, the first option is fall
versus spring sowing. Though this choice will
usually be made before seed collection, the
collection, cleaning, and storage of seed should
be about the same in either case. Fruits should
be collected when fully ripe (late July-Octo-
ber), because plantings of immature seed have
shown reduced germination. If viability test-
ing is to be done, red-osier, along with other
dogwoods, requires use of embryo excision, te-
trazoluim chloride, or other special cutting
tests (He.it 1967c). Cutting-Lest results in the
range of 80 to 92 percent have been reported
(Swingle 1939).
Seeds should be cleaned and air-dried if
they are to be stored. The yield of cleaned
seed is 15 to 20 pounds per 100 pounds of
fruit, and the number of cleaned seed per
pound averages about 19,000 (U. S. Forest
Service 1948).
Fall sowing can be done in September-Octo-
ber or earlier. If dry, the seeds should be
soaked, at least, before planting (licit 1968).
Soil recommendations are given in the life his-
tory discussion above.
The spring planting option requires storing
and stratifying the cleaned, dried seed. Stor-
age in sealed glass containers at 84 to 38 °F
for 4 to 8 years produced good germination,
after stratification. The seeds have an embryo
dormancy, which can easily be broken bj' stra-
tification in sand, peat, or a mixture lor 90 to
120 days at 41 °F (U. S. Forest Service 1948)
or longer, 120 to 140 and up to 290 days at
32c to 50°F (Chadwick 1935, Laurie and
Chadwick 1931).
Some lots of seed may have hard-coat as
well as embryo dormancy obstacles to germi-
nation and may require mechanical scarifica-
tion before stratification (IJ. S. Forest Service
1948). Hard seed that has not been scarified
may not germinate until the second spring
after planting (Laurie and Chadwick 1931).
Germination-test results have ranged from 6
percent for untreated seed (Swingle 1939) to
76 percent for stratified seed (Chadwick 1935,
U. S. Forest Service 1948).
In the nursery, seeds are usually sown in
drills at the rate of 40 viable seeds per square
foot and are covered with Vj -inch of soil. The
beds are usually mulched with leaves or straw,
which is removed at the first sign of germina-
tion (U. S. Forest Service 1948). In one case,
the yield per pound of cleaned seed was 2,979
plants when seed was spring-sown after strati-
fication for 155 days at 40rF (Swingle 1939).
One-year-old stock is usually large enough for
outplanting (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
Use of cuttings or layering are practical al-
ternatives to propagation from seed. Both
softwood and hardwood cuttings root satisfac-
torily (Laurie and Chadwick 1931). No treat-
ment of the cutting material is necessary. Cut-
tings taken in early. August rooted 100 percent
in 5 weeks. Hardwood cuttings taken in mid-
April and immediately set in the field rooted
90 percent in 8 weeks (Doran 1957). A whole-
sale nursery in Minnesota lakes hardwood
cuttings either in the fall or spring, plants
them in 1V2 x 2-foot spacing in sandy loam
beds, irrigates only when necessary, and ob-
tains about 60 percent rooting. The cuttings
are ready for transplanting after one growing
season (Gordon Bailey, personal communica-
tion).
Although treatment is not essential, over 90
percent rooting was obtained in hardwood cut-
tings 6 to 8 inches long which were dipped in
indole butyric acid (500 ppm in talc), planted
in sand, and intermittently mist-sprayed
(Srni.th.herg 1964). Sand was a better rooting
medium than peatmoss for potted cuttings of
various dogwood species (Vermeulen 1959).
Layering is also a common practice.
Branches are held to the ground with hooks
and covered with loose soil. Rooting occurs
after several weeks. A shoot rooted in this
manner is merely cut from the parent plant
and transplanted to the desired location
(Hartmann and Kester 1959).
46
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MANAGEMENT
The case by which the species can be propa-
gated and its fairly rapid growth on open
moist sites makes it a desirable choice for
streambank planting and wildlife cover adja-
cent to farm ponds (Chapman 1947a). If, is
also commonly used for windbreaks, gullies,
and field and woodland border plantings (Gra-
ham 1947).
Planting trials in New York led to conclu-
sions that red-osier can be used interchangea-
bly with silky dogwood (C. urriomum) in all
but the driest sites. Red-osier fruited more
abundantly and somewhat later than silky
dogwood, but not enough later to provide win-
ter food for wildlife. Most of the wildlife use of
both species apparently was feeding by song-
birds. Both species showed good survival and
growth (Smith 1964).
Red-osier dogwood can be controlled by
spraying mixtures (in either oil or water) of
2,4-D and 2,4,o-T. Mixtures of dicamba and
either 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T have also been recom-
mended.
47
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EiLlDlSS
AMERICAN ELDER, Sambucus canadensis L. Also called
Blackberry Elder, Common Elder, Elder, Sureau Blanc, and
Sweet Elder.
SCARLET ELDER, Sambucus pubens Michx. Also called Red
or Red-Berried Elder, Stinking Elder, and Sureau Rouge.
D. Michael Worley Charles M. Nixon
Ohio University and Ohio Department of
Athens Natural Resources
New Marshfield
RANGE
Both species occur throughout most of the
Northeast. Scarlet elder is more widely dis-
tributed northward, from Newfoundland to
Alaska, but becomes localized southward, not-
ably in northern Ohio swamps and the Appa-
lachian highlands of West Virginia and Ken-
tucky. American elder ranges from Cape Bre-
ton west to Manitoba, and south to Georgia,
Louisiana, and Oklahoma (Braun 196L Fcr-
nald 1950, Gleason 1963c).
HABITAT
Each species grows under a variety of condi-
tions so that one or the other is acclimated to
practically all the extremes that occur in the
Northeast. Scarlet elder is less adapted to
warmer climates than American elder and
southward becomes localized to the cooler up-
lands or swamp forests (Braun 1961).
Both species tolerate saturated soils. Ameri-
can elder usually occupies well-drained
slightly acid soil (pH 5.5 to 6.0) bordering
streams and in the adjacent bottomlands, but
also grows on gray forest soils and muck (Lau-
rie and Chadwick 1931). Horticultural varie-
ties of American elder succeed best in rich,
moist, sandy soils (-Judkins 1945). American
elder has been found growing up to 4,000 feet
in the southern Appalachians (Hitter and
McKee 1964).
Scarlet elder grows in eircumneutral soils
(pH 6.0 to 8.0) and is somewhat more toler-
ant of dry soils and somewhat less adapted to
saturated soils than American elder. Scarlet
elder is often found on rocky soils (Hottes
1931), and in the Adirondacks is usually
found where mineral soil has been exposed
(Webb 1959).
American elder ranges almost throughout
the eastern deciduous forests (Braun 1961).
In upland mixed, moist-site communities, it is
associated with witch-hazel, maple-leaved vi-
burnum, ironwood, spieebush, and hophorn-
beam, and is most commonly found in the
early succcssional types. In bottomlands, wil-
low, alder, sycamore, and elm are common as-
sociates (Braun 1950). In oak-hickory com-
munities, American elder is associated with
hazelnut, spieebush, wild hydrangea and ooral-
48
-------
berry; and in the oak-chestnut community
with gray dogwood, rose. New Jersey tea, and
grape (Braun 1950).
Scarlet elder is seldom found south of, or
lower in elevation than, the beech-maple forest
zone, and in the southern portions of the re-
gion is restricted to higher altitudes in this
community (Braun 1961). Scarlet elder is also
associated with the hemlock-white pine-north-
ern hardwood communities. Shrub species
found with scarlet elder in these forests in-
clude American fly honeysuckle, beaked hazel,
hophornbeam, and winterberry (Braun 1950).
In the beech-maple and spruce forests of the
Appalachian highlands, striped and mountain
maple, hobblebush, and winterberry are com-
mon shrub associates (Braun 1950).
