United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
EPA-600/R-94-180
September 1994
<&ERA Research and
Development
VENTILATION RESEARCH:
A REVIEW OF RECENT INDOOR
AIR QUALITY LITERATURE
Prepared for
Office of Environmental Engineering
and Technology Demonstration
Prepared by
Air and Energy Engineering Research
Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before comp! ||| |||| || |||||| ||||||||[|| 111||
1. REPORT NO. 2.
E PA- 600 / R- 94-180
PB95-129086
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Ventilation Research: A Review of Recent Indoor Air
Quality Literature
5. REPORT DATE
September 1994
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Douglas W. Van Osdell
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Research Triangle Institute
Center for Aerosol Technology
P.O. Box 12194
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
CR817083-01-0
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final report; 10/93 - 3/94
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
15.supplementary notesproject officer is Russell N. Kulp, Mail Drop 54, 919/541-
7980.
16. abstractrep0rt gives results of a literature review, conducted to survey and
summarize recent and ongoing engineering research into building ventilation, air
exchange rate, pollutant distribution and dispersion, and other effects of heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems on indoor air quality (IAQ). The
concerns of the ventilation community and technical questions that remain to be sol-
ved were identified, as were a number of research opportunities. The ventilation-
related engineering literature was divided into seven major categories: (l) pollutant
transport to and into the building envelope; (2) air cleaning systems; (3) flow and
pollutant dispersion; (4) room and building flow/dispersion research; (5) HVAC/buil-
ding design, operation, and control strategies; (6) applied microbial research; and
(7) building performance. The significance and status of ventilation-related IAQ re-
search was summarized by research category, and research opportunities were iden-
tified within each category.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollution Microbiology
Ventilation
Air Cleaners
Heating
Air Conditioning
Buildings
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Indoor Air Quality
Microbial Research
13B 06M
13 A
131
13 H
13 M
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
71
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
-------
Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
PB95-129086
EPA-600/R-94-180
September 1994
VENTILATION RESEARCH:
A REVIEW OF RECENT INDOOR AIR QUALITY
LITERATURE
Douglas W. VanOsdell
Center for Aerosol Technology
Research Triangle Institute
P.O. Box 12194
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194
EPA Cooperative Agreement No. CR817083-01-0
EPA Project Officer: Russell N. Kulp
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Washington, D.C. 20460
-------
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policy of the Agency, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service. Springfield, Virginia 22161.
-------
ABSTRACT
Building ventilation and air conditioning systems have traditionally been designed
and controlled to maintain occupant thermal comfort at acceptable capital and operating
costs, an indoor air quality (IAQ) has not been a primary concern. Poor ventilation has
contributed to many IAQ problems. A literature review was conducted to survey and
summarize recent and on-going engineering research into building ventilation, air exchange
rate, pollutant distribution and dispersion, and other effects of heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems on IAQ. The concerns of the ventilation community and
technical questions that remain to be solved were identified, as were a number of research
opportunities.
The ventilation-related engineering literature was divided into seven major
categories: 1) pollutant transport to and into the building envelope; 2) air cleaning systems;
3) flow and pollutant dispersion, 4) room and building flow/dispersion research; 5) HVAC/
building design, operation, and control strategies; 6) applied microbial research; and
7) building performance.
The significance and status of ventilation-related IAQ research was summarized by
research category, and research opportunities were identified within each category.
ii
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Abstract ii
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Summary 4
3.0 Research Recommendations 7
4.0 Pollutant Transport to and into the Building Envelope 9
4.1 Outdoor Pollutant Dispersion and Wind Transport 9
4.2 Entry into the Envelope (HVAC, Infiltration, Doors/Windows) 10
4.2.1 Radon Infiltration 10
4.2.2 Miscellaneous Building Envelope Infiltration 11
4.2.3 Entry Through HVAC System 12
4.3 Summary of Research 13
5.0 Air Cleaning Systems 14
5.1 In-duct Air Cleaners 14
5.2 In-room Air Cleaners 16
5.3 Radon Control by Particle Control 17
5.4 Status of Research 17
6.0 Room Airflow and Pollutant Dispersion 19
6.1 Source/Sink Effects and Ventilation 19
6.2 Jet and Diffuser Flow 20
6.2.1 Computer Models 21
6.2.2 Experimental 21
6.2.3 Research Status 21
7.0 Room and Building Flow/Dispersion Research 23
7.1 Introduction 23
7.2 Single Rooms and Micromodels 24
7.2.1 Micromodels 25
7.2.2 Experimental Studies 26
7.3 Multizone Building Performance (Macromodels) 27
7.3.1 Computer Models 27
7.3.2 Experimental 29
7.4 Schools, Hospitals, and Other Special Buildings 30
7.5 Research Needs 31
8.0 HVAC/Building Design, Operation, and Control Strategies 32
8.1 HVAC System Design and Selection 32
8.2 Innovative Ventilation Delivery Designs 33
8.2.1 Ventilated Work Stations 33
8.2.2 Personally Controlled Ventilation 33
iii
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Section Page
8.2.3 Displacement Ventilation 34
8.2.4 Demand-Controlled (Pollutant-Sensor-Controlled) Ventilation .... 34
8.2.5 Energy Recovery Systems 35
8.3 Research NeedsHVAC/Building Design, Operation, and Control 35
9.0 Applied Microbial Research 37
10.0 Building Performance Evaluation 40
11.0 References 41
Appendix
A ASHRAE Ventilation-Related Research A-1
B DOE Ventilation-Related Research B-1
C National Institute of Standards and Technology FY 1992 Ventilation-
Related Research C-1
iv
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Building ventilation and air conditioning systems have traditionally been designed
and operated to maintain occupant thermal comfort at acceptable capital and operating
costs, Indoor air quality (IAQ) has not been a primary concern, and some of the heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) strategies developed to reduce energy costs have
been found to adversely affect IAQ. The contribution of poor ventilation to many IAQ
problems was recognized by the implementation of ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, Ventilation
for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (ASHRAE, 1989a), which emphasizes the importance of
building ventilation for IAQ improvement and control. This standard is having a profound
impact as the building industry attempts to cope with the often (apparently) competing
imperatives of high energy efficiency and good IAQ. In this light, the possibilities, capabili-
ties, and limitations of ventilation as a means to improve IAQ have become increasingly
important.
The objective of this literature review was to survey and summarize recent and
ongoing research into building ventilation, air exchange rate, pollutant distribution and
dispersion, and other effects of HVAC systems on indoor air quality. In keeping with this
objective, recent literature is emphasized. From this literature, the concerns of the ventila-
tion community and technical questions that remain to be solved were identified and a
number of opportunities for ventilation-related engineering research were generated.
Three general types of IAQ research are under way:
Basic laboratory investigations into the characteristics of sources and processes
that influence IAQ
Applied engineering research into transport, dispersion, control devices, control
strategies, and costs
Surveys and evaluation of the energy/economic impact of IAQ and communi-
cation of research results to the users.
The ventilation research encompassed by the scope of this review largely falls in the
second category. This broad category of IAQ applied engineering research was further
subdivided into a number of research areas that form the framework of this review. Table 1
expands these three categories into the outline of this review. The first three topics are the
laboratory work, the shaded topics are the IAQ engineering research topics that are the
subject of this review, and the final topics are the survey and communication work.
1
-------
Table 1. Indoor Air Research Topics
Laboratory Investigations
Single Source/Sink Experimental Studies
Multiple Source/Sink Experimental Studies
Basic Biological Growth Studies
Applied Engineering Research
Pollutant Transport to and into the Building Envelope (Section 4.0)
From source to envelope boundary (dispersion/wind transport)
Entry into the envelope (HVAC, infiltration, doors/windows)
Air Cleaning Systems (Section 5.0)
In-duct air cleaners
¦ In-room air cleaners
Radon control by particle control
Room Airflow and Pollutant Dispersion (Section 6.0)
Fundamental source/sink transport
Jet and diffuser flow
Room and Building Flow/ Dispersion Research (Section 7.0)
Single rooms and micromodels
Multizone buildings and macromodels
Schools, hospitals, and other special buildings
HVAC/Building Design, Operation, and Control Strategies (Section 8.0)
HVAC system design and selection
Innovative ventilation delivery designs
Ventilated Work Stations
Personally-Controlled Ventilation
Displacement Ventilation
Demand-Controlled Ventilation
Energy Recovery Systems
Applied Microbial Research (Section 9.0)
Building Performance {Section 10.0)
Energy/Economics of IAQ
Energy/dollar cost of getting good IAQ.
Health effects/results of good and bad IAQ
Productivity and other economic gains from good IAQ.
Productivity and other economic losses from bad IAQ.
Relationship between IAQ quality measure and productivity.
Translation to/Communication of Engineering Design Guidelines from Research
Note: Ventilation-related topics are shaded. Numbers correspond to report sections.
2
-------
Literature concerned with each ventilation-related IAQ engineering area was then examined
to identify major accomplishments, current status, trends, and research opportunities. The
numbers in Table 1 refer to the relevant sections of this review. Section 2.0 summarizes
the significant findings of this review, as detailed in Sections 4.0 through 10.0. The research
opportunities identified through this review are summarized in Section 3.0.
The primary sources for the review were the IAQ literature in the form of IAQ techni-
cal meeting proceedings and published articles (Section 11.0). The annual Indoor Air
Quality Conferences sponsored by ASHRAE (IAQ XX series) were particularly helpful. Also
reviewed were the lAQ-related research programs of several organizations (see Appendix
A, B, and C). IAQ research is international in scope, and the proceedings from international
meetings were included when English translations were readily available. Similar research
reported in other technical literature (the building energy literature, for example) was
reviewed to fill particular needs but overall is underrepresented. This approach allowed
efficient recovery of the most pertinent information. The review is drawn primarily from
literature published through 1992.
3
-------
2.0 SUMMARY
The significance and status of ventilation-related IAQ research is summarized in this
section by research category.
Pollutant Transport
The importance of pollutant transport through the building envelope is not known.
Water vapor transport through the envelope can cause microbiological problems if
condensation occurs. The extent to which cross-envelope transport of contaminants affects
indoor pollutant levels is seldom studied, though problems with engine exhaust and kitchen
fumes are known to occur when the envelope is breached in some way. The research that
has been done was primarily directed at energy conservation, and transport through the
envelope as a cause of poor IAQ has not been an active research topic.
Air Cleaner Research
The common tests of particle air cleaners do not provide enough information for
HVAC system designers to incorporate filters into the system rationally. No standard tests
are available for gas-phase contaminant air cleaners. Research to address the test method
deficiency is under way, and a body of test results must be gathered to support design.
Diffuser Research
In conventional all-air HVAC systems, improved diffusers may be a relatively
inexpensive and accessible way to improve ventilation effectiveness (VE). Both
experimental and modeling work are ongoing. A current focus of diffuser modeling is the
design of equipment suitable for cold air ventilation systems, the importance of which is
apparently increasing.
Single Room Flow and Dispersion
The movement of air and pollutants within a room or confined space is an active
research area. Computational fluid dynamics modeling efforts are the most common
approach. This research examines the 3-dimensional flow field in detail and is
computationally intensive. A 2-dimensional model is being developed for personal computer
use. Little has been done to validate any of the models.
4
-------
Building HVAC Flow and Dispersion
Current measurement and analysis techniques for building HVAC flow and
dispersion are expensive and difficult to relate to IAQ in most cases. Simple tracer decay
measurements apply only to a small segment of time, and the long-term, multitracer studies
needed to characterize a large building are difficult and time-consuming. The many
different measures of ventilation adequacy within a space confuse the analysis.
Several models of building HVAC flow and dispersion have been developed. Most
are computationally intensive. None of the models has been validated experimentally. In
their current state, they are research tools and are unlikely to be directly useful to HVAC
designers.
