EPA-600/8-90-071
September 1990
LITERATURE REVIEW OF GREENHOUSE GAS
EMISSIONS FROM BIOGENIC SOURCES
by
Darcy Campbell
Margie Stockton
Susan Buchanan
Joan McLean
Rich Pandullo
Rebecca Peer
and
Julie Anne Probert
Radian Corporation
Post Office Box 13000
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
EPA Contract 68-02-4288
Work Assignment No. 2/39
EPA Project Officer
Julian W. Jones
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Pkasc reed Inslructioiis on the reverse before complcf
1. REPORT NO. ?.
EPA-600/8-90-071
3 PB90-274C85
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Literature Review of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from
Biogenic Sources
5. RCPOR1 DATE
September 1990
e. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. author(s) jj. Campbell, M. Stockton, S. Buchanan,
J. McLean, R. Pandullo, R. Peer, and J. A. Probert
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Radian Corporation
P. O. Box 13000
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-4288, Task 2/39
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME ANO ADORESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task Final; 1-7/90
11. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
is. supplementary notes project officer is Julian W. Jones, Mail Drop 62, 913/541-
2489.
is.abstract report gives results of a literature review of estimates of biogenic
emissions of five greenhouse gases: CC2, CII4, N20, and NOx. Review results
include data and information from about 170 sources published over the past 10 year s.
The report's two sections cover greenhouse gases containing (l) carbon and (2) nitro-
gen. Within each section, emissions estimates are grouped by type of source or sink
in a series of tables. First, emission factors are given as a rate in units of mass per
unit area per unit time (e.g. , kg/ha/yr), except for NOx and N20 produced by light-
ning. Second, budget estimates are provided in units of mass per unit of time (e.g.,
g/yr). Finally, a few authors provided reservoir estimates in units of mass per land
area (e. g. , kg/sq m); these represent the potential amount of a greenhouse gas that
is stored in a specific ecosystem or type of biota. Other data presented in the report
are specific to the gas or source and are used to calculate a total budget estimate
(e.g., land estimates for CH4 emitted from rice paddies).
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
b. IDENTI FIE RS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. coSati Field/Group
Pollution Methane
Emission Carbon Monoxide
Gases Nitrogen Oxide (NgO)
Biology Nitrogen Oxides
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon Dioxide
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Biogenesis
13B 07 C
14G
07D
06
04A
07B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report/
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
73
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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ABSTRACT
A literature review is presented of estimates of biogenic emissions of
five greenhouse gases: C02> CH^, CO, ^0, and NO . Results of the review
include data and information from about 170 sources published over the past
10 years. The report's two sections cover greenhouse gases containing
(1) carbon and (2) nitrogen. Within each section, emissions estimates are
grouped by type of source or sink in a series of tables. First, emission
factors are given as a rate in units of mass per unit area per unit time
{e.g., kg ha yr ), except for NO and NgO produced by lightning. Second,
budget estimates are provided in units of mass per unit of time (e.g.,
g yr ).Finally, a few authors provided reservoir estimates in units of
mass per land area (e.g., kg m ); these represent the potential amount of a
greenhouse gas that is stored in a specific ecosystem or type of biota. Other
data presented in the report are specific to the gas or source and are used to
calculate a total budget estimate (e.g., land estimates for CH^ emitted from
rice paddies).
i i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
ABSTRACT i i
LIST OF TABLES iv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 SOURCES AND SINKS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS 3
2.1 Carbon Dioxide 3
2.2 Methane 3
2.3 Carbon Monoxide 24
3 SOURCES OF NITROGEN COMPOUNDS 32
3.1 Nitrous Oxide 32
3.2 Nitrogen Oxides 32
3.3 Nitrogen Oxides and Nitrous Oxide from Lightning
and Oceans 41
4 REFERENCES 57
iii
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 C02 Emitted from Terrestrial Biota 4
2-2 The Ocean As a Sink for CO2 9
2-3 Methane Emitted from Rice Paddies 12
2-4 Methane Emitted from Wetlands 14
2-5 Methane Emitted from Tundra 19
2-6 Methane Emitted from Animals (Ruminants) 20
2-7 Methane Emitted from Termites 22
2-8 Methane Emitted from Biomass Burning 23
2-9 CO Emitted from Biomass Burning 25
2-10 CO Emitted from Oceans 27
2-11 Soil As a Sink for CO 28
2-12 CO Emitted from the Tropics 29
2-13 CO Emitted from Rice Paddies 30
3-1 N20 Emitted from Fertilizer Use 33
3-2 N2O Emitted from Soils 35
3-3 N20 Emitted from Aquifers 40
3-4 N0X Emitted from Soils 42
3-5 N0X Emitted from NH3 Oxidation 48
3-6 NOx and N20 Emitted from Biomass Burning 49
3-7 N0X and N20 Emitted from Lightning 52
3-8 NOx and N20 Emitted from Oceans 56
iv
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
This document provides an overview of the quantitative emission estimates
for five greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH^), carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide ^0), and oxides of nitrogen (N0X). The
information presented in this document was developed by surveying the
literature, and through discussions with researchers who have published
recently in this field. It must be emphasized that this report is not a
summary of an exhaustive search of all research and studies conducted to date,
but rather contains information obtained from readily available sources
published over the past ten years. It is intended to provide background
information on emission rates, total emissions, types of sources and sinks,
and factors that may affect emissions and emission estimates of greenhouse
gases. If more detailed information is required on a specific pollutant or
source, the reader is encouraged to conduct a more in-depth literature search.
No judgments were made as to the quality or validity of the data
presented in this report. The emission factors come from field measurements,
laboratory measurements, mass balance calculations, and theoretical
calculations. Although the "comments" column in each table provides some
indication of the origins of the estimates, the reader is strongly advised to
refer to the original reference before using any of the emission factors or
budget estimates presented here.
In some cases, summary tables from review articles were used. These are
clearly marked in the tables or text, and the primary author and date are
stated. The original reference is not cited in the reference list; however,
it can be found by referring to the review paper.
Journals published prior to February 1990 were included in the literature
survey; most attention was given to major journals concerned with
biogeochemical processes. These include Global Bioaeochemical Cycles, the
Journal of Geophysical Research, the Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, and
Atmospheric Environment.
Three different quantitative estimates are given in the tables. The
emission factor is given as a rate, usually in units of mass per area per unit
of time (e.g., kg ha"* yr~*). The exception to this is in Table 3-7 which
gives estimates of N0X and N20 produced by lightning. The emission factor
1
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here is given in terms of mass per lightning stroke or mass per unit of energy
(e.g., molecules per joule).
The second estimate used is a budget estimate. The units used are mass
per unit time {e.g., g yr~1). The budget estimate is the amount of the gas
produced globally over a given span of time by a particular source. Unless
otherwise stated, budget estimates should be assumed to be global. In some
cases, regional budget estimates are given.
Finally, a few authors gave a reservoir estimate. The units are mass per
land area (e.g., kg m"2). This reservoir estimate represents the potential
amount of a greenhouse gas that is stored in a specific ecosystem or type of
biota. For example, in Table 2-1, reservoir estimates of carbon stored in
various ecosystems are cited. This represents the amount of carbon which
would be released, primarily as C02, if the biomass were burned.
Other numbers presented in these tables are specific to the gas or source
and are used to calculate a total budget estimate. Examples are number of
animals per unit area for methane emissions from ruminants and land area
estimates for methane emitted from rice paddies. These are generally self-
explanatory, or are explained in the text for individual gases.
The remainder of this report is divided into two sections covering the
major greenhouse gases. Within each section, the emissions estimates are
grouped by source (or sink) type. Many sinks can also act as sources. For
example, forests are a sink for carbon, but the carbon is released as C02> CO,
and CH4 when the biomass is burned or otherwise decomposes. Most of the
tables present emission estimates from sources. Those few that deal with
sinks are clearly labeled.
2
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SECTION 2
SOURCES AND SINKS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
The following discussion is intended to provide background information on
the sources of carbon compounds that are emitted from biogenic sources. For
more detailed information on the studies reviewed, the reader is referred to
the original citation and the "Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area" column of
each table.
2.1 CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (C02) is emitted from a variety of sources within the
terrestrial biota (Table 2-1). Tropical and nontropical forest releases of
C02 occur due to forest clearing and the resulting decrease in soil organic
matter, burning, and decay of cleared vegetation (Detwiler and Hall, 1988).
The large range in the budget estimates published vary by vegetation type,
rate of land clearing, and localized fluxes. Models of the global carbon
budget typically attempt to balance the oceanic uptake of C02 (Table 2-2) and
terrestrial ecosystem C02 uptake with releases of C02 from natural and
anthropogenic (i.e., fossil fuel combustion) sources (Detwiler and Hall,
1988). Terrestrial ecosystem uptake of C02 is also included in Table 2-1 as a
reservoir estimate. Estimates of C02 emissions are typically expressed in
terms of mass of carbon (C).
2.2 METHANE
Biogenic methane (CH4) fluxes have been measured from rice paddies,
wetlands, and tundra, as well as from animal (ruminants), termites, and
biomass burning. Atmospheric methane plays an important role in the global
radiative budget, but the contributions of individual sources to the total
budget estimate are not well understood (Lerner et al., 1988). Methane is
produced by microbial activities during the mineralization of organic carbon
in anaerobic environments such as water logged soils and the intestines of
ruminants (Bolle et al., 1986). Emission estimates from individual methane
sources vary greatly due to the limited database from the individual
3
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TABLE 2-1. CO, EMITTED FROM TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
Reference
Emission Factor
Reservoir Estimate
Budget Estimate
Conments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Adams et al. (1977)
400 to 4000 Tg yr"'
Estimated from per capita wood consumption
(globally).
Aridreae et al.
(1988)
Global estimate:
3100 Tg yr"'
(Range: 2000 to
4000 Tg yr ')
South American Tropics:
527 Tg yr"'
Based on emission ratios calculated from
measurements of biomass-burning plunes.
