EPA-600/R-97-051
May 1997
LARGE BUILDINGS CHARACTERISTICS
AS RELATED TO RADON RESISTANCE:
A LITERATURE REVIEW
by
Ronald A. Venezia, Consultant
10C3 Askham Drive
Gary, KC 27511
EPA Purchase Order 4C2010NATA
EPA Projeel. Officer: David C. Sanchez
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
National Risk Managexcnt Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NO 27711
Prepared for:
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Devc_opxent
Washington, DC 204 60
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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policyand
approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
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FOREWORD
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with pro-
tecting the Nation's land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national
environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions lead-
ing to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural
systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA's research
program is providing data and technical support for solving environmental pro-
blems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our eco-
logical resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and pre-
vent or reduce environmental risks in the future.
The National Risk Management Research Laboratory is the Agency's center for
investigation of technological and management approaches for reducing risks
from threats to human health and the environment. The focus of the Laboratory's
research program is on methods for the prevention and control of pollution to air,
land, water, and subsurface resources; protection of water quality in public water
systems; remediation of contaminated sites and groundwater; and prevention and
control of indoor air pollution. The goal of this research effort is to catalyze
development and implementation of innovative, cost-effective environmental
technologies; develop scientific and engineering information needed by EPA to
support regulatory and policy decisions; and provide technical support and infor-
mation transfer to ensure effective implementation of environmental regulations
and strategies.
This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory's strategic long-
term research plan. It is published and made available by EPA's Office of Re-
search and Development to assist the user community and to link researchers
with their clients.
E. Timothy Oppelt, Director
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
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ABSTRACT
This report, gives results cf a literature review to cieterr.ine to what
useful extent buildings have been characterized ar.d a acta base developed in
re", a Lion to radon entry and n:Ligation. ?r: or to 1993 nost radon research in
large buildings was .focused on developing diagnostic and mitigation techniques
for school buildings. The belief exists that those techniques developed for
school bui.J. dings can be used as the basis tor developing diagnostic and
mitigation techniques for ether types of large buildings. The complexity and
diversity of large building designs is an added complexity in radon
mitigation. Much in the available literature on large building
characteristics is directed toward energy conservation and HVAC system design
and operation. Data or. floor space to footprint ratio, separation of lower
level from upper floors, floor bypasses and building foundation
design/construct ion is lacking. The development and application of energy
conservation techniques for large buildings have been vigorously pursued since
the nid 197C * s and have resulted in significant energy savings. Seme of these
techniques may have contributed to Sick Buildlnq Syndrome, Building Related
Illness and a general decrease in Indoor Air Quality. Radon diagnostic and
mitigation strategies arc lacking for large buildings. Studies are in
progress t.o develop, validate and provide guidance for radon ci agnostic
procedures and radon mitigation strategies applicable to a variety cf large
buildings commonly found in the State of blorida.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
List or Tables
Metric Equivalents
introduction
Summary of Findings
Large Building Characteristics
HVAC Systems
References
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A:
APPENDIX H
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX F.
APPENDIX F
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Chock Lists (PER 93) "
Radon Mitigation Branch School Profile Sheet (CHK 93) .
Literature Review of Radon in Large Buildings (GEO 91)
Large Building Survey Questionnaire (SHA 94)
Commercial Sector Energy Conservation Measures (DOE 91)
References from "ANSI/ASHRAE 62-1989-Energy vs.
TAQ Impact" (TAY 93)
LIST OF TABLES
Tabic 1 Commercial Building Characteristic;
Table 2 Building Data Base Summary . . . .
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METRIC EQUIVALENTS
Nonmetric units are used in this report for the reader's convenience. Readers more
familial- with the metric system may use the following factors to convert to that system.
Nonmetric
Multiplied bv
Yields Metric
cfm
0.000472
m3/s
ft
30.5
cm
ft2
929
cm2
in.
2.54
cm
in. WC
249
Pa
mil
25.4
/um
mile
1.6
km
pCi/L
37
Bq/m3
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INTRODUCTION
Radcn can enter a building in several ways. When there are no
pressure differences radon can enter buildings by diffusion-driven
transport. Radon can be emitted from well water directly supplied to a
building from radium-bearing formations. Building materials can also
be a source of radon. However, it is uncommon that any significant
radon concentration would occur in large buildings by these
mechan Lsir.s. Pressure-driven transport occurring when a lower indoor
air pressure draws air containing radon from soil or bedrock into the
building is the most common way radon enters large buildings. This
occurs ;i n many large buildings when they operate at ar. inside air
pressure lower than that of the subsoil. The following four
conditions must exist if radon is to enter a building through
pressure-driven transport: 1) radcn in the subsoil, 2) pathway from
the source through the substructure into the building, 3) radon entry
points, and 4) a driving force into the building.
Prior :o 1993 most radon research in large buildings was focused
on developing diagnostic and niLigation techniques for school
buildings. The belief exists that those techniques developed for
school buildings can be used as the basis for developing diagnostic
and mitigation techniques for other types of large buildings (PYL 93).
The complexity and diversity of large building designs is ar. added
complexity in radon mitigation. Much in the available literature on
large building characteristics is directed toward energy conservation
and 11VAC system design and operation. The development and application
of energy conservation techniques for large buildings have been
vigorously pursued since the mid 197C's and have resulted in
significant energy savings (CKA 91}. Some of these techniques nay
have contributed to Sick Building Syndrome (SHS) , Bu.i'ci.r.g Related
Tllr.ess (BRT) and a general decrease .in Indoor Air Quality (IAQ}. For
example, tighter buildings with limited fresh air intake may result in
poor indoor air quality. Efforts to improve IAQ through increased
ventilation may create the driving force necessary to transport radon
into the building if not properly balanced.
Radcn diagnostic and mitigation strat.egies are needed for large
buildings. Studies are in progress l.o develop, validate and provide
guidance for radon diagnostic procedures and radon mitigation
strategies applicable to a variety of large buildings commonly found
in the State of Florida (MEN 93). To help meet these needs an
understanding of existing characteristics of large buildings is
ner.fissa ry.
It is the purpose of this review to identify from the literature
the data base for specific large building characteristics that is
available regarding radon entry. The primary sources for the review
were the Ei Coxpendix database (2 35 abstracts) and a database
consisting of technical documentation related to indoor air work by
EPA's Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division.
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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Few _arge jouilcir.g studies have evaluated radon entry and/or
mitigation. Most large building characterization studios arc related
to energy conservation. Environmental studies have centered on IAQ as
it relates to Sick Building Syndrome and Building Related Illness.
Large build:ng characteristics of importance in relation to radon
entry include: heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
systex operation and maintenance, building foundation, floor space to
footprint ratio, separation of lower level from upper floors, floor
bypasses and location. Location has been suggested as the most
important characterise c re.lat.ed to radon entry. The literature
provided information 0:1 HVAC system operation and maintenance mostly
in large building characterization studies that were related to energy
conversation. There was minimal data on other radon related
characterisei cs. Cr.e author concluded that "a signi ficant body of
knowledge exists about the infiltration, air leakage, and ventilation
characteristics cf residential buildings, however, little measured
data exists on the quantities for commercial buildings" (3HA94).
Large buildings have diverse characteristics which make ii.
difficult to place them into a manageable number of categories for
radon mitigation studies. The DCE characterized nearly 4 million
commercial buildings, 1 million of which may be considered to be
large, greater than 10,000 ft/. Average footprint si/.e was available
for buildings up to 3 stories. It was not possible to determine from
the data the footprint size for buildings taller than 3 stories. This
is significant: because the building characteristic: that is ir.ost
strongly linked to radon entry is location. The much higher floor
space to footprint ratio for large multistory corxr.ercial buildings
over small buildings may account for the low incidence of high radon
levels in ]arge buildings. Ninety-five percent of 80,00C building
measurements conducted in Federal buildings were under 4 pCi/L.
Approximately one-half of the commercial buildings (large and
small) surveyed in the United States incorporate characteristics that
could increase radon entry if the radon source was present and the
pathway available. For example, basement substructures may
significantly contribute tc radon infiltration. The use of National
Institute of Standards and Technology parameters for describing
building and HVAC characteristics developed in conjunction with IAQ
investigations may provide some insight relative to radon entry into
large buildings especially as it relates to operation and maintenance
of HVAC systems.
An extensive literature search regarding large buildings in
Florida concluded that little information relevant to commercial
building characteristics in regard to radon was ava.i.Table. Because of
Florida's warm climate, high humidity, high water table and the
scarcity of sources for aggregate for construction, large buildings in
Florida generally differ from those built in other states.
HVAC systems have a significant impact, positive or negative, on
radon concentrations in large buildings because of pressurization or
depressurization, introduction of dilution air and air distribution.
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Well designed and installed HVAC systems can be adjusted to
effectively mitigate radon in large buildings. However, a bias
towa rds energy conservation, poor maintenance and : nef fic ' e.nt operation
of these complex systems can negate any potential for radon
mitigation. HVAC system performance characteristics are typically
measured in terms of a number of different parameters such as air
distribution, ventilation effectiveness, thermal comfort, building
pressurization, energy and maintenance costs and outdoor air exchange
rates. Experience has shown that a properly designed, well
constructed, properly functioning and well-maintained HVAC systeir. will
minimize '-he majority of TAQ and comfort complaints, but may not be
sufficient to solve all strong source/open pathway situations.
Energy use is a factor in radon entry as it relates directly to
whether or not the building is under positive or negative pressure.
Energy use is significantly influenced by: occupancy, building shell,
mechanical equipment, and weather. Evaluation of end-use electrical
consumption at commercial sires may give some insight to HVAC system
operation and maintenance which can be inferred to impact on radon
entry. Information may relate to energy conservation, ventilation and
building depressurization. Protocols, standards, and codes which
guide and regulate the design, installation, commissioning, operation
and maintenance of HVAC systems considering both radon
infiltration/mitigation and IAQ are needed.
LARGE BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS
The 'J. S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards
and Technology developed a scries of parameters for describing
building and HVAC characteristics of corrnercial buildings in
conjunction with indoor air quality investigations (PER 93).
Characterization included features considered essential to
investigations intended to obtain baseline information on a test space
within a building as opposed to a detailed research study or an effort
to diagnose a specific problem. Check lists were provided for:
1)Whole Building Description (basic features), 2)Test Space
Description (detailed information on area being studied which may be
the entire building), 3) HVAC System Description (that serves the test
space) and 4) HVAC System Performance (selected measurements). 3ecause
the parameters were defined to evaluate IAQ, not all information
sought is applicable to radon entry. Those check lists relative to
building characterization and radon entry are included for reference
as Appendix A. The number of investigations using these check lists
is not known. However, as a data base is developed it may provide
additional insight to radon entry in relation to basic: building
characteristics and HVAC system operation and maintenance.
Common substructures in buildings include: 1)Basement
construction, 2) Slab-on-grade, and 3)Crawl space. Basement
construction is common in larger buildings except where a high water
table prevails in which case a slab-on-grade substructure would be
used. While crawl space substructures are common in some areas for
houses they are not generally used for large buildings (GEO 91).
A representative sub-sample of 100 of the National School Radon
Survey schools tested by the EPA Office of Radiation and Indoor Air
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was evaluated in regards to building characteristics (CHM 93). The
survey form delineating the type of information requested is included
as Appendix B. The report concluded, in part, that., "Commonly
encountered structural characteristics include siab-cn-grade with a
conventional school building design with a single floor. Central HVAC
is common, but often combined with other HVAC systems within a single
school. where applicable, central HVAC ductwork is usually located in
the ceiling or suspended overhead. Radiant heat, using baseboard or
radiator systems, is the second most common HVAC system. Unit
ventilators and fan coils also present in many of the schools are most
often located along outside wails, but may be in the ceiling,
suspended overhead, along an inside wall, or on the roof."
The Department of Energy (DOE 92) characterizes large buildings
in a comprehensive manner. The data inc_ude number of buildings and
square footage. Building characteristics data include the type of
building, structure characteristics such as wall and roof material,
number of floors, and percent glass. Operating characteristics
include: number of nornal operating hours, additional operating hours,
and months vacant. Energy sources include all fuels used, fuels used
for heating, air-conditioning, water heating, cooking, manufacturing
and generating electricity. Equipment characteristics include
heating, refri gerat:on, and computers. Conservation character]sties
include the use of an energy manager, participation in Demand-Side
Management programs and energy audits. While these approaches to
characterization may be adequate for energy related considerations,
they generally lack the specifics necessary to relate meaning fully to
radon entry and mitigation, i.e., identification of radon pathways and
the magnitude and direction of driving forces.
The Department cf Energy had previously characterized nearly 4
niilion commercial buildings by several characteristics (DOE 89).
Those that are relevant to radon entry into large buildings include:
l)3uildinc Floor space (25% had greater than 10,000 ft2 and are
considered large buildings, 2)Principal Activity (32% were mercantile
and servi ce; the next highest category was office at 1.5%!, 3) Weekly
Operation Hours (only 8% were open continuously), 4) 80% reported
reduced heating and/or cooling during off hours, 5) 541 reported a
HVAC energy conservation feature, and 6) 52% reported a HVAC
preventive maintenance program. Other characteristics surveyed
include HVAC production and distribution equipment. Of the building
mix, 64% were one floor with an average footprint, of 9,000 ft2, 24%
were two floors with an average footprint of 7,350 ftJ, 8% were three
floors with an average footprint of 8,230 ft2. Only 4% were over three
floors. It was not possible to determine an average footprint for
those buildings over three floors. Based on these data approximately
one-half cf the commercial buildings surveyed in the United States
incorporate characteristies that could increase radon entry if the
radon source was present and the pathway available, i.e., reduced
heating and/or cooling during off hours, lack of HVAC preventive
maintenance and incorporation of HVAC energy conservation features.
In regaras to energy efficiency the State of Florida Energy
Efficient Code for Building Construction (FLA 91} classifies
commercial buildings by use type as shown in Table 1. This code is
climate specific for Florida and information requested as part
of the building permit process is generally not applicable to radon
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infiltration and mitigation.
As part of a study conducted for the Florida Department of
Community Affairs, Geomet Technologies Inc. (GEO 91) provided
reccmmer.dat: ens to the Florida Radon Research Program (FRR?) with
regard to radon in Florida's large buildings. As pari of their
"assembling a complete understanding cf the extent of the prob_en", a
literature review of radon in large buildings v/as conducted. It is
included in this report as Appendix C. Their review was "heavily
weighted toward research in schools, because there is very little
literature on radon research in other types cf large buildings."
However, they did examine school data for relevance to other types of
large buildings. Because of Florida's warm climate, high humidity,
high water table and the scarcity of sources for aggregate for
construction, which are relevant, to the pot.ent.ial radon problem, large
buildings in Florida generally differ from those built in other
states.
In part Geomet reached the conclusion that "Large buildings have
diverse characteristics which make it difficult to characterize them
as a group. The building characteristic that is most strongly linked
to radon is location (GEO 91). On an individual basis, buildings with
residential-type HVAC systems are strongly influenced by the quantity
cf outside air intake and the overall pressure balance of the system."
Mitigation of large buildings typically involves sealing floors
(particularly elevator shafts), pressure balancing the HVAC system and
active subs lab cepressurization. The characteristics of large
buildings in Florida that appear to be most significant for potential
radon entry are: 1) the predominance of slab-on-grade construction, 2}
the low porosity of the material under most slabs, 3)the potential for
reverse stack effect pressures, and 4) the increased ventilation due
to high outdoor humidity.
The University of Florida conducted research on reference
building characteristics and building permit statistics ana
demographics. Their research report (SUA 94) presents building data
as it directly relates to potential radon entry and mitigation. As
part cf their research they gathered statistical data or. new
commercial buildings recently constructed in Florida. The research
produced a database containing the information from building permits
of over 700 commercial buildings throughout Florida which was
supplemented by data from over 200 survey questionnaires. A blank
survey questionnaire is included as Appendix D. As part of the study a
1 i Lerature search was conducted at the Universi r.y of Florida Science
and Architecture [,ibrari.es and the database maintained by the
University cf Florida Department of Nuclear Engineering Sciences.
Other public and professional agencies included Bureau of Census,
Statistical Analysis Office, American Society of Civil Engineers,
F'orida Engineering Society, American Concrete Institute and the
funerican Institute of Architects. The authors concluded that "Little
information relevant to commercial building characteristics was
obtained from these sources" and "The main findings were that most
commercial buildings use monolithic s;atas arid spread or continuous
footings. Commercial buildings are primarily made of steel and one-
floor structures are predominant. Slab thickness of 4 inches and
concrete strength of 3C0C PSI are most commonly used. Typically, a 6
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mil polyethylene vapor barrier is placed under the slab to prevent
moisture from seeping through the structure. A 97% soil compaction
level is common]y specified. The average saw cut spacing is about 20
feet, which is equivalent to a grid area of 400 ft-2. It is relevant
to note that a large engineering consulting firm, RS&H, generally
recommends a smaller saw cut grid area of about 225 ft2. Less than 25%
of respondents indicated that they use some type of sealant around
pipes that penetrate the slab." Table 2 summarizes the database for
216 buildings responding to the survey questionnaire.