HVAC/Building Design, Operation, and Control
Capital cost constraints and system operating costs, particularly energy costs, are
generally dominant forces in design and operation of HVAC systems. IAQ must become an
important part of the design process. ASHRAE 62-1989 has at least partially accomplished
that goal. To date a general study of HVAC applications and their potential effects on IAQ
has not been carried out, though many of the components of such a study are known.
A number of innovative ventilation schemes are being developed, primarily in Europe
and Japan. They have the potential to improve the efficiency with which ventilation air is
delivered to occupants. At the current level of knowledge, however, they are essentially
experimental in the United States. Sensor technology is also advancing, and improved
sensors are becoming available and are being incorporated in conventional and innovative
HVAC systems. Economic and performance claims are being made by developers and
enthusiasts, but hard data are rare.
Applied Biocontaminant Research
Biocontaminants are known to be important causes of poor building IAQ. The
general principles for their control are to reduce the nutrient loading in HVAC ducts and to
reduce moisture in general and prevent condensation of water in particular. The best ways
to apply these principles to HVAC design, construction, and use need to be developed.
5
-------
Building Performance
Because acceptable building IAQ is not defined by physical measurements,
evaluation is often qualitative. Building performance evaluation and ventilation research
intersect primarily in the need for those evaluating the building to understand the building's
ventilation system and to make accurate and appropriate measurements of air exchange
rate, ventilation effectiveness, interzonal transfers, and similar measures.
6
-------
3.0 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
Pollutant Transport
A potential research topic within the pollutant transport category appears to be the
possible impact of envelope infiltration on IAQ. That is, infiltrating air may become contami-
nated either by building materials or materials of microbiological origin, and little research
has been undertaken in this area. Infiltration is related to infiltration through the pressure
distribution maintained in the building by the HVAC system. A second ventilation research
topic is the effect of wind pressure fields on building ventilation in general and outdoor air
exchange rates in particular.
Air Cleaner Research
The performance of air cleaners must be evaluated with tests that provide HVAC
system designers the information they need to specify the air cleaners and reliably predict
their performance. To this end, standard air cleaner test methods (for both particle and
gas- phase contaminants) must be developed.
Diffuser Research
Development of improved models of diffuser flow (particularly for cold-air ventilation
systems) and the impact of diffuser design on ventilation effectiveness would be a useful
goal for a ventilation research program. Linkage of diffuser and room design data and
modeling through CAD-like computer programs is a long-term goal for diffuser research.
Single Room Flow and Dispersion
The primary knowledge gap appears to be experimental measurements that can be
used to evaluate the many available models. Once data are available, the required model
complexity for various purposes can be evaluated and the performance tradeoffs examined.
7
-------
Building HVAC Flow and Dispersion
The most pressing need overall appears to be improved measurement techniques,
including the development of standardized methods. Development of such methods would
encourage their use, ensure a supply of consistent data for model development, and
hopefully increase the overall amount of performance data available. These data could then
be used to validate and improve the computer models.
HVAC/Building Design, Operation, and Control
For this research area, the most immediate need appears to be gathering and
organizing what we know about designing buildings and choosing HVAC systems to ensure
good IAQ. This information must then be communicated to the building industry. A reason-
able approach would be to determine, through a cost and energy modeling effort, the best
energy/cost/IAQ design for HVAC systems to be used in different building types, in different
environments, and as a function of usage.
A systematic investigation of the performance, costs, and benefits (including energy
impact) of the innovative ventilation schemes would allow designers to make early use of
these technologies if they are worthy. In addition, over the long run, the proper use of
improved sensor technology will be very important.
Applied Biocontaminant Research
Research into two aspects of biocontamination interacts with ventilation research.
HVAC maintenance practices need to be strengthened, possibly through education or
maintainability standards. Second, basic research into the conditions and materials that
affect microbial growth in HVAC systems is needed to evaluate design and construction
practices.
Building Performance
As with the air distribution category, the primary research needs for building perfor-
mance evaluation research are improved sensors, measurement techniques, and a stan-
dardized protocol. At the same time, models must be available and easy to use so the data
can be interpreted. Therefore, flexible, easily used IAQ models should be developed. PC-
based models would be preferable, though fast models accessible through a modem might
be acceptable if their performance was superior.
8
-------
4.0 POLLUTANT TRANSPORT TO AND INTO THE BUILDING ENVELOPE
Although many indoor pollutants originate indoors, some are transported into a
building through infiltration, natural ventilation, or the HVAC system. Engine exhaust, stack
emissions, and ambient S02, NOx, ozone, and pollens are examples of outdoor pollutants
that can cause problems indoors. The dispersion of any pollutant from its source to a
building and then through the envelope and into the building may be an issue in an
investigation of a problem building. The transport of outdoor air pollutants into a building is
the subject of this section.
4.1 OUTDOOR POLLUTANT DISPERSION AND WIND TRANSPORT
The dispersion of pollutants outdoors from stationary sources and spills has been
extensively studied and modeled. Outdoor dispersion is related to IAQ primarily through the
effect of wind on building pressurization and consequent infiltration. The air flow around
buildings has been investigated in the course of studying structural wind loads and
infiltration. A source of basic information is "Air Flow Around Buildings," Chapter 14 in the
ASHRAE Handbook (ASHRAE, 1989b). For the purpose of this review, the pertinent
aspects of this topic are the effects of the wind field on ventilation in a building.
The effect of wind field on building ventilation is an active research subject. Wind
fields can be very complex in complicated terrain or for architecturally complicated buildings.
In general, the upwind side of a building develops a positive pressure and the downstream
side a negative pressure. This wind pressure field interacts with the HVAC system pressure
balance to cause infiltration. Wind effect appears to be a relatively well-understood variable
in building models, with measurements of outside pressure generally being considered ade-
quate for modeling purposes. Mounajed et al. (1990) described recent research into the
effects of wind turbulence on ventilation. Wind is always turbulent, so the impinging flow
changes in velocity and direction with variable frequency. Their model and experiment
indicate that assuming a steady wind pressure (a common simplifying assumption is a
constant wind at the mean wind speed and direction) in a building ventilation model is a
poor assumption that can lead to substantial errors in the models. A second indication of
current research interest is "Assessment of the Effects of Wind Turbulence on Natural
Ventilation Air Change Rates," a research project proposed by ASHRAE Technical Commit-
tee 2.5 for funding in the 1992-1993 ASHRAE Research Plan (ASHRAE, 1992).
9
-------
4.2 ENTRY INTO THE ENVELOPE (HVAC, INFILTRATION, DOORS/WINDOWS)
When poor quality outside air is delivered to all or portions of a building envelope,
IAQ problems may develop if this air enters the building through infiltration, natural ventila-
tion, and/or the HVAC makeup air systems. (Overall measurement of infiltration and air
exchange rate is addressed in Section 6.0.) Within this context, the principal research
areas are the following:
Radon infiltration through slab or floor penetrations
Entry of polluted outdoor air through the HVAC system
Outdoor air leaks through the building envelope.
4.2.1 Radon Infiltration
Radon infiltration continues to be studied extensively. Infiltration from beneath a slab
is the most common entry route, though in some circumstances the outdoor air around a
building contains enough radon to be of concern. The major IAQ research programs are
sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Florida Radon Research
Program (FRRP) and directed at radon. The following are recent research projects (FRRP,
1992):
FRRP New House Evaluations
Pressure Differential and Infiltration. Measured pressure differences across
slabs, identified causes, and observed impact of pressure differentials caused
by mechanical systems.
Radon-Resistant Construction Techniques. Two programs in different
parts of Florida that evaluated new slab construction criteria and sub-slab con-
struction techniques.
FRRP Research Houses
Polk County Research Houses. Work includes study of the effects of
different fill soils on the radon concentrations within movable "houses." Has
validated the effectiveness of "barrier" construction features.
University of Florida (UF) House Dynamics and Modeling. Recent work
includes study of centralized versus ducted return, house pressure control
using fans added to HVAC system, and tracer gas studies. Future work
includes continued evaluation of balanced versus unbalanced HVAC for radon
control, installation of air-to-air heat exchanger, and modeling using Florida
Solar Energy Center (FSEC) Model 3.0 (Hintenlang, 1992).
FAMU/FSU Crawlspace House and Modeling. House has been constructed
and research is just starting. Work planned includes investigation of radon
entry mechanisms and possible control techniques and development of
mathematical models.
10
-------
FRRP Large-Scale Building Program
Assessment Studies. One completed project assessed school construction
practice sub-slab depressurization in schools. A second completed project
assessed the scope of radon problems in large Florida buildings, identified
radon entry mechanisms, and identified testing methods.
EPA/FRRP Large Building Study. Study of Deerfield Beach building to
determine variables important in radon entry and relationships between the
variables, develop mitigation techniques, and produce a guidance document.
Additional buildings will be added to the study.
EPA/FRRP Development and Demonstration of School Mitigation Tech-
niques. Identification of difficuIt-to-mitigate schools and performance of field
diagnostics. Active slab depressurization (ASD) to be conducted at new
school in Alachua County, FL.
Other FRRP research less directly related to ventilation includes the following:
FRRP Improved Floor Barriers. Several research programs investigating
various aspects of radon penetration of floor materials are under way. Included in
this category is a study of floor cracks in slabs.
FRRP Mapping. Work to map Florida with respect to the potential for radon
problems in buildings is in progress.
Current EPA emphasis is on research to understand the radon infiltration process,
low radon level mitigation techniques, and studies of radon in schools (EPA Radon
Research Branch Research Plan).
The DOE radon infiltration program appears to be currently focused on participation
in the modeling for other studies such as the Florida Radon Research Program (FRRP,
1992).
4.2.2 Miscellaneous Building Envelope Infiltration
The myriad smaller leaks into a building envelope through walls, windows, doors,
roof, etc., have been widely studied, primarily to determine how to reduce energy losses. In
most of the country, such leaks are sources of increased outside air ventilation and not
causes of reduced indoor air quality. Only in the locations with generally poor outdoor air
quality or strong local air pollution sources will infiltration lead to reduced indoor air quality.
In addition, a properly balanced building HVAC system should keep the building at a slight
positive pressure and prevent infiltration except in a strong wind field.
11
-------
A great deal of research has been done, supported by a number of industry groups
(construction industry, door and window manufacturers, ASHRAE, ANSI, etc.) as well as by
public funding, including the Department of Energy (DOE). Design tools incorporating the
results of this research are given in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (ASHRAE,
1989c). An active ASHRAE project is 763-WS, "Impacts of High-Use Automatic Doors on
Infiltration" (ASHRAE, 1992).
Because the impacts of infiltration on indoor air quality are generally localized, often
related to poor design or construction, and difficult to generalize, little emphasis has been
placed on this topic in this review. The problems are better treated with on-site
examinations by capable professionals rather than by a research program.
4.2.3 Entry Through HVAC System
Polluted air entry through the HVAC system is frequently caused by improperly
positioned outdoor air intakes. References to misplaced intakes are common (Morey,
1988), as are appeals for the use of common sense in their placement. No systematic,
ongoing research program was identified, although Technical Committee 2.5 of ASHRAE
proposed a project titled "Urban Pollution Design Criteria for Building Ventilation Inlets and
Exhausts" to ASHRAE, and the proposal was given second priority. Additionally, wind
tunnel studies of physical models of existing or proposed buildings, including flows near
vent stacks, have been reported. Current guidelines for design are given in the
Fundamentals Volume of the ASHRAE Handbook (ASHRAE, 1989c).
Leakage in HVAC duct systems is another known infiltration route. The ASHRAE-
sponsored project 308, "Investigation of Duct Leakage," was completed in 1985. Active
projects ASHRAE is sponsoring include 438-RP/A, "Measurement and Rating of Air
Leakage in Building Components"; 641-RP, "Duct Design using the T-Method with Duct
Leakage Incorporated"; 764-WS, "Impacts of Leaks in Residential Air Distribution Systems
on Energy Consumption (ASHRAE, 1992).