Bolin (1977)
400 to 1600 Tg yr '
Global net transfer of carbon to the
atmosphere.
Bolin et al.
(1979)
Land biota:'
5.9 to 9.8 x 101 Tg C
Soil humus:'
1.0 to 3.0 x 10* Tg C
Chapter reviews previous research on
carbon reservoirs and fluxes.
Bramryd (1979)
8.3 x 105 Tg C"
Presents global estimate but also lists
individual estimates for 14 continental
and 5 marine ecosystem types. Good
reference for estimated C removal in
various countries around the world.
Brunig (1977)
6000 Tg yr"'
Tropical forest clearing only.
Buringh (1984)
Non-agricultural
land use:
1167 Tg yr"'
Land deterioration:
269 Tg yr"'
Fuel wood, fire:
680 Tg yr 1
"Denotes reservoir estimate, i.e., the amount of carbon stored.
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TABLE 2-1. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Reservoir Estimate
Budget Estimate
Comnents/Assumpt i ons/Gcog raph i c Area
Buringh (1984)
(Continued)
Detwiler et al.
(1985)
Hampicke (1979)
Hao et al.
(1988)
Primary closed forest:
1.5 to 1.8 x 10s kg ha ' yr 1
Primary open forest:
3.6 to 5.0 x 10s kg ha"' yr 1
Secondary closed forest:
5.7 to 6.8 x 10s kg ha 1 yr '
Secondary open forest:
1.7 to 2.3 x 10' kg ha ' yr '
Logged closed:
1.0 to 1.3 x 10' kg ha' yr"'
3.0 x 10" molecules cm"' s"'
Shifting cultivation:
1134 Tg yr"'
Conversion of
forest:
922 Tg yr-'
Total for world:
4172 Tg yr"1
900 to 1200 Tg C yr'1
from tropical
vegetation
1200 to 1500 Tg C yr 1
(including release from
soiIs)
1500 to 4500 Tg C yr"
(range)
Average:
2500 Tg yr"'
1.7 x 10' Tg C of CO,
(Tropical savannas
during rainy season)
Represents annual release of carbon from
tropical vegetation. Study indicates
that current models of the oceanic carbon
cycle show it is a sink for 1.2 x 10'5 g yr"
Thus, global carbon budget may be balanced
if there is no significant release from
nontropical ecosystems.
Global estimate. Author points out that
available data are best-reasoned guesses
and their accuracy and reliability are
low.
Measured arithmetic mean of N,0, CH,, and
CO, from undisturbed tropical savanna
soils in Venezuela during the dry season.
Area of tropical savannas assuned to be
1.5 x 10' km'. Elevated CO, fluxes
(ninefold increase) decreased with
cessation of simulated rainfall.
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TABLE 2-1. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Reservoir Estimate
Budget Estimate
Coflments/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Houghton et al.
<1983)
1.8 to 4.7 x 10'5 g yr"1
of C
135 to 228 x 10'5 g
(between 1860 and 1980)
Same data as Woodwell et al. (1983) study
listed below. Model calculates net release
of C annually by 69 regional ecosystems.
Range of estimates reflects differences
among various estimates of forest bionass,
soil carbon, and agricultural clearing.
Low end of range based on FAO statistics;
middle based on population (rate of growth);
high end based on Myers (1980). Appendices
provide ecosystem data on roundwood production,
conversion of natural ecosystems to agriculture
or pasture, and deforestation rates.
Components of net flux in 1980 (10,s g)
Burned Decay Regrouth SoiI Decay Total
Clearing for agric.
0.38
0.38
0.0
0.54
0.28
1.58
Harvest/Regrowth
0.41
1.79
-1.86
0.29
0.27
0.90
Clearing for pasture
0.10
0.09
0.0
0.04
0.01
0.24
TOTAL
0.89
2.26
-1.86
0.87
0.56
2.72
Houghton et al.
(1985)
8.7 x 10" to 2.2 x
10" g(10' ha)1 yr 1
0.5 to 4.2 x 1015 g yr 1 Applicable to tropical forests. Range due
of C to different estimates of deforestation
rates. FAO assessment of tropical forests
provides cointry-by-country deforestation
estimates. The assessment can serve as an
independent benchmark from which terres-
trial C releases can be calculated.
Keller et al.
(1986)
6.6 x 10" g cm_!
1,040 g CO, m1 yr
Emission factor is for tropical forest
soils. Represents average of fluxes
measured from undisturbed forest sites in
Brazil, Ecuador, and Puerto Rico.
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TABLE 2-1. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Reservoir Estimate Budget Estimate
Comnents/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Moore et al.
1900 to 4300 Tg yr"'
Describes procedure for estimating global
<1981)
C02 based on localized fluxes. Indicates
major causes of carbon release from natural
ecosystems are harvesting of forests and
and transformation to agriculture. Study
focuses on 10 geographic regions with
potentially 12 different ecosystems.
Study lists other estimates of annual
carbon release (listed also in Hampicke
<1979) above).
Schlesiriger <1977)
Tropical forest:
Tropical forest:'
Evaluated C content in soil profile and
405 to 6100 g m"2 yr 1
-10 kg m2
atmospheric release from soil occurring
within nine ecosystem types. Numbers
Temperate forest:
Temperate forest:"
presented for emission factor are mean
171 to 1098 g m"' yr"'
-12 kg
values.
Boreal forest:
Boreal forest:'
147 to 232 g m"2 yr"'
-15 kg hi"2
ShrubIand:
Shrifcland:'
399 to 653 g m"2 yr '
-7 kg m2
Tropical savanna:
Tropical savanna:'
515 to 785 g m"' yr"'
-4 kg Hf*
Temperate
Temperate
grassland:
grassland:"
74 to 452 g m'2 yr"1
-20 kg m"!
Tundra and Alpine:
Tundra and Alpine:'
37 to 210 g m"2 yr"1
-22 kg m"2
Desert scrub:
Desert scrub:"
22 g m"2 yr"'
-6 kg m"2
Swamp and marsh:
Swamp and marsh:'
730 to 1350 g m"2 yr"1
-69 kg m"1
"Denotes reservoir estimate, i.e., the amount of carbon stored.
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TABLE 2-1. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Reservoir Estimate
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
SctUesinger <1984)
799 Tg yr"'
Conversion of forest in tropics. Based
on estimates of deforestation for agri-
culture made by Revelle and Munk (1977).
Stuiver (1978)
1300 Tg C yr"
I
Global applicability. Estimate based on
C" tree ring measurements.
Wofsy et at.
(1988)
Mean daytime:
-2.8 kg C ha 1 hr"'
(uptake by forest
soils and canopy)
1.8 kg C ha"' hr"1
(mean emission from
forest soils)
-1.6 kg C ha 1 hr 1
(mean daytime uptake
over wetlands)
CO, emissions and uptake from soils studied
in the Amazon Basin. Forest is a net source
of C0Z at night and a sink during the day.
Cycle is weaker over wetlands.
Uooduell et al. (1978)
0.2 to 1.8 x
10" Tg yr 1
Net transfer of carbon to the atmosphere.
Uoodwell and Houghton (1977)
0.25 to 10 x
10* Tg yr"'
Net transfer of carbon to the atmosphere.
Uoodwell et al.
(1983)
1800 to 4700
Tg C yr 1
Applicable to entire globe. Summarizes
effects of terrestrial biota on the amount
of carbon dioxide released. Emission
factor represents release in 1980 due to
deforestation, particularly in tropics.
Study indicates that the increased C02
(atmospheric) is not increasing the
storage of carbon in earth's forests to
offset the release from deforestation.
Wong (1978)
1900 Tg yr"'
Net transfer of carbon to the atmosphere.
Yavitt et al.
(1988)
1.0 to 2.6 kg m2 yr '
Measurements of peat lands in the
Appalachian Mountains. Wide range due
to temperature variations and chemistry
of the peat substrate.
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TABLE 2-2. THE OCEAN AS A SINK FOR C02
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comnents/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Anderson et a I.
<1990)
Released (new production)
from over continental
shelves:
45 ± 20 g cm"2 yr"1
Total for Arctic
Ocean:
210 Tg C yr '
Fixed in Arctic
river drainage
basins:
40 t 20 Tg C yr"'
Fixed over Arctic
Continental shelves:
129 ± 65 Tg C yr '
Assesses transport of C02 into Arctic
Ocean. Upper layer is an active sink for
C02> no flux detected in deep water.
Five percent of total carbon sequestered
by terrestrial ecosystems is estimated to
be transported to the Arctic Ocean.
Baes et al.
(1985)
0.063 mol m"2 ^atnT1 yr"'
9.3 x 10' Tg yr"1
This chapter discusses the uptake of
C02 by the oceans. The global average
exchange rate for C02 between the atmos-
phere and ocean surface is estimated
using ocean models. Exchange rate is
dependent on atmospheric pC02.
Chen and Mi Hero
<1979)
Paper discusses the probable increase
in oceanic C02 as concentrations of
C02 in the atmosphere increase.
Provides physical and chemical
computations which indicate oceanic
C02 has increased by as much as
40 /unol/kg.
Smith <1981)
1800 Tg yr"'
Author estimates approximately 5 x 10*
tons of carbon are released to atmos-
phere annually as CO, from burning
fossil fuel. Of that, approximately
40 percent diffuses across air-sea
interface into dissolved CO, pool of
surface ocean water. Author suggests
that marine biota (macrophytes) may act
as additional sink for carbon.
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TABLE 2-2. (Continued)
Reference Emission Factor Budget Estimate Comnents/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Stuiver 820 Tg yr"1 Author estimates that approximately half of the
(1978) CO, introduced to the atmosphere is transferred
to the oceans. Estimate is based on assuming
approximately 1.6 x 10s Tg COa was released to
atmosphere between 1850 and 1950.