LIFE HISTORY
Both species bear separate male and female
flowers on the same plant. Flowers usually
occur on second-year and older canes and are
arranged in clusters of compound cymes. Scar-
let elder flowers from April through May, and
the fruits ripen from June through August.
American elder flowers from late June into
August, and the fruits ripen from late July
into September. Seed dispersal occurs from
July to October in American elder and June
to August in scarlet elder (Park 1942, I J. S.
Forest Service 1948).
American elder usually bears seed on sec-
ond-year and older canes, but horticultural va-
rieties grown from seed will occasionally fruit
the first year (Ritter and McKee 1964). In
Connecticut, wildlings first bore fruit at 3
years of age (Spinner and Ostrum 1945). The
life span of individual canes is 3 to 5 years
(Beam 1932). No information is available on
youngest or oldest seed-bearing age of scarlet
elder.
Information about fruit production is
sketchy. In West Virginia, both elder species
were checked during four consecutive years.
There were no crop failures, and 70 to 80 per-
cent of the plants bore fruit. Among 19 plants
of comparable sizes, averaging 0.40 to 0.47
inch dbh, American elder produced about five
times as much fruit, by volume, as scarlet
elder (Park 1942). Scarlet elder may have al-
ternate light and heavy fruit crops, and may
be more variable in fruit yield than American
elder (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
Seed dissemination for both species is
usually through ingestion by birds and mam-
mals. Passage through pheasants inhibited
seed germination of American elder, but pas-
sage through song birds increased subsequent
germination (Krefting and Roe 1949).
Elders reproduce from seeds, sprouts, lay-
ers, and roof suckers; but establishment in
new areas comes mainly from seed. Once es-
tablished, runners of both species tend to
persist through vigorous resprouting (Killer
and McKee 1964). Seedling growth is rather
slow during the first year; seedlings of Ameri-
can elder grew only 2 inches in 45 days (U. S.
Forest Service 1948). After the first year,
growth is rapid for individual canes of both
species, often as much as 15 feet (Ritter arid
McK.ee 1964). Sprout growth is much more
rapid than growth from seed, and is most
rapid in the first year after sprouting. Mature
plants average 3 to 10 feet in height.
American elder grows best in full sunlight;
scarlet, elder is more shade-tolerant (Chapman
1947e). Once established, both elders soon
outdistance herbaceous competition. Thickets
of both species are replaced by more shade-
tolerant species during the later stages of for-
est succession, but individual plants and small
runners will persist under a forest canopy.
USES
At least 50 species of song birds relish the
fruit of American elder during summer and
early fall, and at least 25 species eat the fruit
of scarlet elder during the summer (Van Bur-
sal 1942). Wild turkey, bobwhite, quail,
mourning doves, ruffed grouse, and ring-
necked pheasants also eat the fruit during late
summer and early fall (Martin et al 1951, Van
Dersal 1938) as do red squirrels, rabbits,
woodchucks, foxes, opossums, skunks, chip-
munks. whitcfootcd mice, and raccoons
(Chapman 1947e, Martin et al 1951). White-
tailed deer feed on twigs, foliage and fruit of
both species during the summer (Martin el al
1951), and moose have been observed brows-
ing scarlet elder (Van Dersal 1938). American
elder rates higher on deer food preference lists
from four northeastern states than on those
49
-------
for southern states. Samples of American
elder, coIleeLed in Louisiana and North Caro-
lina, had higher percentages of crude protein
(leaves 18, stems 7, and fruit 14) than most
other browse plants (Hankla 1961).
New growth of American elder contains a
glucoside thai, is occasionally fatal to livestock
(Hankla 1961) and may influence deer utiliza-
tion of elder. In the northern Lake States, a
clipping study of scarlet elder showed erratic
responses to heavy clipping in November. Ca-
pacity of the plants to withstand browsing was
about equal to that of red-osier dogwood and
mountain ash. Elders should be only moder-
ately browsed each year (Aldous 1952). Cot-
tontail rabbits, woodchucks. and red squirrels
have been observed feeding on the bark of
common elder during fall and winter (Martin
et al 1951).
Elders provide fair escape cover for wildlife;
and American elder has been ranked outstand-
ing, along with grape and bittersweet, as nest-
ing cover for small birds (Pctridcs 1942).
American elder is thicket-forming, but the fo-
liage of individual plants is quite open and the
stems are bare. Scarlet elder is less apt to form
thickets and offers less cover. However, during
summer, the partial shade under American
elder promotes a dense ground cover of grasses
and forbs that offers good loafing or feeding
areas for broods of young pheasants and quail
(Chapman 1947a). In Ohio, elder thickets in
bottomlands are often used by raffed grouse
broods during summer. In northern Ohio, win-
tering flocks of mourning doves roosted in a
mixture of elder, sumac, blackberry, and dog-
wood found in openings within a pin oak stand
(Hennessy and VanCarnp 1963).
Both elders have been recommended and
used for wildlife purposes in landscaping home
grounds and roadsides (Curtis and Wyman
193.3, Halweg 1964). Elderberries, of course,
are also attractive to makers of pies, jams, and
wine.
PROPAGATION
Seeds or rooted cuttings are available com-
mercially, particularly for American elder, but
seeds are not usually utilized for commercial
propagation (Mahlstede and Haber 1957).
Wild seed can be harvested from July through
September and should be collected as soon as
fruits ripen. Commercial seed consists either
of dried fruit or clean seed. Seed soundness
and purity for American elder averaged 80
and 92 percent respectively. For scarlet elder,
soundness averaged 97 percent and purity 98
percent (U. S. Forest Service 1948).
Fruit of American elder contains three to
five one-seeded nutlets (Krefting and Roe
1949). Yields of cleaned seed per 100 pounds
of fruit were 7 to 18 pounds for American
elder (14 samples) and 4 pounds for scarlet
elder (6 samples). Average numbers of
cleaned seed per pound (14 samples) were
232,000 for American elder and 286,000 (6
samples) for scarlet elder; ranges were 175,000
to 324,000 and 192,000 to 377,000 respectively
([!. S. Forest Service 1948). Cleaned and
dried seeds of both species showed little or no
loss in viability after nearly 2 years of storage
in sealed containers at 41°F. Scarlet elder
seed also retained viability for 1 year when
stored in moist sand at 41 F (U. S. Forest
Service 1948).
Seeds of both species exhibit variable de-
grees of hard-seededness and embryo dor-
mancy. Scarlet elder is more difficult to germi-
nate than American elder, but both require
pretreatment for good germination during the
first year. As preparation for spring sowing,
seeds can be scarified with sulfuric acid for 10
to 20 minutes (American elder) or 10 to lo
minutes (scarlet elder), washed, and then pre-
chilled at 36 to 40°F for 2 months (Heit
1967a). As an alternative to the acid treat-
ment, a warm/cold stratification in moist sand
was effective for American elder. The sequence
was 60 days at 68 to 86°F alternating daily,
then 120 days at: 41CF. A longer period of
cold stratification, 150 days, was less desirable
because seeds began to germinate at 41 °F
after 120 days. Also, freshly collected seed
showed less dormancy than seed from dried
fruit (Krefting and Roe 1949).
Scarlet elder seed may germinate more uni-
formly if given a combination of the treat-
ments above; acid scarification, 3 to 4 months
of warm stratification, and 2 months of moist
prechilling (Heit 1967a).
For late summer or fall sowing of fresh seed,
acid treatment, as described above, should im-
-------
prove germination in the following spring. Un-
treated seeds sown in late fall ordinarily do
not complete germination until the second
year (Heit 1967a). Fall-sown seedbeds should
be well mulched because freezing does not
favor after-ripening and may kill seeds that
have imbibed water (Duvis 1927).