Outdoor air contaminant levels exceeding the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
has led to the requirement (ASHRAE 62-1989) for cleaning outdoor ventilation air even
when the outlet is properly positioned. Ongoing research regarding air cleaners is
discussed in Section 5.0.
12
-------
4.3 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH
Wind-pressure effects and infiltration are the subjects of active research programs.
Pollutant infiltration through the building envelope does interact with the building ventilation
system, with a resultant impact on IAQ. The EPA/FRRP program appears to be covering
the major radon infiltration and transport research needs. Well-integrated experimental and
modeling programs are under way and producing results. The emphasis to date has been
on residential construction; however, schools and larger buildings are also being included.
The relationship between multistory building pressurization and radon infiltration is not clear.
Building envelope infiltration is important to energy conservation and potentially
important to IAQ. Infiltration through individual components can be measured, but the
performance of the components as a unit remains a question. Test measurements for local
conditions and individual components (doors, windows, wall systems, etc.) must be related
to whole building performance over an entire year with real, dynamic weather and use.
Leaks in HVAC ducting are also important to the overall impact of infiltration. The
difference between as-designed and as-built confounds all the experimental results in this
research area. Overall, we know a lot about the individual pieces of the infiltration puzzle,
but not enough about how to put them together in an easily understood, generally useful
way. This is essentially a modeling requirement, and a flexible model that could be used in
an interactive way is a general need in the IAQ field.
13
-------
5.0 AIR CLEANING SYSTEMS
In traditional HVAC design, the primary purpose of air cleaning systems was to
protect the equipment downstream. Increased ventilation rates were used to improve IAQ;
air cleaning for IAQ improvement was not common. Under ASHRAE 62-1989, recirculating
cleaned air is an acceptable way to increase the ventilation rate within a space (ASHRAE,
1989a). Air cleaners may be desirable either because the outdoor air quality is poor and
increased outdoor air does not provide IAQ improvement, or to reduce the energy costs of
high outdoor air exchange rates. For these reasons particle filtration to improve IAQ is
becoming more common. Gas-phase air contaminant control for IAQ improvement remains
uncommon, but may increase in use under the impetus provided by ASHRAE 62-1989.
Within the vague limits of current test methods, the design and construction of air
cleaners are adequate. Testing is the current weakness. The existing standard particle air
cleaner tests do not measure size-dependent efficiency, relying instead on overall mass
removal efficiency of a synthetic test dust or discoloration of a test filter by atmospheric
aerosol (ASHRAE, 1976). Particle size measurements are not made, and the results of the
test do not provide HVAC engineers with enough information to design an air cleaning
system. Currently, no standard test method for gas-phase air cleaners for IAQ improvement
exists, the performance of the devices is not well known, and thus no systematic design
procedure is available.
Neither gas-phase nor particle contaminant air cleaners in recirculating HVAC
systems need high efficiency to significantly reduce the concentration of air contaminants.
The high (compared to the outdoor air rate) recirculation rates used in building HVAC
systems for comfort can move enough air through moderate efficiency air cleaners to have
the same IAQ impact of moving a smaller volume through high-efficiency air cleaners.
Efficiencies of 40 to 60 percent can be shown to have sufficient impact to bring a building
into compliance with the ASHRAE 62-1989 ventilation rate standards (Yu and Raber, 1990).
5.1 IN-DUCT AIR CLEANERS
A new test method for particle removal air cleaners designed to provide engineers
with more performance information than can be provided by ASHRAE 52-76 is in the early
stages of development by ASHRAE (ASHRAE 671-RP). ASHRAE (through Technical
Committee 2.3) is also working with gas-phase air cleaners, for which no standard test
14
-------
method exists. Current public research into in-duct air cleaners is largely being supported
by ASHRAE and by EPA. ASHRAE has the following active research programs, which
focus on full-scale in-duct air cleaners:
475-RP/A, Investigation of Co-sorption of Gases and Vapors in Sorption
Dehumidification Equipment.
625-RP/A, Matching Filtration to Health Requirements. The work is under way at
the University of Minnesota. The literature search is complete and the experi-
mental work is under way.
675-RP/A, Determination of Air Filter Performance Under Variable Air Volume
(VAV) Conditions. The research is being conducted at Air Filter Testing Lab.
The literature review is complete and experimental work is under way.
671-RP/A, Define a Fractional Efficiency Test Method That is Compatible with
Particulate Removal Air Cleaners Used in General Ventilation. The work is under
way at RTI. The literature search has been completed and recommended test
methods are now being evaluated.
674-RP/A, Evaluation of Test Methods for Determining the Effectiveness and Ca-
pacity of Gas-Phase Air Filtration Equipment for Indoor Air Applications -
Literature Review. Completed at RTI.
760-TRP, Investigate and Identify Indoor Allergens and Biological Toxins That
Can Be Removed by Filtration. Recently awarded to RTI.
EPA's Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory (AEERL) is supporting tests
of particle and gas-phase air cleaners at RTI through cooperative agreement number CR-
817083. Currently active tasks are the following:
Small-scale Test of Gas-phase Air Cleaners
Particle Air Cleaner Testing
Specification and Construction of VOC Air Cleaner Test Apparatus
Specification and Construction of 3,000 cfm Aerosol Test Rig.
The Canadian Electric Association is supporting development of a test method for
electrostatic particle air cleaners at RTI. This program is under way.
The U.S. Army, through the Chemical Research, Development, and Engineering
Laboratory, has supported a number of air cleaner tests over the past decade. Although
the research is directed toward chemical defense, the technology is much the same as for
commercial use.
15
-------
The National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed a
recommended "Standard Laboratory Practice for Assessing the Performance of Sorption
Gas-Phase Air Cleaning Equipment" (Silberstein, 1991). Despite the title, this is a test of
sorption media, not full-size air cleaners. It utilizes a 2-in.-diameter by 1-in.-deep test
canister designed for testing radioactive gas control carbon media (ASTM, 1990).
Research topics identified by ASHRAE in their research plan though not currently
funded are the following:
Investigate and Identify Means of Controlling Virus in Indoor Air by Filtration or
Ventilation. Proposed by Technical Committee 2.4 but given low priority by
ASHRAE.
Identification of Particle Contaminants That Are Air-Borne Upstream of Air
Cleaning Filters. Proposed by Technical Committee 2.4 but given no priority by
ASHRAE.
Investigate and Identify Radon Decay Products and Particle Interactions That
Exist Indoors and Can Be Removed by Ventilation Filtration or Source Control.
Proposed by Technical Committee 2.4 but given no priority by ASHRAE.
Offermann et al. (1991) recently reported an investigation into the effectiveness of in-
duct particle removal devices. Six different air cleaners were installed in a residential test
house HVAC system and their performance with respect to 0.01- to 3-//m particles
evaluated. Some ducted air cleaners were found to significantly reduce the levels of indoor
particles, though some performed poorly. This work was conducted at Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory (LBL) and supported by DOE, EPA, and the Bonneville Power Administration
(BPA). Hedge et al. (1991) report an investigation into the effects of breathing zone
filtration on IAQ.
5.2 IN-ROOM AIR CLEANERS
Control of a pollutant close to its source to prevent contamination of the ventilation
systems has been shown (Owen et al., 1990) to be advantageous compared to centralized
air cleaners. In-room air cleaners are being marketed widely for this purpose, but their
individual efficiency, suitability for various tasks, best location in a room, limits on use,
overall capacity, and similar operational details are not well understood. As with the in-duct
air cleaners, test methods are inadequate. The Association of Home Appliance
Manufacturers (AHAM) has a room air cleaner test procedure for particle removal (AHAM,
16
-------
1987). The AHAM test chamber, which is a completely mixed room-sized environmental
chamber, is charged with a test aerosol at the beginning of the test. The initial concentra-
tion is measured, then the air cleaner is turned on and the decay rate of particle concentra-
tion in the chamber is measured. The initial removal efficiency for the air cleaner can then
be estimated by applying the theory of perfectly mixed reactor vessels.
Conducting the AHAM test in a completely mixed room avoids one of the principal
shortcomings of room air cleanersthey can only clean the air that passes through them.
In some cases, they have been found to largely recycle air from discharge to suction over
and over again. Their usefulness for control of indoor allergens has been vigorously
questioned (Nelson et al., 1988). Offermann et al. (1985) report an evaluation of portable
air cleaners for control of respirable particles indoors in a test chamber.
No approved protocol exists for testing in-room gas-phase air cleaners, though
Daisey and Hodgson (1989) used an AHAM-like procedure to test nitrogen dioxide and
volatile organic compound (VOC) removal by room air cleaners. An AHAM-type test should
be more suitable for gases than for particles for the measurement of efficiency, but the real-
world performance questions remain. The current test procedure measures initial efficiency
only and gives the user no idea of how long the air cleaner will function. The efficiency of
particle air cleaners as a function of particle size and the efficiency of gas-phase air
cleaners in general have not been determined.
5.3 RADON CONTROL BY PARTICLE CONTROL
At various times during its decay cycle, the effects of radon may be reduced by
reducing the number of airborne particles to which the radon daughters might become
attached (Nazaroff et al. 1981; Sextro and Offermann, 1991; Sextro et al., 1986; Windham
et al., 1978). EPA/DOE are supporting work at Clarkson University to evaluate the control
of radon progeny.
5.4 STATUS OF RESEARCH
Air cleaner research is currently being conducted by EPA, ASHRAE, and commercial
firms. The ASHRAE research is focused on the development of test methods that will
enable air cleaners to be usefully and accurately evaluated. EPA's research efforts are
intended to generate air cleaner performance data that can be used to estimate the
usefulness of air cleaners for IAQ improvement. The current major research needs appear
17
-------
to be the development of test methods and the completion of test work to develop the
engineering data required to rationally design air cleaning systems. The ongoing work
interacts with ventilation research in a number of ways, and coordination with other aspects
of ventilation research will ensure that the benefit of air cleaner research will be maximized.
18
-------
6.0 ROOM AIRFLOW AND POLLUTANT DISPERSION
Two different aspects of ventilation airflows in rooms are addressed in this
sectionflow rates across sources and HVAC diffuser flows. The air velocities across
sources and reversible sinks (S/RS) affect the rates at which contaminants are transferred
from the sources and sinks into the room air. Diffusers determine the initial interaction of
incoming ventilation supply air with the room air and hence greatly influence both comfort
and contaminant distribution.
6.1 SOURCE/SINK EFFECTS AND VENTILATION
The interaction of the working, or mixed breathing-zone, air in a room and the S/RS
in that room can be described as a three-step process consisting of the following:
Transport from within the S/RS to the S/RS surface. The inclusion of this step
presumes that the contaminant is bound inside the S/RS and that it must diffuse
to the surface to be released.
Transfer from the surface to the air boundary layer in contact with the surface of
the S/RS.
Transport from the S/RS boundary layer into the mixed breathing-zone (assuming
complete mixing) air of the room.
The first two of these steps are only indirectly related to the building ventilation
system, and therefore are not included in this review. The final step is related to the
characteristics of the contaminant, its concentration in the boundary layer, and the air
velocity near the S/RS surface. Increased S/RS surface velocities may lead to increased
mass transfer rates, and these velocities are controlled by the amount of air entering the
room, the type of diffuser, the return vent location and type, the furnishings in the room,
thermal sources in the room, and similar considerations. As described below, a combined
mass transfer coefficient can be used to account for all three steps in many practical
applications.
Transport across boundary layers has been studied for years in chemical engineer-
ing transport studies, and workable transport equations have been developed for known
flow patterns under isothermal conditions. In real rooms, the flow patterns over sources are
not known, limiting the usefulness of the existing equations. Dunn and Tichenor (1988)
assume a thin-film source in their model of sink effects in well-mixed emissions test
19
-------
chambers, effectively neglecting diffusion from within the source. Ventilation rates within the
chamber were not included in the study. Experimental S/RS studies using protocols similar
to those developed at AEERL-Research Triangle Park are being conducted at a number of
locations (for example, AEERL [Tichenor, 1989; Tichenor, et al., 1991], Air Quality
Sciences, Inc. [Black et al., 1991], and Finland [Saarela and Sandell, 1991]). Sparks et al.
