Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids


oEPA
EPA/600/R-18/259F
Febraary 2019
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
National Center for Environmental Assessment
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460

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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
DISCLAIMER
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
February 2019
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES	3-vi
LIST OF FIGURES	3-ix
3. INGESTION OF WATER AND OTHER SELECT LIQUIDS	3-1
3.1.	INTRODUCTION	3-1
3.2.	RECOMMENDATIONS	3-2
3.2.1.	Water Ingestion from Consumption of Water as a Beverage and from Food and
Drink	3-2
3.2.2.	Pregnant and Lactating Women	3-2
3.2.3.	Formula-Fed Infants	3-3
3.2.4.	Water Ingestion While Swimming or Diving	3-3
3.3.	DRINKING WATER INGESTION STUDIES	3-13
3.3.1.	Key Drinking Water Ingestion Study for the General Population	3-13
3.3.1.1. U.S. EPA Analysis of MI AXES 2005-2010 Data	3-13
3.3.2.	Relevant Drinking Water Ingestion Studies for the General Population	3-14
3.3.2.1.	Wolf (1958)—Body Water Content	3-14
3.3.2.2.	National Research Council (1977)—Drinking Water and Health	3-14
3.3.2.3.	Pennington (1983)—Revision of the Total Diet Study Food List and
Diets	3-15
3.3.2.4.	U.S. EPA (1984)—An Estimation of the Daily Average Food Intake by
Age and Sex for Use in Assessing the Radionuclide Intake of the
General Population	3-15
3.3.2.5.	Cantor et al. (1987)—Bladder Cancer, Drinking Water Source, and Tap
Water Consumption	3-15
3.3.2.6.	Ershow and Cantor (1989)—Total Water and Tap Water Intake in the
United States: Population-Based Estimates of Quantities and Sources	3-16
3.3.2.7.	Roseberry and Burmaster (1992)—Lognormal Distributions for Water
Intake	3-16
3.3.2.8.	Levy et al. (1995)—Infant Fluoride Intake from Drinking Water Added
to Formula, Beverages, and Food	3-17
3.3.2.9.	USDA (1995)—Food and Nutrient Intakes by Individuals in the United
States, 1 Day, 1989-1991	3-17
3.3.2.10.U.S.	EPA (1996)—Descriptive Statistics from a Detailed Analysis of
the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS) Responses	3-18
3.3.2.11.	Heller et al. (2000)—Water Consumption and Nursing Characteristics
of Infants by Race and Ethnicity	3-18
3.3.2.12.	Marshall et al. (2003a)—Patterns of Beverage Consumption during the
Transition Stage of Infant Nutrition	3-19
3.3.2.13.Marshall	et al. (2003b)—Relative Validation of a Beverage Frequency
Questionnaire in Children Aged 6 Months through 5 Years Using
3-Day Food and Beverage Diaries	3-20
3.3.2.14.	Skinner et al. (2004)—Transition in Infants' and Toddlers' Beverage
Patterns	3-20
3.3.2.15.Barraj	et al. (2009)—Within-Day Drinking Water Consumption
Patterns: Results from a Drinking Water Consumption Study	3-20
3.3.2.16.Zizza	et al. (2009)—Total Water Intakes of Community-Living
Middle-Old and Oldest-Old Adults	3-21
3.3.2.17.	Sebastian et al. (2011)—Drinking Water Intake in the United States;
Rosinger et al. (2016)—Daily Water Intake among U.S. Men and
Women, 2009-2012	3-21
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
3.3.2.18.Kahn and Stralka (2009)—Estimated Daily Average per Capita Water
Ingestion by Child and Adult Age Categories Based on USD A's
1994-1996 and 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by
Individuals and Supplemental Data, Kahn (2008)	3-22
3.4.	PREGNANT AND LACTATING WOMEN	3-23
3.4.1.	Key Study on Pregnant and Lactating Women	3-23
3.4.1.1. EPA Analysis of Consumption Data from 2005-2010 National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey	3-23
3.4.2.	Relevant Studies on Pregnant and Lactating Women	3-23
3.4.2.1.	Ershowetal. (1991)—Intake of Tap Water and Total Water by
Pregnant and Lactating Women	3-23
3.4.2.2.	Shimokura et al. (1998)—Assessment of Water Use for Estimating
Exposure to Tap Water Contaminants	3-24
3.4.2.3.	Zender et al. (2001)—Exposure to Tap Water during Pregnancy	3-24
3.4.2.4.	Forssen et al. (2007)—Predictors of Use and Consumption of Public
Drinking Water among Pregnant Women; Forssen et al.
(2009)—Variability and Predictors of Changes in Water Use during
Pregnancy	3-24
3.4.2.5.	Kahn and Stralka (2008)—Estimates of Water Ingestion for Women in
Pregnant, Lactating, and Nonpregnant and Nonlactating Child-Bearing
Age Groups Based on USDA's 1994-1996, 1998 CSFII	3-25
3.5.	FORMULA-FED INFANTS	3-25
3.5.1.	Key Study on Formula-Fed Infants	3-25
3.5.1.1. Kahnetal. (2013)—Estimates of Water Ingestion in Formula by
Infants and Children Based on USDA's 1994-1996 and 1998
Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals	3-25
3.5.2.	Relevant Studies on Formula-Fed Infants	3-25
3.5.2.1.	Hilbig et al. (2002)—Measured Consumption of Tap Water in German
Infants and Young Children as Background for Potential Health Risk
Assessment: Data of the DONALD Study	3-26
3.5.2.2.	Levallois et al. (2008)—Drinking Water Intake by Infants Living in
Rural Quebec (Canada)	3-26
3.5.2.3.	Schier et al. (2010)—Perchlorate Exposure from Infant Formula and
Comparisons with the Perchlorate Reference Dose	3-26
3.6.	HIGH ACTIVITY LEVELS/HOT CLIMATES	3-27
3.6.1. Relevant Studies on High Activity Levels/Hot Climates	3-27
3.6.1.1.	McNall and Schlegel (1968)—Practical Thermal Environmental Limits
for Young Adult Males Working in Hot, Humid Environments	3-27
3.6.1.2.	U.S. Army (1983, 1999)—Water Consumption Planning Factors	3-27
3.6.1.3.	Sohn et al. (2001)—Fluid Consumption Related to Climate among
Children in the United States	3-28
3.6.1.4.	Kant et al. (2009)—Intakes of Plain Water, Moisture in Foods and
Beverages, and Total Water in the Adult U.S. Population—Nutritional,
Meal Pattern, and Body Weight Correlates: NHANES 1999-2006;
Kant and Graubard (2010)—Contributors of Water Intake in U. S.
Children and Adolescents: Associations with Dietary and Meal
Characteristics—National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
2005-2006	3-28
3.6.1.5.	Yang and Chun (2014)—Consumptions of Plain Water, Moisture in
Foods and Beverages, and Total Water in Relation to Dietary
Micronutrient Intakes and Serum Nutrient Profiles among U.S. Adults	3-29
3.6.1.6.	Montain and Ely (2010)—Water Requirements and Soldier Hydration	3-29
3.7.	WATER INGESTION WHILE SWIMMING AND DIVING	3-30
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
3.7.1.	Key Studies on Water Ingestion While Swimming	3-30
3.7.1.1. Dufour et al. (2006)—Water Ingestion during Swimming Activities in a
Pool: A Pilot Study; Dufour et al. (2017)—Ingestion of Swimming
Pool Water by Recreational Swimmers	3-30
3.7.2.	Relevant Studies on Water Ingestion While Swimming, Diving, or Engaging in
Recreational Water Activities	3-31
3.7.2.1.	Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006)—A Survey of Diving Behavior
and Accidental Occupational and Sport Divers to Assess the Risk of
Infection with Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms	3-31
3.7.2.2.	Schets et al. (2011)—Exposure Assessment for Swimmers in Bathing
Waters and Swimming Pools	3-31
3.7.2.3.	Dorevitch et al. (2011)—Water Ingestion during Water Recreation	3-32
3.7.2.4.	Suppes et al. (2014)—Assessment of Swimmers Behaviors on Pool
Water Ingestion	3-32
3.7.2.5.	Sinclair et al. (2016a)—Variability in 24-Hour Excretion of Cyanuric
Acid: Implications for Water Exposure Assessment	3-33
3.7.2.6.	DeFlorio-Barker et al. (2017)—Child Environmental Exposures to
Water and Sand at the Beach: Findings from Studies of Over 68,000
Subjects at 12 Beaches	3-33
3.8.	OTHER INADVERTENT WATER INGESTION	3-33
3.8.1. Sinclair et al. (2016b)—Measuring Water Ingestion from Spray Exposures	3-33
3.9.	REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 3	3-34
APPENDIX A 	A-l
APPENDIX B 	13-1
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates 3-4
Table 3-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates 3-6
Table 3-3. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for Pregnant and
Lactating Women, and Women of Child-bearing Age 3-7
Table 3-4. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Pregnant/Lactating Women 3-8
Table 3-5. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for Formula-Fed
Infants 3-9
Table 3-6. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Formula-Fed Infants 3-10
Table 3-7. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion While Swimming 3-11
Table 3-8. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion While Swimming 3-12
Table 3-9. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion
Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010:
Community Water 3-38
Table 3-10. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled Water 3-40
Table 3-11. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion
Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010:
Other Sources 3-42
Table 3-12. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion
Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All
Sources 3-44
Table 3-13. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion
Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010:
Community Water 3-46
Table 3-14. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled 3-48
Table 3-15. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion
Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010:
Other Sources 3-50
Table 3-16. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion
Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All
Sources 3-52
Table 3-17. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water
Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
2005-2010: Community Water 3-54
Table 3-18. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled
Water 3-56
Table 3-19. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water
Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
2005-2010: Other Sources 3-58
Table 3-20. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water
Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
2005-2010: All Sources 3-60
Table 3-21. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water
Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
2005-2010: Community Water 3-62
Table 3-22. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled
Water 3-64
Table 3-23. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water
Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
2005-2010: Other Sources 3-66
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)
Table 3-24. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water
Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
2005-2010: All Sources 3-68
Table 3-25. Intake Rates of Total Fluids and Total Tap Water by Age Group 3-70
Table 3-26. Mean and Standard Error (SE) for the Daily Intake of Beverages and Tap Water by Age 3-70
Table 3-27. Average Total Tap Water Intake Rate by Sex, Age, and Geographic Area 3-71
Table 3-28. Frequency Distribution of Total Tap Water Intake Rates 3-71
Table 3-29. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/day) for Both Sexes Combined 3-72
Table 3-30. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/kg-day) for Both Sexes Combined 3-73
Table 3-31. Total Tap Water Intake (as % of total water intake) by Broad Age Category 3-74
Table 3-32. General Dietary Sources of Tap Water for Both Sexes 3-74
Table 3-33. Summary Statistics for Best-Fit Lognormal Distributions for Water Intake Rates 3-75
Table 3-34. Estimated Quantiles and Means for Total Tap Water Intake Rates 3-76
Table 3-35. Water Ingested (mL/day) from Water by Itself and Water Added to Other Beverages and
Foods 3-77
Table 3-36. Mean per Capita Drinking Water Intake Based on U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USD A), Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) Data from
1989-1991 3-79
Table 3-37. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Tap Water at a Specified Daily Frequency 3-80
Table 3-38. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Juice Reconstituted with Tap Water at a
Specified Daily Frequency 3-81
Table 3-39. Mean and (standard error [SE]) Water and Drink Consumption (mL/kg-day) by
Race/Ethnicity 3-83
Table 3-40. Plain Tap Water and Total Water Consumption by Age, Sex, Region, Urbanicity, and
Poverty Category 3-84
Table 3-41. Percentage of Subjects Consuming Beverages and Mean Daily Beverage Intakes
(mL/day) for Children with Returned Questionnaires 3-85
Table 3-42. Mean (± standard deviation [SD]) Daily Beverage Intakes Reported on Beverage
Frequency Questionnaire and 3-Day Food and Beverage Diaries 3-87
Table 3-43. Consumption of Beverages by Infants and Toddlers 3-88
Table 3-44. Number of Drinking Water Events Per Day, Intake Per Event (mL/event), and Daily
Intake 3-89
Table 3-45. Mean (standard error [SE]) Total Daily Water Intake for Older Adults 3-90
Table 3-46. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community
Water 3-90
Table 3-47. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled
Water 3-91
Table 3-48. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other
Sources 3-92
Table 3-49. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources 3-93
Table 3-50. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect13 Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community
Water 3-94
Table 3-51. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled
Water 3-95
Table 3-52. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other
Sources 3-96
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)
Table 3-53. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources 3-97
Table 3-54. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community
Water 3-98
Table 3-55. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled
Water 3-99
Table 3-56. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other
Sources 3-100
Table 3-57. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources 3-101
Table 3-58. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994-1996,
1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community Water 3-102
Table 3-59. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994-1996,
1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled Water 3-103
Table 3-60. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994-1996,
1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other Sources 3-104
Table 3-61. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994-1996,
1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources 3-105
Table 3-62. Two-Day Average per Capita Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women,
and Women of Child-Bearing Age 3-106
Table 3-63. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating
Women, and Women of Child-Bearing Age 3-108
Table 3-64. Total Fluid Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old 3-110
Table 3-65. Total Tap Water Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old 3-110
Table 3-66. Total Fluid (mL/Day) Derived from Various Dietary Sources by Women Aged 15 to 49
Years 3-111
Table 3-67. Daily Water Intake for Men and Pregnant Women 3-111
Table 3-68. Average Daily Tap Water Consumption (L/day) by Location, Temperature, and Beverage
Type 3-112
Table 3-69. Water Ingestion Rates by Pregnancy Status (L/day) and Source Location 3-113
Table 3-70. Principal Sources of Drinking Water at Home for Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women 3-114
Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women 3-115
Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap Water by
Pregnant Women 3-118
Table 3-73. Intake Rates at Different Times During Pregnancy 3-120
Table 3-74. Frequency and Proportion of Women Reporting Changes in Water Intake between Early
and Mid-Pregnancy 3-121
Table 3-75. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by Pregnant,
Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-122
Table 3-76. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by Pregnant,
Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-122
Table 3-77. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,
Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-123
Table 3-78. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,
Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-123
Table 3-79. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by
Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-124
Table 3-80. Consumers-Only Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by Pregnant,
Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-124
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)
Table 3-81. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,
Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-125
Table 3-82. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,
Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women 3-125
Table 3-83. Mean and 95th Percentile Community Water Intake among Formula-Fed Infants 3-126
Table 3-84. Tap Water Intake in Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants and Mixed-Fed Young Children
at Different Age Points 3-127
Table 3-85. Water Intake for 2-Month-Old Infants 3-129
Table 3-86. Water Intake at Various Activity Levels 3-130
Table 3-87. Planning Factors for Individual Tap Water Consumption 3-130
Table 3-88. Mean (± standard error [SE]) Fluid Intake (mL/kg-day) by Children Aged 1 to 10 Years,
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III, 1988-1994 3-131
Table 3-89. Estimated Mean (± standard error [SE]) Amount of Total Fluid and Plain Water Intake
among Children Aged 1 to 10 Years by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity, Poverty:Income Ratio,
Region, and Urbanicity 3-132
Table 3-90. Daily Water Intake Based on Physical Activity Levels, Mean ± Standard Error (SE) g/day 3-134
Table 3-91. Pool Water Ingestion by Swimmers 3-135
Table 3-92. Swimming Pool Water Ingestion Rates (mL/hour) by Swimmer Groups 3-135
Table 3-93. Water Ingested while Swimming 3-135
Table 3-94. Arithmetic Mean (maximum) Number of Dives per Diver and Volume of Water Ingested 3-136
Table 3-95. Exposure Parameters for Swimmers in Swimming Pools, Fresh Water, and Seawater 3-137
Table 3-96. Estimated Water Ingestion during Water Recreation Activities 3-137
Table 3-97. Pool Water Ingestion (mL/hr) by Activity and Age Group among Videotaped Participants 3-138
Table 3-98. Estimated Volume of Water Ingested per Swimming Event 3-138
Table A-l. Comparison of Community Water Intake Estimates 1994-1998 Continuing Survey of
Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010 A-l
Table A-2. Comparison of Bottled Water Intake Estimates 1994-1998 Continuing Survey of Food
Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010 A-3
Table A-3. Comparison of Other Sources of Water Intake Estimates 1994-1998 Continuing Survey
of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010 A-5
Table A-4. Comparison of All Sources of Water Intake Estimates 1994-1998 Continuing Survey of
Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010 A-7
Table B-l. Terms Used in Literature Searches B-l
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure A-l. Comparison of mean per capita water ingestion (mL/day), all ages: Continuing Survey of
Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) 1994-1996, 1998; National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010 A-9
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
3. INGESTION OF WATER AND OTHER
SELECT LIQUIDS
3.1. INTRODUCTION
This document is an update to Chapter 3 (Ingestion
of Water and Selected Liquids) of the Exposure
Factors Handbook; 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011).
New information that has become available since 2011
has been added, and the recommended values have
been revised as needed to reflect the additional
information. The recommended values for the general
population in this chapter have been updated using
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) data for 2005-2010; the 2011 version of
this chapter used NHANES data for 2003-2006 for
individuals >3 years of age and Continuing Survey of
Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) data for 1994-
1996, and 1998 for children <3 years of age. Appendix
A provides a comparison of the intake rates based on
NHANES 2005-2010 data to those based on NHANES
2003-2006 and CSFII 1994-96 and 1998. Data for
pregnant and lactating women have also been updated
using NHANES 2005-2010 data. This update also
provides, for the first time, water intake data for
formula-fed infants. Recent relevant studies based on
data other than NHANES and CSFII are also
summarized to provide additional perspective on
drinking water intake.
The chapter includes a comprehensive review of
the scientific literature through 2017. The new
literature was identified via formal literature searches
conducted by EPA library services as well as targeted
internet searches conducted by the authors of this
chapter. Appendix B provides a list of the key terms
that were used in the literature searches. Revisions to
this chapter have been made in accordance with the
approved quality assurance plan for the Exposure
Factors Handbook.
Water ingestion is a pathway of exposure to
environmental chemicals. Contamination of water
may occur at the water supply source (groundwater or
surface water); during treatment (for example, toxic
by-products may be formed during chlorination); or
post-treatment (such as leaching of lead or other
materials from plumbing systems). People may be
exposed to contaminants in water when consuming
water directly as a beverage, indirectly from foods and
drinks made with water, or incidentally while
swimming or engaging in other water-related
activities. Estimating the magnitude of the potential
dose of toxics from water ingestion requires
information on the quantity of water consumed. The
purpose of this section is to describe key and relevant
published studies that provide information on water
ingestion for various populations and to provide
recommended ingestion rate values for use in exposure
assessments. As described in Chapter 1 of the
Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition
(U.S. EPA, 2011), key studies represent those studies
that are the most up-to-date and scientifically sound
for deriving recommendations for exposure factors,
whereas other studies are designated "relevant,"
meaning applicable or pertinent, but not necessarily
the most important. For example, studies that provide
supporting data or information related to the factor of
interest (e.g., number of drinking events per day), or
have study designs or approaches that make the data
less applicable to the population of interest
(e.g., studies not conducted in the United States) have
been designated as relevant rather than key. Key
studies were selected based on the general assessment
factors described in Chapter 1 of the handbook. The
studies described in this section provide information
on ingestion of water consumed as a beverage or in
foods or beverages containing tap water, ingestion of
other select liquids, and ingestion of water while
swimming.
Historically, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has assumed a drinking water ingestion rate of
2 L/day for adults and 1 L/day for infants and children
under 10 years of age (U.S. EPA, 2000a). This rate
includes water consumed in the form of juices and
other beverages containing tap water. The National
Research Council (NRC, 1977) estimated that daily
consumption of water may vary with levels of physical
activity and fluctuations in temperature and humidity.
It is reasonable to assume that people engaging in
physically demanding activities or living in warmer
regions may have higher levels of water ingestion.
However, there is limited information on the effects of
activity level and climatic conditions on water
ingestion.
U.S. EPA's analysis of 2005-2010 data from the
NHANES was selected as the key study of drinking
water ingestion for the general population and for
pregnant and lactating women. NHANES 2005-2010
contains the most up-to-date information on water
intake rate estimates. Kahn et al. (2013) was selected
as a key study for formula-fed infants. Kahn et al.
(2013) used data from U.S. Department of
Agriculture's (USDA's) 1994-1996, 1998 CSFII.
The U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES data and the
analyses of CSFII data by Kahn et al. (2013) generated
ingestion rates for direct and indirect ingestion of
water. Direct ingestion is defined as direct
consumption of water as a beverage, while indirect
ingestion includes water added during food or
beverage preparation, but not water intrinsic to
purchased foods (i.e., water that is naturally contained
in foods) (Kahn and Stralka, 2008). Data for
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consumption of water from various sources (i.e., the
community water supply, bottled water, and other
sources) are also presented. It is noted that the type of
water people drink has changed in the last decade, as
evidenced by the increase in bottled water
consumption (see Appendix A). However, the
majority of the U.S. population consumes water from
public (i.e., community) water distribution systems;
about 15% of the U.S. population obtains their water
from private (i.e., household) wells, cisterns, or
springs	(U.S.	EPA,	2002;
https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/about-private-
water-wells). Regardless of the source of the water, the
physiological need for water should be the same
among populations using community or private water
systems. For the purposes of exposure assessments
involving site-specific contaminated drinking water,
ingestion rates based on the community supply are
most appropriate. Given the assumption that bottled
water, and purchased foods and beverages that contain
water are widely distributed and less likely to contain
source-specific water, the use of total water ingestion
rates may overestimate the potential exposure to toxic
substances present only in local water supplies;
therefore, tap water ingestion of community water,
rather than total water ingestion, is emphasized in this
section.
The key studies on water ingestion for the general
population and pregnant and lactating women
(NHANES), and the populations of formula-fed
infants (CSFII) are based on short-term survey data
(2 days). Although short-term data may be suitable for
obtaining mean or median ingestion values that are
representative of both short- and long-term ingestion
distributions, upper- and lower-percentile values may
be different for short-term and long-term data. Note
too that most currently available water ingestion
surveys are based on respondent recall, which may be
a source of uncertainty in the estimated ingestion rates
because of the subjective nature of this type of survey
technique. Percentile distributions for water ingestion
are presented in this handbook, where sufficient data
are available. Information on ingestion of water based
on climate and activity level, and on incidental
ingestion of water while swimming, is also provided
in this chapter.
Section 3.2 provides the recommendations and
confidence ratings for use in risk assessment for
community water ingestion among the general
population, formula-fed infants, and pregnant and
lactating women, and water ingestion among
swimmers. Section 3.3.1 provides the key studies for
general population water ingestion rates, Section 3.4.1
provides ingestion rates for pregnant and lactating
women, Section 3.5.1 provides ingestion rates for
formula-fed infants, Section 3.7 provides ingestion
rates for swimmers, and Section 3.8 provides data for
other inadvertent water ingestion. For water ingestion
at high activity levels or hot climates, no
recommendations are provided, but Section 3.6
includes relevant studies on this topic. Relevant
studies on all subcategories of water ingestion are also
presented to provide the reader with added perspective
on the current state of knowledge pertaining to
ingestion of water and select liquids.
3.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
3.2.1.	Water Ingestion from Consumption of
Water as a Beverage and from Food and
Drink
The recommended general population water
ingestion rate values for the consumption of water as
a beverage (direct) and from foods and drinks
(indirect) are based on U.S. EPA's analysis of
NHANES data from 2005-2010. Table 3-1 presents a
summary of the recommended values for direct and
indirect ingestion of community water. Per capita
mean and 95th percentile values range from
145 mL/day to 956 mL/day and 565 mL/day to
2,976 mL/day, respectively, depending on the age
group. Consumer-only mean and 95th percentile values
range from 245 mL/day to 1,419 mL/day and
658 mL/day to 3,407 mL/day, respectively, depending
on the age group. Per capita intake rates represent
intake that has been averaged over the entire
population (including those individuals that reported
no intake). In general, per capita intake rates are
appropriate for use in exposure assessments for which
average daily dose estimates are of interest because
they represent both individuals who drank water
during the survey period and individuals who may
drink water at some time but did not consume it during
the survey period. Consumer-only intake rates
represent the quantity of water consumed only by
individuals who reported water intake during the
survey period. Table 3-2 presents a characterization of
the overall confidence in the accuracy and
appropriateness of the recommendations for drinking
water intake for use in risk assessments.
3.2.2.	Pregnant and Lactating Women
Based upon the results of the U.S. EPA analysis of
2005-2010 NHANES data, per capita mean and 95th
percentile values for ingestion of drinking water
among pregnant women were 731 mL/day and
2,859 mL/day, respectively. The per capita mean and
95th percentile values for lactating women were
1,075 mL/day and 3,061 mL/day, respectively.
Table 3-3 presents a summary of the recommended
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values for water ingestion rates. Table 3-4 presents the
confidence ratings for these recommendations.
3.2.3.	Formula-Fed Infants
The recommended values for drinking water
ingestion rates for formula-fed infants are based on the
results ofKahnetal. (2013). The mean total direct and
indirect water intake values are 505, 627, 699, 691,
and 591 mL/day for ages <1 month, 1 to <3 months,
3 to <6 months, 6 to <12 months, and 1 to <2 years,
respectively. The 95th percentile total direct and
indirect water intake values are 858, 1,096, 1,300,
1,350, and 1,254 for ages <1 month, 1 to <3 months,
3 to <6 months, 6 to <12 months, and 1 to <2 years,
respectively. Table 3-5 presents a summary of the
recommended values for formula-fed infants, and
Table 3-6 presents the confidence ratings for the
recommended values for formula-fed infants.
3.2.4.	Water Ingestion While Swimming or
Diving
Based on the data from Dufour (2017), mean
swimming pool water ingestion rates were 38, 44, 33,
and 28 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11, 11 to <16, 16 to
<21, and 21+ years, respectively. Upper percentile
(95th percentile) swimming pool water ingestion rates
were 96, 152, 105, and 92 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11,
11 to <16, 16 to <21, and 21+ years, respectively.
Although these estimates were derived from
swimming pool experiments, Dufour et al. (2006)
noted that swimming behavior of recreational pool
swimmers may be similar to freshwater swimmers.
Estimates may be different for saltwater swimmers
and competitive swimmers. Table 3-7 presents a
summary of the recommended values for water
ingestion rates while swimming. Table 3-8 presents
the confidence ratings for these recommendations.
Data on the amount of time spent swimming can be
found in Chapter 16 (see Table 16-1) of this handbook.
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Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates (2-day average
community water intake)3
Mean	95th Percentile
Age Group
mL/day
mL/kg-day mL/day
mL/kg-day
Multiple Percentiles
Per Capitab
Birth to <1 month
184
42
851°
200c

1 to <3 months
145
25
905c
164°

3 to <6 months
187
27
981°
141°

6 to <12 months
269
30
988
112

Birth to <1 year
220
29
974
137

1 to <2 years
146
13
565
51

2 to <3 years
205
15
778
58

3 to <6 years
208
11
741
42

6 to <11 years
294
10
1,071
34

11 to <16 years
315
6
1,395
26

16 to <21 years
436
6
1,900
28
See Tables 3-9 and 3-13
21 to <30 years
781
10
2,848
39

30 to <40 years
902
11
2,967
38

40 to <50 years
880
11
2,964
38

50 to <60 years
956
12
2,976
37

60 to <70 years
941
12
2,972
35

70 to <80 years
772
10
2,273
31

80+ years
784
11
2,122
30

21 to <50 years
858
11
2,938
38

50+ years
902
11
2,827
35

All ages
711
11
2,641
37

Consumers-Onlyd
Birth to <1 month
581
133
938c
224°

1 to <3 months
785
136
1,224c
267°

3 to <6 months
649
93
1,125°
158°

6 to <12 months
554
62
1,104°
133°

Birth to <1 year
595
79
1,106°
174°

1 to <2 years
245
22
658
57

2 to <3 years
332
24
901
67

3 to <6 years
338
19
836
45

6 to <11 years
455
15
1,258
41

11 to <16 years
562
10
1,761
31

16 to <21 years
722
10
2,214
31
See Tables 3-17 and 3-21.
21 to <30 years
1,183
16
3,407
47

30 to <40 years
1,277
16
3,278
44

40 to <50 years
1,356
17
3,374
43

50 to <60 years
1,419
18
3,388
42

60 to <70 years
1,394
17
3,187
40

70 to <80 years
1,214
16
2,641
37

80+ years
1,087
16
2,250
33

21 to <50 years
1,277
16
3,353
44

50+ years
1,343
17
3,081
40

All ages
1,096
17
2,972
44

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Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates (2-Day Average
Community Water Intake)3 (Continued)

Mean 95th Percentile

Age Group mL/day mL/kg-day mL/day mL/kg-day Multiple Percentiles
Per Capitab
a
b
c
d
FCID
NCHS
NHIS
Ingestion rates for combined direct and indirect water from community water supply. Estimates are based on the
average of 2 days of water consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero
consumption on one of the 2 days and nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be
the average of zero and nonzero consumption.
Per capita intake rates are generated by averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire population (including those
individuals that reported no intake).
Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and
Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group
Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
Consumer-only intake represents the quantity of water consumed only by individuals that reported consuming water
during the survey period.
= Food Commodity Intake Database.
= National Center for Health Statistics.
= National Health Interview Survey.
Source:
U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using the FCID Consumption Calculator at http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
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Table 3-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates"
General Assessment Factors
Rationale
Rating
Soundness
Adequacy of Approach
The survey methodology and data analysis were adequate. The
surveys sampled approximately 25,000 (NHANES) individuals;
sample size varied with age.
Medium to High
Minimal (or defined) Bias
No physical measurements were taken. The method relied on recent
recall of standardized volumes of drinking water containers.

Applicability and Utility
Exposure Factor of Interest
The key studies were directly relevant to water ingestion.
High
Representativeness
The data were demographically representative (based on stratified
random sample). Sample sizes for some age groups were limited.

Currency
NHANES data were collected between 2005 and 2010.

Data Collection Period
Data were collected for 2 nonconsecutive days. Elowever, long-term
variability may be small. Use of a short-term average as a chronic
ingestion measure can be assumed.

Clarity and Completeness
Accessibility
NHANES data are publicly available.
High
Reproducibility
The methodology was clearly presented; enough information was
included to reproduce the results.

Quality Assurance
NHANES data collection follow strict QA/QC procedures. The
FCID Calculator also underwent QA/QC.

Variability and Uncertainty
Variability in Population
Full distributions were developed.
High
Uncertainty
Except for data collection based on recall, sources of uncertainty
were minimal.

Evaluation and Review
Peer Review
NHANES surveys received a high level of peer review. The U.S.
EPA analysis of NHANES has not been peer reviewed outside the
Agency, but the FCID Consumption Calculator, which was used to
conduct the analysis, was internally and externally peer reviewed.
Medium
Number and Agreement of
Studies
There was one key study for drinking water ingestion among the
general population. Appendix B provides a comparison of the
NHANES 2005-2010 and data sets used previously in the Exposure
Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for estimating
water ingestion among the general population (NHANES
2003-2006 and CSFII 1994-1996, 1998).

Overall Rating

Medium to High,
Low for footnote
"c" on Table 3-1
a See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed
description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.
FCID = Food Commodity Intake Database.
QA/QC = Quality assurance/quality control.
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Table 3-3. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for
Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of Child-bearing Age (13 to <50 years)3
Per Capitab
Mean 95th Percentile
Group mL/day mL/kg-day mL/day mL/kg-day
Pregnant women 731 9.8 2,859 37.3
Lactating women 1,075 16.5 3,061c 47.0
Child-bearing age 683 9.8 2,634 38.2
Consumers-Onlyd
Mean 95th Percentile
Group mL/day mL/kg-day mL/day mL/kg-day
Pregnant women 1,158 15.5 2,935c 37.7
Lactating women 1,495 22.9 3,061c 47.0
Child-bearing age 1,082 15.6 2,956 44.6
a Ingestion rates for combined direct and indirect water from community water supply. Estimates are based on the
average of 2 days of water consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero
consumption on 1 of the 2 days and nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the
average of zero and nonzero consumption.
b Per capita intake rates are generated by averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire population (including those
individuals that reported no intake). See Table 3-62.
c Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and
Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group
Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
d Consumer-only intake represents the quantity of water consumed only by individuals that reported consuming water
during the survey period. See Table 3-63.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
NHIS = National Health Interview Survey.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using the FCID Consumption Calculator at http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
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Table 3-4. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Pregnant/Lactating
Women3
General Assessment Factors
Rationale
Rating
Soundness
Adequacy of Approach
The survey methodology and data analysis were adequate. The sample
size was relatively small: 426 pregnant and 101 lactating women.
Low
Minimal (or defined) Bias
No physical measurements were taken. The method relied on recent recall
of standardized volumes of drinking water containers.

Applicability and Utility
Exposure Factor of Interest
The key study was directly relevant to water ingestion.
Low to
Medium
Representativeness
The data were demographically representative (based on stratified random
sample).

Currency
Data were collected between 2005 and 2010.

Data Collection Period
Data were collected for 2 nonconsecutive days. However, long-term
variability may be small. Use of a short-term average as a chronic
ingestion measure can be assumed.

Clarity and Completeness
Accessibility
The NHANES data are publicly available.
Medium
Reproducibility
The methodology was clearly presented; enough information was included
to reproduce the results.

Quality Assurance
NHANES data collection follow strict QA/QC procedures. The FCID
Consumption Calculator also underwent QA/QC.

Variability and Uncertainty
Variability in Population
Full distributions were developed.
Low
Uncertainty
Except for data collection based on recall and the relatively small sample
size, sources of uncertainty were minimal.

Overall Rating

Low
a See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed
description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.
FCID = Food Commodity Intake Database.
QA/QC = Quality assurance/quality control.
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Table 3-5. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for

Formula-Fed Infants3


Indirect in Formulab


Mean


95th percentiie
Group
mL/day

mL/kg-day
mL/day
mL/kg-day
<1 month
491°

143c
856c
240c
1 to <3 months
572

124
963c
285c
3 to <6 months
645

93
1,112°
171c
6 to <12 months
573

65
1,192°
136c
1 to <2 years
364

38c
745c
82c
Total Direct and Indirect"1


Mean


95th percentile
Group
mL/day

mL/kg-day
mL/day
mL/kg-day
<1 month
505c

146c
858c
240c
1 to <3 months
627

136
l,096c
290°
3 to <6 months
699

101
l,300c
186°
6 to <12 months
691

78
1,350°
151°
1 to <2 years
591

60
l,254c
119°
a Formula-consumers only; see Table 3-83.




b Water used to reconstitute formula.




c The sample size does not meet the minimum reporting requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition
Monitoring in the United States (LSRO, 1995).



d Ingestion rates for combined direct and indirect water from community water supply; includes water used to
reconstitute formula plus all other community water ingested.


Source: Kahn et al. (2013).





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Table 3-6. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Formula-Fed Infants"
General Assessment Factors
Rationale
Rating
Soundness
Adequacy of Approach
The survey methodology and data analysis were adequate. Data
were available for approximately 700 formula-fed infants
overall, but the sample sizes were small for some age ranges.
Medium
Minimal (or defined) Bias
No physical measurements were taken. The method relied on
recent recall of volumes of drinking water used to reconstitute
infant formula.

Applicability and Utility
Exposure Factor of Interest
The key study was directly relevant to water ingestion.
Medium
Representativeness
The data were demographically representative (based on
stratified random sample).

Currency
Data were collected between 1994 and 1998.

Data Collection Period
Data were collected for 2 nonconsecutive days. However,
long-term variability may be small. Use of a short-term average
as a chronic ingestion measure can be assumed.

Clarity and Completeness
Accessibility
The CSFII data are publicly available. The Kahn et al. (2013)
analysis of the CSFII 1994-1996, 1998 data was published in a
peer-reviewed journal.
Medium
Reproducibility
The methodology was clearly presented; enough information
was included to reproduce the results.

Quality Assurance
Quality assurance of the CSFII data was good; quality control
of the secondary data analysis was not well described.

Variability and Uncertainty
Variability in Population
Mean and 95th percentile values were provided for five age
groups of infants (Kahn et al., 2013).
Medium
Uncertainty
Except for data collection based on recall, sources of
uncertainty were minimal.

Evaluation and Review
Peer Review
The USDA CSFII survey received a high level of peer review.
The Kahn et al. (2013) study was published in a peer-reviewed
journal.
Medium
Number and Agreement of Studies
There was one key study for formula-fed infants.

Overall Rating

Medium
a See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed
description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.
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Table 3-7. Recommended Values for Water
Ingestion While Swimming
Age Group
years
Mean
Upper Percentile
mL/hour
mL/hour
6 to <11
11 to <16
16 to <21
21+
38
44
33
28
96
152
105
92
Source: Dufour (2017); based on data provided to L. Phillips by A. Dufour by
personal communication, 6/21/2017.
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Table 3-8. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion While Swimming3
General Assessment Factors
Rationale
Rating
Soundness
Adequacy of Approach
The approach appears to be appropriate given that cyanuric acid (a
tracer used in treated pool water) is not metabolized. The Dufour et al.
(2006, 2017) studies analyzed primary data on water ingestion during
swimming.
Medium
Minimal (or defined) Bias
Swimmers were asked to swim for approximately 1 hour, but the
swimming durations used in calculating the ingestion rates were based
on self-reported estimates that may not accurately reflect the actual
time spent swimming.

Applicability and Utility
Exposure Factor of Interest
The key study was directly relevant to water ingestion while
swimming.
Low to
Medium
Representativeness
The sample was not representative of the U.S. population. Data were
provided for three broad age ranges (i.e., children, teens, adults).

Currency
The pilot study (Dufour et al., 2006) was conducted in 2005 and the
full study (Dufour et al., 2017) was conducted after the pilot study.

Data Collection Period
Samples were collected after a swimming period of approximately
1 hour.

Clarity and Completeness
Accessibility
The Dufour et al. (2006, 2017) studies were published in
peer-reviewed journals. Dufour (2017) provided the raw data, which
were analyzed to provide additional percentile values for additional
age groups.
Medium
Reproducibility
The methodology was clearly presented; enough information was
included to reproduce the results.

Quality Assurance
Quality assurance methods were not described in the study.

Variability and Uncertainty
Variability in Population
Full distributions were not available in the paper, but the data were
provided by the author via personal communications (Dufour, 2017).
Data were broken out by broad age groups.
Low
Uncertainty
The sources of uncertainty were that the sample population may not
reflect swimming practices for all swimmers, and the rates were based
on self-reported swimming durations.

