PB85-177129
Using Mined Space for Long-Term
Retention of Nonradioactive Hazardous Waste
Volume 2. Solution Mined Salt Caverns
Fenix and Scisson, Inc., Tulsa, OK
Prepared Cor
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
Mar 85

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EPA/600/2-85/021b
March 1983
USifib MINED SPACE FOR LUNG-TEKN RETENTION OF
NONRADIOACTIVE HAZARDOUS WASH
Volume 2 - Solution Mined Salt Caverns
by
k. b. Stone
K. A. Coveil
L. W, Weyand
Fenix & Scisson, Inc.
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74119
Contract No. b8-U3-3191
Project ufficer
Carlton C, Wiles
Land Pollution Control Li vision
hazardous Waste Enoineeiing Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
Cincinnati, Ohio 'i5?68
HAZARDOUS WASTE ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OP RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OH 45268

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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Mi tiic taiJ fmtna ifwii an ihi n »i/jn In jut( t umph u*sy
1 «£J»0*T NO. 7.
EFA/6UG/2-83/02lb
3 RECIPIENT S ACCESS'ON <»0
Wl? 1.7.7.1
S. REPORT DATE
March 1983
4. TIT1.6 ANQ SUBTITLE
USING MINED SPACE FOR LONG-TERM RETENTION OF
NONRADIOACTIVE HAZARDOUS WASTE
Vol, H - Solution Mined Salt Caverns
6 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7,Wf.HOfls- R.B. Stone, T.R, Moran, L.W. Weyand, and
C.U. Sparkman; Vol. II - R.B. Stone, K.A, Covel1,
L.W. V'evand
S PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORQANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Fenix & Scisson,Inc.
1401 S. Boulder
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74119
10 PROGP ' M ELEMENT NO
BRD1A
II CONTRACT.GRANT NO
68-03-3191
*2 SPONSORING AGENCY NAMfc AND AOORFS5
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research laboratory, Cin.,0H
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13 TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final - 8/83 - 1/85
1« SPONSORING AGENC* CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY notes
Project Officer: Carlton C. Wiles 513/684-7795
16. ABSTRACT
This two-volume report assesses the current status of using mined-space for long-term
retention of nonradioactive hazardous waste. Volume 1 updates previous studies con-
ducted in 1974 and 1975 and examines pub!isued literature, determines involvement of
government agencies, reviews regulatory and permitting requirements, and identifies
existing mines for a potential demonstration project.
Volume 2 expands the definition of mined space to include that created by solution
mining of salt. This report examines the extent of salt deposits in the continental
United States, relates the salt deposits to waste generating regions, examines the
variances in salt chemistry for the various deposits, describes the methods for
creating solution mined caverns, discusses design and operation considerations,
discusses projects proposed by industry, discusses advantages of the concept, and
discusses needed research.
17. Itev WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALVStS
J DESCRIPTORS
(•.IDENTIFIERS OPEN ENOED TERMS
c. COSAT, 1 tddCroup



18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19 SECWRIT* CLASS • rim Hepil'!
UNCLASSIFIED
31 NO OF PAGES
20 SECURITY Class , Tim pw,
UNCLASSIFIED
32 PRICE
t PA F©»« 2220-1 (*•». 4-77) pscviocs ed«tion >s no iOucte
i

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DISCLAIMER
The information In this document has been funded wholly or in part by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency under Contract Nu. 68-03-3191 to
Fenix li Scisson, Inc. It has been subject to the Agency's peer and adminis-
trative review, and it has been approved for publication as an EPA document.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
i iS-

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r-uN li;uhu
The Environmental Protection Agency was created because- of increasing
public -md aovcrngpnta1 concern about the ..anqers of pollution to the he ,1th
anu welfare of t lie American people. Noxious air, foul water, and spoi led
land art- trayic testimonies to the deteriorat ion of our natural
environment. The complexity of the environment anc the interplay between
its components reauire a concentrated and intearated attack on the problem.
Research and development is the Tirst necessary step in problem
solution, anc it involves oefiinng the problem, measuring its impact, rind
searching tor solutions. The Hazardous Waste Engineering Research
Laboratory develops new and improved technology and systems to prevent,
treat, and manage wastewater and the solid and hazardous waste pollutant
discharges from municipal and community sources; to preserve arid treat
public drinking water supplies; and to minimize the adverse economic,
social, health, and aesthetic effects of pollution. This publication is one
of the products of that research and is a most vital communications l!nk
between the researcher and the user community.
The original studies of using mined space for long-term retention cf
nonradioactive hazardous waste were done 10 years ago. This report
documents development of the concept since then. Thf ossessrrent includes
applicable requlotons, permitting regulations, and technoloaical advances
that have expanded the definition of mined space to include solution-mined
salt caverns as well as conventionally mined space. The use of minee spa^c
for retaining hazardous waste provides an environmentally acceptable
alternative for storing untreatable and residual wastes that are difficult
or expensive to manage with existing technology,
l>avid G. Stophun
Uirector
Hazardous Waste Engineering
Research laboratory
i i

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ABSTRACT
This report is the second of a two-volume document that assesses the
current status of using mined space for long-term retention of nonradioactive
hazardous waste. This volume expands the definition of mir.ed space to include
that created by solution mining of salt. The concept of usinq solution mined
caverns in salt for storing hazardous waste has recently been proposed by in-
dustry as an economically viable method for dispov/i of certain hazardous
wastes. This report examines the extent of sail ueposits in the continental
United States, relates the salt deposits to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) waste-generating regions, examines the variances in salt chem-
istry for the various deposits, describes the methods used for creating
solution mined caverns, discusses the design and operation considerations for
this concept, examines the environmental considerations, briefly discusses
projects proposed by industry, enumerates the advantages of the concept, and
identifies needed research to further the concept.
Volume 1 updates previous studies conducted in 1974-7?» examines recent
literature published on the subject, determines the involvement of government
agencies, reviews regulatory and permitting requirements, and selects existing
mines for a demonstration project.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-3191 by
Fenix & Scisson, Inc. under the sponsorship of the U.S. Envi ronmental Protec-
tion Agency. This report covers the period August 18, 1983 to January 5,
1985, and work was completed as of August 10, 1984.
ii i

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CONTENTS
Page
Disclaimer				i
Foreword 			 , , 				ii
Abstract	in"
Contents 			iv
Illustrations 		vi
Tables		vi
Acknowledgments							vii
1.	Introduction . 				1
Purpose of Volume 2 . 			Z
Organization of Report 	 		3
2.	Conclusions 					4
3.	Recommendations 			5
4.	History of Hazardous Waste Storage in Solution Mined Salt
Caverns			6
Hydrocarbon Storage 	 . 		7
Solution Mined Cavern Risk Areas .... 	 .	8
5.	The Solution Mining Process 	 ..............	9
Historical Development of Solution Mining Concepts 		9
Basic Requirements for Solution Mined Storage Caverns ....	9
Raw Water Supply .............. 		10
Brine Disposal 				10
Salt Dome Solution Mining Techniques 		10
Bedded Salt Solution Mining Techniques 	 . .	14
Solution Mine Facility Design and Construction 	 ...	14
6.	Advantages of Solution Mined Storage ..............	16
7.	Salt Geology of the United States ........ 		17
Bedded Salt 				17
Salt Domes ....... 	 ...... 		17
Seismic Kisk			24
8.	Waste Generation by EPA Region vs. Salt Deposits	28
9.	Salt Chemistr; 		31
iv

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Page
if). Methods for Storing Hazardous Waste in Solution Mined Salt
Caverns 						35
Brine-Balanced Cavern with Brine Discharge Oaring Waste
Injection	35
Gas-Balanced Cavern with 7ero Discharge 		37
Atmospheric Cavern with Controlled Gas Discharge During
Waste Injection	37
In-Situ-Solidified Uaste Storage 		37
"String-of-Hearls" Waste Storage Caverns ... 		37
11.	Design Considerations 		43
Feasibility Study ... 		43
Salt Dome vs. Bedded Salt 		43
Brine-Balanced Caverns ..... 		43
Gas-Balanced Caverns 	 ...	44
Atmospheric Caverns .... 		44
Waste Forms .........................	45
Pressure Considerations 	 . 		45
Temperature Considerations 		46
Underground Injection Control Program 		47
Spacing Considerations 	 .....	47
12.	Operational Considerations for Atmospheric Caverns .......	48
13.	Environmental, Sociological, and Economic Considerations ....	49
14.	Needed Research					51
15.	References	53
APPENDICES
A. Bibliography	A-l
v

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ILLUSTRATIONS
Number

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1?
Ohio
Dome
Typical Salt Dome Storage Well Configuration 	
Salt Dome Cavern Washing 	
Conceptual Flow Diagram for Construction of Hazardous Waste
Retention Cavern in Salt		
Principal Salt Deposits Within the United States 	
General Distribution and Thickness of Salina Salt Beds , ,
Depth to Top of Salt in Northeastern Ohio 	
Composite Section Showing Salina Salt in Northeastern
Map of Gulf Coast Salt Domes . . 	
Generalized Geologic Cross-Section of a Gulf Coast Salt
Structure Hap of Vinton Salt Dome, Louisiana 	
Seismic Risk Map of the United States		
1980 Hazardous Waste Regions vs. Salt Deposits ....
Brine-Balanced Cavern with Brine Discharge During Waste
Injection
Gas-Balanced Cavern with Zero Discharge 	 .
Atmospheric Cavern with Controlled Gas Discharge During Waste
Injection 	 	
In-Situ-Solidified Hazardous Waste Storage . . .
"String-of-Pearls" Waste Storage Caverns ....
12
13
15
18
19
20
21
23
25
26
27
29
36
38
39
40
41
TABLES
Number
1. 1980 and 1981 Industrial Hazardous Waste Generation and Most
Probable Off-Site Disposal, by EPA Region (Thousand Wet
Metric Tons) 	
Analyses of Salt from Avery Island Dome 	
Analyses of Light and Dark Salt from Belle Isle Dome .
4.	Typical Analysis of Rock Salt from New York . 	
5.	Typical Analysis of Rock Salt from Ohio 	
Typical Analysis of Rock Salt from Michigan 	
Typical Analysis of Rock Salt from Kansas		
Typical Analysis of Rock Salt from Texas 	
Comparison of a Typical Salt Dome and Bedded Salt Cavern
Retaining Hazardous Wastes at Atmospheric Pressure . .
Page
30
32
32
33
33
33
34
34
46
vi