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ecosystems, and insufficient size or area estimates for the sources (Bolle
et al., 1986) (Tables 2-3 through 2-8).
Rice paddies are a major source of CH4, with emissions depending on
agricultural practices, temperatures, fertilization regimes, time of season,
irrigation, soil properties, rice cultivar, and amount of residue left
following harvest. Variations in flux estimates are due to ebullition (bubble
transport), transport through the plants, and rapid variations in methane
emission routes (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988). Methane emissions have
increased as the land area available for rice growing increased. Population
growth coincided with the introduction of multiple cropping (with irrigation)
and with cultivation of new land (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988). In addition,
some researchers hypothesize that biological sinks of CH4, including
microorganisms in aerobic soils, may be adversely affected by elevated soil
moisture and nitrogen additions, thus reducing the amount of CH4 taken up
(Steudler et al., 1989).
Methane emissions from wetlands vary greatly because of temperatures,
soil water levels, and seasonal variations in CH4 escape routes (Cicerone and
Oremland, 1988). Budget estimates for CH4 from wetlands vary because of land
area estimates, with some estimates double those of others (Cicerone and
Oremland, 1988).
Tundra methane emissions may be included as unforested bog emissions
(Matthews and Fung, 1987), but are provided separately here. Methane
production in tundra occurs during summer permafrost thaw periods, and
estimates vary due to land area estimates and percent of tundra assumed to be
waterlogged (Ehhalt and Schmidt, 1978).
Methane is emitted from ruminants due to intestinal anaerobic digestion
of organic carbon. Budget estimates of CH4 flux vary due to variations in
estimates of animal populations, estimates of methane emissions by individual
animal species, and emissions due to differing feeds. Table 2-6 also contains
some emission factors for CH4 from human sewage.
Methane emitted from termites has been measured in laboratory and field
experiments. The wide range in budget estimates for this source are due to
extrapolation disagreements (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988). Termite
populations, amount of material consumed by termites, and species variations
all must be more closely examined (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988). The last
source of CH4 covered in this document is biomass burning. A wide range
11
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TABLE 2-3. METHANE EMITTED FROM RICE PADDIES
Estimate of Budget
Reference Emission Factor Land Area Estimate Conrnents/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Baker-Blocker et al.
(1977)
Cicerone and Shetter
(1981)
Ehhalt and Schmidt
(1978)
Holzapfel-Pschorn and
Seiler (1986)
KhaliI and Rasmussen
(1983)
Koyama (1963)
Schutz et al. (1989)
260 g m"J yr"'
42 g m'! yr"1
206 g m'2 yr"'
79 g is yr'
llnferti lized:
0.28 g m"2 d"'
(33 g m"2 yr"')
Organic
ferti t izer:
0.58 g m"' d"'
(68.4 g m"a yr"')
1.35 x 10* km
1.40 x 10' km'
1.35 x 10* km'
1.45 x 10' km'
9.2 x 105 km2
1.5 x 10* km2
350 Tg yr"'
59 Tg yr '
280 Tg yr"'
120 Tg yr"'
95 Tg yr"'
190 Tg yr"'
Average:
100 Tg yr"'
Range:
50 to 150 Tg yr
This estimate may be high because paddy fields are
usually drained for part of each year.
Emission factor based on field plot studies in
California - took into account fertilizer use.
Extrapolated across globe using U.N. rice cultivation
data and assuming 4-tnonth growing season.
Extrapolated across globe using U. S. rice cultivation
data and assuming 4-month growing season. Based on
laboratory studies growing rice plants.
Average of range given in paper: 70 - 170 Tg yr"1 based
on 1979 land use data. Based on field plot studies.
Good discussion on the variation in emissions from
different studies. Suggests that different fertilizer
use may contribute different amounts of CH4.
Apportioned to 4 geographic regions of the globe based
on information on land-use in Time Atlas of the World.
Flux varied by temperature and water depth.
Measurements from Italian rice paddies without
and with organic and inorganic fertilizers. Range
due to seasonal variation and mode of fertilizer
application. Inorganic fertilizer (urea or
ammonium sulfate) applied at rates of 50 to
200 kg N ha"'.
Inorganic
fertilizer:
0.16 g m ! d '
(19 g m"2 yr ')
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TABLE 2-3. (Continued)
Estimate of Budget
Reference Emission Factor Land Area Estimate Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Schutz et at. (1989)
(Continued)
Seiler and Conrad (1987)
Wang et al. (1988)
Organic and
inorganic
fertilizers:
0.28 to 0.60 g m"! d"'
(33 to 68 g m~* yr"')
3.1 to 2,889 mg m2 d '
120 Tg yr"1 Uncertainty associated with this estimate is tU0%. The
tropics (30CS - 30°N) account for 95% of the rice paddy
land area. Estimates are based on 1980 land estimates.
Rice paddies in Sichuan, China. Measured CH, fluxes are
largest during seedling stage and just before harvest.
Air bubbles were found to transport CH, and contributed
greatly to total emissions.
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TABLE 2-4. METHANE EMITTED FROM UETIANDS
Estimate of
Reference Emission Factor Land Area Budget Estimate Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Baker-Blocker et al.
(1977)
Barber et al.
(1988)
260 g m'2 yr'1
Mangrove open water:
29.9 ± 10 g m"2 yr"1
Urbanized subtropical
estuary:
0.96 ± 0.8 g m'2 yr"1
Densely vegetated
sawgrass marsh:
2.9 t 3.3 g m2 yr 1
Sparsely vegetated
sawgrass marsh:
32 i 19 g m"2 yr"1
Organic-rich
forested swamp:
41 ± 30 g m2 yr"1
150 Tg yr"
Based on extrapolating methane flux from a Michigan wetland
to the 4 largest wetland areas in the world, using equations
based on temperature functions, and then adding some to get
world wide estimate (is -22 - 30% of the CH4 in the
atmosphere).
Diffusive flux estimated by dissolved methane concentrations
and wind speed data in wetlands in Florida.
Sartlett et al.
(1985)
Bartlett et al.
(1988)
Freshwater lakes:
12 ± 11 g m"2 yr 1
0.89 g m"2 yr"'
Open water lakes:
27 ~ 4.7 mg m"' d"1
(0.03 to 0.6 Tg yr"')
Flooded forests:
192 ± 26.8 mg m2 d '
(1.7 to 12 Tg yr"')
3.8 x 105 km2 0.34 Tg yr ' Includes coastal salt marshes only.
sampling conducted in Virginia.
Based on field
Amazonia flood plain environments measured. Transport
processes were ebullition from sediment, diffusion
from sediment to water and air, end transport through
roots and stems of aquatic plants. Ebullition accounts
for about 49 percent of the flux from open water,
54 percent from flooded forests, and 64 percent from
floating mats. Estimated that entire Amazonia flood-
plain may supply 12 percent of global CH,.
-------
TABLE 2-4. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of
Land Area
Budget Estimate
Conments/Assuraptions/Geographic Area
Bartlett et al.
(1988) (Continued)
Floating grass mats:
230 ± 72.2 mg m2 d '
(1.3 to 8.7 Tg yr"')
3.9 x
105 km2
Total:
17 Tg yr"'
Blake (1984)
2.6 x
10* km1
120 Tg yr"1
Burke et al.
(1988)
0.001 to 2.6 g m1 d '
0.5 Tg yr 1
Measurements taken from four locations in the Florida
Everglades. Concludes that Everglades are weak source
of CH„. Range due to size and spacing of emerging
aquatic vegetation.
Chanton and Martens
(1988)
19.2 to 20.8 g m"2 yr"'
North Carolina, USA. Tldally induced bubble ebullition
transports CH, to atmosphere.
Chanton et al.
(1988)
Marl sawgrass prairie:
5 to 6 mg m"2 d"1
Measurements taken in the Florida Everglades. Very
little ebullition - CH4 emitted from plant advection and
molecular diffusion from the water column.
Crill et al.
(1988a)
27 g m2 d '
Methane flux measured from an open lake in the Amazon.
Ebullition contributed 70 percent to total flux.
Crill et al.
(1988b)
11 to 866 mg m'' d'1
3.56 x
10" m2
70 to 90 Tg yr""
Measurements taken from a variety of Minnesota (northern)
peatlands during summer months. Methane flux increased
with increasing soil temperatures. Estimate of land area
taken from Gorham (1988).
Devol et al.
(1988)
Total average
rate:
390 mg nf2 d"'
Surfaces covered
with aquatic
macrophytes:
590 mg nf2 d"1
Enti re Amazon
floodplain:
10 Tg yr 1
Measured CH4 flux in the Amazon floodplain in July and
August, 1985. Ebullition accounted for 85 percent of
total emissions.
"For all peat lands north of 40°.
-------
TABLE 2-4. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of
Land Area
Budget Estimate
Conwents/Assumpt ions/Geographi c Area
Devol et al.
<1988) (Continued)
Flooded forests:
110 mg m'2 d"'
Open lakes:
120 mg m"' d"'
Ehhalt and Schmidt
(1978)
400 g n' yr '
2.6 x 10'
km2
190 to 300 Tg yr 1
Hao et al. (1988)
1.6 ± 1.2 x 10'°
molecules CH4 cm"1 s"'
Measured arithmetic mean of N,0, CH4, and CO, fluxes from
undisturbed and disturbed tropical savanna soils in Venezuela
Airing the dry season. Large variation in CH4 fluxes may have
been due to CH* escape after insertion of metal frame for
measurement. CH, fluxes following surface burning and
simulated rainfall were within the range of uncertainty. No
consumption of CH„ was noted.
Harriss et al.
(1988)
Wet prairies and
sawgrass marsh:
61 t 7 mg m 2 d '
Wetland forests:
59 ± 17 mg m"' d"'
Saltwater mangroves:
4 t 0.4 rag m"2 d"1
Impoundments and
disturbed wetlands:
74 ± 10 mg m"2 d"'
Measurements of methane flux for wetland ecosystems in South
Florida. Variations in regional water budget are important in
determining CH„ flux. Concluded that these sources result in
a 26 percent enhancement of CH, flux for the region.