Evaluation and Review
Peer Review
The Dufour et al. (2006, 2017) studies were published in peer-reviewed
journals.
Medium
Number and Agreement of Studies
There were two key studies for ingestion of water when swimming
(Dufour et al., 2006, 2017).

a See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed
description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.
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3.3. DRINKING WATER INGESTION
STUDIES
3.3.1. Key Drinking Water Ingestion Study for
the General Population
This section provides a summary of the key study
on water ingestion among the general population. This
key study is the basis for the recommended water
estimates for use in risk assessments involving the
general population.
3.3.1.1. U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES 2005-2010
Data
The U.S. EPA used the combined 2005-2006,
2007-2008, and 2009-2010 NHANES data sets to
estimate water ingestion rates for the general
population. The 2005-2010 data set included
information on nearly 25,000 individuals. The U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention surveyed
households across the United States and collected food
and beverage recall data for 2 nonconsecutive days as
part of the NHANES. The first dietary recall interview
was conducted in person in a Mobile Examination
Center, and the second was collected by telephone 3 to
10 days later on a different day of the week. Each
individual in the survey was assigned a sample weight
based on his or her demographic data. These weights
were taken into account when calculating mean and
percentile water ingestion rates from various sources.
The U.S. EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs used
NHANES 2005-2010 data to update the Food
Commodity Intake Database (FCID) that was
developed for earlier analyses of data from the
USDA's CSFII (USDA, 2000; U.S. EPA, 2000a, b)
and NHANES 2003-2006 (U.S. EPA, 2011). In the
FCID, NHANES data on the foods people reported
eating were converted to the quantities of agricultural
commodities eaten, including water that was added in
the preparation of foods and beverages. The updated
FCID is available at: http://fcid.foodrisk.org/, along
with the FCID Consumption Calculator which was
used to develop the estimates provided in this chapter
for various age groups of the population. This
calculator may also be used to develop estimates for
other age groups or population, customized to the
users' needs.
U.S. EPA derived mean and percentile estimates of
daily average water ingestion for the following age
categories: Birth to <1 month, 1 to <3 months, 3 to
<6 months, 6 to <12 months, 1 to <2 years of age, 2 to
<3 years, 3 to <6 years, 6 to <11 years, 11 to <16 years,
16 to <21 years of age, adults 21 years and older in
10-year increments, and all ages. Intake estimates are
also provided for some additional age ranges that may
be of use to risk assessors, including ages birth to
<2 years, 2 to <16 years, 16 to <70 years, 21 to <50
years, and 50+ years.
Consumer-only and per capita water ingestion
estimates were generated for four water source
categories: community water, bottled water, other
sources, and all sources. Consumer-only intake
represents the quantity of water consumed by
individuals during the survey period. These data are
generated by averaging intake across only the
individuals in the survey who reported consumption of
water. Per capita intake rates are generated by
averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire
population (including those individuals that reported
no intake). In general, per capita intake rates are
appropriate for use in exposure assessments for which
average dose estimates are of interest because they
represent both individuals who drank water during the
survey period and individuals who may drink water at
some time but did not consume it during the survey
period. "All sources" included water from all supply
sources such as community water supply (i.e., tap
water), bottled water, other sources, and
missing/unknown sources. "Community water"
included tap water from a community or municipal
water supply. "Other sources" included wells, springs,
cisterns, other nonspecified sources, and
missing/unknown sources that the survey respondent
was unable to identify. The water ingestion estimates
for community water, other sources, and all sources
included both water ingested directly as a beverage
(direct water) and water added to foods and beverages
during final preparation at home or by local food
service establishments such as school cafeterias and
restaurants (indirect water). Bottled water estimates
include direct ingestion only. Commercial water added
by a manufacturer (i.e., water contained in soda or
beer) and intrinsic water in foods and liquids (i.e., milk
and natural undiluted juice) were not included in the
estimates. NHANES water consumption respondent
data were averaged over both days of dietary data.
Intake rate distributions were provided in units of
mL/day and mL/kg-day. The body weights of survey
participants were used in developing intake rate
estimates in units of mL/kg-day.
Tables 3-9 to 3-24 present full distributions for the
various water source categories (community water,
bottled water, other sources, and all sources).
Tables 3-9 to 3-12 provide per capita water ingestion
estimates in mL/day for the various water source
categories (i.e., community, bottled, other, and all
sources). Tables 3-13 to 3-16 present the same
information as Tables 3-9 to 3-12, but in units of
mL/kg-day. Tables 3-17 to 3-20 provide
consumers-only water ingestion estimates in mL/day
for the various source categories. Tables 3-21 to 3-24
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present the same information as Tables 3-17 to 3-20,
but in units of mL/kg-day. Estimates that do not meet
the minimum sample size as described in the Joint
Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII
Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group
Recommendations (NCHS, 1993), are flagged in the
tables. The design effect used to determine the
minimum required sample size was domain specific
(i.e., calculated separately for various age groups).
When indexed to body weight, the per capita
ingestion rate of water from all sources combined for
children under 6 months of age was more than 4 times
higher than that of adults >21 years (see Table 3-16).
Among consumers-only younger than 6 months of
age, the ingestion rate for all sources combined was
more than 5 times that of adults when indexed to body
weight (see Table 3-24). The pattern of decreasing
water ingestion per unit of body weight was also
observed in per capita and consumers-only estimates
of community water (see Tables 3-13 and 3-21), and
other sources (see Tables 3-15 and 3-23). However,
this trend was not observed in estimates of bottled
water.
The advantages of U.S. EPA's analysis of the
2005-2010 NHANES surveys are (1) that the surveys
were designed to obtain a statistically valid sample of
the civilian noninstitutionalized U.S. population
(i.e., the sampling frame was organized using 2000
U.S. population census estimates); (2) several sets of
sampling weights were available for use with the
intake data to facilitate proper analysis of the data;
(3) the sample size was sufficient to allow
categorization within narrowly defined age categories,
and the large sample provided useful information on
the overall distribution of ingestion by the population
and should adequately reflect the range among
respondent variability; (4) the survey was conducted
over 2 nonconsecutive days, which improved the
variance over consecutive days of consumption; and
(5) the most current FCID data set was used. One
limitation of the data is that the data were collected
over only 2 days and do not necessarily represent
"usual" intake. "Usual dietary intake" refers to the
long-term average of daily intakes by an individual.
Thus, water ingestion estimates based on short-term
data may differ from long-term rates, especially at the
tails of the distribution. There are, however, several
limitations associated with these data. Water intake
estimates for some age groups, particularly at the tails
of the distribution, are less statistically reliable due to
small sample sizes, as noted in Tables 3-9 to 3-24. In
addition, NHANES does not allow for the allocation
of indirect water intake in estimating bottled water
consumption. Another limitation of these data is that
the survey design, while being well tailored for the
overall population of the United States and conducted
throughout the year to account for seasonal variation,
is of limited use for assessing small and potentially
at-risk populations based on ethnicity, medical status,
geography/climate, or other factors such as activity
level.
3.3.2. Relevant Drinking Water Ingestion
Studies for the General Population
The sections that follow provide summaries of
studies on water ingestion among the general
population that have been categorized as relevant
rather than key. Studies were classified as relevant if
they provided supporting water ingestion data
(e.g., older studies, studies that provided information
on the source of water) or information related to the
factor of interest (e.g., physiologic need for water), or
the study design or approach makes the data less
applicable to the population of interest (e.g., small
sample size, limited to certain age groups).
3.3.2.1.	Wolf (1958)—Body Water Content
Wolf (1958) provided information on the water
content of human bodies, stating that a newborn baby
is about 77% water while an adult male is about 60%
water by weight. An adult male gains and loses about
2,750 mL of water each day. Water intake in dissimilar
mammals varies according to 0.88 power of body
weight.
3.3.2.2.	National	Research	Council
(1977)—Drinking Water and Health
NRC (1977) calculated the average per capita
water (liquid) consumption per day to be 1.63 L. This
figure was based on a survey of the following literature
sources: Starling (1941); Bourne and Kidder (1953);
Walker et al. (1957); Wolf (1958); Guyton (1968);
McNall and Schlegel (1968); Randall (1973); NRC
(1974); and Pike and Brown (1975) as cited in NRC
(1977). Although the calculated average intake rate
was 1.63 L/day, NRC (1977) adopted a larger rate
(2 L/day) to represent the intake of the majority of
water consumers. This value is relatively consistent
with the total tap water intakes rate estimated from the
key study presented in this chapter. However, the use
of the term "liquid" was not clearly defined in this
study, and it is not known whether the populations
surveyed are representative of the adult U.S.
population. Consequently, the results of this study are
of limited use in recommending total tap water intake
rates, and this study is not considered a key study.
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3.3.2.3.	Pennington (1983)—Revision of the Total
Diet Study Food List and Diets
Based on data from the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration's Total Diet Study, Pennington (1983)
reported average intake rates for various foods and
beverages for five age groups of the population. The
Total Diet Study is conducted annually to monitor the
nutrient and contaminant content of the U.S. food
supply and to evaluate trends in consumption.
Representative diets were developed based on 24-hour
recall and 2-day diary data from the 1977-1978
USD A Nationwide Food Consumption Survey
(NFCS) and 24-hour recall data from the Second
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES II). The numbers of participants in NFCS
and NHANES II were approximately 30,000 and
20,000, respectively. The diets were developed to
"approximate 90% or more of the weight of the foods
usually consumed" (Pennington, 1983). The source of
water (bottled water as distinguished from tap water)
was not stated in the Pennington study. For the
purposes of this report, the consumption rates for the
food categories defined by Pennington (1983) were
used to calculate total fluid and total water intake rates
for five age groups. Total water includes water, tea,
coffee, soft drinks, and soups and frozen juices that are
reconstituted with water. Reconstituted soups were
assumed to be composed of 50% water, and juices
were assumed to contain 75% water. Total fluids
include total water in addition to milk, ready-to-use
infant formula, milk-based soups, carbonated soft
drinks, alcoholic beverages, and canned fruit juices.
Table 3-25 presents these intake rates. Based on the
average intake rates for total water for the two adult
age groups, 1.04 and 1.26 L/day, the average adult
intake rate is about 1.15 L/day. These rates should be
more representative of the amount of source-specific
water consumed than are total fluid intake rates. This
study, which used both USD A 1978 data and
NHANES II data, was designed to measure food
intake. Consequently, no systematic attempt was
necessarily made to define tap water intake per se, as
distinguished from bottled water. For this reason, it is
not considered a key tap water study in this document.
3.3.2.4.	U.S. EPA (1984)—An Estimation of the
Daily Average Food Intake by Age and Sex
for Use in Assessing the Radionuclide
Intake of the General Population
Using data collected by USDA in the 1977-1978
NFCS, U.S. EPA (1984) determined daily food and
beverage intake levels by age to be used in assessing
radionuclide intake through food consumption. Tap
water, water-based drinks, and soups were identified
subcategories of the total beverage category.
Table 3-26 presents daily intake rates for tap water,
water-based drinks, soup, and total beverages. As seen
in Table 3-26, mean tap water intake for different adult
age groups (age 20 years and older) ranged from 0.62
to 0.76 L/day, water-based drinks intake ranged from
0.34 to 0.69 L/day, soup intake ranged from 0.04 to
0.06 L/day, and mean total beverage intake levels
ranged from 1.48 to 1.73 L/day. Total tap water intake
rates were estimated by combining the average daily
intakes of tap water, water-based drinks, and soups for
each age group. For adults (ages 20 years and older),
mean total tap water intake rates range from 1.04 to
1.47 L/day, and for children (ages <1 to 19 years),
mean intake rates range from 0.19 to 0.90 L/day. The
total tap water intake rates, derived by combining data
on tap water, water-based drinks, and soup should be
more representative of source-specific drinking water
intake than the total beverage intake rates reported in
this study. The chief limitation of the study is that the
data were collected in 1978 and do not reflect the
expected increase in the U.S. consumption of soft
drinks and bottled water or changes in the diet within
the last three decades. Because the data were collected
for only a 3-day period, the extrapolation to chronic
intake is uncertain. Also, these intake rates do not
include reconstituted infant formula. For these
reasons, this is not considered a key study in this
document.
3.3.2.5. Cantor et al. (1987)—Bladder Cancer,
Drinking Water Source, and Tap Water
Consumption
The National Cancer Institute, in a
population-based, case control study investigating the
possible relationship between bladder cancer and
drinking water, interviewed approximately 8,000 adult
white individuals, 21 to 84 years of age (2,805 cases
and 5,258 controls) in their homes, using a
standardized questionnaire (Cantor et al., 1987). The
cases and controls resided in one of five metropolitan
areas (Atlanta, Detroit, New Orleans, San Francisco,
and Seattle) and five states (Connecticut, Iowa, New
Jersey, New Mexico, and Utah). The individuals
interviewed were asked to recall the level of intake of
tap water and other beverages in a typical week during
the winter prior to the interview. Total beverage intake
was divided into the following two components:
(1)	beverages derived from tap water and
(2)	beverages from other sources. Tap water used in
cooking foods and in ice cubes was apparently not
considered. Participants also supplied information on
the primary source of the water consumed (i.e., private
well, community supply, bottled water, etc.). The
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control population was randomly selected from the
general population and frequency matched to the
bladder cancer case population in terms of age, sex,
and geographic location of residence. The case
population consisted of whites only and had no people
under the age of 21 years; 57% were over the age of
65 years. The fluid intake rates for the bladder cancer
cases were not used because their participation in the
study was based on selection factors that could bias the
intake estimates for the general population. Based on
responses from 5,258 white controls (3,892 males;
1,366 females), average tap water intake rates for a
"typical" week were compiled by sex, age group, and
geographic region. Table 3-27 lists these rates. The
average total fluid intake rate was 2.01 L/day for men,
of which 70% (1.4 L/day) was derived from tap water,
and 1.72 L/day for women, of which 79% (1.35 L/day)
was derived from tap water. Table 3-28 presents
frequency distribution data for the 5,228 controls, for
which the authors had information on both tap water
consumption and cigarette smoking habits. These data
follow a lognormal distribution having an average
value of 1.30 L/day and an upper 90th percentile value
of approximately 2.40 L/day. These values were
determined by graphically interpolating the data of
Table 3-28 after plotting it on log probability graph
paper. These values represent the usual level of intake
for this population of adults in the winter. Limitations
associated with this data set are that the population
surveyed was older than the general population and
consisted exclusively of whites. Also, the intake data
are based on recall of behavior during the winter only.
Extrapolation of the data to other seasons is difficult.
The authors presented data on person-years of
residence with various types of water supply sources
(municipal vs. private, chlorinated vs. nonchlorinated,
and surface vs. well water). Unfortunately, these data
cannot be used to draw conclusions about the national
average apportionment of surface versus groundwater
because a large fraction (24%) of municipal water
intake in this survey could not be specifically
attributed to either ground or surface water.
3.3.2.6. Ershow and Cantor (1989)—Total Water
and Tap Water Intake in the United States:
Population-Based Estimates of Quantities
and Sources
Ershow and Cantor (1989) estimated water intake
rates based on data collected by the USD A 1977-1978
NFCS. The survey was conducted through interviews
and diary entries. Daily intake rates for tap water and
total water were calculated for various age groups for
males, females, and both sexes combined. Tap water
was defined as "all water from the household tap
consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare
foods and beverages." Total water was defined as tap
water plus "water intrinsic to foods and beverages"
(i.e., water contained in purchased food and
beverages). The authors showed that the age, sex, and
racial distribution of the surveyed population closely
matched the estimated 1977 U.S. population.
Table 3-29 presents daily total tap water intake
rates, expressed as mL/day by age group. These data
follow a lognormal distribution. Table 3-30 presents
the same data, expressed as mL/kg-day. This shows
that the mean and 90th percentile intake rates for adults
(ages 20 to 65+) are approximately 1,410 mL/day and
2,280 mL/day, and for all ages, the mean and 90th
percentile intake rates are 1,193 mL/day and 2,092
mL/day. Note that older adults have greater intakes
than do adults between ages 20 and 64, an observation
bearing on the interpretation of the Cantor et al. (1987)
study, which surveyed a population that was older than
the national average (see Section 3.3.2.8).
Ershow and Cantor (1989) also measured total
water intake for the same age groups and concluded
that it averaged 2,070 mL/day for all groups combined
and that tap water intake (1,190 mL/day) is 55% of the
total water intake. Table 3-31 presents total tap water
intake as a percentage of total water intake for various
age groups. Ershow and Cantor (1989) also concluded
that, for all age groups combined, the proportion of tap
water consumed as drinking water or used to prepare
foods and beverages is 54, 10, and 36%, respectively.
(Table 3-32 presents the detailed data on the
proportion of tap water consumed for various age
groups). Ershow and Cantor (1989) also observed that
males of all age groups had higher total water and tap
water consumption rates than females; the variation of
each from the combined-sexes mean was about 8%.
With respect to region of the country, the Northeast
had slightly lower average tap water intake
(1,200 mL/day) than the three other regions (which
were approximately equal at 1,400 mL/day).
This survey has an adequately large size
(26,446 individuals), and it is a representative sample
of the U.S. population with respect to age distribution
and residential location. The data, however, are more
than 20 years old and may not be entirely
representative of current patterns of water intake.
3.3.2.7. Roseberry and Burmaster (1992)—
Lognormal Distributions for Water Intake
Roseberry and Burmaster (1992) fit lognormal
distributions to the water intake data population-wide
distributions for total fluid and total tap water intake
based on proportions of the population in each age
group. Their publication shows the data and the fitted
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lognormal distributions graphically. The mean was
estimated as the zero intercept, and the standard
deviation (SD) was estimated as the slope of the
best-fit line for the natural logarithm of the intake rates
plotted against their corresponding z-scores
(Roseberry and Burmaster, 1992). Least squares
techniques were used to estimate the best-fit straight
lines for the transformed data. Table 3-33 presents
summary statistics for the best-fit lognormal
distribution. In this table, the simulated balanced
population represents an adjustment to account for the
difference in the age distribution of the U.S.
population in 1988 from the age distribution in 1978
when Ershow and Cantor (1989) collected their data.
Table 3-34 summarizes the quantiles and means of tap
water intake as estimated from the best-fit
distributions. The mean total tap water intake rates for
the two adult populations (ages 20 to 65 years, and
65+ years) were estimated to be 1.27 and 1.34 L/day.
These intake rates were based on the data
originally presented by Ershow and Cantor (1989).
Consequently, the same advantages and disadvantages
associated with the Ershow and Cantor (1989) study
apply to this data set.
3.3.2.8. Levy et al. (1995)—Infant Fluoride Intake
from Drinking Water Added to Formula,
Beverages, and Food
Levy et al. (1995) conducted a study to determine
fluoride intake by infants through drinking water and
other beverages prepared with water and baby foods.
The study was longitudinal and covered the ages from
birth to 9 months old. A total of 192 mothers, recruited
from the postpartum wards of two hospitals in Iowa
City, completed mail questionnaires and 3-day
beverage and food diaries for their infants at ages
6 weeks, and 3, 6, and 9 months (Levy et al., 1995).
The questionnaire addressed feeding habits, water
sources and ingestion, and the use of dietary fluoride
supplements during the preceding week (Levy et al.,
1995). It also collected data on the quantity of water
consumed by itself or as an additive to infant formula,
other beverages, or foods. In addition, the
questionnaire addressed the infants' ingestion of
cow's milk, breast milk, ready-to-feed (RTF) infant
products (formula, juices, beverages, baby food), and
table foods.
Mothers were contacted for any clarifications of
missing data and discrepancies (Levy et al., 1995).
Levy et al. (1995) assessed nonresponse bias and
found no significant differences in the reported
number of adults or children in the family, water
sources, or family income at 3, 6, or 9 months.
Table 3-35 provides the range of water ingestion from
water by itself and from addition to selected foods and
beverages. The percentage of infants ingesting water
by itself increased from 28% at 6 weeks to 66% at
9 months, respectively, and the mean intake increased
slightly over this time frame. During this time frame,
the largest proportion of the infants' water ingestion
(i.e., 36% at 9 months to 48% at 6 months) came from
the addition of water to formula. Levy et al. (1995)
noted that 32% of the infants at age 6 weeks and 23%
of the infants at age 3 months did not receive any water
from any of the sources studied. Levy et al. (1995) also
noted that the proportion of children ingesting some
water from all sources gradually increased with age.
The advantages of this study are that it provides
information on water ingestion of infants starting at
6 weeks old, and the data are for water only and for
water added to beverages and foods. The limitations of
the study are that the sample size was small for each
age group, it captured information from a select
geographical location, and data were collected through
self-reporting. The authors noted, however, that the
3-day diary has been shown to be a valid assessment
tool. Levy et al. (1995) also stated that (1) for each
time period, the ages of the infants varied by a few
days to a few weeks, and are, therefore, not exact and
could, at early ages, have an effect on age-specific
intake patterns; and (2) the same number of infants
were not available at each of the four time periods.
3.3.2.9. USD A (1995)—Food and Nutrient Intakes
by Individuals in the United States, 1 Day,
1989-1991
USD A (1995) collected data on the quantity of
"plain drinking water" and various other beverages
consumed by individuals in 1 day during 1989 through
1991. The data were collected as part of USDA's
CSFII. The data used to estimate mean per capita
intake rates combined 1-day dietary recall data from
3 survey years, 1989, 1990, and 1991, during which
15,128 individuals supplied 1-day intake data.
Individuals from all income levels in the
48 conterminous states and Washington D.C. were
included in the sample. A complex three-stage
sampling design was employed, and the overall
response rate for the study was 58%. To minimize the
biasing effects of the low response rate and adjust for
the seasonality, a series of weighting factors was
incorporated into the data analysis. Table 3-36
presents the intake rates based on this study.
Table 3-36 includes data for (1) "plain drinking
water," which might be assumed to mean tap water
directly consumed rather than bottled water; (2) coffee
and tea, which might be assumed to be constituted
from tap water; (3) fruit drinks and ades, which might
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be assumed to be reconstituted from tap water rather
than canned products; and (4) the total of the three
sources. With these assumptions, the mean per capita
total intake of water is estimated to be 1,416 mL/day
for adult males (i.e., 20 years of age and older),
1,288 mL/day for adult females (i.e., 20 years of age
and older), and 1,150 mL/day for all ages and both
sexes combined. Although these assumptions appear
reasonable, a close reading of the definitions used by
USD A (1995) reveals that the word "tap water" does
not occur, and this uncertainty prevents the use of this
study as a key study of tap water intake.
The advantages of using these data are that (1) the
survey had a large sample size and (2) the authors
attempted to represent the general U.S. population by
oversampling low-income groups and by weighting
the data to compensate for low response rates. The
disadvantages are that (1) the word "tap water" was
not defined, and the assumptions that must be used to
compare the data with the other tap water studies
might not be valid; (2) the data collection period
reflects only a 1-day intake period and may not reflect
long-term drinking water intake patterns; (3) data on
the percentiles of the distribution of intakes were not
given; and (4) the data are almost 20 years old and may
not be entirely representative of current intake
patterns.
3.3.2.10. U.S. EPA (1996)—Descriptive Statistics
from a Detailed Analysis of the National
Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS)
Responses
The U.S. EPA collected information on the number
of glasses of drinking water and juice reconstituted
with tap water consumed by the general population as
part of the National Human Activity Pattern Survey
(NHAPS) (U.S. EPA, 1996). NHAPS was conducted
between October 1992 and September 1994. Over
9,000 individuals in the 48 contiguous United States
provided data on the duration and frequency of
selected activities and the time spent in selected
microenvironments via 24-hour diaries. Over
4,000 NHAPS respondents also provided information
on the number of 8-ounce glasses of water and the
number of 8-ounce glasses of juice reconstituted with
water that they drank during the 24-hour survey period
(see Tables 3-37 and 3-38). The median number of
glasses of tap water consumed was 1-2, and the
median number of glasses of juice with tap water
consumed was 1-2.
For both individuals who drank tap water and
individuals who drank juices reconstituted with tap
water, the number of glasses consumed in a day ranged
from 1 to 20 glasses. The highest percentage of the
population (37.1%) who drank tap water, consumed in
the range of 3-5 glasses a day, and the highest
percentage of the population (51.5%) who consumed
juice reconstituted with tap water consumed
1-2 glasses in a day. Based on the assumption that
each glass contained 8 ounces of water (226.4 mL), the
total volume of tap water and juice with tap water
consumed would range from 0.23 L/day (1 glass) to
4.5 L/day (20 glasses) for respondents who drank tap
water. Using the same assumption, the volume of tap
water consumed for the population who consumed
3-5 glasses would be 0.68 L/day to 1.13 L/day, and
the volume of juice with tap water consumed for the
population who consumed 1-2 glasses would be
0.23-0.46 L/day. Assuming the average individual
consumes 3-5 glasses of tap water plus 1-2 glasses of
juice with tap water, the range of total tap water intake
for this individual would range from 0.9 L/day to
1.64 L/day. These values are consistent with the
average intake rates observed in other studies.
The advantages of NHAPS are that the data were
collected for a large number of individuals and that the
data are representative of the U.S. population.
However, evaluation of drinking water intake rates
was not the primary purpose of the study, and the data
do not reflect the total volume of tap water consumed.
In addition, using the assumptions described above,
the estimated drinking water intake rates from this
study are within the same ranges observed for other
drinking water studies.
3.3.2.11. Heller et aL (2000)—Water Consumption
and Nursing Characteristics of Infants by
Race and Ethnicity
Heller et al. (2000) analyzed data from the
1994-1996 CSFII to evaluate racial/ethnic differences
in the ingestion rates of water in children younger than
2 years old. Using data from 946 children in this age
group, the mean amounts of water consumed from
eight sources were determined for various
racial/ethnic groups, including black non-Hispanic,
white non-Hispanic, Hispanic, and "other" (Asian,
Pacific Islander, American Indian, Alaskan Native,
and other nonspecified racial/ethnic groups). The
sources analyzed included (1) plain tap water, (2) milk
and milk drinks, (3) reconstituted powdered or liquid
infant formula made from drinking water,
(4) ready-to-feed and other infant formula, (5) baby
food, (6) carbonated beverages, (7) fruit and vegetable
juices and other noncarbonated drinks, and (8) other
foods and beverages. In addition, Heller et al. (2000)
calculated mean plain water and total water ingestion
rates for children by age, sex, region, urbanicity, and
poverty category. Ages were defined as less than
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12 months and 12 to 24 months. Regions were
categorized as Northeast, Midwest, South, and West.
Heller et al. (2000) did not report the states represented
by each of these regions, but it is likely that they
defined these regions in the same way Sohn et al.
(2001) did. See Section 3.6.1.3 for a discussion on
the Sohn et al. (2001) study. Urbanicity of the
residence was defined as urban (i.e., being in a
metropolitan statistical area [MSA], suburban
[outside of an MSA], or rural [being in a non-MSA]).
Poverty category was derived from the poverty
income ratio. In this study, a poverty income ratio
was calculated by dividing the family's annual
income by the federal poverty threshold for that
size household. The poverty categories used were 0
-1.30, 1.31-3.50, and greater than 3.50 times the
federal poverty level (Heller et al., 2000).
Table 3-39 provides water ingestion estimates for
the eight water sources evaluated, for each of the
race/ethnic groups. Heller et al. (2000) reported that
black non-Hispanic children had the highest mean
plain tap water intake (21 mL/kg-day), and white
non-Hispanic children had the lowest mean plain tap
water intake (13 mL/kg-day). The only statistically
significant difference between the racial/ethnic groups
was found to be in plain tap water consumption and
total water consumption. Reconstituted baby formula
made up the highest proportion of total water intake
for all race/ethnic groups. Table 3-40 presents tap
water and total water ingestion by age, sex, region,
urbanicity, and poverty category. On average, children
younger than 12 months of age consumed less plain
tap water (11 mL/kg-day) than children aged
12-24 months (18 mL/kg-day). There were no
significant differences in plain tap water consumption
by sex, region, or urbanicity. Heller et al. (2000)
reported a significant association between higher
income and lower plain tap water consumption. For
total water consumption, ingestion per kg body weight
was lower for the 12- to 24-month-old children than
for those younger than 12 months of age. Urban
children consumed more plain tap water and total
water than suburban and rural children. In addition,
plain tap water and total water ingestion was found to
decrease with increasing poverty category (i.e., higher
wealth).
A major strength of the Heller et al. (2000) study
is that it provides information on tap water and total
water consumption by race, age, sex, region,
urbanicity, and family income. A weakness in the
CSFII data set is that is that it includes data collected
over only 2 days that may not be entirely
representative of long-term intake.
3.3.2.12 .Marshall et al. (2003a)—Patterns of
Beverage Consumption during the
Transition Stage of Infant Nutrition
Marshall et al. (2003a) investigated beverage
ingestion during the transition stage of infant nutrition.
Mean ingestion of infant formula, cow's milk,
combined juice and juice drinks, water, and other
beverages was estimated using a frequency
questionnaire. A total of 701 children, aged 6 months
through 24 months, participated in the Iowa Fluoride
Study (IFS). Mothers of newborns were recruited from
1992 through 1995. The parents were sent
questionnaires when the children were 6, 9, 12, 16,20,
and 24 months old. Of the 701 children, 470 returned
all six questionnaires, 162 returned five, 58 returned
four, and 11 returned three, with the minimum criteria
being three questionnaires to be included in the data
set (Marshall et al., 2003a). The questionnaire was
designed to assess the type and quantity of the
beverages consumed during the previous week. The
validity of the questionnaire was assessed using a
3-day food diary for reference (Marshall et al., 2003a).
Table 3-41 presents the percentage of subjects
consuming beverages and mean daily beverage
ingestion for children with returned questionnaires.
Human milk ingestion was not quantified, but the
percent of children consuming human milk was
provided at each age category (see Table 3-41). Juice
(100%) and juice drinks were not distinguished
separately but categorized as juice and juice drinks.
Water used to dilute beverages beyond normal dilution
and water consumed alone were combined. Based on
Table 3-41, 97% of the children consumed human
milk, formula, or cow's milk throughout the study
period, and the percentage of infants consuming
human milk decreased with age, while the percent
consuming water increased (Marshall et al., 2003a).
Marshall et al. (2003a) observed that, in general, lower
family incomes were associated with less
breast-feeding and increased ingestion of other
beverages.
The advantage of this study is that it provides mean
ingestion data for various beverages. Limitations of
the study are that it is based on samples gathered in
one geographical area and may not be reflective of the
general population. The authors also noted the
following limitations: the parents were not asked to
differentiate between 100% juice and juice drinks; the
data are parent-reported and could reflect perceptions
of appropriate ingestion instead of actual ingestion,
and a substantial number of the infants from
well-educated, economically secure households
dropped out during the initial phase.
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3.3.2.13.	Marshall et ah (2003b)—Relative
Validation of a Beverage Frequency
Questionnaire in Children Aged 6 Months
through 5 Years Using 3-Day Food and
Beverage Diaries
Marshall et al. (2003b) conducted a study based on
data taken from 700 children in the IFS. This study
compared estimated beverage ingestion rates reported
in questionnaires for the preceding week and diaries
for the following week. Packets were sent periodically
(every 4 to 6 months) to parents of children aged
6 weeks through 5 years of age. This study analyzed
data from children, aged 6 and 12 months, and 2 and
5 years of age. Beverages were categorized as human
milk, infant formula, cow's milk, juice and juice
drinks, carbonated and rehydration beverages,
prepared drinks (from powder), and water. The
beverage questionnaire was completed by parents and
summarized the average amount of each beverage
consumed per day by their children. The data
collection for the diaries maintained by parents
included 1 weekend day and 2 weekdays and included
detailed information about beverages consumed.
Table 3-42 presents the mean ingestion rates of all
beverages for children aged 6 and 12 months and 3 and
5 years. Marshall et al. (2003b) concluded that
estimates of beverage ingestion derived from
quantitative questionnaires are similar to those derived
from diaries. They found that it is particularly useful
to estimate ingestion of beverages consumed
frequently using quantitative questionnaires.
The advantage of this study is that the survey was
conducted in two different forms (questionnaire and
diary) and that diaries for recording beverage ingestion
were maintained by parents for 3 days. The main
limitation is the lack of information on whether the
diaries were populated on consecutive or
nonconsecutive days. The IFS survey participants may
not be representative of the general population of the
United States because participants were primarily
white, and from affluent and well-educated families in
one geographic region of the country.
3.3.2.14.	Skinner et aL (2004)—Transition in
Infants' and Toddlers' Beverage Patterns
Skinner et al. (2004) investigated the pattern of
beverage consumption by infants and children
participating in the Feeding Infant and Toddlers Study
(FITS) sponsored by Gerber Products Company. The
FITS is a cross-sectional study designed to collect and
analyze data on feeding practices, food consumption,
and usual nutrient intake of U.S. infants and toddlers
(Devaney et al., 2004). It included a stratified random
sample of 3,022 infants and toddlers between 4 and
24 months of age. Parents or primary caregivers of
sampled infants and toddlers completed a single
24-hour dietary recall of all foods and beverages
consumed by the child on the previous day by
telephone interview. All recalls were completed
between March and July 2002. Detailed information
on data collection, coding, and analyses related to
FITS is provided in Devaney et al. (2004).
Beverages consumed by FITS participants were
identified as total milks (i.e., human milk, infant
formulas, cow's milk, soy milk, goat's milk), 100%
juices, fruit drinks, carbonated beverages, water, and
"other" drinks (i.e., tea, cocoa, dry milk mixtures, and
electrolyte replacement beverages). There were six
age groupings in the FITS study: 4 to 6, 7 to 8, 9 to 11,
12 to 14, 15 to 18, and 19 to 24 months. Skinner et al.
(2004) calculated the percentage of children in each
age group consuming any amount in a beverage
category and the mean amounts consumed. Table 3-43
provides the mean beverage consumption rates in
mL/day for the six age categories. Skinner etal. (2004)
found that some form of milk beverage was consumed
by almost all children at each age; however, total milk
ingestion decreased with increasing age. Water
consumption also doubled with age, from 163 mL/day
in children aged 4 to 6 months old to 337 mL/day in
children aged 19 to 24 months old. The percentages of
children consuming water increased from 34% at 4 to
6 months of age to 77% at 19 to 24 months of age.
A major strength of the Skinner et al. (2004) study
is the large sample size (3,022 children). However,
beverage ingestion estimates are based on 1 day of
dietary recall data and human milk quantity derived
from studies that weighed infants before and after each
feeding to determine the quantity of human milk
consumed (Devaney et al., 2004); therefore, estimates
of total milk ingestion may not be accurate.
3.3.2.15.Barraj et al. (2009)—Within-Day Drinking
Water Consumption Patterns: Results from
a Drinking Water Consumption Study
In 2000/2001, Barraj et al. (2009) conducted a
Drinking Water Consumption Survey (DWCS),
funded by Bayer Crop Science, to generate data that
could be used to assess acute effects of exposures
lasting less than 24 hours. The objective of the study
was to determine how often and how much water
participants ingested during the day. Data for a
nationally representative sample of the U.S.
population were collected over 7-day periods during
both summer (August) and winter (March) months.
The study participants were selected from households
within Bayer's Home Testing Institute consumer
panel, and diaries were delivered to 3,000 randomly
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selected households in summer, and 3,650 households
in winter. The response rates were 33 and 36%,
respectively, for the summer and winter surveys, with
994 households completing the summer survey, and
1,320 households completing the winter survey. After
excluding diaries with missing or incorrect data, the
final data set represented 4,198 individuals (1,740 in
summer) and 2,458 in winter). The vast majority of
participants were white (90.2% for summer and winter
combined), and males and females above the age of 50
years accounted for the largest portion of participants
(34.5%). Teenage males and females accounted for the
smallest percentage of participants (6.7%), and
children accounted for approximately 13% of the
survey population. Each survey participant was asked
to complete a diary to provide details about their water
consumption patterns over a 7-day period. Using the
diary data for a randomly selected day for each survey
participant, the average number of drinking occasions
per day, the average amount consumed per drinking
occasion, and the average amount of water consumed
per day was determined for each sex and age group for
each season (see Table 3-44).
For all sex and age groups combined, there were
slightly more daily drinking occasions reported for
summer (mean of 4.4) than winter (mean of 4.1), and
the average amount consumed per drinking occasion
was slightly higher in the summer (266 mL/event)
compared to the winter (248 mL/event). Based on one
randomly selected day for each survey participant,
mean daily water intake was higher for summer
(1,141 mL/day; N= 1,740) than for winter
(1,023 mL/day; N= 2,458). Based on all survey days
and all participants (Y = 27,192 person-days), the
mean drinking water intake rate for both seasons
combined, was 1,118 mL/day, and the 95th percentile
was 2,957 mL/day. The mean and 95th percentile
intakes rates were 1,200 and 3,194 mL/day,
respectively, for summer (Y = 11,318 person-days),
and 1,056 and 2,780 mL/day, respectively, for winter
(N= 15,874 person-days).
This study was based on a large, nationally
representative sample of the U.S. population, and
provided data by season. Also, it provided information
on the amount of water consumed per event within a
24-hour period, and data were provided by sex and
age. The limitations of this study are that hourly time
increments and 2-ounce amount increments were used
in collecting the diary data. These factors may
contribute to uncertainties regarding the exact
consumption times and the exact amounts consumed.
3.3.2.16.Zizza	et al. (2009)—Total Water Intakes of
Community-Living Middle-Old and
Oldest-Old Adults
Zizza et al. (2009) used data from NHANES
1999-2002 to estimate total water intake among older
Americans, defined as respondents 65 years of age or