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The project team wishes to acknowledge the Project Officer, Mr. Carlton
C. Wiles of the Land Pollution Control Division, Hazardous Waste Engineering
Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, for his support and guidance throughout
the study.
Fenix & Scisson, Inc. project personnel were as follows:
R.
T.
K.
L.
R.
A.
W.
Stone
Moran
Cove 11
Weyand
C, U. Sparkman
Project Manager and
Mechanical Engineer
Mechanical Engineer
Civil Engineer
Librarian
Mining Engineer
vii

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T1 ON I
iNTKOOUCn-JN
Jne cominue.i neu!:n an industrial society depends on <*.s aoihtj to
1ispose or the lazardous wastes it creates in an enviro'-menta1 >y acceptable
manner. Tnis fact nas oeen recognized for many years Dy gove-inent, environ-
mental activists, and concerned industry. Concern over the issue is demon-
strated by creatio'i of the U.S. Envi romnenu1 Protection Agency (EPA. aid the
enactment of numerous federal laws and regulations.
The search for environmentally acceptable and economically viable methods
for hazardous waste storage and disposal has been continuing, with much debate
among legislators, industry, and envi"onmentalists. A national waste -nanaye-
ment progran was formed with enactmer* of the 1976 Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCKA) and the hazardous waste regulations promulgated under RCRA
by EPA.
The present methods of azardous waste disposal a-e: deep well disposal,
ensjineerea landfills, Ian.: treating o1 hazardous was:*, and incineration.
The principal limitations of present disposal and storage methods are:
o Deep Well Disposal - This method can handle only liquid wastes, and the
direction and spread of the liquid is essentially controlled by the
underground formation characteristics once it is injected. Though deep
well disposal is widely used for liquid waste and brine disposal, pres-
ent technology cannot assure that the practice will not pollute usaale
aquifers at some future date.
0 Engineered Landfills - Engineered landfills have been ana are oeing
used for disposal of hazardous sludges and liquids. This disposal
concept can provide environmentally sound, long-ten* conuinment
ir properly designed landfills. However, poorly designed landfills
constructed in the past have encountered leakage, storm runoff, and
high ground water problems. Review of past problems indicates that
with proper engineering design and construction this method of
hazardous waste disposal may remain a viable option for certain wastes
and certain locations.
1

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o Land Treatment - In cms metnod of disposal, cue wast-? s 1 urines jr
liquids are spread on tillable land. This method nas Irmt^d
appl i canil i ty because of zne large lano -sna, r*qu>rea an?: *.ne
relatively slow process of Diodeyradation and assimilation 
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Organization of Keport
Each volume of this report addresses a separate aspect of the use of
mined space. Volume 1 includes a search for suitable existing, conventional,
mined space, in room and pillar salt and limestone mines for a demonstration
of the concept of waste retention in mined space. This volume includes a
literature review, an assessment of the involvement of government organiza-
tions, and a review of regulations and permitting requirements.
Volume 2 consists of a geological, geographical, and environmental as-
sessment of the potential use of solution mined space in salt domes and salt
beds for hazardous waste storage. This concept appears to offer an economical
alternative for the permanent retention of hazardous liquids and slurries.
Th report includes a nationwide assessment of the occurrence of suitable salt
deposits, the chemistry of the individual major deposits, a preliminary match-
ing of the waste-generating regions to the salt deposits, the past history of
the use of solution mined space for hydrocarbon storage, a description of the
solution mining process, a discussion of design and operating factors, and
recommendations for further research.
3

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SECT IUN 2
CONCLUSIONS
1.	Solution mined caverns in dome salt formations are being used for
containment of crude oil by the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve
program.
2.	If the hazardous wastes to be retained are compatible one with another,
and with dome and bedded host rock salts and their brines, this method
of waste retention might be used for permanent storage. Further study
of the compatibility of hazardous wastes with other hazardous wastes and
the compatibility of those wastes with dome and bedded host rock salts
and their brines is required.
3.	The desired type of salt deposits exist near major waste generation
areas.
4.	In-situ solidification of the hazardous waste in a solution mined salt
cavern would reduce the risk of leakage in event of earthquake or
inadvertent drilling into the cavern. Development of salt saturated
hazardous waste/cement or polymer slurry formulations is required that
will combine an acceptable fluidity during emplacement with adequate
strenytn, life, and economy as in-situ solidified waste.
4

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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.	Studies each should be made to establish compatibility of hazardous
wastes with each other and with host rock salts and their brines.
2.	Studies should be conducted to develop salt saturateo hazardous
waste/cement or polymer slurry formulations that will combine an
acceptable fluidity during emplacement with adequate strength, life,
and economy when solidified in-situ,
3.	Preliminary feasibility studies including conceptual designs and order
of magnitude cost estimates should oe prepared for economic and
environmental evaluation and consideration of demonstration of solu-
tion mined hazardous waste retention facilities.
5

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SECTION 4
HISTORY OF HAZARDOUS WASTE STORAGE IN SOLUTION MINEO SALT CAVERNS
The concept of storing liquid or slurry hazardous wastes in solution
mined caverns in salt is not new. Mercury compounds have been permitted to
accumulate in three salt caverns near a chlor-alkali plant in Saskatchewan,
Canada and in salt caverns in Southwestern Ontario. A salt cavern in the
Sarnia District of Southwestern Ontario serves as a repository for heavy
chlorinated hydrocarbons displacing lighter waste to a disposal well. Three
other caverns contain waste purge gas from a gas processing plant near
Sarnia (1).
In 1938, Akzo, a chemical manufacturing firm in the Netherlands, started
disposing of wastes from brine purification units into existing salt cavities
in the Hengelo area. In 1965, they began using salt cavities for the disposal
of salty drilling muds. In 1978, they began disposing magnesium chloride
brine under the salt brine. It is also interesting to note that Akzo devel-
oped the ordinal "string-of-pearls" concept wherein a series of waste dis-
posal caverns are leached, one above the other, from a single deep solution
well (2).
The Carey Salt Company has used worked-out brine cavities to dispose of
waste calcium sulphate slurry from the refining process for over 30 years.
The International Salt Company at Watrkins Glen, New York began placing
the residual natural wastes from their salt production operation into three
interconnected solution wells in 1971. The heavy metals were allowed to
settle out .n a solution cavern displacing the lighter brine to the surface
for injection into a "black water" horizon called Cherry Valley. This dis-
posal well was permitted by the Department of Environmental Conservation of
the State of New York (3).
At least two waste management firms have proposeu retention of hazardous
waste in solution mined caverns.
Empak, Inc. of Houston, a waste management firm, applied to the Louisiana
Department of Conservation for a permit to build a hazardous waste facility on
the Vinton Salt Dome in southwest Louisiana. This proposal anticipates the
creation of one 1,000,000 barrel solution mined cavern each year for the re-
tention of hazardous waste (4). Since this project was announced, a state law
was passed (in 1983) forbidding emplacement of hazardous wastes in salt domes
for a period of two years to allow the state time to evaluate the proposed use
prior to issuance of a permit. This proposal includes a unique cavern place-
ment arrangement and Empak applied for a patent cn this concept. This is the
6

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"string-of-pearls" design in which one deep well is used to create a series of
individual caverns, one above the other. After the lowest cavern is filled,
it is sealed and the next higher cavern is developed. The concept makes
maximum use of the salt resource while minimizing drilling costs. The Empak
caverns are to be evacuated to atmospheric pressure and then filled with waste
slurry containing 10X to 30% solids by weight. Waste gases from the surface
waste storage tanks and from the cavern during filling are to be vented
through a scrubber and flare system to eliminate polluting emissions.
United Resource Recovery, Inc. of Houston, through Keysmith Corp. of
Austin, submitted an application to the Texas Department of Water Resources
(TDWR) for a permit to store hazardous waste in solution mined salt caverns in
Boling Salt Dome in 1983. This application triggered a geologic study to
evaluate the acceptability of using salt domes for waste disposal and to
recommend guidelines for waste storage in domes. The Bureau of Economic Geol-
ogy of the University of Texas at Austin has completed and pub1ished Phase I
and Phase II findings of the study. In addition to identifying technical and
geologic issues regarding such waste storage, these interim reports mention
that solidifying chemical waste in a solution mined cavern might be a desir-
able technique for preventing rapid groundwater transport of the waste, and
that it could also minimize the potential for release of 1ithostatically pres-
surized waste liquids if drilled into inadvertently.
The recent (fall 1984) reauthorization of the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act has a provision included in it which has banned bulk or non-
containerized liquid hazardous waste disposal in solution caverns or under-
ground mines constructed in dmne or bedded salt bodies. This ban will remain
in effect until the Environmental Protection Agency has determined through a
series of finuings, the feasibility of the concept and issued a permit for a
specific facility. This nr.. requirement has a direct impact upon and will
delay the permitting of the proposed Louisiana and Texas facilities described
above.
For additional sources of information on the storage, disposal, and
retention of non-rad,oactive waste in solution caverns in salt refer to the
bibliography.
Hydrocarbon Storage
No discussion of solution mined salt caverns would be complete without
mention of the vast quantities of hydrocarbons stored in them. Although these
hydrocarbons are not hazardous wastes, absolute containment has been required
and proven. In 1983 there was a total of over 520 million barrels (42
gallons/barrel) of storage capacity in the United States for propane and other
light hydrocarbons (5), In addition, there are nearly 500 million barrels of
crude oil presently in storage in the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve. The
LOOP project in the Clovelly salt dome south of New Orleans has eight caverns
capable of storing a total of over 30 million barrels of crude oil. Private
natural gas companies have a total of over 20 million barrels of cavern stor-
age space, with storage at wellhead pressures of up to 3,950 psi. With over
one billion barrels of solution mined storage capacity available in the United
States, it should be apparent that industry has the utmost confidence in the
containment and security of this concept.
7