American elder seed can be sown in drills,
35 viable seeds per linear foot, and covered
with '/4 inch of soil. Germination rates as high
as 80 to 85 percent have been attained. Beds
of scarlet elder seedlings should be given half
shade (U. S. Forest Service. 1948).
Elders can also be propagated from hard-
wood cuttings taken from vigorous 1-year-old
canes. Cuttings should vary in length from 10
to 18 inches, include 3 sels of opposite buds,
and be taken in the spring as soon as the
ground can be worked (Hitter and McKee
1964). Cuttings may also be taken in the fall,
placed in moist peat or sphagnum moss, and
held in cold storage at. approximately 40 'F
for spring planting (Mahlstedc and Haber
1957).
One-year-old seedlings or rooted cuttings of
both species are usually large enough for field
planting (U. S. Forest Service 1918). Ameri-
can elder should be planted in moist, rich,
slightly acid soil, preferably in low swampy
areas in a sunny location. No information is
available about, success of direct-seeding or
the pretreatment of planting areas. If herba-
ceous growth is rampant, scarification should
improve seedling survival. Scarlet elder is
more tolerant of shade and soil conditions and
may be planted on a variety of sites. However,
in the southern portions of the Northeast,
scarlet elder may not succeed at lower eleva-
tions or away from the beech-maple commu-
nity (Braun 1961).
MANAGEMENT
Elders may serve best as nesting cover and
a summer and early fall food source for birds.
American elder seems superior to scarlet elder
for such purposes, but is more demanding in
its site requirements. Mixtures of the two spe-
cies may be desirable, particularly where the
site is partly shaded or the soil is less moist
t han that preferred for American elder. Mix-
tures are also recommended for contrast in
decorative landscape plantings-particularly as
tall background shrubs in fairly moist, partly
shaded locations (Curtis and Wyman 1933).
Pond and stream margins are among the best
locations for both species (Chapman 1947e).
American elder can be used, at least partly,
for erosion control on moist sites. It pioneers
on some strip-mine spoils and may occasion-
ally be useful for reclamation planting (Chap-
man 1947e).
Experience with cultivated varieties of
American elder has shown that annual prun-
ing will considerably improve fruit yield.
Pruning should aim to leave five to six strong,
1-year-old canes and one or two older canes
per runner. Removal of terminal shoots and
dead canes will reduce winter-kill of terminal
shoots and help control elder borers (Hitter
and McKee 1964).
Both species fruit best in full sunlight, al-
though scarlet elder will produce some fruit
under a fairly dense canopy. Shading should
be controlled if maximum fruit production is
desired. Once established, the elders seem to
outdistance herbaceous competition.
For wildlife management purposes, elders
would seldom need to be killed; but they are
susceptible Lo control by AMS or 2,4,5-T.
They are intermediate in susceptibility to
2,4-D, and resistant to Amitrol, diuron. fenu-
ron, and monuron (Dunham 1965).
51
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Vitis aestivalis Michx. and
Vitis aestivalis var. argentifolia (Munson) Fern.
Also called Blue, Bunch, Pigeon., and Silverleaf Grape.
By Lynn M. Shutts
USD A Soil Conservation Service
Moorefield, West Virginia
RANGE
Summer grape (including the variety argen-
tifolia) ranges northward as far as southern
New Hampshire to southern Minnesota—but
not into Canada--and southward to Georgia
and Texas. It is uncommon near the northern
limits of its range. In West Virginia, summer
grape is the most common grape species, and
the variety argentifolia is nearly as abundant
as the typical form (Fernald 1950. Massey
1961, Strausbaugh and Core 1958).
HABITAT
The optimum climatic conditions for sum-
mer grape have not been described, hut grapes
are subject to both cold and heat injury. A
sudden temperature rise in late spring may re-
sult in damage to shoot tips. Spring frosts
often damage foliage if warm weather and
rapid growth precede a sudden temperature
drop. Grapes do best under the moderately
moist conditions necessary for adequate
growth and resistance to disease. The primary
damaging effect of excess moisture (rain or
high humidity) is the enhancement of fungous
diseases thai destroy (he fruit.
This species is generally restricted to up-
land areas (Hedrick 1908). The vines do well
on light, easily crumbled, shallow soils of old
formation (Viala and Ravaz 1903). In Vir-
ginia, summer grape was found growing over a
wide range of soil and site conditions (Shutts
1968). The pH requirements are variable.
Vines often occupy moist bench areas or
ravines on southeastern slopes where organic
matter has accumulated. Common associates
are those species that occupy cove sites. Indi-
vidual vines have been observed climbing in
practically all species of hardwoods and coni-
fers that occur within the range of summer
grape.
LIFE HISTORY
The species bears male and female flowers
on separate plants, and the flowers bloom from
May through July. Pollen is disseminated by
wind and rain. The fruit ripens to a dark pur-
ple in September or October (Massey 1961).
Seeds are disseminated by wind action and by
animals.
The plant is capable of producing seed the
third season after establishment. The fruit
crop is variable and often fluctuates greatly
from year to year, but good crops occur in
most years. Six vines with diameters ranging
from 0.8 to 2.1 inches produced a total of 9,-
52
-------
334 individual grapes in one season. Approxi-
mately 40 percent of these grapes were af-
fected by black rot, fungus, which reduced
their food value. The number of bunches per
vine increased with the diameter of the vine
(Shu Its 1968). Dropping of fruit from the
vines peaked during the first 2 weeks of No-
vember in the Ridge and Valley Province of
Virginia (Shutts 1968).
Grapes may reproduce by means of weeds,
sprouts, or layers. Terminal growth is very
rapid, but lateral growth is slow. A vine 50
years old may have a diameter at ground level
of only 1.5 inches.
The effects of sunlight on establishment are
unknown. However, woodland openings, such
as those produced by windfall or logging, ap-
pear to accelerate growth.
USE BY WILDLIFE
Black bear, raccoon, bobwhite quail, ruffed
grouse, wild turkey, and a host of song birds
eat grapes (Martin et al 1951). Deer browse
the foliage and stems in the spring and early
summer, and may consume large quantities of
fallen leaves during the winter months (Mas-
sey 1961).
In summer, grape stands provide excellent
escape and nesting cover for song birds. The
vines may be so twisted and tangled as to
effectively exclude predators.
Birds often use the st ringy bark in nest con-
struction (Martin et al 1951). Gray squirrels
also build leaf nests with grape vine bark, and
trees with grape vines in them appear to lie
preferred sites for leaf nests.
PROPAGATION
Seed is not available commercially, but may
be collected in fruit traps made of polyethy-
lene (Shutts 1968). Seed collection may be ac-
celerated by shaking the bunches from the
vines during late October and early Novem-
ber. During years of heavy fungus attacks,
seed may be only 50 percent sound.
Grape seeds are not difficult to germinate,
but plants raised from seeds may not be true
to type (Hartmann and Kester 1968:384;
Hoshy 1938:339). Seed should be cleaned,
stratified over winter, and planted in early
spring. Good results have been obtained with
a commercial species (V. vinifera) after a
moist stratification period at. 33 to 40'F for
about 12 weeks before planting (IJartmann
and Kvster 1968:385). After 1 year in
seedbeds, seedlings can be transplanted to
permanent locations (Masse.y 1915).
Probably the most effective method of prop-
agation is layering in early spring, because
this produces new plants of known sex. Plant-
ings should have at least one male plant for
every three or four female plants (Masscy
196]). Cuttings are low in rooting efficiency
(25 percent). Grafting can be used to increase
fruiting vines or pollen-producing vines where
an improper balance is evident (Massry
1945).
MANAGEMENT
Summer grape is well adapted to grow in a
variety of special situations such as over stone
walls, rock piles, fences, spoil banks, or up
over trees of poor quality (Hosley 1938:337).