older (N = 2,054). Intake was estimated as g/day and
as g/body weight/day. Total water was defined as "the
sum of the amount of drinking water consumed and
the amount of water consumed from food and
beverage sources." The relative contributions of total
water intake that was derived from plain drinking
water, beverages, and food were also calculated. Total
water intake was estimated for three age groups of
older survey respondents: young-old (65 to <75 years),
middle-old (75 to <85 years), and oldest-old (85+
years). Table 3-45 provides the estimates of total water
intake for these three age groups. Zizza et al. (2009)
reported that total water intake rates for the middle-old
and oldest-old groups were significantly lower than for
the young-old group. Plain drinking water accounted
for 38.1, 39.4, and 39.5% of total water intake for the
young-old, middle-old, and oldest-old age groups
respectively. Beverages accounted for 40.8, 38.3, and
36.4% of total water intake and food accounted for
21.1, 22.2, and 24.2% of total water intake for the
same three age groups respectively.
This study provides information for a nationally
representative population of older Americans.
However, the water categories are somewhat different
from those used elsewhere in this chapter. For
example, plain water category appears to include both
tap water and bottled water. Likewise, water from
beverages may include both water that is intrinsic to
purchased beverages (i.e., widely distributed drinks
such as carbonated soft drinks) as well as beverages
that are prepared with community tap water.
3.3.2.17.	Sebastian et aL (2011)—Drinking Water
Intake in the United States; Rosinger et al.
(2016)—Daily Water Intake among U.S.
Men and Women, 2009-2012
Sebastian et al. (2011) investigated "plain water"
intake using data from NHANES 2005-2008. "Plain
water" was defined as "tap water and noncarbonated
bottled water without sweeteners or other additions.
[It] does not include water naturally present in or
added as an ingredient to other beverages or foods."
The study authors observed that plain water accounted
for approximately one-third of the total water
consumed (i.e., total water was defined as plain water
plus water contained in foods and beverages).
Approximately 69% of plain water was consumed at
home and 31% was consumed away from home.
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Sebastian et al. (2011) also found that tap water
consumed at home accounted for 46% of the plain
water consumed; 16% of plain water was tap water
consumed away from home. Bottled water consumed
at home accounted for 23% of plain water intake, and
bottled water consumed away from home accounted
for 16% of plain water intake. Using NHANES
2009-2012, Rosinger et al. (2016) estimated that plain
water accounted for 30% of total water intake for mean
and 34% of total intake for women.
These studies provide general information about
plain and total water intake in the United States. The
Sebastian et al. (2011) data are provided in units of
cups/day. The Rosinger et al. (2016) study provides
data in units of L/day, but for mean total water only,
not distributions.
3.3.2.18.Kahn and Stralka (2009)—Estimated Daily
Average per Capita Water Ingestion by
Child and Adult Age Categories Based on
USDA's 1994-1996 and 1998 Continuing
Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals and
Supplemental Data, Kahn (2008)
Kahn and Stralka (2009) analyzed the combined
1994-1996 and 1998 CSFII data sets to examine water
ingestion rates of more than 20,000 individuals
surveyed, including approximately 10,000 under age
21 and 9,000 under age 11. Previous CSFII analyses
conducted using the 1994-1996 data sets were
reported in U.S. EPA (2000b). USDA surveyed
households in the United States and District of
Columbia and collected food and beverage recall data
as part of the CSFII (USDA, 1998). Data were
collected by an in-home interviewer. The Day 2
interview was conducted 3 to 10 days later and on a
different day of the week. Each individual in the
survey was assigned a sample weight based on his or
her demographic data. These weights were taken into
account when calculating mean and percentile water
ingestion rates from various sources. Kahn and Stralka
(2009) derived mean and percentile estimates of daily
average water ingestion for the following age
categories: <1 month, 1 to <3 months, 3 to <6 months,
6 to <12 months, 1 to <2 years of age, 2 to <3 years,
3 to <6 years, 6 to <11 years, 11 to <16 years, 16 to
<18 years, 18 to <21 years of age, 21 years and older,
65 years and older, and all ages. The increased sample
size for children younger than 11 years of age (from
4,339 in the initial 1994-1996 survey to
9,643 children in the combined 1994-1996, 1998
survey) enabled water ingestion estimates to be
categorized into the finer age categories recommended
by U.S. EPA (2005). Consumer-only and per capita
water ingestion estimates were reported in the Kahn
and Stralka (2009) study for two water source
categories: all sources and community water. "All
sources" included water from all supply sources such
as community water supply (i.e., tap water), bottled
water, other sources, and missing sources.
"Community water" included tap water from a
community or municipal water supply. Other sources
included wells, springs, and cisterns; missing sources
represented water sources that the survey respondent
was unable to identify. The water ingestion estimates
included both water ingested directly as a beverage
(direct water) and water added to foods and beverages
during final preparation at home or by local food
service establishments such as school cafeterias and
restaurants (indirect water). Commercial water added
by a manufacturer (i.e., water contained in soda or
beer) and intrinsic water in foods and liquids (i.e., milk
and natural undiluted juice) were not included in the
estimates. Kahn and Stralka (2009) only reported the
mean and 90th and 95th percentile estimates of per
capita and consumers-only ingestion. The full
distributions of ingestion estimates were provided by
the author (Kahn, 2008). Tables 3-46 to 3-61 present
full distributions of direct and indirect water intake for
the various water source categories (community water,
bottled water, other sources, and all sources).
Tables 3-46 to 3-49 provide per capita ingestion
estimates of total water (combined direct and indirect
water) in mL/day for the various water source
categories (i.e., community, bottled, other, and all
sources). Tables 3-50 to 3-53 present the same
information as Tables 3-46 to 3-49, but in units of
mL/kg-day. Tables 3-54 to 3-57 provide
consumers-only combined direct and indirect water
ingestion estimates in mL/day for the various source
categories. Tables 3-58 to 3-61 present the same
information as Tables 3-54 to 3-57 but in units of
mL/kg-day. Estimates that do not meet the minimum
sample size requirements as described in the Joint
Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical
Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII
Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group
Recommendations (NCHS, 1993) are flagged in the
tables.
The CSFII 1994-1996, 1998 data have both
strengths and limitations in regard to estimating water
ingestion. These are discussed in detail in U.S. EPA
(2004) and Kahn and Stralka (2009). The principal
advantages of this survey are that (1) it was designed
to be representative of the U.S. population, including
children and low-income groups; (2) sample weights
were provided that facilitated proper analysis of the
data and accounted for nonresponse; and (3) the
number of individuals sampled (more than 20,000) is
sufficient to allow categorization within narrowly
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defined age categories. Another advantage is that
bottled water estimates include both direct and indirect
intake, whereas the bottled water estimates using
NHANES 2005-2010 data (see Section 3.3.1.1)
include only bottled water consumed directly as a
beverage; they do not include bottled water used in the
preparation of foods. One limitation of this survey is
that data were collected for only 2 days. As discussed
in Section 3.3.1.1 in regard to U.S. EPA's analysis of
NHANES data, short-term data may not accurately
reflect long-term intake patterns, especially at the
extremes (i.e., tails) of the distribution of water intake.
This study is considered relevant because more recent
data are available from NHANES 2005-2010.
3.4. PREGNANT AND LACTATING WOMEN
3.4.1. Key Study on Pregnant and Lactating
Women
The section that follows provides a summary of the
key study on water ingestion among pregnant and
lactating women.
3.4.1.1. EPA Analysis of Consumption Data from
2005-2010 National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey
EPA estimated water intake rates for pregnant,
lactating, and all women of child-bearing age (13 to
<50 years) using data from the NHANES for the years
2005 to 2010 and the FCID Consumption Calculator
available at http://fcid.foodrisk.ore/. as described in
Section 3.3.1.1. NHANES 2005-2010 collected data
on dietary recall of food and water consumed over the
previous 24-hour period on 2 nonconsecutive days.
Two-day data were available for 426 pregnant women,
101 lactating women, and 5,543 women of
child-bearing age. In the FCID, NHANES data on the
foods people reported eating were converted to the
quantities of agricultural commodities eaten, including
water that was added in the preparation of foods and
beverages. Two-day average intake rates were
calculated for each survey respondent for community
water, bottled water, other water, and all water
sources. Summary statistics were calculated for the
populations of pregnant, lactating, and females of
child-bearing age (i.e., 13 to <50 years) on both a
consumer-only and on a per capita basis. Table 3-62
provides summary statistics for per capita intake of
water, and Table 3-63 provides the same data on a
consumer-only basis.
As indicated in Section 3.3.1.1, an advantage of
using the EPA's analysis of NHANES data is it was
designed to be representative of the U.S. population.
The data set used in this analysis used 6 years of intake
data combined. However, the sample sizes for
pregnant and lactating women were relatively small
and short-term dietary data may not accurately reflect
long-term eating or drinking patterns and may
under-represent infrequent consumers of a given food.
This is particularly true for the tails (extremes) of the
food-intake distribution.
3.4.2. Relevant Studies on Pregnant and
Lactating Women
The sections that follow provide summaries of
relevant studies on water ingestion among pregnant
and lactating women.
3.4.2.1. Ershow et al. (1991)—Intake of Tap Water
and Total Water by Pregnant and Lactating
Women
Ershow etal. (1991) used data from the 1977-1978
USDA NFCS to estimate total fluid and total tap water
intake among pregnant and lactating women (ages
15-49 years). Data for 188 pregnant women,
77 lactating women, and 6,201 nonpregnant,
nonlactating control women were evaluated. The
participants were interviewed based on 24-hour recall
and then asked to record a food diary for the next
2 days. "Tap water" included tap water consumed
directly as a beverage and tap water used to prepare
food and tap water-based beverages. "Total water"
was defined as all water from tap water and nontap
water sources, including water contained in food.
Tables 3-64 and 3-65 present estimated total fluid and
total tap water intake rates for the three groups,
respectively. Lactating women had the highest mean
total fluid intake rate (2.24 L/day) compared with both
pregnant women (2.08 L/day) and control women
(1.94 L/day). Lactating women also had a higher mean
total tap water intake rate (1.31 L/day) than pregnant
women (1.19 L/day) and control women (1.16 L/day).
The tap water distributions are neither normal nor
lognormal, but lactating women had a higher mean tap
water intake than controls and pregnant women.
Ershow et al. (1991) also reported that rural women
(N= 1,885) consumed more total water (1.99 L/day)
and tap water (1.24 L/day) than urban/suburban
women (N= 4,581,1.93 and 1.13 L/day, respectively).
Total water and tap water intake rates were lowest in
the northeastern region of the United States (1.82 and
1.03 L/day) and highest in the western region of the
United States (2.06 L/day and 1.21 L/day). Mean
intake per unit body weight was highest among
lactating women for both total fluid and total tap water
intake. Total tap water intake accounted for over 50%
of mean total fluid in all three groups of women
(see Table 3-65). Drinking water accounted for the
largest single proportion of the total fluid intake for
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control (30%), pregnant (34%), and lactating women
(30%) (see Table 3-66). All other beverages combined
accounted for approximately 46, 43, and 45% of the
total water intake for control, pregnant, and lactating
women, respectively. Food accounted for the
remaining portion of total water intake.
The same advantages and limitations associated
with the Ershow and Cantor (1989) data also apply to
these data sets (see Section 3.3.2.6). A further
advantage of this study is that it provides information
on estimates of total water and tap water intake rates
for pregnant and lactating women. This topic has
rarely been addressed in the literature.
3.4.2.2. Shimokura et aL (1998)—Assessment of
Water Use for Estimating Exposure to Tap
Water Contaminants
Shimokura et al. (1998) evaluated water use
among 34 pregnant women and 33 of their male
partners living in North Carolina. The women were up
to 30 weeks pregnant at the time that the survey was
conducted. Most of the women were in their twenties
and thirties, were expecting their first child, and were
in their second trimester of pregnancy. Approximately
three quarters of the women were white and the
remainder were of African American and Asian,
ethnicities They tended to be highly educated and
nonsmokers. Each of the participants completed a
daily diary for 3 days, including one nonworking or
weekend day, and an interview about their daily water
consumption. Information was collected on the
volume of all beverages consumed, which was defined
as total water, and the volume of drinking water and
beverages made with tap water, which was defined as
tap water. The temperature of the beverage (i.e., cold
or hot), as well as the location where the beverage was
consumed, was also recorded. Table 3-67 provides
summary statistics for the participants' daily water
intake. Daily consumption of total water and tap water
were similar for pregnant women and men, but
differences based on employment status were
observed for daily intake of cold tap water at home.
Table 3-68 provides mean intake rates for pregnant
women and men according to location, beverage type,
and temperature.
This study provides useful information on daily tap
water intake for pregnant women. However, the
definition of total water differs from that used
elsewhere in this chapter (i.e., the water content of
foods is not included). Also, the study population is
relatively small and may not be entirely representative
of the U.S. population.
3.4.2.3.	Zender et al. (2001)—Exposure to Tap
Water during Pregnancy
Zender et al. (2001) conducted a study in Colorado
in 1996 and 1997 to compare tap water intake among
pregnant and nonpregnant women. A total of
71 pregnant and 43 nonpregnant women were
recruited from Women, Infant, and Children (WIC)
clinics. Nearly one-half of the pregnant women were
in their second trimester, and one-quarter were in each
of the first and third trimesters. Approximately
one-half of the women worked outside the home, and
nearly all the women had a municipal water source at
their home. The women were interviewed in person or
by phone and responded to questions about the amount
of tap water intake in a day—including the amount
consumed at home and at work. Total tap water intake
included tap water consumed directly as a beverage
and tap water-based cold and hot beverages.
Information on the sources of the water consumed
(e.g., tap water, bottled water, or filtered water) were
also collected. Total tap water intake was slightly
higher for pregnant women (3.4 L/day) than
nonpregnant women (3.0 L/day) (see Table 3-69).
Table 3-70 shows the principal source of drinking
water for pregnant and for nonpregnant women. Tap
water accounted for 72-75% of total water intake.
The advantage of this study is that it investigated
tap water consumption based on location (i.e., at home
and at work) and by source (i.e., bottled, filtered, or
tap water). However, the sample size was small and
the study population may not be representative of the
entire United States.
3.4.2.4.	Forssen et al. (2007)—Predictors of Use
and Consumption of Public Drinking Water
among Pregnant Women; Forssen et aL
(2009)—Variability and Predictors of
Changes in Water Use during Pregnancy
Forssen et al. (2007) evaluated the demographic
and behavioral characteristics that would be important
in predicting water consumption among pregnant
women in the United States. Data were collected
through telephone interviews with 2,297 pregnant
women in three geographical areas in the southern
United States. Women 18 years old and <12 weeks
pregnant were recruited from the local communities
and from both private and public prenatal care
facilities. Variables studied included demographic
characteristics, health status and history (e.g., diabetes,
pregnancy history), behavioral patterns (e.g., exercise,
smoking, caffeine consumption), and some
physiological characteristics (e.g., prepregnancy
weight). Daily amount of water ingestion was
estimated based on cup sizes defined in the interview.
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Water consumption was reported as cold tap water
(filtered and unfiltered) and bottled water. Other
behavioral information on water use such as
showering and bathing habits, use of swimming pools,
hot tubs, and Jacuzzis was also collected. The overall
mean cold tap water ingested was 1.7 L/day
(percentiles: 25th = 0.5 L/day, 50th = 1.4 L/day,
75th = 2.4 L/day, and 90th = 3.8 L/day). The overall
mean bottled water ingested was 0.6 L/day
(percentiles: 25th = 0.1 L/day, 50lh = 0,2 L/day,
75th = 0.6 L/day, and 90th = 1.8 L/day). Table 3-71
presents water ingestion by the different variables
studied, and Table 3-72 presents the percentage of
ingested tap water that is filtered and unfiltered by
various variables.
Forssen et al. (2009) studied changes in water use
over the course of pregnancy based on data for
1,990 women that were still pregnant during a second
interview. Mean cold tap water intake increased from
prepregnancy (1.5 L/day) though early pregnancy
(1.7 L/day) to mid-pregnancy (1.8 L/day)
(see Table 3-73). Mean hot tap water intake decreased
slightly from prepregnancy (0.18 L/day) to early and
mid-pregnancy (0.16 L/day). Bottled water intake was
essentially the same during early and mid-pregnancy
(0.57 and 0.59 L/day, respectively). The greatest
changes in water consumption were reported for cold
tap water where 80% of the women reported either
increases or decreases in consumption; 33% reported
changes (increases or decreases) equal to or greater
than 1.0 L/day (see Table 3-74).
The advantage of these studies is that they
investigated water consumption in relation to multiple
variables, and over the course of pregnancy. However,
the study population was not random and may not be
representative of the entire United States. There may
also be limitations associated with recall bias.
3.4.2.5. Kahn and Stralka (2008)—Estimates of
Water Ingestion for Women in Pregnant,
Lactating, and Nonpregnant and
Nonlactating Child-Bearing Age Groups
Based on USDA's 1994-1996,1998 CSFII
The combined 1994-1996 and 1998 CSFII data
sets were analyzed to examine the ingestion of water
by various segments of the U.S. population as
described in Section 3.3.1.1. Kahn and Stralka (2008)
provided water intake data for pregnant, lactating, and
child-bearing age women. Mean and upper percentile
distribution data were provided. Lactating women had
an estimated per capita mean community water
ingestion of 1.38 L/day, the highest water ingestion
rates of any among the population evaluated. The
mean consumer-only rate was 1.67 L/day. Tables 3-75
through 3-82 provide estimated drinking water intakes
for pregnant and lactating women, and nonpregnant,
nonlactating women aged 15-44 years old. The same
advantages and limitations discussed in
Section 3.3.1.1 apply to these data. An additional
limitation of this analysis is that the sample size was
relatively small (i.e., 70 pregnant and 41 lactating
women). This study is considered relevant, but not key
because more recent data are available for pregnant
and lactating women.
3.5. FORMULA-FED INFANTS
3.5.1.	Key Study on Formula-Fed Infants
The section that follows provides a summary of the
key study on water ingestion among formula-fed
infants.
3.5.1.1. Kahn et al (2013)—Estimates of Water
Ingestion in Formula by Infants and
Children Based on USDA's 1994-1996 and
1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by
Individuals
Kahn et al. (2013) used data from the 1994-1996
and 1998 CSFII to estimate water ingestion among
formula-fed infants, ages <1 month, 1 to <3 months,
3 to <6 months, 6 to <12 months, and 1 to <2 years.
The same methodology was used as in Kahn and
Stralka (2009), as described in Section 3.3.2.18.
Indirect water ingestion among "formula-consumers
only" was based on the estimated amount of
community water used to reconstitute or dilute infant
formula. Total indirect and direct water intake among
formula-fed infants represented both water used to
reconstitute or dilute baby formula and water
consumed directly as a beverage. Mean and 95th
percentile indirect, and total indirect and direct water
ingestion rates for formula-consuming infants are
provided in Table 3-83. On a mL/day basis, mean
intake rates increased between <1 month and 3 to
<6 months and then declined; on a mL/kg-day basis,
mean intake declined from <1 month to 1 to <2 years.
The same advantages and disadvantages discussed
in Section 3.3.2.18 apply to these data. In addition, as
suggested by Kahn et al. (2013), while the more recent
data may be available (e.g., NHANES) for this type of
analysis, the amount of water ingested by formula-fed
infants would not be expected to change significantly
because the nutritional needs of infants would not be
expected to have varied over time.
3.5.2.	Relevant Studies on Formula-Fed Infants
The section that follows provides summaries of the
relevant studies on water ingestion among formula-fed
infants. Sections 3.3.2.8 (Levy et al., 1995), 3.3.2.11
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(Heller et al., 2000), and 3.3.2.12 (Marshall et al.,
2003a) also provide some relevant information on
ingestion of water used in reconstituting infant
formula.
3.5.2.1. Hilbig et aL (2002)—Measured
Consumption of Tap Water in German
Infants and Young Children as Background
for Potential Health Risk Assessment: Data
of the DONALD Study
Hilbig et al. (2002) estimated tap water ingestion
rates based on 3-day dietary records of 504 German
children aged 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, and 36 months. The
data were collected between 1990 and 1998 as part of
the Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric
Longitudinally Designed (DONALD) study. The
DONALD study was a cohort study that collected data
on diet, metabolism, growth, and development from
healthy subjects between infancy and adulthood
(Sichert-Hellert et al., 2001). Beginning in 1985,
approximately 40 to 50 infants were enrolled in the
study annually. Mothers of the participants were
recruited in hospital maternity wards. Tap water
ingestion rates were calculated for three subgroups of
children: (1) breast-fed infants <12 months of age
(exclusive and partial breast-fed infants),
(2) formula-fed infants <12 months of age (no human
milk, but including weaning food), and (3) mixed-fed
young children aged 18 to 36 months. Hilbig et al.
(2002) defined "total tap water from household" as
water from the tap consumed as a beverage or used in
food preparation. "Tap water from food
manufacturing" was defined as water used in industrial
production of foods, and "Total Tap Water" was
defined as tap water consumed from both the
household and that used in manufacturing.
Table 3-84 summarizes total tap water ingestion
(in mL/day and mL/kg-day) and tap water ingestion
from household and manufacturing sources (in
mL/kg-day) for breast-fed, formula-fed, and
mixed-fed children. Mean total tap water intake during
the 1st year of life was higher in formula-fed infants
(53 mL/kg-day) than in breast-fed infants
(17 mL/kg-day) and mixed-fed young children
(19 mL/kg-day). Tap water from household sources
constituted 66 to 97% of total tap water ingestion in
the different age groups.
The major limitation of this study is that the study
sample consists of families from an upper social
background in Germany (Hilbig et al., 2002). Because
the study was conducted in Germany, the data may not
be directly applicable to the U.S. population.
However, this study was included in this chapter
because similar data for a U.S. population of infants
are limited.
3.5.2.2.	Levallois et al. (2008)—Drinking Water
Intake by Infants Living in Rural Quebec
(Canada)
Levallois et al. (2008) conducted a survey on a
population of 2-month-old infants residing in seven
agricultural areas of Canada. Eligible newborns were
born in this rural area of Quebec between January and
April 2002. Infants who were less than 34 weeks of
gestation at birth, families who did not speak French,
or those served by surface water supplies were
excluded from the study. Families who were eligible
for participation were sent a letter explaining the
survey followed by a phone interview with the infant's
mother. There were 642 mothers who participated in
the survey, which was conducted when the infants
were 8-9 weeks old. Questions asked during the phone
interview included those on feeding practices such as
the quantity and number of feedings each day and the
specific type and volume of water used for preparing
formula, juices, or cereals. Of the 642 participating
infants, 38.3% were exclusively breast-fed and,
therefore, had no drinking water intake. Almost half of
the participating infants (47.5%) were fed either
ready-to-use formula or dry formula mixed with water,
and 14.2% received mixed breast and formula
feedings. Infants who consumed some water
comprised 61.2% of the participants, and among these
59, 34, and 7% consumed mostly tap water, bottled
water, or both tap and bottled water, respectively. For
consumers, mean tap water intake was 564 mL/day
(105 mL/kg-day) and mean bottled water intake was
504 mL/day (94 mL/kg/day) (see Table 3-85).
This study provides quantitative estimates of
drinking water consumption by a population of
2-month-old infants according to their feeding
practices. Limitations of the study include the fact that
drinking water intake was not measured, but was
provided by the infants' mothers during telephone
interviews. Although the participants resided in rural
areas of Canada, which may not be entirely
representative of the U.S. population, it is assumed
that drinking water intake for formula-fed infants
would be similar to that of those in the United States.
Therefore, Levallois et al. (2008) was included here as
a relevant study.
3.5.2.3.	Schier et aL (2010)—Perchlorate Exposure
from Infant Formula and Comparisons with
the Perchlorate Reference Dose
Schier et al. (2010) estimated perchlorate
exposures among 1- and 6-month-old infants
consuming reconstituted powdered infant formula,
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using measured concentrations of perchlorate in the
formula and estimated formula intake rates. Infant
formula ingestion rates were estimated as the product
of average infant energy intakes in kcal/kg-day and
estimated infant body weights, divided by the
estimated number of calories in the infant formula in
kcal/L formula. The estimated 50th percentile formula
intake rate was estimated to be 0.7 L/day for
1-month-old infants and 1.0 L/day for 6-month-old
infants. The estimated 90th percentile formula intake
rate was estimated to be 1.0 L/day for 1-month-old
infants and 1.4 L/day for 6-month-old infants. This
study provides an indirect estimate of water intake
among formula-fed infants.
3.6. HIGH ACTIVITY LEVELS/HOT
CLIMATES
3.6.1. Relevant Studies on High Activity
Levels/Hot Climates
The following sections provide summaries of
relevant studies on water ingestion associated with
various activity levels and climates.
3.6.1.1. McNall and Schlegel (1968)—Practical
Thermal Environmental Limits for Young
Adult Males Working in Hot, Humid
Environments
McNall and Schlegel (1968) conducted a study that
evaluated the physiological tolerance of adult males
working under varying degrees of physical activity.
Subjects were required to operate pedal-driven
propeller fans for 8-hour work cycles under varying
environmental conditions. The activity pattern for
each individual was cycled as 15 minutes of pedaling
and 15 minutes of rest for each 8-hour period. Two
groups of eight subjects each were used. Work rates
were divided into three categories as follows: high
activity level (0.15 horsepower [hp] per person),
medium activity level (0.1 hp per person), and low
activity level (0.05 hp per person). Evidence of
physical stress (i.e., increased body temperature, blood
pressure, etc.) was recorded, and individuals were
eliminated from further testing if certain stress criteria
were met. The amount of water consumed by the test
subjects during the work cycles was also recorded.
Water was provided to the individuals on request.
Table 3-86 presents the water intake rates obtained
at the three different activity levels and the various
environmental temperatures. The data presented are
for test subjects with continuous data only (i.e., those
test subjects who were not eliminated at any stage of
the study due to stress conditions). Water intake was
the highest at all activity levels when environmental
temperatures were increased. The highest intake rate
was observed at the low activity level at 100°F
(0.65 L/hour); however, there were no data for higher
activity levels at 100°F. It should be noted that this
study estimated intake on an hourly basis during
various levels of physical activity. These hourly intake
rates cannot be converted to daily intake rates by
multiplying by 24 hours/day because they are only
representative of intake during the specified activity
levels, and the intake rates for the rest of the day are
not known. Therefore, comparison of intake rate
values from this study cannot be made with values
from the previously described studies on drinking
water intake.
3.6.1.2. U.S. Army (1983, 1999)—Water
Consumption Planning Factors
The U.S. Army has developed water consumption
planning factors to enable it to transport an adequate
amount of water to soldiers in the field under various
conditions (U.S. Army, 1983, 1999). Both climate and
activity levels were used to determine the appropriate
water consumption needs. Consumption factors have
been established for the following uses: (1) drinking,
(2) heat treatment, (3) personal hygiene,
(4) centralized hygiene, (5) food preparation and
sanitation, (6) laundry, (7) medical treatment,
(8) vehicle and aircraft maintenance, (9) graves
registration, and (10) construction. Only personal
drinking water consumption factors are described
here. Drinking water consumption planning factors are
based on the estimated amount of water needed to
replace fluids lost by urination, perspiration, and
respiration. It assumes that water lost to urinary output
averages 1 quart/day (0.9 L/day), and perspiration
losses range from almost nothing in a controlled
environment to 1.5 quarts/day (1.4 L/day) in a very hot
climate where individuals are performing strenuous
work. Water losses to respiration are typically very
low except in extreme cold where water losses can
range from 1 to 3 quarts/day (0.9 to 2.8 L/day). This
occurs when the humidity of inhaled air is near zero,
but expired air is 98% saturated at body temperature
(U.S. Army, 1983).
Drinking water is defined by the U.S. Army (1983,
1999) as "all fluids consumed by individuals to satisfy
body needs for internal water." This includes soups,
hot and cold drinks, and tap water. Planning factors
have been established for hot, temperate, and cold
climates based on the following mixture of activities
among the workforce: 15% of the force performing
light work, 65% of the force performing medium
work, and 20% of the force performing heavy work.
Hot climates are defined as tropical and arid areas
where the temperature is greater than 80°F. Temperate
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climates are defined as areas where the mean daily
temperature ranges from 32 to 80°F. Cold regions are
areas where the mean daily temperature is less than
32°F. Table 3-87 presents drinking water consumption
factors for these three climates. These factors are
based on research on individuals and small unit
training exercises. The estimates are assumed to be
conservative because they are rounded up to account
for the subjective nature of the activity mix and minor
water losses that are not considered (U.S. Army, 1983,
1999).
The advantage of using these data is that they
provide conservative estimates of drinking water
intake among individuals performing at various levels
of physical activity in hot, temperate, and cold
climates. However, the planning factors described
here are based on assumptions about water loss from
urination, perspiration, and respiration, and are not
based on survey data or actual measurements.
3.6.1.3. Sohn et al. (2001)—Fluid Consumption
Related to Climate among Children in the
United States
Sohn et al. (2001) investigated the relationship
between fluid consumption among children aged 1 to
10 years and local climate using data from the
NHANES III (1988-1994). Children who completed
the 24-hour dietary interview (or proxy interview for
the younger children) during the NHANES III survey
were selected for the analysis. Breast-fed children
were excluded from the analysis. Among 8,613
children who were surveyed, 688 (18%) were
excluded due to incomplete data. A total of
7,925 eligible children remained. Because data for
climatic conditions were not collected in the NHANES
III survey, the mean daily maximum temperature from
1961 to 1990, averaged for the month during which the
NHANES III survey was conducted, was obtained for
each survey location from the U.S. Local Climate
Historical Database. Of the 7,925 eligible children
with complete dietary data, temperature information
was derived for only 3,869 children (48.8%) because
detailed information on survey location, in terms of
county and state, was released only for counties with a
population of more than a half million.
Sohn et al. (2001) calculated the total amount of
fluid intake for each child by adding the fluid intake
from plain drinking water and the fluid intake from
foods and beverages other than plain drinking water
provided by NHANES III. Sohn et al. (2001)
identified major fluid sources as milk (and milk
drinks), juice (fruit and vegetable juices and other
noncarbonated drinks), carbonated drinks, and plain
water. Fluid intake from sources other than these
major sources was grouped into other foods and
beverages. Other foods and beverages included bottled
water, coffee, tea, baby food, soup, water-based
beverages, and water used for diluting food.
Table 3-88 presents mean fluid ingestion rates of
selected fluids for the total sample population and for
the subsets of the sample population with and without
temperature information. The estimated mean total
fluid and plain water ingestion rates for the
3,869 children for whom temperature information was
obtained are presented in Table 3-89 according to age
(years), sex, race/ethnicity, poverty :income ratio,
region, and urbanicity. Poverty income ratio was
defined as the ratio of the reported family income to
the federal poverty level. The following categories
were assigned: low socioeconomic status
(SES) = 0.000 to 1.300 times the poverty:income
ratio; medium SES = 1.301 to 3.500 times the
poverty/income level; and high SES = 3.501 or greater
times the poverty/income level. Regions were
Northeast, Midwest, South, and West, as defined by
the U.S. Census Bureau (see Table 3-89). Sohn et al.
(2001) did not find a significant association between
mean daily maximum temperature and total fluid or
plain water ingestion, either before or after controlling
for sex, age, SES, and race or ethnicity. However,
significant associations between fluid ingestion and
age, sex, socioeconomic status, and race and ethnicity
were reported.
The main strength of the Sohn et al. (2001) study
is the evaluation of water intake as it relates to weather
data. The main limitations of this study were that
northeastern and western regions were
over-represented because temperature data were only
available for counties with populations over one-half
million. In addition, whites were under-represented
compared to other racial or ethnic groups. Other
limitations include lack of data for children from
extremely cold or hot weather conditions.
3.6.1.4. Kant et al. (2009)—Intakes of Plain Water,
Moisture in Foods and Beverages, and Total
Water in the Adult U.S.
Population—Nutritional, Meal Pattern, and
Body Weight Correlates: NHANES
1999-2006; Kant and Graubard
(2010)—Contributors of Water Intake in
U.S. Children and Adolescents:
Associations with Dietary and Meal
Characteristics—National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2006
Using data from NHANES 1999-2004, Kant et al.
(2009) estimated water intake for adults, ages
>20 years {N= 4,112), based on their reported activity
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levels. Intake was for plain water (i.e., including tap
water, water from a cooler or drinking fountain, spring
water, and noncarbonated bottled water), water in
beverages and food, and total water (i.e., the sum of
plain water and moisture in beverages and food).
Beverages included "all types of liquid milk, shakes,
fruit or vegetable juices, juice drinks, carbonated and
noncarbonated sweetened or unsweetened drinks,
coffee, tea, hot chocolate, all alcoholic drinks, and
carbonated water." Multiple linear regression was
used to compute adjusted mean water intake based on
covariates such as sex, age, race/ethnicity, body mass
index, income, education, smoking status, chronic
illness, survey wave, survey day, and leisure-time
physical activity. Leisure-time physical activity was
categorized as having any leisure-time activity lasting
>10 minutes over the previous month, and according
to the average activity level on a given day (i.e., mostly
sitting, mostly standing, carry light loads or climb
hills, or heavy work or carry heavy loads). Table 3-90
provides a summary of water intake for adults
according to these activity categories. Higher intake
rates of plain and total water were associated with
participation in any leisure-time activity. Higher
intake of moisture from beverages and total water
were associated with higher average activity levels on
a usual day (see Table 3-90).
Kant and Graubard (2010) used a similar approach
with data from NHANES 2005-2006 to estimate
water intake for children ages 2-19 years of age
(TV = 3,978). However, the activity level definitions
differed from those used for adults in Kant and
Graubard (2009). Kant and Graubard (2010) classified
activity levels for 2- to 11-year-old children based on
the number of times per week the child was reported
to have played or exercised hard enough to induce
sweat. The categories were: 0 times = none, 1-2 = a
little, 3-4 = some, and >5 = a lot. For children
12-19 years of age, activity levels were based on three
questions about whether participants had any
leisure-time activity lasting >10 minutes. The three
questions pertained to vigorous, moderate, or muscle
strengthening activities. The categories were no to all
three questions = none, yes to 1 question = a little, yes
to 2 questions = some, and yes to all three
questions = a lot. Table 3-90 provides water intake
estimates based on these activity levels. Kant and
Graubard noted that the physical activity level was
only weakly associated with plain water intake, but not
with the moisture content of beverages or foods, or
with total water.
These studies provide information on water intake
based on physical activity. However, the water
categories are somewhat different from those used
elsewhere in this chapter. For example, plain water
category appears to include both tap water and bottled
water. Likewise, beverage moisture may include both
water that is intrinsic to purchased drinks (i.e., widely
distributed beverages such as carbonated soft drinks)
as well as beverages that may be prepared with
community tap water (e.g., coffee).
3.6.1.5.	Yang and Chun (2014)—Consumptions of
Plain Water, Moisture in Foods and
Beverages, and Total Water in Relation to
Dietary Micronutrient Intakes and Serum
Nutrient Profiles among U.S. Adults
Yang and Chun (2014) conducted a study similar
to Kant et al. (2009). They estimated water intake
among adults, ages 20 years of age and older, based on
activity levels. NHANES 2005-2006 data were used
to estimate intake of plain water, water from beverages
and food, and total water. The definitions of these
water categories were the same as those in Kant et al.
(2009), but the levels of physical activity were defined
differently. Yang and Chun (2014) based the activity
levels on "the metabolic equivalent (MET) score
calculated by combining the intensity level of the
leisure-time activities reported, mean duration and
frequency." Water intake was evaluated for four
activity levels: no activity (0) and three tertiles of the
MET score (Tl, T2, and T3). The mean daily total
water intake for adults was 3,066 g (see Table 3-90).
Yang and Chun (2014) reported that the contributions
to total water were 46% from beverages, 32% from
plain water, and 22% from food, and higher activity
was associated with higher total water intake.
Like the Kant et al. (2009) study, this study
provides information on total water intake based on
activity levels. However, the water categories differ
from those used elsewhere in this chapter.
3.6.1.6.	Montain and Ely (2010)—Water
Requirements and Soldier Hydration
Montain and Ely (2010) provided an overview of
factors that affect soldiers' hydration and water
balance, including environment, physical activity and
load, and body size and gender. For example,
increasing temperature and relative humidity increase
sweating and the need for water replacement. The type
of clothing worn and the load being carried can also
affect the rate of perspiration and need for water
replacement. Factors affecting water needs in cold
climates include: cold-induced diuresis (increased
urine loss), respiratory water loss from breathing cold
dry air, clothing insulation that induces sweating, and
the metabolic cost of movement in cold terrain. High
altitude hypoxia can also contribute to water loss.
Because sweat losses are dependent on exercise
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intensity and duration, water needs increase as energy
expenditure increases (Montain and Ely, 2010).
Energy expenditure and the need for water
replacement also increases with carrying increasingly
heavy loads. Montain and Ely (2010) suggested that
activity-related caloric costs increase with increasing
body size; thus, larger individuals may require larger
amounts of water. Likewise, men may require more
water than women because they "are heavier and
sweat more profusely than women." Montain and Ely
(2010) stated that "an individual soldier's daily water
requirements to sustain hydration can range from
2 L/day to an excess of 12 L/day, depending on
weather conditions, physical activity, and physical
size.
This report provides useful information on the
factors influencing water losses during military
operations. The values presented here are consistent
with the recommended planning factors summarized
in U.S. Army (1983, 1999) and Section 3.6.1.2.
3.7. WATER INGESTION WHILE
SWIMMING AND DIVING
3.7.1. Key Studies on Water Ingestion While
Swimming
The section that follows provides a summary of the
key study on water ingestion that may occur while
swimming.
3.7.1.1. Dufour et aL (2006)—Water Ingestion
during Swimming Activities in a Pool: A
Pilot Study; Dufour et ah (2017)—Ingestion
of Swimming Pool Water by Recreational
Swimmers
Dufour et al. (2006) estimated the amount of water
ingested while swimming, using cyanuric acid as an
indicator of pool water ingestion exposure. Cyanuric
acid is a breakdown product of chloroisocyanates,
which are commonly used as disinfectant stabilizers in
recreational water treatment. Because ingested
cyanuric acid passes through the body unmetabolized
(Allen et al., 1982), the volume of water ingested can
be estimated based on the amount of cyanuric acid
measured in the pool water and in the urine of
swimmers, as follows:
Vpoo 1 water ingested = Funne X (CA urine * ¦ CA pool)
(Eqn. 3-1)
where:
pool water ingested volume of pool water ingested
(mL),
Murine
volume of urine collected over a