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Solution Mined Cavern Risk Areas
Early brine caverns were used to provide feedstock for chemical plants.
With continued use, some of these caverns were allowed to coalesce with adja-
cent caverns or were allowed to wash upward, destroying the rock salt roof.
In some instances, the collapse of a large cavern at shallow depth resulted in
the formation of a large "sinkhole." These problems have been eliminated in
more recent caverns by careful attention to the solutioning process and
judicious use of blanket material and sonar surveys.
The first high-pressure natural gas storage caverns were solution mined
at a depth interval of 5,700-6,700 feet. These caverns were operated "dry"
between predetermined maximum and minimum pressures. During operation, it was
noticed that the cavern tended to shrink or suffer "closure" because of the
plastic nature of the rock salt at the minimum pressure and straU tempera-
ture. These caverns were subsequently washed to design volume in the upper
portion of the cavern, and more care was used in maintaining an elevated mini-
mum pressure. Although these original caverns are still in use, subsequent
gas storage caverns have been constructed at shallower depth intervals and
have not experienced closure problems. Ironically, it is this same plastic
nature of the salt that seals the high pressure gas so successfully.
All solution mined caverns have at least one access hole consisting of a
steel pipe externally cemented to the salt formation and throughout its length
to the surface. At least two IPG caverns are believed to have leaked at the
casing seat or cement seal. One cavern was ordered plugged and abandoned by
the state. The casing of tne other cavern was reworked after which the cavern
was returned to service. One factor tfvsometimes complicates the proper
cementing of a casing string in a salt 
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SECTION 5
THE SOLUTION MINING PROCESS
Historical Development of Solution Mining Concepts
From the 1880s, when some of the first solution mining methods and equip-
ment were patented, until the 1950s, solutioning efforts were aimed primarily
at brine production. The commercial value of caverns, which remained after
removal of large volumes of salt, was not initially recognized. However,
since 1950, many caverns created as by-products of brine production have been
converted to storage of hydrocarbons, and many new caverns are being con-
structed specifically for storage.
Prior to the 1930s, brine was produced from a single well drilled into a
salt deposit. Piping in the well was arranged either side-by-side or concen-
trically. Water was introduced through the feed pipe s
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o A sufficient thickness of structurally competent salt at a proper
depth, without an excess of interbedded insolubles, must be present.
o An adequate supply of raw water for washing the salt must be
available.
o An environmentally acceptable and economical means of disposing of the
resultant brine must be available.
Raw Water Supply
Raw water for solution mining is usually obtained from streams, rivers,
lakes, or oceans if possible. In locations where surface water is not avail-
able, it is necessary to drill and complete high capacity water wells into
shallow fresh or saline aquifers. It may even be necessary to use a municipal
water supply,
brine Disposal
The most desirable methoH of disposing of brine from cavern construction
would be the use of the brine for chemical feedstock by an established chemi-
cal company. Where possible, this concept makes the best use of the basic
resource and works to the advantage of both the chemical company and the stor-
age developer. In actual practice, however, there are so many problems over
the brine flow rate, saturation, and consistency of flow rate that this con-
cept is seldom used.
Brine disposal into the ocean may be possible at some sites. The LOOP
project near New Orleans, Louisiana pumped brine from cavern construction
through a 30 inch pipeline approximately 28 miles to the coast and about 2
miles into the Gulf for disposal through a series of diffusers at a depth of
about 20 fu'et.
Most solution mined storage facilities use deep disposal wells for brine
from cavern construction. Disposal wells serving Gulf Coast salt dome caverns
are usually located about one mile or more off the flank of the dome. These
wells are generally drilled to depths of 5,000 to 7,000 feet and a geophysical
logging and coring program is used to identify acceptable disposal
formations.
Unfortunately, deep disposal is not an easy operation in the Northeastern
United States. Even deep wells offer only relatively tight rock formations,
resulting in low disposal rates per well. This increases facility cost (due
to the larger number of disposal wells required), and makes operating costs
higher (due to the higher pressures involved and the need for filtration to
avoid formation plugging).
Salt Dome Solution Wining Techniques
A variety of cavern configurations can be constructed in salt domes. The
rate of washing, overall washing time, casing positions, degree of blanket
level control, percent of insolubles in the salt stock, solu ility of the salt
10

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stock, and space limitations with respect to adjacent caverns or the edge of
the dome all are factors which can influence cavern shape.
The fundamental technique of salt dome cavern development is to drill
into a salt mass and to pump "raw" (fresh or low salinity) water into the
hole, thus dissolving the salt, which is then carried to the surface as a
brine solution. The hole within the exposed salt gradually enlarges, eventu-
ally forming a useful cavern. In actual practice, the procedure for cavern
development is somewhat more complex, A typical storage well configuration is
shown in Figure 1.
Some insoluble material, such as anhydrite, is present in most dome salt.
As washing proceeds, an accumulation of insoluble material builds up in the
bottom of the cavern, which may cause plugging of the wash casing or inhibit
free circulation. If this occurs, it may be necessary to raise the wash
casing to a new position before continuing.
The problem of insoluble accumulation may be minimized by constructing a
sump below the cavern interval to collect the rubble. This sump is washed
below the storage interval before cavern washing begins. The size of the sump
depends upon the amount of insolubles estimated to be produced. The estimate
is based on core samples taken during initial well drilling operations.
A modern technique for washing caverns yields an approximately cylindri-
cal shape. This procedure minimizes the number of pipe movements required,
while maximizing the salinity of the produced brine to reduce the construction
schedule.
The sump is developed first. The well bore extends to the bottom of the
predetermined sump interval. Wash casing is set near the bottom of the well
bore and blanket casing is set slightly below the product casing seat.
Blanket material is then injected into the annulus between the blanket casing
and the product casing as shown in Figure 2.
Blanket material can be any substance that is lighter than water, immis-
cible with water or brine, and that does not dissolve salt, e.g., propane,
butane, diesel oil, crude oil. Consequently, the blanket occupies the space
in the topmost interval of the caver-i. Its primary purpose is to prohibit
dissolving salt from around the fin.'* cemented casing. It also protects the
product casing from internal corroiion and can be used to initially depress
washing to the bottom of the borehole. The protective blanket is extremely
important, requiring careful monitoring and maintenance. Protection of the
cemented casing serves the dual purpose of insuring a pressure-tight cavern
and prohibiting development of high spots in the cavern roof.
Direct circulation (fresh water injected near bottom of cavern) is used
to develop the sump with a teardrop shape. During, this period, insolubles in
the salt will be carried to the surface by the relatively high fluid velocity.
Separators and settling tanks may be used to remove most of the sand-like
material. The fine anhydritic sand is taken by truck to an acceptable land-
fill area for disposal. The clean brine is injected into a brine disposal
wel 1.
11

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^*i= I i =4$5l
—LJ—u—
BLANKET MATERIAL


CONDUCTOR CASING
- SURFACE CASING
INTERMEDIATE CASING
PRODUCT CASING
CAVERN NECK
BLANKET CASING
¦um CASING
SUHP FDR INSOIUBLES
Figure 1 Typical Salt Dome Storage Well Configuration
12

-------
PRODUCT CASIKS
(LAST CEtCNTED STRING)
I.	4.
BLANKET CASING	
HASH CASING

L	i.	L
INSOLUeiES

I-	u	L
SUHP DEVELOPMENT
(DI'KECT CIRCULATION)
CAVERN DEVELOPMENT ,
(REVERSE CIRCULATION)
BLANKET MATERIAL
Figure 2 Salt Dome Cavern Washing
13

-------
After the sump has been washed to the proper configuration, the blanket
material is removed to storage, a rig is moved in, and the wash casing and
blanket casinj are repositioned after which the blanket material is again in-
stalled. The cavern is then developed by reverse circulation (introducing
fresh water into the annulus between the wash casing and blanket casing and
withdrawing saturated brine from the lower cavern area through the wash cas-
ino). As cavern volume increases, fluid velocity in the cavern decreases and
residence time increases, allowing the brine to become saturated and per-
mitting most of the nsolubles to settle into the sump provided,
riedded Salt Solution Mining Techniques
The basic principles of solution mining such as tHe use of blanket mate-
rial, direct and indirect circulation, etc. are the same in bedded salt as in
a salt dome. Bedded salt, however, presents additional problems due to lack
of thickness of the salt resource and also due to the tendency of large inter-
bedded shale layers to collapse and damage the suspended casing strings. In
general, the bedded salt insolubles tend to fall to the bottom of the cavern
as a pile of large rocks, rather than as fine sand as is the case in a dome
cavern. A common problem with bedded caverns occurs if the brine string is
removed for repair or replacement only to find that it cannot be reinstalled
to its former depth because of striking a shale ledge or a repositioned pile
of rocks. Due to the shallow nature of most beddeu salt formations, it is
usually not possible to provide a sump as shown for the salt dome caverns.
Instead, the entire lower portion of the cavern acts as a sump. It is also
difficult to develop high salinity brine at high rates in a bedded salt cavern
unless multiple "/ells are used.
Multiple wells are common in existing bedded salt caverns because they
were developed to produce high salinity brine rather than storage. Many of
these caverns were created by fracturing the formation from one solution well
to another. It is usually impossible to define the configuration of "sausage-
type" caverns and high spots may make them unsuitable for the storage of
hazardous waste.
If proper ^,,-ocedures are used, it is possible to create relatively small,
but secure caverns in bedded salt.
Solution Mine Facility Design and Construction
The storage well is the key and most expensive component of the system,
requiring considerable planning, design, and technically qualified geological
and engineering supervision during drilling operations. Raw (fresh) water,
acquired from wells or surface sources, is stored in tanks designed to provide
adequate suction conditions. The water is pumped to the storage wellhead and
down suspended casing strings to dissolve the salt and create the storage
space. The piping systems, the blanket system, the insolubles removal system,
and the brine disposal system are designed to accommodate the desired rate of
construction. Figure 3 shows the major equipment components for cavern
construction.
14