Air leakage, the flow of air through the building envelope in
response to a fixed pressure, is an important characteristic in
regards to radon entry. An evaluation of air leakage in a low-rise
commercial building (SHE 94) showed that the air change rate due to
leakage alone would satisfy ASHRAE Standard 62, Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, (ASH 89). Natural leakage can provide
the driving force necessary for radon entry. The author stated that,
"A significant body of knowledge exists about the infiltration, air
leakage, and ventilation characteristics of residential buildings,
however, little measured data exists on these quantities for
commercial buildings." He goes on to rationalize that the lack of
data is due in part to the larger technical effort required and the
fact that suitable measurement techniques are not readily available.
In an attempt to gain an understanding of the parameters that
affect radon in large buildings (SWA 94) testing was conducted in a
one-story (16,700 ft') building located in Bartow, Florida. Tests
were conducted t.o characterize building air tightness, air flow rates
and pressure differentials. A parametric analysis was conducted using
the FSSC 3.0 model (FSE 92). In part, it was concluded that, "a key
factor that governs radon entry is indoor pressure; ratios of outdoor
air to exhaust, air have an important bearing on indoor pressure; OA/FA
ratios of less that 1, generally cause negative pressures in the
building and lead to increased radon levels; even with the building
under overall positive pressures, lower ventilation rates tend to
produce higher indoor radon levels; optimum ventilation for radon may
not necessarily conform to ASHRAE guidelines; building tightness
influences pressure differential regimes in a building; in a
particular, pressure regime (positive or negative) the : ndoor radon
level varies almost linearly with source potential; across the
pressure regime (negative to positive) the slope of the linear
dependence changes drastically; and both the diffusion and advection
ir.cchanisms of radon entry across the slab are important factors that
affect, indoor radon level." The authors restricted their conclusions,
noting that the building tested "may typify only a very narrow range
of commercial building-system configurations."
'¦'he Bonneville Power Adnu :i i s Lration has monitored end-use
electrical consumption at commercial and residential sites for the
End-Use Load and Consumer Assessment Program. (ELCAP) since 1983.
ET.CAP recorded building tenantry and use areas, thermal
characteristics, building energy using equipment and central HVAC
systems. Operational practices were also surveyed. Relationship to
radon entry and/or mitigation was not evaluated. However, a review of
the data generated by ELCAP may give some insight to HVAC system
operation and maintenance which can be inferred to impact on radon
entry through an analysis of effects on ventilation rale.
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Atriums have found wide application for various purposes in
multistory buildings. They present a complex interface between HVAC
systems and building design which can lead to IAQ problems. Kainiauri
and Vilmain have observed various kinds of atr'urns and conducted
organized research in several since 1987 (KAI 93). They concluded
that IAQ concerns were from sources both within (c.gsmoking, food)
and outside (e.g., po.1 1 en, dust) the atriurn and that radon is seldom a
problem.
Trends in building characteristics were evaluated in relation to
energy demand (SUT 90). Regression analysis indicated that energy
intensity for fuel oil and natural gas declines with buitding size.
The trend cf electricity substituting for other fuels was evident.
Ventilation and cooling is done almost, exclusively with electricity.
Very few buildings cool with gas and almost none with oil. The stuay
also showed that newer buildings are much ir.ore likely to be heated
with electricity than are older buildings.
HVAC SYSTEMS
An HVAC system has been defined (FI,A 91) as "A. system that
provides either collectively or individually the processes of comfort
heating, ventilating, and/or air conditioning within or associated
with a building." Scne important parameters of large buildings
relevant to HVAC operation and control of radon were identified at the
Large Building Research Workshop held August 16-17, 1993 in Tampa,
Florida (PYI 93). They include:
¦ Integrity of the slab
¦ Volume-to-soil footprint ratio
¦ Separation of lower level from upper floors
¦ Ventilation and depressurization
¦ Intake of outside air at higher levels
¦ Eliminate or seal bypasses such as elevator shafts
¦ Set.back operation of HVAC systems.
HVAC systems have a significant impact on radon concentrations i r:
large buildings because of pressurization or depressurization,
introduction of dilution air and air distribution. In large buildings
HVAC systems must contend with interrelated factors such as the
building envelope, occupants, operation and maintenance. Major types
of ventilation systems and their radon potentia" that are commonly
used in large buildings include: 1)Passive systems which rely on stack
effect and wind pressure can be found in older large buildings, 2)
Exhaust-only systems may be found in older schools, but would not be
expected in large commercial buildings, 3)Unit ventilators are in
common use in schools and other large buildings, 4)Terminal air
blenders, 5)Unitary heat pumps or fan coil units, 6)Heat Recovery
Ventilators and 7) Central Station air handlers (GEO 91).
A study of one five story commercial building to determine the
effect of HVAC operating cycles, including outdoor air level and
exhaust ventilation (PYL 94) concluded that "the OA input into the
HVAC systems was insufficient to pressurize the building and prevent
radon entry into the building." Parameters evaluated during tine study
included building pressure, ventilation rate, radon concentration, and
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radon entry rate.
HVAC systems are being used that are responsive to building use.
With adequate air distribution they should provide comfortable
temperatures and acceptable indoor air qua": it.y. At times however,
intake air, introduced by HVAC system operation directly or indirectly
due to negative building pressure, can introduce pollutants such as
radon and carbon monoxide to the indoor environment. It. is important
that HVAC systems be designed to be energy efficient and provide good
indoor air quality, i.e., limit the outdoor air supply to conserve
energy while providing sufficient outdoor air to prevent IAQ problems.
Poor IAQ and high radon concentrations are not necessarily
synonymous. For example, building pressurization to eliminate the
driving force into the building, and her.ee deter radon infiltration,
may cause pollutants generated within the building to increase in
concentration and hence decrease the IAQ. Higher exhaust ventilation
rates in unbalanced systems can increase the driving force and hence
radon entry if it is present in the subsoil. Clearly a balance is
needed between ir./exfiltration that considers both IAQ and radon
entry.
The primary focus of a study to develop radon diagnostic
procedures and mitigation strategies applicable to large non-
residential buildings in Florida (KEN 93) was to determine the effect
of the HVAC systems of a large building in influencing the transport,
entry and minimization of indoor radon concentrations. Two buildings
were studied. "Both showed signs of aberrant KVAC design, operation
and maintenance which presumable adversely affected indoor radon as
well as other indoor air quality variables." It was recommended thai.,
"design and construction should concentrate on elimination of major
soil gas pathways such as hollow walls, unsealed utility penetrations
and the like; HVAC system design shou_d include strategies designed to
minimize dccressurized zones adjacent to the soil," and the authors
concluded that, "while increased supply ventilation is generally
helpful for radon control, it is clearly not the most cost-effective
solution or prevention tool once the requirements of occupant comfort
and general indoor air quality have been met."
Experience in Montgomery County, Ml), has shown that a properly
designed, well constructed, properly functioning and weI 1-maintained
HVAC system will minimize the majority of IAQ and comfort complaints
by building occupants (DAM 93). Particular attention should be given
to the design of the air distribution system and the fresh air intake
scheme. Poor air distribution can become the major source of IAQ
problems.
It has been concluded that "One of the ir.ost significant factors
contributing to elevated levels of radon in schools and influencing
mitigation approach is the design and operation of the HVAC system.
The complexities of large building HVAC systems present, problems not
previously encountered in house mitigation" (LEO 89}.
Design and operation of HVAC systems are a factor in poor IAQ. A
study conducted on a four story modern office building with a history
of high occupant complaint rates (MCK 93) showed: delivery rates to
the upper levels was low; basement contaminated air transported to
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upper levels; poor air distribution on each floor; considerable re-
entrainnent of exhaust at the air intake and evidence of past drip pan
microbial amplification. This illustrates potential problems that may
be associated with basement substructures. Some designers recommend
demand-controlled ventilation to save energy. This approach car.
enhance radon entry.
One of the highest Research Priorities for Indoor Air Quality
identified at the Ventilation and IAQ workshop (PRI 95) was to
"develop checklists, protocols, standards and codes which guide and
regulate the design, installation, commissioning, operation and
maintenance of HVAC systems." These priorities apply equally well to
radon infiltration and mitigation.
HVAC systems can be adjusted to effectively mitigate radon in
large buildings. However, a bias towards energy conservation, poor
maintenance and inefficient operation of a complex system can negate
any potential for radon mitigation (SAU 93).
HVAC system control/operation are dominated by internal heat
loads in large buildings, whereas smaller buildings are dominated by
the envelope. The stack effect also has a significant effect on HVAC
operation in large buildings.
The U.S.Department of Energy (DOS 91) recommends commercial
sector energy conservation measures prepared in response to the need
to conserve energy ir. the commercial sector (See Appendix 3) . The
Bonneville Power Administration has also incorporated ASKRAE Standard
62-89, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality" (ASH 89) into
i~s commercial environmental requirements for mechanically ventilated
buildings. Sone conservation measures will directly affect radon
infiltration. For example, the sealing of vertical shafts to reduce
ir./exfi" trat.ion will reduce the "stack effect" and help minimize radon
infiltration while installation of an energy management system can at
times lead to building depressurization and hence increase soil gas
infiltration. All conservation measures would not be used in any
civen building. Various strategies and equipment should complement
each other, not only for energy conservation but a_so for radon entry
minimization and acceptable indoor air quality.
Diurnal occupancy cycles can affect radon entry and concentration
in large buildings. For example, operating the HVAC system, at a
reduced level or turning it off at night may increase radon
concentrations as the building depressurizes. However, all large
buildings do rot. operate on the same diurnal cycle. Hotels may be the
opposite of office buildings and hospitals may not. significantly vary
HVAC operation.
In a study of office and college buildings during daytime in nhe
Pittsburgh area (COH 34) it was found that:
1. Average daytime commercial building radon levels may be an
order of magnitude lower than home levels in the same area.
2. Colleges and universities seem to have higher daytime radon
levels than commercial buildings.
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3. Age of buildings did not seem to be an important factor in
regard to radon levels.
4. There was little indication that radon levels in these
buildings were higher in the winter than in the summer.
The impact of ASHRAE 62-198 9 on building energy usage versus its
impact on indcor air quality was analyzed (TAY S3). The scope of the
study was limited to SBS as related to ventilation system operation
and design. One hundred research studies were reviewed !25 were
referenced, see Appendix F) and "in only two was the ventilation rate
found to have a statistically significant correlation with SBS
symptoms or even with the concentration of pollutants believed to be
the cause of SBS." It was concluded that "much of the evidence to
support the claim that increasing outside air improved IAQ is
anecdotal. In some case studies, SBS symptoms were lessened by
'improved' ventilation, but the actual amount of outside air being
distributed before and after the 'improvements' is seldom measured and
documented. There is little evidence that 15 cfir./person is any better
at maintaining high indoor air quality than 5 cfm/person." Eleven
studies were cited as evidence that increasing outdoor air intake will
have little impact on IAQ. The author concluded that "clearly there
is some minimum ventilation rate required to dilute pollutants
generated within buildings. But there do not appear to be any
definitive studies that indicate what the minimum rate should be."
Ventilation rates have a direct effect, on energy costs. The
energy implication of ASHRAE 62-1389 was evaluated (STE 90). It was
concluded that the standard had significant energy cost impacts and
that the minimum outdoor air requirement will meet resistance with
building contractors as being excessive. An evaluation of the impact
of ventilation rate on IAQ and comfort {NAG SO) concluded that
"although there was a two fold difference in mechanical air exchange
rates for the two weeks of monitoring, measured air exchange rates
(infiltra-tion/vcntilation components) differed by only 2 5 to 3C
percent."
Control of indoor air pollutants requires identification of
pollutants and an understanding of emission mechanisms and rates.
Microorganisms, volatile organic compounds, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, radon, and particulates have been measured
in the indoor environment as well as comfort related indicators such
as temperature, humidity, and odor. Physical symptoms have also been
evaluated. However, while some studies show relationships between
symptoms and lowering or raising the ventilation rate, there is an
absence of data to correlate symptoms and pollutant levels with
ventilation rates (MEZ SO).
The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988 (USC 88) required all
Federal agencies to test their buildings. Eighty-five percent of the
80,000 buildings measurements were under 2 pCi/L and 95% were under 4
pCi/L. One reason for the low incidence of high radon leve_s in large
buildings may be that the floor space to footprint ratio is much
higher for large multistory commercial buildings than it is for small
buildings such as residences.
Pollutant concentrations and ventilation rates were measured in
10
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38 commercial buildings in the Pacific. Northwest during 1984 arid 1985
(TUR 87). Only one building was found with a significant radon
concer.trat.ion, 7.8 pCi/L. In this instance the HVAC system's intake
air cane through a basement with an open soil floor and from a network
of underground service tunnels. The study concluded that:
¦ In areas with high raden potential, radon problems night be
expected in buildings with foundations allowing exposed soil
and with HVAC systems that depressurize the foundation
¦ Service tunnels connected tc buildings nay allow entry of
radon
¦ Ventilation rates varied widely in the buildings and the
operators often did not understand the operation of the HVAC
systems
¦ The near, radon measurement was 0.5 pCi/L similar to outdoor
levels
¦ No indication of radon transport to upper floors was noticed
in high-rise buildings
¦ Although ventilation rates were sometimes quite low, few air
pollution problems were traced to this
¦ The correlation between pollutant concentrations and
ventilation rates was weak, suggesting, as seen in past
studies, that pollution is due primarily to the presence of
strong poll ut.ant sources and not vent, i at. ion rates.
Evidence of preferential pollutant flow from the lower levels of
a seven-stcry butlding to the upper levels was shown in a Federal
Office- Building Study (GRO 35) . Significant results include large
variations in ventilation rates over the course of the year, very
large uncontrolled air leakage, and transport of carbon monoxide from
the garage and radon up the vertical shafts to the upper stories.
Flows in the building shell and its HVAC systems are no:, well
understood.
In an evaluation of the effectiveness of air change measurements
(PER 94) noted that "the ability to evaluate the existence of short-
circuiting in the field and to assess the performance of innovative
approaches to air distribution is limited by a lack of validated
measurement procedures to assess ventilation effectiveness."
11
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REFERENCES
ASH 89 ASHRAE, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
Atlanta, GA: The American Society for Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Standard ANSI/ASHRAE 62-
1989, 1S89.
CHA 91 Chaddock, J.B. and Tcdorovic, B. (Ed.) "Heat and Mass Transfer in
Building Materials and Structures," Hemisphere Publishing Corp. New
York, NY, 1991.
CHK 93 Chmelynski , H. J. , "Characteristics of School Buildings in the U.S.,
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency report. EPA-600/R-93-218 (HTIS
PD94-121704!, November 1993.
COH 84 Cohen, B., et al., "Radon Concentrations Inside Public and Commercial
Buildings in the Pittsburgh Area," Health Phvsics, Vol 47, No 3, pp
399-405, September 1984.
DAM 93 Dair.iar.i, A.S. and Tseng, P., "1AQ Strategies for Facilities
EngineersAIPE Facilities. Vol 20, No 5, pp 11-13, September-
October 1993.
DOS 89 "Commercial Buildings Consumption and Expenditures 1986," Energy
Information Administration, DOE/EIA-0318 (86), Washington, DC, May
1939.
DOS 91 "Environmental Assessment - Approaches for Acquiring Energy Savings
in Commercial Sector Buildings," DOE/Bonnevilie Power
Administration, DCE/EA--0513, Washington, DC, September 1991.
DOE 92 "Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey: Building
Characteristics 1992." Data File (for microcomputers), Department of
Energy, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, 4
diskettes, 1992.
FLA 91 "Energy Efficient Code for Building Construction 1991," Florida
Department of Community Affairs, Tallahassee, FL, 1991.
FSE 92 FSEC, Florida Software for Environment Computation - User's
Manual, Version 3.0. Cape Canaveral, FL: Florida Solar Energy
Center Report FSEC-GP-47-92, 1992.
GEO 91 "Assessment cf Radon in Large Buildings," Germantown, MD; GEOMET
Technologies, Inc., report IE-2552, September 1991.
GRO 89 Grot, R.A. and Persily, A.K., "Environmental Evaluation of the
Portland East Federal Office Building Pre-occupancy and Early
Occupancy Results," National Institute of Standards and Technology,
NIST 89-4C66, C-aithersburg, MD, April 1989.
KAI 93 Kainlauri, E.C. and Vilnain, M.P.,"Atrium Design Criteria Resulting
from Comparative Studies of Atriums with Different Orientation and
Complex Interfacing of Environment Systems," ASHRAE Transactions.