24-hour period (mL),
CA urine
concentration of cyanuric acid in

urine (mg/L), and
G4pool
concentration of cyanuric acid in

pool water (mg/L).
The assumption that ingested cyanuric acid passes
through the body unmetabolized is based on a study by
Allen et al. (1982) in which two volunteers ingested
known amounts of cyanuric acid and collected their
own urine for 24 hours thereafter. Allen et al. (1982)
estimated the recovery of ingested cyanuric acid to be
98%. Also, according to Dufour et al. (2006), dermal
absorption of cyanuric acid has been shown to be
negligible. Thus, the concentration in urine was
assumed to represent the amount ingested. Dufour et
al. (2006) estimated pool water intake among
53 swimmers that participated in a pilot study at an
outdoor swimming pool treated with chloroisocyanate.
This pilot study population included 12 adults (4 males
and 8 females) and 41 children under 18 years of age
(20 males and 21 females). The study participants
were asked not to swim for 24 hours before or after a
45-minute period of active swimming in the pool. Pool
water samples were collected prior to the start of
swimming activities, and swimmers' urine was
collected for 24 hours after the swimming event ended.
The pool water and urine sample were analyzed for
cyanuric acid.
Table 3-91 presents the results of this pilot study.
The mean volumes of water ingested over a 45-minute
period were 16 mL (16/mL/0.75 hr = 21 mL/hr) for
adults and 37 mL (37 mL/0.75 hr = 49 mL/hr) for
children. The maximum volume of water ingested by
adults was 53 mL/0.75 hr (71 mL/hr) and by children,
was 154 mL/0.75 hr (205 mL/hr). The 97th percentile
volume of water ingested by children was
approximately 90 mL/0.75 hr (120 mL/hr).
This study is one of the first attempts to measure
water ingested while swimming. However, the number
of study participants was low, and data cannot be
broken out by the recommended age categories (U.S.
EPA, 2005).
Using the same approach as in the pilot study
reported in Dufour et al. (2006), Dufour et al. (2017)
investigated the ingestion of swimming pool water
among a study population of 549 individuals at nine
public swimming pools in the Columbus, Ohio area
that had been disinfected with chloroisocyanurate. The
study participants included both males and females in
approximately equal numbers. The participants
represented three age groups: children 6-10 years old
(N= 66), teens 11-15 years old (N= 121), and adults,
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defined as individuals 16 years and older ( Y = 362).
Study participants were asked to perform normal
swimming activities for approximately one hour and
collect their own urine over the following 24 hours.
For all swimmers, the arithmetic mean pool water
volume ingested was 32 mL/event and the geometric
mean was 14 mL/event (Dufour et al., 2017).
Table 3-92 provides the ingestion rates in units of
mL/hour by age and sex, as reported by Dufour et al.
(2017). Children 6-10 years old ingested more water
per swimming event and spent nearly twice as much
time in the water as older children and adults. The
estimated geometric mean ingestion rate for children
6-10 years, and teens 11-15 years was 24 mL/hour.
The estimated geometric mean ingestion rate for adults
(ages 16 years and older) was 12 mL/hour, but adult
males ingested water at a higher rate (16 mL/hour)
than adult females (9 mL/hour). The 95th percentile
ingestion rates were 96 mL/hour for children,
152 mL/hour for teens, and 105 mL/hour for adults
(Dufour and Wymer, 2017).
Using data obtained from the authors (Dufour,
2017), arithmetic mean ingestion rates and additional
percentiles of the distributions were estimated for
additional age groups of children as shown in
Table 3-93. The arithmetic mean ingestion rates were
38, 44, 33, and 28 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11, 11 to
<16, 16 to <21, and 21+ years, respectively. The 95th
percentile ingestion rates were 96, 152, 105, and
92 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11, 11 to <16, 16 to <21,
and 21+ years, respectively.
This study provides estimated swimming pool
water ingestion rates based on a large sample
population, and the volumes of water ingested per
event are relatively consistent with those of the pilot
study. According to Dufour et al. (2017) "Caution
must be taken in interpreting these derived numbers
[i.e., ingestion rates] too strictly, given they are based
on self-reported data (minutes in the water); thus, they
could be less reliable because of the anecdotal
propensity of children, and even adults, to under- or
over-estimate how much time is spent in the water."
As noted by Dufour et al. (2006), swimming behavior
of pool swimmers may be similar to freshwater
swimmers, but may differ from saltwater swimmers.
3.7.2. Relevant Studies on Water Ingestion
While Swimming, Diving, or Engaging in
Recreational Water Activities
The sections that follows provide summaries of the
relevant studies on water ingestion while engaging in
recreational water activities.
3.7.2.1.	Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006)—A
Survey of Diving Behavior and Accidental
Occupational and Sport Divers to Assess the
Risk of Infection with Waterborne
Pathogenic Microorganisms
Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006) estimated
the amount of water ingested by occupational and
sports divers in the Netherlands. Questionnaires were
used to obtain information on the number of dives for
various types of water bodies, and the approximate
volume of water ingested per dive. Estimates of the
amount of water ingested were made by comparing
intake to common volumes (i.e., a few
drops = 2.75 mL; shot glass = 25 mL; coffee
cup = 100 mL; soda glass = 190 mL). The study was
conducted among occupational divers in 2002 and
among sports divers in 2003 and included responses
from more than 500 divers. Table 3-94 provides the
results of this study. On average, occupational divers
ingested 9.8 mL/dive in marine water and 5.7 mL/dive
in fresh water. Sports divers wearing an ordinary
diving mask ingested 9.0 mL/dive marine water and
13 mL/dive fresh recreational water. Sports divers
who wore full face masks ingested less water. The
main limitation of this study is that no measurements
were taken. It relies on estimates of the perceived
amount of water ingested by the divers. Although
these data are from the Netherlands, it is assumed that
water ingestion among divers in the United States
would be similar, and studies involving U.S. divers
were not identified.
3.7.2.2.	Schets et al. (2011)—Exposure Assessment
for Swimmers in Bathing Waters and
Swimming Pools
Schets et al. (2011) collected exposure data for
swimmers in fresh water, seawater, and swimming
pools in 2007 and 2009. Information on the frequency,
duration, and amount of water swallowed were
collected via questionnaires administered to nearly
10,000 people in the Netherlands. Individuals 15 years
of age and older were considered adults and answered
questions for themselves, and a parent answered the
questions for their eldest child under 15 years of age.
Survey participants estimated the amount of water that
they swallowed while swimming by responding in one
of four ways: (1) none or only a few drops; (2) one or
two mouthfuls; (3) three to five mouthfuls; or (4) six
to eight mouthfuls. Schets et al. (2011) conducted a
series of experiments to measure the amount of water
that corresponded to a mouthful of water and
converted the data in the four response categories to
volumes of water ingested. Monte Carlo analyses were
used to combine the distribution of volume
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(i.e., mouthful) measurements with the distribution of
responses in the four response categories to generate
distributions of the amount of water swallowed per
event for adult men and women, and children less than
15 year of age. Table 3-95 presents the means and 95%
confidence intervals for the duration of swimming and
amount of water ingested during swimming.
Frequency data were also provided by Schets et al.
(2011), but these data are not presented here because
they are for the population of the Netherlands and may
not be representative of swimming frequency in the
United States. According to Schets et al. (2011), the
mean volume of water ingested by children
(<15 years) during an average swimming pool event
lasting 81 minutes was 51 mL or 0.63 mL/min
(38 mL/hour). The values for children were slightly
lower for swimming in fresh water and seawater. For
adults, the mean volume of water ingested ranged from
18 to 34 mL over swimming events lasting 41 to 68
minutes (see Table 3-95).
The advantages of this study are that it is based on
a relatively large sample size and that data are
provided for various types of swimming environments
(i.e., pools, freshwater, and seawater). Although these
data are from the Netherlands, and based primarily on
self-reported estimates, the mean values reported in
this study are similar to those based on measurements
of cyanuric acid in the urine of U.S. swimmers as
reported by Dufour et al. (2006).
3.7.2.3. Dorevitch et aL (2011)—Water Ingestion
during Water Recreation
Dorevitch et al. (2011) estimated the volumes of
water ingested during "limited contact water
recreation activities." These activities included
canoeing, fishing, kayaking, motor boating, rowing,
wading and splashing, and walking. Full contact
scenarios (i.e., swimming and immersion) were also
evaluated. Dorevitch et al. (2011) estimated water
intake among individuals greater than 6 years of age
using two different methods in studies conducted in
2009. In the first surface water study, self-reported
estimates of ingestion were obtained via interview of
2,705 individuals after they had engaged in recreation
activities in Chicago area surface waters. A total of
2,705 participants reported whether they swallowed no
water, a drop or two, a teaspoon, or one or more
mouthfuls of water during one of the five limited
contact recreational activities (i.e., canoeing, fishing,
kayaking, motor boating, and rowing). A second study
was conducted in swimming pools where
662 participants engaged in limited contact scenarios
(i.e., canoeing, simulated fishing, kayaking, motor
boating, rowing, wading/splashing, and walking), as
well as full contact activities such as swimming and
immersion. Participants were interviewed after
performing their water activity and reported on their
estimated water ingestion. In addition, 24-hour urine
samples were collected for analysis of cyanuric acid, a
tracer of swimming pool water. Translation factors for
each of the reported categories of ingestion (e.g., none,
drop/teaspoon, mouthful) were developed using the
results of the urine analyses. These translation factors
were used to estimate the volume of water ingested for
the various water activities evaluated in this study
(Dorevitch et al., 2011). Table 3-96 presents the
estimated volumes of water ingested for the limited
and full contact scenarios. Swimmers had the highest
estimated water intake (mean = 10 mL/hr; 95% upper
confidence limit =35 mL/hr) among the activities
evaluated.
The advantage of this study is that it provides
information on the estimated volume of water ingested
during both limited and full contact recreational
activities. However, the data are based on
self-reporting, and data are not provided for individual
age groups of the population.
3.7.2.4. Suppes et al (2014)—Assessment of
Swimmers Behaviors on Pool Water
Ingestion
Suppes et al. (2014) conducted a study at four
swimming pools in Tucson, AZ in 2012. Pool water
ingestion was estimated based on the concentration of
cyanuric acid in the urine as in the Dufour et al. (2006,
2017) studies. Environmental sensors and
videography techniques were also used to identify
activities that might lead to increased water ingestion
(e.g., head submersion, splashes of water to the face,
duration of swimming activities). Questionnaires were
used to collect information on age, gender, and type of
swimming activity that participants engaged in
(e.g., playing, diving, sitting, lap swimming). A total
of 64 swimmers, ages 5 to 52 years old, participated in
the study, and 35 of those who were videotaped also
submitted useable 24-hour urine samples after
swimming for a 45-minute period. The mean pool
water ingestion rates for these 35 swimmers was
reported to be 13.7 mL/hr (see Table 3-97). The
age-group-specific ingestion rates were 3.5 mL/hr for
adults (>18 years of age, Y= 19) and 25.7 mL/hr for
children (<18 years of age, N= 16). The mean
ingestion rate for children in this study was similar to
the geometric mean ingestion rate for children (6 to
15 years of age) observed by Dufour et al. (2017).
Leisure swimmers were more likely to ingest pool
water than lap swimmers, and splashes of the water to
the face, were associated with higher ingestion rates.
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Associations between the number and duration of head
submersions, as estimated by videography, and pool
water ingestion rates were not observed. The
environmental sensors were found to be less accurate
for assessing the number and duration of head
submersions when compared to use of videography.
This study provides additional evidence of pool water
ingestion among swimmers, but is based on a
relatively small sample; the data for children were not
provided according to age categories, and upper
percentile (e.g., 90th or 95th percentile) values were not
provided.
3.7.2.5.	Sinclair et aL (2016a)—Variability in
24-Hour Excretion of Cyanuric Acid:
Implications for Water Exposure
Assessment
Sinclair et al. (2016a) tested the assumption that
the cyanuric acid ingested while swimming is
completed excreted within 24 hours. In the Sinclair et
al. (2016a) study, 26 volunteers (20-56 years of age;
mostly male) drank a solution containing 1 mg of
cyanuric acid and collected their own urine for
24 hours thereafter. The urine samples were then
analyzed for cyanuric acid to estimate the amount that
was excreted over the 24 hours post ingestion. The
recovery of cyanuric acid over 24 hours varied among
the 26 participants. The mean value was 85.3%, and
the median was 94.5%, with 16 of the 26 individuals
having excretion values ranging from 89 to 105%.
This study provides information on the excretion
of cyanuric acid. The information is relevant to studies
that use cyanuric acid levels in urine to estimate
swimming pool water ingestion. The study was
conducted in Australia, but excretion of cyanuric acid
among that population would not be expected to differ
from U.S. populations.
3.7.2.6.	DeFlorio-Barker et al (2017)—Child
Environmental Exposures to Water and
Sand at the Beach: Findings from Studies
of Over 68,000 Subjects at 12 Beaches
DeFlorio-Barker et al. (2017) estimated the
amount of water ingested per beach water contact
event by conducting simulations based on
self-reported time spent in the water and the amount of
water swallowed per minute. Data for the time spent
in the water were based on data from interviews
conducted in 2003-2009 at temperate beaches in the
contiguous United States. (DeFlorio-Barker et al.,
2017; Arnold et al., 2016). The survey data
represented a total of 68,685 beachgoers; 21,015 at
4 freshwater beaches and 47,670 at 8 marine beaches.
At both freshwater and marine beaches, approximately
67% of beachgoers had some form of contact with the
water (e.g., wading, swimming, playing); 13,568 had
water contact at freshwater beaches and 31,685 had
water contact at marine beaches. Data on the amount
of water swallowed per minute were based on
swimming pool studies conducted by Dufour et al.
(2017) using cyanuric acid as abiomarker of exposure,
as described in Section 3.7.1.1.
Table 3-98 presents age-specific estimates of the
amount of water swallowed per water contact event for
freshwater, marine, and all types of beach locations
combined based on these simulations. Children were
found to ingest more water per event than adults, males
were found to ingest more than females, and ingestion
by individuals recreating at marine beaches tended to
be higher than for those at freshwater beaches.
The advantage of this study is that it provides
estimates of the volume of water ingested while
recreating at freshwater and marine beaches. The
estimates are based on the time spent in the water, and
represent the amount swallowed per event in units of
mL/event. These data may not be applicable to other
types of water contact activities (e.g., water skiing or
diving, swimming in a pool) where the time spent in
the water may differ from that of beachgoers. Also,
any uncertainties associated with recall data on the
time spent in the water would also be applicable to
these estimates.
3.8. OTHER INADVERTENT WATER
INGESTION
3.8.1. Sinclair et al. (2016b)—Measuring Water
Ingestion from Spray Exposures
Sinclair et al. (2016b) estimated the volume of
water ingested from spray exposures. Twenty-six
study participants, aged 18 to 25 years, engaged in a
10-minute simulated car wash activity using a
high-pressure spray device and water treated with
cyanuric acid. Study participants were asked not to
swim in a cyanuric acid-treated swimming pool for
48 hours prior to the simulation and provided
presimulation urine samples for a subset of the
participants to verify the absence of cyanuric acid in
the urine. All participants wore protective coveralls,
gloves, waterproof footwear, and safety glasses during
the simulation. After the simulations, 24-hour urine
samples were collected and analyzed for cyanuric
acid. Among the 26 participants, 18 had quantifiable
levels of cyanuric acid in their urine after engaging in
the simulation exercise; 6 had trace levels, and 2 had
no detectable levels. As in the Dufour et al. (2006,
2017) studies, it was assumed that 100% of the
cyanuric acid that was ingested was excreted in the
urine (see Section 3.7.1.1). The maximum volume of
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water ingested was estimated to be 3.79 mL, and the
10th, 50th, and 90th percentiles were 0.019, 0.175, and
1.84 mL, respectively. When the data were adjusted
for potential variability in excretion among
individuals, based on data from Sinclair et al. (2016a;
see Section 3.7.2.5), the mean and 95th percentile
volumes of water ingested were estimated to be 0.438
(SD 1.24) and 1.93 mL, respectively.
This study is based on a relatively small sample,
but provides data for a scenario in which water may be
inadvertently ingested. As noted by Sinclair et al.
(2016b), while it is assumed that this exposure
scenario represents ingestion alone, inhalation may
have accounted for a portion of the exposures that
occurred during the simulation. Thus, the ingestion
estimates provided in Sinclair et al. (2016b) would be
conservative estimates of ingestion exposures.
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34.
Skinner, JD; Ziegler, P; Ponza, M. (2004) Transition
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Sohn, W; Heller, KE; Burt, BA. (2001) Fluid
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USDA (Department of Agriculture). (1995) Food and
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https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80
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USDA (Department of Agriculture). (1998)
Continuing survey of food intakes by
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USDA (Department of Agriculture). (2000) 1994-96,
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-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). (1984)
An estimation of the daily average food
intake by age and sex for use in assessing the
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February 2019
Page 3-37

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-9. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Percent
Consuming"1
Mean
SE
pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
Percentiles
75th 90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
65
711
27
0
0
0
0
338
1,107
1,994
2,641
4,066
8,634s
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
32
184
59
0e
oe
oe
0
0
87
781e
85 le
l,037e
1,037s
1 to <3 months
233
19
145
32
0e
oe
0
0
0
0
734
905e
1,224e
1,403s
3 to <6 months
282
29
187
32
0e
oe
0
0
0
180
780
981e
l,288e
1,390s
6 to <12 months
588
48
269
29
0e
0
0
0
0
552
876
988
l,168e
1,797s
Birth to 1 year
1,190
37
220
22
0e
0
0
0
0
399
839
974
l,177e
1,797s
1 to <2 years
728
59
146
13
0e
0
0
0
48
240
378
565
813e
2,619s
2 to <3 years
751
62
205
14
0e
0
0
0
94
299
630
778
l,121e
2,861s
3 to <6 years
1,418
61
208
14
0e
0
0
0
111
333
588
741
l,074e
2,179s
6 to <11 years
2,292
65
294
18
0
0
0
0
161
445
765
1,071
1,909
4,048s
11 to <16 years
2,551
56
315
28
0
0
0
0
71
427
932
1,395
2,650
5,120s
16 to <21 years
2,191
60
436
24
0
0
0
0
137
613
1,340
1,900
3,095
7,184s
21 to <30 years
2,082
66
781
45
0
0
0
0
364
1,191
2,127
2,848
5,009
7,504s
30 to <40 years
2,282
71
902
43
0
0
0
0
580
1,391
2,409
2,967
4,409
7,402s
40 to <50 years
2,378
65
880
48
0
0
0
0
546
1,389
2,371
2,964
4,474
7,041s
50 to <60 years
2,103
67
956
44
0
0
0
0
698
1,516
2,458
2,976
4,451
6,554s
60 to <70 years
2,214
68
941
58
0
0
0
0
732
1,534
2,315
2,972
3,885
8,634s
70 to <80 years
1,578
64
772
47
0e
0
0
0
627
1,281
1,826
2,273
3,437e
4,975s
80+ years
915
72
784
46
0e
0
0
0
688
1,255
1,792
2,122
2,785e
5,334s
Birth to <2 years
1,918
48
185
15
0e
0
0
0
0
266
699
858
1,159e
2,619s
2 to <16 years
7,012
61
278
16
0
0
0
0
111
403
749
1,069
2,107
5,120s
16 to <70 years
13,250
67
845
33
0
0
0
0
502
1,335
2,273
2.906
4,375
8,633s
21 to <50 years
6,742
67
858
36
0
0
0
0
506
1,377
2,329
2,938
4,587
7,504s
50+ years
6,810
67
902
42
0
0
0
0
689
1,428
2,239
2,827
4,066
8,634s
Race














Mexican American
5,787
55
433
32
0
0
0
0
87
593
1,297
1,867
3,397
7,504s
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
66
516
24
0
0
0
0
238
711
1,440
2,049
3,633
7,402s
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
66
796
36
0
0
0
0
438
1,272
2,173
2,794
4,165
8,634s
Other Hispanic
2,082
62
566
43
0
0
0
0
216
823
1,582
2,441
4,318
7,184s
Other race—including multiple
1,173
66
721
60
oe
0
0
0
407
1,118
1,900
2,567
3,878e
7,018s
February 2019
Page 3-38

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-9. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNISfNCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-39

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-10. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled Water (mL/day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Percent
Consuming"1
Mean






Percentiles



SE
pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
44
326
13
0
0
0
0
0
428
1,066
1,570
2,666
8,834e
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
19
7
3
0e
oe
oe
0
0
0
15e
44e
155e
296e
1 to <3 months
233
12
8
3
0e
oe
0
0
0
0
15
44e
192e
192e
3 to <6 months
282
18
11
2
0e
oe
0
0
0
0
44
89e
133e
178e
6 to <12 months
588
31
34
4
0e
0
0
0
0
30
119
178
333e
680e
Birth to <1 year
1,190
23
22
2
0e
0
0
0
0
0
82
133
281e
680e
1 to <2 years
728
38
71
7
0e
0
0
0
0
89
241
356
633e
790e
2 to <3 years
751
39
105
12
0e
0
0
0
0
119
333
533
1,133e
4,205e
3 to <6 years
1,418
40
121
10
0e
0
0
0
0
148
389
578
l,092e
l,762e
6 to <11 years
2,292
42
156
10
0
0
0
0
0
237
474
731
1,252
4,717e
11 to <16 years
2,551
45
235
16
0
0
0
0
0
296
689
1,095
1,874
4,322e
16 to <21 years
2,191
50
380
26
0
0
0
0
96
563
1,125
1,500
2,678
5,810e
21 to <30 years
2,082
52
459
28
0
0
0
0
119
724
1,460
1,888
2,930
7,673e
30 to <40 years
2,282
52
468
29
0
0
0
0
96
711
1,422
1,965
3,237
6,636e
40 to <50 years
2,378
50
427
21
0
0
0
0
0
595
1,303
1,896
3,018
8,834e
50 to <60 years
2,103
42
342
23
0
0
0
0
0
474
1,166
1,751
2,666
4,513e
60 to <70 years
2,214
39
278
19
0
0
0
0
0
355
970
1,461
2,266
5,024e
70 to <80 years
1,578
30
190
16
0e
0
0
0
0
156
711
1,093
2,184e
3,228e
80+ years
915
19
108
15
0e
0
0
0
0
0
370
737
l,639e
6,213e
Birth to <2 years
1,918
30
45
4
0e
0
0
0
0
40
156
267
578e
790e
2 to <16 years
7,012
43
174
9
0
0
0
0
0
250
533
778
1,642
4,717e
16 to <70 years
13,250
48
400
17
0
0
0
0
0
592
1,259
1,784
2,948
8,834e
21 to <50 years
6,742
51
451
20
0
0
0
0
74
674
1,400
1,925
3,184
8,834e
50+ years
6,810
37
273
14
0
0
0
0
0
296
947
1,462
2,370
6,213e
Race














Mexican American
5,787
60
428
26
0
0
0
0
167
615
1,275
1,746
2,784
6,213e
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
52
391
20
0
0
0
0
74
533
1,199
1,711
3,018
6,634e
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
40
290
13
0
0
0
0
0
326
963
1,483
2,503
8,834e
Other Hispanic
2,082
55
432
34
0
0
0
0
118
580
1,303
1,974
2,910
7,673e
Other race—including multiple
1,173
49
351
30
oe
0
0
0
0
501
1,076
1,583
2,714e
4,717e
February 2019
Page 3-40

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-10. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled Water (mL/day) (Continued)
a Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted
for in the estimation of bottled water intake.
d Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-41

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-11. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Percent
Consuming'
Mean
SE





Percentiles



pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
33
272
24
0
0
0
0
0
200
948
1,571
3,117
8,398e
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
45
273
51
0e
oe
oe
0
0
590
745e
860e
936e
l,011e
1 to <3 months
233
50
351
39
0e
oe
0
0
0
710
911
l,055e
1,154e
l,489e
3 to <6 months
282
53
355
39
0e
oe
0
0
15
758
971
1,154e
l,391e
1,424e
6 to <12 months
588
49
274
24
0e
0
0
0
0
581
852
1,023
l,359e
l,486e
Birth to <1 year
1,190
50
307
21
0e
0
0
0
0
665
878
1,048
1,315e
l,489e
1 to <2 years
728
37
77
11
0e
0
0
0
0
94
280
356
725e
l,485e
2 to <3 years
751
35
93
13
0e
0
0
0
0
88
326
524
914e
2,284e
3 to <6 years
1,418
36
84
8
0e
0
0
0
0
89
269
481
889e
4,698e
6 to <11 years
2,292
32
105
12
0
0
0
0
0
82
387
614
1,100
2,437e
11 to <16 years
2,551
39
198
18
0
0
0
0
0
202
703
1,078
2,252
3,91 le
16 to <21 years
2,191
34
217
34
0
0
0
0
0
153
707
1,221
2,682
7,815e
21 to <30 years
2,082
30
194
29
0
0
0
0
0
92
614
1,005
2,800
8,127e
30 to <40 years
2,282
28
262
38
0
0
0
0
0
97
867
1,798
3,304
7,459e
40 to <50 years
2,378
33
372
40
0
0
0
0
0
389
1,324
2,065
3,843
8,398e
50 to <60 years
2,103
32
401
40
0
0
0
0
0
423
1,407
2,178
4,113
7,600e
60 to <70 years
2,214
32
332
40
0
0
0
0
0
404
1,223
1,766
2,989
7,447e
70 to <80 years
1,578
36
397
39
oe
0
0
0
0
582
1,495
1,938
2,754e
5,316e
80+ years
915
28
250
33
oe
0
0
0
0
282
936
1,334
l,952e
3,917e
Birth to <2 years
1,918
44
198
14
oe
0
0
0
0
289
741
903
l,232e
l,489e
2 to <16 years
7,012
36
135
9
0
0
0
0
0
115
457
737
1,456
4,698e
16 to <70 years
13,250
31
304
29
0
0
0
0
0
225
1,066
1,779
3,456
8,398e
21 to <50 years
6,742
31
281
32
0
0
0
0
0
173
963
1,725
3,383
8,398e
50+ years
6,810
32
365
33
0
0
0
0
0
431
1,323
1,918
3,574
7,600e
Race














Mexican American
5,787
45
202
12
0
0
0
0
0
249
631
938
2,186
5,036e
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
29
128
10
0
0
0
0
0
59
462
721
1,569
4,91 le
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
32
317
32
0
0
0
0
0
229
1,147
1,824
3,402
8,398e
Other Hispanic
2,082
40
166
15
0
0
0
0
0
181
610
832
1,446
3,680e
Other race—including multiple
1,173
34
251
31
oe
0
0
0
0
267
811
1,324
3,004e
4,562e
February 2019
Page 3-42

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-11. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-43

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-12. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/day)
Population Group
Sample Percent
Size Consuming"5
Mean
SE




Percentiles



pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
99
1,309
19
0
105
221
527
1,061
1,827
2,698
3,292
4,767
10,280e
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
78
464
53
0e
0e
0e
40
580
745
860e
945e
l,037e
l,234e
1 to <3 months
233
78
505
30
0e
0e
0
0
603
847
1,030
l,124e
l,265e
l,489e
3 to <6 months
282
83
552
30
0e
0e
0
105
634
844
1,065
1,207e
l,391e
l,456e
6 to <12 months
588
98
576
21
0e
19
66
265
603
829
1,024
1,168
l,383e
l,797e
Birth to <1 year
1,190
87
549
16
0e
0
0
169
598
829
1,030
1,159
l,388c
l,797e
1 to <2 years
728
98
293
12
0e
15
50
144
248
369
614
768
934e
2,619e
2 to <3 years
751
99
403
16
0e
43
75
165
327
561
831
1,001
1,317e
4,205e
3 to <6 years
1,418
99
413
11
3e
45
88
184
339
566
816
980
l,495e
4,698e
6 to <11 years
2,292
98
555
17
0
42
105
237
469
754
1,106
1,389
2,305
5,473e
11 to <16 years
2,551
98
748
30
0
34
89
296
573
999
1,556
2,242
3,402
5,120e
16 to <21 years
2,191
97
1,033
36
0
24
125
356
883
1,447
2,201
2,741
3,742
7,815e
21 to <30 years
2,082
98
1,435
49
0
121
274
614
1,202
1,947
2,867
3,600
5,259
8,325e
30 to <40 years
2,282
99
1,632
39
22
233
383
792
1,401
2,252
3,149
3,857
5,135
7,459e
40 to <50 years
2,378
99
1,680
46
23
246
441
859
1,471
2,272
3,144
3,821
5,091
10,280e
50 to <60 years
2,103
100
1,698
38
54
254
485
915
1,498
2,245
3,065
3,925
5,349
7,600e
60 to <70 years
2,214
100
1,551
37
106
365
527
889
1,363
2,082
2,746
3,205
4,160
8,634e
70 to <80 years
1,578
99
1,359
28
88e
357
486
841
1,272
1,728
2,366
2,748
3,619e
5,316e
80+ years
915
100
1,142
26
170e
317
429
698
1,007
1,493
1,953
2,296
3,236e
7,054e
Birth to <2 years
1,918
92
428
13
0e
0
15
149
320
704
903
1,058
1,359e
2,619e
2 to <16 years
7,012
98
587
15
0
39
89
227
456
767
1,205
1,571
2,769
5,473e
16 to <70 years
13,250
99
1,549
25
4
185
354
758
1,336
2,112
2,968
3,633
5,135
10,280e
21 to <50 years
6,742
99
1,590
33
7
194
363
758
1,369
2,170
3,082
3,760
5,167
10,280e
50+ years
6,810
100
1,540
25
72
310
487
853
1,354
2,016
2,796
3,363
4,650
8,634e
Race














Mexican American
5,787
99
1,064
27
7
97
185
392
807
1,453
2,248
2,872
4,490
7,504e
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
98
1,035
25
0
69
170
398
795
1,391
2,246
2,800
4,393
7,519e
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
99
1,403
26
0
112
247
597
1,191
1,962
2,820
3,410
4,851
10,280e
Other Hispanic
2,082
99
1,164
44
0
97
185
426
888
1,589
2,532
3,307
4,584
8,325e
Other race—including multiple
1,173
99
1,323
48
20e
163
274
571
1,115
1,815
2,656
3,278
4,397e
7,018e
February 2019
Page 3-44

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-12. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/day) (Continued)
a Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include
indirect consumption of bottled water.
d Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-45

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-13. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Percent
Consuming"1
Mean






Percentiles



SE
Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
65
10.7
0.4
0
0
0
0
5.8
16.3
28.6
37.1
64.1
267.5e
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
32
42.0
13.6
0e
oe
oe
0
0
20.8
191.5e
199.6e
253.0e
253.0e
1 to <3 months
233
19
25.3
5.4
0e
oe
0
0
0
0
128.4
163.7e
2612s
267.5e
3 to <6 months
282
29
26.7
5.1
0e
oe
0
0
0
24.8
102.1
140.6e
187.6e
252.6e
6 to <12 months
588
48
30.2
3.3
0e
0
0
0
0
60.7
98.6
112.1
139.9e
213.9e
Birth to <1 year
1,190
37
29.2
3.1
0e
0
0
0
0
48.4
108.2
136.7
192.2e
267.5e
1 to <2 years
728
59
13.1
1.1
0e
0
0
0
4.3
21.0
34.4
50.8
75.6e
216.4e
2 to <3 years
751
62
14.8
1.0
0e
0
0
0
7.0
21.6
44.1
58.1
78.2e
227. le
3 to <6 years
1,418
61
11.5
0.8
0e
0
0
0
6.1
18.4
32.6
42.1
55.7e
126.6e
6 to <11 years
2,292
65
9.9
0.6
0
0
0
0
5.2
15.0
26.2
33.9
58.2
157.4e
11 to <16 years
2,551
56
5.8
0.5
0
0
0
0
1.2
8.1
16.7
25.7
51.4
81.9e
16 to <21 years
2,191
60
6.2
0.3
0
0
0
0
2.0
8.9
18.7
27.6
41.0
82.0e
21 to <30 years
2,082
66
10.5
0.6
0
0
0
0
4.9
16.3
28.7
38.9
64.1
99.9e
30 to <40 years
2,282
71
11.2
0.6
0
0
0
0
7.3
16.9
29.5
37.8
56.5
91.9e
40 to <50 years
2,378
65
11.1
0.6
0
0
0
0
6.7
17.6
30.4
38.3
61.2
110.1e
50 to <60 years
2,103
67
11.9
0.6
0
0
0
0
8.6
18.3
30.6
37.0
58.0
103.4e
60 to <70 years
2,214
68
11.7
0.7
0
0
0
0
9.0
18.6
29.5
35.3
53.0
120.7e
70 to <80 years
1,578
64
10.4
0.7
oe
0
0
0
7.8
16.8
25.0
30.8
55.le
80.8e
80+ years
915
72
11.3
0.7
oe
0
0
0
9.5
18.0
26.2
30.4
41.4e
64.8e
Birth to <2 years
1,918
48
21.6
1.9
oe
0
0
0
0
23.2
78.5
111.6
174.2e
267.5e
2 to <16 years
7,012
61
9.1
0.4
0
0
0
0
3.5
13.2
26.0
35.4
62.2
227. le
16 to <70 years
13,250
67
10.7
0.4
0
0
0
0
6.3
16.9
29.3
36.7
58.3
120.7e
21 to <50 years
6,742
67
11.0
0.5
0
0
0
0
6.3
17.0
29.6
38.3
60.7
110.1e
50+ years
6,810
67
11.5
0.6
0
0
0
0
8.6
18.1
29.1
35.2
53.9
120.7e
Race














Mexican American
5,787
55
7.4
0.5
0
0
0
0
1.7
10.2
21.0
30.0
56.3
244.4e
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
66
7.9
0.4
0
0
0
0
3.6
11.5
21.2
28.4
51.1
267.5e
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
66
11.7
0.5
0
0
0
0
7.1
18.3
30.3
39.0
64.5
252.6e
Other Hispanic
2,082
62
9.1
0.6
0
0
0
0
4.3
13.1
24.3
34.4
53.1
224.0e
Other race—including multiple
1,173
66
12.7
1.0
oe
0
0
0
7.8
19.1
32.9
43.7
82.5e
227. le
February 2019
Page 3-46

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-13. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-47

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-14. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled (mL/kg-day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Percent
Consuming"1
Mean
SE
Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
Percentiles
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
44
4.9
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
6.6
15.5
22.3
39.1
316.2'
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
19
1.6
0.6
0e
oe
oe
0
0
0
3.0e
10.8e
31.le
63.0'
1 to <3 months
233
12
1.4
0.4
0e
oe
0
0
0
0
2.4
8.4e
29.6e
31.5'
3 to <6 months
282
18
1.5
0.3
0e
oe
0
0
0
0
5.7
11.9e
19.3e
28.2'
6 to <12 months
588
31
3.6
0.4
0e
0
0
0
0
3.8
13.5
20.9
35.6e
71.5'
Birth to <1 year
1,190
23
2.6
0.3
0e
0
0
0
0
0
9.5
15.2
31.6e
71.5'
1 to <2 years
728
38
6.3
0.6
0e
0
0
0
0
7.7
22.9
31.6
52.0e
78.5'
2 to <3 years
751
39
7.6
0.8
0e
0
0
0
0
8.7
23.3
38.5
72.3e
316.2'
3 to <6 years
1,418
40
6.7
0.6
0e
0
0
0
0
8.4
21.4
31.8
64.9e
105.8'
6 to <11 years
2,292
42
5.0
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
7.1
15.3
23.0
47.9
114.5'
11 to <16 years
2,551
45
4.2
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
5.9
12.5
19.0
34.1
66.8'
16 to <21 years
2,191
50
5.6
0.4
0
0
0
0
1.3
8.4
16.8
23.5
40.9
106.4'
21 to <30 years
2,082
52
6.0
0.4
0
0
0
0
1.6
9.1
18.9
24.8
37.5
103.3'
30 to <40 years
2,282
52
5.9
0.4
0
0
0
0
1.2
9.0
17.8
24.8
40.7
84.1'
40 to <50 years
2,378
50
5.3
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
7.9
16.6
22.4
38.2
166.7'
50 to <60 years
2,103
42
4.1
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
5.6
13.6
20.0
33.1
75.2'
60 to <70 years
2,214
39
3.5
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
4.2
12.3
18.7
28.2
68.5'
70 to <80 years
1,578
30
2.5
0.2
0e
0
0
0
0
1.9
9.2
14.8
28.5e
48.1'
80+ years
915
19
1.6
0.2
0e
0
0
0
0
0
5.0
10.1
22.8e
80.9'
Birth to <2 years
1,918
30
4.3
0.3
0e
0
0
0
0
4.1
14.7
26.2
48.4e
78.5'
2 to <16 years
7,012
43
5.2
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
6.8
16.4
24.1
44.4
316.2'
16 to <70 years
13,250
48
5.1
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
7.3
16.2
22.4
37.0
166.7'
21 to <50 years
6,742
51
5.7
0.3
0
0
0
0
1.0
8.5
17.6
23.8
39.2
166.7'
50+ years
6,810
37
3.4
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
3.8
12.0
18.0
29.9
80.9'
Race














Mexican American
5,787
60
7.2
0.4
0
0
0
0
3.3
10.7
20.0
25.7
46.4
114.5'
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
52
5.5
0.2
0
0
0
0
1.3
7.9
16.7
23.5
38.4
84.2'
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
40
4.2
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
5.1
13.9
20.5
35.6
166.7'
Other Hispanic
2,082
55
7.2
0.6
0
0
0
0
2.1
9.6
20.4
29.7
51.1
316.2'
Other race—including multiple
1,173
49
6.0
0.5
oe
0
0
0
0
9.2
19.3
26.9
41.3e
87.6'
February 2019
Page 3-48

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-14. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted
for in the estimation of bottled water intake.
d Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-49

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-15. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Percent
Consuming"1
Mean
SE





Percentiles



Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
33
4.6
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
3.5
15.0
24.5
53.3
343.1
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
45
66.2
13.5
0e
oe
oe
0
0
143.4
183.2e
205.8e
302.0e
302.0e
1 to <3 months
233
50
62.6
7.0
0e
oe
0
0
0
122.0
171.0
194.7e
230.7e
343. le
3 to <6 months
282
53
49.0
5.5
0e
oe
0
0
1.9
102.0
137.6
157.4e
204.6e
225.8e
6 to <12 months
588
49
31.0
2.7
0e
0
0
0
0
63.0
96.9
119.3
154.8e
239.7e
Birth to <1 year
1,190
50
43.7
3.3
0e
0
0
0
0
86.1
134.4
157.4
215.8e
343.1e
1 to <2 years
728
37
6.9
1.0
0e
0
0
0
0
8.2
23.8
30.7
74.8e
130.3e
2 to <3 years
751
35
6.8
1.0
0e
0
0
0
0
6.6
23.0
40.3
75.5e
162.0e
3 to <6 years
1,418
36
4.5
0.5
0e
0
0
0
0
4.8
14.9
24.2
44.le
164.9e
6 to <11 years
2,292
32
3.5
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
2.6
12.6
20.6
40.2
72. le
11 to <16 years
2,551
39
3.5
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
3.5
12.3
19.4
33.7
81.le
16 to <21 years
2,191
34
3.1
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
2.2
10.7
18.1
38.0
120.6e
21 to <30 years
2,082
30
2.6
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
1.3
8.5
13.7
36.6
94.1e
30 to <40 years
2,282
28
3.3
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
1.3
11.4
22.3
43.5
86.9e
40 to <50 years
2,378
33
4.7
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
4.4
17.4
26.9
47.4
98.0e
50 to <60 years
2,103
32
5.0
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
4.8
19.1
27.5
52.0
83.6e
60 to <70 years
2,214
32
4.1
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
5.0
15.5
21.7
40.4
93.3e
70 to <80 years
1,578
36
5.2
0.5
0e
0
0
0
0
7.5
20.3
24.9
40.6e
61.3e
80+ years
915
28
3.7
0.5
0e
0
0
0
0
4.5
14.1
19.9
28.7e
53.6e
Birth to <2 years
1,918
44
26.3
2.0
oe
0
0
0
0
27.0
105.0
135.8
199.le
343. le
2 to <16 years
7,012
36
4.0
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
3.6
13.5
21.9
43.0
164.9e
16 to <70 years
13,250
31
3.9
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
2.8
13.4
22.9
44.3
120.6e
21 to <50 years
6,742
31
3.6
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
2.1
12.0
22.2
44.3
98.0e
50+ years
6,810
32
4.7
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
5.3
17.5
24.6
44.2
93.3e
Race














Mexican American
5,787
43
5.0
0.3
0
0
0
0
0
4.7
11.8
19.7
80.1
296.5e
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
30
2.8
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
1.0
7.4
11.6
40.7
343.le
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
31
4.9
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
3.8
17.4
26.6
51.8
276.2e
Other Hispanic
2,082
36
3.8
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
3.8
9.6
14.4
50.1
200.5e
Other race—including multiple
1,173
32
5.0
0.6
oe
0
0
0
0
4.3
16.3
25.5
55.8e
237.8e
February 2019
Page 3-50

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-15. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-51

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-16. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Percent
Consuming"1
Mean
SE




Percentiles




Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,673
99
20.2
0.3
0
2.0
4.2
9.1
16.4
26.4
39.3
49.1
83.3
343.le
Age group