-------
INSOLUBLES SEPARATORS
BRINE DISPOSAL
PUMP
BRINE
TANK
RAM WATER
WELL
RAW WATER
WELL
SETTLING
TANK
SETTLING
TANK
SETTLING
TANK
RAW WATER
TANK
BRINE 01SPOSAL
PUMP
BRINE 1
TRANSFER
PUMP
BR I ME
TRANSFER
PUMP
BLANKET
TANK
BLANKET PUMP
RAW WATER
INJECTION PUMP
		BEDDED SALT CAVERN
... ENLARGED TO SHOW DETAIL
BRINE DISPOSAL WELL
(TYPICAL)
RAW WATER
INJECTION PUMP
STORAGE WELL
Figure 3 Conceptual Flow Diagram for Construction of Hazardous Waste Retention Cavern in Salt

-------
SECTION 6
ADVANTAGES OF SOLUTION MINED STORAUF.
Solution mined averns may provide containment for hazardous wastes
and isolation of those wastes from the environment. After the hazardous
waste har. been mixed with a cement or polymer slurry, injected into a
solution mined cavern, and allowed time to solidify in-situ, the plastic
nature of the salt under strata pressure will seal the wastes.
Large salt deposits in the U.S. are located near a number of the major
hazardous waste generation areas, minimizing transportation and handling costs
This may be one of the most economical methods of providing permanent
retention of hazardous waste.
16

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SECTION 7
SALT GEOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES
Large deposits of salt exist in many areas of the world and are usually
found lying between beds of shale, anhydrite, gypsum, or limestone. Salt is
an evaporite, an accumulation of crystals precipitated from impounded sea
water in an arid environment. The principal salt deposits within the United
States are shown in Figure 4, Many of these salt deposits have been utilized
for the construction of underground solution mined caverns in which products
such as natural gas, hydrogen, propane, butane, ethylene, gasoline, and other
hydrocarbon fuels have been stored.
Bedded Salt
Most salt deposits in the United States are of the bedded salt type.
From the standpoint of storage, the largest bedded salt deposits are the
Salina Basin ranging from Michigan to Western New York and the Permian Basin
extending from West Texas and Eastern New Mexico to Western Kansas.
Many salt companies have conventionally mined and solution mined the
bedded salt in Northeastern Ohio and in the Detroit and St. Clair areas of
Michigan, The salt in these areas is of a substantial thickness and lies at a
relatively shallow depth, close to large population centers. Thus, these
areas have been economically attractive for the production of rock salt for
table use and for saturated salt brine for chemical plant feedstock. Also
contributing to the success of solution mining in these areas has been the
abundant supply of fresh water for solutioning.
Bedded salt does impose limitations on cavern design and operation due to
the presence of interbedded stringers of shale or mudstone. As a general
example of bedded salt in northeastern Ohio, the Salina salt bed distribution
and thickness is shown in Figure 5. Contours showing the depth to the top of
the salt in northeastern Ohio are shown in Figure 6. A composite section
showing the various salt formations and the shale interbedding in northeastern
Ohio is shown in Figure 7.
Salt Domes
The bedded salt shown in the Gulf Coastal regions of Texas, Louisiana,
and Mississippi is buried so deep that it has not been penetrated with a drill
bit. Based on the depth of its northern fringe, its rate of dip to the south,
and the thickness of upper sediments, geologists postulate that the bottom of
the strata, known as the Louann Salt, is more than 30,000 feet below the
earth's surface. It is from this bed that salt domes are born.
17

-------
CP
WILL I ST ON
SAUNA BASIN
S. DAK
1iY0
GREEN RIVER
\H8-pWLl
NEV. UTAH
LUSK
embaymentx h0
KAN.
^:olo
PARADOX
BASIN
0
VIRGINI sevIER
BASIN

PERMIAN
BASIN
OKLA.
N. MIX.
SUPAI
€3

GULF COAST BASIN
C';C|§ BtDDED SALT BASIN
SALT DOME BASIN
„ , • 1 cait Deoosits Within the United States
Figure 4 Principal Salt ueposn.*

-------
SOURCE;
Silurian Rock Salt of Ohio Report of
Investigation No. 90, M.J. Clifford,
State of Ohio Dept. of Natural Resources,
HUHCN
moo
IMC
NEWVOIK
ONTARIO
MICHIGAN
PENNSYLVANIA
VIRGINIA
>00 HUM*
Figure 5 General Distribution and Thickness of Salina Salt Beds

-------
SOURCE; Silurian Rock Salt of Ohio
Report of Investigation No.90
M.J. Clifford, State of Ohio
Dept. of Natural Resources, 1973
«0 iouiKcm
limit o* •conomicMly 'lluNt
mining g»«i«tisn*l
Figure 6 Depth to Top of Salt in Northeastern Ohio
20

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Northeastern Ohio
Composite •action
Jmechfud from
Ultcifl, 1954)
Hi
|KO
• * o
D
i®.
iW!




u&y&q*
J ffljwn.. n Tf
K«<£4i«
8M£:

* 7 - />_/•
lOCIiiy m»0P»tilt
COMIC!
r ft */ fr
irxfysiriol use
SOURCE: Silurian Rock Salt
of Ohio, Report No.90
State of Ohio, Dept.
of Natural Resources,
vmricAt
SC*L£
100
100
Brlnad along Ohio Bivtf in W. Va.
V	>	%
Mined *1 Clikilmd, Ohio, Datroil. Utch.
OiiDway. Ont,
_ Stinad »t toftxrien, Ohio
Mint* at Furoort Htrtor. Ohio, and
Myara, N,r. bimad n Rittman. Ohio,
and Luclloiwllle, N.V,
i	\
)Biir.«d n Ak»oi». Ohio
JBtinatS «l Painaavllla, Ohio
Minad •( Llvonli. N.Y.
i
Minad at Riwof. N.V.J brinad *1
Silver Sctingl, N.V.
•Con«eo«tte aaetion
•in l#land»
C unit
• unit
* unit
Lockoon
Atlai *1 Frank*.
Atwntt Twp..
Pontg* County
Diamond Alkali >304.
fimaavill* Twb.,
Lak« County
Kine *1 Ha»1ay
Waatfiald Two..
Madina County
A«0'a«»ntativa s«Clion«
horn tavarat walls
Figure 7 Composite Section Showing Sallna Salt in Northeastern Ohio
21

-------
Salt domes are relatively narrow stems of salt extending upward from
great depth; in some instances they penetrate the surface. It is not known
how many domes actually exist, for undoubtedly many terminate at such graat
depth that their presence is undetectable. However, over B20 have been dis-
covered in the U.S., and many are close enough to the surface to be potential
candidates for storage sites.
Subjected to extremely high temperatures and tremendous pressure from
overlying sediment's, the behavior of the Louann bed is similar to that of a
very fluid plastic. This fluid condition at the base of the dome gradually
changes to a very hard plastic at its summit. When relieved of significant
overburden pressure, as when a core is brought to surface, the salt becomes
very brittle and often displays a coarse crystalline structure.
Salt is generally impervious to and insoluble in liquid or gaseous hydro-
carbons, has a compressive strength comparable to concrete, and can be easily
mined by dissolution in water, this unique combination of characteristics
makes salt an ideal rock for cavern construction.
It is the hard plastic characteristic of salt at cavern depth that en-
ables it to become an excellent high pressure storage vessel. Its ability to
yield and divert stress from the cavern wall minimizes the stress concentra-
tions that cause spalling or caving. Salt's plasticity also allows it to
close and seal fractures. One Mississippi salt dome cavern wiu used to con-
tain a nuclear explosion equivalent to approximately 300 tons of TNT. The
cavern was later subjected to two other methane-oxygen explosions, each equiv-
alent to about 300 tons of TNT. Following the third explosion the cavern was
pressure tested and determined to be without leakage.
A great deal of effort, time, and money has been expended in the search
for salt domes. Of course, the earliest efforts were directed toward locating
domes that readied, or nearly reached the surface so that the salt could be
mined.
The petroleum industry has conducted by far the most intensive salt dome
exploration effort. Here, the motivation has been a search for oil traps.
Whether sedimentary beds have been tilted upward by the rising plug of salt or
tilted downward by the weight of accumulating sediment has been a geologic
riddle. There can be no doubt, however, that the resultant distortion of for-
mations frequently produces entrapment zones for accumulations of oil and/or
gas.
In later years, salt has also been recovered from deeper domes by sc .
tion mining, primarily to provide saturated brine as feedstock to the chemical
industry.
Figure 8 shows the known Gulf Coast salt domes. Some of these domes
would not be suitable for hazardous waste storage because extensive hydrocar-
bon storage facilities have already been installed, hut some could be utilized
for this purpose.