Vol 99, Pt 1, 1993. Published by ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA, pp 1061-1069,
1993.
LEO 89 I.eovic, K.K., Craig, A.B. and Saum, D., "Characteristics of Schools
with Elevated Radon Levels," In: Proceedings: The 1988 Symposium on
Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Volume 1, EPA-600/9-89-006a
(NTIS PB89-I6748C), pp 1C-37 thru 10-47, March 1989.
12
-------
93
q ¦j
9C
90
93
94
95
93
94
93
94
94
9C
9C
McKni ght, K. T., et a! ., "Evaluation of 'Before' and 'After'
OccupanL, iAQ, and HVAC Parameters in a Building Remediated Because
of Unacceptable IAQ," In: Proceedings of Indoor Air '93, Vol.6.
Menetrez, M.Y. and Kuip, R., "Radon Diagnostic Measurement Guidance
for Large Buildings," U.S.Environmenta 1 Protection Agency, Research
irianqle Park, NC (ir. press) 1997.
Menzies, R.I., et al., "Sick Building Syndrome: the Effect of
Changes in Ventilation Rates on Symptom Prevalence; the Evaluation
of a Double Elind Approach." In: Indoor Air ' 9C, Proceedings of the
5th international Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate,
Volume 1, pp 519-524, 1990.
Naqda, N., et al., "Impact of Increased Ventilation Rates on Office
Building Air Quality, " Indoor Air 'SO: Proceedings of the 5th
International Conference on Indoor' Air Quality and Climate, Vol 4,
pp 261-286. 1990.
Persily, A.X., "Building and HVAC Characterization for Commercial
Building - Indoor Air Quality Investigations," National Institute of
Standards and Technology, NISTIR 4979, Gaithersburg, MD, May 1993.
Persily, A., et al., "Air Change Effectiveness Measurement in Two
Modern Office Buildings, " Indoor Air '94. Vol 4, pp 40-55. 1994.
Priest, J.B., et al., "Ventilation Technology Systems Analysis," J.
S. Environmental Protection Agencv report EPA-600/R-95-065 (KTI3
P395-2127 67}, May 1995.
Pyle, B.E. and Williamson, A.D., "Review of FRRP Large Building
Research." In Proceedings: The Large Building Research Workshop,
Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, AL, August 1993.
Pyle, 3.E., et al.,"Florida Large Building Study Polk County
Administration Building," Southern Research Institute, SR--ENV-94-
8 31-7400.93.41.1, Birmingham, AL (in press) 1997'.
Saum, D.W., "Case Studies of Radon Reduction Research in Maryland,
New Jersey and Virginia Schools," IJ. S. Environmental Protection
Agency report SPA-6C0/R-93-211 (KTIS PR94-1173G3), November 1993.
Shanker, A. and Hintenlang, D., "A Research Study of Foundation
Designs of Commercial Buildings for Radon Resistant Construction,"
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 'in press) 1997.
Sherman, M. and Dickerhoff, 0.,"Monitoring Ventilation and Leakage
in a Low-Rise Commercial Building," Solar Snaineerinc, ASME-JSES-
JSME International Solar Kriergy Conference, 1 994, ASM!';, New York,
NY, pp 291-297.
Steele, T. and Brown, M., "Energy and Cost Implications of ASHRAE
Standard 62-1989," Bonneville Power Administration, Washington, DC,
May 1990.
Sutherland, R.J.,"Demand for Energy in Commercial Buildings,"
Arqonne National Laboratory, Energy and Systems Policy, Vol 14, Ko
4, pp 23^-256, 1990.
13
-------
3WA S4 Swani, M.V., e: al., "Analysis of the Folk Life and Learning Center
(PLLC), Draft. Task-Final Report", Florida Solar Snercy Center, FS2C-
CR-739-94, Cape Canaveral, FL (in press) 1997.
TAY 93 Taylor, S., "ANSI/ASHRAE 62-1982: Energy vs. IAQ ImpasL Energy
TT.pac.t55 Subnomm." ttee Reoort for Jure 199Meatir-rr," At". anta, GA.
19S3.
7UR 87 Turk, U., et al., "Indoor Air: Quality and Ventilation Measurements
hi 38 Pacific Northwest. Cciunei cial Buildings, " L3L 22315, Lawrence
Rar-:e!ey Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, Decemcer 1987.
IJSC 88 15 U.S.C. 2631, Title III, indoor Radon Abatement A:;t of 1988,
Washington, DC. "9BB.
14
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Table 1. Commercial Building Characteristics
ZA ?_ace ct Assembly, Auditorium
ZB Bank or Savings and Loan
ZC C.I ; ni r.
ZD Drug Store
7". .Schools
1. Classrooir.
2. Gyxnaaiux [conditioned)
3. Office (same as '10)
4. Laboratory
5. Auditorium
6. Dining
7. Kitchen
ZG Supermarkets
ZH Ho'_e_, Xc te_
ZL Library
7M y.ercantil e
1. Strip Shop {Stores smaller than 15,000 ft")
2.. Department .Store (Sr.ores .larger than lb,000 f
3. Mall (conditioned common areas cf nails)
4. Storage (conditi oned coTmor. areas of Tails)
ZK Cursing Heme
7.0 Ox ; i ce Liu i 1 d i.:ig
ZP Hospitals
1. Autopsy/Morgue
2. Central Supply
3 . Ope ra t i r.g Su i te
4. Emergency Department
5. Intensive Care Unit
6. laboratory
7. General Patient Care
S . Uir.ing
9. Kitchen
1C. Office (Sane as SO)
Z:\ Restaurants
ZS Storage, Warehouse [conditioned)
ii'i Theater
ZV Air Terminal
1. Commercial Area
2. Concourse
3. Storage (conditioned) (Same as ZS}
4. Dining
b. Kitchen
ZW Place of Worship
XX Howl i n g A.l J ey
ZZ Special: Any building r.ot listed above.
15
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Table 2. Building Database Summary
(SHA 94)
Building
ALL
ONE
> ONE
WIDE
Characteristics *
BLDGS
STORY
STORY
BLDGS
Avg. Number of Floors
1.7
1
3.3
1.5
Total Area '(square ft)
33800
24000
54000
80800
Footprint Area (square ft)
21200
24000
14500
64600
Avg Bld'g Length (ft)
174
176
168
352
Avg BldgWIdih (ft)
123
136
86
183
Building Height (fQ
29
21
47
35
First Floor Height (ft)
15
16
14
18
Slab Thickness (In)
4.88
4.78
5.12
5.12
Slab Strength (PSI)
3213
3149
3357
3360
Barrier Thickness (mil)
5.9
5.9
5.9
6
Compaction Rate (%)
96.7
96.7
96.7
96.9
Air Handler/Floor
5.5
5.3
5.9
10.6
Saw Cut Spacing (ft)
21
21
19
21
I NUMBER OF BUILDINGS
216
151
65
45
I for readers more familiar with metric units: 1 ft = 0.30m, 1 ft2 =
C93m% 1 in. = 2.54cn, 1 mil = 25.4 ,um, and 1 psi = 6.89 kPa.
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APPENDIX A
National Institute of Standards and Technology Check Lists (per 93)
FORM A-l: BUILDING DESCRIPTION
Only one copy of Form A-l is required for each building.
1 Building Age: 2 Floor Area: .
_n& orft2
Number of Floors
3 Below Grade:
Space Use
5 Office
6 Retail
7 Public Assembly
8 Laboratory
9 Storage
10 Food Services
11 Employee-Use Kitchen
12 Parking
Qfiflisflncy
13 Number of Occupants:
14 Days per Weeks:
Above Grade:
Roots
Floor Area (%)
Hours per Day
15 Weekdays:
16 Weekends:
Climate and Sin?
17 Building Location:
18 Heating Degree Days: _
19 Cooling Degree Days: ___
20 Winter Design Diybulb Tempermut (99%):
21 Summer Design Drybulb Tempenuare (1 %):
22 Summer Design WetbulbTen^erttat 0%):
23 Site Characterization
.•C-Day or "F-Day
_®C-Day or ®F-Day
8Cor°F
•C
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Form A-l Building Description
BtildmsJEiBziEiocDi
24 Ventilation: _
Natural or mechanical
25 Cooling System
Air Conditioned:
_Y/N
Equipment
Centra] Chillers:
Packaged Air Conditioning Units:
Heat Pump:
Ducted Air Distribution:
Fan Coil Units:
Individual Room Air Conditioners:
Y/N
_Y/N
y/N
.Y/N
.Y/N
_Y/N
26 Heating System
Heated:
_Y/N
Equipment
Steam or Hot Water Boiler
Central System with Heating Coils:
Reheat Coils in Air Distribution System:
Packaged Units:
Forced Air Furnace:
Heat Pump: ;
Ducted Air Distribution:
Fan Coil Units:
Individual Space Heaters:
_Y/N
Y/N
_Y/N
_Y/S
Y/N
JY/N
Y/N
Y/N
_Y/N
Operating Schedule
Space Conditioning
27 Days per Weeks:
Hours per Day
28 Weekdays:
29 Weekends:
Ventilation System
30 Days per Weeks:
Hours per Day
31 Weekdays:
32 Weekends:
Bidding Envelope
33 Wall Construction:
34 Roof Construction:
Glazing
35 Glazing Elements: _
36 Operable Windows:
.Single, Double or Triple
_Y/N 37 Shading Elements:
.Y/N
18
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For® C-l
Central Air Handling System
FORM C-l: CENTRAL AIR HANDLING AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
One farm is required for each central air handling system serving the test space.
1 Air Handler Number
2 Air Handler Location:
3 System Type:
Other System Information
4 Number of zones served by the air handler
5 Return air Fan: Y/N
6 Variable supply air temperature setpoint: Y/N
19
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Pom C-2
Perimeter Units
FORM C-2: PERIMETER ZONE UNITS
This form is used to describe the systems that provide space conditioning to perimeter zones.
These systems arc intended solely for perimeter applications, as opposed to central systems that
also serve exterior zones. Only one copy of Form C-2 is required for the test space.
System Type: Select one of the following systems and answer the system specific questions.
1 Air-Water Induction Units: Y/N
2 Condensate Drain Pan: Y/N
3 Filters for Secondary Airflow: Y/N
4 Fan-Coil Units: Y/N
5 Ventilation Air Y/N
6 Source of Ventilation Air
7 Condensate Drain Pan: Y/N
8 Filters for Secondary Airflow. Y/N
9 Fin-Tubed Radiator Y/N
10 Electric Baseboard: Y/N
20
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Form C»3 U»lUry Systems
FORM C-3: UNITARY SYSTEMS
This farm is used to describe any unitary air conditioning equipment that serves the test space.
Only one copy of Form C-3 is required for the test space. If the test space is not served by a
unitary system, this form is not required.
System Type: Select one of the following systems and answer the system specific questions.
1 Roof-Top Units: , Y/N
2 Number of Systems:
3 Zoning:
4 Constant or Variable:
5 Through-the-Wall Conditioner Systems: Y/N
6 Ventilation Air Y/N
7 Ducted: Y/N
8 Number of Systems:
9 Heat Pump Systems: Y/N
10 Number of Systems:
11 Ventilation Air Y/N
12 Source of Ventilation Air
21
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Vmrm C-4 Evaporative Cooling Syitems
FORM C-4: EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS
This form is used to describe evaporative cooling systems used to condition the test space. If the
test space has such a system, only one copy of Form C-4 is required
System Type: Select one of the following systems and answer die system specific questions.
1 Direct Evaporative Air Cooler Y/N
2 Direct System Type:
3 Indirect Evaporative Air Cooler Y/N
22
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Form C-5
Oatdoor Air Intake
FORM C-5: OUTDOOR AIR INTAKE
This form is used to describe the outdoor «ir intake strategy employed by the mechanical ventilation
system serving the test space. Only roe copy of Form C-5 is required far the test space.
Intake Strategy: Select one of the following options.
1 Conditioned Positive:
2 Unconditioned Positive:
3 Unconditioned Suction:
4 Unconditioned Suction, No Duct
Intake Control Strategy: Select one of the following options.
5 100% Outdoor Air Intake:
6 Fixed Minimum Outdoor Air Intake:
7 Economizer Cycle: ___________________
8 Enthalpy Economizer Cycle:
Means of maintaining minimum outdoor air intake: Select one of the following options.
9 Fixed Damper Positions:
10 Supply/Return Fan Tracking:
11 Intake Airflow Monitoring:
Additional Intake Control Information
12 Morning Warm-Up Cycle: Y/N
13 Morning Purge Cycle: Y/N
14 Right Cool-Down Cycle: Y/N
23
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Form C-4
Natural Veatlljition
FORMC-6: NATURAL VENTILATION SYSTEM
This forai is used to describe the ventilation strategy employed in naturally ventilated buildings.
Only one copy of Farm C-6 is required for the building, and only if it is naturally ventilated.
Select which of the following natural ventilation systems exist in the building and answer the
system specific questions.
1 Operable Windows: Y/N
2 Through-the-Wall Vents: Y/N
3 Number of Vents:
4 Size of Vents: cm2 or in2
5 Central Shaft Y/N
6 Exhaust system: Y/N
7 Area served by exhaust system: _____
-------
For*> C-7A
Air Handler Specifications
FORM C-7A: AIR HANDLER SPECIFICATIONS
This form is used lo describe the specifications of the air handlers serving the test space. One copy
of Farm C-7 A is required for each air handler serving die test space.
1 Air Handler Number
2 Location of Air Handler
3 Design Supply Airflow Rate Capacity: nd/s or cfm
4 Source of Value:
5 Design Minimum Outdoor Air Intake Rate: mtysorcfm
6 Source of Value: ______
7 Space Served by Air Handler
8 Source of Value:
9 Floor Area Served by Air Handler. m2 or ft2
10 Source of Value:
11 Number of Occupants Served by Air Handler
12 Source of Value:
13 Design Cooling Load: W/m? or W/ft2
14 Source of Value:
15 Existence of Return Fan: Y/N
16 Return Fan Capacity: jn3/s or cfm
17 Source of Value: __________________________
18 Space Served by Return System:
19 Source of Value:
20 Floor Area Served by Return System: jn2 or ft2
21 Source of Value:
25
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Form C-7B
Exhaust Pas Specifications
FORM C-7B: EXHAUST FAN SPECIFICATIONS
This form is used to describe the specifications of the exhaust fans saving the lest space. One
copy of Form C-7B is required for each exhaust fan serving the test space.
1 Exhaust Fan Number
2 Location of Exhaust Fan:
3 Design Exhaust Airflow Rate: mVsorcfin
4 Source of Value:
5 Space Served by Exhaust Fan:
6 Source of Value:
7 Floor Area Served by Exhaust Fan: or ft2
8 Source of Value:
Controls
9 Manual: Y/N
10 Tune of Day: Y/N
11 Temperature: Y/N
12 Equipment Operation: Y/N
26
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Form C-Il
Maintenance
FORM C-ll: MAINTENANCE
This form is used to describe the HVAC system tnaimrnance procedures and schedules. One copy
of Form C-ll is required for the building.
An {handler liispfciions
1 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
2 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
3 Frequency:
Particulate Filtration Systems
Panel Filler Replacement
4 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
5 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
6 Frequency:
Manual Roll Filter Advancement
7 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
8 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
9 Frequency:
Automatic Roll Filter Inspection
10 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
11 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
12 Frequency: '
Electronic Air Cleaners
Inspection
13 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
14 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
15 Frequency:
Cleaning
16 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
17 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
18 Frequency:
27
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Form C-ll Maintenance
Heating and Cooling Coils
Inspection
19 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
20 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
21 Frequency:
Cleaning
22 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
23 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
24 Frequency:
Drain Pans
Inspection
25 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
26 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
27 Frequency:
Cleaning
28 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
29 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
30 Frequency:
Air Distribution Ductwork
Inspection
31 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
32 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
33 Frequency:
Cleaning
34 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
35 Frequency:
Humidifiers
Inspection
36 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
37 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
38 Frequency:
2a
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Porn C-ll
Maintenance
Cleaning
39 Regularly Scheduled:
40 Recorded in Logbook:
41 Frequency:
.Y/N
.Y/N
42 Purge or Blowdown:
.Y/N
43 Purge Frequency:
44 Purge Duration:
45 Purge Control:
Evaporative coolers
Inspection
46 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
47 Recorded in Logbook: _Y/N
48 Frequency:
Cleaning
49 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
50 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
51 Frequency:
52 System Bleeding Frequency:
53 Water Treatment Y/N
54 Water Treatment Frequency:
55 Water Treatment Compound:
56 Biocide Treatment: Y/N
57 Biocide Treatment Frequency:
58 Biocide Treatment Compound:
Air washers
Inspection
59 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
60 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
61 Frequency:
Cleaning
62 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
63 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
64 Frequency:
29
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Pom €-11
Maintenance
65 Tank Maintenance Frequency:
66 Eliminator Repainting Frequency;
67 Glass Media Qeaning Frequency:
68 System Bleeding Frequency:
69 Water Treatment: Y/N
70 Water Treatment Frequency:
71 Water Treatment Compound:
72 Biocide Treatment: Y/N
73 Biocide Treatment Frequency: _____
74 Biocide Treatment Compound: _____
Control System
Inspection
75 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
76 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
77 Frequency:
Sensor Recalibration
78 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
79 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
80 frequency:
Testing and Balancing
81 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
82 Frequency:
Cooling Towers
Inspection
83 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
84 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
85 Frequency:
86 Surface Cleaning Frequency:
87 Scale Control Treatment: Y/N
88 Blowdown or Chemical Treatment ____
89 Blowdown or Chemical Treatment Frequency:
90 Scale Control Treatment >
30
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—» #1 «4
rom v«ll
MaintcMBcc
91 Corrosion Treatment Y/N
92 Treatment Frequency;
93 Conoskm Treatment Confounds:
94 Biocide Treatment Y/N
95 Biocide Treatment frequency:
96 Biocide Treatment Confounds:
97 Silt Treatment Y/N
98 Silt Treatment frequency:
99 Silt Treatment Compounds:
Fail coil Units
Inspection
100 Regularly Scheduled:
101 Recorded in Logbook:
102 Frequency:
Filter Replacement
103 Regularly Scheduled:
104 Recorded in Logbook:
105 Frequency:
Terminal Units
Inspection
106 Regularly Scheduled: Y/N
107 Recorded in Logbook: Y/N
108 Frequency:
_Y/N
-Y/N
.Y/N
JY/N
31
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form C-12
iBSpCCtiOD
INSPECTION
This form is used to record information obtained during the inspection of the HVAC system and its
major components. One copy of Form C-12 is required for the building.