Khali I and Rasmussen
(1983)
150 Tg yr"'
Apportioned between 4 geographic regions of the globe
based on land use information in Time Atlas of the
World.
levine et al.
(1990)
5 to 6 g m"J d"'
34.5 g m* d"'
Southern Florida juncus marsh following burn.
Southern Florida spartina marsh following burn.
-------
TABLE 2-4. (Continued)
Reference
Estimate of
Emission Factor Land Area
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
lit Ley and Baross
(1968)
Moderately impacted
lakes:
1.1 to 2.9 ramol m'2 d'1
Heavily impacted takes:
17.4 to 25.3 mmol m"2 d"'
CH4 flux from lakes near Mount St. Helens, first summer
after eruption.
Matthews and Fung
(1987)
Forested and 5.3 x 10" km1
non-forested bogs:
0.2 g nf2 d"'
Forested swamps:
0.07 g m2 d 1
Non-forested
swamps:
0.12 g m ! d 1
Al luvial
formations:
0.03 g m"2 d"'
110 Tg yr"'
Wetland sites are divided into 5 major wetland groups.
Tropical swamps are estimated to account for -25% of the
wetland emissions, while northern peat-rich bogs are
estimated to account for over 60% of the wetland emissions.
Miller and Oremland
(1988)
Mean total flux:
416 ± 833 nmol m"! h"'
Mean flux:
27 t 45.2 imol m 2 h"1
Searsville Lake, CA. Freshwater lake; ebullition dominates
efflux.
Three alkaline, saline lakes (Mono Lake, CA; Soap Lake, WA;
and Big Soda Lake, NV). Little ebullition.
Seiler and Conrad
(1987)
2.6 x 10' km'
47 Tg yr"'
Uncertainty associated with this estimate is ± 47%. The
tropics (30°S - 30°N) account for 80% of the emissions from
wetlands. Estimates are based on 1980 land estimates.
Sheppard et al.
(1982)
39 Tg yr"1
-------
TABLE 2-4. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of
land Area
Budget Estimate
Cornnents/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Steudler et al.
(1989)
-3.17 mg m"2 d"1
(Temperate and
boreal forest soils)
Temperate
forests:
9.3 x 10" m2
Boreal forests:
11.6 x 10" mJ
Tropical forests:
18.5 x 10" m'
Temperate and boreal
forest soils:
-9.3 Tg yr 1
Tropical forest
soils: -2.5 Tg yr"1
Measured CH4 consumption by temperate and boreal
forest soils. Tropical forest CH, consumption
estimated from Keller et al. (1986).
Yavitt et al.
(1988)
43.2 to 280 g m2 yr 1
Measurements in peatlands of the Appalachian
mountains. Wide range due to temperature variations
and chemistry.
-------
TABLE 2-5. METHANE EMITTED FROM TUNDRA
Estimate of
Reference
Emission Factor
Land Area
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assuraptions/Geographic Area
Brown et al. <1989)
1.7 Gg trapped
Measurements taken in an ombrotrophic bog (no groundwater
below 50 cm depth
input, only rainfall, very low mineral content) in Canada.
Boa acted as a CH. reservoir. Conclude that Northern
peatlands (>40°N) act as CH, reservoirs, and some of the
CH, will only be released if the peat is disturbed.
King et al. (1989)
30 ± 14 mg d"'
CH, flux measured in Alaskan tundra. Field and laboratory
(mean flux)
measurements are in agreement. Two sites had CH, consump-
tion rates of 1.2 and 0.6 mg CH, m"1 d"'.
Sebacher et. al
Moist tundra:
4 to 9.5 x
45 to 106 Tg yr"1
Study includes arctic and boreal wetlands only. Based on
(1986)
0.005 g m2 d"'
10" km2
field studies conducted in Alaska (70°N latitude).
Emissions are well correlated with water level, and
Waterlogged tundra:
depth of permafrost. The methane flux was found to be
0.12 g m"2 d 1
poorly correlated with soil temperature. The average
annual flux estimate was calculated assuming an average
Uet meadow:
of 100 days/yr of active CH, emissions for these
0.04 g m"2 d"'
northern wetlands.
Alpine fen:
0.29 gm!d'
Boreal marsh:
0.106 g m2 d 1
Average annual flux:
11.2 g m"' d"'
Whalen and Reeburgh
Uet meadow
Uet meadow
Wet meadow
Measurements taken in Alaskan tundra. Wet meadow tundra
(1988)
tundra:
tundra:
tundra:
is all nonforested land north of 50°N.
4.05 g m"' yr"1
0.88 x 10" m'
3.54 to 4.1 Tg yr"1
Tussock and low
Tussock and low
Tussock and low
scrub tundra:
scrub tundra:
scrub tundra:
2.45 g m'2 yr"1
6.5 x 10'2 m2
15.8 to 28.8 Tg yr"
1
Total tundra:
Total:
7.34 x 10'2 m!
19 to 33 Tg yr"'
-------
TABLE 2-6. METHANE EMITTED FROM ANIMALS (RUMINANTS)
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of Number
of Animals
Budget Estimate
Coranents/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Crutzen et al.
(1986)
In developed countries:
55 kg CH4 yr"' animal"'
In developing countries:
35 kg CH, yr"' animal"'
Cattle: 1.2 x 10'
Buffalo: 1.24 x 10"
Sheep: 1.1 x 10'
Goats: 4.7 x 10"
7.4 x 10" g yr"'
Includes cattle, wild runinants and humans.
Cattle make up 74% of the emissions.
Gives population estimates for various
animals, and emission rates/animal species.
Ehhalt (1974)
Khali I and Rasmussen
(19B3)
1.0 to 2.2 x 10" g yr"'
1.2 * 10" g yr"'
Multiplied methane release rate per runinant
by estimated animal population.
(Cattle only) Apportioned among 4 regions of
the globe based on land-use data from Time
Atlas of the World.
rv>
o
Lerner et al.
(1988)
In developing countries:
Sheep: 5 kg yr"' animal"'
Cattle: 35 kg yr"' animal"
Pigs: 1 kg yr ' animal"'
In developed countries:
Sheep: 8 kg yr"' animal"'
Cattle: 55 kg yr"' animal"
Pigs: 1.5 kg yr 1 animal 1
Sheep: 7.4 x 10°
Cattle: 8.3 x 10"
Pigs: 5.9 x 10"
Camels: 1.1 x 10'
Water
Buffalo: 1.0 x 10°
Goats: 2.9 x 10*
Horses: 4.5 x 10'
Sheep: 6.8 Tg yr"'
Cattle: 57 Tg yr"'
Pigs: 1 Tg yr"'
Camels: 1 Tg yr '
Water
Buffalo: 6.3 Tg yr"'
Goats: 2.3 Tg yr"'
Horses: 1 Tg yr"'
Total: 75.8 Tg yr 1
Population statistics from 1984 FAQ Production
Yearbook. United Nations (1985). Emission
factors based on estimates of Crutzen (1983),
land use data provided by Matthews (1983).
Budget estimates also presented by country.
Estimate of number of animals includes only
countries with the highest populations for each
type.
Rust (1981)
Camels: 58 kg yr"' animal"'
Water
buffalo: 50 kg yr"' animal"'
Goats: 5 kg yr"1 animal"'
Caribou: 15 kg yr"' animal"'
TO ± 12 Tg yr '
Seller et al.
(1984)
7 to 10 x 10" g yr"'
-------
TABLE 2-6. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of dumber
of Animals
Budget Estimate
Comnents/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Seiler and Conrad
(1987)
86 Tg yr"1
Uncertainty associated with this estimate is
±15%. The tropics (30°S - 30°N) account for
40% of the emissions from ruminants. Estimates
are based on 1983 animal population.
sheppard et al.
(1982)
90 Tg yr"'
Animals and humans (hunan sewage).
-------
TABLE 2-7. METHANE EMITTED FROM TERMITES
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of Population Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Fraser et al.
(1986)
Rasmussen arid
Khalit (1983)
Seller et al.
(1984)
Zimmerman et al.
(1982)
1.0 to 8.0 mg kg 1
(termite) hr"'
(depending on
ecological region)
0.9 fig termite"' d"'
0.24 to 0.59
#tg termite"' d"'
(depending on
termite species)
2.4 x 10" individuals
14 Tg yr '
(Range: 6 to
42 Tg yr"')
50 Tg yr"1
(Range: 10 to
100 Tg yr"')
3.5 Tg yr"
2.4 x 10'; individuals 150 Tg yr"'
Concluded that termites account for less than 15%
of global CH,. Based on lab experiments in Australia
and Oregon.
Studies on termites conducted in glass jars.
Estimated this represents less than 15% of total
global CH4es of uncertainty in values of production
CH,/termit. Give ranges of uncertainty in values
of production CH4/termitc/yr and in estimation
of global population of termites.
Measurements from S. Africa. Constructed large
chambers over entire termite nests in the field.
Based on lab measurements from termite nests in
Guatemala. Author suggests that termites may
represent up to 40% of total global CH,. Suggests
that emissions from termites are increasing due to
human activities (clearing tropical forests, grazing
and agriculture land) which provide increased habitat
for termites.
-------
TABLE 2-8. METHANE EMITTED FROM BIOMASS BURNING
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Conroents/Assinptions/Geographic Area
Cofer et al.
<1988)
0.0041 ± 0.0009 aCH,/aC02
(vol/vol)
Los Angeles, CA. Plume samples from
intense flaming and mixed fire. CO, higher
with full flames.
Cofer et at.
(1989)
Flaming:
0.36 to 0.76 ACH./ACOj
(vol/vol)
Mixed:
0.43 to 0.61 aCH„/aC0,
(vol/vol)
Smoldering:
0.87 ± 0.23 ACH./ACO,
(vol/vol)
Samples collected by helicopter from burning
chaparral in S. California and over a boreal
forest fire in Ontario, Canada.