-------
fOIIT WOKTH A £ OALCAJ
0MCO
TC X AS
.IM MTOWO
/*\
/
/ \
\

\

CORPUS
CKIISTI

*
2/_X
A «>««»."
• MONROE
151 V JACKSON
tviM
(ALABAMA
t
r iz«o o117
LOUISIANA
l«« *15
«
ALCIt'lORI*
jSlo* nouotjjj^
,OJ •

"* V
«l
• « • °29S
zwr oi«o
290	*m
l90» *291
-*75
AUMOMT#327
* y - O**1
• 41 / •
MCff ORUEANS
aioSx-3***
i&* «•
SOUiCC: Silt Oe**t 1* Tins, LouHMna,
RHlflltppl. AUImm •"« Offthor*.
T14tl«ndl; A Sunrtjf U.S. Iur«*u of
Mlnti Information Clrcultr 8111.
1966
LtOtKO
• 5««	• '<* r«po* r»d i»f ol
••¦I »•<•*•* O o«4 iPOO
(••I b«l». «»»loc«
o salt	•!«» f«»«r»«a iw »<
tatt b«i.«»h 2POO on*
3,000 '•«! »•!«• tvfac*
7
20 40 SO
Sea it, *>(•«
Figure 8,
Map of. Gulf Coast Salt Domes

-------
A generalized cross-section of a typical Gulf Coast salt dome is shown in
Figure 9.
Salt dome cap rocks also have been the object of considerable commercial
interest. In fact, much of the drilling performed over domes has been con-
ducted to evaluate possibilities for sulfur recovery from the cap rock.
The origin of cap rocks, like the origin of salt domes, remains a subject
of dispute among geologists. However, most investigators now seem to agree
that cap rock represents an accumulation of insoluble material originally
transported within the salt. Presumably, as the salt moved upward relative to
the surface of the earth, its upper face was continually dissolved oy unsatu-
rated brines lying above. As the salt dissolved, gypsum, sulfur, and other
minerals may have evolved as the products of altered anhydrite.
As the cap rock gained in thickness and maturity it suffered from the
dissolving action of shallow saline waters. Numerous voids are usually found
in cap rocks, and occasionally a drilling bit will drop through what appears
to be a large cavern. Perhaps as a result of the weaknesses caused by natural
dissolving, most cap rocks are highly fractured.
A typical Gulf Coast salt dome which could be used for the retention of
hazardous waste is the Vinton Dome in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana (refer to
Figure 10). The depth to the top of the cap rock is about 720 feet, and the
depth to the top of the salt is approximately 1,130 feet. Fresh water for
solution mining could be obtained from the Vinton Canal or from water wells.
Brine injection into deep disposal wells has been used extensively in the past
for cavern development and should present no problem.
Seismic Risk
Many of the prime salt deposits suitable for hazardous waste storage lie
outside of the main seismic risk areas of the United States as shown in Figure
11. However, during the site selection process for hazardous waste caverns,
due consideration must be given to the possibility of earthquake damage.
24

-------
GROUND SURFACE
StDININTARY rock
FORMATIONS
CAICITE
IffANSI riON
ANHYDRITE

E f "¦¦""¦I t q
SALT STOCK
I ] CAP ROCK
Figure 9 Generalized Geologic Cross-Section of a Gulf Coast Salt Dome
25

-------
SOURCE; New Orleans Geological Society
June 1, 1963
27
29
26
28
10
34
33
35
32
STRUCTURE MAP
TOP OF SALT
VINTON SALT DOME
Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana
Depth to top of salt
Figure 10 Structure Hap of Vinton Salt Dome, Louisiana

-------

I
*(fro« Eitthgudu IHiton of thi U,S.-Publtcitloo <1-1. HQAA)
LEGEND
0	- NO DAMAGE AREA
1	- MINOR DAMAGE AREA
2	- MODERATE DAMAGE AREA
3	- MAJOR DAMAGE AREA
0 150 300
MILES
Figure 11 Seismic Risk Map of the United States

-------
SECTION 8
WASTE GENERATION BY EPA REGION VS. SALT DEPOSITS
Of the ton EPA regions, the four largest producers of hazardous waste are
III, IV, V, and VI as shown in Figure 12. In 1980 these four regions produced
7b percent of the nationwide total as shown in Table 1.
Regions IV and VI, with 25 percent and 26 percent of the Nation's hazar-
dous waste, respectively, both have salt domes with adequate volume.
Regions III and V, with 11 percent and 16 percent of the Nation's hazar-
dous waste, respectively, both have bedded salt caverns which could be
utilized. Although these caverns would be smaller and more numerous for
the same volume of storage in comparison with dome salt caverns, shipping
costs would be reduced and they might be cost effective on an installed cost
pe, barrel basis, if brine disposal wells can be developed.
28

-------
ro
%o
UILLISTON
BASIN „>;¦
SAUNA BASIN
3.113
V
6.428
16%

GREEN RIVER
^BASIN
LUSK
EHBAYMENT
0
SEVIER
BASIN
PARADOX
BASIN
VIRGIN
RIV9
PERMIAN
BAS2N
VI
10,536
6%
IV
10.3S3
26%
5UPAI
ASI
Legend
BEDDED SALT BASIN

COAST BASIN
mm salt dome basin
V! EPA REGION DESIGNATION
10,536 THOUSANDS OF MET METRIC TONS OF WASTE
26% PERCENT OF TOTAL NATIONWIDE
CULF
SOURCE:
PUTNAM, HAYES & BARTLETT
Figure 12 1980 Hazardous Waste Regions Vs. Salt Deposits

-------
REGION
1980
1981
TOTAL
OFFSITE
UNKNOWN
TOTAL
OFFSITE
UNKNOWN
MOST
PROBABLE
I
1,104
299
368
1,131
303
385
580
II
3,113
652
540
3,216
673
564
1,022
III
4,354
604
470
4,507
622
492
922
IV
10,353
913
674
10,697
940
706
1,358
V
6,428
1,330
1,537
6,611
1,368
1,604
2,517
VI
10,536
1,029
524
11,025
1,059
549
1,346
VII
1,201
252
233
1,231
257
243
440
VIII
318
106
61
325
108
62
154
IX
2,838
535
511
2,925
55?
534
896
X
995
348
241
1,023
357
249
503
TOTAL
41,235
6,069
5,159
42,694
6,251
5,395
9,738
NOTE; DETAIL HAY NOT ADD TO TOTAL BECAUSE OF ROUNDING.
SOURCE: PUTNAM, HAYES i BARTLETT
Table 1 1980 and 1981 Industrial Hazardous Haste Generation
and Most Probable Off-Site Disposal, by EPA Region
(Thousand Wet Metric Tons)
30

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SECT EON 9
SALT CHEMISTRY
When referring to the naturally occurring substance, either the term
"rock salt" or the mineral name "halite" is used. Salt is never found abso-
lutely pure, although the percentage of NaCl My run well over 98 percent.
Most salt deposits have been formed by deposition from ocean water containing
many other dissolved and suspended substances in addition to the salt.
Since hazardous wastes could potentially be stored in salt caverns in any
location in the U.S., the chemical compatibility of the various hazardous
wastes with the various salt compositions should be verified.
The most common insoluble impurities found in salt are anhydrite, dolo-
mite, calcite, pyrite, quartz, and iron oxides.
The most common soluble impurities include the following ions: Ca, Mg,
K, CI, CO3, and SO4; in addition there may be Ba, Sr, 8, and Br in minor
amounts.
Sometimes the associated minerals constitute a significant part of a salt
bed. Minerals commonly found in salt beds include the following:
Sylvite, KC1
Carnallite, KMgC^.SHgO
Tachydrite, 2MgCl2-CaCl2•I2H2O
Bischofite, MgClg.e^O
Kainite, M9SO4.KCl.3H2O
Anhydrite, CaSCty
Gypsum, CaSO^^O
Kiescrite, MgSQij^O
Epsomite, MgS04.7H2<)
Glauberite, CaSO^NagSO^
Vanthoffite, MgSO(j.3Na2SO/j
Glaserite, KjNa(SO4)2
Langbeinite, 2MgS04.«2SQ4
Syngeni te, CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O
Leonite, MgSO4.K2SO4.4H2O
Picromerite, MgSO4.K2SO4.6H2O
Bloedite, MgSO4.Na2SO4.4H2O
Loeweite, MgSO4.Na2SO4.2-l/2H2O
Polyha lite, 2CaS04.MgSO4.K2SO4.2H2O
Krugite, 4CaSO4.MgSO4.K2SO4.2H2O
31

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The following tables will illustrate the variation that is found in rock
salt from different areas of the United States.
The three {1 in Table 2; 2 in Table 3) chemical analyses shown below are
of rock i,alt from two domes on the Louisiana coast. They were taken from "The
Five Islands, Louisiana" by Francis Edward Yaughan of Houston, Texas.
TABLE 2
ANALYSES OF SALT FROM AVERY ISLAND DOME
Other
Not
Chemist
NaCl
CaS04
CaClp
Mg^Cl
Mgso4
Matter
Determined
Jules Lafort
97.92





2.08
E. 14, Hilgard
99.88
0.126
trace
-
-
-
-
Peter Colloer
98.90
0.838
0.146
0.022
-
0.080
0.014
Dr. Riddle
98.88
0.76
0.13
0.23
-
-
-
C. A. Goessman
98.88
0.79
trace
trace
-
0.33
-
C. A. Goessman
98.88
0.782
0.400
0.003
-
0.33
-
Joseph Jones
99.617
0.318
-
-
0.062
0.003
-
F. W, Taylor
98,71
1.192
trace
0.013
-
0.03
-
Or. Doremus
99.097
0.729
-
-
0.158
0.039
-
Gustavus Bode
99.252
0.694
0.042
0.012
-

-
TABLE 3
ANALYSES OF LIGHT AND DARK SALT FROM 8ELLE ISLE DOME
Sodium Chloride
Calcium Sulphate (soluble)
Magnesium Chloride
Magnesium Carbonate
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Sulphate
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Chloride
Ferric jnd Aluminic Oxides
(Fe?03 and AI2O3)
Insoluble Matter
Dark Salt
96.405
3.051
.074
,226
.025
.059
Light Salt
92.750
2.01
.067
.836
1.804
.500
3.325
32