Mechanical Room
1 General Condition:
2 Part of Return System: Y/N
3 Used for Storage: Y/N
System Check-Out
Supply Fan
4 Operating: Y/N
5 Correct Direction of Fan Rotation: Y/N
6 Correct Airflow Direction: Y/N
Return Fan
7 Operating: Y/N
8 Correct Direction of Fan Rotation: Y/N
9 Correct Airflow Direction: Y/N
Exhaust Fan
10 Operating: Y/N
11 Correct Direction of Fan Rotation: Y/N
12 Correct Airflow Direction: Y/N
Outdoor Air Intake
13 Correct Airflow Direction: Y/N
14 Height: m or ft
Proximity to Pollutant Sources
15 Standing Water. Y/N
16 Exhaust Vents: Y/N
17 Sanitary Vents: Y/N.
18 Cooling Tower Y/N
19 Loading Dock: Y/N
20 Parking Garage: Y/N
21 Vehicle Traffic: Y/N
22 Trash Dumpster Y/N
32
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Porn C-12
Inspection
Air Handler Housing
23 General Condition:
24 Sound liner.
Air Handler Components
25 General Condition:
26 Intakes:
27 Dampers:
28 Coils:
29 Drain Fans:
30 Fan Belts:
Air Distribution Ductwork
31 General Condition:
32 Leakage at Seams:
33 Liners:
Exhaust Fans
34 General Condition:
35 Fan Belts: ___
Particulate Filtration Systems
36 General Condition:
37 Accessibility: ________
38 Filter Fit into Frames:
39 Filter Condition: _____________
40 Evenness of Loading:
41 Indicator of Resistance: Y/N
42 Tune to Change Label: Y/N
43 Pressure Indicator Reading Pa or in. wg.
Humidifiers
44 General Condition:
45 Drain Pans:
33
-------
Pom C-12
IaipectioD
Evaporative Coolers
46 General Condition: _
47 Water Pans:
48 Water Clarity:
Air Washers
49 Genera] Condition: _
50 Water Fans:
51 Water Clarity:
52 Eliminators and Baffles:
Control System
53 General Condition: _
54 Sensors:
Cooling Towers
55 General Condition:
56 Surfaces:
57 Water Condition:
Fan Coil Units
58 General Condition:
59 Valves:
60 Fans:
61 Coils:
62 Drain Pans:
63 Air Filters:
Terminal Units
64 General Condition:
65 Dampers:
34
-------
For® D-1A
Supply Airflow Rale
FORM D-1A: SUPPLY AIRFLOW RATE
Four farms are required for each air handler serving the test space, with one form for each
measurement of die supply airflow rate.
1 Date of Test 2 lime:
3 Air Handler Number; 4 Air Handler Location:.
5 Location of Duct Traverse:
Measurement Device Information
6 Measurement Device Type:_
7 Manufacturer. 8 Model Number
9 Serial Number
Duct Dimensions
10 Rectangular or Round: 11 Duct Area: m2 or ft2
Traverse Data Traverse Grid and Data on Form D-Xl orD-X2
12 Start of Traverse, time: ____________ 13 End of Traverse, time: ¦
Calculations
14 Root Mean Square Velocity Pressure
I(Pv)W / Number of readings: (Pa)1/2 or (in. w.g.)1#
15 Average Air Speed
Air speed measurements, Ivg / Number of readings: m/s orfpm
Velocity pressure measurements (Pa), 129 x #14: m/s
Velocity pressure measurements On. w.g.), 4002 x #14: fpm
16 Airflow Rate, #11 x #15: _____ mtys or cfm
3.5
-------
Fern D-1B
Percent Outdoor Air Intake
FORM D-1B: PERCENT OUTDOOR AIR INTAKE
Four forms are required for each air handler serving die test space, with one form for each
measurement of die percent outdoor air intake.
1 Date of Test:
Air Handler Number
2 Time:
4 Air Handler Location:
5 Outdoor Air intake:
6 Supply Air
7 Return Air
Mcssjivi'i^ui PcYiccinfomiaflon
8 Manufacturer
10 Serial Number
Model Number
Calihratirw Phfttlr
Span check
11 Span Concentration:.
12 Reading:
Zero check
13 Reading:
ii^222£SQSQllii2[LQili
14 Start of Measurement, time:
IS Outdoor Air
16 Return Air
17 Supply Air
18 End of Measurement, time:
Calculations
Mean Concentrations
Mean
Standard Deviation
Outdoor air
1 9 ppm
2 0 ppm
Return air
21 ppm
2 2 ppm
Supply air
2 3 ppm
2 4 ppm
Percent Outdoor Air Intake
25 Value, 100 x (#21 - #23) / (#21 - #19): % OA
26 Error Estimate, 100 x #25 [ (#222 + #2o2)/(#21 - #19)2 + (#222 + #24*)/(#21 - #23)2 ]m
% OA
36
-------
Form D-1C
Oatdoor Air Intake Rate
FORM IMC: OUTDOOR AIR INTAKE RATE
Four farms are required for each air handler serving the test space, with one form for each
measurement of the outdoor air intake rate.
1 Date of Test* 2 Time:
3 Air Handler Number 4 Air Handler Location:
»#1: TRAVERSE
5 Location of Duct Traverse:
Measurement Device Information
6 Measurement Device Type:
7 Manufacturer 8 Model Number
9 Serial Number
Pufl Dimensions
10 Rectangular or Round: 11 Duct Area: rtfi or ft2
Traverse Data. Traverse Grid and Data on Form D-Xl or D-X2
12 Stan of Traverse, time: 13 End of Traverse, time:
Calculations
14 Root Mean Square Velocity Pressure
XCpv)1* / Number of readings: (Pa)1# or (in. w.g.)M2
15 Average Air Speed
Air speed measurements, Zvg / Number of readings: m/s or fpm
Velocity pressure measurements (Pa), 1.29 x #14: m/s
Velocity pressure measurements (in. w.g.), 4002 x #14: fpm
16 Airflow Rate, #11 x #15: m3/s or cfm
METHOD #2: CALCULATION
17 Supply Airflow Rate from Form D-1A #16, same date and time of day
mVs or cfm
18 Percent Outdoor Air intake from Form D-1B #25, same date and time of day
%
19 Outdoor Air Intake Rate, #17 times #18
m3/s or cfm
37
-------
Porn D-1D
Supply Tenperature and Relative Humidity
FORM D ID: SUPPLY AIR TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Foot forms arc required for each air handier serving the test space, with one fbmi for each
measurement of the supply air conditions.
1 Date of Test:
3 Air Handler Number
Location of Measurements:
2 Time:
4 Air Handler Location:
Measurement Device Information
Temperature sensor
6 Measurement Device Type:
7 Manufacturer
9 Serial Number
8 Model Number
Relative humidity sensor
10 Measurement Device Type:.
11 Manufacturer
13 Serial Number
12 Model Number
Hm
14 Stan of Measurement, time:
IS Air Temperature
°Cor°F
17 End of Measurement, time:
Calenlartnm
Mean
Standard Deviation
Air Temperature
18 °Cor°F
19 °Cor°F
16 Relative Humidity
%
Relative Humidity
20 %
21 %
38
-------
Worm D«2A
Exbtut Pan Operation
FORM D-2A: EXHAUST FAN OPERATION
One form is required for each exhaust fen serving the test space
1 Exhaust Fan Number; 2 Exhaust Fan Location:
Day#l
AM
3 Time Operation Checked:.
4 Operating: yes or no:
Day #2
AM
7 Time Operation Checked:.
8 Operating: yes or no:
Day #3
AM
11 Time Operation Checked:.
12 Operating: yes or no:
Day #4
AM
15 Time Operation Checked.
16 Operating: yes or no:
Day #5
AM
19 Time Operation Checked:.
20 Operating: yes or no:
5
6
9
10
PM
Time Operation Checked:
Operating: yes or no:
PM
Time Operation Qiecked:.
Operating: yes or no:
PM
13 Time Operation Checked:.
14 Operating: yes or no:
PM
17 Time Operation Checked:
18 Operating: yes or no:
PM
21 Time Operation Checked:
22 Operating: yes or no:
39
-------
Form D-2B
Exfcaast Pad Airflow Rale
FORM D-2B: EXHAUST FAN AIRFLOW RATE
One form is required for each exhaust fan saving the test space
1 Date of Test: 2 Time:
3 Exhaust Fan Number. 4 Exhaust Fan Location:
5 Location of duct traverse:
Measurement Device Information
6 Measurement Device Type:_
7 Manufacturer. _8 Model Number.
9 Serial Number
PiKt Dimensions
10 Rectangular or Round: 11 Duct Area: in* or ft*
Traverse Data. Traverse Grid and Data on Form D-Xl orD-X2
12 Start of Traverse, time: 13 End of Traverse, time:
Calculations
14 Root Mean Square Velocity ftessure
2(pv)1/2 / Number of readings: (Pa)1^2 or On. w.g.
)l/2
15 Average Air Speed
Air speed measurements, Xv,/Number of readings: m/s or fpm
Velocity pressure measurements (Pa), 129 x #14: m/s
Velocity pressure measurements (in. w.g.), 4002 x #14: fpm
16 Airflow Rate, #11 x #15: m3/s or cfm
40
-------
Pern D*3A
Local Airflow Eate
FORM D-3A: LOCAL VENTILATION PERFORMANCE - AIRFLOW RATE
One farm is required
1 Date of Test:
Measurement Device Information
2 Measurement Device Type:_
3 Manufacturer. 4 Model Number.
5 Serial Number 6 Dale of Last Calibration;
Data
7 Stan of Measurement, time:
8 Units erf Airflow Rate Measurement:
9 Airflow rate. For diffuser numbering, refer to test space floor plan.
#1 #2 #3.
#4 #5 #6.
#7 #8 #9.
#10 #11 #12.
#13 #14 #15.
#16 #17 #18.
#19 #20_ #21.
#22 #23 #24.
#25 #26 #27.
#28 #29 #30.
#31 #32 #33.
#34 ' #35 #36.
#37 #38 #39.
#40 #41 #42
#43 #44 #45.
#46 #47 #48.
#49 #50 #51.
#52 #53 #54.
#55 #56 #57.
#58 #59 #60.
#61 #62 #63.
#64 #65 #66.
#67 #68 #69.
#70 #71 #72.
#73 #74 #75.
10 End of Measurement, time:
41
-------
Pom D-3B
Local Sapply Air Temperature
FORM D-3B: LOCAL VENTILATION PERFORMANCE -
SUPPLY AIR TEMPERATURE
One farni is required
2 Dale of Test:
Measurement Device Information
2 Measurement Device Type:
3 Manufacturer; __4 Model Number ______
5 Serial Number _
DS2
6 Start of Measurement, time:
7 Units of Temperature Measurement
8 Supply Air Temperature. For diffuser numbering, refer to test space floor plan.
#1 #2 #3.
#4 #5 #6.
#7 #8 #9.
#10 #11 #12.
#13 #14 #15.
#16 #1? #1$.
#19 #20 #21.
#22 #23 #24.
#25 #26 #27.
#28 #29 #30.
#31 #32 #33.
#34 #35 #36.
#37 #38 #39.
#40 #41 #42.
#43 #44 #45.
#46 #47 #48.
#49 #50 #51.
#52 #53 #54.
#55 #56 #57.
#58 #59 #60.
#61 #62 #63.
#64 #65 #66.
#67 #68 #69.
#7Q #71 #72.
#73 #74 #75.
9 End of measurement, time:
42
-------
Ferai D-4A
Nataral Ventilation - Coatianoos Carbon Dioxide
FORM IMA: NATURAL VENTILATION - CONTINUOUS CARBON DIOXIDE
Two forms are required, one for each of two days
1 Date of Test
Measurement Device Information
2 Manufacturer.
4 Serial Number:
Model Number.
5
6
7
8
Outdoor Air
Occupied Space #1
Occupied Space #2
Occupied Space #3
Data Analysis
Outdoor reading
9 6 am:
10 10 am:
Occupied space #1
13 6 am:
Morning maximum
14 Concentration:
15 Time:
16 Outdoor Concentration:
Occupied space #2
20 6 am:
Morning maximum
21 Concentration:
22 lime:
23 Outdoor Concentration:,
Occupied space #3
27 6 am:
Morning maximum
28 Concentration:
29 Time:
30 Outdoor Concentration:
^^jppin
—ppm
_ppm
_ppm
_ppm
-Ppm
_ppm
-Ppm
11 2 pm:
12 6 pm:
-Ppm
-PPm
Afternoon maximum
17 Concentration:.
18 Time:
-PPm
_ppm 19 Outdoor Concentration:
-PPm
Afternoon maximum
24 Concentration:.
25 Time:
_ppm
_ppm 26 Outdoor Concentration:.
.ppm
Afternoon maximum
31 Concentration:.
32 Time:
jppm
_ppm 33 Outdoor Concentration:.
_ppm
43
-------
Form 1MB
Natural VutUation - Tracer Gas Decay
FORM D-4B: NATURAL VENTILATION • TRACER GAS DECAY
One form is required
1 Date of Test 2 Tracer Gas:
Measurement Device Information
3 Manufacturer.
5 Serial Number
Measurement Locations
7 Outdoor Air
8
9
Occupied Space #1
Occupied Space #2
10 Occupied Space #3
11 Occupied Space #4
12 Occupied Space #5
13 Occupied Space #6
14 Occupied Space #7
15 Occupied Space #8
16 Occupied Space #9
17 Occupied Space #10:
Data
18 Initial reading
Outdoor
Time: -
Temperature:
Location#!
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
19 Second leading
Outdoor
lime:
Temperature:
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
4 Model Number.
6 Concentration Units:
_°Cor°F
Time Concentration
Concentration:
Wind speed:
_m/s or mph
Time Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
°Cor°F
Time Concentration
Concentration:
Wind speed:
ja/s or mph
Time Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
44
-------
Pom 1MB Nataral Ventilation • Tracer Gas Decay
20 Third reading
Outdoor
Time:
22
Temperature:
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
_°Cor°F
Time Concentration
21
Fourth reading
Outdoor
Time:
Temperature:
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Fifth Trading
Outdoor
Time:
®C or °F
Time Concentration
Temperature:
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
_°Cor°F
Time
Concentration
Data Analysis
23 Decay rates, air changes per hour
Value Standard Error
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
24 Building Average Decay Rate:
25 Standard Deviation:
jch
•eh
Outdoor Conditions, Averages
26 Exterior temperature: _____
Concentration:
Wind speed:
Time
_m/s or mph
Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Concentration:
Wind speed:
Time
jn/s or mph
Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Concentration:
Wind speed: _
jn/s or mph
Time Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Value Standard Error
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
_*Cor °F 27 Wind speed:
jn/s or mph
45
-------
Porn D-5A
1bfiltration: Test Description
FORM D-5A: AIR INFILTRATION RATE: TEST DESCRIPTION
One form is required
j Dale of Test 2 Tracer Gas:
Tracer Gas Concentration Measurement Locations
3 Outdoor air: ________
4 Occupied Space #1:
5 Occupied Space #2: __
6 Occupied Space #3: ______________________
7 Occupied Space #4:
8 Occupied Space #5:
9 Occupied Space #6:
10 Oocupied Space #7:
11 Occupied Space #8:
12 Oocupied Space #9: ¦
13 Occupied Space #10:
14
#1
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location:
15
#2
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location:,
16
#3
Air Handler Number. _
Air Handler Location:
17
#4
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location:,
18
#5
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location:
19
#6
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location;
20
#7
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location:,
21
#8
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location:
22
#9
Air Handler Number
Air Handler Location:
23
#10
Air Handler Number „ _
Air Handler Location:
46
-------
For* D-5B
1b flit ration: Sapply Airflow Rale
FORM D-5B: AIR INFILTRATION RATE: SUPPLY AIRFLOW RATE
One form is required for each air handler serving the building.