It could be used in most forest situations
where production of wildlife food and cover
were of primary importance. Grape stands
may be effective in concentrating turkeys and
grouse for harvest because the peak of fruit
fall usually occurs in early November.
The best methods of maintaining grape
stands are not yet known, but U. S. Forest
Service studies about maintenance of grape
stands have been initiated on the Jefferson
National Forest, New Castle, Va. Grapevines
are best controlled in large timber by severing
the vines at their base. In small timber the
herbicide 2,4,5-T can be applied as a foliage
spray.
-------
COMMON GREENBRIER, Smilax rotundifolia L. Also called
Bamboo-Brier. Biscuit-Leaves, Bread and Butter, Catbrier,
Common Bullbrier. Devil's Hop Vine, Horsebrier, Hungry
Vine, Roundleaf Greenbrier, Sowbrier, and Wait-a-Bit.
CAT GREENBRIER, Smilax glauca Walt. Also called Catbrier,
Glaucous-Leaf Greenbrier, Sawbrier, Sarsaparilla Vine, and
Sowbrier.
WITH NOTES ON
SAW GREENBRIER, Smilax bona-nox L.
LAUREL GREENBRIER, Smilax laurifolia L.
By Robert L. Smith
West Virginia University
Morgantown
RANGE
Eleven species of greenbrier occur in the
eastern United States and Canada, but most
grow primarily in the South; and only four
species are considered here.
Common greenbrier is widely distributed
throughout the East, from Nova Scotia to
southern Ontario and Illinois, south lo Florida
and Texas. It is most common in the north-
eastern part of its range (Glcason 1963).
Cat greenbrier, the second most common
species, has a more southern distribution, the
northern edge of its range reaching into south-
ern New England and New York, eastern
Pennsylvania, and southern Ohio (Fcrnald
1950); it is most common in the soul hern part
of its range (Cleasnn 196.1a). Bristly green-
brier is widespread in the Northeast, but is
seldom abundant and is not discussed here be-
cause Utile information about it was available.
Saw greenbrier is chiefly a southern species
that extends northward along the coast to
Maryland and Delaware. Laurel greenbrier. an
evergreen, is primarily a coastal species in the
Northeast, occurring only along the coasts of
Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey (Fernald
1950).
HABITAT
The greenbriers are adapted chiefly for
southern climates. In the North they are
found principally on warmer and drier west-
and south-facing slopes. Common greenbrier is
the most common species in the Northeast; it
grows on a wide range of sites from moist to
well-drained to dry, although in the south it is
54
-------
most abundant in low, damp flat woods (Good-
rum 1961). The optimum soil pll was reported
as 5.0 to 6.0 (Spurway 1941). Cat. greenbrier
and saw greenbrier grow in a variety of soils
and moisture conditions (Goodrum 1961), but
in the Northeast cat greenbrier is characteris-
tic of dry, well-drained soils (Braun 1950). In
the highly dissected mountains of southwest-
ern West Virginia, common greenbrier is
widely distributed on south slopes and grows
over the ridgetops and onto upper north
slopes, but cat greenbrier is confined to
south-facing slopes (W. A. Van Eck and R. L.
Smith, unpublished data). Laurel greenbrier
occurs mostly in low, wet grounds and
swamps. It is most abundant in the bogs and
poeosins near the coast from New .Jersey to
Florida (Ousting 1956).
Both common and cat greenbrier are pi-
oneering successional species as well as compo-
nents of forest understory vegetation. They
commonly invade old fields, where they may
be associated with sumacs, St. John's wort,
black locust, sassafras, blackberry, blueberry,
and bracken fern; and they remain a part of
the understory when forest claims the site.
Common understory associates are witchhazel,
mapleleaf viburnum, grape, and flowering dog-
wood (R. L. Smith, unpublished data).
Although most greenbriers grow well in the
shade, they generally do not grow or mature
as rapidly, or produce as much fruit, as plants
in the open (L. K. Halls 1968, unpublished re-
port). Common greenbrier is more shade-tol-
erant than cat greenbrier, and good fruit crops
have been noted in West Virginia for common
greenbrier in 70 to 80 percent shade. Both
species usually achieve maximum growth and
produce the most fruit along the forest edge
and in forest clearings where better moisture
conditions may compensate for shading, or in
old fields where they may cover the ground
with dense spiny tangles. In Texas, young
common and saw greenbrier plants yielded 11
or 12 times more browse in the open than in
heavy shade from pines (L. K. Halls 1968, un-
published report). No such data for intermedi-
ate levels of shading are available; but in the
Northeast, common greenbrier, at least, grows
better than cat greenbrier in partial shade.
Shading of about 10 to 20 percent may be op-
timal for common greenbrier.
In the woods, common and laurel greenbrier
tend to climb into trees. In the Northeast,
common greenbrier rarely overburdens the
supporting trees, and it seldom interferes seri-
ously with tree or shrub regeneration. Cat
greenbrier, however, often dominates other
woody vegetation in old fields.
LIFE HISTORY
The greenbriers are climbing vines sup-
ported by tendrils that grow in pairs from the
axils of the leaf. The male and female flowers,
small and greenish yellow or white, are borne
in small clusters on separate plants. In the
Northeast, common and cat greenbrier bloom
in May and June, and saw greenbrier from
May to July. Laurel greenbrier flowers later.
August and September, and its fruit does not
ripen until October of the following year (Fer-
nald 1950, Gleason 1963a. Van Dersal 1938).
The fruits of common, cat, and saw green-
brier ripen during September and October, the
first year, into black berries covered with a
whitish bloom. The fruit, of common green-
brier usually contains 1 or 2 seeds, but may
have 4. Cat greenbrier fruit may also have 0 to
4 seeds but, usually has 1 to 3 (F. L. Pogge,
unpublished data). In Connecticut, cat green-
brier fruited first, at age 2 years among wild
plants and at 1 year in nursery-grown vines
(Spinner and Ostrom 1945). The canes, which
live for 2 to 4 years, produce flowers after the
first year, usually on the annual shoot growing
from the upper part of the cane (Goodrum
1961). Fruits usually persist on the vines into
the winter (Park 1942). Cat and common
greenbrier fruits often persist, until the next
summer.
The fruits of common and cat. greenbrier
consist; of about equal weights (oven-dry) of
fruit pulp and seed (L. K. Halls 1968, unpub-
lished report). Chemical analysis percentages
for seed collected in Rhode Island and air-
dried were, for common and cat greenbrier re-
spectively: protein 9, 11; fat 5, 8; crude fiber
19, 18; nitrogen-free extract 61, 57; ash 3, 3;
and water 3, 4 (Wright 1941). Leaves and
browse-stems of common greenbrier collected
in North Carolina, Maryland, and Louisiana
55
-------
have been similarly analyzed. Crude protein
percentages ranged from 7 to 16 percent and
varied with season and site factors as follows:
Higher Leaves Spring Burned site Open site
Lower Twigs Fall Unburned Woods
Fat content was generally low, 2 to 4 percent,
except for one sample (6.1 percent) of leaves
from Louisiana (Blair and Epps 1969; DeWitt
and Derby 1955; Halls and Epps 1969: Smith
et al 1956).
Although greenbriers reproduce by seed,
common, cat, and saw greenbriers spread most
rapidly by means of underground stems. The
underground stems of saw greenbrier bear
woody tubers growing singly or in clumps up
to 6 inches across. Cat greenbrier has tubers
and rhizomes, the latter possessing small
prickles between the nodes. Common green-
brier lacks tubers, but has long, slender un-
derground stems. Laurel greenbrier has hard
and thickened tubers, but lacks true stolons
(Vines 1960). These underground stems
usually produce new canes annually, and the
canes grow quickly.