(1990) describe the integration of an S/RS model into a multizone building model (using an
overall mass transfer coefficient to account for the complete S/RS transport process) to
obtain estimates of concentrations within the rooms. Ventilation rates are not included in
the mass transfer calculation. Recent work by Guo et al. (1990) treats the sorp-
tion/boundary layer transport problems as two resistances in series. Sollinger et al. (1993)
present chamber emissions data that show increased total mass emissions at high air ex-
change rates but have insufficient data to generalize the effects.
Given the shortage of data, the combined mass transfer coefficient approach may be
the best way to model S/RS behavior in rooms, provided the coefficient is measured under
air flow conditions that are typical of room ventilation. Incorporation of room flow conditions
into the S/RS models will require research into the detailed flow patterns in both rooms and
emissions chambers.
In summary, investigation of the ventilation aspects of S/RS research is just begin-
ning. The fundamental concepts relating transport to flow rate have been developed, but
these concepts have not been widely applied to ventilation problems. The relationships
between the flow rates over the surfaces of an S/RS and emissions rate have not been
studied sufficiently. Nor are workable relationships between room ventilation parameters
and the flow rates over the S/RS known. The details of flow in rooms are not sufficiently
well known to fully use the available theoretical framework.
6.2 JET AND DIFFUSER FLOW
The final transfer of heat energy from the HVAC system to the room air takes place
in air jets leaving diffusers. Diffusers are designed to ensure thermal comfort by adequately
mixing the air leaving the HVAC system with room air. This has become especially
important with the current development of cold-air distribution systems, which rely on colder
air in the HVAC system than is now common and consequently have reduced margins of
error at the diffusers. Diffusers are also required to perform adequately under variable air
20
-------
flows in VAV systems and are the motive source that promotes room mixing and high
ventilation effectiveness.
Most of the current research appears to focus on the thermal comfort aspects of air
distribution systems. However, the airflow aspects of this research apply equally to
pollutant distribution in a space.
6.2.1 Computer Models
Flow in the vicinity of a diffuser is generally modeled using numerical solutions of the
Navier-Stokes equations and the equation of continuity, with turbulence accounted for in
equations for transport and dissipation, respectively, of turbulent kinetic energy. This is a
subset of the micromodeling approach described in Section 6.2.3. Modeling diffuser flow is
difficult because the rapid flow field changes that occur require a small grid size, yet a large
grid size is desirable because of the large size of the room into which the diffuser is
discharging. Recent research has been described by Nielsen (1989), Murakami and Kato
(1989), and Kurabuchi et al. (1989). Overall, the models appear to reproduce simple
experimental conditions fairly well, and their use in more complex situations is being
proposed. The computer power required and the specificity of the input data appear to be
the limiting factors on additional use of the models.
6.2.2 Experimental
Experimental work is being done in conjunction with the modeling work reported in
the previous section. The measurements are demanding and require considerable
expertise. Velocities are measured with thermal anemometers and laser doppler
anemometers (LDA). Flow visualization is also important, and Murakami and Kato (1989)
report use of a laser light sheet. Standard wind tunnel techniques such as smoke tracing
and neutral density bubbles can also be used. Kurabuchi et al. (1989) report using an
ultrasonic anemometer for flow field measurements.
6.2.3 Research Status
Diffuser flow is a key part of any indoor air micromodel. In conventional conditioned-
air HVAC systems, improved diffusers are a relatively inexpensive and accessible way to
improve ventilation effectiveness (VE). Research to improve diffusers can be done in a
properly designed large chamber. Additionally, diffuser research will impact energy
21
-------
efficiency through its impact on low-temperature air distribution system acceptability. A
chamber designed by Honeywell was described by Schultz and Krafthefer (1989). It is
room-sized, with elaborate environmental controls.
On the modeling side, the development of more efficient computational algorithms
will remain an important research subject. Current diffuser modeling is limited by compu-
tation as much as by data requirements. Linkage of diffuser and room design information
through CAD-like programs seems an appropriate next step.
22
-------
7.0 ROOM AND BUILDING FLOW/DISPERSION RESEARCH
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Two principal scales of flow and dispersion of air and pollutants in buildings can be
differentiated: (1) flow and dispersion within a single room and (2) dispersion among rooms
in a multiroom building. Within a room, the emphasis is on the detailed flow pattern as the
ventilation system moves air into and through the room. Infiltration and flow through doors
and windows complicates the situation. At the whole building scale, the primary concerns
are the overall air movement within the HVAC system, infiltration and outside air flows, and
interzonal flows.
These two scales of flow and dispersion are mirrored in the current models, which
can be described as either microscopic or macroscopic. Microscopic models are set up
using the Navier-Stokes equations for mass, energy, and momentum transfer, and distribut-
ed parameters. The partial differential equations are solved simultaneously by numerical
techniques after choosing appropriate boundary equations. Microscopic models are used to
study the details of air movement within a room or zone. They are typically computationally
intensive. Macroscopic models make use of the macroscopic conservation equations of
mass, momentum, and energy, which are ordinary differential equations. The macroscopic
equations are written for zones having lumped parameters that are linked through transfer
at known boundaries and flow paths. Macroscopic models are customarily applied to a
whole building, although they can also be used in a single room by breaking the room into a
series of zones.
The two modeling approaches support one another in that macromodels can provide
the boundary equations to micromodels, while micromodels provide the velocity,
temperature, and contaminant distribution fields useful in setting up macromodels.
Conceptually, the two can be linked to provide a complete building model, though such a
model is not currently practical. This division into microscopic and macroscopic models
parallels experimental work with single and multiple rooms and is applicable to the following
discussion. The division is useful, but should not be overemphasized. Both modeling and
experimental approaches overlap to some extent.
The flow of ventilation air within a room can be visualized as falling into one of two
categories:
23
-------
Mixed Air Ventilation. The supply air in a mixed air room is dispersed through-
out the room in a mixed air ventilation system. Perfect mixing is achieved if the
concentration throughout the room is uniform. Once contaminant addition has
stopped, the decay in concentration of that contaminant in a mixed air room can
be described by:
C(t) = C0eHt) (1)
where C(t) is the time-dependent concentration of the contaminant, C0 is the initial
concentration, and I is the air exchange rate. In a perfectly mixed room, I is the
room volume divided by the supply air rate. Compared to perfectly mixed room,
the concentration decay in an imperfectly mixed room may be faster or slower
depending on the location of the source.
Poor mixing within a ventilation system that relies on mixing is known as short-
circuiting, in which the supply air flows directly to the return without mixing or
flowing through the breathing zone.
Plug or Piston Flow Air. Ideal plug flow ventilation is achieved when the supply
air enters at the bottom (or one side) of a room, sweeps uniformly through the
room, and exits at the top (or opposite side.) In plug flow, the ideal is rapid
contaminant clearance in which the ventilation air replaces the room air rather
than mixes with it. Displacement ventilation is an imperfect case of plug flow, in
which the supply air enters near the contaminant source and sweeps the
contaminant toward the return air vent.
A number of terms have been proposed as single-parameter measures of the quality
of ventilation within a space. Bearg (1993) cites more than 10 different definitions of
ventilation efficiency that have been proposed since 1981. Some were proposed to
describe mixed air systems and thus are referenced to the perfectly mixed situations. For
example, ASHRAE 62-1989 defines VE as referenced to the perfectly mixed case, so a
well-mixed condition has a VE value of 1. Short-circuiting conditions give VE values less
than 1, while plug flow conditions in which the ventilation air sweeps pollutants from the
occupied zone can have VE values greater than 1. Other definitions are directed at
pollution clearance rather than mixing and are referenced to plug flow. Within these two
types, there are steady-state and transient VEs as well as Ves based on various types of
concentration measures (local and various averages within the space).
7.2 SINGLE ROOMS AND MICROMODELS
The term "single room" is used here to refer to a portion of a building that can be
treated as a single entity from the ventilation perspective. An office with a supply diffuser
24
-------
and a return vent would be a common example, as would a residential room with a supply
and return through open doors. Some large rooms are too large to treat as single rooms,
and extensive partitioning, unusually large thermal sources, or unusual HVAC design in a
room could also preclude its classification as a single room as the term is used here.
Single-room pollutant distribution studies are concerned with the transport of pollutants from
a source to the rest of the room and from the HVAC diffuser to the rest of the room, the rate
of pollutant removal, the extent to which ventilation air is distributed within the room, and
similar concepts. Micromodels are the appropriate computational tools for ventilation in
single rooms. Given appropriate inputs, such models can also be used to evaluate expo-
sure histories to local sources and recirculating indoor pollution.
7.2.1 Micromodels
The micromodels discussed in this section are representative. Generally speaking,
there are two approaches. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques can be applied
to the indoor air problem in a rigorous, detailed model that must be run on a powerful
computer. Alternatively, algorithms can be developed to allow solution of the equations on
a personal computer. Turbulence is incorporated into the model using the k-e model.
A number of researchers at universities in the United States and abroad are using
what amount to CFD techniques to model flow in rooms (Jones, 1990; Kurabuchi et al.,
1989; Murakami and Kato, 1989; Nielsen, 1989; among others). In all cases the flow field
of the room is computed from the Navier-Stokes equations, and experimental work is used
to validate the models. Outputs of the models are the velocity and turbulence fields for the
rooms modeled. Baker et al. (1989) discuss the expected future impact of CFD on the
design of room ventilation systems. They believe the effects of CFD will be profound. The
authors (who are working on an ASHRAE research program) envision a CFD laboratory in
which the flow fields in actual rooms could be modeled accurately from a few computer
inputs. The laboratory would consist of an expert system environment in which the design
engineer could conduct CFD experiments. A great deal of coordinated experimental and
modeling effort will be required to make this vision a reality.
AEERL-RTP has supported development of a three-dimensional microscopic model
for use on a personal computer (Kim et al., 1990). The model, which neglected the effects
of turbulence and assumed spherical airflow leaving the diffuser, was used to evaluate the
effects of the air exchange rate on pollutant effects in a room. Contaminant diffusion was
-------
found to be of secondary importance. AEERL-RTP is also supporting development of a
two-dimensional "ventilation helper" microscopic model at the Research Triangle Institute
(RTI) (Yamamoto et al., 1991). This model utilizes a powerful algorithm that allows the
model to run at reasonable speed on a personal computer. The model is user-friendly,
utilizing menus and graphical data entry. It has been used to evaluate changes in
ventilation effectiveness due to changes in supply duct and contaminant source location.
Lack of experimental validation is a weakness of all the micromodels. Adequate
experiments are difficult to conduct, and the many different geometries and thermal
conditions that can be encountered in rooms require that a large number of studies be
conducted to achieve broad applicability.
7.2.2 Experimental Studies
Validation of an IAQ micromodel requires that concentrations, temperatures, and flow
rates be measured at a number of points in a room under controlled flow conditions. Time-
dependent measurements may be necessary in some cases. Flow visualization, which has
been useful in some studies, can be used to estimate overall mixing. Simple smoke and
laser light sheet flow visualization can be used, and some innovative approaches have been
developed for rooms. Saunders and Albright (1989) describe a method for externally
monitoring two-dimensional flow using aerosol tracers and digital imaging analysis.
Farrington and Hassani (1991) utilized infrared imaging to determine the flow field in an
experimental room.
Anderson (1989) describes the various methods that can be used to determine
ventilation efficiency in a room. Tracer gas techniques based on Equation (1) can be
readily used to evaluate the overall VE of a room per ASTM E741-83 (ASTM, 1983), but
multipoint local sampling must be used to determine the concentrations at various points in
a room. Therefore Anderson promotes the development of multipoint measurement
techniques for detailed room analysis. Anderson also reports, based on measurements of
ceiling-based slot diffuser flow patterns, that supply temperature is the most important
parameter in determining the extent of short-circuiting in a room. This suggests that HVAC
systems that rely on slot diffusers in the ceiling may have markedly different IAQ
performance during the heating and cooling seasons.