1 Date of Test 2 Time:
3 Air Handler Number. 4 Air Handler Location:
5 Location of Duct Traverse:
fyfeasuiEiiffifl fieyioe Infonnahon
6 Measurement Device Type:.
7 Manufacturer 8 Model Number
9 Serial Number.
10 Rectangular or Round: 11 Duct Area: m2orft2
Traverse Data. Traverse Grid and Data on Form D-Xl or D-X2
12 Start of Traverse, time: 13 End of Traverse, time:
falnilntirtng
14 Root Mean Square Velocity Pressure
Z^)1'2 / Number of readings: (Pa)1'2 or (in. w.g.)*/2
15 Average Air Speed
Air speed measurements, Xv,/Number of readings: m/s or fpm
Velocity pressure measurements (Pa), 1-29 x #14: m/s
Velocity pressure measurements (in. w.g.), 4002 x #14: fpm
16 Airflow Rate, #11 x #15: m3/s or cfm
47
-------
Form D-SC
Infiltration: Percent Outdoor Air Intake
FORM D-SC: AIR INFILTRATION RATE: PERCENT OUTDOOR AIR INTAKE
One form is required for each air handier serving the building.
1 Dale of Test 2 Time:
3 A"- Handler Number: 4 Air Handier Location:.
5 Outdoor Air Intake:
6 Supply Air
7 Return Air
Measurement Device Information
8 Manufacturer: __________9 Model Number
10 Serial Number.
Calitrratiftn CM?
Span check Zero check
11 Span Concentration: 13 Reading:
12 Reading:
Concentration Data
14 Start of Measurement, time: "
IS Outdoor Air 16 Return Air 17 Supply Air
18 End of Measurement, time:
Calculations
Mean Concentrations
Outdoor air Return air Supply air
Mean 19 ppm 21 npm 23 ppm
Standard Deviation 20 ppm 22 ppm 24 ppm
Percent Outdoor Air Intake
25 Value, 100 x (#21- #23) /(#2I. #19): %OA
26 Error Estimate, 100 x #25 [ (#222 ~ #2<>2y(#21 - #19)2 + (#222 + #24*)/(#21 - #23)2 ]W
% OA
48
-------
Form D-5D
iBflltratkm: Outdoor Air latake Kate
FORM D-5D: AIR INFILTRATION RATE: OUTDOOR AIR INTAKE RATE
One form is required for each air handler saving the building.
1 Date of Test 2 Time:
3 Air Handler Number 4 Air Handler Location:.
5 Location of Duct Traverse:
Measurement Device Information
6 Measurement Device Type:.
7 Manufacturer _______ 8 Model Number; ^__
9 Serial Number
Ifrfl Dimensions
10 Rectangular or Round: 11 Duct Area; orft2
Traverse Data. Traverse Grid and Data on Form D-Xl or D-X2
12 Start of Traverse, time: 13 End of Traverse, time:
Calculations
14 Root Mean Square Velocity Pressure
X(Pv)1/2 / Number of readings: (Pa)1^ or (in. wg.)1#
15 Average Air Speed
Airspeed measurements, £v,/ Number of readings: m/sorfpm
Velocity pressure measurements (Pa), 129 x #14: jn/s
Velocity pressure measurements On. wg), 4002 x #14: fpm
16 Airflow rate, #11 x #15: mtysorcfm
#2: CALCULATION
17 Supply Airflow Rate from Form D-5B #16, same air handler
mVsorcfm
18 Percent Outdoor Air Intake from Form D-5C #25, same air handler
%
19 Outdoor Air Intake Rate, #17 times #18
m3/sorcfm
49
-------
Form D-5E
Infiltration: Tracer Gas Decay
FORM D-5E: AIR INFILTRATION RATE: TRACER GAS DECAY
One farm is required
1 Date of Test
Measurement TVvicp. Information
2 Manufacturer
4 Serial Number.
Urn
Initial Reading
Outdoor
Time:
Temperature:
_°Cor °F
Hme Concentration
Occupied Space
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Second Reading
Outdoor
lane:
Temperature:
_°C or °F
lime Concentration
Occupied Spscc
Location #1
Location #2 __
Location #3
Location #4
Location #3
AilHsdiUeis
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
3
5
Model Number
Concentration Units:
Concentration:
Wind Speed:
_m/s or mph
Time Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Concentration:
Wind Speed:.
jn/s or mph
Time Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
50
-------
For* D-5E
Infiltration: Tracer Gas Dccaj
8 Third Reading
Outdoor
lime:
Temperature: °Cor °F
lime Concentration
Occupied Space
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Air Handlers
Location #1 ______
Location #2 _____
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Concentration:
Wind Speed: m/s or mph
lime Concentration
Location #6 _____
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10 ______
Location #6 _____
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
9 Fourth Reading
Outdoor
lime:
Temperature: °Cor°F
lime Concentration
Occupied Space
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3 _____
Location #4 _____
Location #5
Air Handlers
Location #1 '
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Concentration: ;
Wind Speed: m/s or mph
lime Concentration
Location #6 • '
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
51
-------
Porn D-5E
Infiltration: Tracer Gas Decay
10 fifth Reading
Outdoor
Time:
Temperature:
•Cor°F
Time Concentration
Occupied Space
Location #1
Location #2 __
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Air Handlers
Location #1
Location #2
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Data Analysis
11 Decay Rates, air changes per boor
Value Standard Error
Occupied Space
Location #1
Location #2 _____
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
Air Handlers
Location #1
Location #2 ____
Location #3
Location #4
Location #5
12 BuOding Average Decay Rate:
13 Standard Deviation:
_ach
ach
Outdoor Conditions, Averages
14 Exterior Teiupa ature:
Concentration:
Wind Speed:.
_m/s ormph
Time Concentration
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Location #6
Location#?
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Location #6
Location #7
Location #8
Location #9
Location #10
Value Standard Error
_*Cor °F 15 Wind Speed:.
_m/s ormph
52
-------
Fora D-5F
Iaflltration: Aiilyiis
FORM D-5F: AIR INFILTRATION RATE: DATA ANALYSIS
One form is required
1 Date of Test;
Outdoor Air Intake Rate, From Forms D-5D
2 Dctcmiincd by Method #1 Traverse or Method #2 Calculation:
3 #1 Air Handler. mVsorcftn
4 #2 Air Handler m^/s orcfm
5 #3 Air Handler mtysorcfm
6 #4 Air Handler jnVsorcfm
7 #5 Air Handler mVs or cfm
8 #6 Air Handier m3/s or cfm
9 #7 Air Handler. m3/sorcfm
10 #8 Air Handler. m3/s or cfm
11 #9 Air Handier: jntys or cfm
12 #10 Air Handler mVs orcfm
13 Total Outdoor Air Intake Rate, Add #3 through #12
_intys or cfm
14 Outdoor Air Intake Rate in air changes per hour, #13 divided by building volume
air changes per hour
15 Total Building Air Change Rate, From Form D-5E, #13
air changes per hour
16 Building Infiltration Rate, #15 minus #14
air changes per hour
53
-------
APPENDIX B
Radon Mitigation Branch School Profile Sheet (CHM 93)
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All.
SCHOOL:
STREET:
cm:
NSRS CODE:
CONTACT:
count*:
YOUR HAKE:
POSITION:
POSITION:
¦ DISTRICT: .
ST: • IIP: _
BATE: _
PHONE:
• PHONE:
x. rat roLLowiNO tabu xncltoxi gTweruKAii eBmjsnxxsnc* or ¦» »cbool:
STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS - 1 ORIGTKAL STRUCTURE
2nd STRUCTURE
3rd STRUCTURE |
1) HAS CONSTRUCTED K
'
2) SUBSTRUCTURE TTPEl 1
BSMT/SLAB/CRAHL * 1
3) IT CRAHL SPACE, IS FIRST 1
TiOOR: SIABAOOD 1
4) TOTAL SO. rr, OT BUILBIV3 I
s> so. rr. or ground coktact
«) « 1st 71. CLASSROCHS
.
7) # OTHER l«t FL OCCUPIED HOCKS
8) « or FLOORS (IVZL. BSMT)
») approx * or tuiiDim occupants
.
10) DESCRIBE SEXERAL BCTLCIK3
DESIGN: COHVENT2OKAL/OFQf
CIASSROCKS/OTHER
•
4
11!ARE SUBSIAS HALLS BLOCK CR
POURED*. BLOCK/POURED
12ISO SUBSLAB (ALLS SEPARATE
EACH CLASSROOM YES/KO/TOOC
13) ABE SUBSLAB HALLS ODER THE
CORRIDOR HALLSt TES/KO/UHX
;
14)SUBSLAB MATERIAL ON PLANS 1
HA/GRAVEL/SAND/EARTH/OTHER
15) SUBSLAB MATERIAL VTOlUDl
Wv'CRAVEL/SAKD/EARTH/OTHER
1«) LOCATION IS) OT PTIUTT LIKESl
TWXEL/SUBSLAB (NO TUKKEL)/
CVERKLAD/BS>fT/CJWHI,/OTHER •
17) IF TWNELt WIDTH < HEIGH?
'
ltJTVKHEl LOCATION) OUTSIDE 1
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54
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• "
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HALL/TUNNEL/BSKT/CRAHL/OTHER
12)IS AIR RETURN DUCTED: YES/NO
13)DOES SYSTEM HAVE A PRESSURE
RELIEF: YES/NO
14)BRIEFLY DESCRIBE ANY OTHER
DETAILS ABOUT THE AIR
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.
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YES/NO
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4) SERVICES OTHER AREA: YES/NO
5) TYPICAL LOCATION OF UNITS:
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YES/HO
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1 BCHAinn: IF KNOWN SPECIFY TOTAL 1 ORIGINAL STRUCTURE
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55
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1) CLASSROCKSi NONE/GRAVITY/rAN
2) CORRIDOR: HOKE/CRAVITY/IWf
9) MULTIPURPOSE :NCNE/!3*AVTTY/FAX
1) KITCHEN: NONE/GRAVITY/FAN
5) CAFETERIA: NONE/GRAVITY/FAN
*) RESTROCKS«NONE/GRAVITY/fAN
7) IABS:NOHE/CRAVTTT/l*N
• ) OTHER :SPECIFT/GRAVITY/I*N
general zwanATxott
ORIGINAL STRUCTURE
2nd STRUCTURE
1
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1) DOES BUILDING RAVE WINDOW
AC UNITS: YES/NO/PARTIALLY
•
2) KVAC SYSTQi CONTROL)ENERGY
KST/ROCH CONTROLS/OTHER/
ELECTRONIC OR PNEUMATIC
3) HERE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
PLANS AVAILABLE TO
COMPLETE PROFILE SHEET?
YES/NO
<) HAVE -ENERGY CONSERVATION"
MEASURES BEEN MA23C: SPECHT
5) IS THE BUILDING MATER
SUPPLYi MELL/PUBLIC
•
a. m nt n*a below, nam inovua axy itemoKU. eoMSNitt
SECTION
CCMMDJTS
IF you HAVE ANY QUESTIONS Of! NEED CLARinCATXDKS PLEAS! CONTACT: KT.U.Y LEOVJC, RADON KITIfiATION BRANCH JKD-Sl).
U.S. EPA, RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, MC 27711. MX: » FAX 2157
56
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APPENDIX C
Literature Review of Radon in Large Buildings (GEO 91)
Section 2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW OF RADON IN LARGE BUILDINGS
(NOTE: E'or maximum use to the reader, literature citations have been
updated by EPA since their initial publication.)
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of radon in large buildings has been under study by
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) since 1987 when
schools with elevated radon problems were found. Many papers on large
buildings have been presented at the last three USEPA Radon Symposiums,
and radon in large buildings was the topic or a recent USEPA Forum.
(USEPA 1990) . The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988 initiated several
programs in schools and in work places. All Federal agencies were
directed to test their buildings, and when these test results are
released, they are expected to provide a nationwide data base on radon
concentration in big buildings. Since 1987, research in schools has shown
that the radon mitigation techniques developed for houses can often be
used to mitigate large buildings. Large-scale school testing has revealed
that the areas with elevated radon levels in schools are the same areas
that have elevated levels in houses. The current USEPA research in
schools is focusing on testing HVAC modifications for radon mitigation
potential, and developing radon resistant construction techniques for new
schools.
This literature review is heavily weighted toward research in
schools, because there is very little literature on radon research in
other types of buildings. The school data is examined for its relevance
57
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to other large buildings, and for its relevance to Florida large
buildings.
2.2 LARGE BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO RADON
2.2.1 Definition of Large Building
If "large building" is defined as any habitable structure larger
than a single-family detached house, then this is an extremely wide
category. However, for the purposes of this study the term will be
defined as structures that are over three stories in height or larger
than 10,000 square feet in floor area, and which have HVAC systems that
are more complex than home systems because they can generally provide
ventilation air. The definition is meant to exclude single-story, multi-
family buildings such as duplexes and condominiums because these
buildings are generally considered to have radon problems that are
similar to houses. The definition is intended to include most schools,
office buildings, factories, and larger stores. Of course there are
exceptions, such as older schools that do not have mechanical ventilation
systems.
Large buildings in Florida generally differ from the stock of all
large buildings in the United States because of several factors that are
thought to be relevant to the potential radon problem. The factors
include warm climate, the high humidity, the high water table, and the
scarcity of sources of aggregate for construction. The warm climate may
influence the pressure-induced radon entry. The outside temperature and
high humidity increases the air-conditioning loads which provides an
incentive to reduce building ventilation. The high water table limits the
use of basements and makes slab-on-grade the predominant building sub-
58
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structure. The scarcity of aggregate makes it likely that the building
substructure is constructed on sandy material with low permeability to
air flow.
2.2.2 Major Determinants of Radon Entry into Large Buildings
Radon entry into buildings is generally considered to be domin-
ated by convective flow caused by small pressure differences that draw
soil gas through openings in the house substructure. Diffusion can be
shown to be too small to account for the significant amount of radon
found in many buildings (Nazaroff and Nero 1988), and most types of
building substructure have many small openings through which soil gas can
flow. The following four factors are generally considered to be the major
determinants of elevated indoor radon concentrations in large buildings:
• Radon levels in the soil
• Soil gas entry routes
• Pressure differences
• Ventilation
Elevated levels of radon in the soil must be present near
(typically within a meter) the building substructure. The inhomogeneity
of the soil in most areas makes it very difficult to determine if a large
building has a radon problem without testing all rooms that have contact
with the soil. Site testing for radon before construction has generally
not been proven to accurately predict the potential for radon problems in
buildings subsequently constructed on the site. The best predictor for
radon problems in large buildings has been the presence of nearby houses
with radon problems.
59
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Soil gas entry routes through the building substructure must be
present if radon can enter the building. Unfortunately only small cracks
arc apparently necessary in most cases and normal building construction
provides sufficient opportunities for cracks to develop such as shrinkage
cracks where the slab contracts with it cures, enlarged openings around
pipe and/or electrical penetrations, and control joints in the slab that
are designed to control the cracking of large slab areas. Even when all
of these cracks are visible and are carefully sealed, there are often
enough pathways left to result in poor radon mitigation results from
sealing alone.
Pressure differences are generally necessary to drive the radon
into the building. In houses, these pressures are generally very small
and are most often caused by both imbalance in the air distribution
system and the stack effect which is caused by temperature differences
between the inside and outside of the building. In heating situations,
the stack effect generally depressurizes the building substructure,
increasing radon entry rates. In air-conditioning situations, the stack
pressure would be reversed which should retard radon entry. In larger
buildings, the HVAC system may be the dominant source of pressure, but at
night the HVAC system is often operated less frequently, and the stack
effect may be the dominant source of pressure on the building
substructure.
Ventilation will tend to dilute the radon levels in buildings,
and it may increase the pressure inside the building that will impede
radon entry. In houses, ventilation is primarily due to uncontrolled
leakage through unintended cracks in the building shell, and it is
usually driven by a combination of pressures from air distribution system
60
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imbalances, stack and wind. In large buildings, there are generally code
requirements to provide a minimum amount of mechanical ventilation.