Nearly all the annual growth of greenbrier
stems is completed in a relatively short time.
In Texas, common greenbrier started growth
in early April, and 90 percent of the growth
was complete by 1 May for plants in pine
woods and by 2U May for plants in the open.
Plants under the pines consistently started
growth about 3 to 6 days earlier than those in
the open. Mean length of "browse twigs" was
40 percent greater in the open than in the
woods—probably representing a real but not
statistically significant difference (Halls and
Alcaniz 1972). There may be some dieback in
late summer and fall (Halls and Alcaniz
1965b). Clipping and browsing stimulate pro-
duction of new shoots; up to 60 percent of
greenbrier annual growth can be browsed
without injury (Schilling 1938). Even when
all the new monthly growth was removed,
common and laurel greenbrier were highly te-
nacious species in Texas ( Lay 1965a).
Common and laurel greenbrier sometimes
form almost impenetrable spiny thickets. Saw
and cat greenbrier are more open and strag-
gling in their growth form, hut cat greenbrier
often forms dense low tangles in old fields.
USES
Of all vines and shrubs in the North-
east, few if any outrank the greenbriers for
wildlife food and cover. The fruit of greenbrier
is eaten by at least 38 species of non-game
birds (Martin et al 1951), such as the catbird,
crow, mockingbird, thrasher, robin and other
thrushes, white-throated sparrow, phoebe
(Hausman 1931), and pileated woodpecker
(llausman 1928). Common greenbrier and cat
greenbrier are important in the winter diet of
ruffed grouse, especially in the central and
southern Appalachians (Gilfillan and Bezdek
1944; Nelson et al 193S) and are taken in the
same area by the wild turkey (Bailey and Ri-
nell 1968, Martin et al 1939, Moshy and Hand-
Icy 1943). Greenbrier fruits are also eaten by
sharp-tailed grouse, prairie chickens, and
ring-necked pheasant (Van Dersal 1938).
Greenbrier seeds may also serve as grit for
game birds.
Greenbriers are among the most important
deer browse plants, especially in the southern
and central Appalachians, where they are uti-
lized throughout the year (Blair and Halls
1968, Dalke 1911, Good rum 1961, Lay 1969,
Ripley and McClure 1963). The greenbriers
are highly palatable to deer (Halls ct al 1957,
Halls et al 1969), and are exceptionally succu-
lent. Even in fall the twigs contain no more
than 32 percent dry matter. And greenbrier
browse is relatively high in protein. Deer re-
quire a daily protein intake of 13 to 16 per-
cent (dried weight) for growth, and 7 percent
for maintenance (Magruder et al 1957). The
leaves of greenbrier provide sufficient protein
for animal growth during the early flush of
plant growth in the spring (Blair and Halls
1968), and the twigs contain sufficient protein
for maintenance in spring (Blair and Epps
1969). Protein levels decline steadily through-
out the summer, but remain above the amount
needed for maintenance until the leaves fall.
In winter the twigs supply, or nearly sup-
ply, the needs for maintenance. Laurel green-
brier, since it is an evergreen and leaves are
available as browse through the year, ade-
quately supplies maintenance requirements of
deer; and the twigs of common greenbrier may
also meet maintenance needs during winter.
Twigs of common greenbrier collected in Mary-
56
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land contained over 10 percent crude protein
in winter (DeWitt and Derby 1955), and
twigs collected in North Carolina contained
over 13 percent crude protein in winter
(Smith et al. 1956). Twigs of common green-
brier collected in Louisiana, however, con-
tained only 7 percent crude protein in winter
(Blair and. Epps 1969). Like most woody
browse species, greenbriers contain adequate
amounts of calcium, but are deficient in phos-
phorus (Blair and Epps 1969).
Greenbriers also withstand and respond well
to heavy browsing. Up to a point, the more
the canes are browsed, the more additional
growth they add. Thus, palatability, nutri-
tional quality, and availability make green-
briers important in the management of white-
tailed deer in the Northeast, as well as in
southern United States.
Rabbits also browse the leaves and twigs of
greenbriers, especially those of common and
cat greenbriers (Blair 1936 Tripperisee 1938).
For covering tree stumps, trellises, etc., and
for an inpenetrable fence along property
boundaries, horticulturists suggest the com-
mon greenbrier as a desirable species (Everett
1960, Taylor 1948).
Native North Americans and early pioneers
used the roots of some greenbriers as food.
They pounded the roots to a pulp, washed
them in water, strained this, and allowed the
sediments to dry into a fine reddish powder.
This powder, after boiling in water, produced
a jelly-like pudding. The meal was also used
to make bread or cakes, fried in bear grease,
and to thicken soups (Gibbons 1970). The
young shoots of the four greenbriers discussed
can be eaten raw as a salad or cooked like as-
paragus tips. Greenbrier extract was once used
as a mild diuretic.
PROPAGATION
Because it is generally considered a nui-
sance, much more emphasis in the literature is
placed on the eradication of greenbrier than
on its propagation (Fernald 1950. Straus-
baugh and Core. 1952, Taylor 1948).
A recommended method of propagation is
to divide and plant the roots in spring. The
soil should be firmed about t he roots and kept
thoroughly moistened (Everett 1960). Canes
may not appear from the root slocks until the
second year (Goodrum 1961).
Some greenbriers can also be propagated
from stem cuttings. In Texas, cuttings about 6
inches long were taken iii May when the t wigs
were actively growing and the leaves were
fully expanded, in September when the growth
was over and the wood was partially matured,
and in January (Halls and Alcaniz 1965a). All
leaves except two terminals were removed
from each stem; the cut ends were dipped in a
solution of indolebutyric acid, set upright to a
depth of 2 inches in a 3 to 1 mixture of sand
and peat, and the cuttings were shaded 30
percent and mist-sprayed regularly. Rooting
success was 55 percent for common greenbrier.
Saw greenbrier rooted erratically (32 per-
cent), cat greenbrier rooted poorly, and laurel
greenbrier did not. root at all. Cuttings taken
in May generally rooted better than those
taken in September, but the latter month is
better suited to out-planting in the. spring
(Halls and Alcaniz 1965).
Greenbriers can be propagated from seed,
but optimal procedures are unknown. Howard
(1915) obtained 51 percent germination of
common greenbrier seed in 38 days. The seeds
had been cleaned, dried, and stratified out-
doors over winter, during which time they
were exposed to freezing. Common and saw
greenbrier seed in Texas responded well to
cleaning and stratification in moist sand at
40°F over winter. Seeds were planted in early
spring and lightly covered with soil. Seedlings
were ready for transplanting after 1 year in
the nursery (Lowell Halls 1970, personal com-
munication).
Fruit and seed data supplied by Franz L.
Pogge for 52 samples of common greenbrier
and 35 samples of cat greenbrier collected at
various sites near Morgantown, West Virginia
were:
57
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Common Cat
Item greenbrier greenbrier
Fruit size, inches 1/8 7/16 3/16-7/16
Seeds per fruit:
Usual number 1-2 1-3
Itange 0-4 CM
Sound seed, averaRe 1.33 1.90
Seed soundness, percent' 51-89 74-94
Fruits per pound, average 1,825 1,550
Sound seed/pound fruit:
Average 2.425 2,950
Lowest 1.600 2,050
Highest 3,750 3,525
Clean sound seed/pound,
average 9,225 9,775
*Exludinpi one abcrrently low sample for each
species.
In current studies (-July 1972) by the
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station,
common greenbrier was fairly easy to propa-
gate from seeds, stem cuttings, and root cut-
tings, but cat greenbrier showed promising re-
sults only from tubers collected while; dormant.
(Franz Pogge, personal communication).
MANAGEMENT
Greenbrier grows in partial shade, in the
open, and on a variety of soils. However, maxi-
mum growth of twigs and production of fruit
is usually obtained from plants in the open.