Lagus (1989) describes the instrumentation required to make tracer gas measure-
ments. He emphasizes the complexity of the measurements and the expertise required to
26
-------
perform them. Lagus also describes new analytical techniques that may improve tracer gas
measurements by reducing costs and reducing instrument response time.
7.3 MULTIZONE BUILDING PERFORMANCE (MACROMODELS)
Applying an approach developed in other fields, multiroom buildings can be
described as a number of elements (rooms) linked by various mass and energy transfer
pathways. The overall ventilation performance factor is the ventilation rate or the air
exchange rate. The multizone models discussed in this section deal primarily with IAQ.
Similar models have been developed that emphasize energy use, thermal comfort, and
lighting.
7.3.1 Computer Models
A number of models use mass conservation and indoor source emissions data to
determine indoor concentrations. The numerous input parameters are entered in a number
of different ways, some of which are not convenient. Obtaining sufficient data to run the
models in a complex building is a significant burden.
Recent development of the macromodels appears to be concentrated on validation
and development of improved user interfaces. Some representative examples of
macromodels are the various versions of CONTAM, the California Institute of Technology
(CIT) indoor models, the Multichamber Consumer Exposure Model (MCCEM), the Indoor Air
Quality model for Personal Computers (IAQPC), and INDOOR, developed at AEERL. A
recently developed infiltration model, developed by COMIS, could be used in an IAQ model.
Models continue to grow and change as they are used.
CONTAM, the NIST General Indoor Air Pollution Concentration Model, is the
prototypical macromodel based on a multizone representation of the particular environment.
CONTAM allows buildings to be modeled as containing separate rooms or areas where the
concentrations are uniform, allowing the different zones to account for varying concentra-
tions throughout the indoor space. Systems of ordinary differential equations must be
solved for each time interval. This method of calculating results in a program is computer-
time-intensive. More than one microenvironment may be modeled if separate runs are
employed. The program can be used to simulate flow processes such as infiltration,
dilution, and exfiltration by specifying interzonal flows for each process (outdoors is
considered a zone). To account for interzonal flows due to pressure and temperature fields,
27
-------
CONTAM88 incorporates a steady-state airflow program into the basic macromodel.
Potential mitigation measures involving air filters, lumped sink rates in individual zones, and
variations in outdoor air ventilation may be modeled. The original program, written in
FORTRAN, was somewhat machine-specific and required complicated input files. Recent
work has emphasized the development of a graphics-oriented, user interface, PC-based
version, CONTAMps (Axley, 1990).
CIT has developed two pollution-specific models that describe the indoor air space
(Nazaroff and Cass, 1986, 1989). The first predicts the concentrations of NOx and ozone in
indoor air and the second simulates aerosol size distributions. Both calculate concen-
trations from source emissions, ventilation rates, and filtration efficiencies. The program
was written in VAX Fortran to run on a micro-VAX and several hours were required to
complete routine simulations.
MCCEM estimates indoor concentrations and exposures of chemical released from
consumer products used in residences with up to four zones. Time-varying emission rates
for a contaminant in each zone of the residence, outdoor concentrations, and occupied zone
may be input through a spreadsheet type environment that includes the option of calculating
formulas. Infiltration and interzonal flow rates and zone volumes may be input or the user
may specify an included data set for a specific type of house and geographic area (Geomet
Technologies, Inc., 1989).
IAQPC calculates concentrations for a multizone indoor environment (Owen et a!.,
1989). This program is the second version of indoor air quality simulator to be developed
through the continuing EPA IAQ program. It can be used to simulate many
microenvironments during different simulations. The program emphasizes user-friendly
menus for data entry, incorporates default values for key parameters, and features onscreen
graphics of building floorplan, flows, and source and sink layouts.
The AEERL IAQ model INDOOR (Sparks and Tucker, 1990; Sparks et al., 1990) is a
macromodel designed to run on a personal computer. It has been integrated with emission
factors for sources and a good data set of interzonal flows and used to model
concentrations throughout the EPA test house.
Little information has been published regarding the relative merits of the different
models. Data are not available to validate the models, so selection on the basis of
accuracy is not possible. Of the models described above, the AEERL model INDOOR
appears to be the most frequently cited in the IAQ literature.
28
-------
The COMIS infiltration model is a modular computer program developed by an
international group of scientists (Feustel et al., 1989, Feustal, 1990). Work on the model
began in 1988 at a workshop held at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Although it appears to
emphasize infiltration, the COMIS model could provide the room and zone distribution
portions of an IAQ model. The results of using the code have not been published.
7.3.2 Experimental
A primary and practical goal of ventilation evaluations in large buildings is to
determine whether observed IAQ problems are related to the air exchange rate, either
overall or in particular rooms. A second goal, important to the research community, is to
develop a database that could be used to validate large building models.
Tracer gas decay (or a similar analysis based on complete mixing) is the common
approach to measuring air exchange rate. Persily (1986) describes the application of tracer
gas experiments to measurements of ventilation effectiveness in multiroom buildings. The
theory and application of the buildup and decay tracer gas methods are described, as are
the results from a field test. Persily shows that the single tracer gas methods, although
simple in concept, become difficult to apply, and the results somewhat ambiguous, in the
rooms of a large building. Crawford and O'Neill (1989) draw similar conclusions.
Determination of overall building outdoor air rates has been measured using C02
concentration as a tracer and by using tracer decay measurements with SF6 (Bearg and
Turner, 1989). As discussed by Bearg and Turner, both methods have advantages and
disadvantages. Careful interpretation of the data by an experienced professional appears to
be important. The fundamental problem with tracer gas studies in large buildings is that
uniform conditions do not exist in buildings and air movement is not limited to the HVAC
system.
A number of attempts have been made to deal with the experimental complexities of
ventilation evaluations. The use of the passive perfluorocarbon tracer gas (PPTG)
technique developed by Dietz is described by Zarker (1989). Unlike the tracer gas decay
measurement, which is normally short term, the PPTG method provides a week- to months-
long average rate of air exchange for different building zones. Small PPTG emitters and
sorption tubes are placed in each zone, left for the duration of the test, and analyzed. From
knowledge of the room size, emission rates, and temperature, and the concentration in the
29
-------
sorption tube, the air exchange rate can be computed. By using different tracer gases,
multizone buildings and interzonal transfers can be analyzed.
Similarly, multiple tracer gases can be actively injected to evaluate flows in a
multizone building (Fisk et al., 1985). The same techniques used for single tracer
experiments are used for multiple tracer work, except that different tracer gases are used in
different zones.
Crawford and O'Neill (1989) lay the mathematical basis for a multizone airflow
measurements using a single tracer gas. The method relies on mathematical manipulation
of a data matrix and requires careful experimental control with an accurate mass balance on
the zones, low noise measurements, a sufficiently wide range of tracer in the different
zones, and proper zone selection. This method was experimentally validated using a three-
zone test facility at the University of Illinois (O'Neill and Crawford, 1990) but has not been
used in an actual building.
In summary, the goal of a simple and reliable method to evaluate building ventilation
and relate it to IAQ has not been met, though experienced professionals can interpret a
number of measurements and often discover the cause of IAQ problems. Similarly, true
verification of a multizone model is very difficult. In a complex building, model inputs such
as interzonal and infiltration flows must be obtained from tracer gas studies that themselves
have to be interpreted with some kind of multizone model. This situation is not satisfactory.
Experimental facilities in which all flows can be controlled are needed to validate models.
7.4 SCHOOLS, HOSPITALS, AND OTHER SPECIAL BUILDINGS
Schools, hospitals, and other buildings that frequently house individuals at special
risk of exposure to episodes of poor IAQ have been studied more extensively than office
buildings. Schools are often under intense pressure to maintain low energy costs, which
results in marginal IAQ in a number of locations; they are often single-story, which
increases the radon risk in problem areas; and they are often low-bidder constructed. A
symposium on school ventilation conducted at IAQ'91 in Washington, DC, demonstrated the
IA community's recognition of the requirements of special buildings.
Except for the vulnerability of the user population, evaluation of special buildings
such as schools is no different from other building evaluations. EPA is currently sponsoring
radon research in schools. Microbiological contamination is also likely to be a problem in
buildings of this type. Homeless shelters have experienced an increase in tuberculosis
30
-------
because of the special conditions within the shelters, and, in at least one case, ultraviolet
(UV) disinfection was used to control the spread of tuberculosis (Nardell, 1988). Increased
ventilation was not considered as effective a control technique as UV air cleaning. Over the
next decade, control of infectious diseases may take on increasing importance because of
the increasing numbers of antibiotic-resistant bacteria strains.
7.5 RESEARCH NEEDS
For the modeling aspects of building flow/air distribution research, the principal
needs appear to be improved validation and thus improved confidence. This requires
additional building ventilation performance data, which are currently difficult to obtain
because there is no standard test protocol or even agreement on which of the available
tests should be run. Currently, a very high level of skill is required on the part of the
measurement team to obtain reliable data.
Consequently, the most pressing need overall appears to be improved measurement
techniques, including the development of standardized methods. Development of such
methods would encourage their use, ensure a supply of consistent data for model
development, and, it is hoped, increase the overall amount of performance data available.
NIST is currently involved in research into many of these building evaluation topics
(see Appendix C).
31
-------
8.0 HVAC/BUILDING DESIGN, OPERATION, AND CONTROL STRATEGIES
8.1 HVAC SYSTEM DESIGN AND SELECTION
The HVAC system type used in a building has, in the past, generally been chosen
based on cost and the expected ability of the system to achieve thermal comfort goals in
the space. The recent emphasis on adequate ventilation to achieve acceptable IAQ, as
codified in ASHRAE Standard 62-1989, has added a third goal for the HVAC system. One-
of-a-kind buildings may be designed from the first piece of paper to meet these three goals,
but commercial pressures force the design of many commercial buildings into well-worn ruts
that give low capital cost at the expense of performance and flexibility. Because
commercial office building owners and tenants change frequently, the use of the space also
changes frequently. These changes often cause HVAC systems to be ill-suited to their use
and insufficiently flexible to allow modification at reasonable cost.
Large buildings generally use either all-air (all conditioning loads satisfied by air from
a central source) or air/water (conditioning loads satisfied by a combination of conditioned
air and local heat exchange to tempered water in terminal induction units) HVAC systems.
The two system types have inherently different capabilities with respect to achieving
acceptable IAQ. Centralized air cleaning can be implemented in all-air systems as an
alternative to increased ventilation with outdoor air. To use air cleaning, air/water systems
must be redesigned to move additional air from the occupant to a cleaning station and back
(obviating many of the advantages of air/water systems) or must rely on local air cleaning.
From the viewpoint of IAQ, unitary systems (packaged all-air systems) are similar to
all-air systems in that central air cleaning and outdoor air control are possible, provided the
design is sufficiently flexible. All-water systems (all loads satisfied by local heat exchange
to tempered water), on the other hand, cannot be readily modified to improve IAQ in a large
building.
Little research has been conducted into the inherent merits of different HVAC
systems as a means of controlling IAQ. The research has concentrated on the design and
construction flaws of existing systems and not on the type of system and correlations
between system type and the observed flaws.
Another topic that is implicit in ASHRAE 62-1989 is modification of building operation
during periods of poor outdoor air quality to prevent contaminating the building. Technical
32
-------
Committee 2.3 of ASHRAE proposed a research project titled "Ventilation Strategies During
Episodes of Unacceptable Outdoor Air." The project received low priority, however, and is
unlikely to be funded. That the project was proposed points out that the ASHRAE
community is uncertain about how HVAC systems should be operated to improve IAQ when
the outdoor air quality is poor and added outdoor air will not necessarily improve IAQ.