Tracer gas measurements in large buildings by researchers for the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, formerly the
National Bureau of Standards) have recently shown that in many big
bui.l dings, the ventilation rate can vary substantially from the building
design values.
2.2.3 Stack Effect
The stack effect (ASHRAE 1989) is a pressure gradient in build-
ings which arises from the difference in temperature between the inside
and the outside of the building. When the internal air temperature is
higher than the outer air temperature, then air enters through the lower
building shell leaks in the building and escapes through the upper shell
leaks. The level at which there is a transition between inflow and
outflow is known as the "neutral pressure plane." In practice the neutral
pressure plane is difficult to measure, but it can be predicted from the
distribution of all the leaks over the surface of the shell.
If the building shell leaks are uniformly distributed over the
shell, then the neutral pressure plane will be located approximately
midway up the side of the shell, and under winter conditions, the stack
pressure expelling air at the top of the building will be the same
magnitude as the pressure drawing air in at the bottom. However, if all-
the leaks are on the bottom of the enclosure, then the neutral pressure
plane will be at the bottom and all the stack pressure will be exerted at
the top of the shell. This is the force that lifts a hot air balloon. In
houses, the stack effect is generally small (a few pascals, or less), but
61
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in tall buildings the lower and upper doors and windows may be difficult
to open if the stack effect is not compensated for by fan pressurization
or depressurization.
In houses in the northern United States, the stack effect is
often the dominant force that tends to depressurize the building
substructure and draw radon in through the cracks. Under air-conditioning
situations as might be expected in Florida, the stack effect would likely
be reversed and radon entry may require other sources of depressurization
such as air distribution system imbalances. In larger buildings, during
the night the HVAC system is often adjusted to provide minimum
ventilation and conditioning, and the stack effect may then be the
dominant source of pressure in the building.
2.2.4 Ventilation and Ventilation Efficiency
Ventilation is defined as the introduction of outside air for the
purpose of diluting the contaminants generated indoors under the
assumption that outside air is cleaner than inside air. In the past, the
acceptable levels of ventilation required for human comfort have been
related to the removal of body odors, but more recently the acceptable
rates have been related to pollution from smoking and chemicals out-
gassing from materials in the large building. ASHRAE and BOCA codes have
recommended ventilation rates that depend on the type of activity and
materials that are expected to be found in the large building. Large
building minimum recommended ventilation rates have risen from the 1981
recommendations of 5 cubic feet per minute (cfm) in a nonsmoking office
space to 15-20 cfm in 1989 (ASHRAE 62-1989). A second aspect of ventila-
tion is the evenness of the distribution of fresh air to the occupants of
-------
the space. This generally referred to as "ventilation efficiency" and if
it is poor, some building occupants or building areas may not be
receiving adequate ventilation even when the average ventilation meets
the recommended levels.
Ventilation and ventilation efficiency are difficult to measure,
so it is not a common practice to verify by test whether a building
actually achieves its design ventilation levels. Even if the building was
designed correctly, the equipment was installed correctly, it is properly
maintained, and the building personnel understand how to operate it, it
may be operated for the best energy conservation rather than adequate
ventilation. Fortunately, there does not seem to be a correlation between
indoor pollution problems and ventilation rates. This is probably due to
the fact that although ventilation rates may vary by a factor of 10, the
pollutant source strengths vary by much larger factors. For instance, the
radon sources under problem buildings may be hundreds or thousands of
times stronger than the radon under.typical buildings.
2.2.5 HVAC Systems in Large Buildings
Large buildings vary greatly in size and also in their heating,
ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems. HVAC systems can have a
significant impact on the radon concentrations in a building because of
their possible pressurization or depressurization on the ground contact
rooms, the introduction of fresh air which can dilute any radon that is
drawn in, and their distribution of radon throughout the building. The
major types of large building ventilation systems and their radon
potential (Turner and Greim 1988 and 1989) include:
• Passive Systems
63
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• Exhaust Only Systems
• Unit Ventilators
• Terminal Air Blenders
• Unitary Heat Pumps or Fan Coil Units
• Heat Recovery Ventilators
• Central Station Air Handlers
Passive systems rely on stack effect and wind pressures to drive
air through the building. This is the source of ventilation in most
houses because the heating or cooling system is not designed to
intentionally introduce fresh air into the building. Older large
buildings often do not have mechanical ventilation. Note that the forced
air circulation systems in houses and large buildings often induce
considerable ventilation because of duct leakage and improper pressure
balancing. Therefore, HVAC systems without mechanical ventilation may
have ventilation by either stack/wind pressures or by defects in the air
distribution system. It is impossible to predict in advance what effects
will be dominant in determining the radon concentration in this type of
building.
Exhaust only systems consist solely of exhaust fans which are
often installed in halls, bathrooms and kitchens. Older HVAC systems
sometimes incorporated window openings as a vital part of the ventilation
system, but during extreme weather it will not be very comfortable to
increase ventilation. These systems would be expected to increase radon
entry because of increased depressurization of the building substructure,
but they also increase ventilation, so the net impact on indoor radon
concentrations is unclear. This type of HVAC system is common in houses
and older schools.
64
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Unit ventilators are small, wall-mounted HVAC units, usually
consisting of a fan enclosure containing heating/cooling coils, and
generally have a vent to the outside for ventilation air. Due to their
low cost and easy architectural coordination, they are quite popular in
many schools and other large buildings. When they are providing outside
air, they provide some dilution and some pressurization of the room.
However, they are generally controlled to save energy and not to provide
ventilation, and this will lessen any radon reductions caused by
pressurization or dilution.
Terminal air blenders are HVAC fan systems that use fresh air to
modulate the heating requirements. As the outside temperature varies from
the thermostat temperature, less fresh air is supplied until a minimum
design ventilation rate is reached at an outside temperature that is
selected to have a low probability of occurrence (about 10 percent) . This
type of HVAC system would be expected to provide overall pressurization
of the building,.although there could be local areas of depressurization.
Unitary heat pumps or fan coil units would not be expected to
cause any pressure change in the school unless they have outside
ventilation air ducted to the unit. If outside air is provided, then
pressurization of the space is possible and radon entry may be reduced by
the pressurization and the radon concentration indoors may be reduced by
dilution provided by the fresh air. Again, if the air distribution system
is imbalanced or leaky, then the radon concentration will be affected in
an unpredictable way.
Heat Recovery Ventilators allow the supply of fresh air with less
energy penalty because they allow the outside ventilation air to exchange
heat with stale outgoing air. Since these systems require approximately
65
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balanced air flow, they would not be expected to change the net pressure
balance in a building, but would increase the dilution thereby tending to
reduce radon concentrations.
Central station air handlers consist of separate supply and
return fans, tempering coils, dampers and controls. One type is the
constant volume system where a two-position damper controls the fresh air
supply depending on building and environmental conditions. One
disadvantage is that the fan is always operating at full power. Another
type is a variable air volume (VAV) control where the fresh air supply is
continuously varied. This saves fan energy but ventilation rates are
sometimes low when a zone in the building does not require conditioned
air. Other variants are VAV with economizer or VAV with outside air
control and heat recovery. All of these systems have the potential to
provide an increase in enclosure pressurization and increased
ventilation, but they are quite complex, and their performance depends on
proper design, installation, balancing, and maintenance. The operators
must have a good understanding of the system and must have performance
goals that are consistent with good air quality and possibly not just
energy conservation performance.
2.2.6 Building Substructure
The substructure of a building, the part that is in contact with
the ground, may have a significant impact on its potential for radon
problems. Most buildings have one (or a combination) of three types of
substructures:
• Basement Construction
• Slab-on-Grade
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• Crawl Space
Basement construction allows large areas of floor and walls to be
in ground contact and generally has the greatest potential for radon
entry. Most basements have cracks between the floor slab and the walls
where radon can enter, as well as penetrations around pipes, and cracks
in the slab or walls. Larger buildings often have basement substructures
and may even have utility chases or tunnels which provide even more
avenues for radon entry. Buildings in Florida do not generally have
basements because of the high water table.
Slab-on-grade building substructures are common for houses in
some areas, very common for schools, and are also used for many larger
buildings. They have somewhat less radon entry potential than basements,
but many houses and schools with this substructure have been found to
have radon problems. This is the most common type of Florida building
construction. In many parts of the United States, a layer of porous
aggregate is placed under the slab for drainage, and this has proven to
be very beneficial for future installation of radon mitigation system by
the technique of active subslab depressurization (ASD). However,
aggregate is not readily available in Florida, and sand is often used
instead. This material is much less impermeable to air flow than
aggregate and radon mitigation by ASD is much more difficult.
Crawl space building substructures are common in some areas for
houses, and they are also found in schools and some larger buildings. In
many cases they were designed with the intent that they could be
passively ventilated by opening vents on all sides, but experiments have
shown that air generally enters all of these vents, picks up any radon,
and then the mixture is drawn up into the building by stack effect or
67
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ventilation depressurization. Many crawl space homes and schools have
been found with radon problems. Crawl spaces are not a common building
technique for Florida schools and large buildings.
2.2.7 Building Occupancy and Use
Building occupancy and use can have a major impact on radon
levels in large buildings because of the HVAC system cycles. In larger
buildings, there is a significant economic incentive not to provide the
same level of heat, cooling or ventilation during unoccupied times
(typically nights and weekends). Houses do not normally go through these
radical ventilation cycles because they lack a mechanical ventilation
system that can be turned on and off. It is not uncommon for large
buildings to have lower radon levels when they are occupied because of
high ventilation and building pressurization, but the radon concentration
levels at night may increase because the HVAC system is off or operating
at a reduced level. Since most radon tests integrate over several days,
they may not show the temporal variations in occupant exposures.
2.3 PRECONSTRUCTION SITE SURVEYS
It is possible to identify areas with a high radon risk, or to
test a specific site to estimate the risk? The USEPA and the U.S.
Geological Service (Gunderson 1991) have developed a map summarizing the
radon potential for each county in the United States. This might be used
by builders and code officials in "hot" areas to consider using radon
resistant construction techniques. This map has been released by USEPA
and was incorporated into EPA's development of a Map of Radon Zones (EPA
1993). The research in the area of site surveys is generally inconclusive
68
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because of the complexity of the problem and the difficulty of doing a
sufficient number of controlled tests. One recent paper {Llewelleyn 1991)
suggests that previous researchers did not measure enough locations for a
long enough time. Some researchers (e.g., Hall 1988) report some
successful correlations between soil surveys and indoor radon
concentrations, but controlled studies with large numbers of samples are
difficult to perform.
One example of the ambiguities of a large-building site survey is
given by research on a school in Fairfax County, Virginia (Witter, Craig
and Saum 1988). The site was surveyed by U.S. Geological Survey and some
locations with high radon concentrations were found. Some radon-resistant
features were built into the school, but no elevated concentrations were
found when the school was first tested. After three years, the school was
retested, and some elevated radon levels were found in one wing of the
school. It is unclear what changes had taken place in the school, but the
HVAC system was found to be operating in an energy-conserving night set-
back mode rather than the recommended continuous-ventilation mode
recommended for radon control. The elevated locations could not be
clearly correlated with the soil test results. It appears that the
inhomogeneity of the soil, the grading and fill at the site before
construction, and the complexity of the school HVAC system and
substructure, all tend to limit the precision of the initial site survey.
2.4 MODELING INDOOR RADON CONCENTRATIONS
Radon modeling has historically focused on either the building or
the soil. Soil models have concentrated on predicting the radon entry
rate from the dynamics of transport through the soil and foundation
69
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cracks without much consideration of the building physics or weather
dynamics (e.g., Rogers and Nielsen 1990). Alternatively, building models
have concentrated on predicting the indoor radon concentration from the
above-ground characteristics of the buildings, the HVAC system action,
and weather influences on the building (e.g., Saum and Modera 1991).
Since radon concentrations in large buildings appear to be dominated by
the HVAC system effects, it appears that a building model rather than a
soil model would be most useful in understanding the radon concentration
dynamics as the HVAC and weather change. Ideally, the two types of models
should be integrated.
A simple building model was developed for slab-on-grade single-
zone structures by Saum and Modera, but this model was limited to winter
stack dominated or exhaust fan depressurization. Modera is currently
working on an extension of this model. Saum is currently working on a
simple model for indoor radon concentrations in the slab-on-grade single-
zone situation for supply ventilation conditions (Saum and Leovic 1991).
This model divides the radon mitigation effect into a pressure factor and
a dilution factor. For instance, it can be used to evaluate the radon
mitigation effect of changing building ventilation to meet ASHRAE
Standard 62-1989.
Radon mitigation in Florida buildings has the special problem of
low-permeability material under most slabs. One recent paper (Hintenlang
and Furman 1990) models this type of soil-gas flow and provides
experimental confirmation of some of the results.
2.5 HVAC EFFECTS ON RADON CONCENTRATIONS IN LARGE BUILDINGS
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The use of HVAC systems for radon mitigation in large buildings
has appeared to be attractive, especially when the subslab conditions are
poor for an ASD system, and adjustments to the HVAC system may appear to
be quite simple. The increased ventilation is often needed to bring the
building up to modern ventilation standards. However, most of the studies
have run into problems with poor maintenance, a bias toward energy
conservation rather than ventilation, and a poor understanding of the
operation of a complex system. For instance, the first new school that
was built to operate with HVAC overpressurization {Witter, Craig and Saum
1988) was found, 2 years later, to be running in an energy conservation
mode that defeated the radon control objectives (Saum and Leovic 1991).
The energy management department who had control of this HVAC system did
not follow through on the radon control plan that was decided during
construction. Although this is only one case, it suggest that radon
control by HVAC modifications can be politically as well as technically
complex.
There are two USEPA projects on evaluation of HVAC radon
mitigation in schools. Saum is investigating one school with unit
ventilator systems and another school with a VAV system. These systems
were modified/programmed for varying levels of ventilation, while radon
and environmental parameters were monitored. Pyle is similarly
investigating a school with unit ventilators. Both these reports will be
available in the fall. A theoretical model for predicting the radon
mitigation effects of increasing ventilation is being developed by Saum
and will be included in the report. This model was discussed in the
modeling section of this report.
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2.6 RADON MEASUREMENTS IN LARGE BUILDINGS
Radon measurements in large building are more difficult than
measurements in houses, if the goal is to accurately measure occupant
exposure. In a house, the occupants are generally assumed to be in the
house all day, and an integrating measurement over several days is
acceptable. But in a large building, radon levels often change
dramatically as the HVAC system changes the ventilation rates during
occupied and unoccupied periods. In many cases, the ventilation rate is
much higher during occupied periods and the radon concentrations are
lower due to dilution and pressurization. This complicates the
interpretation of integrated radon measurements that span several days.
This problem led to the development of the radon measurement protocol for
schools (USEPA 1989) which requires that integrated measurements be made
with the HVAC system running continuously in the occupied mode. Perhaps
the best technique to get an unbiased estimate of the actual occupant
exposure is to use a continuous monitor (Wiggers, et al. 1990) and only
integrate during occupied hours. Even this technique has problems because
there are instrument time response lags in most types of continuous radon
monitors that are difficult to remove.
The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988 required all Federal
agencies to test their buildings, and a report on these tests is
currently undergoing internal review with the Federal government. Eighty-
five percent of the 80,000 measurements were under 2 pCi/L and 95 percent
were under 4 pCi/L.
One set of radon measurements for large buildings is from a study
of indoor air quality measurement in 38 commercial buildings in the
Pacific Northwest during 1984 and 1985 (Turk, et al. 1987). Measurements
72
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including ventilation rates and radon concentrations, as well as the
concentration number of pollutants were measured. In general, the
measured ventilation rates were high compared to design standards, and
the pollutant concentrations were low compared to commonly recognized
standards and guidelines. Only one building with a significant radon
problem was found: it had radon levels of 7.8 pCi/L. This building had an
HVAC system that drew "outside" air through a basement with an open soil
floor and from a network of underground service tunnels. Conclusions
related to radon testing from this study are as follows:
• In areas with high radon potential, radon problems might be
expected in buildings with foundations allowing exposed soil
and with HVAC systems that depressurize the foundation
• Service tunnels connected to buildings may allow entry of
radon.
• Ventilation rates varied widely in the buildings and the
operators often did not understand the operation of the HVAC
systems.
• The mean radon measurement was 0.5 pCi/L similar to outside
levels
• No indication of radon transport to upper floors was noticed
in high-rise buildings
• Although ventilation rates were sometimes quite low, few air
pollution problems were traced to this
• The correlation between pollutant concentrations and
ventilation rates was weak, suggesting, as seen in past
studies, that pollution is primarily due to the presence of
strong pollutant sources and not ventilation rates.