Stevens and
Engelkemeir
(1988)
45 l 14 Tg yr"1
Global anthropogenic biomass burning.
-------
exists in the budget estimate and emission factors from this source due to the
type of burning, moisture content of the vegetation, and amount of biomass
burned each year (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988). The carbon reservoir of the
vegetation will be released as C02, CH4, or carbon monoxide (CO), and each
compound must be measured.
2.3 CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide budget estimates are not well understood, but CO is known
to be emitted from biomass burning, oceans, tropical habitats (through biomass
burning, vegetation, oxidation of nonmethane hydrocarbons, and soils), and CH4
oxidation is a major source. Recent experiments show CO is emitted from rice
paddies along with CH4 (Tables 2-9 through 2-13). In addition, soil has been
found to act as a sink for CO under some conditions.
Carbon monoxide is produced from biomass burning by releasing stored
carbon reservoirs from plant material. While most of the trace gas emissions
from biomass burning have focused on the tropics, recent research has
attempted to assess the potential impacts of mid-latitude biomass burning
(Cofer et al., 1989).
Carbon monoxide is emitted from the oceans through photooxidative
processes. Budget estimates vary because of differing surface-sea water
supersaturation factors.
Soils can either emit CO or act as sinks, depending primarily on their
aeration and moisture content. In soils that are well aerated, CO is oxidized
to C02 by bacteria (Seiler and Conrad, 1987). Flux estimates for this sink
vary due to soil parameters, soil moisture, and temperatures (Seiler and
Conrad, 1987). The emission of CO from flooded soils will be discussed in
relation to rice paddy CO fluxes.
The tropics are presented separately here as a source of CO because of
the large contribution from both terrestrial and aquatic tropical ecosystems.
As discussed above, CO is destroyed at the soil surface by microorganisms, and
is emitted by plants and photooxidative processes in freshwater and oceans
(Seiler and Conrad, 1987). In addition, CO is formed through hydrocarbon
oxidation in plants. Crutzen (1983) concludes that the tropics account for
two thirds of the global CO budget estimate from these sources.
24
-------
TABLE 2-9. CO EMITTED FROM BIOMASS BURNING
Emission
Budget
Reference
Factor
Estimate
Comments/Assumpt i ons/Geograph i c Area
Andreae et a I.
Global estimate:
Based on emission ratios calculated from measure-
(1988)
264 Tg yr 1
ments of biomass-burning plumes.
(Range: 120 to 640 Tg yr"')
South American Tropics:
45 Tg yr"'
Cofer et al.
0.56 ± 0.024 ACO/ACO,
Los Angeles, CA. Plume samples from intense
(1988)
(vol/vol)
and mixed fire. C02 higher nith full flames.
Cofer et aI.
(1989)
Flaming:
5.1 to 6.9 ACO/ACO,
(vol/vol)
Samples collected by helicopter from burning
chaparral in S. California and over a boreal
forest fire in Ontario, Canada.
rv>
Ln
Mixed:
6.0 to 6.9 AC0/AC02
(vol/vol)
Smoldering:
8.2 ± 1.4 AC0/AC02
(vol/vol)
Crutzen et al. (1979)
(1979)
240 to 1660 Tg yr"
Based on measurements of forest fires in Colorado.
Author estimates that CO from biomass burning
produces as much CO as that from fossil fuel
combustion.
Greenberg et al.
(1984)
800 Tg yr"'
Based on measurements taken from tropical biomass
burning in Brazil. Fire emissions were sampled
from aircraft flying through the plume. Assume
that as much as 70/4 of all biomass burned is in
tropical and subtropical areas.
Jaffe (1973)
36 Tg yr"'
Includes agricultural burning only.
Logan et al. (1981)
30 to 140 Tg yr"1
Includes woodburning, forest clearing, and savanna
burning. Does not include burning of agricultural
wastes.
-------
TABLE 2-9. (Continued)
Reference
Emission
Factor
Budget
Estimate
Comments/AssumptIons/Geographic Area
Seller <1974)
64 Tg yr
N. Hemisphere: 40 Tg yr'1
S. Hemisphere: 20 Tg yr 1
Includes forest fires, bush fires and open burning
of agricultural waste. Scaled up to globe based
on estimates for the U.S. Assumes U.S. is 25% of
global CO emissions from fires.
Volz et al. (1981)
550 Tg yr"
Calculated from "CO analysis.
rvj
-------
TABLE 2-10. CO EMITTED FROM OCEANS
Reference
Emission
Factor
Budget
Estimate
Comments/Assunptions/Geograph1c Area
Freyer (1979)
35 Tg yr"1
Linnebom et al. (1973)
22 Tg yr1
N. Hemisphere:
S. Hemisphere:
9 Tg yr"
13 Tg yr"'
Assumes the surface sea-Mater is supersaturated by
an average factor of 28.2.
Ltss and Slater (1974)
43 Tg yr''
Modeling approach. Assumes the surface sea-water
is supersaturated by a factor of 23.
Seiler (1974)
100 Tg yr"'
N. Hemisphere:
S. Hemisphere:
40 Tg yr"'
60 Tg yr '
Seller and Conrad (1987)
100 + 90 Tg yr"1
-------
TABLE 2-11. SOIL
AS A SINK
FOR CO
Reference
Emission
Factor
Budget
Estimate
Comments/Assumpti ons/Geograph i c Area
Bartholomew and Alexander
(1981)
-1.04 x 10 " g cm"2 s"'
(averaged over 12 soil
types)
-410 Tg yr '
Based on measurements from 20 different soil
types. World land surface areas and average
factors for CO uptake are given for each soil
type.
Ingersoll et al.
(1974)
-6 to -73 x 10 " g cm"2 s"'
-1400 Tg yr '
Derived from field studies conducted at 59
sites in N. America and extrapolated to a
global estimate.
Seiler (1974)
-1.5 x 10 " g cm"' s"'
(averaged over all soil
types)
-450 Tg yr"1
N. Hemisphere:
S. Hemisphere: -
300 Tg yr '
150 Tg yr"'
Large variation in CO uptake depending on soil
temperature and organic content of the soil.
Based on field and laboratory estimates in U.S.
and Europe.
Seiler and Conrad
(1987)
-390 Tg yr"'
CO is oxidized to C02 by bacteria in the soil.
-------
TABLE 2-12. CO EMITTED FROM THE TROPICS
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Seller and Conrad
(19B7)
Sources
Overview and sunmary of current research,
budgets are presented (n the report.
Global and tropical
1000 Tg yr'
75 Tg yr'
100 Tg yr'
600 Tg yr
900 Tg yr'
17 Tg yr"
Sinks
(+600) Biomass burning (800 Tg yr"1 tropics)
(+ 25) Vegetation (60 Tg yr"' tropics)
(+ 90) Ocean (50 Tg yr ' tropics)
(+300) CH, oxidation (400 Tg yr"' tropics)
(+500) Oxidation nonmethane HC (600 Tg yr"1 tropics)
(+ 15) Soil production (10 Tg yr"' tropics)
2000 Tg yr"' (+600)
390 Tg yr'1 (+140)
110 Tg yr ' (+ 30)
Oxidation by OH (1200 Tg yr"1 tropics)
Soil uptake (105 Tg yr 1 tropics)
Flux into stratosphere (80 Tg yr"1 tropics)
ro
vo
-------
TABLE 2-13. CO EMITTED FROM RICE PADDIES
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of Land Area Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Conrad et at.
<1988)
0.1 to 0.5 Tg yr
Italian rice paddies studied. CO produced in
submerged anoxic soils is released by diffusion
through the plants. Based on a calculated
CO/CH, ratio.
Co
o
-------
In rice paddies, CO is produced in the anoxic soil and released through
the plants and ebullition (Conrad et al., 1988). Carbon monoxide is also
produced in the rice plant leaves (Conrad et al., 1988). A budget estimate
for CO flux from rice paddies is based on an observed C0/CH4 ratio. Thus, the
wide range in the estimate (0.003 - 0.24 Tg yr"1) is a function of the CH4
range (Conrad et al. 1988).
31
-------
SECTION 3
SOURCES OF NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
The discussion below is a summary of the biogenic sources of nitrous
oxide (N20) and nitrogen oxides (N0y). For more detailed information on these
sources, the reader is encouraged to review the "Comments/Assumptions/
Geographic Area" column on each table and refer to the original study.
3.1 NITROUS OXIDE
Nitrous oxide (N20) is emitted following the use of agricultural
fertilizers, from soils, and from contaminated aquifers (Tables 3-1
through 3-3).
Nitrous oxide is produced in soils through microbial denitrification and
nitrification, and the addition of mineral nitrogen fertilizers causes even
higher N20 releases from soils (Seiler and Conrad, 1981). Nitrous oxide is an
intermediate product that is reduced to N2 in the atmosphere (Seiler and
Conrad, 1981). The range of N20 flux measurements from soils with and without
fertilization can be due to denitrification and nitrification rates, soil
properties, temperature, type and amount of fertilizer applied, the N20/N2
ratio in soil air, and the exchange rate at the soil-air interface (Seiler and
Conrad, 1981). Nitrous oxide flux measured in forest soils was found to vary
with soil acidity, season, and biomass burning (Anderson et a!., 1988; Schmidt
et al., 1988).
The ocean's role in aquatic N20 cycle is not well documented; recently it
has been proposed that the ocean is neither a sink nor a source of N20 (Ronen
et al., 1988). The contamination of ground water aquifers with nitrogen,
however, is a potential source of N20 (Ronen et al., 1988). More research is
needed before this source can be accurately quantified as a source of
atmospheric N20.
3.2 NITROGEN OXIDES
Nitrogen oxides (N0X) are emitted from soils and through ammonia (NHg)
oxidation. Ammonia may be a significant source of nitrogen oxides in the
32
-------
TABLE 3-1. N,0 EMITTED FROM FERTILIZER USE
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumpti ons/Geograph i c Area
Anderson and Levine
(1987)
Brams et al.