8.2 INNOVATIVE VENTILATION DELIVERY DESIGNS
A number of innovative HVAC systems have been proposed as ways to improve IAQ
in offices. Their purpose is to deliver ventilation air to the occupants or to clear
contaminants more efficiently than do conventional systems. Some that have recently been
discussed in the indoor air literature are addressed in this section.
8.2.1 Ventilated Work Stations
The low ventilation effectiveness that often occurs in office environments has
prompted the development of ventilation systems for individual work stations. By delivering
a large fraction of the ventilation air directly to the occupant, the VE can be greater than 1.
This can give better IAQ with lower overall ventilation rates, and consequently reduced
energy requirements.
Farant et al. (1991) describe an investigation into the design of office workstations
that would optimize the amount of outside air supplied to the occupants. Both field tests in
an office building and chamber tests were used to evaluate the effect of supply air tempera-
ture, type and location of diffuser, type of office, partition design, and location of the
workstation with respect to the supply and return grills. Farant et al. recommend that
designers test their designs, before finalizing them.
8.2.2 Personally Controlled Ventilation
Personally controlled ventilation is an active research area in the architectural and
building design field. As described by Drake et al. (1991), the Advanced Building Systems
Integration Consortium (ABSIC) has supported evaluations of advanced buildings since
1988. A number of advantages are cited for the systems, all of which give the users
increased control over their ventilation systems.
Hedge et al. (1991) describe a system that incorporates breathing zone filtration into
office furniture. The occupant has control of the system.
33
-------
Drake et al. (1991) describe the improvements in ventilation and thermal comfort that
can be achieved with three different types of user-based environmental control systems.
Two of the systems utilize raised-floor systems with local distribution boxes; the third utilizes
desk-top diffusers. In all cases, the users had control of their local environment. The
authors cite comfort and productivity improvements based on occupant surveys. Further,
they speculate that energy savings might be possible with such systems (by cooling only
the occupied zones), but emphasize the limited nature of their studies.
8.2.3 Displacement Ventilation
Displacement ventilation, in which supply air enters occupied space near the bottom
of the space and rises towards the ceiling, is common in Scandinavia. Ideal displacement
ventilation utilizes a plug-flow of supply air, which carries contaminants from the occupants
to the return ducts without mixing. In recent publications, Laurikainen (1991) describes the
design of displacement ventilation systems and Koganei et al. (1991) discuss the
applicability of displacement ventilation to Japanese offices.
ASHRAE has begun to consider displacement ventilation in the form of a research
proposal from Technical Committee 2.2 titled "Effect of Displacement Ventilation on Indoor
Air Quality and Thermal Comfort." However, this proposal was given no priority.
8.2.4 Demand-Controlled (Pollutant-Sensor-Controlled) Ventilation
Conventional HVAC systems are controlled by thermal sensors. Fresh outdoor
ventilation air is mixed with return air at a central location, conditioned, and transported
through the ducts in response to the demands for conditioned air from the thermostats. In
this type of system, the ventilation air will be distributed as required by ASHRAE 62-1989
(20 ft3/min/person) only if the thermal loads and the occupancy loads coincide. This is
unlikely, and a number of approaches to better matching the HVAC system control to
occupancy have been proposed.
Strindehag (1991) reports on multiyear experience with variable-volume HVAC
systems controlled by carbon dioxide sensors. Low ventilation rates from poorly setup
variable-volume systems have caused a number of IAQ problems, and linking their
minimum flow settings through a C02 sensor has the potential to solve a serious
shortcoming. Most forced-air HVAC systems could be controlled in the same way, though
relatively few such systems have been installed.
34
-------
Other approaches to delivering ventilation air in response to occupancy or pollutant
loads can readily be developed as sensor technology improves. Current technology is
relatively expensive, but solid-state sensors are being developed rapidly and prices will
probably drop. Direct delivery of ventilation air in response to an IAQ sensor is a distinct
possibility within the next decade.
8.2.5 Energy Recovery Systems
Energy recovery systems, because they indirectly contact exhaust air and incoming
ventilation air, have the opportunity to transfer pollutants as well as energy. Bayer and
Downing (1991) describe experience with a "total energy recovery system" based on a
rotating heat-wheel heat transfer device. The system was said to recover 90 percent of the
total energy exhausted from the building without detectably affecting the IAQ in the building.
8.3 RESEARCH NEEDSHVAC/BUILDING DESIGN, OPERATION, AND CONTROL
Little systematic research has been conducted into the topics of HVAC/building
design, operation, and control with the goal of improving IAQ. There are many
opportunities. The most immediate need appears to be organizing what is known about
designing buildings and choosing HVAC systems to ensure good IAQ and transmitting that
information to the building industry. This task appears to be well under way with recent
EPA and ASHRAE activity, but the impact of the basic HVAC systems has not been
included in the effort. A reasonable approach would be to ask what the best energy/cost-
/IAQ compromise would be as a function of the following:
HVAC system and building type
Environment (location, climate, outdoor air quality, etc.)
Use (including special useschool, hospital, etc.).
A systematic investigation of the performance, costs, and benefits (including energy
impact) of the standard and innovative ventilation schemes would allow designers to make
rational selections. Economic and performance claims are being made by developers and
enthusiasts, but hard data are scarce. The IAQ models will need to be adapted to the
innovative ventilation schemes to predict performance, and energy use and cost data need
to be developed. Because the designs of today will have an impact for years to come, this
is an important research goal.
35
-------
Development of an IAQ sensor system that simultaneously measures pollutant
loadings, temperature, and humidity and can be used to control an HVAC system is a
reasonable goal for the HVAC community. Although little has been published, the approach
is obvious. Research is needed to establish the adequacy of such a sensor system and to
develop HVAC systems that make efficient use of the technology.
36
-------
9.0 APPLIED MICROBIAL RESEARCH
An HVAC system, complete with air cleaner, does not necessarily enhance IAQ.
Woods (1989), for instance, gives the following estimates of the frequency of occurrence of
design and maintenance shortcomings in problem buildings:
Inadequate outdoor air - 75 percent of buildings
Inappropriate energy management strategies - 90 percent of buildings
Poor air distribution - 65 percent of buildings
Contaminated duct linings - 45 percent of buildings
Inadequate condensate drains - 45 percent of buildings
Inadequate filtration - 55 percent of buildings
Humidifier problems - 30 percent of buildings.
The list shows that most problem buildings have more than one shortcoming and the
IAQ problems have more than one cause. Woods further states that 45 percent of problem
buildings have "significant microbiological contamination." From the viewpoint of HVAC
systems as contributors to poor IAQ, Woods' list identifies design, construction, and
maintenance as the causes of the problems. In addition to biocontamination, HVAC
systems have been found to be sources of outside air pollution (for example, Walter, 1988),
and odors (Hujanen, et al., 1991). Of course, HVAC systems also spread contaminants
from one space to the next once the contaminants enter the distribution system.
Morey (1988) makes the point that biocontaminants can generally be controlled by
reducing the availability of water and the availability of nutrients. HVAC systems, even at a
reasonable level of air cleaning, will eventually get dirty and provide nutrients for
microorganisms; however, HVAC systems can be designed to stay dry. Condensate pans
that do not drain and cooling coils from which water is entrained by the air are common
examples of design flaws. Morey also questions the wisdom of using porous insulation
inside ducts where it can become dirty and wet.
The relationships between building material moisture content and microbial growth
are being investigated by EPA/AEERL-sponsored research. Foarde et al. (1992) developed
a standardized environmental chamber for evaluating microbial growth on building materials
and used the chamber to investigate growth on ceiling tile at a number of relative humidities
(and consequent material moisture contents). They found that moisture contents
substantially below those reported in the literature were adequate to allow microbial growth
37
-------
on building materials. The research in continuing into other building materials and
conditions.
Those investigating problem buildings appear unanimous in their belief that most
biocontamination problems are associated with poor maintenance (Ager and Tickner, 1983;
Morey et al., 1986; Morey, 1988). Implementation of the design improvements mentioned in
the preceding paragraph would help the situation, but maintenance will still be required. No
matter how well a system is designed, filters need to be used and changed as they become
dirty, drain lines must be kept clean, birds kept out of air intakes, and so forth.
Once a biocontamination problem has developed, the steps taken to remediate it are
to identify and repair the problem, remove the biocontamination, and replace damaged
materials. Within the ventilation system, different cleaning practitioners take somewhat
different approaches. Three aspects of biocontaminated HVAC systems seem to be under
discussion:
Should porous materials be used inside ducts at all (Morey and Williams, 1991)?
If porous materials are used inside a duct and they become biocontaminated,
should they be cleaned and encapsulated or removed entirely. Here Morey and
Williams (1991) suggest the latter while some duct cleaners follow the former
practice (Indoor Air Quality Update, 1991). Removal of porous material is
expensive.
Should biocides be used and under what conditions? Morey and Williams (1991)
state categorically that, "The use of biocides is never a solution to this problem
[contaminated porous insulation]." They are concerned about the long-term
effectiveness of biocides and possible toxic effects if biocides are dispersed in an
HVAC system. Overall, the thrust of the discussion seems to be that a biocide
that does not leave a residue is thought to be acceptable for use in the HVAC
system of an unoccupied building. Continuous use of biocides in an occupied
building is not recommended, though systems that inject ozone into ductwork are
currently being sold. No systematic investigation of the effectiveness or safety of
the commercial use of biocides in ducts has been reported.
The Environmental Health Committee of ASHRAE (with partial funding from EPA-
AEERL) is currently sponsoring research project TRP-662, titled "Air Pollution Sources in
HVAC Systems." Possible future ASHRAE projects are "Urban Pollution Design Criteria for
Building Ventilation Inlets and Exhaust" (second highest priority) and "Evaluation of
Strategies for Controlling Indoor Concentrations of Gaseous Contaminants During Construc-
tion and Renovation" (low priority). These projects will provide a good beginning and may
identify additional areas for future research.
38
-------
Research into two aspects of biocontamination interacts with ventilation research.
HVAC maintenance practices need to be strengthened, possibly through courses,
publications, etc., and possibly through standards. Second, basic research into the condi-
tions that affect microbial growth in HVAC systems is needed to ascertain proper system
designs.
39
-------
10.0 BUILDING PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Building performance is generally evaluated after problems have developed.
Occupant surveys and other semiquantitative measures of performance give rough and
sometimes misleading data. Quantitative evidence comes from measurements of gas-
phase and particle contaminants and building ventilation parameters. A number of
investigations of this type have been reported. Suggested building investigation protocols
are given by Rajhans (1989) and Lane et al. (1989.)
Building performance evaluation and ventilation research intersect primarily in the
need for those evaluating the building to understand the building's ventilation system and to
make accurate and appropriate measurements of air exchange rate, ventilation
effectiveness, interzonal transfers, and similar measures. Measurement of these parame-
ters is discussed in Section 6.0. As stated in that section, key research needs are improved
sensors, measurement techniques, and a standardized protocol. At the same time, models
must be available and easy to use so the data can be interpreted. Therefore, flexible, easily
used IAQ models should be developed. PC-based models would be preferable; however,
fast models accessible through a modem might be acceptable if their performance is
superior.
40
-------
11.0 REFERENCES
Ager, B.P., and J.A. Tickner. 1983. The Control of Microbiological Hazards Associated with
Air-Conditioning and Ventilation Systems. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 27(4):341-358.
AHAM. 1987. AHAM Standard Method for Measuring Performance of Portable Household
Electric Cord-connected Rooiti Air Cleaners (AC-1). Association of Home Appliance
Manufacturers.
Anderson, A. 1989. Ventilation Efficiency: Analytical Methods, Scaling Theory, and
Experimental Techniques. In: Building Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant
Distribution, Urbana-Champaign, IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp. 195-199.