Birth to <1 month
87
78
109.8
13.4
0e
0e
0e
10.6
129.9
178.8
206.5e
253.0e
302.0e
302.0e
1 to <3 months
233
70
89.2
5.3
0e
0e
0
0
108.2
140.4
187.7
203.9e
2612s
343. le
3 to <6 months
282
83
77.2
4.3
0e
0e
0
12.3
86.3
116.9
143.3
164.9e
215.8e
252.6e
6 to <12 months
588
98
64.8
2.4
0e
2.6
7.5
26.6
66.1
96.2
122.6
138.2
167.6e
239.7e
Birth to <1 year
1,190
87
75.5
2.7
0e
0
0
21.1
74.8
113.3
149.4
183.2
237.8e
343.le
1 to <2 years
728
98
26.4
1.1
0e
1.5
4.5
13.1
22.0
34.2
53.5
69.4
86.2e
216.4e
2 to <3 years
751
99
29.1
1.2
0e
3.1
5.7
11.5
23.0
41.2
59.3
71.3
95.3e
316.2e
3 to <6 years
1,418
99
22.6
0.7
0.1e
2.6
4.8
10.0
18.7
31.1
44.0
53.6
85.9e
164.9e
6 to <11 years
2,292
98
18.4
0.6
0
1.6
3.5
8.1
14.9
24.8
35.8
46.9
70.1
157.7e
11 to <16 years
2,551
98
13.5
0.6
0
0.5
1.5
5.2
10.5
17.8
28.5
38.3
61.9
81.9e
16 to <21 years
2,191
97
14.9
0.5
0
0.4
1.9
5.4
11.7
20.3
32.3
40.8
53.2
120.6e
21 to <30 years
2,082
98
19.1
0.7
0
1.5
3.5
7.9
15.9
25.0
39.6
49.0
67.3
112.0e
30 to <40 years
2,282
99
20.4
0.5
0.2
2.7
4.7
9.9
16.9
28.5
40.7
47.8
65.0
95.0e
40 to <50 years
2,378
99
21.1
0.6
0.3
2.8
5.3
10.4
18.4
28.1
39.8
48.1
72.3
178.8e
50 to <60 years
2,103
100
21.0
0.5
0.6
2.7
5.5
10.9
18.3
28.3
38.7
46.4
72.7
122.9e
60 to <70 years
2,214
100
19.3
0.5
1.1
4.3
6.1
10.6
16.9
25.4
35.3
41.8
56.5
120.7e
70 to <80 years
1,578
99
18.1
0.4
1.0e
4.1
6.3
9.9
16.5
23.1
32.0
40.2
56.9e
80.8e
80+ years
915
100
16.5
0.4
2.3e
4.5
6.2
9.7
14.8
22.0
28.1
32.5
47.6e
91.8e
Birth to <2 years
1,918
92
52.2
1.9
0e
0
1.5
14.8
31.4
80.1
127.2
152.4
213.9e
343. le
2 to <16 years
7,012
98
18.2
0.4
0
1.1
3.0
7.3
13.9
24.7
38.4
49.1
74.1
316.2e
16 to <70 years
13,250
99
19.7
0.3
<0.05
2.2
4.5
9.5
16.9
26.8
38.7
46.4
67.4
178.8e
21 to <50 years
6,742
99
20.2
0.4
0.1
2.3
4.6
9.6
17.1
27.5
39.9
48.3
68.4
178.8e
50+ years
6,810
100
19.5
0.3
0.8
3.7
5.8
10.5
17.1
25.6
35.7
43.4
65.3
122.9e
Race














Mexican American
5,787
99
19.6
0.3
0.1
2.1
3.9
8.1
14.7
24.2
38.0
50.5
108.1
296.5e
Non-Hispanic black
5,337
98
16.2
0.3
0
1.4
2.9
6.4
12.3
20.7
31.5
40.2
86.6
343.le
Non-Hispanic white
10,294
99
20.7
0.4
0
2.0
4.5
9.7
17.3
27.3
40.0
49.1
79.8
284.4e
Other Hispanic
2,082
99
20.0
0.7
0
2.7
4.1
8.3
14.6
25.5
39.0
51.3
112.0
316.26
Other race—including multiple
1,173
99
23.8
0.7
0.3e
3.4
5.6
11.4
19.1
30.2
45.9
56.2
96.5e
237.8e
February 2019
Page 3-52

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-16. Two-Day Average" per Capitab Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
c Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include
indirect consumption of bottled water.
d Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
e Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-53

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-17. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/day)
Percentiles
Population Group
Sample Size
Mean
SE
Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
15,219
1,096
21
13
70
147
369
834
1,540
2,413
2,972
4,463
8,634d
Age group













Birth to <1 month
20
581
84
15d
25d
40d
148d
699
839d
901d
938d
l,037d
l,037d
1 to <3 months
45
785
47
105d
148d
489d
658d
804
958d
l,177d
1,224d
1,403d
1,403d
3 to <6 months
65
649
55
7d
96d
144d
450d
655
887d
l,037d
l,125d
l,388d
l,390d
6 to <12 months
244
554
31
12d
37d
69
201
587
823
993
l,104d
l,324d
l,797d
Birth to <1 year
374
595
25
7d
40d
98
277
657
851
1,009
l,106d
l,376d
l,797d
1 to <2 years
394
245
15
7d
15
28
85
209
306
524
658
842d
2,619d
2 to <3 years
445
332
15
6d
43
59
126
254
430
733
901
1,183d
2,861d
3 to <6 years
860
338
15
7d
33
71
139
274
477
683
836
l,282d
2,179d
6 to <11 years
1,473
455
20
6d
39
73
176
356
580
953
1,258
2,277d
4,048d
11 to <16 years
1,449
562
38
7d
31
68
160
361
726
1,315
1,761
2,773d
5,120d
16 to <21 years
1,312
722
27
6d
29
66
199
442
1,026
1,647
2,214
3,237d
7,184d
21 to <30 years
1,318
1,183
52
lld
59
136
377
877
1,628
2,645
3,407
5,271d
7,504d
30 to <40 years
1,530
1,277
37
24d
115
223
508
1,010
1,789
2,720
3,278
4,584d
7,402d
40 to <50 years
1,532
1,356
50
18d
129
281
593
1,083
1,911
2,708
3,374
4,776d
7,04 ld
50 to <60 years
1,412
1,419
37
35d
151
334
669
1,200
1,923
2,815
3,388
4,626d
6,554d
60 to <70 years
1,453
1,394
43
63d
213
370
710
1,214
1,890
2,602
3,187
4,123d
8,634d
70 to <80 years
1,017
1,214
31
129d
321
405
689
1,088
1,559
2,118
2,641
3,601d
4,975d
80+ years
650
1,087
30
62d
250
359
586
990
1,445
1,964
2,250
3,180d
5,334d
Birth to <2 years
768
388
18
7d
15
40
134
281
641
864
999
l,288d
2,619d
2 to <16 years
4,227
458
19
6
34
68
156
324
592
985
1,348
2,559
5,120d
16 to <70 years
8,557
1,269
25
15
103
205
503
1,024
1,784
2,645
3,250
4,773
8,634d
21 to <50 years
4,380
1,277
31
17
97
202
497
1,001
1,818
2,685
3,353
4,859
7,504d
50+ years
4,532
1,343
27
53
216
363
677
1,152
1,783
2,574
3,081
4,309
8,634d
Race
Mexican American
3,011
794
31
4
52
106
244
530
1,063
1,814
2,485
4,116
7,504d
Non-Hispanic black
3,560
782
27
7
38
89
247
519
1,054
1,819
2,378
4,031
7,402d
Non-Hispanic white
6,698
1,201
25
15
84
172
450
965
1,695
2,558
3,081
4,570
8,634d
Other Hispanic
1,207
914
52
17d
74
119
284
619
1,195
2,125
2,848
4,584d
7,184d
Other race—including multiple
743
1,085
67
20d
89
172
410
789
1,532
2,246
2,990
5,143d
7,018d
February 2019
Page 3-54

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-17. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-55

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-18. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled Water (mL/day)
Percentiles
Population Group
Sample Size
Mean
SE
pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
11,309
736
15
37
89
119
250
500
984
1,666
2,133
3,435
8,834d
Age group













Birth to <1 month
16
38
17
3d
3d
3d
3d
30
44d
104d
155d
296d
296d
1 to <3 months
38
66
15
ld
3d
5d
15d
44
119d
178d
192d
192d
192d
3 to <6 months
79
61
6
4d
15d
15d
30
44
89
119d
133d
178d
178d
6 to <12 months
228
109
9
7d
15d
30
44
89
133
244
281d
474d
680d
Birth to <1 year
361
93
7
3d
7d
15
30
59
119
207
252d
385d
680d
1 to <2 years
317
188
15
7d
30d
44
74
133
266
415
578d
71 ld
790d
2 to <3 years
332
273
26
15d
40d
52
74
193
333
548
71 ld
l,341d
4,205d
3 to <6 years
617
299
19
22d
52
59
119
215
385
622
830
l,666d
l,762d
6 to <11 years
1,036
374
18
37d
59
89
148
250
466
770
1,067
2,00 ld
4,717d
11 to <16 years
1,236
517
26
37d
89
119
237
356
635
1,184
1,600
2,276d
4,322d
16 to <21 years
1,111
753
37
96d
148
193
296
555
992
1,500
1,995
3,140d
5,810d
21 to <30 years
1,125
882
34
59d
125
178
296
694
1,244
1,816
2,354
3,672d
7,673d
30 to <40 years
1,244
903
36
52d
119
178
296
681
1,228
1,935
2,481
4,00 ld
6,636d
40 to <50 years
1,240
860
33
44d
119
178
259
605
1,184
1,896
2,368
3,895d
8,834d
50 to <60 years
991
818
33
59d
119
178
296
593
1,067
1,896
2,250
3,826d
4,513d
60 to <70 years
1,008
713
31
59d
118
126
250
509
987
1,600
1,948
2,714d
5,024d
70 to <80 years
507
644
34
22d
82
119
237
444
918
1,422
1,894
2,664d
3,228d
80+ years
184
577
53
15d
52d
82d
178
385
770
l,225d
l,822d
2,844d
6,213d
Birth to <2 years
678
149
11
3d
15
30
48
111
178
314
474
71 ld
790d
2 to <16 years
3,221
410
13
30
59
83
156
280
500
859
1,250
2,132
4,717d
16 to <70 years
6,719
839
18
59
119
178
296
606
1,138
1,837
2,254
3,750
8,834d
21 to <50 years
3,609
881
22
52
119
178
296
652
1,185
1,896
2,370
3,895
8,834d
50+ years
2,690
748
19
44
96
133
250
518
1,000
1,697
2,137
3,111
6,213d
Race













Mexican American
3,349
717
27
30
74
119
237
487
975
1,658
2,004
3,256
6,213d
Non-Hispanic black
2,598
757
28
40
89
125
250
500
1,000
1,685
2,281
3,986
6,634d
Non-Hispanic white
3,681
732
18
37
89
125
250
500
974
1,658
2,081
3,507
8,834d
Other Hispanic
1,120
793
44
30d
74
119
237
509
1,067
1,895
2,495
3,254d
7,673d
Other race—including multiple
561
713
39
30d
74
148
250
509
947
1,593
2,039
2,844d
4,717d
February 2019
Page 3-56

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-18. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled Water (mL/day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted
for in the estimation of bottled water intake.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-57

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-19. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/day)
Percentiles
Population Group
Sample Size
Mean
SE
Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
8,722
833
39
8
35
70
214
550
1,105
1,976
2,682
4,113
8,398d
Age group













Birth to <1 month
47
611
37
153d
269d
288d
455d
638
720d
912d
923d
994d
1,01 ld
1 to <3 months
134
704
26
14d
161d
296d
551
710
856
l,055d
l,122d
l,184d
l,489d
3 to <6 months
175
665
35
5d
15d
62d
433
729
887
l,154d
l,250d
l,396d
1,424d
6 to <12 months
328
564
22
ld
17d
51
268
590
807
1,048
1,182d
l,359d
l,486d
Birth to <1 year
684
619
15
5d
19
74
402
668
839
1,049
1,154
l,391d
l,489d
1 to <2 years
310
209
19
2d
12d
28
80
144
286
472
642d
917d
l,485d
2 to <3 years
282
268
28
2d
14d
17
72
178
363
630
887d
l,161d
2,284d
3 to <6 years
525
231
14
6d
17
27
69
138
282
532
721
l,141d
4,698d
6 to <11 years
755
331
28
8d
28
42
95
241
481
764
948
l,290d
2,437d
11 to <16 years
994
513
32
6d
17
40
115
328
705
1,181
1,526
2,885d
3,91 ld
16 to <21 years
760
632
69
12d
24
49
135
381
851
1,583
2,297
3,209d
7,815d
21 to <30 years
682
640
70
7d
30
50
160
404
766
1,428
2,445
3,750d
8,127d
30 to <40 years
708
937
77
7d
38
94
256
574
1,258
2,510
3,004
4,248d
7,459d
40 to <50 years
805
1,117
75
17d
52
119
390
785
1,535
2,414
3,330
4,696d
8,398d
50 to <60 years
666
1,260
82
9d
139
207
498
928
1,718
2,820
3,726
5,339d
7,600d
60 to <70 years
742
1,042
57
29d
126
214
434
836
1,335
2,155
2,800
4,160d
7,447d
70 to <80 years
546
1,116
38
22d
117
257
506
996
1,570
2,247
2,443
3,210d
5,316d
80+ years
263
900
37
59d
196d
282
533
808
1,118
1,635
l,836d
2,330d
3,917d
Birth to <2 years
994
454
16
5d
15
44
124
392
725
924
1,102
l,359d
l,489d
2 to <16 years
2,556
380
18
6
20
39
93
228
515
917
1,165
2,347
4,698d
16 to <70 years
4,363
969
49
10
43
93
284
654
1,289
2,297
2,969
4,335
8,398d
21 to <50 years
2,195
919
63
9
37
80
252
595
1,229
2,238
2,901
4,310
8,398d
50+ years
2,217
1,138
41
22
132
230
486
883
1,501
2,321
2,958
4,645
7,600d
Race













Mexican American
2,620
467
18
4
26
52
133
308
596
993
1,348
3,132
5,036d
Non-Hispanic black
1,570
429
21
4d
17
34
97
292
568
896
1,255
2,663d
4,91 ld
Non-Hispanic white
3,307
1,010
49
10
43
89
293
733
1,368
2,303
2,913
4,310
8,398d
Other Hispanic
827
460
27
9d
38
75
144
332
637
944
1,210
2,652d
3,680d
Other race—including multiple
398
781
62
18d
54
89
304
516
1,020
1,772
2,204
3,725d
4,562d
February 2019
Page 3-58

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-19. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-59

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-20. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/day)
Population Group
Sample Size
Mean
SE




Percentiles




Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,299
1,325
20
29
130
247
544
1,076
1,843
2,715
3,306
4,773
10,280d
Age group













Birth to <1 month
68
597
47
30d
40d
87d
434d
685
781d
924d
953d
l,144d
l,234d
1 to <3 months
182
725
27
14d
148d
261d
590
734
902
l,090d
l,154d
l,390d
l,489d
3 to <6 months
243
666
28
5d
15d
125
449
714
894
1,122
l,251d
l,391d
l,456d
6 to <12 months
577
590
20
7d
44
84
276
629
847
1,032
1,182
1,383d
l,797d
Birth to <1 year
1,070
628
15
7d
44
121
373
671
864
1,058
1,177
l,390d
l,797d
1 to <2 years
714
300
12
7d
37
59
149
250
378
633
768
934d
2,619d
2 to <3 years
741
408
17
14d
53
78
166
330
563
837
1,001
l,317d
4,205d
3 to <6 years
1,405
416
12
13d
54
92
187
339
569
818
993
l,495d
4,698d
6 to <11 years
2,263
565
17
12
61
123
250
476
754
1,110
1,389
2,305
5,473d
11 to <16 years
2,504
767
30
12
59
119
317
597
1,016
1,590
2,248
3,402
5,120d
16 to <21 years
2,129
1,068
36
14
89
198
399
907
1,487
2,218
2,808
3,792
7,815d
21 to <30 years
2,052
1,459
48
31
168
310
635
1,229
1,953
2,894
3,606
5,271
8,325d
30 to <40 years
2,262
1,642
40
46
247
400
798
1,407
2,261
3,149
3,859
5,135
7,459d
40 to <50 years
2,369
1,688
46
48
269
450
874
1,478
2,275
3,156
3,837
5,091
10,280d
50 to <60 years
2,095
1,705
38
69
262
490
919
1,509
2,247
3,065
3,925
5,349
7,600d
60 to <70 years
2,211
1,552
37
118
370
531
893
1,366
2,082
2,752
3,205
4,160
8,634d
70 to <80 years
1,570
1,367
29
159d
377
496
845
1,275
1,735
2,366
2,748
3,619d
5,316d
80+ years
914
1,142
26
170d
318
429
698
1,007
1,493
1,953
2,296
3,236d
7,054d
Birth to <2 years
1,784
464
12
7d
40
74
193
374
725
917
1,070
l,359d
2,619d
2 to <16 years
6,913
597
15
12
57
109
241
465
775
1,213
1,589
2,773
5,473d
16 to <70 years
13,118
1,564
25
43
220
370
770
1,347
2,121
2,972
3,643
5,135
10,280d
21 to <50 years
6,683
1,604
33
40
229
382
767
1,380
2,183
3,092
3,780
5,167
10,280d
50+ years
6,790
1,545
25
115
327
496
859
1,357
2,018
2,798
3,363
4,689
8,634d
Race













Mexican American
5,725
1,070
27
22
108
195
396
813
1,463
2,250
2,876
4,490
7,504d
Non-Hispanic black
5,246
1,052
25
22
106
192
414
809
1,419
2,261
2,804
4,393
7,519d
Non-Hispanic white
10,116
1,422
26
29
141
274
615
1,207
1,974
2,837
3,421
4,865
10,280d
Other Hispanic
2,058
1,178
44
33
119
202
442
897
1,610
2,538
3,307
4,584
8,325d
Other race—including multiple
1,154
1,332
48
53d
178
283
580
1,124
1,834
2,656
3,278
4,397d
7,018d
February 2019
Page 3-60

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-20. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include
indirect consumption of bottled water.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-61

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-21. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day)
Percentiles
Population Group
Sample Size
Mean
SE
Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
15,219
16.6
0.3
0.2
1.2
2.6
6.3
12.8
22.1
33.8
43.9
71.1
267.5d
Age group













Birth to <1 month
20
132.8
20.0
3.5d
4.4d
11.2d
21.ld
151.9
190.5d
219.7d
224.0d
253.0d
253.0d
1 to <3 months
45
136.4
8.6
22.3d
26.4d
72.9d
111 ,6d
134.0
163.7d
192.2d
267.2d
267.5d
267.5d
3 to <6 months
65
92.9
8.5
1.0d
12.0d
22.8d
64.4d
91.0
116.8d
143.3d
158.4d
252.6d
252.6d
6 to <12 months
244
62.3
3.7
1.2d
4.4d
7.8
23.0
63.9
96.2
113.3
133.0d
167.6d
213.9d
Birth to <1 year
374
79.0
4.2
1.0d
4.8d
10.6
33.5
78.5
111.6
142.7
174.0d
252.6d
267.5d
1 to <2 years
394
22.1
1.4
0.6d
1.4
2.3
7.9
18.5
28.7
48.7
57.3
84.5d
216.4d
2 to <3 years
445
23.9
1.1
0.4d
3.1
4.0
9.2
17.5
32.7
51.4
66.6
83.3d
227. ld
3 to <6 years
860
18.7
0.8
0.3d
1.7
4.0
7.5
14.4
26.2
38.8
45.2
67.3d
126.6d
6 to <11 years
1,473
15.2
0.7
0.2d
1.2
2.5
5.6
11.5
20.3
31.3
40.8
69.5d
157.4d
11 to <16 years
1,449
10.4
0.8
0.1d
0.5
1.1
2.9
6.8
13.1
24.7
31.1
62.2d
81.9d
16 to <21 years
1,312
10.2
0.4
0.1d
0.3
0.9
2.8
6.2
14.9
24.6
31.1
50.5d
82.0d
21 to <30 years
1,318
15.9
0.8
0.1d
0.7
1.7
5.2
11.7
21.5
34.4
46.9
67. ld
99.9d
30 to <40 years
1,530
15.8
0.5
0.3d
1.4
2.8
6.2
12.4
22.2
33.4
43.6
58.7d
91.9d
40 to <50 years
1,532
17.2
0.6
0.2d
1.6
3.1
7.2
13.5
23.5
35.6
43.3
64.8d
110.1d
50 to <60 years
1,412
17.6
0.5
0.3d
1.8
3.8
8.2
14.9
24.1
34.4
41.8
65.3d
103.4d
60 to <70 years
1,453
17.3
0.6
0.6d
2.5
4.5
8.7
14.8
22.9
33.3
39.8
55.4d
120.7d
70 to <80 years
1,017
16.3
0.5
1.3d
3.7
5.2
8.4
14.2
20.9
28.7
37.0
59.4d
80.8d
80+ years
650
15.6
0.5
1.2d
3.6
5.2
8.1
14.1
21.2
28.1
32.7
45.7d
64.8d
Birth to <2 years
768
45.4
2.5
0.7d
1.5
3.7
12.7
25.1
69.4
112.9
139.6
193.2d
267.5d
2 to <16 years
4,227
14.9
0.4
0.2
1.0
1.9
4.9
10.7
20.0
32.6
44.0
70.3
227. ld
16 to <70 years
8,557
16.1
0.3
0.2
1.2
2.6
6.3
12.9
22.3
33.5
42.5
64.1
120.7d
21 to <50 years
4,380
16.3
0.4
0.2
1.2
2.6
6.2
12.5
22.6
34.7
43.9
64.8
110.1d
50+ years
4,532
17.1
0.4
0.6
2.5
4.4
8.4
14.7
22.8
32.5
39.6
58.0
120.7d
Race













Mexican American
3,011
13.6
0.5
0.1
1.2
2.1
4.5
9.4
17.4
28.7
38.9
73.1
244.4d
Non-Hispanic black
3,560
12.0
0.4
0.1
0.6
1.5
3.7
8.3
15.5
25.8
33.5
61.0
267.5d
Non-Hispanic white
6,698
17.6
0.4
0.3
1.5
3.0
7.2
14.2
23.7
35.1
45.1
69.8
252.6d
Other Hispanic
1,207
14.6
0.5
0.4d
1.4
2.3
5.7
10.8
18.5
29.8
41.0
65.8d
224.0d
Other race—including multiple
743
19.1
1.0
0.3d
1.8
3.5
7.8
14.7
24.5
38.0
51.3
84.7d
227. ld
February 2019
Page 3-62

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-21. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-63

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-22. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled Water (mL/kg-day)
Percentiles
Population Group
Sample Size
Mean
SE
Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
11,309
11.0
0.2
0.7
1.6
2.2
3.8
7.8
14.5
23.4
30.3
50.3
316.2d
Age group













Birth to <1 month
16
8.4
3.6
0.7d
0.7d
0.7d
0.7d
5.6
10.8d
22.5d
31.ld
63.0d
63.0d
1 to <3 months
38
11.1
2.4
0.2d
0.4d
0.9d
2.4d
6.7
18.8d
29.6d
30.6d
31.5d
31.5d
3 to <6 months
79
8.3
0.8
0.5d
2.2d
2.2d
3.7
6.6
12.3
16.0d
19.3d
26.ld
28.2d
6 to <12 months
228
11.8
1.0
0.9d
1.9d
2.8
4.8
9.2
14.7
25.2
32.3d
46.9d
71.5d
Birth to <1 year
361
11.0
0.7
0.4d
1.4d
2.2
4.2
8.1
14.1
25.2
30.6d
46.9d
71.5d
1 to <2 years
317
16.8
1.2
0.7d
3.1d
3.8
6.0
12.7
24.1
39.5
48.4d
66.7d
78.5d
2 to <3 years
332
19.7
1.9
1.0d
3.1d
3.6
5.3
13.8
23.4
41.3
52.ld
96.9d
316.2d
3 to <6 years
617
16.5
1.0
1.2d
2.7
3.6
6.1
10.9
21.3
37.0
43.7
83.4d
105.8d
6 to <11 years
1,036
12.0
0.5
l.ld
2.2
2.8
4.7
8.7
14.8
24.5
34.4
61.5d
114.5d
11 to <16 years
1,236
9.2
0.4
0.6d
1.4
2.4
4.0
6.7
11.6
20.0
25.4
35.8d
66.8d
16 to <21 years
1,111
11.1
0.6
1.3d
2.1
2.7
4.0
8.3
15.0
23.4
29.6
50.ld
106.4d
21 to <30 years
1,125
11.5
0.5
1.0d
1.8
2.3
4.2
8.8
15.6
24.5
30.4
45.5d
103.3d
30 to <40 years
1,244
11.3
0.5
0.7d
1.6
2.2
3.8
8.4
15.1
24.2
33.2
49.4d
84.ld
40 to <50 years
1,240
10.7
0.5
0.7d
1.6
2.1
3.4
7.9
14.2
22.6
29.6
45.8d
166.7d
50 to <60 years
991
9.9
0.4
0.7d
1.4
1.9
3.3
7.3
13.3
21.4
28.2
46.0d
75.2d
60 to <70 years
1,008
8.9
0.4
0.9d
1.3
1.8
3.1
6.3
12.5
20.3
23.3
37.0d
65.8d
70 to <80 years
507
8.5
0.5
0.3d
1.1
1.4
2.9
5.9
11.9
19.9
25.8
30.8d
48.ld
80+ years
184
8.4
0.8
0.2d
0.9d
1.0d
2.4
6.2
11.1
17.6d
23.0d
45.4d
80.9d
Birth to <2 years
678
14.4
0.9
0.7d
2.2
3.1
5.2
10.6
19.8
31.6
40.9
54.ld
78.5d
2 to <16 years
3,221
12.3
0.4
0.8
1.9
2.8
4.5
8.3
15.5
25.8
35.7
61.5
316.2d
16 to <70 years
6,719
10.7
0.3
0.7
1.6
2.2
3.7
7.8
14.4
22.7
29.0
46.0
166.7d
21 to <50 years
3,609
11.2
0.3
0.7
1.6
2.2
3.8
8.3
15.0
23.7
31.0
46.4
166.7d
50+ years
2,690
9.3
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.8
3.1
6.6
12.8
20.9
26.2
42.3
80.9d
Race
Mexican American
3,349
12.0
0.3
0.9
1.7
2.4
4.5
9.1
15.8
24.3
31.7
55.1
114.5d
Non-Hispanic black
2,598
10.6
0.3
0.8
1.7
2.3
3.8
7.6
14.1
23.3
29.6
47.9
84.2d
Non-Hispanic white
3,681
10.5
0.3
0.7
1.5
2.1
3.6
7.5
14.0
22.3
29.0
48.5
166.7d
Other Hispanic
1,120
13.1
0.8
l.ld
1.7
2.2
4.3
8.6
17.0
29.1
36.6
69.4d
316.2d
Other race—including multiple
561
12.2
0.6
0.7d
2.0
2.8
4.5
9.3
16.7
27.7
31.4
43.7d
87.6d
February 2019
Page 3-64

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-22. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Direct0 Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Bottled Water (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted
for in the estimation of bottled water intake.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-65

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-23. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Mean
SE





Percentiles




Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
8,722
14.1
0.5
0.1
0.6
1.3
3.8
00
00
17.8
30.3
42.9
99.4
343.1
Age group













Birth to <1 month
47
147.9
12.5
34.9d
51.6d
66.5d
99.0d
148.4
183.2d
205.8d
296.5d
302.0d
302.0d
1 to <3 months
134
125.5
5.2
5.2d
26.9d
54.7d
102.0
122.0
154.2
194.7d
218.4d
237.8d
343.ld
3 to <6 months
175
91.9
5.2
0.6d
1.9d
8.9d
54.8
98.5
123.3
157.4d
176.3d
215.8d
225.8d
6 to <12 months
328
63.8
2.8
0.1d
1.8d
6.1
29.0
63.8
89.7
119.3
140.8d
167.2d
239.7d
Birth to <1 year
684
88.0
3.2
0.6d
2.6
8.4
49.2
86.5
120.9
157.4
188.3
237.8d
343.ld
1 to <2 years
310
18.6
1.8
0.2d
l.ld
2.7
5.9
13.4
24.2
39.4
58.4d
77.0d
130.3d
2 to <3 years
282
19.6
2.1
0.2d
l.ld
1.5
5.3
12.7
26.1
48.2
63.5d
81.9d
162.0d
3 to <6 years
525
12.3
0.8
0.3d
1.1
1.7
3.9
8.1
15.9
26.1
33.9
67.2d
164.9d
6 to <11 years
755
11.2
1.0
0.3d
0.9
1.5
3.2
7.6
15.1
25.3
35.9
53.6d
72.ld
11 to <16 years
994
8.9
0.5
0.1d
0.3
0.7
2.0
5.9
12.4
21.7
27.0
45.7d
81.ld
16 to <21 years
760
9.1
0.9
0.1d
0.4
0.7
2.0
5.5
12.5
22.9
30.0
45.2d
120.6d
21 to <30 years
682
8.6
1.0
0.1d
0.3
0.6
2.0
5.5
10.9
21.1
30.5
48.3d
94.ld
30 to <40 years
708
11.8
1.0
0.1d
0.4
1.1
3.0
7.4
16.0
30.3
37.5
55.0d
86.9d
40 to <50 years
805
14.0
1.0
0.2d
0.6
1.6
4.4
10.0
20.1
31.1
41.6
56.7d
98.0d
50 to <60 years
666
15.7
1.0
0.1d
1.8
2.8
5.6
11.0
21.7
32.9
44.3
72.7d
83.6d
60 to <70 years
742
13.0
0.8
0.3d
1.5
2.7
5.5
19.7
17.6
25.7
35.5
55.0d
93.3d
70 to <80 years
546
14.7
0.8
0.2d
1.3
3.2
6.5
12.6
21.0
28.8
33.3
46.8d
61.3d
80+ years
263
13.2
0.5
0.8d
2.6d
4.5
7.5
12.6
16.2
24.3
28.ld
34.9d
53.6d
Birth to <2 years
994
60.1
2.9
0.5d
1.8
3.9
11.6
40.2
99.0
140.4
163.9
218.4d
343.ld
2 to <16 years
2,556
11.1
0.6
0.1
0.6
1.2
3.0
7.6
14.9
25.2
34.9
58.3
164.9d
16 to <70 years
4,363
12.3
0.7
0.1
0.5
1.3
3.6
8.4
16.9
28.8
37.8
55.4
120.6d
21 to <50 years
2,195
11.7
0.8
0.1
0.5
1.0
3.1
7.8
16.0
28.5
36.9
54.9
98.0d
50+ years
2,217
14.5
0.5
0.2
1.6
2.8
5.7
11.2
20.0
29.8
38.4
60.6
93.3d
Race













Mexican American
2,620
11.6
0.5
0.1
0.6
1.1
2.7
5.7
11.3
22.1
38.9
127.0
296.5d
Non-Hispanic black
1,570
9.5
0.6
0.1d
0.3
0.5
1.7
4.5
9.3
15.6
27.7
135.ld
343.ld
Non-Hispanic white
3,307
15.6
0.7
0.2
0.7
1.6
4.7
11.1
20.8
33.0
44.3
86.3
276.2d
Other Hispanic
827
10.6
0.8
0.2d
0.6
1.3
3.2
6.1
10.2
19.7
30.7
119.8d
200.5d
Other Race—including multiple
398
15.7
1.0
0.2d
1.3
2.5
4.8
9.4
20.6
29.2
44.4
115.8d
237.8d
February 2019
Page 3-66

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-23. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-67

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-24. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day)
Population Group
Sample
Size
Mean
SE





Percentiles




Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Max
All ages
24,299
20.5
0.3
0.6
2.6
4.6
9.3
16.6
26.6
39.5
49.5
84.0
343.ld
Age group













Birth to <1 month
68
141.3
12.6
5.6d
11.2d
20.8d
95.0d
149.0
190.5d
224.0d
262.6d
302.0d
302.0d
1 to <3 months
182
128.3
5.0
2.4d
23.8d
50.ld
103.9
124.7
163.7
198.6d
218.4d
267.5d
343.ld
3 to <6 months
243
93.1
4.1
0.6d
1.9d
15.6
60.9
96.6
121.3
157.3
173.6d
225.8d
252.6d
6 to <12 months
577
66.5
2.3
0.8d
5.7
10.9
29.1
67.2
96.5
123.8
139.1
167.6d
239.7d
Birth to <1 year
1,070
86.4
2.7
0.8d
5.7
14.4
43.7
85.0
118.4
156.8
188.9
239.7d
343.ld
1 to <2 years
714
27.0
1.1
0.7d
3.4
5.4
14.2
22.4
34.4
54.1
69.4
90.ld
216.4d
2 to <3 years
741
29.4
1.2
0.9d
3.8
6.0
12.0
23.6
41.7
60.2
71.6
95.3d
316.2d
3 to <6 years
1,405
22.8
0.7
0.7d
3.0
5.1
10.1
18.8
31.1
44.2
53.8
85.9d
164.9d
6 to <11 years
2,263
18.7
0.6
0.4
2.3
4.0
8.4
15.2
25.2
36.2
47.6
70.9
157.7d
11 to <16 years
2,504
13.8
0.6
0.2
1.0
2.1
5.6
10.8
17.9
28.7
38.4
61.9
81.9d
16 to <21 years
2,129
15.4
0.5
0.2
1.3
2.7
5.9
12.6
20.9
32.7
41.0
53.3
120.6d
21 to <30 years
2,052
19.4
0.7
0.4
2.1
4.0
8.3
16.3
25.4
39.7
49.0
67.3
112.0d
30 to <40 years
2,262
20.5
0.5
0.6
3.0
5.0
10.0
16.9
28.5
40.9
47.9
65.0
95.0d
40 to <50 years
2,369
21.2
0.6
0.6
2.9
5.5
10.5
18.5
28.1
39.9
48.1
72.3
178.8d
50 to <60 years
2,095
21.1
0.5
0.8
3.0
5.6
11.1
18.4
28.4
38.8
46.6
72.7
122.9d
60 to <70 years
2,211
19.3
0.5
1.3
4.4
6.2
10.6
17.0
25.4
35.3
41.8
56.5
120.7d
70 to <80 years
1,570
18.2
0.5
2.0d
4.3
6.5
10.1
16.5
23.2
32.1
40.2
56.9d
80.8d
80+ years
914
16.5
0.4
2.3d
4.5
6.2
9.7
14.8
22.0
28.1
32.5
47.6d
91.8d
Birth to <2 years
1,784
56.6
1.8
0.7d
4.0
7.0
18.0
36.4
86.3
131.2
157.3
215.8d
343.ld
2 to <16 years
6,913
18.6
0.4
0.3
1.7
3.5
7.7
14.2
24.9
38.7
49.3
74.6
316.2d
16 to <70 years
13,118
19.9
0.3
0.6
2.7
4.8
9.7
17.0
26.9
38.8
46.6
67.9
178.8d
21 to <50 years
6,683
20.4
0.4
0.6
2.7
4.9
9.7
17.3
27.7
40.0
48.4
68.4
178.8d
50+ years
6,790
19.6
0.3
1.2
3.8
6.0
10.6
17.2
25.6
35.7
43.4
65.3
122.9d
Race













Mexican American
5,725
19.7
0.3
0.4
2.3
4.0
8.2
14.7
24.3
38.2
50.6
108.4
296.5d
Non-Hispanic black
5,246
16.5
0.3
0.3
1.9
3.2
6.7
12.5
20.8
31.7
40.2
88.4
343.ld
Non-Hispanic white
10,116
21.0
0.4
0.6
2.8
5.0
10.0
17.6
27.5
40.2
49.6
80.3
284.4d
Other Hispanic
2,058
20.3
0.7
0.6
3.0
4.3
8.7
14.7
25.6
39.3
51.5
112.0
316.2d
Other race—including multiple
1,154
23.9
0.7
1.0d
3.8
5.9
11.7
19.2
30.2
45.9
56.2
96.5d
237.8d
February 2019
Page 3-68

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-24. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Onlyb Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect0 Water Ingestion Based on National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)
a	Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
b	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
c	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include
indirect consumption of bottled water.
d	Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFIIReports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.
NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.
SE = Standard error.
Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005-2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-69

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-25. Intake Rates of Total Fluids and Total Tap Water by Age Group
Average Daily Consumption Rate (L/day)
Age Group Total Fluids3
Total Tap Waterb
6 to 11 months 0.80
2 years 0.99
14 to 16 years 1.47
25 to 30 years 1.76
60 to 65 years 1.63
0.20
0.50
0.72
1.04
1.26
a Includes milk, "ready-to-use" formula, milk-based soup, carbonated soda, alcoholic beverages, canned juices, water,
coffee, tea, reconstituted juices, and reconstituted soups. Does not include reconstituted infant formula.
b Includes water, coffee, tea, reconstituted juices, and reconstituted soups.
Source: Derived from Pennington (1983).

Table 3-26. Mean and Standard Error (SE) for the Daily Intake of Beverages and Tap
Water by Age
Age
Tap Water Intake
Water-Based Drinks
Soups
Total Beverage Intakeb
years
mL
mLa
mL
mL
All ages
662.5 ±9.9
457.1 ±6.7
45.9 ± 1.2
1,434.0 ± 13.7
<1
170.7 ±64.5
8.3 ±43.7
10.1 ±7.9
307.0 ±89.2
1 to 4
434.6 ±31.4
97.9 ±21.5
43.8 ±3.9
743.0 ±43.5
5 to 9
521.0 ±26.4
116.5 ± 18.0
36.6 ±3.2
861.0 ±36.5
10 to 14
620.2 ± 24.7
140.0 ± 16.9
35.4 ±3.0
1,025.0 ±34.2
15 to 19
664.7 ±26.0
201.5 ± 17.7
34.8 ±3.2
1,241.0 ±35.9
20 to 24
656.4 ±33.9
343.1 ±23.1
38.9 ±4.2
1,484.0 ±46.9
25 to 29
619.8 ±34.6
441.6 ±23.6
41.3 ± 4.2
1,531.0 ± 48.0
30 to 39
636.5 ±27.2
601.0 ± 18.6
40.6 ±3.3
1,642.0 ±37.7
40 to 59
735.3 ±21.1
686.5 ± 14.4
51.6 ± 2.6
1,732.0 ±29.3
>60
762.5 ±23.7
561.1 ± 16.2
59.4 ±2.9
1,547.0 ±32.8
a	Includes water-based drinks such as coffee, etc. Reconstituted infant formula does not appear to be included in this
group.
b	Includes tap water and water-based drinks such as coffee, tea, soups, and other drinks such as soft drinks, fruitades,
and alcoholic drinks.
Source: U.S. EPA (1984).
February 2019
Page 3-70

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-27. Average Total Tap Water Intake Rate by Sex, Age, and Geographic Area
Group/Subgroup
Number of Respondents
Average Total Tap Water Intake8^
L/day
Total group
5,258
1.39
Sex


Males
3,892
1.40
Females
1,366
1.35
Age, years


21 to 44
291
1.30
45 to 64
1,991
1.48
65 to 84
2,976
1.33
Geographic area


Atlanta
207
1.39
Connecticut
844
1.37
Detroit
429
1.33
Iowa
743
1.61
New Jersey
1,542
1.27
New Mexico
165
1.49
New Orleans
112
1.61
San Francisco
621
1.36
Seattle
316
1.44
Utah
279
1.35
a Standard deviations not reported in Cantor et al. (1987).
b Total tap water defined as all water and beverages derived from tap water.
Source: Cantor et al. (1987).
Table 3-28. Frequency Distribution of Total Tap Water Intake Rates3
Consumption Rate
Frequencyb
Cumulative Frequencyb
L/day
%
%
<0.80
20.6
20.6
0.81-1.12
21.3
41.9
1.13-1.44
20.5
62.4
1.45-1.95
19.5
81.9
>1.96
18.1
100.0
a Represents consumption of tap water and beverages derived from tap water in a
'typical" winter week.
b Extracted from Table 3 in the article by Cantor et al. (1987).

Source: Cantor et al. (1987).