Another study that combines radon and extensive indoor air
quality measurements was performed by NIST at a new Federal office
building in Portland, Oregon during 1986 and 1987 (Grot and Persily
1989). The building is seven stories tall with a one-story basement and a
three-story underground parking garage. The occupied area is 495,000
square feet. It is served by three VAV-type HVAC systems and there are
73
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several elevator and stair shafts. Significant results include large
variations in ventilation rates over the course of the year, very large
uncontrolled air leakage, and transport of carbon monoxide and radon up
the vertical shafts to the upper stories of the building. The ventilation
rates vary from 0.4 to 2.2 air changes per hour (ach) which may be
compared to the 0.7 ach which can be computed from the ventilation
recommendations of the ASHRAE 62-1989 Ventilation Standard (20 cfm per
person). This wide variation could lead to under or overventilation which
would affect the dilution of pollutants such as radon. The building air
leakage is the uncontrolled air leakage when the HVAC fans are off, and
it was measured between 0.2 and 0.4 ach. This was equivalent to a house
with a leakage of 1.2. to 2.4 ach which is several times leakier than
most houses.
The uncontrolled leakage suggest flaws in the building shell and
its ventilation that are not well understood. Although the radon levels
were quite low (around 1 pCi/L) the levels on the upper floors were
consistently higher than the lower above-grade floors, suggesting that
the vertical shafts were transporting the basement pollutants to the
higher floors. The carbon monoxide showed a similar transport up from the
garage. In summary, the ventilation and air infiltration in this large
building seem to be less well controlled than might be expected, and we
have evidence of preferential pollutant flow from the lower levels of the
building to the upper levels. Sever other NIST studies of "sick" office
buildings include radon measurements (Persily, Dols, Nabinger and
VanBronkhorst 1989), (Dols and Persily 1989) and (Persily, Dols, Nabinger
and Kirchner 1991), but the radon levels are very close to background.
74
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One report of radon measurements that suggest significantly lower
measurement in large buildings during occupied periods involves
surreptitious measurements of Pittsburgh office and college buildings
(Cohen, et al. 1984). Students took samples of air from various
commercial and school buildings that they visited during the day. These
radon levels in these samples were compared with the home radon test data
from the same areas. Conclusions from this study are as follows:
1. Average daytime commercial building levels may be an order of
magnitude lower than home levels in the same area.
2. Colleges and universities seem to have higher daytime radon
levels than commercial buildings, possibly related to better
ventilation of commercial buildings.
3. Age of buildings did not seem to be an important factor.
4. There was little indication that radon levels in these
buildings were higher in the winter than in the summer.
Note that this study may not have taken any measurements in the
commercial buildings at night when the HVAC systems were off and the
radon levels are probably highest. Of course there is a much lower
occupancy at night.
2.7 RADON DIAGNOSIS AND MITIGATION IN LARGE BUILDINGS
2.7.1 Radon Diagnosis in Large Buildings
Radon diagnosis in large buildings can be quite complex. One
report on radon diagnostic work in a large office building (Saum and
Messing 1991) reports using the following types of measurements:
• Subslab radon grab samples
• Continuous radon in each HVAC zone
• Continuous differential pressure across the slab in each HVAC
zone.
• Room-to-room pressure differential
75
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• Integrated radon (EIC monitors) in several rooms of each
zone.
This range of diagnostic measurements is not usually justified in a
house, but may be essential in a large building were HVAC modification
may seriously be considered as a mitigation option. Additional diagnostic
measurements might include subslab communication tests and ventilation
measurements.
School radon mitigation work is generally focused on making ASD
systems work, and the primary diagnostic tool for ASD is the subslab
communication or pressure field extension (PFE) test (e.g., Leovic,
Craig, Harris, Pyle and Webb 1991). Experience has shown that most HVAC
depressurization effects in big buildings can be ignored if the ASD
system has an adequate PFE.
2.7.2 Radon Mitigation in Large Buildings
There is now extensive research literature on the excellent radon
mitigation performance of ASD systems in slab-on-grade and basement
schools where there is a porous material, such as aggregate, beneath the
slab. For crawl space buildings, there is less experimental data, but the
techniques of active soil depressurization and crawl space
depressurization have been shown to provide significant radon mitigation
(Pyle and Leovic 1991).
Most of the research literature on large-building radon
mitigation is based on experience in schools using ASD. One office
building was reported to have achieved a 50 percent reduction in indoor
radon concentrations by increasing the fresh air supply to the VAV units
(Saum and Messing 1991). This same office building has subsequently
76
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achieved an additional 50 percent decrease in radon levels by sealing
some large cracks in areas where there was significant depressurization.
2.8 RADON RESISTANT NEW CONSTRUCTION
Major progress has been made in developing radon resistant new
construction techniques for schools and other large buildings since USEPA
research in this area was started in 1987. Although some of the initial
new school experiments (Witter, Craig and Saum 1988) involved HVAC
overpressurization, the most successful technique has been ASD.
Laboratory work on aggregate effects on pressure field extension (Gadsby,
et al. 1991) revealed the importance of the boundary conditions at the
edge of the slab. The latest work involves an analysis of the costs of
several ASD designs that have recently been built in the northeastern
United States (Craig, Leovic and Saum 1991). This study suggests that
radon contractors are installing effective, but over designed ASD
systems. Work by Craig of USEPA Office of Research and Development (ORD)
suggests that proper design of the subslab suction pit, optimum aggregate
selection, and reduction of footing interference with pressure field
extension can result in excellent radon mitigation with only one stack
and fan for coverage of 50,000 or more square feet of slab area (Craig,
Harris, and Leovic 1992).
For Florida new construction, the optimized ASD techniques may
not be very useful if aggregate is not available. One alternative would
be to incorporate an extensive perforated pipe (or drainage matting)
network beneath the slab to make up for the lack of air flow through the
sand. No experiments have been reported on large slabs with this type of
ASD system. Alternatively, an HVAC overpressurization technique could be
77
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used. HVAC radon mitigation is under investigation in several schools
(Saum and Leovic 1991). Both these options will be more expensive than
the optimized ASD system, but the cost is a very small fraction of the
cost of the building.
2.9 CONCT.nSTONS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
The prevalence of radon problems in Florida large buildings is
not precisely known, but problems may be expected in the same areas where
elevated levels have been found in houses. Survey data from large Florida
buildings will be available from the Federal Workplace Study, but this
data has not been released yet.
The characteristics of large buildings in Florida that appear to
be most significant for potential radon problem entry are: 1) the
predominance of slab-on-grade construction, 2) the low porosity of the
material under most slabs, 3) the potential for reverse stack effect
pressures, and 4) the increased costs of ventilation due to high outdoor
humidity.
Radon-resistant new construction techniques that have recently
been successfully demonstrated for large buildings may be difficult to
use in Florida because the primary technique relies on a layer of porous
aggregate under the building slab. Florida construction may require
either finding substitutes such as drainage matting, or be relying on
alternative strategies such as sealing, avoidance of depressurization,
and HVAC overpressurization.
Radon entry mechanisms in Florida buildings appear to rely less
on stack effect depressurization of the building substructure (which
78
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should be reversed under air-conditioning situations), and more on IIVAC-
related depressurization.
Research in progress that is expected to be useful in the
understanding of large building radon problems in Florida includes: 1)
USEPA field research on HVAC radon mitigation in schools, 2) USEPA field
research on pressures in Florida test structures, and 3) USEPA modeling
of substructure pressures due to weather.
Data bases that may be useful for evaluation of the Florida
Large-building radon problem include the forthcoming Federal Workplace
Survey, and Federal Building Survey.
79
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Section 6.0
REFERENCES FROM THE LITERATURE REVIEW
(NOTE: For maximum use to the reader, references have been updated by EPA
since their initial publication.)
Introduction - Large Building Characterization
ASHRAE, 1989 Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1989.
ASHRAE 62, "Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality," ASHRAE
Standard 62-1989, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1989.
Greim, C. and Turner, W., Guaranteeing Minimum Outside Air Quantities;
Historical Methods and New Horizons, Harriman Associates, presented at
ASHRAE Energy Seminar "Indoor Air Quality: Issues, Engineering, and the
Future," Portland, MF., April 6, 1988.
U.S. EPA Office of Radiation Programs, Proceedings of the 1990 Forum on
Radon Prevention in Large Buildings, prepared by SC&A, Inc., McLean, VA,
June 1990.
Preconstruction Site Surveys
Gunderson, L., Geologic Radon Potential of the United States. U.S.
Geologic Survey, Reston VA. This map has been released by USEPA and was
incorporated into EPA's development of a Map of Radon Zones (EPA 1993).
Hall, S.T., "Correlation of Soil Radon Availability Number with Indoor
Radon and Geology in Virginia and Maryland," In: Proceedings of the
EPA/USGS Soil Gas Meeting, Washington, DC, September 1988.
Llewellyn, R.A., "Radon in Large Buildings: Pre-Construction Soil Radon
Surveys," In: Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and
Radon Reduction Technology Vol. 4, EPA-600/9-91-037d (NTIS PB92-115385),
November 1991.
U.S. EPA, EPA Map of Radon Zones, Arizona, EPA-402-R-93-023, September
1 993.
Witter (Leovic), K.A., Craig, A.B., and Saum, D.W., "New Construction
Techniques and HVAC Overpressurization for Radon Reduction in Schools,"
In: Proceedings of ASHRAE IAO'88, Atlanta, 1988, EPA-600/D-88-073 (NTIS
PB88-196159).
Modeling Indoor Radon Concentrations
Hintenlang, D.W. and Furman, R.A., "Sub-Slab Suction System Design for
Low Permeability Soils," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International
Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol 3, EPA-600/9-91-
026c (NTIS PB91-2344 68), July 1991.
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Nazaroff, W. and Nero, A.V., editors, Radon and Its Decay Products in
Indoor Air. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988.
Rogers, V.C. and Nielsen, K.K., "Benchmark and Application of the RAETRAD
Model," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International Symposium on Radon and
Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-C26b (NTIS PB91-234450),
July 1991.
Saum, D.W. and Modera, M., Radon Mitigation Impact of Measures to Reduce
Depressurization in New House Construction, Infiltec, Falls Church, VA,
August 1991.
Saum, D.W., "Case Studies of Radon Reduction in Maryland, New Jersey, and
Virginia Schools," EPA-600/R-93-211 (NTIS PB94-117363), November 1993.
HVAC Effects on Radon Concentrations in Large Buildings
Brennan, T., Fisher, G., Thompson, R., and Turner, W., "Extended Heating,
Ventilating and Air-Conditioning Diagnostics in Schools in Maine," In:
Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and Radon
Reduction Technology, Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92-115369),
November 1991.
Hall, S.T., "Mitigation Diagnostics: The Need for Understanding Both HVAC
and Geological Effects in Schools," In: Proceedings: The 1991
International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 2,
EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92-115369), November 1991.
Leovic, K.W., Craig, A.B., and Saum, D.W., "The Influences of HVAC Design
and Operation on Radon Mitigation of Existing School Buildings," In:
Proceedings of ASHRAE IAO '89, The Human Equation: Health and Comfort,
San Diego, CA, EPA-600/D-89-015 (KTIS PB89-218762), 1989.
Leovic, K.W., Harris, D.B., Dyess, T.M., Fyle, 3.E., Boradk, T., and
Saum, D.W., "HVAC System Complications and Controls for Radon Reduction
in School Buildings," In: Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium
on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol 2, EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTTS
P392-115369), November 1991.
Saurn, D.W., "Case Studies of Radon Reduction in Maryland, New Jersey, ana
Virginia Schools," EPA-600/R-93-211 (NTIS PB94-117363), November 1993.
Turner, W. and Greirn, C., Types of HVAC Systems and Their Possible
Interaction with Radon Levels in Schools, Harriman Associates, Auburn,
ME, July 1989.
Witter (Leovic), K.A., Craig, A.B., and Saum, D.W., "New-Construction
Techniques and HVAC Overpressurization for Radon Reduction in Schools,"
In: Proceedings of ASHRAE IAO'88, Atlanta, GA,EPA-600/D-83-073 (NTIS
PB88-196159), 1988.
81
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Radon Measurements in Schools
Belanger, W. and Pyles, M., "Prediction of Maximum Radon Concentrations
in Schools Using Partial Sampling Methods," In: Proceedings: The 1990
International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 3,
EPA-600/9-91-026c (NTIS PB91-234468), July 1991.
Grodzins, L., "Radon in Schools of Massachusetts," In: Proceedings: The
1990 International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology.
Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-026b (NTIS PB91-234450), July 1991.
MacWaters, J., Mollyn, G., and Inge, T., Radon Measurement in Schools.
SC&A, Inc. McLean, VA, EPA-402/R-92-014 (NTIS PB93-237493), July 1988.
Morth, T.H., Jacobson, A.L., Killingbeck, J.E., Lindsey, T.D., and
Johnson, A.L., "Radon Measurements in North Dakota Schools," In:
Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and Radon
Reduction Technology. Vol. 4, EPA-600/9-91-037d (NTIS PB92-115385) ,
November 1991.
Peake, R.T., Schmidt, A., MacWaters, J.T., and Chmelynski, H., "Radon
Measurements in 130 Schools: Results and Implications," In: Proceedings:
The 1990 International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology.
Vol 2, EPA-600/9-91-026b (NTIS PB91-234450) , July 1991.
Schmidt, A.L., "The Results of EPA's School Protocol Development Study,"
Presented at The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and Radon
Reduction Technology. Philadelphia, PA, April 1991.
Schmidt, A., Peake, R.T., Mac Waters, J.T., and Chmelynski, H., "EPA's
Protocol Development Study - Phase II," In: Proceedings: The 1990
International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 3,
EPA-600/9-91-026c (NTIS PB91-2344668), July 1991.
U.S. EPA, "Radon Measurements in Schools: An Interim Report," EPA-520/1-
89-010 (NTIS PB89-189419), March 1989.
Warren, H.E. and Romm, E.G., "The State of Maine School Radon Project:
The Design Study," In: Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on
Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 4, EPA-600/9-91-037d (NTIS
PB92-115385), November 1991.
Wiggers, K.D., Bullers, T.D., Zoske, P.A., Leovic, K.W., and Saum, D.W.,
"Electret Ion Chambers for Radon Measurments in Schools During Occupied
and Unoccupied Periods," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International
Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 3, EPA-600/9-91-
026c (NTIS PB91-234468), July 1991.
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Radon Measurements in Large Buildings (other than schools)
Boyd, M., Inge, T., and MacWaters, J., "Measuring Radon in the
Workplace," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International Symposium on Radon
and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 3, EPA-600/9-91-026c (NTIS PB91-
234468), July 1991.
Cohen, B., et al., "Radon Concentrations Inside Public and Commercial
Buildings in the Pittsburgh Area," Health Phvsics, Vol. 47, No 3, pp 399-
405, September 1984.
Dols, S.W. and Persily, A.K., Ventilation and Air Quality Investigation
of the U.S. Geological Survey Building, National Institute of Standards
and Technology, NISAT 89-4126, Gaithersburg, MD, July 1989.
Grot, R.A. and Persily, A.K., Environmental Evaluation of the Portland
East Federal Office Building Preoccupancy and Early Occupancy Results.
National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST 89-4066,
Gaithersburg, MD, April 1989.
Llewellyn, R.A., "Radon Surveys in Large buildings: The UCF Radon
Project," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International Symposium on Radon and
Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-026b (NTIS PB91-234450),
July 1991.
Persily, A.K., Dols, S.W., Nabinger, S.J., and Kirchner, S., Preliminary
Results of the Environmental Evaluation of the Fe.dera3 Records Center in
Overland. Missouri. National Institute of Standards and Technology,
NISTIR 4634, Gaithersburg, MD, July 1991.
Persily, A.K., Dols, S.W., Nabinger, S.J., and VonBronkhorst, D.A., Air
Quality Investigation in the NIH Radiation Oncology Branch, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, NISTIR 89-4145, Gaithersburg, MD,
August 1989.
Tuccillo, K. and Depierro, N., "Radon Levels in Non-Residential Buildings
in New Jersey," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International Symposium on
Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 3, EPA-600/9-91-026c (NTIS
PB91-234468), July 1991.
Turk, B., et al., Indoor Air Quality ana Ventilation Measurements in 38
Pacific Northwest Commercial Buildings. LBL 22315, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, December 1987.
Radon Diagnosis and Mitigation in Schools
Brennan, T., Fisher, G., Thompson, R. , and Turner, W., "Extended Heating,
Ventilating and Air Conditioning Diagnostics in Schools in Maine," In:
Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and Radon
Reduction Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92-115369),
November 1991.
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Craig, A.B., Lecvic, K.W., Harris, D.B., and Pyle, 3.E., "Radon
Diagnostics and Mitigation in Two Public Schools in Nashville,
Tennessee," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International Symposium on Radon
and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-026b {NTIS PB91-
234450), July 1991.
Davidson, J.G., "Commercial Mitigation Techniques Used in Remediating a
2200 pCi/L Public Building," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International
Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 3, EPA-600/9-91-
026c (NTIS PB91-234 4 68), July 1991.