This suggests that a major management prac-
tice .should involve release of vines from over-
head shade. This would increase fruit produc-
tion and the quantity and quality of browse.
When canes become too tough or grow out
of the reach of deer, new growth can be stimu-
lated by cutting or disking, and bv prescribed
burning (Goodrum 1961, Lay 1956). The un-
derground stems are highly resistant to fire,
and new shoots develop quickly (Lay 1956).
Prescribed burning increased boih forage pro-
duction and protein content of common green-
brier. High-intensity fires produce the highest
quality browse. Protein content of browse in-
creased 8 percent after low-intensity fire, and
19 percent after a high-intensity fire (DeWitt
and Derby 1955).
Eradication or control of greenbrier by cut-
ting is usually ineffective. Individual plants
may be eliminated by digging out the roots;
but for species as aggressive as greenbrier, this
may be impractical. Cat greenbrier has proven
rather difficult to control by herbicidal sprays.
It is moderately to completely resistant to
granular borate TBA applied at the rate of
275 to 400 pounds per acre (Wovstemeyer
1963), and to fenuron at the rate of 16 pounds
per acre (McCuily 1958). Effective control of
greenbrier was obtained by foliar and stem
sprays (in water) of 2,4,5-T at 2 pounds acid
equivalent per acre (Ehvell 1961). Common
greenbrier was controlled (kill of 95 percent)
by spraying with 2,4-D plus 2,4,5-T in oil at 1
to 20 in 1 part oil and 3 parts water applied to
the stems and foliage in July (Niering 1961).
Saw greenbrier was rated susceptible to AMS
only, among 9 herbicides (Dunham 1965).
58
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'AAmi-mm
Crataegus L.
Also called Cenellier, Haw, Pommettes, Red Haw, Thorn,
Thorn-Apple.
By Ward M. Sharp
USDl Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
Warren, Pa.
SPECIES
Hawthorns comprise the largest single
group of shrubs and small trees in the Middle
Atlantic Stales and Northeastern States and
Provinces. Because of the hawthorn's complex
nature, the genus is divided into 19 series; and
species representing 17 of these series occur in
the Northeast. Regional floras or manuals are
recommended for identification of the haw-
thorns. "The Illustrated Flora of the North-
eastern United Stales and Adjacent. Canada"
(Gkason 1963c), and '"'The Flora of West Vir-
ginia" (Strausbaugh and Core. 1953) are par-
ticularly helpful because of their illustrations
in addition to the keys.
Hawthorns are medium to tell shrubs, 5 to
25 feet in height, with round, dense crowns in
some species; crowns of other species are gen-
erally cylindrical or conical. Upon close-up
inspect ion, hawthorns arc distinguished by the
presence of straight or slightly recurving,
smooth, hard thorns on the woody branches;
and sometimes additional multi-branched
thorns on the larger main stems. The presence
of stout thorns is a year-round characteristic
that distinguishes hawthorns from other
shrubs and small trees. The sweet crab apple
\Malus coronaria. (L.) Mill.] is often mistaken
for a hawthorn, but the short, thorns in the
crab apple arise from (he apex of a short, leaf-
bearing, spur-like branch.
After mid-August, the small, berry-like
fruits of most hawthorns (urn reddish to red.
Only a few species have yellow or yellowish
fruits. The later-ripening species retain their
fruits after leaf drop; and, in years of heavy
crops, the red fruits impart to the crown a red-
dish tint that serves as a further distinguish-
ing mark in this season of the year. The red
fruits of the deciduous hollies, especially com-
mon winlerberry I Hex ve.rtudllula (L.) A.
gray], also impart a reddish tint in their
crowns in autumn.
RANGE
Hawthorns occur throughout the Northeast,
in pastures, in fence rows on farms, and on
idle lands in rural areas. Western sections of
Pennsylvania and New York, for example,
have a rich hawthorn flora, both in numbers of
species and abundance in local areas. Haw-
thorn abundance is associated with areas
where farms were operated for livestock as
well as row crops. In areas where row crops
-------
prevailed, hawthorns are uncommon; but. in
localities where grazing of livestock was im-
portant,. hawthorns are common to abundant.
In the coastal and piedmont provinces of the
region and in the sprawling megalopolis, inten-
sive dean farming and the abundance of east-
ern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) have
limited the hawthorns' distribution and abun-
dance.
HABITAT
Hawthorns are well adapted to the climate
of the Northeast. Ohio, Pennsylvania, and
New York have the greatest array of species;
at least 60 percent of all species in North
America may occur in these states. Hawthorns
are both cold-hardy and drought-hardy except
in the flowering period, when the female flow-
er-parts (styles and stigmas) are vulnerable to
frost.
The numerous species of hawthorns are
adapted to a broad range of soil types, ranging
from fertile calcareous soils t,o acid soils of
sandstone origin and low N-P-K content.
Hawthorns generally prefer moist or well-
drained sites, especially the latter; but, sites
water-logged in spring support a number of
species.
Hawthorns require full sunlight for optimal
growth. They are intolerant, of shading, and
wane and die off when overtopped by a tree
canopy. Being tall shrubs, they convert open
grassland to a savanna-type community where
grasses arid forbs are continuous in the ground
layer and the tall hawthorn shrubs are scat-
tered throughout the site.
A unit of area populated by hawthorns is
defined here as a stand. In Pennsylvania,
stands occupied by hawthorns varied in size
from I to 60 acres, with an average of about 4
acres (Hoover 1901). Past land-use practices
determine the development of hawthorn
stands. Land grazed by livestock favored haw-
thorn invasion and development. Cows rel-
ished the ripened fruits and disseminated the
bony seeds in their dung, which nurtured the
hawthorn seedlings and aided their establish-
ment in sodded areas. Crazing by livestock
prolongs the life of a hawthorn community.
The hawthorn stand is also a rich site for
other shrubs and brambles. Such shrubs as
sweet crab apple, sumacs, dogwoods, juneber-
ries. and blueberries occur in these communi-
ties. Old-field species of blackberries (chiefly
those of the section Arguti) may develop
clonal colonies.
Abandoned lands that were previously used
for livestock operations are more productive of
hawthorns than those used for row crops. But
in the absence of grazing, trees usually invade
and finally engulf the open land. Common tree
invaders are those whose seeds are dissemi-
nated by the wind—ash, maple, elm, and pine.
Black cherry also invades where seeds are
brought in by birds. By repelling browsing an-
imals, hawthorns protect, other seedlings that
grow up through them, and these invaders
eventually shade out the hawthorns and domi-
nate the site. Hawthorns—to their own detri-
ment—are excellent nurse crops for invading
trees.
LIFE HISTORY
In Pennsylvania, early flowering species
generally begin blooming about May 5. and
later flowering species come into full bloom in
the first 10 days of June (Hoover 1961).
Flowering dates are not identical from year to
year because of annual variations in spring
temperatures. Because the flowering period of
different species extends over a month, late
spring frosts would affect only those species in
flower at the time of a freeze. In stands with
only early-flowering species, for example, an
early May frost could eliminate the fruit crop.
The fruits of early-flowering species ripen in
late August, while those of late-flowering spe-
cies ripen after mid-September. Fruits of ear-
ly-ripening species have soft, pulpy flesh and
do not have lasting qualities. Those ripening
after mid-September have firm, fleshy fruits.
Fruits of some of the latter species, upon fall-
ing to the ground and being covered by leaves
or giass, remain firm into the following spring.
Seeds of hawthorns are hard, bony nutlets.
When fruits are eaten by mammals or birds,
only the pulp is digested, and the seeds pass
through the alimentary tract. There are excep-
tions, of course, such as cud-chewing mammals
or the larger game birds with gizzards efficient
in grinding. Deer pass few seeds, if any, but
cattle pass numerous seeds in their dung. In
60
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ruffed grouse, the bony seeds appear to serve
as grit, but many are found intact in drop-
pings.