February 2019
Page 3-71

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-29. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/day) for Both Sexes Combined3

Number of






Percentile Distribution
















Age (years)
Observations
Mean
SD
SE of Mean
1
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
<0.5
182
272
247
18
*
0
0
80
240
332
640
800
*
0.5 to 0.9
221
328
265
18
*
0
0
117
268
480
688
764
*
1 to 3
1,498
646
390
10
33
169
240
374
567
820
1,162
1,419
1,899
4 to 6
1,702
742
406
10
68
204
303
459
660
972
1,302
1,520
1,932
7 to 10
2,405
787
417
9
68
241
318
484
731
1,016
1,338
1,556
1,998
11 to 14
2,803
925
521
10
76
244
360
561
838
1,196
1,621
1,924
2,503
15 to 19
2,998
999
593
11
55
239
348
587
897
1,294
1,763
2,134
2,871
20 to 44
7,171
1,255
709
8
105
337
483
766
1,144
1,610
2,121
2,559
3,634
45 to 64
4,560
1,546
723
11
335
591
745
1,057
1,439
1,898
2,451
2,870
3,994
65 to 74
1,663
1,500
660
16
301
611
766
1,044
1,394
1,873
2,333
2,693
3,479
>75
878
1,381
600
20
279
568
728
961
1,302
1,706
2,170
2,476
3,087
Infants (ages <1)
403
302
258
13
0
0
0
113
240
424
649
775
1,102
Children (ages 1 to 10)
5,605
736
410
5
56
192
286
442
665
960
1,294
1,516
1,954
Teens (ages 11 to 19)
5,801
965
562
7
67
240
353
574
867
1,246
1,701
2,026
2,748
Adults (ages 20 to 64)
11,731
1,366
728
7
148
416
559
870
1,252
1,737
2,268
2,707
3,780
Adults (ages >65)
2,541
1,459
643
13
299
598
751
1,019
1,367
1,806
2,287
2,636
3,338
All
26,081
1,193
702
4
80
286
423
690
1,081
1,561
2,092
2,477
3,415
a	Total tap water is defined as "all water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare foods and beverages."
*	Value not reported due to insufficient number of observations.
SE = Standard error.
Source: Ershow and Cantor (1989).
February 2019
Page 3-72

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-30. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/kg-day) for Both Sexes Combined3
Number of
Observations	Percentile Distribution
Age (years)
Actual
Count
Weighted
Count
Mean
SD
SE of
Mean
1
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
<0.5
182
201.2
52.4
53.2
3.9
*
0
0
14.8
37.8
66.1
128.3
155.6
*
0.5 to 0.9
221
243.2
36.2
29.2
2
*
0
0
15.3
32.2
48.1
69.4
102.9
*
1 to 3
1,498
1,687.7
46.8
28.1
0.7
2.7
11.8
17.8
27.2
41.4
60.4
82.1
101.6
140.6
4 to 6
1,702
1,923.9
37.9
21.8
0.5
3.4
10.3
14.9
21.9
33.3
48.7
69.3
81.1
103.4
7 to 10
2,405
2,742.4
26.9
15.3
0.3
2.2
7.4
10.3
16
24
35.5
47.3
55.2
70.5
11 to 14
2,803
3,146.9
20.2
11.6
0.2
1.5
4.9
7.5
11.9
18.1
26.2
35.7
41.9
55
15 to 19
2,998
3,677.9
16.4
9.6
0.2
1
3.9
5.7
9.6
14.8
21.5
29
35
46.3
20 to 44
7,171
13,444.5
18.6
10.7
0.1
1.6
4.9
7.1
11.2
16.8
23.7
32.2
38.4
53.4
45 to 64
4,560
8,300.4
22
10.8
0.2
4.4
8
10.3
14.7
20.2
27.2
35.5
42.1
57.8
65 to 74
1,663
2,740.2
21.9
9.9
0.2
4.6
8.7
10.9
15.1
20.2
27.2
35.2
40.6
51.6
>75
878
1,401.8
21.6
9.5
0.3
3.8
00
00
10.7
15
20.5
27.1
33.9
38.6
47.2
Infants (ages <1)
403
444.3
43.5
42.5
2.1
0
0
0
15.3
35.3
54.7
101.8
126.5
220.5
Children (ages 1 to 10)
5,605
6,354.1
35.5
22.9
0.3
2.7
8.3
12.5
19.6
30.5
46.0
64.4
79.4
113.9
Teens (ages 11 to 19)
5,801
6,824.9
18.2
10.8
0.1
1.2
4.3
6.5
10.6
16.3
23.6
32.3
38.9
52.6
Adults (ages 20 to 64)
11,731
21,744.9
19.9
10.8
0.1
2.2
5.9
8.0
12.4
18.2
25.3
33.7
40.0
54.8
Adults (ages >65)
2,541
4,142.0
21.8
9.8
0.2
4.5
8.7
10.9
15.0
20.3
27.1
34.7
40.0
51.3
All
26,081
39,510.2
22.6
15.4
0.1
1.7
5.8
8.2
13.0
19.4
28.0
39.8
50.0
79.8
Total tap water is defined as "all water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare foods and beverages."
*	Value not reported due to insufficient number of observations.
SE = Standard error.
Source: Ershow and Cantor (1989).
February 2019
Page 3-73

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-31. Total Tap Water Intake (as % of total water intake) by Broad Age Categorya b





Percentile Distribution


Age (years) Mean
1
5
10
25
50
75
90
95 99
<1
26
_C
_C
_C
12
22
37
55
62 82
1 to 10
45
6
19
24
34
45
57
67
72 81
11 to 19
47
6
18
24
35
47
59
69
74 83
20 to 64
59
12
27
35
49
61
72
79
83 90
>65
65
25
41
47
58
67
74
81
84 90
a
b
c
Does not include pregnant women, lactating women, or breast-fed children.
Total tap water is defined as "all water from the household tap consumed directly
foods and beverages."
Value is less than 0.5%.
as a
beverage or used to prepare
Source:
Ershow and Cantor (1989).








Table 3-32. General Dietary Sources of Tap Water for Both Sexesa b
% of Tap Water
years
Source
Mean
SD
5
25
50
75
95
99
<1
Food0
11
24
_d
_d
_d
10
70
100

Drinking water
69
37
_d
39
87
100
100
100

Other beverages
20
33
_d
_d
_d
22
100
100

All sources
100







1 to 10
Food0
15
16
_d
5
10
19
44
100

Drinking water
65
25
_d
52
70
84
96
100

Other beverages
20
21
_d
_d
15
32
63
93

All sources
100







11 to 19
Food0
13
15
_d
3
8
17
38
100

Drinking water
65
25
_d
52
70
85
98
100

Other beverages
22
23
_d
_d
16
34
68
96

All sources
100







20 to 64
Food0
8
10
_d
2
5
11
25
49

Drinking water
47
26
_d
29
48
67
91
100

Other beverages
45
26
_d
25
44
63
91
100

All sources
100







>65
Food0
8
9
_d
2
5
11
23
38

Drinking water
50
23
_d
36
52
66
87
99

Other beverages
42
23
3
27
40
57
85
100

All sources
100







All
Food0
10
13
_d
2
6
13
31
64

Drinking water
54
27
_d
36
56
75
95
100

Other beverages
36
27
_d
14
34
55
87
100

All sources
100







a	Does not include pregnant women, lactating women, or breast-fed children.
b	Individual values may not add to totals due to rounding.
c	Food category includes soups.
d	Value is less than 0.5%.
Source:	Ershow and Cantor (1989).
February 2019
Page 3-74

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-33. Summary Statistics for Best-Fit Lognormal Distributions for Water Intake
Rates"
Group
years


In Total Fluid Intake Rate


H
a
R2
<1

6.979
0.291
0.996
1 to <11

7.182
0.340
0.953
11 to <20

7.490
0.347
0.966
20 to <65

7.563
0.400
0.977
>65

7.583
0.360
0.988
All ages

7.487
0.405
0.984
Simulated balanced population

7.492
0.407
1.000
Group
years


In Total Fluid Intake Rate


H
a
R2
<1

5.587
0.615
0.970
1 to <11

6.429
0.498
0.984
11 to <20

6.667
0.535
0.986
20 to <65

7.023
0.489
0.956
>65

7.088
0.476
0.978
All ages

6.870
0.530
0.978
Simulated balanced population

6.864
0.575
0.995
a These values (mL/day) were used in the following equations to estimate the quantiles and averages for total tap water
intake shown in Table 3-61.
97.5 percentile intake rate = exp + [1.96 x a])
75 percentile intake rate = exp (|i + [0.6745 x a])
50 percentile intake rate = exp (n)
25 percentile intake rate = exp (|i - [0.6745 x a])
2.5 percentile intake rate = exp (n - [1.96 x a])
Mean intake rate = exp (n + [0.5 x a2])
(i = Mean,
a = Standard deviation.
Source: Roseberry and Burmaster (1992).




February 2019
Page 3-75

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-34. Estimated Quantiles and Means for Total Tap Water Intake Rates (mL/day)a
. _ Percentile .
Age Group		 Arithmetic
years	2.5	25	50	75	97.5	Average
<1	80	176	267	404	891	323
I	to <11	233	443	620	867	1,644	701
II	to <20	275	548	786	1,128	2,243	907
20 to <65	430	807	1,122	1,561	2,926	1,265
>65	471	869	1,198	1,651	3,044	1,341
All ages	341	674	963	1,377	2,721	1,108
Simulated balanced population	310	649	957	1,411	2,954	1,129
a	Total tap water is defined as "all water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare
foods and beverages."
Source: Roseberry and Burmaster (1992).
February 2019
Page 3-76

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-35. Water Ingested (mL/day)a from Water by Itself and Water Added to Other Beverages and Foods


6 Weeks
3 Months
6 Months
9 Months
Category

N= 124
N= 120
N= 99
N=77
Water by itself
Range
0-355
0-355
0-266
0-473

Per capita meanb ± SD
30 ±89
30 ±59
30 ±59
89 ±89

Consumer-only meanc
89
89
118
118

Percent consuming"1
28
24
42
66
Water added to formula-powdered concentrate
Range
0-1,242
0-1,242
0-1,124
0-1,064

Per capita mean ± SD
177 ±296
266 ±384
266 ±355
207 ± 325

Consumer-only mean
473
621
562
562

Percent consuming
39
42
48
36
Liquid concentrate
Range
0-621
0-680
0-710
0-532

Per capita mean ± SD
89 ± 148
237 ± 207
148 ±207
59 ± 148

Consumer-only mean
355
384
414
325

Percent consuming
23
30
35
21
All concentrated formula
Range
0-1,242
0-1,242
0-1,123
0-1,064

Per capita mean ± SD
266 ± 296
384 ±355
414 ±325
266 ± 296

Consumer-only mean
444
562
532
503

Percent consuming
60
68
81
56
Water added to juices and other beverages
Range
0-118
0-710
0-473
0-887

Per capita mean ± SD
<30 ± 30
30 ±89
30 ±89
59 ± 148

Consumer-only mean
89
207
148
207

Percent consuming
3
9
18
32
Water added to powdered baby foods and cereals
Range
0-30
0-177
0-266
0-177

Per capita mean ± SD
<30 ± 30
<30 ± 30
59 ±59
30 ±59

Consumer-only mean
30
59
89
89

Percent consuming
2
17
64
43
Water added to other foods (soups, Jell-o, puddings)
Range
-
0-118
0-118
0-355

Per capita mean ± SD
-
30 ±30
<30 ± 30
30 ±59

Consumer-only mean
-
89
59
118

Percent consuming
0
2
8
29
February 2019
Page 3-77

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-35. Water Ingested (mL/day)a from Water by Itself and Water Added to Other Beverages and Foods (Continued)
Category
6 Weeks
N= 124
3 Months
N= 120
6 Months
N= 99
9 Months
N=77
All sources of water Range
Per capita mean ± SD
Consumer-only mean
Percent consuming
0-1,242
296 ± 325
414
68
0-1,419
414 ± 414
562
77
0-1,123
473 ± 325
503
94
0-1,745
444 ± 355
473
97
a Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL.
b Mean intake among entire sample.
c Mean intake for only those ingesting water from the particular category.
d Percentage of infants receiving water from that individual source.
iV = Number of observations.
Indicates there is insufficient sample size to estimate means.




Source: Levy etal. (1995).




February 2019
Page 3-78

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-36. Mean per Capita Drinking Water Intake Based on U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA), Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) Data from


1989-1991 (mL/day)



Sex and Age
Plain Drinking


Fruit Drinks

years
Water
Coffee
Tea
and Adesa
Total
Males and females:





<1
194
0
<0.5
17
211.5
1 to 2
333
<0.5
9
85
427.5
3 to 5
409
2
26
100
537
<5
359
1
17
86
463
Males:





6 to 11
537
2
44
114
697
12 to 19
725
12
95
104
936
20 to 29
842
168
136
101
1,247
30 to 39
793
407
136
50
1,386
40 to 49
745
534
149
53
1,481
50 to 59
755
551
168
51
1,525
60 to 69
946
506
115
34
1,601
70 to 79
824
430
115
45
1,414
>80
747
326
165
57
1,295
>20
809
408
139
60
1,416
Females:





6 to 11
476
1
40
86
603
12 to 19
604
21
87
87
799
20 to 29
739
154
120
61
1,074
30 to 39
732
317
136
59
1,244
40 to 49
781
412
174
36
1,403
50 to 59
819
438
137
37
1,431
60 to 69
829
429
124
36
1,418
70 to 79
772
324
161
34
1,291
>80
856
275
149
28
1,308
>20
774
327
141
46
1,288
All individuals
711
260
114
65
1,150
a Includes regular and low-calorie fruit drinks, punches, and ades, including those made from powdered mix and frozen
concentrate. Excludes fruit juices and carbonated drinks.



Source: USDA (1995).





February 2019
Page 3-79

-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-37. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Tap Water at a Specified Daily
Frequency
Population Group
Total N
None


Number of Glasses in a Day


1-2
3-5
6-9
10-19
20+
DK
Overall
4,663
1,334
1,225
1,253
500
151
31
138
Sex








Male
2,163
604
582
569
216
87
25
65
Female
2,498
728
643
684
284
64
6
73
Refused
2
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
Age (years)








1 to 4
263
114
96
40
7
1
0
5
5 to 11
348
90
127
86
15
7
2
20
12 to 17
326
86
109
88
22
7
-
11
18 to 64
2,972
908
751
769
334
115
26
54
>64
670
117
127
243
112
20
2
42
Race








White
3,774
1,048
1,024
1,026
416
123
25
92
Black
463
147
113
129
38
9
1
21
Asian
77
25
18
23
6
1
-
4
Some others
96
36
18
22
6
7
2
5
Hispanic
193
63
42
40
28
10
2
7
Refused
60
15
10
13
6
1
1
9
Hispanic








No
4,244
1,202
1,134
1,162
451
129
26
116
Yes
347
116
80
73
41
18
4
13
DK
26
5
6
7
4
3
-
1
Refused
46
11
5
11
4
1
1
8
Employment








Full-time
2,017
637
525
497
218
72
18
40
Part-time
379
90
94
120
50
13
7
5
Not employed
1,309
313
275
413
188
49
3
54
Refused
32
6
4
11
1
2
1
4
Education








-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-37. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Tap Water at a Specified Daily



Frequency (Continued)








Number of Glasses in a Day


Population Group
Total N
None
1-2
3-5
6-9
10-19
20+
DK
Asthma








No
4,287
1,232
1,137
1,155
459
134
29
115
Yes
341
96
83
91
40
16
1
13
DK
35
6
5
7
1
1
1
10
Angina








No
4,500
1,308
1,195
1,206
470
143
29
123
Yes
125
18
25
40
27
6
1
6
DK
38
8
5
7
3
2
1
9
Bronchitis/emphysema








No
4,424
1,280
1,161
1,189
474
142
29
124
Yes
203
48
55
58
24
9
1
5
DK
36
6
9
6
2
-
1
9
= Missing data.








DK = Don't know.








iV = Sample size.








Refused = Respondent refused to answer.







Source: U.S. EPA (1996).








Table 3-38. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Juice Reconstituted with Tap Water
at a Specified Daily Frequency
Number of Glasses in a Day
Population Group
Total N
None
1-2
3-5
6-9
10-19
20+
DK
Overall
4,663
1,877
1,418
933
241
73
21
66
Sex








Male
2,163
897
590
451
124
35
17
33
Female
2,498
980
826
482
117
38
4
33
Refused
2
-
2
-
-
-
-
-
Age (years)








1 to 4
263
126
71
48
11
4
1
2
5 to 11
348
123
140
58
12
2
1
11
12 to 17
326
112
118
63
18
7
1
4
18 to 64
2,972
1,277
817
614
155
46
16
30
>64
670
206
252
133
43
12
2
14
Race








White
3,774
1,479
1,168
774
216
57
16
44
Black
463
200
142
83
15
9
1
7
Asian
77
33
27
15
1
-
-
0
Some others
96
46
19
24
2
1
3
1
Hispanic
193
95
51
30
5
5
1
5
Refused
60
24
11
7
2
1
-
9
February 2019
Page 3-81
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-38. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Juice Reconstituted with Tap Water
at a Specified Daily Frequency (Continued)
Number of Glasses in a Day
Population Group
Total N
None
1-2
3-5
6-9
10-19
20+
DK
Hispanic








No
4,244
1,681
1,318
863
226
64
17
49
Yes
347
165
87
61
14
7
4
7
DK
26
11
6
5
-
1
-
3
Refused
46
20
7
4
1
1
-
7
Employment








Full-time
2,017
871
559
412
103
32
9
20
Part-time
379
156
102
88
19
7
2
5
Not employed
1,309
479
426
265
75
20
7
21
Refused
32
15
4
4
2
1
-
3
Education








-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-39. Mean and (standard error [SE]) Water and Drink Consumption (mL/kg-day) by Race/Ethnicity
Race/Ethnic

Plain Tap Milk and Milk
Reconstituted
RTF
Baby
Juices and
Noncarbonated


Group
N
Water
Drinks
Formula
Formula
Food
Carbonated Drinks
Drinks
Other
Total3
Black
121
21
24
35
4
8
2
14
21
129
Non-Hispanic

(1.7)
(4.6)
(6.0)
(2.0)
(1.6)
(0.7)
(1.3)
(1.7)
(5.7)
White
620
13
23
29
8
10
1
11
18
113
Non-Hispanic

(0.8)
(1.2)
(2.7)
(1.5)
(1.2)
(0.2)
(0.7)
(0.8)
(2.6)
Hispanic
146
15
23
38
12
10
1
10
16
123


(1.2)
(2.4)
(7.3)
(4.0)
(1.4)
(0.3)
(1.6)
(1.4)
(5.2)
Other
59
21
19
31
19
7
1
8
19
124


(2.4)
(3.7)
(9.1)
(11.2)
(4.0)
(0.5)
(2.0)
(3.2)
(10.6)
a Totals may be slightly different from the
sums of all categories due to rounding.





iV = Number of observations.








RTF = Ready to feed.









Source: Heller et al. (2000).









February 2019
Page 3-83
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-40. Plain Tap Water and Total Water Consumption by Age, Sex, Region,


Urbanicity, and Poverty Category




Plain Tap Water
Total Water



mL/kg-day

mL/kg-day

Variable
N
Mean
SE
Mean
SE
Age





<12 months
296
11
1.0
130
4.6
12 to 24 months
650
18
0.8
108
1.7
Sex





Male
475
15
1.0
116
4.1
Female
471
15
0.8
119
3.2
Region





Northeast
175
13
1.4
121
6.3
Midwest
197
14
1.0
120
3.1
South
352
15
1.3
113
3.7
West
222
17
1.1
119
4.6
Urbanicity





Urban
305
16
1.5
123
3.5
Suburban
446
13
0.9
117
3.1
Rural
195
15
1.2
109
3.9
Poverty category3





0-1.30
289
19
1.5
128
2.6
1.31-3.50
424
14
1.0
117
4.2
>3.50
233
12
1.3
109
3.5
Total
946
15
0.6
118
2.3
a Poverty category represents family's annual incomes of 0-1.30, 1.31-3.50, and greater than 3.50 times the federal
poverty level.





iV = Number of observations.





SE = Standard Error.





Source: Heller et al. (2000).





February 2019
Page 3-84
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-41. Percentage of Subjects Consuming Beverages and Mean Daily Beverage Intakes (mL/day) for Children with Returned
Questionnaires
Age at Questionnaire
Actual Age (months)
A/b
6 Months
6.29 ±0.35
677
9 Months
9.28 ±0.35
681
12 Months
12.36 ±0.46
659
16 Months
16.31 ±0.49
641
20 Months
20.46 ±0.57
632
24 Months
24.41 ±0.53
605
6 to 24 Months8
585c
Human milkd
30
19
11
5
3
0
-
Infant formulae
%d
mL/dayB
68
798 ± 234
69
615 ±328
29
160 ±275
4
12 ±77
2
9 ±83
0
67f
207±112
Cow's milk6
%d
mL/dayg
5
30 ± 145
25
136 ±278
79
470 ±310
91
467 ±251
93
402 ± 237
97
358 ±225
67f
355±163
Formula and cow's milke
%d
mL/dayg
70
828±186
81
751 ±213
88
630 ± 245
92
479 ± 248
94
411 ±237
98
358 ±228
67f
562 ± 154
Juice and iuice drinks
%d
mL/dayB
55
65 ±95
73
103 ±112
89
169 ±151
94
228±166
95
269±189
93
228±172
99h
183±103
Water
%d
mL/dayB
36
27 ±47
59
53 ±71
75
92 ± 109
87
124 ±118
90
142 ±127
94
145±148
99h
109 ±74
Other beverages1
%d
mL/dayg
1
3 ± 18
9
6 ±27
23
27 ±71
42
53 ± 109
62
83 ± 121
86
89 ± 133
80h
44 ±59
February 2019
Page 3-85
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-41. Percentage of Subjects Consuming Beverages and Mean Daily Beverage Intakes (mL/day) for Children with Returned
Questionnaires (Continued)
Age at Questionnaire 6 Months 9 Months 12 Months 16 Months 20 Months 24 Months
Actual Age (months) 6.29 ±0.35 9.28 ±0.35 12.36 ±0.46 16.31 ±0.49 20.46 ±0.57 24.41 ±0.53
A"3 677 681 659 641 632 605
6 to 24 Months8
585°
Total beverages (mL/day)e-sJ 934 ±219 917 ±245 926 ±293 887 ±310 908 ±310 819 ±299
920 ± 207
a Cumulative number of children and percentage of children consuming beverage and beverage intakes for the 6- through 24-month period.
b Number of children with returned questionnaires at each time period.
c Number of children with cumulative intakes for 6- through 24-month period.
d Percentage of children consuming beverage.
e Children are not included when consuming human milk.
f Percentage of children consuming beverage during 6- through 24-month period. Children who consumed human milk are not included.
g Mean standard deviation of beverage intake. Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL.
h Percentage of children consuming beverage during 6- through 24-month period.
1 Other beverages include nonjuice beverages (e.g., carbonated beverages, Kool-Aid).
J Total beverages includes all beverages except human milk.
Indicates insufficient data.

Source: Marshall et al. (2003a).

February 2019
Page 3-86
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-42. Mean (± standard deviation [SD]) Daily Beverage Intakes Reported on Beverage Frequency Questionnaire and 3-Day
Food and Beverage Diaries







Age







6 months (N= 240)

12 months (N= 192)

3 years (N= 129)

5 years (N= 112)



Questionnaire
Diary

Questionnaire
Diary

Questionnaire
Diary

Questionnaire
Diary

Beverage
mL/day
a
%b
mL/daya
%b
mL/day
a
%b
mL/day
a
%b
Human milk
204 ± 373
195 ±358
28.0
9 ± 21
56 ± 225
12.6
NAC
NA
-
NA
NA
-
Infant formula
609 ± 387
603 ± 364
85.8
180 ±290
139 ± 251
37.0
NA
NA
-
NA
NA
-
Cow's milk
24 ± 124
24 ± 124
6.7
429 ± 349
408 ±331
90.4
316 ± 216
358 ± 216
100
319 ±198
325 ±177
98.2
Juice/juice drinks
56 ± 124
33 ±59
57.5
151±136
106 ±101
92.2
192 ±169
198 ±169
96.9
189 ±169
180±163
95.5
Liquid soft drinks
6 ±68
0±0
1.3
9 ±30
3 ± 15
20.9
62 ±71
74 ± 101
74.2
74 ±95
101±121
82.1
Powdered soft
drinks
0± 18
0±0
0.4
12 ±47
3 ± 18
10.5
62 ± 115
47 ± 101
51.2
74 ± 124
47 ±95
52.7
Water

44 ±80
30 ±53
61.7
127 ±136
80 ± 109
84.9
177 ± 204
136±177
95.3
240 ± 242
169 ±183
99.1
Total

940 ±319
896 ±195
100
905 ± 387
804 ± 284
100
795 ± 355
816 ±299
100
896 ±399
819 ±302
100
a
b
N
NA
Mean standard deviation of all subjects. Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL.
Percent of subjects consuming beverage on either questionnaire or diary.
= Number of observations.
= Not applicable.





-
Indicates insufficient data to calculate percentage.









Source:
Marshall et al. (2003b).











February 2019
Page 3-87
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-43. Consumption of Beverages by Infants and Toddlers (feeding infants and toddlers study)






Age (months)






4 to 6 months (N = 862)
7 to 8 months (N = 483)
9 to 11 months (N= 679)
12 to 14 months
N = 374
15 to 18 months
N= 308
19 to 24 months (N= 316)
Beverage
Consumers
Mean ±
SD
Consumers
Mean±
SD
Consumers
Mean±
SD
Consumers
Mean ±
SD
Consumers
Mean±
SD
Consumers
Mean ± SD
Category
%a
mL/dayb
%a
mL/dayb
%a
mL/dayb
%a
mL/dayb
%a
mL/dayb
%a
mL/dayb
Total milksc
100
778 ±
257
100
692 ±
257
99.7
659 ±284
98.2
618 ±293
94.2
580 ±
305
93.4
532 ±281
100% juiced
21.3
121 ±89
45.6
145 ±
109
55.3
160±127
56.2
186 ± 145
57.8
275 ±
189
61.6
281±189
Fruit drinks6
1.6
101 ±77
7.1
98 ±77
12.4
157 ±139
29.1
231±186
38.6
260 ±
231
42.6
305 ± 308
Carbonated
0.1
86 ±0
1.1
6 ± 9
1.7
89 ±92
4.5
115 ± 83
11.2
157 ±
106
11.9
163 ±172
Water
33.7
163 ±
231
56.1
174 ±
219
66.9
210 ±234
72.2
302 ±316
74.0
313 ±
260
77.0
337 ±245
Otherf
1.4
201 ±
192
2.2
201 ±
219
3.5
169±166
6.6
251 ±378
12.2
198 ±
231
11.2
166 ±248
Total
beverages
100
863 ±
254
100
866 ±
310
100
911 ±361
100
1,017 ±
399
100
1,079 ±
399
100
1,097 ±
482
a Weighted percentages, adjusted for over-sampling, nonresponse, and under-representation of some racial and ethnic groups.
b Amounts consumed only by those children who had a beverage from this beverage category. Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce =
c Includes human milk, infant formula, cow's milk, soy milk, and goat's milk.
d Fruit or vegetable juices with no added sweeteners.
e Includes beverages with less than 100% juice and often with added sweeteners; some were fortified with one or more nutrients.
f "Other" beverages category included tea, cocoa, and similar dry milk beverages, and electrolyte replacement beverages for infants.
iV = Number of observations.
29.57 mL.

Source: Skinner et al. (2004).










February 2019
Page 3-88
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-44. Number of Drinking Water Events Per Day, Intake Per Event (mL/event), and Daily Intake (mL/day)a



Summer



Winter



Events/day
mLb/event
mLb/day

Events/day
mLb/event
mLb/day
Age and Sex
N
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
N
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
Mean ± SD
<2 years, M/F
52
2.8 ±2.2
145 ± 74
399 ±417
86
3.0 ±2.7
127 ± 74
393 ±411
3 to 5 years, M/F
77
3.9 ± 3.1
157 ±74
583 ±488
123
3.1 ±2.1
142 ± 68
444 ± 384
6 to 12 years, M/F
138
3.2 ±2.3
207 ±124
621 ±515
211
3.1 ±2.2
172 ±151
544 ± 727
13 to 19 years, M
52
3.6 ±2.8
287 ± 225
1,011 ± 1,091
79
3.5 ±3.2
260±160
926 ±1,431
13 to 19 years, F
60
3.0 ± 2.1
263±154
769 ± 943
91
4.2 ±3.6
251±195
1,091 ± 1,508
20 to 49 years, M
313
4.1 ±3.1
358 ±260
1,431 ± 1,470
460
3.9 ±3.4
290±198
1,112 ± 1,221
20 to 49 years, F
389
4.5 ±3.4
296±198
1,286 ± 1,230
618
4.3 ±3.2
290 ± 207
1,209 ± 1,118
>50 years, M
259
4.5 ±3.2
245±130
1,076 ±887
301
4.1 ±2.6
245 ±169
1,011 ±831
>50 years, F
400
5.7 ±3.4
237±130
1,277 ±872
489
5.1 ±3.2
240 ± 93
1,183 ±597
Total
1,740
4.4 ±3.2
266±186
1,141 ± 1,094
2,458
4.1 ±3.1
248±180
1,023 ± 1,059
a Based on a randomly selected day for each survey participant in the DWCS.
b Converted from ounces to mL by U.S. EPA by multiplying intake rates in ounces by 29.57 mL/ounce.
F = Female.
M = Male.
iV = Number of participants.



Source: Barraj et al. (2009).








February 2019
Page 3-89
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-45. Mean (standard error [SE]) Total Daily Water Intake3 for Older Adults
Young-Old (65 to <75 years)
Water Intake N= 1,105
Middle-Old (75 to <85 years)
N= 746
Oldest-Old (85+ years)
N= 203
Total (g/day) 2,905.8(39.5)
2,573.4(44.1)
2,275.8 (69.7)
Total (g/kg-day) 38.4 (0.6)
36.5 (0.6)
35.7(1.7)
a Total water was defined as the sum of drinking water and water in beverages and foods.
iV = Number of respondents.

Source: Zizza et al. (2009).


Table 3-46. Per Capita" Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community
Water (mL/day)
Percentile
Age
Sample Size
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
91
184
-
-
-
322
687*
839*
860*
1 to <3 months
253
227
-
-
-
456
804
896*
1,165*
3 to <6 months
428
362
-
-
148
695
928
1,056
1,424*
6 to <12 months
714
360
-
17
218
628
885
1,055
1,511*
1 to <2 years
1,040
271
-
60
188
402
624
837
1,215*
2 to <3 years
1,056
317
-
78
246
479
683
877
1,364*
3 to <6 years
4,391
380
4
98
291
547
834
1,078
1,654
6 to <11 years
1,670
447
22
133
350
648
980
1,235
1,870*
11 to <16 years
1,005
606
30
182
459
831
1,387
1,727
2,568*
16 to <18 years
363
731
16
194
490
961
1,562
1,983*
3,720*
18 to <21 years
389
826
24
236
628
1,119
1,770
2,540*
3,889*
>21 years
9,207
1,104
69
422
928
1,530
2,230
2,811
4,523
>65 years0
2,170
1,127
16
545
1,067
1,601
2,139
3,551
3,661
All ages
20,607
926
30
263
710
1,311
2,014
2,544
4,242
a	Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
*	The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).
February 2019
Page 3-90
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-47. Per Capita" Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled
Water (mL/day)

Sample
Size


Percentile



Age
Mean
10 25 50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
91
104
-
18
437*
556*
1,007*
1 to <3 months
253
106
-
-
541
771*
1,056*
3 to <6 months
428
120
-
-
572
774
1,443*
6 to <12 months
714
120
-
53
506
761
1,284*
1 to <2 years
1,040
59
-
-
212
350
801*
2 to <3 years
1,056
76
-
-
280
494
1,001*
3 to <6 years
4,391
84
-
-
325
531
1,031*
6 to <11 years
1,670
84
-
-
330
532
1,079*
11 to <16 years
1,005
111
-
-
382
709
1,431*
16 to <18 years
363
109
-
-
426
680*
1,605*
18 to <21 years
389
185
-
-
514
1,141*
2,364*
>21 years
9,207
189
-
-
754
1,183
2,129
>65 years0
2,170
136
-
-
591
1,038
1,957
All ages
20,607
163
-
-
592
1,059
2,007
a Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).




February 2019
Page 3-91
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-48. Per Capita" Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other
Sources (mL/day)

Sample
Size


Percentile


Age
Mean
10 25 50
75 90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
91
13
-
-
-
393*
1 to <3 months
253
35
-
-
367*
687*
3 to <6 months
428
45
-
-
365
938*
6 to <12 months
714
45
-
31
406
963*
1 to <2 years
1,040
22
-
-
118
482*
2 to <3 years
1,056
39
-
52
344
718*
3 to <6 years
4,391
43
-
58
343
830
6 to <11 years
1,670
61
-
181
468
1,047*
11 to <16 years
1,005
102
-
344
786
1,698*
16 to <18 years
363
97
-
295
740*
1,760*
18 to <21 years
389
47
-
-
246*
1,047*
>21 years
9,207
156
-
541
1,257
2,381
>65 years0
2,170
171
-
697
1,416
2,269
All ages
20,607
128
-
345
1,008
2,151
a Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).



February 2019
Page 3-92
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-49. Per Capita" Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources
(mL/day)

Sample
Size




Percentile



Age
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
91
301
-
-
135
542
846*
877*
1,088*
1 to <3 months
253
368
-
-
267
694
889
1,020*
1,265*
3 to <6 months
428
528
-
89
549
812
1,025
1,303
1,509*
6 to <12 months
714
530
37
181
505
771
1,029
1,278
1,690*
1 to <2 years
1,040
358
68
147
287
477
735
961
1,281*
2 to <3 years
1,056
437
104
211
372
588
825
999
1,662*
3 to <6 years
4,391
514
126
251
438
681
980
1,200
1,794
6 to <11 years
1,670
600
169
304
503
803
1,130
1,409
2,167*
11 to <16 years
1,005
834
224
401
663
1,099
1,649
1,960
3,179*
16 to <18 years
363
964
236
387
742
1,273
1,842
2,344*
3,854*
18 to <21 years
389
1,075
189
406
803
1,394
2,117
2,985*
4,955*
>21 years
9,207
1,466
500
828
1,278
1,871
2,553
3,195
5,174
>65 years0
2,170
1,451
651
935
1,344
1,832
2,323
2,708
3,747
All ages
20,607
1,233
285
573
1,038
1,633
2,341
2,908
4,805
a Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).





February 2019
Page 3-93
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-50. Per Capita" Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community
Water (mL/kg-day)

Sample
size




Percentile



Age
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
88
52
-
-
-
101
196*
232*
253*
1 to <3 months
245
48
-
-
-
91
151
205*
310*
3 to <6 months
411
52
-
-
20
98
135
159
216*
6 to <12 months
678
41
-
2
24
71
102
126
185*
1 to <2 years
1,002
23
-
5
17
34
53
71
106*
2 to <3 years
994
23
-
6
17
33
50
60
113*
3 to <6 years
4,112
22
-
6
17
31
48
61
93
6 to <11 years
1,553
16
1
5
12
22
34
43
71*
11 to <16 years
975
12
1
4
9
16
25
34
54*
16 to <18 years
360
11
-
3
8
15
23
31*
55*
18 to <21 years
383
12
1
4
10
16
17
35*
63*
>21 years
9,049
15
1
6
12
21
31
39
62
>65 years0
2,139
16
-
7
15
23
31
37
52
All ages
19,850
16
1
5
12
21
32
43
75
a	Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
*	The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).
February 2019
Page 3-94
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-51. Per Capita3 Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled
Water (mL/kg-day)

Sample
Size


Percentile



Age
Mean
10 25 50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
88
33
-
6
131*
243*
324*
1 to <3 months
245
22
-
-
97
161*
242*
3 to <6 months
411
16
-
-
74
117
193*
6 to <12 months
678
13
-
4
52
87
139*
1 to <2 years
1,002
5
-
-
18
28
67*
2 to <3 years
994
5
-
-
19
35
84*
3 to <6 years
4,112
5
-
-
18
30
59
6 to <11 years
1,553
3
-
-
10
18
41*
11 to <16 years
975
2
-
-
8
14
26*
16 to <18 years
360
2
-
-
6
10*
27*
18 to <21 years
383
3
-
-
8
19*
34*
>21 years
9,049
3
-
-
10
17
32
>65 years0
2,139
2
-
-
9
15
27
All ages
19,850
3
-
-
10
18
39
a Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).




February 2019
Page 3-95
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-52. Per Capita" Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other
Sources (mL/kg-day)

Sample
Size


Percentile



Age
Mean
10 25 50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
88
4
-
-
-
-
122*
1 to <3 months
245
7
-
-
-
52*
148*
3 to <6 months
411
7
-
-
-
55
155*
6 to <12 months
678
5
-
-
3
35
95*
1 to <2 years
1,002
2
-
-
-
11
45*
2 to <3 years
994
3
-
-
4
23
61*
3 to <6 years
4,112
2
-
-
3
19
48
6 to <11 years
1,553
2
-
-
7
16
36*
11 to <16 years
975
2
-
-
7
14
34*
16 to <18 years
360
2
-
-
5
11*
27*
18 to <21 years
383
1
-
-
-
4*
14*
>21 years
9,049
2
-
-
7
17
33
>65 years0
2,139
2
-
-
10
20
35
All ages
19,850
2
-
-
6
16
35
a Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).




February 2019
Page 3-96
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-53. Per Capita" Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based
on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources
(mL/kg-day)

Sample
Size




Percentile



Age
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
88
89
-
-
21
168
235*
269*
338*
1 to <3 months
245
77
-
-
46
134
173
246*
336*
3 to <6 months
411
75
-
9
73
118
156
186
225*
6 to <12 months
678
59
4
20
53
86
118
148
194*
1 to <2 years
1,002
31
6
13
24
39
63
85
122*
2 to <3 years
994
31
7
15
26
41
59
73
130*
3 to <6 years
4,112
29
7
14
25
38
56
69
102
6 to <11 years
1,553
21
6
10
18
27
39
50
76*
11 to <16 years
975
16
4
8
13
20
31
39
60*
16 to <18 years
360
15
4
6
12
18
28
37*
59*
18 to <21 years
383
16
3
6
12
21
32
41*
73*
>21 years
9,049
20
7
11
17
26
36
44
68
>65 years0
2,139
21
9
13
19
27
34
39
54
All ages
20,850
21
6
10
17
26
38
50
87
a Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
= Zero.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).





February 2019
Page 3-97
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-54. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion
Based on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII):
Community Water (mL/day)

Sample
Size




Percentile



Age
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
40
470*
32*
215*
482*
692*
849*
858*
919*
1 to <3 months
114
552
67*
339
533
801
943*
1,053*
1,264*
3 to <6 months
281
556
44
180
561
837
1,021
1,171*
1,440*
6 to <12 months
562
467
44
105
426
710
971
1,147
1,586*
1 to <2 years
916
308
43
107
229
428
674
893
1,248*
2 to <3 years
934
356
49
126
281
510
700
912
1,388*
3 to <6 years
3,960
417
57
146
336
581
867
1,099
1,684
6 to <11 years
1,555
480
74
177
373
682
994
1,251
2,024*
11 to <16 years
937
652
106
236
487
873
1,432
1,744
2,589*
16 to <18 years
341
792
106
266
591
987
1,647
2,002*
3,804*
18 to <21 years
364
895
114
295
674
1,174
1,860
2,565*
3,917*
>21 years
8,505
1,183
208
529
1,006
1,582
2,289
2,848
4,665
>65 yearsc
1,958
1,242
310
704
1,149
1,657
2,190
2,604
3,668
All ages
18,509
1,000
127
355
786
1,375
2,069
2,601
4,274
a	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
*	The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).
February 2019
Page 3-98
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-55. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion
Based on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII):
Bottled Water (mL/day)

Sample
Size




Percentile



Age
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
25
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 to <3 months
64
450*
31*
62*
329*
743*
886*
1,045*
1,562*
3 to <6 months
103
507
48*
88
493
747
1,041*
1,436*
1,506*
6 to <12 months
200
425
47
114
353
630
945*
1,103*
1,413*
1 to <2 years
229
262
45
88
188
324
600
709*
1,083*
2 to <3 years
232
352
57
116
241
471
736
977*
1,665*
3 to <6 years
1,021
380
72
149
291
502
796
958
1,635*
6 to <11 years
332
430
88
168
350
557
850
1,081*
1,823*
11 to <16 years
192
570
116*
229
414
719
1,162*
1,447*
2,705*
16 to <18 years
63
615*
85*
198*
446*
779*
1,365*
1,613*
2,639*
18 to <21 years
97
769
118*
236
439
943
1,788*
2,343*
3,957*
>21 years
1,893
831
167
354
650
1,071
1,773
2,093
3,505
>65 yearsc
302
910
234
465
785
1,182
1,766
2,074
2,548
All ages
4,451
736
118
266
532
975
1,567
1,964
3,312
a Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
Insufficient sample size to estimate mean and percentiles.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).