Fisher, E., Thompson, B., Brennan, T., and Turner, W., "Diagnostic
Evaluations of Tv/enty-six U.S. Schools — EPA's School Evaluation
Program," In: Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and
Radon Reduction Technology, Vol.2, EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92-115369),
November 1991.
Leovic, K.W., Craig, A.B., and Saum, D.W., "Radon Mitigation in Schools:
Part 1," ASKRAE Journal, Vol. 32, No 1, pp 40-45, January 1990.
Saum, D.W., Craig, A.B., and Leovic, K.W., "Radon Mitigation in Schools:
Part 2," AS1IRAE Journal. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 20-25, February 1990.
Leovic, K.W., Craig, A.B., Harris, D.B., Pyle, B . F, . , and Webb, K.,
"Design and Application of Active Soil Depressurization (ASD) Systems in
School Buildings," In: Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on
Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 4, EPA-600/9-91-037d (NTIS
PB92-115385), November 1991.
Leovic, K.W., Craig, A.B., and Saum, D.W., "The Influences of HVAC Design
and Operation on Radon Mitigation of Existing School Buildings," In:
Proceedings of ASHRAE IAO'89, The Human Equation: Health and Comfort, San
Diego, CA, EPA-600/D-89-015 (NTIS PB89-218762), 1989.
Leovic, K.W., Craig, A.3., and Saum, D.W., "Characteristics of Schools
With Elevated Radon Levels," In: Proceedings: The 1988 International
Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol 1, EPA-600/9-89-
006a (NTIS PB89-167430), March 1989.
Leovic, K.K., Craig, A.B., and Saum, D.W., "Radon Mitigation Experience
in Difficul.t-to-Kitigate Schools," In: Proceedings: The 1990
International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 2,
EPA-600/9-91-026b (NTIS PB91-234450), July 1991.
Pyle, B.E. and Leovic, K.W., "A Comparison of Radon Mitigation Options
for Crawl Space School Buildings," In: Proceedings: The 1991
International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 2,
EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92-115369), November 1991.
Sinclair, L.D., Dudney, C.S., Wilson, D.L., and Saultz, R.J. "Air
Pressure Distribution and Radon Entry Processes in East Tennessee
Schools," In: Proceedings: The 1990 International Symposium on Radon and
Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-026b (NTIS PB91-234450),
July 1991.
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Turner, W.A., Leovic, K.W., and Craig, A.B., "The Effects of HVAC System
Design and Operation on Radon Entry into School Buildings," In:
Proceedings: The 1990 International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduc-
tion Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-026b (NTIS PB91-234450), July 1996.
U.S. EPA, Radon Reduction Techniques in Schools. Interim Technical
Guidance. EPA-520/1-89-020 (NTIS PB90-160086), October 1989.
Radon Diagnosis and Mitigation in Large Buildings (other than schools)
Messing, M., Diagnostic Analysis of Radon Remediation in the Germantown
Building, Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy by Infiltec, Falls
Church, VA, August 1988.
Saum, D.W., and Messing, M., "Radon Diagnosis in a Large Commercial
Office Building," In: Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on
Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS
PB92-115369), November 1991.
Radon Resistant New Construction
Meehan, T., "Major Renovation of Public Schools That Includes Radon
Prevention: A Case Study of Approach, System Design and Installation; and
Problems Encountered," In: Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium
on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 4, EPA-600/9-91-037d (NTIS
PB92-115385!, November 1991.
Craig, A.B., Leovic, K.W., and Harris, D.B., "Design of Radon Resistant
and Easy-to-Mitigare New School Buildings," In: Proceedings: The 1991
International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 2,
EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92-115369), November 1991.
Craig, A.B., Leovic, K.W., and Saum, D.W., "Cost and Effectiveness of
Radon Resistant Features in New School Buildings," Presented at ASHRAE
IAD'91: Healthy Buildings. Washington, DC, September 2-5, 1991.
Craig, A.B., Harris, D.B., and Leovic, K.W., "Radon Prevention in
Construction of Schools and Other Large Buildings - Status of EPA's
Program." In:Proceedings: The 1992 International Symposium on Radon and
Radon Reduction Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-93-083b (NTIS PB93-196202) ,
May 1993.
Gadsby, K.J., Reddy, T.A., Anderson, D.F., Gafgen, R., and Craig, A.B., "The
Effect of Subslab Aggregate Size on Pressure Field Extension," In:
Proceedings: The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction
Technology. Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92-115369} , November 1991.
Saum, D.W., Case Studies of Radon Reduction in Maryland. New Jersey, and
Virginia Schools, EPA-600/R-93-211 (NTIS PB94-117363), November 1993.
Witter (Leovic), K.A., Craig, A.B., and Saum, D.W., "New-Construction
Techniques and HVAC Overpressurization for Radon Production in Schools,"
In: Proceedings of ASHRAF. IAO'88, Atlanr.a, 1988, EPA-600/D-88-073 (NTIS
PBS 8-19615 9) .
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APPENDIX D
Large Building Survey Questionnaire (SHA 94)
PERMIT NO:
ADDRESS:
ENGINEER/ARCHITECT:
DATE:
IEL:
1. NUMBER OF FLOORS:
2. TOTAL AREA & FOOTPRINT AREA:
3. AVERAGE LENGTH & WIDTH:
4. HEIGHT OF BLDG & BOTTOM FLOOR:
5. TYPICAL SLAB THICKNESS:
6. CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: PSI ... ADMIXTURE ... CURE C.
7. BUILDING USE
FLOORS
SB
FT
FT
IN
FT
FT
8. BUILDING TYPE:
9. SLAB/FOUNDATION DETAILS:
10. FOUNDATION TYPE:
...STEEL
... WOOD
... MASONRY
... MONOLITHIC
... FLOATING
...PILES
... RAFTFTG
... COMBINED
... RHNF CONCRETE
... STEEL/CONCRETE
... OTHER
... STEM WALL
... OTHER
... SPREAD FOOTING
CONTINUOUS FTG
... OTHER
11 type/thjcKNESS OF VAPOR BARRIER:
12. SUBSLAB SOIL COMPACTION LEVEL:
13. NUMBER OF AIR HANDLERS/FLOOR:
14. SLAB/PENETRATION SEALING TYPE: .
15. LOCATION OF ELEVATOR SHAFT: .
... CENTRAL
... OUTSIDE
... SIDE
... SHAFT NUMBER
16. TYPE OF LARGE SLAB OPENINGS: ...ELEVATOR ...INDOOR PLANTS
...WIDE PIPES ...EQUIPMENTS
... CRAWL SPACE ... OTHER
17. SPACING OF SAW CUTS:
18. TYPE AND SPACING OF JOINTS:
19. COMMENTS:
Return toi Dr. Shanker, School of Building Construction, FAC101, Gainesville, F132611
' 86
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APPENDIX E
Commercial Sector Energy Conservation Measures (doe 91)
1.1 ITBHT1H6 SVSTfm
- Remove laaps and fixtures; disconnect ballasts and
leave in-place
- Install efficient fixtures including heat recovery
fixtures, T8, and parabolic reflectors (remove
old fixtures)
- Install efficient ballasts, including
•lectroaagnetic ballasts, and high frequency
electronic ballasts
- Install efficient leaps - replace incandescent or
low efficiency aercury vapor laaps with hioh
pressure sodium. low pressure sodiia, aetaf
halide, T8, or fluorescent or lew watt
fluorescent laaps
- Install energy efficient exterior lighting Use only
necessary < nomination levels through
aicroprocessor control
- Use natural light and daylighting, including
periaeter dimming systeas
• Install automatic diaaing control systeas
- Install photocells or tiaeclocks to control
exterior lighting
- Install switching for selective control iiluaination
- Install occupancy sensors
- Install corridor light tiaers
- Install self-powered exit lights
- Install low voltage (tungsten) lighting
1.2 PPKFE SYSTfHS
- Oisconnect lightly loaded transformers, leave
in-place
- Replace transformers (econoaic replacement criteria)
- Convert primary distribution SyStea to higher
voltages
- Replace (resize) oversized aotors
- Use hioh efficiency aotors and transformers
(replacement)
- Use variable speed aotors and drives for puaps
- Use variable speed aotors and drives for fans
- Install solid-state aotor drives on elevators
- Install demand-type elevator controls
- Install energy aanageaent systea (CHS)
1.3 BUI101NG ENVfLOPC*
- Install wall insulation
- Install roof insulation
- Install ceiling insulation
- Install floor insulation
- Install foundation (crawl space) insulation
- Install slab periaeter insulation
- Reduce space load froa outside air infiltration
(caulk, weatherstrip)
- Install window and skylight insulation (curtains)
- Install storm windows
- Install sash-aounted stor* windows
- Install low-E glass
- Install aultiple glazed windows
- Reduce solar neat gain with solar flla, window
tints, overhangs, awnings, louvers or other
screening/shading devices
- Install storm doors
- Install double pane sliding doors
- Install screen doors
- Replace existing doors with insulated doors
- Enclose loading docks with shelters and seals
- Install vestibules to reduce
infiltration/exfiltration
- Seal vertical shafts (elevators, stairwells) to
reduce in/exfiltration
- Install air curtains
-as Assua* that new buildings would be designed
to provide the prescribed ventilation rate.
87
1.4 War
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Refrigeration
- Reset chilled water temperature
- Chiller optimization
- Optimize defrosting control through mw controls
• Optimize capacity control via we* controls
- Increase condensing unit efficiency
- Optimize cooling tower control (i.e., coolant/air
flow modulation} via new controls
• Install variable speed chiller motor
- Install high efficiency chiller
- Install timedocks on circulating pumps
• Install efficient compressors
- Reduce heat gains to refrigerated space
- Install efficiency-of-use improvements (strip
curtains, etc.)
- Employ heat recovery from exhaust air
- Install thermal storage (ice, chilled water, hot
. water)
- Install variable speed drive
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APPENDIX F
References from "ANSI/ASHRAE 62-1989 - Energy vs. IAQ Impact" (TAY 93)
1) Anderson L.O., Frisk P., Lofstedt B., Wyon D.P., 1975. "Human Response to Dry,
Humidified and Intermittently Humidified Air". Swedish Building Research Dll.
2) Bcrglund B., et al., 1984. "Characterization of Indoor Air Quality and Sick Buildings",
ASHRAE Transactions. Vol 90, Part IB, pp. 1045-1055.
3) Berglund L.G., Cain W.W., 1989. "Perceived Air Quality and the Thermal
Environment", IAQ '89: The Human Equation: Health and Comfort, pp. 93-99.
4) Burge II.A., 1988. "Environmental Allergy, Definition, Causes, Control". Engineering
Solutions to Indoor Air Problems, pp. 3-9.
5) Burge P.S., Jones P., Robertson A. S., 1990. "Sick Building Syndrome - Environmental
Comparisons of Sick and Healthy Buildings", Indoor Air '90. Proceedings of the 5th Intl.
Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Vol 1, pp. 479-484.
6) Cain W.S., Leaderer B.P., 1983. "Ventilation Requirements in Buildings-I: Control of
Occupancy Odour and Tobacco Smoke Odour", Atmospheric Environment. Vol 17, pp.
1183-1197.
7) Eto J., Meyer C., 1988. "The HVAC Costs of Increased Fresh Air Ventilation Rates in
Office Buildings, ASHRAE Transactions. Vol 94. Pt 2, No. 3166.
8) Eto J., 1990. "The HVAC Costs of Increased Fresh Air Ventilation Rates in Office
Buildings, Pari 2", Indoor Air '90 Proceedings of 5th Intl. Conference on IAQ and
Climate. Vol 4, pp. 53-58.
9) Fanger P.O., Lauridsen J., Bluyssen P., Clausen G., 1987. "Air Pollution Sources in
Offices and Assembly Halls, Quantified by the Olf Unit", Energy and Buildings. Vol 12
(1988), pp. 7-19.
10) Fanger P.O., 1988. "The Olf and the Decipol", ASHRAE Journal. Oct. 1988, pp. 35-38.
11) Green G. IT, 1985. "The Effect of Ventilation and Relative Humidity Upon Airborne
Bacteria in Schools", ASIIRAE Transactions. Vol 91, Part 2.
12) Grot R. A., et al., 1988. "Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality in a Modern Office
Building", Proceedings of the 9th A1VC Conference, pp. 303-326.
13) Hedge A., Sterling E., Sterling T., 1986. "Building Illness Indices Based on
Questionnaire Responses". Proceedings IAQ '86.
89
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14) Hedge A. et al., 1989. "Indoor Air Quality and Health in Two Office Buildings with
Different Ventilation Systems". Environment International. Vol 15, pp. 115-128.
15) Jaakkola J.J.K., et al., 1990. "The Effect of Air Recirculation on Symptoms and
Environmental Complaints in Office Workers: a Double Blind, Four Period, Cross-over
Study", Indoor Air '90: Proceedings of the 5th Intl. Conference on Indoor Air Quality and
Climate. Vol l,pp. 281-286.
16) Jaakkola J..T.K., et al., 1991. "Mechanical Ventilation in Office Buildings and the Sick
Building Syndrome. An Experimental and Epidemiological Study". Indoor Air. Vol. 1,
No. 2: July 1991, pp. 111-121.
17) Lui R.T., Raber R.R., Yu H.H.S., 1991. "Filter Selection on an Engineering Basis",
Heating. Piping. Air Conditioning. May'91.
18) Menzies R.I., Tamblyn R.M., Tamblyn R.T., Farant J.P., Hanley J., Spitzer W.O., 1990.
"Sick Building Syndrome: the Effect of Changes in Ventilation Rates on Symptom
Prevalence; the Evaluation of a Double Blind Approach", Indoor Air '90. Proceedings of
the 5th Intl. Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Vol 1, pp. 519-524
19) Nagda N., Koontz M., Lumby D., Albrecht R., Rizzuto J., 1990. "Impact of Increased
Ventilation Rates on Office Building Air Quality", Indoor Air '90. Proceedings of the 5th
Intl. Conference on Indoor air Quality and Climate. Vol 4, pp.281 -286.
20) Pejtersen et al, 1989, "Air Pollution Sources in Ventilation Systems", Proceedings of
CLIMA 2000.
21) Rajhans G., 1983. "indoor Air Quality and C02 Levels". Occupational Health in
Ontario. Vol 4, No 4: pp. 160-167.
22) Seppanen O., Jaakkola J., 1989. "Factors That May Affect the Results of Indoor Air
Quality Studies of Large Office Buildings", Design and Protocol for Monitoring Indoor
Air Quality. ASTM STP 1002, pp. 51-62.
23) Sterling E.M., Sterling T.D., 1984. "Baseline Data: Health and Comfort in Modern
Office Buildings", Proceedings of the 5th AIC Conference, pp. 17.1 -17.13.
24) Turk B.H., et al., 1989. "Commercial Building Ventilation Rates and Particle
Concentrations", ASHRAE Transactions. Vol 95, Pt 1, pp. 422-433.
25) Ventresca J.A., 1991. "Operation and Maintenance for Indoor Air Quality: Implication
from Energy Simulations of Increased Ventilation", Proceedings of IAQ 91: Flealthv
Buildings, pp. 375-378.
90
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before comj
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-600/R-97-051
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Large Buildings Characteristics as Related to Radon
Resistance: A Literature Review
REPORT DATE
May 1997
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Ronald A. Venezia
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING OROANIZATION NAME ANO ADORESS
Ronald A. Venezia (Consultant)
1008 A skham Drive
Cary, North Carolina 27511
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA PO 4D2010NATA
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADORESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Literature Review; 11/95-3/96
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
16. supplementary notes APPCD project officer is David C. Sanchez, Mail Drop 54, 919/
541-2979.
ABSTRACT
The report gives results of a literature review to determine to what useful
extent buildings have been characterized and a data base developed in relation to ra-
don entry and mitigation. Prior to 1993, most radon research in large buildings was
focused on developing diagnostic and mitigation techniques for school buildings. The
belief exists that techniques developed for school buildings can be used as the basis
for developing diagnostic and mitigation techniques for other types of large buildings.
The complexity and diversity of large building designs is an added complexity in ra-
don mitigation. Much in the available literature on large building characteristics is
directed toward energy conservation and heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system design and operation. Data on floor space to footprint ratio, separa-
tion of lower level from upper floors, floor bypasses, and building foundation design/
construction are lacking. The development and application of energy conservation
techniques for large buildings have been vigorously pursued since the mid-1970s and
have resulted in significant energy savings. Some of these techniques may have con-
tributed to sick building syndrome, building related illness, and a general decrease
in indoor air quality. Radon diagnostic and mitigation strategies are lacking for
large buildings.
t7. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT" ANALYSIS
3. DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. cosati Field/Group
Pollution Data Processing
Radon
Commercial Buildings
Analyzing
Review
Properties
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Large Buildings
Char act eriz ation
[ndoor Air Quality
13B 09B
07B
13 M
14 B
05B
14G
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
96
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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