(19905
Breitenbeck et al.
(1980)
0.61 to 2.08 kg N ha ' yr 1
(0.79% fertilizer N lost
as NO, 1.2% fertilizer N
lost as N,0)
0.30 kg N ha"1 d"'
0.70 kg N ha"' d"'
0.08 kg N ha"' d l
0.24 kg N ha"1 d 1
0.20 kg N ha"' d"'
0.56 kg N ha"' d"'
0.10 kg N ha"' d"'
0.13 kg N ha ' d '
0.23 kg N ha ' d 1
0.35 kg N ha"1 d"'
(NH.), SO,:
0.11 to 0.18% of
N added
CaNOa: 0.01 to 0.04% of N
added
Urea:
0.12 to 0.14% of N
added.
Jamestown, VA. Year-long study, moderately fertilized
land. Limited data, therefore % fertilizer lost as NO
and N,0 is very uncertain.
Late sumner, minimum cultivation.
Fall, minimum cultivation.
Uinter, minimum cultivation.
Spring, minimum cultivation
Early summer, minimum cultivation.
Late summer, maximum cultivation.
Fall, maximum cultivation.
Uinter, maximum cultivation.
Spring, maximum cultivation,
Early sumner, maximum cultivation.
Addresses nitrification. Field study of soil in Iowa.
Correlates well with lab studies. Study was 96 days; most
of N20 evolved in first 2-3 weeks. Conclude nitrification
is primary mechanism of N20 production. Data possibly
applicable to two Canadian soils - Essex Co., S.W.
Ontario.
Breitenbeck and
Bremner (1986)
90 g N?0-N ha 'd '
(1.2% of N applied)
Mean rate for 3 soil types following application of
anhydrous ammonia (180 kg ha"1 fertilizer N). Lower
rates were reported for other forms of N fertilizer.
-------
TABLE 3-1. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumpt i ons/Geographi c Area
Mosier et al.
(19825
Seller and Conrad
(1981)
3.4 g N ha"1
5.9 g N ha"'
6.7
9.2
5.3
7.0
N ha"
N ha"
N ha"
N ha"
27.0 g N ha"
d"1
d"1
d"
d"'
d"'
d 1
d"1
NaNO,: 0.01% Eolian sand
0.05% Loess Loam
0.01% Loam
No fertilizer.
56 kg N ha 1 applied.
112 kg N ha ' applied.
224 kg N ha"1 applied.
No fertilizer.
16.7 metric tons of sewage sludge/ha applied.
83.5 metric tons of sewage sludge/ha applied.
Rhein/Main - field study.
NH,Cl: 0.09% Eolian sand
0.07% Loess Loam
0.03% Loess
u>
Slemr et al.
(1984)
Unfertilized grass lawn:
1 ng H m'2 hr"1
Unfertilized cultivated
land: 15 pg N m"! hr"1
NH.NOj fertilized grass
lawn: 850 (ig N m! hr 1
(0.075% of N added)
From fertilizer use:
0.015 to 2.2 Tg yr"1
Total fertilized
and unfertilized:
4.5 to 7.7 Tg yr'1
Andalusia, Spain. Propose that 0.01 to 2% fertilizer N
is lost as N,0 globally. Higher results may be due to
high soil temperatures or soybean residue. Differences
between vegetation in loss rate.
Urea fertilized cultivated
land: 200 fig N m'£ hr 1
(0.18% of N added)
NH.NOj fertilized cultivated
land: 0.04% of N added
-------
TABLE 3-2. Na0 EMITTED FROM SOILS
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Conments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Anderson et al.
(1988)
Breitenbeck et at.
(1980)
Dry and wetted,
unburned: NA
Dry, burned:
<4.8 ng N m2 s 1
8.6 x 10" molecules
N,0 cm2 s 1
Measured NjO flux following surface burning. The elevated
fluxes lasted 6 months post burn. Vegetation burned was
typical of a Mediterranean chaparral ecosystem.
Iowa, farmland, fallow, June.
Breitenbeck and Bremner
(1989)
43.5 to 104.9 pg N g"
soi 1 (24 hr)"'
Inoculated midwestern soil samples with B. iaponicun.
strain USDA122, an efficient N,- fixing rhiiobia. In one
soil, the amount of N20-N evolved in 24 hours was 140%
higher than the amount evolved in uninoculated soils.
105.9 to 119.2 M9 N g"1
soi I (72 hr)"'
Inoculated midwestern soil samples with B. iaponicun.
strain USDA122, an efficient N,- fixing rhizobia. The
amounts of N,0-N shown evolved after 72 hours.
to Bremner et al. (1980)
tn
Duxbury et at. (1982)
Freney et al. (1979)
8.2 x 10° molecules
NjO cm"1 s"'
6.1 x 10' molecules
N20 cm * s"'
6.8 x 10s molecules
N20 cm 2 s '
1.9 x 1010 molecules
3.6 x 10s molecules
Iowa, soybean field, 1 year.
New York State. Northern hardwood forest, mineral
soiI over 1 year.
Florida Everglades, organic soil over 1 year.
New York State, alfalfa, fertilized cornfields, mineral
soils over 1 year.
Canberra, Australia, clovergrass, 5 months.
Goreau and DeMello
(1985)
3.2 x 10" molecules
N20 cm"2 s"'
Clear cut forest.
-------
TABLE 3-2. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Hao et al. €1986)
Hutchinson and Hosier
(1979)
2.5 x 109 molecules
N*0 cm"2 s"1
(Undisturbed savannah
soiIs)
1.0 x 10" molecules
NjO cm"' s"'
(Following 4 days of
simulated rainfall)
< 4 kg ha"' yr"'
1.9 x 10" g yr 1
6 x 10" kg N yr"
Measured arithmetic mean of NzO, CH„, and C02 fluxes in
undisturbed and disturbed tropical savanna soils in Venezuela
during the dry season. No change was observed following
surface burning. Budget estimate assumes a 4 month dry
season for tropical savannas.
Harvested cropland.
Keller et al.
(1983)
BraziI:
2.6 x 10'° molecules
N.O cm"' s"'
Annual means. Tropical and northern hardwood forests.
New Hampshire:
1.0 x 10' molecules
Keller et a I
(1986)
1.7 x 10'° molecules
N,0 cm"2 s"'
75 km NE of Manaus, Brazil. Tropical moist forest.
2.5 x 10'° molecules
N.O cm2 s"'
Puerto Rico, dry season, subtropical moist forest.
ICel ler et al.
(1988)
Control site:
1.4 x 101" molecules
With N03":
4.5 x 10" molecules
N.O cm 2 s '
Measurements from undisturbed Amazon tropical forests soils.
Application of ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate fertilizers
resulted in increased emissions within 1 day of application.
Microbial reduction of N03' shown to be a large source of N20
in the Amazon. No change in C02 flux was found in response
to fertilizer.
With NH«°:
7.0 x 10'° molecules
N,0 cm 2 s"'
With P043":
2.1 x 10'° molecules
N,0 cm"2 s"'
-------
TABLE 3-2. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographie Area
Levine et at. (1988)
Lipschultz et al.
(1981)
<2 ng N m"2 s"'
(pre-burn)
9 to 22 ng N nf! s"'
(post-burn)
10 Tg N yr"1
Measurements taken in a chaparral ecosystem, heavily burned
and wetted to simulate rainfall. Pre- and post-burn measure-
ments of soil ammonium and nitrate indicate that soil ammonium
(the substrate for nitrification) increased after burning
and soil nitrate (the substrate for denitrification) decreased
after burning.
Lab experiment of N0:N20 ratio from nitrifying bacteria
on a liquid medium. Assume N,0 flux - calculated
photochemical destruction rate.
Livingston et a I.
(1988)
Luizao et al. (1989)
Mean:
1.3 ng N cm"' h"1
CIeared-and-burned
and forested sites:
1.9 kg N ha"! yr"'
0.8 to 1.3 Tg yr
Measurements taken in three types of Amazonian forest
ecosystems.
N20 flux compared in tropical forest, cleared-and-burned
land and pasture land. Estimate of tropical pasture land
area is 2 million km'.
Pasture sites:
5.7 kg N ha 1 yr 1
HcKenney et al. (1978)
2.9 x 10 molecules
N.O cm 2 s"'
California, cornfield, June 1977.
7.1 x 10' molecules
N,0 cm"' s"'
1.12 x 10'" molecules
N20 cm"' s"'
California, cornfield, fertilized, June 1977.
California, tobacco field, June 1977.
5.1 x 10'° molecules
N,0 cm2 s"'
California, tobacco field, fertilized, June 1977.
Hosier et al. (1981)
5.7 x 10° molecules
N20 cm 2 s !
Colorado, natural shortgrass prairie, 62 days through
June.
-------
TABLE 3-2. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Mosier and Hutchinson
(1981)
Robertson and Tiedje
(1988)
Ryden (1981)
Seiler and Conrad
(1981)
Smith et al. (1983)
3.8 g N ha"1 d"'
520.0 g N ha"' d"'
550.0 g N ha"1 d"
1.3 g N ha' d"'
30.0 g N ha"' d"'
0.30 g N ha"1 d"'
6.5 g N ha' d 1
8.2 g N ha"' d"1
0.60 g N ha"' d"'
0.66 g N ha' d"'
Mid-successionat
forest:
<0.034 ng N m"*
month"'
Primary-forest site:
0.11 ng N m"2 month"'
Early-success i onaI
site:
0.16 g N m"' month"1
-2.7 x 10* molecules
NjO cm"2 s"'
0.5 to 2.5
-------
TABLE 3-2. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Cooments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Terry et a I.