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Rock salt from New York, Ohio, Michigan, Kansas, and Texas has been chem- .
ically analyzed and the analyses are included herein as Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, and
8, respectively. These tables represent typical analyses reported by commer-
cial salt mining companies.
TABLE 4
TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF ROCK SALT FROM NEW YORK
Sodium Chloride	98.28
Calcium Chloride	.02
Magnesium Chloride	.01
Calcium Sulphate	.48
Insolubles	1.21
TABLE 5
TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF ROCK SALT FROM OHIO
Sodium Chloride	98.14
Calcium Chloride	.01
Calcium Sulphate	.63
Magnesium Chloride	.04
Insolubles	1.18
TABLE 6
TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF ROCK SALT FROM MICHIGAN
Sodium Chloride	98.21
Calcium Chloride	.06
Calcium Sulphate	.65
Magnesium Chloride	.05
Insolubles	1.03
33

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TABLE 7
TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF ROCK SALT FROM KANSAS
Sodium Chloride	94.22
Calcium Chloride	.02
Ferric Oxide	,02
Calcium Sulphate	3.24
Magnesium Chloride	.33
Insolubles	2.17
TABLE 8
TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF ROCK SALT FROM TEXAS
Sodium Chloride	89.80
Calcium Sulphate	5.50
Insolubles	4.70
34

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SECTION 10
METHODS FOR STORING HAZARDOUS WASTE IN
SOLUTION MINED SALT CAVERNS
There are a number of methods which might be employed for utilizing solu-
tion mined caverns for the storage of hazardous wastes.
Brine-Balanced Cavern with Brine Discharge During Waste Injection
Nearly all of the existing solution mined storage for liquid hydrocarbons
in the U.S. is brine-balanced. The propane or crude oil, being lighter than
brine, floats on top of it and flows under pressure when the product valve at
the wellhead is opened. During product withdrawal, brine is added to the
casing string hanging to the bottom of the cavern so that the cavern is main-
tained full of fluid at all times. When product is introduced into storage,
it must be injected by means of a pump, displacing brine up the casing string
and over to a brine holding pond. Caverns using this concept have a very long
life because the range of stress on the salt is small.
The principal advantage if this method could be used for hazardous waste
storage would be the possibility of utilizing very large caverns, perhaps com-
parable in size with the crude oil storage caverns of the Strategic Petroleum
Reserve in Gulf Coast salt domes.
If the hazardous waste slurry were significantly lighter than saturated
brine, the waste could be injected into the top of the cavern, displacing
saturated brine up the casing string as shown in Figure 13. The displaced
brine could then be injected into the same disposal wells that were used for
construction of the cavern.
If the specific gravity of the waste were close to or greater than that
of saturated brine, the waste slurry would have to be weighted so that it
would be significantly heavier than the brine causing it to remain in the
bottom of the other cavern as shown. The floating brine would be displaced
from the top of this cavern and would be directed to disposal as before.
Although gravity segregation of liquids is used extensively in solution-
mined caverns, the risk of contaminating the brine would increase as the
specific gravity of the waste approaches that of the saturated brine. Brine
contamination might also result from gases or vapors released by the hazardous
waste in the cavern in the case of the heavy waste/floating brine cavern.
35

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*
BRINE
DISPOSAL HELL
(REMOTELY LOCATED)
HAZARDOUS
WASTE STORAGE
(HEAVY)
HAZARDOUS
HASTE STORAGE.
(LIGHT)
BRINE TANK
HAZAROOUS WASTE SLURRY
(SIGNIFICATLY LIGHTER
THAN SATURATED BRINE)
SATURATED BRINE
HAZARDOUS WASTE SLURRY
(SIGNIFICANTLY HEAVIER
THAN SATURATED BRINE)
SATURATED BRINE
Figure 13 Br1 fie-Balaneed Cavern With Brine Discharge During Waste Injection

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Gas-Balanced Cavern with Zero Discharge
In this method, after the cavern had been washed to capacity, the brine
would be displaced by an inert gas and injected into a remote brine disposal
well as shown in the cavern dewatering scheme of Figure 14, The cavern would
be sealed at the minimum design pressure after which gaseous, liquid and
slurry wastes would be injected into the cavern until the inert gas reached
the maximum design pressure of the cavern as shown in the storage scheme of
the same figure.
Gas-balancing might allow the use of a larger cavern than the atmospheric
method, but smaller than the brine-balanced cavern. Gas-balancing also elimi-
nates the possibility of contaminating the brine, a..d eliminates the need for
a scrubber and flare, unless they were needed by the surface plant.
Atmospheric Cavern with Controlled Gas Discharge During Waste Injection
Following solutioning of the cavern to its design capacity, the brine
could be pumped out of the cavern by means of a submersible pump and directed
to disposal. Chemically compatible liquid and pumpable slurry wastes would
then be inserted into the cavern. Displaced vapors and/or gases would be
collected and would be either sent through a scrubber or burned in an approved
flare as shown in Figure 15.
A cavern designed to be exposed to atmospheric pressure would be limited
in size to maintain structural integrity. There would be no brine contamina-
tion, but a scrubber and flare would be required.
In-Situ-Solidified Waste Storage
Recently, officials of the state of Texas, who are responsible for per-
mitting requirements for underground storage facilities, have been considering
a concept that would require that all hazardous waste be mixed with a cement
or polymer slurry prior to injection in a cavern as shown in Figure 16. This
would provide a permanent solidified storage for liquid and slurry wastes and
would reduce risks occasioned by earthquake or the inadvertent drilling into a
hazardous waste cavern. This cavern would be limited in size in order to
maintain structural integrity during the period that it would be exposed to
atmospheric pressure,
"String-of-Pearls" Waste Storage Caverns
By constructing a series of caverns, one above the other, from one deep
solution well, the dome salt resource could be more effectively utilized for a
given maximum cavern depth as proposed by Empak, Inc. of Houston, Texas. Each
cavern could be sealed by the installation of a cement plug in the top neck of
the cavern, prior to starting construction of the next cavern above it as
shown in Figure 17.
The brine from the first (bottom) cavern could be removed by submersible
pump and directed to the remote brine disposal wells. This cavern would re-
main structurally stable due to its small size and because it would be filled
37

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VAPORIZER AND PUMPING UNIT
INERT GAS
COMP
4>*
	
HAZARDOUS WASTE TANK
BRINE TANK
INERT GAS BLANKET
UNDER PRESSURE
INERT GAS BLANKET
HAZARDOUS HASTE
SLURRY	
SATURATED BRINE
BRINE DISPOSAL WELL
(REMOTE FROM SALT DOME)
CAVERN DEWATERING SCHEME
STORAGE SCHEME
Figure 14 Gas-Balanced Cavern With Zero Discharge

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SCRUBBER BLOWDOWN LIQUID
GJ
VjO
WET SPRAY
SCRUBBER
HAZARDOUS WASTE TANK

:» **-
' t





SCRUBBING AGENT FLARE
TANK
HAZARDOUS WASTE VAPORS
& GASES AT JUST ABOVE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
HAZARDOUS WASTE SLURRY
Figure 15 Atmospheric Cavern With Controlled Gas Discharge During Waste Injection

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SCRUBBER SLOWDOWN LIQUID
CEMENT
SILO
SAND OR
AGGREG. SILO
\/
DOUBLE CONE
BLENDER
CEMENT SLURRY PUMl
WET SPRAY
SCRUBBER
SCRUBBING FLARE
AGENT
TANK
HAZAROOUS WASTE
SLURRY TANK
HAZARDOUS WASTE
CEMENT SLURRY —
HAZARDOUS WASTE VAPORS
& GASES AT JUST ABOVE
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
HAZARDOUS WASTE SOLIDIFIED
IN-SITU IN LAYERS	
Figure 16 In-Situ - Solidified Hazardous Waste Storage

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RAW WATER
—
9
CAPROCK
~Y
/ SALT DOME
LOCATION OF FUTURE '•
CEMENT PLUG AND SEAL-
OUTLINE OF FINISHED CAVERN
BRINE TO DISPOSAL
-BLANKET MATERIAL
>	LOCATION OF FUTURE' *• >,
CEMENT PLUG AND SEAL :;.'
45's\\\ .
IK'X'N- OUTLINE OF FUTURE
HAZAROOUS WASTE CAVERN
HAZARDOUS WASTE
•HAZARDOUS WASTE CAVERN
UNDER CONSTRUCTION
CEMENT PLUG AND SEAL
Figure 17 "String-of-Pearls" Waste Storage Caverns
41

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with waste relatively quickly, reducing the time that it would be exposed to
near atmospheric pressure.
For maximum structural integrity into the future, all of the hazardous
waste could be mixed with a cement slurry so that the entire small cavern
would solidify as outlined by the proceeding method. Then construction of the
small middle cavern could proceed as shown.
42