Hawthorns are propagated in nature by
seeds. Three factors have been considered im-
portant for regeneration: availability of seeds,
suitable germination conditions, and survival
of seedlings (Hoover 1981). Hawthorn seed-
lings most commonly establish in grasslands.
Best survival is in recently abandoned cow
pastures or where grazing is light. Seedlings
are unable to establish themselves in full
shade.
Hawthorns may grow from a single stem, or
two or more may arise from a base. The latter
form is often the result of rabbit browsing in
the seedling stage or crowding of plants grow-
ing side by side. Frequently two or occasion-
ally three plants of different species may arise
together, their crown branches forming what
appears to be a single shrub. This t rait can be
confusing in species identification.
Once hawthorns attain about 2 feet in
height, the sharp thorns in the compact crown,
if hedged from previous browsing, create a
barrier to livestock and deer. Cottontails may
inflict heavy browsing on seedlings about 6 to
24 inches in height, but rabbits avoid taller
plants as a rule.
Since hawthorns are shade-intolerant, they
cannot compete with faster-growing trees or
tall shrub regeneration that overtops or
crowds the sides of the crown. In particular,
the spreading, vigorous crowns of sweet crab
apple often crowd and weaken hawthorns by
shading the sides of their crowns.
INSECTS AND DISEASES
Hawthorns are subject to attack by both in-
sects and diseases. Based on my hawthorn re-
search, those species with thick, leathery
leaves are the most resistant, while those with
leaves of thin texture are the most vulnerable.
Insect infestations are, as a rule, periodic and
local. But the troublesome diseases may be an
eliminating factor unless the source of infec-
tion is eradicated.
Several groups of insects attack hawthorns
(Hoover 1961, Johnson et al 1966, Wiegc.l and
Baumhofer 1948). Field studies indicate that
the hawthorn lacebug (Corythucha cydoniae)
and the wooly aphid (Eriosoma crataegi) in-
flict the most damage over extended areas in
Pennsylvania (Hoover 1961). Infestations of
lacebugs destroy the chlorophyll by August,
leaving the leaves brown and sere. Wooly
aphids attack the branches en masse, probe
into the cambial layer, and girdle or kill
branches along one side.
Defoliating insects known to feed on haw-
thorn leaves are the tent caterpillar (Malaco-
soma americana) and the fall cankerworm
(Alsophila pometaria). Outbreaks of the can-
kerworm are periodic, and only one severe at-
tack on hawthorns was observed in Pennsyl-
vania over a 16-vear period. This infestation
coincided with a regional irruption occurring
across northern Pennsylvania during 1966 to
1968. Atier two successive years of complete
defoliation, hawthorns became weakened and
top dieback was prominent.
The hawthorn leaf-aphid (Anuraphis cra-
laegifoUae) is a pest (Wiegel and Baumhofer
1948) that seems to cause only minor damage
while leaves are succulent. I observed local
damage to hawthorn stands by the seventeen-
year cicade (Magicicade septendecim) in
Pennsylvania. The female cicadas damage
hawthorns when slitting the branches in the
act of laying eggs. Their damage is local be-
cause of isolated nature of the outbreaks. The
long interval between attacks permits the
shrubs to recover.
Two rusts of the genus ( J ymnosporarigium,
two leafblights (Fabraea maculata and Ento-
mnsporium thuemenii). and fireblight (Er-
winia amylovora) were reported as causing
disease in hawthorns (Johnson et al 1966,
Strong 1960). But these blights were not en-
countered on native species of hawthorns dur-
ing field work in Pennsylvania (Hoover 1961).
The English hawthorn (Gralaegus oxycantha
I,.), its horticultural cultivars, and other ex-
otic species arc the principal targets for these
blights (Inman 1962, Nichols 1958, Strong
1960).
Two eastern redcedar/hawthorn rusts, (G.
clavipes and G. globosum) parasatize haw-
thorns. Of all the diseases, the hawthorn rust
(G. el-avipes) is the most destructive, infesting
the leaves, fruits, and branches (Hoover
1961). The eastern redcedar is the alternate
61
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host of these rusts. Wherever redcedar occurs,
one can expect to find either heavily infested
hawthorns, the remains of those that are
dying out, or no hawthorns in the area. The
cockspur hawthorn (C. crusgalli L.) with
thick leathery leaves, is one of the few native
species whose leaves resist rust. Leaves of the
series Rotundifoliae. which also are thick, re-
sist damage. But the fruits of the above-men-
tioned hawthorns are damaged or eliminated
by these rusts.
The control of diseaes and insects infesting
hawthorns requires comment. Attempts to
eliminate rusts and leaf blights or hawthorns
by use of chemical fungicides have been unre-
warding (Chapman and Schneider 1955,
Strong I960, Nichols 1958. Strong and Klom-
parens 1955, lnman 1962). Applications of
fungicide sprays were time-consuming and ex-
pensive; and results were temporary. The only
permanent, solution for the control of haw-
thorn rusts is to cut the infested redcedars.
Several species of junipers are resistant to
cedar rust (May 1965). These rust,-resistant
species should replace the redcedar in future
estate and landscape planning. But the prob-
lem of values between established stands of
hawthorns and redcedars becomes controver-
sial when multiple land ownership is involved.
Leaf blights prove troublesome only among
the exotic cultivars such as English hawthorn.
Based on my extended field studies of haw-
thorns in Pennsylvania and New York, the na-
tive hawthorns are resistant to leaf and fire
blight. Since insect infestations are periodic
and local in nature, use of insecticides may
prove more harmful to the total hawthorn
community than the impact of insect out-
breaks.
USES
The fruits of hawthorns are consumed by a
number of birds and mammals, including up-
land garnehirds and songbirds, fur and game
animals, and deer and cattle (Chapman
1947b; Martin el al 1951). The occurrence of
hawthorn fruits in food studies varies partly
because year-to-year yields are inconsistent.
There may be good to bumper yields in a par-
ticular year, only to be followed by 1 or 2
years of poor yields.
A review of food studies of railed grouse in
the region reveals that hawthorn fruits are a
key item in their fall diet. The fruits are eaten
by wild turkeys, beginning with the early-rip-
ening species in August. A recent statewide
study of white-tailed deer foods in Ohio
showed that the fruits and leaves of haw-
thorns ranked 14th as a preferred food item
(Nixon et al 1970). Cottontails feed on the
fallen fruits, and songbirds utilize the fruits
adhering to the branches in winter.
The leaves and succulent shoots of haw-
thorns provide palatable forage for deer and
cattle. Heaviest use occurs in May and June,
when shoot tips are succulent. Under heavy
browsing, plants are hedged to 5 feet above
ground. Cottontails browse seedlings under 2
feet in height throughout the year. Hawthorn
use by cottontails in Michigan closely ap-
proached that of apple which was a highly pre-
ferred winter browse (Trippp.nse.e. 1938). My
recent study on the impact of browsing in a
savanna community in northwestern Pennsyl-
vania revealed that 85 percent of all haw-
thorns under 5 feet in height were browsed by
deer or by cottontails.
Hawthorn stands serve as special habitat
niches for upland wildlife. They are important
brood-rearing areas for rulTed grouse and wild
turkeys (Sharp 1965), and they form excel-
lent woodcock coverts (Liscinsky 1963). In
Ohio, abandoned fields reverting to haw-
thorns, sweet crab apple, and shrubby dog-
woods—all staple deer foods—provide deer with
their most productive feeding areas (Nixon et
al 1970).