(1981)
Dry periods:
4 g N ha"' d"'
Following rain:
4500 g N ha"1 d"'
Total Everglades region:
50 to 150 kg ha"' yr '
Florida Everglades, cultivated organic soils. N20 emissions
increased with increased soil moisture.
Schmidt et al. (1988)
4 to 8 fig N m h"
0.7 to 1.5 Tg N yr'1* Temperate forest soils measured throughout central European
forests.
1.5 to 3.0 Tg N yr-1"
"Land area for temperate forest soils: 21 x 10' kmz.
"For a total temperate land area of 41 x 10® km1 (includes grassland and shrubland).
-------
TABLE 3-3. N,0 EMITTED FROM AQUIFERS
Reference
Emission Factor
Estimate of
Land Area
Budget Estimate
Comnents/AssuMptions/Geographic Area
Ronen et al.
(1988)
3.4 to 7.8 kg
N ha1 y 1
130 x 10' km2
7.2 x 10' to 1.5 x
10' kg yr1
Israel. Aquifers contaminated by human and
animal wastes, cultivation, and fertilization.
Have high N20 concentrations. Global estimate
assumes thatl percent of world's aquifers are
contaminated.
-------
atmosphere as it is oxidized by OH to form N0X (Levine et al., 1984)
(Tables 3-4 and 3-5).
Nitrogen oxides, typically nitric oxide (NO), are emitted from
nitrification, denitrification, and nitrate respiration by fermenters
(Anderson and Levine, 1986). Oxidation of N20 in the stratosphere is also a
source of NO. Biomass burning has a two-fold effect on NO (and N20) fluxes
because not only does the burning process produce these compounds, but their
emission from soils is enhanced for up to six months post-burn (Anderson et
al., 1988) (Table 3-6). Anderson et al. (1988) found that aerobic soils
produce NO and anaerobic soils produce N20, and the soil oxygen content is
controlled by soil moisture. Like N20, N0X emissions thus vary because of
biomass burning, soil moisture content, use of fertilizers, season, and soil
type.
3.3 NITROGEN OXIDES AND NITROUS OXIDE FROM LIGHTNING AND OCEANS
Atmospheric measurements, laboratory experiments, and theoretical
calculations are used to estimate the N0X and N20 emissions from lightning
(Table 3-7). The production of these compounds and the prediction of a budget
estimate are dependent on assumptions concerning energy per discharge, number
of flashes per second (or number of flashes annually per area), and seasonal
and hemispheric variations. Brandvold and Martinez (1988) found that the
N20/N0x ratio was not constant in relation to energy, but instead was
dependent on discharge conditions. In general, NO is assumed to be produced
in greater amounts than N02, and NOx production is greater than N20
production, but great uncertainty exists in the estimate of total N0X and N20
produced from lightning.
The role of the ocean in the nitrogen cycle is also not well understood
(Table 3-8). Oxidation of organic matter is a source of aquatic N20, but
there is no evidence that the ocean acts as a sink (Elkins et al., 1978). The
kinetics of the reactions of NO in water are also not well understood (Logan,
1983).
41
-------
TABLE 3-4. N0X EMITTED FROM SOILS
Reference Emission Factor Budget Estimate Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Anderson and Levine
(1987)
0.53 kg N ha"1 yr'
NO. Jamestown, VA. Year-long study.
Anderson et al.
(1988)
Dry, unburned:
9.7 ng N s'1
Wetted (1 day),
unburned:
21.4 ng N rrf2 s"'
Wetted (7-11 days),
unburned:
NA'
Wetted (180 days),
unburned:
1.1 ng N m'! s"1
Dry, burned:
13.3 ng N m2 s 1
Burned and wetted
<1 day):
60.7 ng N nf* s"1
Burned and wetted
(7-11 days):
23.7 ng N m~* s"'
Burned and wetted
(180 days):
22.3 ng N m * s '
Measured NO flux following surface burning. The elevated
fluxes lasted six months post burn. Vegetation was typical
of a Mediteranean chaparral ecosystem.
BBulch et al. (1982)
0 to 15 Tg N yr"1
"MA = Not measured.
-------
TABLE 3-4.
(Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Cottments/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Delany et aI.
(1985)
Daily average:
7 x 10"
kg N ni"J s"'
Range:
-9.3 to 28.0 x 10 "
kg N s '
Crested wheat grass.
Ehhalt and Drunmond
<1982)
5.5 Tg N yr'"
(1 to 10 Tg N yr"')
Galbally and Roy
(1978)
0.5 to 1.1 kg N
ha"1 yr"1
10 Tg U yr"'
12 flux measurements, no correction for seasonal or diurnal
variability. Ungrazed and grazed grasslands.
Galbally and Roy
(1981)
Grazed pasture
(range):
1 to 50 x 10""
kg N m"' s"1
Grazed pasture
(average):
3.5 x 10 "
kg N m"J s"'
Ungrazed pasture
(average):
1.6 x 10"
kg N m* s"'
Galbally et al.
(1987)
0.2 to 1.0 ng N m"1 s"'
Fertilized rice field.
Johansson (1984)
Hedian:
0.3 x 10 "
kg N m"2 s '
Range:
0.1 - 0.8 x 10 "
kg N n1 s 1
Unfertilized forest soil.
Gal bally and Johansson
(1989)
3 to 11 x 10"* g N nf* s
I
NO. Model calculation prepared for comparison with NO flux
presented by Johansson and Granat (1984)
(2 to 17 x 10 a g N m1 s ').
-------
TABLE 3-4. (Continued)
Reference Emission Factor Budget Estimate Cannents/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Johansson and Granat
(1984)
Fertilized grass:
0.6 kg N ha"1 yr 1
Unfertilized barley:
0.2 kg N ha"' yr"'
Johansson and Sarthueza
(1988)
7 month rainy season:
0.2 to 1.2 g N m"1
Johansson et al.
(1988)
Dry season, undisturbed:
8 ng N m"' s"'
Dry season, burned:
25 ng N in* s"1
Dry season, total (5 mo.):
100 mg N m"2 yr"1
Simulated rain (wet
season, 7 mo.):
200 mg N m2 yr 1
Wet and dry savannah
total:
0.4 to 0.5 g N i' yr"'
Cloud forest, undisturbed:
< 0.2 to 2 ng N m"1 s"1
NO. Sweden: April-July, September.
NO. Measurements taken from a woodland savanna of Venezuela.
Annual estimate obtained by combining rainy season estimate
with dry season measurement in Johansson et al. (1988).
Savanna, Ecuador.
NO. Measured in the Venezuelan savannah and cloud forest
during the dry season and with simulated rainfall and
burning. No change was seen with the addition of water
to the cloudforest soil. An additional 100 mg N ma yr 1
are emitted with the fire plume for biomass burning in
the total savannah emission estimate.
Kaplan et al.
(1988)
9.2 x 10"'2 to 16 x
10"" kg N m 2 s"'
NO. Measured emission rates and 03 deposition in the Amazon
Region.
-------
TABLE 3-4. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Levine et al.
(1984)
Levine et al.
(1988)
Levine et al.
(1990)
10 Tg N yr"1
> 40 ng N m"' s"
0.34
0.22
1.80
0.68
0.43
0.04
0.14
0.13
0.10
0.90
1.290
0.800
0.387
0.530
0.380
0.370
0.392
0.858
0.262
0.115
0.254
0.230
0.249
.14 ng N m"' s"'
.11 ng N m"2 s"'
.68 ng N in' s~'
.29 ng N m"2 s"'
.00 ng N m"2 s"'
.01 ng N m"' s"'
.038 ng N m 2 s 1
.04 ng N m2 s 1
.01 ng N m"2 s"1
.035 ng N m"2 s"1
0.5 ng N m2 s"'
0.04 ng N m"2 s"1
0.01 ng N m"! s"'
0.02 ng N m"2 s"'
0.01 ng N m2 s '
0.01 ng N m"2 s"'
0.01 ng N m"' s'1
0.04 ng II m1 s'
0.005 ng N m"2 s"
0.001 ng N m"! s'
0.005 ng N m"1 s
0.005 ng N m"2 s'
0.005 ng N m"2 s'
NO. Assume soil nitrification is at least 5 x 1012 g
-------
TABLE 3-4. (Continued)
Reference Emission Factor Budget Estimate Comments/Assumptfons/Ceographic Area
-------
TABLE 3-4. (Continued)
Reference Emission Factor Budget Estimate Comments/AssimptIons/Geograph1c Area
Uflliaae et al.
(1988) (Continued)
Wofsy et al.
(1988)
Corn field, NO, average:
3.8 ng N m'2 s"1
1 nj N s"'
Amazon Forest, wet season.
-------
TABLE 3-5. NO, EMITTED FROM NH, OXIDATION
Coraments/Assimptioris/Geographic Area
NO.
Estimate of upper limit source strength based on NH, lifetime
against OH destruction (40 d.) and rainout (10 d.) - 20% will
react with OH. Assume all NH, oxidized by OH >
80 x 10" g(N) yr"1 NH, production in N. Hemisphere.
NOx and
Mechanism unclear, one product (NH.,) may be a sink. Based on rate
of reaction NH, with OH, [NH,] distribution and [OH] distribution
in the troposphere.
NO.
NO.
C»
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Ehhalt and Drunmand
(1982)
Levine et al.
(1984)
3.1 Tg N yr"'
(1.2 to 4.9 Tg yr ')
15 Tg N yr'1
Logan (1983)
1 to 10 Tg N yr"
National Academy of
Sciences (1984)
Stedman and Shetter
(1983)
< 5 Tg N yr'1
1 Tg N yr"1
(0.5 to 2 Tg yr"')
-------
TABLE 3-6. NO. and M20 EMITTED FROM BIOMASS BURNING
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Conrtents/Assumpt ions/Geographic Area
Andreee et al.
(1988)
Baulch et al. (1982)
Cofer et al.
(1988)
Cofer et al.