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SECTION 11
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Solution mineu caverns for hazardous waste storage should provide abso-
lute structural integrity and indefinitely long containment life. Large cav-
erns are less expensive to construct per unit of volume than smaller ones, but
they may not be as structurally adequate. Fracture-connected caverns in
bedded salt may be leached much faster than single well caverns, but usually
develop less desirable shapes. It is recommended that a conservative approach
to solution mining hazardous waste caverns be used.
Feasibility Study
Following recognition of a need for a solution mined hazardous waste re-
tention cavern in a particular area, a feasibility study should be conducted
to determine the availability of salt, raw water for dissolution, and the
possibilities for brine disposal. Geologic maps and well records of the area
should be used to determine the solution mining potential. If the salt con-
figuration or the acceptability of the proposed brine disposal formation were
in doubt, one or more exploratory drill holes would be needed to produce rock
cores for laboratory testing and allow flow testing of the disposal
formation.
Salt Dome vs. Bedded Salt
In most cases, the djsired location of the facility will dictate the type
of salt formation available. In the event that both types of formations could
be utilized, a salt dome would usually be preferable because of the potential
for a much larger cavern with a corresponding reduction in the cost per unit
of volume created.
Brine-Balanced Caverns
Brine-balanced caverns offer the most attractive means of waste reten-
tion, provided two requirements can be met:
o Injection of the waste material into the cavern would not contaminate
the brine.
o The waste material must have a density and particle size that will
permit gravity separation within a brine-filled cavern, A low density
material would accumulate at the top of a cavern while high density
material would fall to the bottom.
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Such cavern would be operated by injecting waste slurry at the bottom or
top of the cavern, depending on its density, and displacing brine from the
opposite end. If liquid or slurry wastes, both heavier and lighter than satu-
rated brine must be stored, two caverns would be required; one for the lighter
wastes, and one for the heavier wastes. If the waste material arrived on site
dry, or in a condition too thick to pump, some of the displaced brine could be
used to prepare the proper slurry. The volume of the brine stream discharged
to the deep injection well would equal the volume of waste slurry left in the
cavern. If the slurry was an aqueous mixture, unsaturated with salt, a small
amount of new cavern space would be created and the discharged volume of brine
would be slightly less than the injected volume of slurry.
If the slurry was a non-aqueous mixture that would separate into liquid
and solid components within the cavern, both could be contained, provided the
fluid would not contaminate the brine.
Gas-Balanced Caverns
Natural gas caverns formed by solutioning are usually operated "dry." In
this concept, natural gas is injected into the cavern at high pressure, dis-
placing the brine to disposal. After the cavern has been dewatered, it is
operated between a minimum and maximum wellhead pressure. Since salt tends to
be somewhat plastic, it may tend to reduce the volume of the cavern if the
cavern is very deep, and if the pressure is permitted to remain too low for
too long a time period. This is often referred to as "closure." Although
computer programs have been written to analyze "closure" type problems, exper-
ience remains the best teacher. Natural gas caverns are designed conserva-
tively to provide absolute containment and indefinitely long containment life
within the limitations of the salt.
A hazardous waste cavern could be operated "dry" in a manner similar to a
natural gas cavern. At the completion of solutioning, the cavern would be
full of clean saturated brine. Inert gas would chen be injected by means of
compressors, displacing brine to disposal. After this "dewatering" process,
the cavern would be full of *ert gas under pressure. Some of the inert gas
would be released to the atmosphere until the lower design pressure of the
cavern was reached. The cavern would then be ready to accept the hazardous
waste as liquid or slurry. The cavern would continue to accept waste until
the maximum design pressure of the cavern was reached. The initial low gas
pressure might allow a small amount of cavern deformation b, closure but ade-
quate stability would be maintained.
The characteristic of closure, or plastic salt flow, is the key to the
exceptional durability of solution mined hazardous waste caverns. Once a cav-
ern has been filled with waste and the access hole properly plugged, stresses
will gradually equalize.
Atmospheric Caverns
The few existing atmospheric, or nearly atmospheric solution mined cav-
erns are used for the storage of condensate (natural gasoline). These caverns
are in bedded salt at shallow depths and are relatively small. For condensate
storage, the advantages of operation without a brine pond, and the reduced
44

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possibility of product contamination by the brine, outweigh the advantages of
the conventional brine balanced method.
The atmospheric, or nearly atmospheric solution mined cavern method ap-
pears to be attractive for hazardous waste, because retrieval of the stored
waste is not required and this method eliminates the possibility of contami-
nating the balancing brine. If the gases given off in the cavern can be chem-
ically "scrubbed" and/or burned in an approved flare, the entire cavern could
be used for liquid and slurry waste, improving the economics of the facility.
The structural integrity of an atmospheric, or nearly atmospheric solu-
tion mined cavern can be maintained during the one or two year time period
when the cavern is being filled with waste, by limiting the depth to which the
cavern is constructed and by limiting its diameter and height.
When the cavern becomes nearly full with waste, fresh saturated brine can
be used to top off the cavern and a cement plug can be installed in the neck
of the cavern. After the cement has been allowed time to cure, the plug can
be pressure tested to confirm that the cavern has been sealed.
Solution mined caverns can be filled with hazardous waste at atmospheric
pressure if they have been conservatively designed for this service.
Haste Forms
'.olution mir caverns could be used to contain any combination of gases,
vapors, liquids, ~ies, or in-situ solidifying slurry wastes depending on
requi rements.
If gases or vapors must be retained under pressure, the cavern must be
designed accordingly.
If only liquid or slurry wastes are to be retained in the cavern, the
atmo'.pheric or nearly atmospheric pressure type of cavern could be utilized.
If in-situ solidifying wastes are to be retained, schemes must be devel-
oped for emplacing the slurry and cleaning the surface piping and well tubing
prior to solidification so that it will be clear for the next emplacement
cycle.
Pressure Considerations
Although the actual pressure at which a given formation will fracture
varies rather widely, it is a common practice in industry to assume that a
pressure gradient of 1 psi per foot of depth will fracture the formation at
some location. This concept is being adopted by the state regulatory agencies
who in turn, usually specify a maximum allowable pressure gradient of less
than 1 psi per foot of depth. For example, Louisiana Statewide Order No. 29-M
pertaining to the use of salt dome cavities for storage of liquid and/or gase-
ous hydrocarbons specifies that the maximum operating pressure at the casing
seat shall not exceed 0,9 psi per foot of overburden.
45

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The storage of high pressure natural gas in solution mined salt dome cav-
erns requires a conservative approach, A commonly accepted pressure gradient
for this service would be 0.85 psi per foot which should be adequate for
hazardous waste retention in a salt dome.
A somewhat lower maximum pressure gradient is usually used in the design
of bedded salt caverns due to the invariable presence of interbedded layers of
shale or anhydrite and their unknown physical properties. A conservative max-
imum pressure gradient for a solution mined hazardous waste cavern in bedded
salt would be 0.65 psi per foot of depth.
Table 9 outlines a comparison of a typical salt dome and bedded salt
cavern retaining hazardous waste at atmospheric pressure.
TABLE 9
COMPARISON OF A TYPICAL SALT DOME AND
BEDDED SALT CAVERN RETAINING
HAZARDOUS WASTES AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Cavern Feature	Salt Dome	Bedded Salt
Top of Salt to Top of Cavern, Ft.	400	30
Surface to Bottom of Cavern, Ft.	3,000	2,200
Cavern Height, Ft.	470	150
Cavern Diameter, Ft.	150	100
Net Capacity, Bbls.	1,000,000	100,000
These figures should not be taken as absolute limits, but rather as
generalities to aid in visualizing the approximate number of caverns required
for a given volume of waste.
Temperature Considerations
Excluding the Mississippi salt dome cavern detonations, most experience
with elevated temperature in salt storage relates to natural gas or compressed
air storage.
46

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Examples of Temperature of Natural Gas arid Compressed Air Injected into
Storage Caverns;
o Eminence Practice
o Tufco Practice
o Huntorf Design
o Valero Design
o Hornsea Project
120°F	Northern Europe Salt Bed
130°F	Southern U.S. Salt Dome
104°F	Northern Europe Salt Bed
160°F	Southern U.S. Salt Dome
120°F	Southern U.S. Salt Dome
Unless the hazardous wastes to be placed into the cavern will exceed
15Q°F, conventional casing and cementing procedures should be adequate.
Underground Injection Control Program
All storage wells and brine disposal wells must meet the rules and regu-
lations contained in the Federal Register, Vol. 49, No. 93, dated Hay 11, 1984
which covers Environmental Protection Agency 40 CFR Parts 124, 144, 146, and
147 regarding the Underground Injection Control Program. This program,
whether implemented by the states or by the EPA, is designed to prevent under-
ground injections through wells which may endanger drinking water sources.
Spacing Considerations
The State of Louisiana requires a minimum of 200 feet between adjacent
caverns and at least 100 feet between a cavern and the property line. These
spacing requirements should be adequate for hazardous waste storage. Drilling
and solutioning tolerances must also be considered when determining cavern
locations.
47

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SECTION 12
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ATMOSPHERIC CAVERNS
It is anticipated that wastes would be delivered to the facility by
truck. Prior to unloading a truck, the waste would be sampled to verify that
it is the proper material specified by contract. This would be a quick
"finger print" analysis. If the finger print analysis fails to match the con-
tract, the load would be refused.
Transfer from the truck could be accomplished by unloading arms and auto-
matic cut-off valves installed in the lines to prevent spillage of any waste
material. The waste would be pumped to above-ground steel or fiberglass hold-
ing tanks and would be segregated in the holding tanks according to chemical
characteristics. The wastes could be blended prior to being pumped to the
appropriate cavern. Wastes which require special processing or neutralization
would be handled separately. All waste handling facilities would be located
on concrete pads with concrete containme it dikes. Rainwater which accumulates
within any of the concrete containment areas would be collected and disposed
of with the waste material.
The temporary surface holding tanks could be vented through a scrubber
system to control odorous or organic vapors. The truck unloading area and the
holding tank area could be surrounded by concrete dikes allowing any spilled
material to be quickly recovered and returned to storage. The waste water
generated during truck cleaning could be collected and disposed of with the
rest of the waste material. There would be no waste water discharge from the
facility.
The actual transfer of waste in slurry form to the salt cavern could be
made with the cavern pressure near atmospheric, A slight backpressure could
be maintained to assist in directing waste vapors through the scrubber system.
Vapors that could not be chemically scrubbed would be burned in an approved
type flare.
The facility would be designed so that solutioning of new caverns could
continue as the old caverns are being filled. This would develop storage as
needed and would result in an economical operation.
48