February 2019
Page 3-99
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-56. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion
Based on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII):
Other Sources (mL/day)

Sample
Size




Percentile



Age
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 to <3 months
19
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3 to <6 months
38
562*
59*
179*
412*
739*
983*
1,205*
2,264*
6 to <12 months
73
407*
31*
121*
300*
563*
961*
1,032*
1,144*
1 to <2 years
98
262
18*
65
143
371
602*
899*
1,204*
2 to <3 years
129
354
56*
134
318
472
704*
851*
1,334*
3 to <6 years
533
396
59
148
314
546
796
1,019
1,543*
6 to <11 years
219
448
89
177
347
682
931
1,090*
1,596*
11 to <16 years
151
687
171*
296
482
947
1,356*
1,839*
2,891*
16 to <18 years
53
657*
152*
231*
398*
823*
1,628*
1,887*
2,635*
18 to <21 years
33
569*
103*
142*
371*
806*
1,160*
1,959*
1,962*
>21 years
1,386
1,137
236
503
976
1,533
2,161
2,739
4,673
>65 years0
323
1,259
360
680
1,188
1,660
2,136
2,470
3,707*
All ages
2,735
963
148
347
741
1,344
1,970
2,468
3,814
a Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
Insufficient sample size to estimate means and percentiles.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).





February 2019
Page 3-100
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-57. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion
Based on 1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All
Sources (mL/day)
Age
Sample
Size




Percentile



Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
58
511*
51*
266*
520*
713*
858*
986*
1,274*
1 to <3 months
178
555
68*
275
545
801
946*
1,072*
1,470*
3 to <6 months
363
629
69
384
612
851
1,064
1,330*
1,522*
6 to <12 months
667
567
90
250
551
784
1,050
1,303
1,692*
1 to <2 years
1,017
366
84
159
294
481
735
978
1,281*
2 to <3 years
1,051
439
105
213
375
589
825
1,001
1,663*
3 to <6 years
4,350
518
134
255
442
682
980
1,206
1,796
6 to <11 years
1,659
603
177
310
506
805
1,131
1,409
2,168*
11 to <16 years
1,000
837
229
404
665
1,105
1,649
1,961
3,184*
16 to <18 years
357
983
252
395
754
1,276
1,865
2,346*
3,866*
18 to <21 years
383
1,094
219
424
823
1,397
2,144
3,002*
4,967*
>21 years
9,178
1,472
506
829
1,282
1,877
2,559
3,195
5,175
>65 years0
2,167
1,453
651
939
1,345
1,833
2,324
2,708
3,750
All ages
20,261
1,242
296
585
1,047
1,642
2,345
2,923
4,808
a Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).
February 2019
Page 3-101
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-58. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community
Water (mL/kg-day)
Age
Sample
Size




Percentile



Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
37
137*
11*
65*
138*
197*
235*
238*
263*
1 to <3 months
108
119
12*
71
107
151
228*
285*
345*
3 to <6 months
269
80
7
27
77
118
148
173*
222*
6 to <12 months
534
53
5
12
47
81
112
129
186*
1 to <2 years
880
27
4
9
20
36
56
75
109*
2 to <3 years
879
26
4
9
21
36
52
62
121*
3 to <6 years
3,703
24
3
8
19
33
49
65
97
6 to <11 years
1,439
17
3
6
13
23
35
45
72*
11 to <16 years
911
13
2
5
10
17
26
34
54*
16 to <18 years
339
12
1
4
9
16
24
32*
58*
18 to <21 years
361
13
2
5
10
17
29
35*
63*
>21 years
8,355
16
3
7
13
22
32
39
63
>65 years0
1,927
18
5
10
16
24
32
37
53
All ages
17,815
17
3
7
13
22
33
44
77
a Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).
February 2019
Page 3-102
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-59. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled Water
(mL/kg-day)

Sample
Size




Percentile



Age
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month 25
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 to <3 months
64
92*
7*
12*
76*
151*
164*
220*
411*
3 to <6 months
95
72
6*
15
69
100
149*
184*
213*
6 to <12 months
185
47
5*
11
34
73
104*
120*
166*
1 to <2 years
216
22
5
8
16
27
49
66*
103*
2 to <3 years
211
25
4
8
17
35
54
81*
91*
3 to <6 years
946
21
4
8
16
29
45
57
90*
6 to <11 years
295
15
3
5
11
19
30
42*
69*
11 to <16 years
180
11
2*
4
8
14
24*
27*
44*
16 to <18 years
63
10*
1*
3*
7*
11*
23*
27*
37*
18 to <21 years
93
11
2*
3
6
14
27*
30*
54*
>21 years
1,861
12
2
5
9
16
25
31
45
>65 years0
297
13
3
7
12
17
26
30
42*
All ages
4,234
13
2
5
9
17
27
36
72
a Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
Insufficient sample size to estimate means and percentiles.
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994
-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).





February 2019
Page 3-103
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-60. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other Sources
(mL/kg-day)
Percentile
Sample		
Age
Size
Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1 to <3 months
19
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3 to <6 months
38
80*
10*
23*
59*
106*
170*
200*
246*
6 to <12 months
68
44*
4*
10*
33*
65*
95*
106*
147*
1 to <2 years
95
23
1*
5
13
28
46*
84*
125*
2 to <3 years
124
26
4*
10
21
34
55*
66*
114*
3 to <6 years
505
22
3
8
17
30
46
56
79*
6 to <11 years
208
16
3
6
12
23
32
39*
62*
11 to <16 years
148
13
3*
6
9
18
27*
36*
56*
16 to <18 years
52
10*
2*
4*
7*
12*
24*
29*
43*
18 to <21 years
33
8*
1*
2*
6*
10*
16*
27*
31*
>21 years
1,365
15
3
6
13
21
30
39
58
>65 years0
322
18
5
9
16
24
31
37
50*
All ages
2,657
16
3
6
12
21
32
41
67
a	Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b	Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
Indicates insufficient sample size to estimate distribution percentiles.
*	The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).
February 2019
Page 3-104
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-61. Consumers-Only3 Estimates of Direct and Indirectb Water Ingestion Based on
1994-1996,1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources
(mL/kg-day)
Age
Sample
Size




Percentile



Mean
10
25
50
75
90
95
99
Birth to <1 month
55
153*
13*
83*
142*
208*
269*
273*
400*
1 to <3 months
172
116
12*
50
107
161
216*
291*
361*
3 to <6 months
346
90
9
52
86
125
161
195*
233*
6 to <12 months
631
63
10
27
58
88
120
152
198*
1 to <2 years
980
31
7
14
25
40
64
86
122*
2 to <3 years
989
31
7
15
27
41
59
73
130*
3 to <6 years
4,072
29
7
15
25
38
56
70
102*
6 to <11 years
1,542
21
6
10
18
27
39
50
76*
11 to <16 years
970
16
4
8
13
20
31
39
60*
16 to <18 years
354
15
4
7
12
18
29
37*
60*
18 to <21 years
378
16
3
6
12
21
32
41*
73*
>21 years
9,020
20
7
11
17
26
36
44
68
>65 years0
2,136
21
9
13
19
27
34
39
54
All ages
19,509
21
6
11
17
26
38
50
87
a Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.
b Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the
preparation of food or beverages.
U.S. EPA (2004).
* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in
the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).
February 2019
Page 3-105
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-62. Two-Day Average" per Capita Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of
Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years)


Percent






Percentiles




Population Group
N
Consuming15
Mean
SE
Pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Maximum
g/day
All water sources0














Pregnant
426
98
1,539
76
0d
251
450
813
1,291
2,200
2,872
3,203
4,120d
5,719d
Lactating
101
96
1,908
195
0d
213d
356d
917
2,061
2,720
2,987d
3,91 ld
4,351d
5,551d
Child-bearing age
5,543
99
1,383
31
0
125
278
616
1,138
1,957
2,787
3,371
4,530
10,280d
Community water4














Pregnant
426
63
731
81
0d
0
0
0
364
1,091
2,138
2,859
3,558d
5,162d
Lactating
101
72
1,075
201
od
0d
0d
0
719
2,061
2,720d
3,061d
4,351d
4,351d
Child-bearing age
5,543
63
683
30
0
0
0
0
282
1,025
2,055
2,634
3,962
6,213d
Bottled waterf














Pregnant
426
60
545
55
od
0
0
0
259
974
1,466
1,896
2,605d
3,792d
Lactating
101
51
541
143
od
od
od
0
119
889
l,931d
2,044d
3,256d
3,413d
Child-bearing age
5,543
53
424
18
0
0
0
0
119
644
1,259
1,726
2,844
8,834d
Other water sourcesf














Pregnant
426
35
263
66
od
0
0
0
0
186
702
1,777
2,693d
5,719d
Lactating
101
21
293
131
od
od
od
0
0
0
1,024d
2,854d
3,91ld
4,612d
Child-bearing age
5,543
34
276
30
0
0
0
0
0
237
918
1,575
3,273
6,220d
g/kg-day
All water sources0














Pregnant
426
98
21.1
1.1
od
3.1
5.9
10.7
16.7
28.9
41.6
49.0
63.9d
94. ld
Lactating
101
96
28.8
2.8
od
3.9d
6.9d
14.1
29.8
46.2
48.3d
51.3d
65.3d
75.0d
Child-bearing age
5,543
99
19.7
0.47
0
1.8
4.0
8.5
16.1
27.5
41.1
48.4
67.1
178.8d
February 2019
Page 3-106
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-62. Two-Day Average" per Capita Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of
Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years) (Continued)
Percentiles
Population Group
N
Consuming15
Mean
SE
pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Maximum
Community water6














Pregnant
426
63
9.8
1.1
0d
0
0
0
5.0
15.6
30.5
37.3
44.0d
92.2d
Lactating
101
72
16.5
3.3
od
od
od
0
11.6
29.8
46.2d
47.0d
65.3d
65.3d
Child-bearing age
5,543
63
9.8
0.46
0
0
0
0
4.1
15.0
29.1
38.2
60.1
110.1d
Bottled water®














Pregnant
426
60
7.7
0.88
od
0
0
0
3.6
12.5
21.4
33.2
46.8d
58.ld
Lactating
101
51
7.8
1.8
od
od
od
0
1.6
12.0
26.4d
33.4d
46.0d
51.0d
Child-bearing age
5,543
53
6.0
0.27
0
0
0
0
1.7
9.0
18.3
24.9
40.7
166.7d
Other water sourcesf














Pregnant
426
35
3.6
0.88
od
0
0
0
0
2.6
11.2
25.2
36.6d
94. ld
Lactating
101
21
4.5
2.1
od
od
od
0
0
0
16.3d
48.3d
51.3d
65.3d
Child-bearing age
5,543
34
3.9
0.42
0
0
0
0
0
3.3
12.6
23.3
44.4
98.0d
HNIS
N
SE
Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.
All water sources: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption); water, bottled (direct water consumption only); water, well or rain cistern
(direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap water (direct and indirect water consumption);
water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't know (direct and indirect water consumption).
Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
Community water: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption).
Other sources: water, well or rain cistern (direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap
water (direct and indirect water consumption); water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't know (direct and indirect water consumption).
Bottled water: water, bottled (direct water consumption only).
= Human Nutrition Information Service.
= Sample size.
= Standard error.
Source: Based on EPA analysis of 2005-2010 NHANES using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-107
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-63. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Only Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of
Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years)








Percentiles




Population Group
N
Mean
SE
pt
5th
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
99th
Maximum
g/day
All water sources'5













Pregnant
423
1,564
82.4
70.7C
318.3
522.7
836.7
1,324
2,200
2,894
3,213
4,120°
5,719°
Lactating
100
1,979
186.3
212.8C
355.8°
439.1c
1,100
2,081
2,720
2,999°
3,911°
4,351°
5,551°
Child-bearing age
5,479
1,401
30.4
30.7
171.8
302.1
634.5
1,163
1,963
2,800
3,371
4,530
10,280°
Community water4













Pregnant
259
1,158
95.9
3.2C
78.8C
189.6
452.7
921.1
1,872
2,642
2,935°
3,866°
5,162°
Lactating
68
1,495
232.5
46.7C
189.4°
266.4°
476.1°
1,078
2,388°
2,720°
3,061°
4,351°
4,351°
Child-bearing age
3,365
1,082
28.6
8.2
54.0
133.3
347.9
786.8
1,599
2,430
2,956
4,355
6,213°
Bottled water4













Pregnant
255
913
61.0
59.3°
118.5°
192.5
362.2
859.1
1,250
1,745
2,184°
2,670°
3,792°
Lactating
57
1,059
188.3
118.5°
125.1°
125.1°
311.1°
750.3
1,909°
2,029°
2,304°
3,318°
3,413°
Child-bearing age
3,075
805
20.0
51.8
118.5
177.5
281.4
592.5
1,099
1,684
2,184
3,631
8,834°
Other water sourcesf













Pregnant
157
756
135.9
20.0C
49.7C
70.7°
164.8
422.4
969.4
2,191°
2,693°
3,014°
5,719°
Lactating
29
1,382
451.5
69.3c
137.3°
212.8°
229.9°
1,024
2,854°
3,911°
3,911
4,612°
4,612°
Child-bearing age
2,012
804
56.9
5.5
34.0
71.6
212.8
502.8
1,040
2,013
2,771
4,124
6,220°
g/kg-day
All water sources'5













Pregnant
423
21.4
1.2
0.7C
4.1
6.8
10.7
17.5
29.3
42.4
49.0
63.9°
94.1°
Lactating
100
29.8
2.7
3.9C
6.7°
7.0°
17.0
30.0
46.2
48.3°
51.3°
65.3°
75.0°
Child-bearing age
5,479
20.0
0.5
0.5
2.3
4.3
8.9
16.3
27.7
41.1
48.8
67.1
178.8°
February 2019
Page 3-108
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-63. Two-Day Average" Consumer-Only Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of
Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years) (Continued)
Percentiles
Population Group
N
Mean
SE
5th
10th 25th 50th 75th
90th
95th
99th
Maximum
Community water"1
Pregnant	259
Lactating	68
Child-bearing age	3,365
Bottled water6
Pregnant	255
Lactating	57
Child-bearing age	3,075
Other water sourcesf
Pregnant	157
Lactating	29
Child-bearing age	2,012
15.5
22.9
15.6
12.9
15.2
11.4
10.3
21.3
11.4
1.2
0.1c
0.9C
2.5
6.2
12.0
23.3
33.3
37.7C
44.4C
92.2'
4.0
0.6°
3.0C
4.4C
7.0°
17.0
44.6C
46.9C
47.0C
65.3c
65.3"
0.5
0.1
0.7
1.8
5.1
11.0
22.4
35.4
44.6
63.2
110.1'
1.0
l.lc
1.7°
2.7
5.0
9.9
16.8
26.5
33.4C
50.lc
58.1"
2.3
1.6C
2.2C
2.2C
4.0C
12.0
23.5C
33.4C
40.7C
46.0C
51.0"
0.3
0.7
1.7
2.3
4.1
8.4
15.0
24.0
31.9
48.5
166.7'
1.8
0.2C
O
'o\
1.4°
2.2
5.7
12.2
29.3C
36.6c
37.8C
94.1<
6.8
0.7C
1.9°
3.5C
3.9C
16.3
48.3C
51.3°
51.3°
65.3C
65.3'
0.8
0.1
0.5
1.0
3.0
7.3
15.5
29.3
38.0
51.8
98.0'
HNIS
N
SE
Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and
nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated
using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
All Water Sources: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption); water, bottled (direct water consumption only); water, well or rain cistern
(direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap water (direct and indirect water consumption);
water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't know (direct and indirect water consumption).
Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III
and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).
Community water: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption).
Bottled water: water, bottled (direct water consumption only).
Other sources: water, well or rain cistern (direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap
water (direct and indirect water consumption); water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't know (direct and indirect water consumption).
= Human Nutrition Information Service.
= Sample size.
= Standard error.
Source: Based on U.S. EPA analysis of 2005-2010 NHANES using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.
February 2019
Page 3-109
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-64. Total Fluid Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old
Reproductive
Status3




Percentile Distribution


Mean
Deviation
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
mL/day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
1,940
2,076
2,242
686
743
658
995
1,085
1,185
1,172
1,236
1,434
1,467
1,553
1,833
1,835
1,928
2,164
2,305
2,444
2,658
2,831
3,028
3,169
3,186
3,475
3,353
mL/kg-day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
32.3
32.1
37.0
12.3
11.8
11.6
15.8
16.4
19.6
18.5
17.8
21.8
23.8
17.8
21.8
30.5
30.5
35.1
38.7
40.4
45.0
48.4
48.9
53.7
55.4
53.5
59.2
a Number of observations: nonpregnant, nonlactating controls (N= 6,201); pregnant (N= 188); lactating (N =
77).
Source: Ershow et al. (1991).








Table 3-65. Total Tap Water Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old
Reproductive
Status3




Percentile Distribution


Mean
Deviation
5
10
25
50
75
90
95
mL/day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
1,157
1,189
1,310
635
699
591
310
274
430
453
419
612
709
713
855
1,065
1,063
1,330
1,503
1,501
1,693
1,983
2,191
1,945
2,310
2,424
2,191
mL/kg-day
Control
Pregnant
Lactating
19.1
18.3
21.4
10.8
10.4
9.8
5.2
4.9
7.4
7.5
5.9
9.8
11.7
10.7
14.8
17.3
16.4
20.5
24.4
23.8
26.8
33.1
34.5
35.1
39.1
39.6
37.4
Fraction of daily fluid intake that is tap water (%)







Control
Pregnant
Lactating
57.2
54.1
57.0
18.0
18.2
15.8
24.6
21.2
27.4
32.2
27.9
38.0
45.9
42.9
49.5
59.0
54.8
58.1
70.7
67.6
65.9
79.0
76.6
76.4
83.2
83.2
80.5
a Number of observations: nonpregnant, nonlactating controls (N
= 6,201); pregnant (N
= 188); lactating (N =
77).
Source: Ershow et al. (1991).








February 2019
Page 3-110
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-66. Total Fluid (mL/Day) Derived from Various Dietary Sources by Women Aged


15 to 49 Years"







Control Women
Pregnant Women
Lactating Women


Percentile

Percentile

Percentile
Sources
Meanb
50
95
Meanb
50
95
Meanb
50
95
Drinking water
583
480
1,440
695
640
1,760
677
560
1,600
Milk and milk drinks
162
107
523
308
273
749
306
285
820
Other dairy products
23
8
93
24
9
93
36
27
113
Meats, poultry, fish, eggs
126
114
263
121
104
252
133
117
256
Legumes, nuts, and seeds
13
0
77
18
0
88
15
0
72
Grains and grain products
90
65
257
98
69
246
119
82
387
Citrus and noncitrus fruit juices
57
0
234
69
0
280
64
0
219
Fruits, potatoes, vegetables, tomatoes
198
171
459
212
185
486
245
197
582
Fats, oils, dressings, sugars, sweets
9
3
41
9
3
40
10
6
50
Tea
148
0
630
132
0
617
253
77
848
Coffee and coffee substitutes
291
159
1,045
197
0
955
205
80
955
Carbonated soft drinks0
174
110
590
130
73
464
117
57
440
Noncarbonated soft drinksc
38
0
222
48
0
257
38
0
222
Beer
17
0
110
7
0
0
17
0
147
Wine spirits, liqueurs, mixed drinks
10
0
66
5
0
25
6
0
59
All sources
1,940
NA
NA
2,076
NA
NA
2,242
NA
NA
a Number of observations: nonpregnant, nonlactating controls (N =
6,201); pregnant (N= 188); lactating (N =
77).
b Individual means may not add to all-sources total due to rounding






c Includes regular, low-calorie, and noncalorie soft drinks.







NA = Not appropriate to sum the columns for the 50th and 95th percentiles of intake.




Source: Ershow et al. (1991).









Table 3-67. Daily Water Intake for Men and Pregnant Women (L/day)
Category
N
Mean ± SD


Percentile


10
25
50
75
90
Total water







Pregnant women
34
1.86 ±0.73
1.17
1.45
1.75
2.08
2.33
Men
33
1.68 ±0.70
0.70
1.34
1.59
2.08
2.39
Tap water®







Pregnant women
34
0.78 ±0.51
0.20
0.43
0.62
1.12
1.39
Men
33
0.78 ±0.51
0.25
0.34
0.81
1.10
1.23
Cold tap water at homeb







All pregnant women
34
0.37 ±0.40
0
0.02
0.26
0.55
0.97
Employed full time
18
0.28 ±0.30
0
0.04
0.15
0.53
0.60
Employed part time or less
16
0.47 ±0.48
0
0.01
0.42
0.73
1.04
All men
33
0.29 ±0.35
0
0
0.15
0.51
0.69
a Filtered tap water excluded.
b Filtered tap water and iced tea excluded.
iV = Number of subjects.
Source: Shimokura et al. (1998).
February 2019
Page 3-111
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-68. Average Daily Tap Water Consumption (L/day) by Location, Temperature,
and Beverage Type
Category
All Pregnant
Women
N= 34
Pregnant Women
Employed Full Time
N= 18
Pregnant Women Employed
Part Time or Less All Men
N = 16 N= 33
Consumption at home




Cold drinking water
0.25
0.18
0.34
0.19
Cold tap-water-based beverages
0.11
0.10
0.13
0.10
Total cold tap water
0.37
0.28
0.47
0.29
Hot tap water
0.15
0.11
0.20
0.14
Total tap water
0.52
0.38
0.67
0.43
Consumption outside the home




Cold drinking water
0.15
0.18
0.11
0.16
Cold tap-water-based beverages
0.04
0.06
0.02
0.03
Total cold tap water
0.19
0.23
0.14
0.18
Hot tap water
0.08
0.12
0.02
0.17
Total tap water
0.26
0.36
0.16
0.35
Total cold tap water
0.56
0.51
0.61
0.47
Total hot tap water
0.23
0.23
0.22
0.31
Total tap water
0.78
0.74
0.83
0.78
iV = Number of subjects.
Source: Shimokura et al. (1998).
February 2019
Page 3-112
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-69. Water Ingestion Rates by Pregnancy Status (L/day) and Source Location




Percentiles



Percentiles


Characteristic
Mean
SD
25th
50th
75th
Mean
SD
25th 50th
75th




Pregnant (N = 71)



Not pregnant (N = 43)

Home
Cold tap water
1.8
1.4
0.9
1.4
2.3
1.3
1.0
0.5 0.9
2.0

Cold tap-water-based beverages
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.9
1.4
0.9
0.6
o
O
1.2

Hot tap-water-based beverages
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.0 0.0
0.2

Total tap water intake
2.9
1.8
1.8
2.3
3.7
2.4
1.2
1.5 2.3
2.9




Pregnant (N = 36)



Not pregnant (N = 23)

Work
Cold tap water
0.7
0.6
0.2
0.4
1.3
1.0
1.2
O
O
1.4

Cold tap-water-based beverages
0.1
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.3
o
o
o
o
0.0

Hot tap-water-based beverages
0.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0

Total tap water intake
0.9
0.7
0.4
0.7
1.4
1.2
1.2
0.5 0.9
1.4




Pregnant (N = 71)



Not pregnant (N = 43)

Total
Cold tap water
2.1
1.5
1.1
1.8
2.8
1.8
1.6
0.7 1.5
2.7

Cold tap-water-based beverages
1.1
0.8
0.7
0.9
1.4
0.9
0.6
o
O
vo
1.4

Hot tap-water-based beverages
0.2
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.3
0.5
o
o
o
o
0.4

Total tap water intake
3.4
1.8
2.0
3.0
4.3
3.0
1.7
1.8 2.7
4.1
N
= Number of observations.









Source:
Zender et al. (2001).









February 2019
Page 3-113
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-70. Principal Sources of Drinking Water at Home for Pregnant and Nonpregnant
Women (%)
Source of Water
Pregnant
Nonpregnant
Tap water
74.6
72.1
Bottled water
14.1
11.6
Filtered water
11.3
16.3
Source: Zender et al. (2001).
February 2019
Page 3-114
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women (L/day)
Variables
Cold Tap Water
Bottled Water
N
Mean (SD)
N
Mean (SD)
Demographics




Home
2,293
1.3(1.2)
a
a
Work
2,295
0.4 (0.6)
a
a
Total
2,293
1.7(1.4)
2,284
0.6(0.9)
Season




Winter
587
1.6(1.3)
584
0.6(1.0)
Spring
622
1.7(1.4)
622
0.6(1.0)
Summer
566
1.8(1.6)
560
0.6(0.9)
Fall
518
1.8(1.5)
518
0.5(0.9)
Age at LMP




17 to 25
852
1.6(1.4)
848
0.6(1.0)
26 to 30
714
1.8(1.5)
710
0.6(1.0)
31 to 35
539
1.7(1.3)
538
0.5(0.8)
>36
188
1.8(1.4)
188
0.5(0.9)
Education




4-year college
1,103
1.8(1.3)
1,100
0.5(0.9)
Race/ethnicity




White, non-Hispanic
1,276
1.8(1.4)
1,273
0.5(0.9)
Black, non-Hispanic
727
1.6(1.5)
722
0.6(0.9)
Hispanic, any race
204
1.1(1.3)
202
1.1(1.2)
Other
84
1.9(1.5)
85
0.5(0.9)
Marital status




Single, never married
719
1.6(1.5)
713
0.6(1.0)
Married
1,497
1.8(1.4)
1,494
0.5(0.9)
Other
76
1.7(1.9)
76
0.5(0.9)
Annual income ($)




^10,000
967
1.6(1.5)
962
0.6(1.0)
40,000-80,000
730
1.8(1.4)
730
0.5(0.9)
>80,000
501
1.7(1.3)
499
0.5(0.9)
Employment




No
681
1.7(1.5)
679
0.5(0.9)
Yes
1,611
1.7(1.4)
1,604
0.6(0.9)
February 2019
Page 3-115
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women (L/day)
(Continued)
Variables
Cold Tap Water

Bottled Water
N
Mean (SD)
N
Mean (SD)
BMI





Low
268
1.6
1.3)
267
0.6(1.0)
Normal
1,128
1.7
1.4)
1,123
0.5(0.9)
Overweight
288
1.7
1.5)
288
0.6(0.9)
Obese
542
1.8
1.6)
540
0.6(1.0)
Diabetes





No diabetes
2,221
1.7
1.4)
2,213
0.6(0.9)
Regular diabetes
17
2.6
2.1)
17
0.4 (0.8)
Gestational diabetes
55
1.6
1.6)
54
0.6(1.0)
Nausea during pregnancy





No
387
1.6
1.4)
385
0.6(1.0)
Yes
1,904
1.7
1.4)
1,897
0.6(0.9)
Pregnancy history





No prior pregnancy
691
1.7
1.4)
685
0.6(1.0)
Prior pregnancy with no SAB
1,064
1.7
1.4)
1,063
0.5(0.9)
Prior pregnancy with SAB
538
1.8
1.5)
536
0.6(1.0)
Caffeine





0 mg/day
578
1.8
1.5)
577
0.6(1.0)
1-150 mg/day
522
1.6
1.3)
522
0.5(0.8)
151-300 mg/day
433
1.6
1.4)
433
0.6(0.9)
>300 mg/day
760
1.7
1.5)
752
0.6(1.0)
Vitamin use





No
180
1.4
1.4)
176
0.5(0.8)
Yes
2,113
1.7
1.4)
2,108
0.6(0.9)
Smoking





Nonsmoker
2,164
1.7
1.4)
2,155
0.6(0.9)
<10 cigarettes/day
84
1.8
1.5)
84
0.8(1.3)
>10 cigarettes/day
45
1.8
1.6)
45
0.4 (0.7)
Alcohol use





No
2,257
1.7
1.4)
2,247
0.6(0.9)
Yes
36
1.6
1.2)
37
0.6(0.8)
Recreational exercise





No
1,061
1.5
1.4)
1,054
0.6(0.9)
Yes
1,232
1.8
1.4)
1,230
0.6(1.0)
February 2019
Page 3-116
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women (L/day)
(Continued)
Cold Tap Water
Bottled Water
Variables N Mean (SD)
N
Mean (SD)
Illicit drug use


No 2,024 1.7(1.4)
2,017
0.6(0.9)
Yes 268 1.7(1.5)
266
0.6(1.0)
a Data are not reported in the source document.
BMI = Body mass index.
LMP = Age of last menstrual period.
N = Number of observations.
SAB = Spontaneous abortion.


Source: Forssen et al. (2007).


February 2019
Page 3-117
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap


Water by Pregnant Women




Cold Unfiltered Tap Water
Cold Filtered Tap Water
Bottled Water
Variables
N
%

%
%
Total
2,280
52

19
28
Season





Winter
583
52

19
29
Spring
621
53

19
28
Summer
559
50

20
29
Fall
517
54

19
26
Age at LMP





<25
845
55

11
33
26-30
709
49

22
28
31-35
538
51

27
22
>36
188
53

22
25
Education





4-year college
1,099
49

27
23
Race/ethnicity





White, non-Hispanic
1,272
50

26
23
Black, non-Hispanic
720
60

9
30
Hispanic, any race
202
37

9
54
Other
84
48

27
25
Marital status





Single, never married
711
57

9
33
Married
1,492
50

25
25
Other
76
57

9
34
Annual income ($)





<40,000
960
56

11
33
40,000-80,000
728
51

24
24
>80,000
499
45

29
25
Employment





No
678
52

21
27
Yes
1,601
52

19
29
February 2019
Page 3-118
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap
Water by Pregnant Women (Continued)


Cold Unfiltered Tap Water
Cold Filtered Tap Water
Bottled Water
Variables
N
%
%
%
BMI




Low
266
50
21
29
Normal
1,121
51
22
27
Overweight
287
53
18
28
Obese
540
56
14
29
Diabetes




No diabetes
2,209
52
19
28
Regular diabetes
17
69
15
16
Gestational diabetes
54
50
22
27
Nausea during pregnancy




No
385
54
18
28
Yes
1,893
52
20
28
Pregnancy history




No prior pregnancy
685
48
21
31
Prior pregnancy with
no SAB
1,060
54
18
27
Prior pregnancy with
SAB
535
53
20
26
Caffeine




0 mg/day
577
50
22
27
1-150 mg/day
520
53
17
29
151-300 mg/day
432
52
17
30
>300 mg/day
751
53
19
27
Vitamin use




No
176
57
8
34
Yes
2,104
52
20
28
Smoking




Nonsmoker
2,151
51
20
28
<10 cigarettes/day
84
60
10
28
>10 cigarettes/day
45
66
7
22
Alcohol use




No
2,244
52
19
28
Yes
36
58
19
23
Recreational exercise




No
1,053
54
14
31
Yes
1,227
51
24
26
February 2019
Page 3-119
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap
Water by Pregnant Women (Continued)

Cold Unfiltered Tap Water Cold Filtered Tap Water
Bottled Water
Variables N % %
%
Illicit drug use

No 2,013 51 20
28
Yes 266 56 12
31
BMI = body mass index.

LMP = Age of last menstrual period.

iV = Number of observations.

SAB = spontaneous abortion.

Source: Forssen et al. (2007).

Table 3-73. Intake Rates at Different Times During Pregnancy (L/day)
Source/Time Frame
N
Mean
50th Percentile
90th Percentile
Cold tap water
1,981



Prepregnancy

1.48
1.24
3.31
Early pregnancy

1.69
1.42
3.79
Mid-pregnancy

1.84
1.66
3.79
Hot tap water
1,987



Prepregnancy

0.18
0.00
0.62
Early pregnancy

0.16
0.00
0.41
Mid-pregnancy

0.16
0.00
0.59
Bottled water
1,977



Early pregnancy

0.57
0.18
1.77
Mid-pregnancy

0.59
0.09
2.07
Total water
1,968



Early pregnancy

2.43
2.10
4.26
Mid-pregnancy

2.60
2.37
4.44
N = Number of observations.
Source: Forssen et al. (2009).
February 2019
Page 3-120
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-74. Frequency and Proportion of Women Reporting Changes in Water Intake
between Early and Mid-Pregnancy

No Change
Increase
Decrease
Change (L/day)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Cold water
388
19.6




<1.0


508
25.6
423
21.3
1.0-2.5


280
14.1
220
11.1
>2.5


92
4.6
70
3.5
Total


880
44.4
713
36.0
Hot water
1,228
61.8




<1.0


163
8.2
148
7.4
1.0-2.5


194
9.8
182
9.2
>2.5


37
1.9
35
1.8
Total


394
19.8
365
18.4
Bottled water
721
36.5




<1.0


214
10.8
399
20.2
1.0-2.5


266
13.4
258
13.1
>2.5


69
3.5
50
2.5
Total


549
27.8
707
35.8
Total water
76
3.9




<1.0


449
22.8
409
20.8
1.0-2.5


480
24.4
355
18.0
>2.5


110
5.6
89
5.4
Total


1,039
52.8
853
42.4
iV = Number of observations.
Source: Forssen et al. (2009).
February 2019
Page 3-121
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-75. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by
Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile
90% CI	90% BI	90% BI
Women Categories
Sample
Size
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Pregnant
69
21*
19*
22*
39*
33*
46*
44*
38*
46*
Lactating
40
21*
15*
28*
53*
44*
55*
55*
52*
57*
Nonpregnant,
2,166
19
19
20
35
35
36
36
46
47
nonlactating ages 15 to
44 years
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90%) BI = 90%) bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
Table 3-76. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by
Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile
90% CI	90% BI	90% BI

Sample

Lower
Upper

Lower
Upper

Lower
Upper
Women Categories
Size
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Pregnant
70
1,318*
1,199*
1,436*
2,336*
1,851*
3,690*
2,674*
2,167*
3,690*
Lactating
41
1,806*
1,374*
2,238*
3,021*
2,722*
3,794*
3,767*
3,452*
3,803*
Nonpregnant,
2,221
1,243
1,193
1,292
2,336
2,222
2,488
2,937
2,774
3,211
nonlactating aged 15 to
44
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90%) CI = 90%o confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
February 2019
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-77. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by
Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile
90% CI	90% BI	90% BI
Women Categories
Sample
Size
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Pregnant
69
13*
11*
14*
31*
28*
46*
43*
33*
46*
Lactating
40
21*
15*
28*
53*
44*
55*
55*
52*
57*
Nonpregnant,
2,166
14
14
15
31
30
32
38
36
39
nonlactating ages 15 to
44 years
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90%) CI = 90%o confidence intervals for estimated means; 90%o BI = 90%o bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
Table 3-78. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by
Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile
90% CI	90% BI	90% BI
Women Categories
Sample
Size
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Pregnant
70
819*
669*
969*
1,815*
1,479*
2,808*
2,503*
2,167*
3,690*
Lactating
41
1,379*
1,021*
1,737*
2,872*
2,722*
3,452*
3,434*
2,987*
3,803*
Nonpregnant,
2,221
916
882
951
1,953
1,854
2,065
2,575
2,403
2,908
nonlactating ages 15 to
44 years
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90% CI = 90%) confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90%o bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
February 2019
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-79. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources
by Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile
90% CI	90% BI	90% BI
Women Categories
Sample
Size
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Pregnant
69
21*
19*
22*
39*
33*
46*
44*
38*
46*
Lactating
40
28*
19*
38*
53*
44*
57*
57*
52*
58*
Nonpregnant,
2,149
19
19
20
35
34
37
46
42
48
nonlactating ages 15 to
44 years
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90%) BI = 90%) bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
Table 3-80. Consumers-Only Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by
Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile
90% CI	90% BI	90% BI

Sample

Lower
Upper

Lower
Upper

Lower
Upper
Women Categories
Size
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Pregnant
70
1,318*
1,199*
1,436*
2,336*
1,851*
3,690*
2,674*
2,167*
3,690*
Lactating
41
1,806*
1,374*
2,238*
3,021*
2,722*
3,794*
3,767*
3,452*
3,803*
Nonpregnant,
2,203
1,252
1,202
1,303
2,338
2,256
2,404
2,941
2,834
3,179
nonlactating ages 15 to
44 years
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90%) bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
February 2019
Page 3-124
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-81. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion
by Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile
90% CI	90% BI	90% BI
Women Categories
Sample
Size
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Estimate
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Pregnant
65
14*
12*
15*
33*
29*
46*
43*
33*
46*
Lactating
33
26*
18*
18*
54*
44*
55*
55*
53*
57*
Nonpregnant,
2,028
15
14
16
32
31
33
38
36
42
nonlactating ages 15 to
44 years
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90%) BI = 90%) bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
Table 3-82. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion
by Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)
Mean	90th Percentile	95th Percentile



90% CI

90% BI

90% BI

Sample

Lower
Upper

Lower
Upper

Lower Upper
Women Categories
Size
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Estimate
Bound
Bound
Estimate
Bound Bound
Pregnant
65
872*
728*
1,016*
1,844*
1,776*
3,690*
2,589*
2,167* 3,690*
Lactating
34
1,665*
1,181*
2,148*
2,959*
2,722*
3,452*
3,588*
2,987* 4,026*
Nonpregnant,
2,077
976
937
1,014
2,013
1,893
2,065
2,614
2,475 2,873
nonlactating ages 15 to
44 years
*	The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described
in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994-1996 (LSRO, 1995).
NOTE: Source of data: 1994-1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may
involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all
estimates exclude commercial and biological water.
90%o CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates
using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.
Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994-1996 and 1998).
February 2019
Page 3-125
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-83. Mean and 95th Percentile Community Water Intake among Formula-Fed Infants3

Unweighted Sample


Indirect in Formula
Total Direct and Indirect













Age Group
Sizeb
Weighted Sample Sizeb
Mean
95th Percentile
Mean
95th Percentile
mL/day
<1 month
36
79,000
491°
856c
505c
858c
1 to <3 months
96
236,000
572
963c
627
l,096c
3 to <6 months
214
525,000
645
1,112c
699
l,300c
6 to <12 months
324
823,000
573
1,192°
691
l,350c
1 to <2 years
34
133,000
364
745c
591°
l,254c
mL/kg-day
<1 month
34
79,000
143°
240c
146°
240c
1 to <3 months
90
236,000
124
285c
136
290°
3 to <6 months
205
525,000
93
171°
101
186
6 to <12 months
311
823,000
65
136°
78
151°
1 to <2 years
32
133,000
38c
82c
60°
119°
a Formula-
consumers only.





b Samples sizes for estimates in mL/kg-day are smaller than estimates in mL/day because body weight was not reported for
some participants. Weighted samples sizes
represent the number in each age group based on the unweighted number in the sample extrapolated to the overall U.S. population.

c The sample size does not meet the minimum reporting requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States (LSRO, 1995).
Source: Kahn et al. (2013).