(1989)
0.0018 t 0.00010
AN20/AC02
Flaming:
0.014 to 0.019
AN20/AC02
Mixed:
0.019 to 0.021
AN20/AC02
Smoldering:
0.039 ± 0.008
AN,0/ACO,
Global estimate:
7.6 Tg N yr"'
(Range: 1.5 to
16.3 Tg H yr ')
South American
Tropics:
1.3 Tg N yr 1
10 to 40 Tg N yr"'
Based on emission ratios calculated from measurements
of biomass-burning plumes.
Los Angeles, CA. Plume samples collected from
intense flaming and mixed fire. C02 higher
with full flames (vol/vol).
Samples collected by helicopter from burning
chaparral in S. California and over a boreal
forest fire in Ontario, Canada (vol/vol).
Crutzen et al.
(1979)
50 Tg N yr"'
(20 to 100 Tg
range)
14 Tg N yr '
as NO,
200 Tg N20 yr '
-13 Tg N20 yr''
Upper limit NO,, based on N content, average maximum
global N/C ratio = 1.5 - 2.5%.
Based on the measured ratios of the trace gas to C02
under various conditions. NO./COj ¦ 0.47% average
ratio.
Based on the N20/C02 = 0.22% average ratio.
Based on maximum observed N20/C02 = 0.4%, average
global.
-------
TABLE 3-6. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Comments/Assunptions/Geographic Area
Crutzen et al.
(1979) (Continued)
Total Biomass
Burned and/or cleared
cleared area (100 Tg dry
<10* hectare) matter)
21 - 62
31 - 92
Annually
burned biomass
(100 Tg dry
matter)
9 - 25
-Burning due
to shifting
agriculture
8.8 - 15.1
20 - 33
5.5 - 8.6
-Deforestation
due to
population
increase and
colonization
600 12.2 - 23.8 4.8 - 19 -Burning of
cn savanna and
° bush land
3.0 - 5.0 10.5 - 17.5 1.5 - 2.6 -Wild fires
in temperate
forests
2.0 - 3.0 1.2 - 1.8 0.1 - 0.2 -Prescribed
fires in
temperate
forests
1.0 - 1.5 2.5 - 3.8 0.4 - 0.6 -Uild fires
in boreal
forests
17-21 -Burning of
agriculture
wastes
-------
TABLE 3-6. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Coroments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Ehhalt and Drunnond
(1982)
Logan (1983)
National Academy of
Sciences (1984)
11.2 Tg N yr"' NO.
(5.6 to 16.4 Tg N yr"')
12.5 Tg N yr"'
(0.25 to 18.75 Tg yr"
range)
1 to 10 Tg N yr"'
Based on estimate of 25% of global NO, results
from this source.
NO.
Stedman and Shetter
(1983)
5 Tg N yr"
NO.
-------
TABLE 3-7. NO, AMD N20 EMITTED FROM LIGHTNING
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Flash Density/
Flash Frequency/
Energy Deposited"
C eminent s/Assumpt ions/Geographic Area
Baulch et al. (1982)
3 to 4 Tg II yr"
NO.
Brandvold and Martinez 1.0 t 0.2 x 10':
(1988)
Chameides et al.
(1977)
Chameides (1979)
Dawson (1980)
Donohue et al.
(1977)
moles NO. joule'1
3 to 7 x 10"
molecules NO,
Joule"'
8 to 17 x 10"
molecules NO,
joule"'
30 to 40 Tg N yr
35 to 90 Tg N yr
3 Tg N yr"'
1.4 x 10s kg N20 yr"
1.6 x 10"' joules cm"2 s"
NO, (NO + NO,). Between 0.005 and 0.1
joules, NO, production was linear with
electrical discharge energy. N20/N0,
ratio not constant in relation to energy,
depends instead on the discharge conditions.
Theoretical calculations; global
production range using lab experiments
corresponds.
1.6 x 10' joules cm* s ' Theoretical calculations.
Theoretically calculated, used
revised parameters for lightning.
Drapcho et al.
(1983)
40 x 10"
molecules NO,
stroke"'
30 Tg N yr"
100 flashes s"1
Atmospheric measurements.
Ehhalt and Drummond
(1982)
Franzblau and Popp
(1989)
3 x 10" molecules
NO, flash"'
5 Tg N yr"1
(2 to 8 Tg N yr"')
100 Tg N yr 1
100 flashes s"'
NO.
NO,. Atmospheric measurements.
"Average value of 5 strokes flash"' often assumed (Logan, 1983).
-------
TABLE 3-7. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Flash Density/
Flash Frequency/
Energy Deposited'
Comments/Asstmptions/Geographic Area
Golde (1977)
tn
w
Hill et al.
(1980)
Hill et a I.
(1984)
1 x 10"
molecules N20 yr"
4.4 Tg N yr"
2.0 x 10' kg N20 yr"
5 x 10" to 1 x 103' 3.6 x 10' to 7.2 x
molecules N,0 yr"' 10' kg N,0 yr"'
Germany: 4.0 x 10"®
flashes min"' km"1
UK: 0.5 - 11.5 x 10'
flashes rain"1 km"2
USSR: 14.0 x 10"'
flashes rain"' km"*
Australia: 6.0 x 10 '
flashes rain"' km"2
Switzerland: 20.0 x 10"
flashes min'1 km"2
Singapore: 60.0 x 10"'
flashes min"' km"2
Sweden: 4.5 x 10"'
flashes min'1 km"'
Thailand: 44.7 x 10'*
flashes rain ' km2
Theoretically calculated, used
revised parameters for lightning.
Independent of any assumptions of
typical dissipation energy/stroke,
assune 3 strokes/flash, 300 flashes/
second.
Assumes power dissipation of typical
corona = 5.56 x 10s W, total number
storms = 2400, total energy =
1.75 x 10" joules yr"'.
"Average value of 5 strokes flash"' often assuned (Logan, 1983).
-------
TABLE 3-7. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Flash Density/
Flash Frequency/
Energy Deposited'
Coflments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
Levine et al.
<1979)
Levine et al.
(1981)
Livingston and Krider
(1978)
4 x 10" molecules
N20 joule"'
Global production rate:
6 x 10s molecules
N20 cm"' s"1
<3.5 x 10' g N yr '
5 ± 2 x 10"
molecules NO joule"
1.8 ± 0.7 Tg N yr"
1.5 x 10"' joules cm"' s"
1 x 10" joules cm"* s"
Florida: 365.0 x 10"*
flashes min"' km"2
Nz0. Lab experiment: 10s - 10s joules/m.
Extrapolated to global contribution,
but based on average global dissipation.
NO. Lab experiment used revised
parameters for lightning that result
in a lower global dissipation energy.
Lightning frequency -70% greater in
N. Hemisphere than S. Hemisphere.
Numbers are total flash densities.
S. Africa: 38.6 x 10"'
flashes min*' kin"1
Logan
<1983)
Martinez and Oh line
(1988)
8 Tg N yr"'
(2 to 20 Tg range)
2.4 x 10'* moles
NO, discharge"1
<0.02 joules discharge"')
3.4 x 10"4 moles
NO, discharge '
(0.03 joules discharge"')
NO,. Uses empirical to modify other
published values. Range should
accommodate uncertainties in both
production rate per flash and the
global frequency of lightning.
'Average value of 5 strokes flash"' often assuned (Logan, 1983).
-------
TABLE 3-7. (Continued)
Reference
Emission Factor
Budget Estimate
Flash Density/
Flash Frequency/
Energy Deposited'
Cofiments/Assuaptions/Geographic Area
Martinez and Ohline 4.7 x 10"* moles
(1988) (Continued) NO, discharge"'
(0.04 joules discharge ')
9 x 10"' moles
NO, discharge"'
(0.08 joules discharge"')
National Academy of
Sciences (1984)
Noxon (1976)
10 to 20 x 102!
molecules
NO, stroke"1
Peyrous and Lapeyre 1.6 to 2.6 x 10"
(1982)
Stedman and Shetter
(1983)
Tuck (1976)
Turman and Edgar
(1982)
molecules joule"1
1.1 x 10"
molecules
NO. stroke"'
2 to 20 Tg N yr"1
7 Tg N yr 1
9.25 to 15.5 Tg N yr 1
3 Tg N yr"'
(1.5 to 6 Tg N yr'1)
4 Tg N yr"
1.57 x 10"; joules cm 2 s
6 x 10* joules cm"' s"';
500 strokes s"'
40 to 120 flashes s '
Seasonal variation
-10%
Atmospheric measurements. 100 flashes/
sec used by Dawson (1980) to calculate
global production.
Laboratory experiments. Original paper
reported annual production in grams of
NO, and grams NO; converted to annual
fixation rate.
NO.
Theoretical calculations. Global
estimate calculated by Levine et al.
Uses Defense Meteorol. Satellite
Program data. More detailed information
on a bimonthly basis, August - June.
Limitations of data are imposed by the
sensor design.
'Average value of 5 strokes flash"' often assumed (Logan, 1983).
-------
TABLE 3-8. NO, and N20 EMITTED FROM OCEANS
Comments/Assumptions/Geographic Area
N,0. Used a marine N cycle from a global model to estimate N20;
Compared estimates to measured N20 at sea surface. Assumed a
mineralization rate of 2000 Tg N yr"' as an estimate of oxidative
production of nitrate in the ocean, and an average value of 0.2%
for the N20/N0j ratio. Data lacking for southern oceans.
N0„. Author states that kinetics of reactions of NO in water
not well understood. Number based on one group's flux estimate.
NjO. Central Pacific, Peru, Chesapeake Bay and various ponds
and rivers. Assune C:N = 6.6 for marine biosphere.
Reference
Emission Factor Budget Estimate
Cohen and Gordon
(1979)
4 to 10 Tg N yr'1
(6 to 10 Tg N20 yr ')
Logan (1983)
0.5 Tg N yr 1
McElroy et al.
(1976)
0.09 Tg N yr"' max.
from marine sources
-------
SECTION 4
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