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SECTION 13
ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIOLOGICAL, A NO ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
A hazardous waste retention facility must protect the environment at all
times; during construction of the facility, during the process of adding waste
to storage, and for an indefinite period of time into the future.
All aspects of the environment must be protected; the land, water, air,
noise level, etc. Solution mining offers a unique solution to this
requi rement.
A minimum of land surface would be required for the concept. Many salt
domes are relatively free of population and industry. The exceptions are
industries utilizing the salt such as salt producers or hydrocarbon storage
companies and on the flanks of some salt domes, drilling rigs.
Construction of the facility would have a minimal impact on the local
area. Construction at the site would increase traffic and background noise
slightly due to dri11ing, building, and tank erection activities and machinery
operation.
Conservative design would prevent the possibility of subsidence.
Operation of the site should not have an adverse effect on water quality
since there will be no discharge to surface waters.
The clean, saturated brine produced as a result of solutioning storage
space could be injected into deep disposal wells.
The facility could be manned 24 hours per day, 7 days per week to provide
constant monitoring.
Sources of air emissions from the facility would be limited to the diesel
blanket storage tank.
Vapors displaced from the caverns would be chemically scrubbed or burned
in an approved flare.
Careful siting of the facility would ensure no wildlife habitat would be
disrupted in the immediate areas of construction of tanks, operational areas,
and pipelines. Major facilities would be located in areas that are already
relatively clear of vegetation. The storage facility would not be located in
any wetlands area.
49

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The proposed project would not interfere with oil and gas production or
any scenic or other natural resource.
Construction of the facility would make use of services that are avail-
able in most areas such as general construction and oil field drilling. Once
in operation, the facility would provide jobs for local residents as well as
expand the local tax base.
The total impact on the local community would be expected to be benefi-
cial because the dollars spent directly on the project would have an indirect
multiplier effect for other goods and services.
50

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SECTION 14
NEEDED RESEARCH
Solution mined salt caverns have been used for storage and disposal of
certain hazardous wastes by industry for many years. The practice has been
limited to compatible chemicals which are known to be nonreactive to each
other and to the salt. One problem faced by the hazardous waste industry is
the almost infinite mix of chemicals which occur in many waste discharges.
Efforts have been made by the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) to
determine compatibility of the various chemicals based upon theoretical analy-
ses. This approach is helpful but all possible combinations may not have been
adequately described and unexpected reactions may occur. When a commercial
hazardous waste facility has many clients, each with a different waste stream,
the potential for adverse reactions is multiplied many times if these waste
streams are mixed together for a disposal operation. Thus, more research in-
cluding both studies and actual tests of compatibility should be conducted for
each combination of waste streams. When placed in the retention cavern, the
waste will be in direct contact with the salt and with saturated brine.
Research is needed to determine the analysis of salt cores taken from proposed
solution cavern areas and to determine the compatibility of each with a mix of
anticipated waste streams. If salt cores are not available from a given area,
blocks of salt from a mine in the area could be substituted. Samples of typi-
cal waste streams could be obtained from commercial disposal operators or
waste generators. These tests could be run in a laboratory under controlled
conditions. Tests should be run on salts from the Permian basin and Salina
basin, and at least two salt domes.
Solution mined salt caverns would be even more desirable for hazardous
waste retention if a means could be developed to solidify the waste in-situ in
the saturated brine storage cavern. Small scale research studies and labora-
tory tests are needed to develop salt saturated hazardous waste/cement or
polymer slurry formulations that will have an acceptable fluidity during em-
placement in the cavern, but that will develop adequate strength and long life
with acceptable economy when solidified in the retention cavern. After the
waste has been emplaced in the cavern, there must also be a practical way to
flush the surface piping and well tubing before solidification occurs.
Preliminary feasibility studies including conceptual designs and order-
of-magnitude cost estimates should be prepared for solution mined hazardous
waste retention facilities using both dome and bedded salt formations. These
studies should include an evaluation of waste form (i.e., solution, slurry,
51

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and/or in-situ solidification). These studies could provide a viable hazar-
dous waste disposal scheme for the most difficult to manage wastes; wastes
that remain after all economical means have been employed to prevent, reduce,
neutralize, or otherwise render them non-ha2ardous.
52

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SECTION 15
REFERENCES
(1)	Simpson, F., Potential for Deep, Underground Storage in Canada. Univers-
ity of Windsor, Ontario, Canada. 5 pp.
(2)	Wassmann, H., Cavity Utilization in the Netherlands. Akzo Zout Chemic
Nederland, Postbox 25, 7550 G C Hengelo, The Netherlands, 1983.
20 pp.
(3)	Jacoby, C. H.» Szyprowski, S., and Paul, 0., Earth Science Aspects in the
Disposal of Inorganic Wastes. Fourth International Symposium on
Salt - Northern Ohio Geological Study. 6 pp.
(4)	Hooper, H. W., Geiselman, J. N., and Noel T. £., Mined Cavities in Salt -
A Land Disposal Alternative. Pakhoed USA, Inc. and EMPAK, Inc.,
Houston Texas. 15 pp.
(5)	North American Storage Capacity for Light Hydrocarbons and U.S. LP-Gas
Import Terminals. Gas Processors Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma,
1983.
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APPENDIX A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography on the Storage, Disposal, and Retention of Non-Radioactive Waste
in Solution Mines in Salt:
Battel!e Memorial Institute, Office of Nuclear Waste Isolation. Preliminary
Evaluation of Solution-Mining Intrusion into a Salt-Dome Repository.
Washington, D.C.: NTIS, 1981.
Beck, J. and others. West Hackberry Brine Disposal Project: Pre-diseharge
Characterization. Final Report. Washington, b'.'C'.: U.S. Department of
Energy, 1982.
81omeke, J. D., 1972 Preliminary Safety Analysis Report Based on a Conceptua1
Design of a Proposed Repository in Kansas. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Uai
Ridge National Laboratories, 1977.
Bradshaw, R. L., and W. C. McClain. Project Salt Vault - a Demonstration of
the Pisposal of High-Activity Solidified Wastes in Underground Salt
Mines. Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Oak Ridge National Laboratories, 1971.
Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior, Information Circular IC-8313
Salt Domes in Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Offshore Tide-
lands: A Survey, M. E. Hawkins and C. J. Jink, 1966.
Carr, J. F., and others. Geohydrology of the Keechi, Mount Sylvan, Oakwood,
and Palestine Salt Domes in the Northeast Texas Salt Dome Basin. Austin,
Texas: U.S. Geological Survey, 1980,
Charo, R., "Long-Term Creep Closure of Solution Cavity System," in Coogan's
Fourth Symposium on Salt, Vol. II. Cleveland, Ohio: Northern Ohio
Geological Society, 1974.
Cook. C. W., Impulse Radar Scanning of Intact Salt at the Avery Island Mine.
Washington, D.C.: Department of Energy, 1980.
Cuevas, E. A., "Solution Mining Water Soluble Salts at High Temperatures,"
Patent US 4232902,
Denton, C. A., "Brine Disposal at the Bryan Mound Diffuser Site - How Will It
Affect the Marine Environment?" Sea Technology, XXII (October 1981),
31 - 32.
A-l

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Dwyer, M. G., "Finite Element Analysis of Salt Domes with Stored Hot Wastes,"
1n Coogan's Fourth Symposium on Salt, Vol, II. Cleveland, Ohio:
Northern Ohio Geological Society,1974.
Energy Research and Development Administration. Conditions for Storage of
Low-Level Radioactive Waste in the Asse Salt Mine. WasKTnqton. B.C.:
NTIS, 1975.
Erdoel, Erdgas Z., "Underground Storage," in Haddenhorst1s Fifth International
Salt Symposium in West Germany, Vol. 94, No. 9, 1978.
Fenix & Scisson, Inc., Review of Applicable Technology: Solution Mining of
Caverns in Salt Domes to Serve as Repositories for Radioactive Wastes.
Washington, D.C.: NTIS, 1976.
Fossue, A, F., Structural Analysis of Salt Cavities Formed by Solution Mining:
I. Method of Analysis and Preliminary Results for Spherical Cavities.
Washington, D.C.: NTIS, 1976.
Frey, H. R., and G. H. Appell. NOS Strategic Petroleum Reserve Support Proj-
ect: Final Report. Vol. 2: Measurements and Data Quality Assurance.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1981.
Germain, C. Y., "Less Roches Salines Et Le Stockage Souterrain (A Discussion
of Saline Rocks and Underground Storage," Petroleum Abstracts, Abstract
number 281, 761, V. 20, N. 38 (9/20/80), Abstract in English.
Gnirk, P. F., and others. Analysi s and Evaluation of the Rock Mechanics
Aspects of the Proposed Salt Mine Repository. Summary Progress Report,
Washington, D.C.: NTIS, 1972.
Gnirk, P. F., and others. Analysis and Evaluation of the Rock Mechanics
Aspects of the Proposed Salt Mine Repository. Summary Progress Report.
Washington, D.C.: NTIS, 1973.
Hazardous Materials Technical Center, Bibliography Database Search on Storage,
Retention, Disposal of Non-Radioactive Waste in Solution Mines in Salt
Domes. Rockville, MD: 1984.
Holloway, H. H., "Salt Dome Storage Caverns Feature High Deliverability."
Pipeline Gas Journal, CLXXXXV111 (December, 1971), 14.
Jacoby, Charles H., "Underground Mining, Mine Storage, and Other Attendant
Uses," in English foundation Conference on Need for National Policy for
the Use of Underground Space, Proceedings, Papers, and Summaries. New
York: AmericanSociety of Civil Engineers, 1983.
Jacoby, D. H., Scoping Report on Various Salt Mines in the United States.
Washington, D.C.: Department of Energy, 1977.
Lefond, S. J., "Handbook of World Salt Resources," Monographs in Geoscience,
Plenum Press, New York, 1969.
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Rodgers, Z. W., "Process for Refuse Disposal in Solution-Mined Salt Cavities
in Coogan's Fourth Symposium on Salt, Volume II, 1974.
Saberian, A., "Computer Model for Describing the Development of Solution-Mined
Cavities," In-Situ, I (1977), 1 - 36.
"Study Shows Favorable Costs for Compressed Air Storage in Alabama," Electric
light and Power, LV (June, 1977).

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