ASHRAE. 1976. ASHRAE Standard 52-76: Method of Testing Air Cleaning Devices Used
in General Ventilation for Removing Particulate Matter. American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA 30329.
ASHRAE. 1989a. ASHRAE Standard 62-1989: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc. Atlanta, GA 30329.
ASHRAE. 1989b. Air Flow Around Buildings. Chapter 14 in 1989 ASHRAE Handbook,
Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA 30329.
ASHRAE. 1989c. Infiltration and Ventilation. Chapter 23 in 1989 ASHRAE Handbook,
Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA 30329.
ASHRAE. 1992. 1992-1993 ASHRAE Research Plan, January 1, 1992. American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA 30329.
ASTM. 1983. Standard Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Tracer Dilution.
Designation E 741-83. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
PA.
ASTM. 1990. Test Method D3803-89, Nuclear-Grade Activated Carbon. In: 1990 Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
PA. Vol. 15.01, pp. 360-376.
Axley, J. 1990. Element Assembly Techniques and Indoor Air Quality Analysis. In: IA'90:
The Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, July
29 - August 3, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 115-120.
Baker, A.J., R.M. Kelso, W.P. Noronha, and J.B. Woods. 1989. On the Maturing of
Computational Fluid Dynamics in Design of Room Air Ventilation Systems. In:
Building Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign,
IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp. 149-152.
41
-------
Bayer, C.W., and C.C. Downing. 1991. Does a Total Energy Recovery System Provide a
Healthier Indoor Environment? In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC,
September 4-8, 1991, pp. 74-76.
Bearg, D. W. 1993. Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton,
FL.
Bearg, D.W., and W.A. Turner. 1989. Determination of Outdoor Air Quantities Delivered. In:
Building Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign, IL,
December 5-8, 1988, pp. 106-108.
Black, M.S., W.J. Pearson, and L.M. Work. 1991. A Methodology for Determining VOC
Emissions from New SBR Latex-Backed Carpet, Adhesives, Cushions, and Installed
Systems and Predicting Their Impact on Indoor Air Quality. In: IAQ'91: Healthy
Buildings, Washington, DC, September 4-8, 1991, pp. 267-272.
Crawford, R.R., and P.J. O'Neill. 1989. Multi-zone Airflow Measurement Using a Tracer Gas.
In: Building Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign,
IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp. 103-105.
Daisey, J.M., and A. T. Hodgson. 1989. Initial Efficiencies of Air Cleaners for the Removal of
Nitrogen Dioxide and Volatile Organic Compounds. Atmos. Envir., 23(9):1885-1892.
Drake, P., P. Mill, and M. Demeter. 1991. Implications of User-Based Environmental Control
Systems: Three Case Studies. In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC,
September 4-8, 1991, pp. 394-400.
Dunn, J.E., and B.A. Tichenor. 1988. Compensating for Sink Effects in Emissions Test
Chambers by Mathematical Modeling. Atmos. Envir., 22(5):885-894.
Farant, J.-P., V.N. Nguyen, J. Leduc, and M. Auger. 1991. Impact of Office Design and
Layout on the Effectiveness of Ventilation Provided to Individual Workstations in Office
Buildings. In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC, September 4-8, 1991, pp.
14-21.
Farrington, R.B., and V.A. Hassani. 1991. Use of Infrared Imaging to Determine the Mixing
Performance of Supply Air Diffusers. In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC,
September 4-8, 1991, pp. 179-185.
Feustel, H.E., F. Allard, V.B. Dorer, M. Grosso, M. Herrlin, L. Mingsheng, J.C. Phaff, Y.
Utsumi, and H. Yoshino, 1989. The COMIS Infiltration Model. In: Proceedings of
Building Simulation '89, Vancouver, British Columbia, June 23-24, 1989, pp. 265-270.
Feustel, H.E. 1990. The COMIS Air Flow Model: A Tool for Multizone Applications. In:
IA'90: The Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto,
July 29 - August 3, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 121-126.
42
-------
Fisk, W.J., J. Binenboym, H. Kaboli, D. Grimsrud, A.W. Robb, and B. Weber, 1985. Multi-
Tracer System for Measuring Ventilation Rates and Ventilation Efficiencies in Large
Mechanically-Ventilated Buildings. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report, LBL-20209,
University of California, Berkeley.
Foarde, K., D. Bush, E. Cole, D. Franke, D. VanOsdell, and J. Chang. 1992.
Characterization of Environmental Chambers for Evaluating Microbial Growth on
Building Materials. In IAQ '92: Environments for People, San Francisco, CA, October
19-21,1992. pp. 185-190.
FRRP. 1992. Eleventh FRRP Quarterly Meeting, August 4-5, 1992, Tallahassee, FL.
Geomet Technologies, Inc. 1989. Report No. IE-2130, MCCEM Multi-Chamber Consumer
Exposure Model User's Guide, Version 2.1, October 1989, Washington, DC.
Guo, Z., J.E. Dunn, B.A. Tichenor, M.A. Mason, and K.A. Krebs. 1990. On Representing
Reversible Sinks in Indoor Air Quality Models. In: IA'90: The Fifth International
Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, July 29 - August 3, 1990, Vol.
4, pp. 177-182.
Hedge, A., M.G. Martin, and J.F. McCarthy. 1991. Breathing-Zone Filtration Effects on Indoor
Air Quality and Sick Building Syndrome Complaints. In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings,
Washington, DC, September 4-8, 1991, pp. 351-357.
Hintenlang, D.E. 1992. FSEC Presentation. Eleventh FRRP Quarterly Meeting, Tallahassee,
FL, August 4-5, 1992.
Hujanen, M., O. Seppanen, and P. Pasanen. 1991. Ordor Emission from the Used Filters of
Air-Handling Units. In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC, September 4-8,
1991, pp. 329-333.
Indoor Air Quality Update, 1991. IAQ Professionals Debate Duct Cleaning, Vol. 4, No. 10,
Newsletter Published by Cutter Information Corp. 37 Broadway, Arlington, MA, 02174.
October 1991, pp. 1-7.
Jones, P.J. 1990. Room Air Distribution and Ventilation Effectiveness in Air Conditioned
Offices. In: IA'90: The Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and
Climate, Toronto, July 29 - August 3, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 133-138.
Kim, S-D., T. Yamamoto, D.S. Ensor, and L.E. Sparks. 1990. Three-Dimensional Contami-
nant Distribution in an Office Space. In: IA'90: The Fifth International Conference on
Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, July 29 - August 3, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 139-144.
Koganei, M., N. Buenconsejo, Jr., M. Inokuchi, andT. Fujii. 1991. Applicability of Displace-
ment Ventilation to Offices in Japan. In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC,
September 4-8, 1991, pp. 116-121.
43
-------
Kurabuchi, T., Y. Sakamoto, and M. Kaizuka. 1989. Numerical Prediction of Indoor
Airflows by Means of the K-e Turbulence Model. In: Building Systems: Room Air
and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign, IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp.
57-67.
Lagus, P.L. 1989. Tracer Measurement Instrumentation Suitable for Infiltration, Air
Leakage, and Airflow Pattern Characterization. In: Building Systems: Room Air and
Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign, IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp. 97-
102.
Lane, C.A., J.E. Woods, and T.A. Bosman. 1989. Indoor Air Quality Diagnostic Procedures
for Sick and Healthy Buildings. In: IAQ'89 The Human Equation: Health and
Comfort, San Diego, CA, April 17-20, 1989, pp. 195-223.
Laurikainen, J. 1991. Calculation Method for Airflow Rate in Displacement Ventilation
Systems. In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC, September 4-8, 1991,
pp. 111-115.
Morey, P.R. 1988. Microorganisms in Buildings and HVAC Systems: A Summary of 21
Environmental Studies. In: IAQ'88: Engineering Solutions to Indoor Air Problems.
Atlanta, GA, April 11-13, 1988, pp. 10-21.
Morey, P.R., J.L. Clere, W.G. Jones, and W.G. Sorenson. 1986. Studies on Sources of
Airborne Microorganisms and on Indoor Air Quality in a Large Office Building. In:
IAQ'86: Managing Indoor Air for Health and Energy Conservation. ASHRAE,
Atlanta, GA, April 20-23, 1986, pp. 500-509.
Morey, P.R., and C.M. Williams. 1991. Is Porous Insulation Inside an HVAC System
Compatible with a Healthy Building? In IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC,
September 4-8, 1991, pp. 128-135.
Mounajed, R., J. Riberon, and G. Barnaud. 1990. Wind Turbulence and Ventilation. In
IA'90: The Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto,
July 29 - August 3, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 201-206.
Murakami, S., and S. Kato. 1989. Current Status of Numerical and Experimental Methods
for Analyzing Flow Field and Diffusion Field in a Room. In: Building Systems:
Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign, IL, December 5-8,
1988, pp. 39-56.
Nardell, E.A. 1988. Ultraviolet Air Disinfection to Control Tuberculosis in a Shelter for the
Homeless. Chapter 12. In: Architectural Design and Indoor Microbial Pollution,
Oxford University Press, New York. R.B. Knudsin (ed.) pp. 296-308.
Nazaroff, W.W., M.L. Boegel, C.D. Hollowell, and G.D. Roseme. 1981. The use of
mechanical ventilation with heat recovery for controlling radon and radon-daughter
concentrations in houses. Atmospheric Environment, 15:263-270.
44
-------
Nazaroff, W., and G. Cass. 1986. Mathematical Modeling of Chemically Reactive
Pollutants in Indoor Air. Environmental Science and Technology, 20:924-934.
Nazaroff, W., and G. Cass. 1989. Mathematical Modeling of Indoor Aerosol Dynamics.
Environmental Science and Technology, 23:157-166.
Nelson, H. S., S. R. Hirsch, J. L. Ohman, T. A. E. Platts-Mills, C. E. Reed, and W. R.
Soloman. 1988. Recommendations for the use of residential air-cleaning devices in
the treatment of allergic respiratory diseases. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 82:661-669.
Nielsen, P.V. 1989. Numerical Prediction of Air Distribution in RoomsStatus and Poten-
tials. In: Building Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-
Champaign, IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp. 31-38.
Offermann, F.J., S. A. Loiselle, and R.G. Sextro. 1991. Performance Comparisons of Six
Different Air Cleaners Installed in a Residential Forced-Air Ventilation System. In:
IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC, September 4-8, 1991, pp. 342-350.
Offermann, F.J., R.G. Sextro, W.J. Fisk, D.T. Grimsrud, W.W. Nazarofff, A.V. Nero, K.L.
Revzan, and J. Yater. 1985. Control of respirable particles in indoor air with
portable air cleaners. Atmospheric Environment, 19:1761-1771.
O'Neill, P.J., and R.R. Crawford. 1990. Experimental Validation of a Single Gas Tracer
Technique for Analyzing Airflows and Effective Volumes in Multizone Systems. In:
IA'90: The Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto,
July 29 - August 3, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 425-430.
Owen, M.K., P. A. Lawless, D. S. Ensor, and L.E. Sparks. 1990. A Comparison of Local
and Central Controls for Indoor Air Quality. In: IA'90: The Fifth International
Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, July 29 - August 3, 1990,
Vol. 3, pp. 193-198.
Owen, M.K., P.A. Lawless, T. Yamamoto, D.S. Ensor, and L.E. Sparks. 1989. IAQPC: An
Indoor Air Quality Simulator. In: IAQ'89: The Human Equation: Health and
Comfort, San Diego, CA, April 17-20, 1989, pp. 158-163.
Persily, A. K. 1986. Ventilation Effectiveness Measurements in an Office Building. In:
IAQ'86: Managing Indoor Air for Health and Energy Conservation, Atlanta, GA, April
20-23, 1986, pp. 548-558.
Rajhans, G.S. 1989. Findings of the Ontario Inter-Ministerial Committee on Indoor Air
Quality. In: IAQ'89 The Human Equation: Health and Comfort, San Diego, CA,
April 17-20, 1989, pp. 195-223.