Hawthorns provide nesting sites for several
species of birds, including brown thrashers,
catbirds, robins, blue jays, and mourning
doves (Chapman 1947b). The dense crowns of
hawthorns afford protective cover not found in
other shrubs or trees. The frail nests of
mourning doves are amply anchored against
storms. The thorny branches serve as a deter-
rent to nest predators such as mammals and
possibly snakes.
In addition to providing food and cover for
wildlife, hawthorns impart aesthetic appeal in
the landscape. This large genus of shrubs pre-
sents a variety of crown forms, ranging from
columnar, flat-topped to roundish outlines
62
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(Hoover 1961, Watts 1946). Hawthorns have
been used in landscaping estates, campuses,
and other open areas. They contribute to
landscape displays through the seasons by
their while bloom in spring, their summer foli-
age, their crimson fruit in autumn, and the
gray outlines of their crowns in winter.
Hawthorns are used for screening and for
hedges. They have proved valuable in public
camping areas for screening between camp-
sites. An outstanding demonstration of this is
the Forest Service'.-: Burkaloons Recreation
Area in Warren County, Pennsylvania. Haw-
thorn hedges serve as barriers because their
thorns render them formidable. The same trait
applies when used for screenings.
PROPAGATION
For those interested in improving wildlife
habitat, the best solution to the problem of
propagating hawthorns would be the estab-
lishment of nurseries consisting of native spe-
cies. Such nurseries would provide an available
source of the most valuable early-, medium-
and late-ripening species. The seed source
must, be certified as to species; otherwise the
fruiting potential and adaptability of the
stock may be low.
Commercial nursery stock is expensive, and
hawthorn species offered for sale are usually
either of exotic or unknown origin. Growing
native hawthorns for commercial distribution
no doubt entails financial risk on the part of
the operator. Will the demand for hawthorns
in wildlife plantings be of sufficient volume to
warrant the establishment of hawthorn nurs-
eries? Assuming that a nursery is a feasible
economic undertaking, one must consider
these factors for successful operation. First, a
seed source of preferred native species must be
located. Second, pretreatment of seeds before
planting needs careful consideration. And
third, the nursery must be protected against
browsing by cottontails.
The fruiting potentialities and other quali-
ties of native hawthorn in Pennsylvania and
western New York have been under study
during the past 16 years. Because of their an-
nual yield ratings and site adaptability, those
species named in table 1 are recommended for
propagation in wildlife habitats. Other haw-
thorns that occur in the aforementioned
states, but are not recommended, include 25
species or varieties in 11 series.
Table I.—Hawthorns recommended for wildlife habitat
Common name
Scientific name
Height,
feet
OOKDATAK SKKIES
Fruit
availability
Washington hawthorn
phaenopyrum < L f.) Medic
33-30
Kail-winter
CRUS-GALLI SERIES
Cockspur hawthorn
C. crus-galli L.
to 33
Fall-winter
TENUIFOLIAE SERIES
I^arpe-seeded hawthorn
C. macrospenna Ashe
23-26
Fall winter
Roan's hawthorn
C. m. V. roanertnis (Ashe) Palmer
'23-26
Aug.-Sept.
SILVICOLAE SERIES (THE MIDTHOUNS)
C. bcata Sarg.
20-23
Fall-spring
C. brumalis Ashe
20-2(j
do
C. levis Sarg.
10-13
do
C. populnea Ashe
20-23
do
PRUINOSAE SERIES (THE PRUINOSE THORNS)
C. compacla Sarg.
10-13
Fall winter
C. galtingeri Ashe.
20-23
do
C. ftorleri Britt
10-13
do
Frosted hawthorn
C. pruinosa (Wendl.) K. Koch.
23-26
do
COCCINEAE (THE LARGE-LEAVED THORNS)
0. anomaki Sarg.
20-23
Aug.-Oct.
Ontario hawthorn
(' pcdircHatn Sarg
20 2:!
flo
Pennsylvania hawthorn
('. pennsyhmnica Ashe
29-33
do
'According to Ernest J. Palmer in Fcrnatd 1950: 767-801; and GI ration 1963b. v. 2: 338 374.
63
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The Washington hawthorn excels others for
its consistent year-to-year fruiting. First, this
hawthorn flowers after the first of -June in cen-
tral Pennsylvania when chances of frosts art:
nil. Second, its towering, columnar habit of
growth enables it to compete better than other
hawthorns with other woody vegetation. In
hawthorn propagation projects, the Washing-
ton thorn should represent about a third of
the planting stock.
Seed of native hawthorns is the most eco-
nomical and dependable source of propagating'
material in wildlife habitats. However, the
seeds usually exhibit, double dormancy and
may need special treatment to stimulate ger-
mination during the first spring after ripening.
Scarification in sulfuric acid and two-stage
stratification (warm-cold) have been recom-
mended (Flemion 1938).
It is a standard nursery procedure to collect
fruits in the fall and macerate them to remove?
seeds from the pulp. Cleaned seeds are dried
to remove surplus moisture that would cause
heating in storage under warm fall tempera-
tures. Refrigerator storage of seeds is a com-
mon method of holding seeds, but this practice
should be used only as a stop-gap measure be-
fore drying or stratification. Seeds should be
mixed with sand, the mixture of sand and seeds
placed in small wooden boxes lined with V#-
inch hardware cloth, and the boxes stored out-
doors for spring planting. But I have had good
results by collecting the fruits, storing them
outside over winter enclosed in hardware doth
trays (to protect them from rodents. etc.),
and planting them into rows in prepared soil
in the spring.
Direct-seeding in wildlife habitats and
grafting are other methods in hawthorn propa-
gation. Poor results or long waiting periods are
likely to result from direct-seeding. Grafting
among the species of hawthorns has been suc-
cessful. but there are drawbacks in matching
height-growth forms. The Washington thorn
attains a small-tree habit of growth. When
this thorn is grafted to one of the low-growing
shrubby species, the resulting grafted scion is
stunted. The dotted or "gray" hawthorn (Cra-
taegus punctata Jacq.) also has a small-tree
habit of growth. Since it is the most common
and widely distributed hawthorn in the region.
grafting of the Washington thorn to this spe-
cies is recommended.
Because of the hawthorn rust, propagation
of hawthorns should not be attempted in areas
where redcedar is abundant. The cockspur
thorn is the only common species resistant to
leaf rust, but even this species suffers rust
damage to its fruits.
MANAGEMENT
This discussion will deal with maintenance
of existing hawthorn stands, renovation of in-
vaded stands, establishment of new ones, and
the control of disease. Since other native
shrubs of value to wildlife are usually asso-
ciated with the hawthorns in the same .sites,
preservation and management of these other
shrubs must also be considered.
Management of existing stands is a mainte-
nance operation. Since hawthorns and many
other shrubs thrive only during a temporary
stage in succession, removal of tree invaders is
necessary to retard encroachment. Removal
consists of cutting invading tree seedlings, sap-
lings, and trees where necessary. Tn some
areas, the sweet, crab apples will also need to
be thinned to prevent them from crowding the
hawthorns.
There are also former hawthorn stands that
have been overtopped by sapling and pole-
sized trees. Renovating these sites involves
cutting the overstory trees. The operation is
nearly always worth the effort because there is
usually enough suppressed hawthorn regenera-
tion to resurge; furthermore, these sites
usually contain a good seed source in the soil.
Establishing new stands either from seed or
nursery stock is a long-term project. Before
wildlife values are realized, there will be a
waiting period of several years, depending on
the wildlife species. The project must have a
clear objective as well as continuing interest
to follow it through. If tree seedlings are also
present., they may take over the site while the
hawthorns are developing.
Cedar rust can be controlled by cutting the
red cedars in areas where they are scarce. But
in the Piedmont and Coastal areas, where red-
cedar is abundant, the job of control is futile.
In these areas, the only solution is to go to a
rust-resistant species of hawthorn.
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