February 2019
Page 3-126
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-84. Tap Water Intake in Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants and Mixed-Fed Young Children at Different Age Points



Tap Water Intakeb (mL/day)

Tap Water Intakeb (mL/kg-day)




Total




Total



From Household0
From Manufacturing"1
Age
Na
Mean
SD
Median
p95
Max
Mean
SD
Median
p95
Max
%e
Mean
SD
%f
Mean
SD
%f
Breast-fed
1 year, total
300
130
180
50
525
1,172
17
24**
6
65
150
17
15
23**
85
2.4
4 7**
15
3 months
111
67
167
0
493
746
10
25**
0
74
125
10
10
25**
97
0.3
I 9**
3
6 months
124
136
150
68
479
634
18
20**
8
58
85
18
14
19**
79
3.8
6.3*
21
9 months
47
254
218
207
656
1,172
30
27**
23
77
150
28
26
27**
87
3.7
3.4
13
12 months
18
144
170
85
649
649
15
18**
9
66
66
19
13
18**
86
2.2
2.1
14
Formula-fed
1 year, total
758
441
244
440
828
1,603
53
33
49
115
200
51
49
33
92
4.0
8.0
8
3 months
78
662
154
673
874
994
107
23
107
147
159
93
103
28
97
3.4
17.9
3
6 months
141
500
178
519
757
888
63
23
65
99
109
64
59
25
92
4.8
8.0
8
9 months
242
434
236
406
839
1,579
49
27
45
94
200
50
44
27
91
4.5
6.3
9
12 months
297
360
256
335
789
1,603
37
26
32
83
175
39
33
25
91
3.3
3.7
9
February 2019
Page 3-127
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-84. Tap Water Intake in Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants and Mixed-Fed Young Children at Different Age Points
(Continued)
Age
Tap Water Intakeb (mL/day)
Total
iVa Mean SD Median p95 Max
Tap Water Intakeb (mL/kg-day)
Mean SD
Total
Median p95 Max
%e
From Household0 From Manufacturing"1
Mean SD %f Mean SD %f
Mixed-fed
1 to 3 years, total
904
241
243
175
676
2,441
19
20
14
56
203
24
15
20
78
3.9
5.5
22
18 months
277
280
264
205
828
1,881
25
23
18
70
183
28
22
23
88
3.0
4.1
12
24 months
292
232
263
158
630
2,441
18
21
12
49
203
23
15
21
80
3.7
5.0
20
36 months
335
217
199
164
578
1,544
14
13
11
36
103
22
9
12
66
4.9
6.6
34
f
*
N
p95
SD
Numbers of 3-day diet records.
Total tap water = tap water from the household and tap water from food manufacturing. Converted from g/day and g/kg-day; 1 g = 1 mL.
Tap water from household = tap water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare foods and beverages.
Tap water from food = manufacturing tap water from the industrial food production used for the preparation of foods (bread, butter/margarine, tinned fruit,
vegetables and legumes, ready to serve meals, commercial weaning food) and mixed beverages (lemonade, soft drinks).
Mean as a percentage of total water.
Mean as a percentage of total tap water.
Significantly different from formula-fed infants,/) < 0.05.
Significantly different from formula-fed infants,/) < 0.0001.
= Number of observations.
= 95th percentile.
= Standard deviation.
Source: Hilbig et al. (2002).
February 2019
Page 3-128
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-85. Water Intake for 2-Month-Old Infants (consumers-only)3





Percentiles


Type of Consumers
N
Mean
10th
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
mL/day
Total water
393b
521
57
372
515
713
926
1,036
Tap water only
232b
564
102
394
552
757
959
1090
Bottled water only
134b
504
71
382
489
684
838
995
Formula-fed infants who consumed dry formula reconstituted
with either bottled or tap water
278c
654
419
467
590
779
981
1,105
mL/kg-day
Total water
393b
98
11
67
97
130
173
194
Tap water only
232b
105
18
77
103
140
176
201
Bottled water only
134b
94
14
73
92
122
168
194
Formula-fed infants who consumed dry formula reconstituted
with either bottled or tap water
278b
122
79
90
112
144
179
200
a Includes only infants who had some water ingestion.
b Includes 232 consuming only tap water, 134 consuming only bottled water, and 27 consuming both tap water and bottled water.
c Of the 393 infants who had some water ingestion, 278 consumed dry formula diluted with either tap water or bottled water; 167 of these infants had their formula
diluted with tap water.
N = Number of observations.
Source: Levallois et al. (2008).








February 2019
Page 3-129
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-86. Water Intake at Various Activity Levels (L/hour)a




Activity Level


Room Temperatureb (°F) High (0.15 hp/man)c
Medium (0.10 hp/man)c
Low (0.05 hp/man)c

NA
Intake
a
Intake
a
Intake
100
-
-
-
-
15
0.653
(0.75)
95
18
0.540
(0.31)
12
0.345
(0.59)
6
0.50
(0.31)
90
7
0.286
(0.26)
7
0.385
(0.26)
16
0.23
(0.20)
85
7
0.218
(0.36)
16
0.213
(0.20)
-
-
80
16
0.222
(0.14)
-
-
-
-
a
b
c
d
Data expressed as mean intake with standard deviation in parentheses.
Humidity = 80%; air velocity = 60 ft/minute.
The symbol "hp" refers to horsepower.
Number of subjects with continuous data.
Data not reported in the source document.


Source:
McNall and Schlegel (1968).





Table 3-87. Planning Factors for Individual Tap Water Consumption
Recommended Planning Factor
Environmental Condition	Recommended Planning Factor (gal/day)a	L/daya,b
Hot	3.0C	11.4
Temperate	1.5d	5.7
Cold	2.0e	7.6
a	Based on a mixture of activities among the workforce as follows: 15% light work; 65% medium work; 20% heavy
work. These factors apply to the conventional battlefield where no nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are used.
b	Converted from gal/day to L/day.
c	This assumes 1 quart/12-hour rest period/man for perspiration losses and 1 quart/day-man for urination plus
6 quarts/12 hours of light work/man, 9 quarts/12 hours of moderate work/man, and 12 quarts/12 hours of heavy
work/man.
d	This assumes 1 quart/12-hour rest period/man for perspiration losses and 1 quart/day /man for urination plus
1	quart/12 hours of light work/man, 3 quarts/12 hours of moderate work/man, and 6 quarts/12 hours of heavy
work/man.
e	This assumes 1 quart/12-hour rest period/man for perspiration losses, 1 quart/day /man for urination, and
2	quarts/day/man for respiration losses plus 1 quart/12 hours of light work/man, 3 quarts/12 hours of moderate
work/man, and 6 quarts/6 hours of heavy work/man.
Source: U.S. Army (1983, 1999).
February 2019
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-88. Mean (± standard error [SE]) Fluid Intake (mL/kg-day) by Children Aged 1 to
10 Years, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III, 1988-1994
Total Sample
N= 7,925
Sample with Temperature Information
N= 3,869
Sample without Temperature
Information
N= 4,056
Total fluid 84 ±1.0
84 ± 1.0
85 ± 1.4
Plain water 27 ±0.8
27 ± 1.0
26 ± 1.1
Milk 18 ±0.3
18 ±0.6
18 ±0.4
Carbonated drinks 6 ± 0.2
5 ±0.3
6 ±0.3
Juice 12 ± 0.3
11 ±0.6
12 ±0.4
iV = Number of observations.


Source: Sohn et al. (2001).


February 2019
Page 3-131
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-89. Estimated Mean (± standard error [SE]) Amount of Total Fluid and Plain
Water Intake among Children3 Aged 1 to 10 Years by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity,
Poverty:Income Ratio, Region, and Urbanicity (National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey [NHANES] III, 1988-1994)


Total Fluid
Plain Water
N
mL/day
mL/kg-day
mL/day
mL/kg-day
Age (years)





1
578
1,393 ±31
124 ±2.9
298 ± 19
26 ± 1.8
2
579
1,446 ±31
107 ±2.3
430 ± 26
32 ± 1.9
3
502
1,548 ±75
100 ±4.6
482 ± 27
31 ± 1.8
4
511
1,601 ±41
91 ±2.8
517 ± 23
29 ± 1.3
5
465
1,670 ±54
84 ±2.3
525 ± 36
26 ± 1.7
6
255
1,855 ± 125
81 ±4.9
718 ±118
31 ±4.7
7
235
1,808 ±66
71 ±2.3
674 ± 46
26 ± 1.9
8
247
1,792 ±37
61 ± 1.8
626 ± 37
21 ± 1.2
9
254
2,113 ±78
65 ±2.1
878 ± 59
26 ± 1.4
10
243
2,051 ± 97
58 ±2.4
867 ± 74
24 ±2.0
Sex





Male
1,974
1,802 ±30
86 ± 1.8
636 ± 32
29 ± 1.3
Female
1,895
1,664 ±24
81 ± 1.5
579 ± 26
26 ± 1.0
Race/ethnicity





White
736
1,653 ±26
79 ± 1.8
552 ± 34
24 ±0.3
Black
1,122
1,859 ±42
88 ± 1.8
795 ± 36
36 ± 1.5
Mexican American
1,728
1,817 ±25
89 ± 1.7
633 ±23
29 ± 1.1
Other
283
1,813 ±47
90 ±4.2
565 ± 39
26 ± 1.7
Poverty: income ratiob





Low
1,868
1,828 ±32
93 ±2.6
662 ± 27
32 ± 1.3
Medium
1,204
1,690 ±31
80 ± 1.6
604 ± 35
26 ± 1.4
High
379
1,668 ±54
76 ±2.5
533 ±41
22 ± 1.7
Regionc,d





Northeast
679
1,735 ±31
87 ±2.3
568 ± 52
26 ±2.1
Midwest
699
1,734 ±45
84 ± 1.5
640 ± 54
29 ± 1.8
South
869
1,739 ±31
83 ±2.2
613 ±24
28 ± 1.3
West
1,622
737 ± 25
81 ± 1.7
624 ± 44
27± 1.9
February 2019
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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-89. Estimated Mean (± standard error [SE]) Amount of Total Fluid and Plain
Water Intake among Children3 Aged 1 to 10 Years by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity,
Poverty:Income Ratio, Region, and Urbanicity (National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey [NHANES] III, 1988-1994) (Continued)
Total Fluid	Plain Water
iV	mL/day	mL/kg-day	mL/day	mL/kg-day
Urban/rurald
Urban	3,358	1,736 ± 18	84 ± 1.0	609 ±29	27 ±1.1
Rural	511	1,737 ± 19	84 ±4.3	608 ±20	28 ±1.2
Total	3,869	1,737 ± 15	84 ± 1.1	609 ±24	27 ±1.0
a	Children for whom temperature data were obtained.
b	Based on ratio of household income to federal poverty threshold. Low: <1.300; medium: 1.301-3.500; high: >3.501.
c	All variables except for region and urban/rural showed statistically significant differences for both total fluid and
plain water intake by Bonferroni multiple comparison method.
d	Northeast = Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, Vermont;
Midwest = Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South
Dakota, Wisconsin;
South = Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland,
Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia;
West = Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah,
Washington, Wyoming.
N	= Number of observations.
Source: Sohn et al. (2001).
February 2019
Page 3-133
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-90. Daily Water Intake Based on Physical Activity Levels, Mean ± Standard Error


(SE) g/day


Physical Activity Level
Plain Water8
Beverage Moistureb
Food Moisture0
Total Waterd

Age 2-
19 years (N= 3,978)e


All
583 + 28
47+1
437 + 7
1,926 + 36
None
379+ 13
1,173 + 194
417 + 35
1,969 + 244
A little
516 + 79
842 + 57
423 + 27
1780+ 108
Some
515 + 39
881 + 32
412+18
1,808 + 67
A lot
643 + 31
917 + 44
442+ 10
2,003 + 49
Age 20+ years (N = 4,112)f
All
1,061 + 52
1,539 + 43
580+ 12
3,179 + 68
Any leisure activity >10 minutes over




previous month?




Yes
1,112 + 50
1,543 + 44
587+ 13
3,242 + 72
No
933 + 64
1,528 + 53
561 + 16
3,021+69
Average activity on usual day?




Mostly sitting
998 + 64
1,487 + 65
584+ 17
3,068 + 58
Mostly standing
1,060 + 61
1,471 + 37
579 + 8
3,110 + 74
Carry light loads or climb stairs
1,100 + 93
1,680 + 87
577+ 19
3,357+ 109
Heavy work or carry heavy loads
1,142+110
1,733 + 55
582 + 29
3,457+ 123
Age 20+(W= 2,691)«
All
985 + 39
1,418 + 34
664 + 14
3,066 + 47
MET score = 0
973 + 74
1,295 + 38
653 + 19
2,920 + 67
MET score = Tertile 1
971 + 38
1,325 + 38
653 + 13
2,949 + 54
MET score = Tertile 2
1,004 + 81
1,617 + 69
680 + 29
3,302 + 56
MET score = Tertile 3
1,047 + 81
1,806 + 58
716 + 25
3,568+ 119
a Includes tap water, water from a cooler or drinking fountain, spring water, and noncarbonated bottled water.
b Includes moisture in beverages.




c Includes moisture in foods.




d Sum of plain water, beverage moisture, and food moisture.


Kant and Graubard (2010); based on NHANES 2005-2006.


f Kant et al. (2009); based on NHANES 1999-2006.


s Yang and Chun (2014); based on NHANES 2005-2006.


iV = Number of individuals.




Source: Kant et al. (2009); Kant and Graubard (2010); Yang and Chun (2014).


February 2019
Page 3-134
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-91. Pool Water Ingestion by Swimmers

Number of
Average Water Ingestion Rate
Average Water Ingestion Rate
Study Group
Participants
mL/4 5-minute interval
mL/hour®
Children <18 years old
41
37
49
Males <18 years old
20
45
60
Females <18 years old
21
30
43
Adults (>18 years)
12
16
21
Men
4
22
29
Women
8
12
16
a Converted from mL/45-minute interval.


Source: Dufour et al. (2006).



Table 3-92. Swimming Pool Water Ingestion Rates (mL/hour) by Swimmer Groups
Age Group
Sex
N
Geometric Mean
Confidence Intervals
95th Percentile
Children 6-10 years
All
66
24
17-33
96
Teens 11-15 years
All
121
24
19-30
152
Adults 16+ years
All
362
12
11-14
105

Female
192
9
8-11
72

Male
170
16
13-20
145
iV = Number of study participants.
Source: Dufour et al. (2017); Dufour and Wymer (2017).
Table 3-93. Water Ingested while Swimming (mL/hour)





Percentiles


Age (years)
N
Mean
25th
50th
75th
90th
95th
6 to <11
66
38
15
25
53
77
96
11 to <16
121
44
11
29
48
103
152
16 to <21
84
33
9
19
41
74
105
6 to <21
271
39
11
25
47
87
137
21+
276
28
5
13
29
50
92
iV = Number of study participants.






Source: Dufour (2017); based on data provided to L. Phillips by A. Dufour by personal communication, 6/21/2017.

February 2019
Page 3-135
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-94. Arithmetic Mean (maximum) Number of Dives per Diver and Volume of Water
Ingested (mL/dive)
Divers and Locations Percentage of Divers
Number of Dives
Volume of Water Ingested
mL
Occupational divers (N= 35)



Open sea
57
24(151)
8.7(25)
Coastal water, USD <1 km
23
3.2 (36)
9.7(25)
Coastal water, USD >1 km
20
1.8(16)
8.3 (25)
Coastal water, USD unknown
51
16 (200)
12(100)
Open sea and coastal combined
-
-
9.8(100)
Fresh water, USD <1 km
37
8.3 (76)
5.5 (25)
Fresh water, USD >1 km
37
16 (200)
5.5 (25)
Fresh water, no USD
37
16 (200)
4.8 (25)
Fresh water, USD unknown
77
45 (200)
6.0 (25)
All fresh water combined
-
-
5.7(25)
Sports divers—ordinary mask (N= 482)



Open sea
26
2.1 (120)
7.7(100)
Coastal water
78
14(114)
9.9(190)
Open sea and coastal combined
-
-
9.0(190)
Fresh recreational water
85
22(159)
13(190)
Canals and rivers
11
0.65 (62)
3.4(100)
City canals
1.5
0.031 (4)
2.8(100)
Canals, rivers, city canals combined
-
-
3.2(100)
Swimming pools
65
17(134)
20(190)
Sports divers—full face mask (N= 482)



Open sea
0.21
0.012(6)
0.43 (2.8)
Coastal water
1.0
0.10(34)
1.3(15)
Fresh recreational water
27
0.44 (80)
1.3(15)
Canals and rivers
1.2
0.098 (13)
0.47 (2.8)
City canals
0.41
0.010(3)
0.31 (2.8)
All surface water combined
-
-
0.81 (25)
Swimming pools
2.3
0.21 (40)
13(190)
N = Number of divers.
USD = Upstream sewage discharge.
Source: Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006).
February 2019
Page 3-136
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-95. Exposure Parameters for Swimmers in Swimming Pools, Fresh Water, and



Seawater






Adults






Men

Women
Children <15 years
Parameter
Mean
95% UCI
Mean
95% UCI
Mean
95% UCI
Swimming duration (min)






Swimming pool
68
180
67
170
81
200
Fresh water
54
200
54
220
79
270
Seawater
45
160
41
180
65
240
Volume water swallowed (mL)






Swimming pool
34
170
23
110
51
200
Fresh water
27
140
18
86
37
170
Seawater
27
140
18
90
31
140
UCI = Upper confidence interval.






Source: Schets et al. (2011).






Table 3-96. Estimated Water Ingestion during Water Recreation Activities (mL/hr)
Activity

Surface Water Study



Swimming Pool Study
iV Median
Mean
UCL
N
Median Mean
UCL
Limited Contact Scenarios
Boating
316
2.1
3.7
11.2
0
-
-
-
Canoeing
766



76



No capsize

2.2
3.8
11.4

2.1
3.6
11.0
With capsize

3.6
6.0
19.9

3.9
6.6
22.4
All activities

2.3
3.9
11.8

2.6
4.4
14.1
Fishing
600
2.0
3.6
10.8
121
2.0
3.5
10.6
Kayaking
801



104



No capsize

2.2
3.8
11.4

2.1
3.6
10.9
With capsize

2.9
5.0
16.5

4.8
7.9
26.8
All activities

2.3
3.8
11.6

3.1
5.2
17.0
Rowing
222



0



No capsize

2.3
3.9
11.8

-
-
-
With capsize

2.0
3.5
10.6

-
-
-
All activities

2.3
3.9
11.8

-
-
-
W ading / splashing
0
-
-
-
112
2.2
3.7
1.0
Walking
0
-
-
-
23
2.0
3.5
1.0
Full Contact Scenarios
Immersion
0
_
_
_
112
3.2
5.1
15.3
Swimming
0
-
-
-
114
6.0
10.0
34.8
TOTAL
2,705



662



N = Number of participants.
UCL = Upper confidence limit (i
= No data.
Source: Dorevitch et al. (2011).
e., meanH
1.96 x SD).





February 2019
Page 3-137
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table 3-97. Pool Water Ingestion (mL/hr) by Activity and Age Group among Videotaped


Participants


Groups
N
Mean
SD
Range
All swimmers
35
13.7
24.0
0-105.5
Adults
19
3.5
11.7
0-50.9
Children
16
25.7
29.2
0.9-105.5
Lap swimmers
9
1.6
3.1
0.9-19
Leisure swimmers
26
17.8
26.6
0-105.5
N = Number of participants.




Source: Suppes et al. (2014).




Table 3-98. Estimated Volume of Water Ingested per Swimming Event (mL/event)





Percentiles


Age (years)
Mean
SD
5th
10th
50th
90th
95th
All water types







All ages
44.4
93.1
1.0
2.0
16.0
104.7
174.0
6-12
63.2
83.4
2.8
5.5
36.0
150.0
213.0
13-18
63.7
83.4
1.6
3.1
27.0
156.0
254.0
19-34
29.0
69.4
0.7
1.3
9.7
66.0
116.0
>35
29.9
82.6
0.7
1.1
9.0
64.0
118.0
Fresh water







All ages
35.4
74.6
0.8
1.3
12.7
84.0
140.0
6-12
53.0
69.9
2.4
5.0
30.0
126.2
184.0
13-18
45.0
79.9
1.0
2.0
18.0
112.0
174.7
19-34
21.9
54.4
0.4
0.9
7.1
50.0
85.3
>35
22.6
62.1
0.4
0.9
6.7
47.6
88.0
Marine







All ages
48.3
99.3
1.2
2.0
18.0
116.0
186.7
6-12
67.7
88.5
3.0
6.0
39.3
160.0
220.0
13-18
71.4
115.5
2.0
4.0
32.0
174.7
280.0
19-34
32.8
76.3
0.7
1.3
11.1
76.0
126.0
>35
32.3
88.1
0.7
1.3
9.8
70.5
121.3
Source: De-Florio-Barker et al. (2017).
February 2019
Page 3-138
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
APPENDIX A
Table A-l. Comparison of Community Water Intake Estimates3
1994-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010
Age Range
CSFII 1994-
00
cr
NHANES 2003-
-2006c
NHANES 2005-2010d
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Per Capita (mL/day)
Birth <1 month
91
184
839
88
239
851
87
184
951
1 <3 months
253
227
896
143
282
962
233
145
905
3 <6 months
428
362
1,056
244
373
925
282
187
981
6 <12 months
714
360
1,055
466
303
866
588
269
988
1 <2 years
1,040
271
837
611
223
760
728
146
565
2 <3 years
1,056
317
877
571
265
861
751
205
778
3 <6 years
4,391
380
1,078
1,091
327
959
1,418
208
741
6 <11 years
1,670
447
1,235
1,601
414
1,316
2,292
294
1,071
11 <16 years
1,005
606
1,727
2,396
520
1,821
2,551
315
1,395
16 <21 years
752
779
2,262
2,332
627
2,076
2,191
436
1,900
>21 years
9,207
1,104
2,811
8,673
1,043
2,958
13,552
859
2,732
All
20,607
926
2,544
18,216
869
2,717
24,673
711
2,641



Per
Capita (mL/kg-day)




Birth <1 month
88
52
232
88
52
169
87
42
200
1 <3 months
245
48
205
143
49
164
233
25
164
3 <6 months
411
52
159
244
52
132
282
27
141
6 <12 months
678
41
126
466
34
103
588
30
112
1 <2 years
1,002
23
71
611
20
67
728
13
51
2 <3 years
994
23
60
571
19
61
751
15
58
3 <6 years
4,112
22
61
1,091
18
51
1,418
11
42
6 <11 years
1,553
16
43
1,601
14
43
2,292
10
34
11 <16 years
975
12
34
2,396
10
32
2,551
6
26
16 <21 years
743
12
33
2,332
9
32
2,191
6
28
>21 years
9,049
15
39
8,673
13
40
13,552
11
35
All
19,850
16
43
18,216
14
42
24,673
11
37
Consumer Only (mL/day)
Birth <1 month
40
470
858
51
409
852
20
581
938
1 <3 months
114
552
1,053
85
531
1,019
45
785
1,223
3 <6 months
281
556
1,171
192
520
929
65
649
1,125
6 <12 months
562
467
1,147
416
356
948
244
554
1,104
1 <2 years
916
308
893
534
277
781
394
245
658
2 <3 years
934
356
912
508
321
911
445
332
901
3 <6 years
3,960
417
1,099
985
382
999
860
338
836
6 <11 years
1,555
480
1,251
1,410
511
1,404
1,473
455
1,258
11 <16 years
937
652
1,744
2,113
637
1,976
1,449
562
1,761
16 <21 years
705
844
2,284
2,030
759
2,351
1,312
722
2,214
>21 years
8,505
1,183
2,848
7,616
1,227
3,092
8,912
1,276
3,075
All
18,509
1,000
2,601
15,940
1,033
2,881
15,219
1,096
2,972
February 2019
PageA-l
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

Table A-l. Comparison of Community Water Intake Estimates"


1994-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010





(Continued)






CSFII 1994-
-1998b
NHANES 2003-
2006c
NHANES 2005-2010d
Age Range
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)
Birth <1 month
37
137
238
51
90
172
20
133
224
1 <3 months
108
119
285
85
93
186
45
136
267
3 <6 months
269
80
173
192
73
140
65
93
158
6 <12 months
534
53
129
416
40
104
244
62
133
1 <2 years
880
27
75
534
25
71
394
22
57
2 <3 years
879
26
62
508
23
62
445
24
67
3 <6 years
3,703
24
65
985
21
52
860
19
45
6 <11 years
1,439
17
45
1,410
17
47
1,473
15
41
11 <16 years
911
13
34
2,113
12
35
1,449
10
31
16 <21 years
700
13
34
2,030
11
33
1,312
10
31
>21 years
8,355
16
39
7,616
16
36
8,912
17
41
All
17,815
17
44
15,940
16
44
15,219
17
44
a CSFII analysis assumes that some indirect water intake is from bottled water; NHANES analysis assumes that all
indirect water intake is from community water.





b Used as the basis of recommended values for children <3 years of age
in the Exposu
re Factors Handbook: 2011
Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011).







c Used as the basis of recommended values for ages >3 years in the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S.
EPA, 2011).








d Based on the new JIFSAN Food Intake Calculator.





CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.





N = Number of observations.







NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.





Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.






February 2019
Page A-2
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table A-2. Comparison of Bottled Water Intake Estimates3
1994-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010
Age Range
CSFII 1994-
-1998
NHANES 2003-
-2006
NHANES 2005-2010
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Per Capita (mL/day)
Birth <1 month
91
104
556
88
6
28
87
7
44
1 <3 months
253
106
771
143
21
122
233
8
44
3 <6 months
428
120
774
244
12
77
282
11
89
6 <12 months
714
120
761
466
34
187
588
34
178
1 <2 years
1,040
59
350
611
65
342
728
71
356
2 <3 years
1,056
76
494
571
95
575
751
105
533
3 <6 years
4,391
84
531
1,091
108
526
1,418
121
578
6 <11 years
1,670
84
532
1,601
138
696
2,292
156
731
11 <16 years
1,005
111
709
2,396
202
938
2,551
235
1,095
16 <21 years
752
147
911
2,332
365
1,621
2,191
380
1,500
>21 years
9,207
189
1,183
8,673
375
1,718
13,552
335
1,542
All
20,607
163
1,059
18,216
321
1,502
24,673
326
1,570
Per Capita (mL/kg-day)
Birth <1 month
88
33
243
88
1
7
87
2
11
1 <3 months
245
22
161
143
4
19
233
1
8
3 <6 months
411
16
117
244
2
11
282
2
12
6 <12 months
678
13
87
466
4
22
588
4
21
1 <2 years
1,002
5
28
611
6
30
728
6
32
2 <3 years
994
5
35
571
1
40
751
8
39
3 <6 years
4,112
5
30
1,091
6
31
1,418
7
32
6 <11 years
1,553
3
18
1,601
4
24
2,292
5
23
11 <16 years
975
2
14
2,396
4
17
2,551
4
19
16 <21 years
743
3
15
2,332
5
24
2,191
6
24
>21 years
9,049
3
17
8,673
5
22
13,552
4
19
All
19,850
3
18
18,216
5
22
24,673
5
22
Consumer Only (mL/day)
Birth <1 month
25
_
_
11
55
190
16
38
155
1 <3 months
64
450
1,045
28
135
347
38
66
192
3 <6 months
103
507
1,436
65
69
202
79
61
133
6 <12 months
200
425
1,103
190
111
359
228
109
281
1 <2 years
229
262
709
247
193
474
317
188
578
2 <3 years
232
352
977
220
276
1,000
332
273
711
3 <6 years
1,021
380
958
430
297
825
617
299
830
6 <11 years
332
430
1,081
661
350
898
1,036
374
1,067
11 <16 years
192
570
1,447
1,171
411
1,297
1,236
517
1,600
16 <21 years
160
692
1,978
1,211
755
2,223
1,111
753
1,995
>21 years
1,893
831
1,773
3,836
840
2,363
6,299
771
2,160
All
4,451
736
1,567
8,070
738
2,133
736
736
2,133
February 2019
Page A-3
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids



Table A-2. Comparison of Bottled Water Intake Estimates3


1994
-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and


Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010






(Continued)







CSFII 1994-
-1998
NHANES 2003-
2006
NHANES 2005-2010
Age Range

N
Mean
95th
N Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)
Birth <1 month

25
_
_
11
12
38
16
8
31
1 <3 months

64
92
220
28
24
63
38
11
31
3 <6 months

95
72
184
65
10
27
79
8
19
6 <12 months

185
47
120
190
12
36
228
12
32
1 <2 years

216
22
66
247
17
44
317
17
48
2 <3 years

211
25
81
220
20
68
332
20
52
3 <6 years

946
21
57
430
16
47
617
17
44
6 <11 years

295
15
42
661
11
31
1,036
12
34
11 <16 years

180
11
27
1,171
9
23
1,236
9
25
16 <21 years

156
11
29
1,211
11
34
1,111
11
30
>21 years

1,861
12
30
3,836
11
29
6,299
10
28
All

4,234
13
36
8,070
11
31
11,309
11
30
a CSFII analysis includes direct and indirect bottled water intake. NHANES analyses include direct water intake only.
CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.





N = Number of observations.







NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.





Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.






February 2019
Page A-4
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table A-3. Comparison of Other Sources of Water Intake Estimates"
1994-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010
Age Range
CSFII 1994-
-1998
NHANES 2003-
-2006
NHANES 2005-2010
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Per Capita (mL/day)
Birth <1 month
91
13
_
88
51
229
87
273
860
1 <3 months
253
35
367
143
82
276
233
351
1,055
3 <6 months
428
45
365
244
141
329
282
355
1,154
6 <12 months
714
45
406
466
124
770
588
274
1,023
1 <2 years
1,040
22
118
611
82
479
728
77
356
2 <3 years
1,056
39
344
571
74
459
751
93
524
3 <6 years
4,391
43
343
1,091
62
433
1,418
84
481
6 <11 years
1,670
61
468
1,601
108
659
2,292
105
614
11 <16 years
1,005
102
786
2,396
163
1,030
2,551
198
1,078
16 <21 years
752
72
493
2,332
184
1,193
2,191
217
1,221
>21 years
9,207
156
1,257
8,673
282
1,831
13,552
315
1,726
All
20,607
128
1,008
18,216
237
1,480
24,673
272
1,571



Per
Capita (mL/kg-day)




Birth <1 month
88
4
_
88
11
45
87
66
206
1 <3 months
245
7
52
143
14
49
233
63
195
3 <6 months
411
7
55
244
20
60
282
49
157
6 <12 months
678
5
35
466
14
74
588
31
119
1 <2 years
1,002
2
11
611
7
43
728
7
31
2 <3 years
994
3
23
571
6
34
751
7
40
3 <6 years
4,112
2
19
1,091
3
22
1,418
4
24
6 <11 years
1,553
2
16
1,601
4
23
2,292
4
21
11 <16 years
975
2
14
2,396
3
16
2,551
3
19
16 <21 years
743
2
8
2,332
3
17
2,191
3
18
>21 years
9,049
2
17
8,673
4
23
13,552
4
23
All
19,850
2
16
18,216
4
23
24,673
5
25
Consumer Only (mL/day)
Birth <1 month
3
_
_
41
121
246
47
611
923
1 <3 months
19
-
-
67
187
400
134
704
1,122
3 <6 months
38
562
1,205
160
237
730
175
665
1,250
6 <12 months
73
407
1,032
287
223
877
328
564
1,182
1 <2 years
98
262
899
312
155
628
310
209
642
2 <3 years
129
354
851
256
163
798
282
268
887
3 <6 years
533
396
1,019
449
155
631
525
231
721
6 <11 years
219
448
1,090
609
270
1,065
755
331
948
11 <16 years
151
687
1,839
1,116
367
1,467
994
513
1,526
16 <21 years
86
613
1,923
1,039
437
2,145
760
632
2,297
>21 years
1,386
1,137
2,739
3,555
672
2,774
4,412
1,002
2,798
All
2,735
963
2,468
7,891
559
2,381
8,722
833
2,682
February 2019
Page A-5
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids


Table A-3. Comparison of Other Sources of Water Intake Estimates"


1994
-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and


Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010






(Continued)






CSFII 1994-
-1998
NHANES 2003-
2006
NHANES 2005-2010
Age Range

N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)
Birth <1 month

3
_
_
41
26
51
47
148
297
1 <3 months

19
-
-
67
31
69
134
126
218
3 <6 months

38
80
200
160
33
113
175
92
176
6 <12 months

68
44
106
287
25
98
328
64
141
1 <2 years

95
23
84
312
14
54
310
19
58
2 <3 years

124
26
66
256
12
62
282
20
64
3 <6 years

505
22
56
449
8
28
525
12
34
6 <11 years

208
16
39
609
9
33
755
11
36
11 <16 years

148
13
36
1,116
6
23
994
9
27
16 <21 years

85
9
28
1,039
6
28
760
9
30
>21 years

1,365
15
39
3,555
9
35
4,412
13
36
All

2,657
16
41
7,891
9
35
8,722
14
43
a Includes both direct and indirect water intake






CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.





N = Number of observations.







NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.





Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.






February 2019
Page A-6
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Table A-4. Comparison of All Sources of Water Intake Estimates"
1994-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010
Age Range
CSFII 1994-
1998
NHANES 2003-
-2006
NHANES 2005-2010
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Per Capita (mL/day)
Birth <1 month
91
301
877
88
295
954
87
464
945
1 <3 months
253
368
1,020
143
385
1,084
233
505
1,124
3 <6 months
428
528
1,303
244
527
1,192
282
552
1,207
6 <12 months
714
530
1,278
466
461
1,126
588
576
1,168
1 <2 years
1,040
358
961
611
370
912
728
293
768
2 <3 years
1,056
437
999
571
435
1,086
751
403
1,001
3 <6 years
4,391
514
1,200
1,091
498
1,181
1,418
413
980
6 <11 years
1,670
600
1,409
1,601
660
1,567
2,292
555
1,389
11 <16 years
1,005
834
1,960
2,396
885
2,595
2,551
748
2,242
16 <21 years
752
1,020
2,665
2,332
1,177
2,999
2,191
1,033
2,741
>21 years
9,207
1,466
3,195
8,673
1,700
3,727
13,552
1,500
3,350
All
20,607
1,233
2,908
18,216
1,426
3,412
24,673
1,309
3,292
Per Capita (mL/kg-day)
Birth <1 month
88
89
269
88
65
195
87
110
253
1 <3 months
245
77
246
143
67
194
233
89
204
3 <6 months
411
75
186
244
74
179
282
77
165
6 <12 months
678
59
148
466
52
137
588
65
138
1 <2 years
1,002
31
85
611
33
80
728
26
69
2 <3 years
994
31
73
571
32
78
751
29
71
3 <6 years
4,112
29
69
1,091
27
63
1,418
23
54
6 <11 years
1,553
21
50
1,601
22
52
2,292
18
47
11 <16 years
975
16
39
2,396
16
44
2,551
13
38
16 <21 years
743
16
39
2,332
17
44
2,191
15
41
>21 years
9,049
20
44
8,673
22
50
13,552
19
44
All
19,850
21
50
18,216
22
53
24,673
20
49
Consumer Only mL/day
Birth <1 month
58
511
986
54
481
996
68
597
953
1 <3 months
178
555
1,072
92
665
1,099
182
725
1,154
3 <6 months
363
629
1,330
209
660
1,215
243
666
1,251
6 <12 months
667
567
1,303
453
All
1,128
577
590
1,182
1 <2 years
1,017
366
978
596
378
914
714
300
768
2 <3 years
1,051
439
1,001
560
441
1,087
741
408
1,001
3 <6 years
4,350
518
1,206
1,077
506
1,182
1,405
416
993
6 <11 years
1,659
603
1,409
1,580
666
1,585
2,263
565
1,389
11 <16 years
1,000
837
1,961
2,362
898
2,600
2,504
767
2,248
16 <21 years
740
1,039
2,674
2,269
1,208
3,015
2,129
1,068
2,808
>21 years
9,178
1,472
3,195
8,608
1,712
3,733
13,473
1,508
3,354
All
20,261
1,242
2,923
17,860
1,444
3,422
24,299
1,325
3,306
February 2019
Page A-7
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids


Table A-4. Comparison of All Sources of Water Intake Estimates"


1994
-1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and


Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010






(Continued)






CSFII 1994-
-1998
NHANES 2003-2006
NHANES 2005-2010
Age Range

N Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
N
Mean
95th
Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)
Birth <1 month

55
153
273
54
105
211
68
141
263
1 <3 months

172
116
291
92
115
201
182
128
218
3 <6 months

346
90
195
209
92
186
243
93
174
6 <12 months

631
63
152
453
54
137
577
66
139
1 <2 years

980
31
86
596
34
82
714
27
69
2 <3 years

989
31
73
560
32
78
741
29
72
3 <6 years

4,072
29
70
1,077
27
63
1,405
23
54
6 <11 years

1,542
21
50
1,580
22
52
2,263
19
48
11 <16 years

970
16
39
2,362
16
44
2,504
14
38
16 <21 years

732
16
39
2,269
18
45
2,129
15
41
>21 years

9,020
20
44
8,608
22
50
13,473
19
44
All

19,509
21
50
17,860
22
53
24,299
20
50
a CSFII analysis includes direct and indirect bottled water. NHANES analysis assumes that all indirect water intake is
from community water.








CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.





N = Number of observations.







NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.





Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.






February 2019
Page A-8
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
Mean Per Capita Water Ingestion (ml/day)
Whole Population fall ages)
1600
1200
1000
600
400
NHANES 2003-06
NHANES 2005-10
Community —Bottled	other —«il
Figure A-l. Comparison of mean per capita water ingestion (mL/day), all ages: Continuing Survey of Food
Intake by Individuals (CSFII) 1994-1996, 1998; National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES) 2003-2006, and NHANES 2005-2010.
February 2019
PageA-9
-------
Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook
Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids
APPENDIX B
Table B-l. Terms Used in Literature Searches
Water ingestion
Water intake
Water consumption
Direct water ingestion/intake/consumption
Indirect water ingestion/intake/consumption
Bottled water ingestion/intake/consumption
Well water ingestion/intake/consumption
Spring water ingestion/intake/consumption
Tap water ingestion/intake/consumption
Incidental water ingestion/intake/consumption
Community water ingestion/intake/consumption
Municipal water ingestion/intake/consumption
Commercial water ingestion/intake/consumption
Drinking water source
Intrinsic water ingestion/intake/consumption
Surface water ingestion/intake/consumption
Consumer only water ingestion/intake/consumption
Per capita water ingestion/intake/consumption
Liquid ingestion/intake/consumption
Chlorinated/nonchlorinated ingestion/intake/consumption
Water.. .and activity level
Water.. .and bathers
Water.. .and climate
Water.. .and health status
Water.. .and pregnancy
Water.. .and lactation
Water.. .and diabetes
Water.. .and smoking
Water.. .and swimming/diving
Water.. .and recreational activities
Fluid intake
Beverage intake
Ershow AG
Marshall T
February 2019
Page B-l
-------