Saarela, K., and E. Sandell. 1991. Comparative Emission Studies of Flooring Materials
with Reference to Nordic Guidelines. In: IAQ'91, Healthy Buildings, Washington,
DC, September 4-8, 1991, pp. 262-265.
45
-------
Saunders, D.D., and L.D. Albright. 1989. A Quantitative Air-mixing Visualization Technique
for Two-dimensional Flow Using Aerosol Tracers and Digital Imaging Analysis. In:
Building Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign,
IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp. 84-88.
Schultz, K., and B. Krafthefer. 1989. Environmental Chamber for the Study of Room Air
Distribution. In: Building Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution,
Urbana-Champaign, IL, December 5-8, 1988, pp. 215-217.
Sextro, R.G., and F.J. Offermann. 1991. Reduction of Indoor Particle and Radon Progeny
Concentrations in Residences with Ducted Air Cleaning Systems. LBL-16660.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report, Berkeley, CA.
Sextro, R.G., F.J. Offermann, W.W. Nazaroff, A.V. Nero, K.L. Revzan, and J. Yater. 1986.
Evaluation of indoor aerosol control devices and their effects on radon progeny
concentrations. Environment International, 12:429-438.
Silberstein, S. 1991. Proposed Standard Laboratory Practice for Assessing the Perfor-
mance of Sorption Gas-Phase Air Cleaning Equipment. In: IAQ'91, Healthy
Buildings, Washington, DC, September 4-8, 1991, pp. 307-310.
Sollinger, S., K. Levsen, and G. Wunsch. 1993. Indoor Air Pollution by Organic Emissions
from Textile Floor Coverings. Climate Chamber Studies under Dynamic Conditions.
Atmos. Envir., 27B(2):183-192.
Sparks, L.E., M. Jackson, B. Tichenor, J. White, J. Dorsey, and R. Steiber. 1990. An
Integrated Approach to Research on the Impact of Sources on Indoor Air Quality. In
IA'90: The Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto,
July 29 - August 3, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 219-223.
Sparks, L.E., and W.G. Tucker. 1990. A Computer Model for Calculating Individual
Exposure Due to Indoor Air Pollution Sources. In: IA'90: The Fifth International
Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, July 29 - August 3, 1990,
Vol. 4, pp. 213-218.
Strindehag, O. 1991. Long-Term Experience with Demand-Controlled Ventilation Systems.
In: IAQ'91: Healthy Buildings, Washington, DC, September 4-8, 1991, pp. 108-115.
Tichenor, B. A. 1989. Indoor Air Sources: Using Small Environmental Test Chambers to
Characterize Organic Emissions from Indoor Materials and Products, EPA Report
EPA-600/8-89-074 (NTIS PB90-110131), Research Triangle Park, NC.
Tichenor, B.A., Z. Guo, M.A. Mason, and J.E. Dunn. 1991. Evaluation of Indoor Air
Pollutant Sinks for Vapor Phase Organic Compounds. In: IA'90: The Fifth Interna-
tional Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, July 29 - August 3,
1990, Vol. 3, pp. 623-628.
46
-------
Walter, C.W. 1988. Ventilation and Disease. In: Architectural Design and Indoor Microbial
Pollution, R.B. Knudsin, Ed. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp.3-30.
Windham, S.T., E.D. Savage, and C.R. Philips. 1978. Effects of Home Ventilation Systems
on Indoor Radon-Radon Daughter Levels. EPA-520/5-77-011. (NTIS PB291-925),
Montgomery, AL.
Woods, J.E. 1989. HVAC Systems as Sources or Vectors of Microbiological Contaminants.
Presented at the CPSC/ALA Workshop on Biological Pollutants in the Home,
Alexandria, VA, July 10-11, 1989, pp. C-68 to C-75.
Yamamoto, T., D.S. Ensor, and L.E. Sparks, "Modeling of Indoor Air Quality for a
Personal Computer, "Modeling of Indoor Air Quality and Exposure, ASTM STP
1205, Niren L. Nagda, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA, 1993, pp. 149-157.
Yu, H.H.S., and R.R. Raber. 1990. Implications of ASHRAE Standard 62-89 on Filtration
Strategies and Indoor Air Quality and Energy Conservation. In: IA'90: The Fifth
International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, July 29 -
August 3, 1990, Vol. 3, pp 121-125.
Zarker, L.O. 1989. A Convenient Method for Measuring Natural Air Exchange Rates in
Buildings, Weatherization Effectiveness, and Pollutant Source Rates. In: Building
Systems: Room Air and Air Contaminant Distribution, Urbana-Champaign, IL,
December 5-8, 1988, pp. 77-78.
47
-------
APPENDIX A
ASHRAE VENTILATION-RELATED RESEARCH
A-1
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Title
TC/TG
Cost
Time
Highest Priority (3 Stars)
A Mathematical Model for the Determination TG/LS
of Laboratory Fume Hood Contaminant Criteria
Evaluation of Gas Phase Air Filtration Equipment TC 2.3
as Used in Common Building Applications
Identification and Effectiveness of Methods for TC 2.4
and Criteria for Cleaning and Decontaminating
Ducts and Other HVAC Interior Surfaces
$100K
$175K
12M
24M
Second Priority (2 Stars)
VAV Controls and Fume Hood Diversity
Determine Extent to Which Poor Building
Operation and Maintenance Cause Indoor Air
Quality Problems
TG/LS
TC 1.7
Effect of Temperature and Humidity on Perceived TC 2.1
Indoor Air Quality
Environmental Quality in Animal FacilitiesA TC 2.2
Review and Evaluation of Alternative Ventilation
Strategies
Urban Pollution Design Criteria for Building TC 2.5
Ventilation Inlets and Exhausts
$75K
$100K
$200K
$35K
$75K
18M
12M
24M
12M
18M
Analysis of the Combined Modes of Heat and TC 4.9 $200K 24M
Moisture Transport
Review, Evaluation, and Demonstration of Indoor TC 4.10 $200K 30M
Thermal Comfort Simulation Models for Assessing
the Thermal Acceptability of Indoor Environments
Determination of Ceiling/Plenum Effect on TC 5.3 $90K 16M
Radiated Sound Power Levels
A-2
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Title
Low Temperature Air Distribution: Jets of Low
Temperature Air
Low Priority (1 Star)
Study of Dynamic Response in a VAV Laboratory
Field Study of the Thermal Environment and
Comfort Characteristics in Office Buildings
Effect of HVAC Systems on Occupant Productivity
Evaluation of Strategies for Controlling Indoor
Concentrations of Gaseous Contaminants During
Construction and Renovation
Ventilation Strategies During Episodes of
Unacceptable Outdoor Air
Investigate and Identify Means of Controlling
Virus in Indoor Air by Filtration or Ventilation
Integration of Energy Calculation and Indoor Air
Quality Analysis Methods to Encompass
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989
Effects of Mechanically Induced Building
Pressures on the Performance of Building
Envelope Systems
Effect of Displacement Ventilation on Indoor Air
Quality and Thermal Comfort
Low Temperature Air Distribution: Jets of Low
Temperature Air
TC/TG Cost Time
TC 6.9 $150K 24M
TG/LS $75K 24M
TC 2.1 $80K 18M
TC 2.1 $80K 12M
TC 2.3 $150K 24M
TC 2.3 $100K 24M
TC 2.4 ? ?
TC 4.7 ? 18M
TC 4.9 $150K 18M
TC 5.3 $85K ?
TC 5.3 $105K 16M
A-3
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Title TC/TG Cost Time
No Priority (0 Stars)
Study of the Coordinated Effects of Fume Hoods TG/LS $75K 24M
and Laminar Flow Diffusers on Room Air
Distribution
A Survey of Various Laboratory Types Regarding TG/LS $25K 6M
Containment and Disposal of Airborne Contaminants
A-4
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Title
TC/TG
Cost
Time
Investigate the Use of Low Cost Integrated TC 1.2
Circuit Thin Film Sensors for Measurement of
Low Concentrations of Contaminant Gases Inside
Buildings
Longitudinal Study of the Environmental and TC 2.1
Occupant Response in a Large New Office Building
During Initial Occupancy
Assessing Models that Predict Human Responses TC 2.1
to Their Thermal Environment
Human Response to Localized Ventilation TC 2.1
Effect of Displacement Ventilation on Indoor Air TC 2.2
Quality and Thermal Comfort
Identification of Particle Contaminants that are TC 2.4
Air-Borne Upstream of Air Cleaning Filters
Investigate and Identify Particulates and VOCs TC 2.4
that Cause Eye Irritation
Investigate and Identify Radon Decay Products TC 2.4
and Particle Interactions that Exist Indoors
and Can Be Removed by Ventilation Filtration
or Source Control
Investigate and Identify the Particulates that TC 2.4
may be Emitted from Hot Surfaces in Residences
Assessment of the Effects of Wind Turbulence on TC 2.5
Natural Ventilation Air Change Rates
Development of a Correlation for Cosorption Data TC 3.5
Modification of Activated Carbons TC 3.5
$90K
24M
The Effect of Dry Air on Microbial Growth in Air
Conditioning Systems
TC 3.5
$90K
$200K
$130K
$120K
$250K
$50K
$120K
24M
30M
12M
24M
18M
12M
30M
? ?
? ?
? ?
A-5
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Title TC/TG Cost
A Simplified Model of Moisture Migration in TC 4.4 $50K
Building Components and Materials
Development of Wetting and Drying Potential TC 4.4 $80K
Calculation Methods for Identification of
Potential Moisture Failure in Building
Components and Materials
Development of Material Moisture Measurement TC 4.4 $100K 24M
Devices
Dynamic Comfort Index TC 4.6 $80K 18M
Loss Coefficients for Canopy and Other Hoods TC 5.8 $60K 12M
Time
12M
18M
A-6
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Status
724-URP
759-WS
662-TRP
740-WS
745-WS
627-WS
687-WS
700-WS
715-WS
729-WS
703-RP/A
Title TC/TG Cost Time
Moisture Diffusion in Building 4.4 $159K 24M
Materials Exposed to Combined
Humidity and Temperature Gradients
Identification and Effectiveness of 2.4 Est $275K 24M
Methods for and Criteria for Cleaning
and Decontaminating Ducts and Other
HVAC Interior Surfaces
Air Pollution Sources in HVAC EHC
Systems
An Evaluation of the Effect of C02 1.4
Based Demand Controlled Ventilation
Strategies on Energy Use and Occupant
Source Contamination Concentration
Est $300K 24M
(50% from EPA)
Est $120K 18M
Identification and Characterization of 9.8 Est $200K 18M
Cooking Effluents as Related to Optimum
Design of Kitchen Ventilation Systems
Hospital Operating Room Air 9.8 Est $150K 24M
Distribution
Minimum Air Flow Rates with VAV 9.1 Est $90K 12M
Systems
Effect of HVAC Systems on Occupant 2.1 Est $200K 24M
Productivity
Develop a Practical Method for TG4/CCD Est $200K 24M
Control of Indoor Air Quality
A Survey of the Various Laboratory TG9/LS Est $60K 6M
Types Regarding Containment and
Disposal of Airborne Contaminants
Room Air Movement Data for 4.10 $120K 22M
Validating Numerical Models
A-7
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Status Title TC/TG Cost Time
705-RP/A Low Temperature Air Distribution: 6.9 $90K 24M
Jets of Low Temperature Air
675-RP/A Determination of Air Filter 2.4 $95K 24M
Performance Under Variable Air Volume
(VAV) Conditions
A-8
-------
Status
661-RP/A
671-RP/A
674-RP/A
625-RP/A
652-RP/A
610-RP/A
623-RP/A
518-RP/A
586-RP/A
695-TRP
744-TRP
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Title
TC/TG
Cost
Time
Field Verification of Problems
Caused by Stack Effect in
Tall Buildings
TG9/TB
$35K
12M
9
Define a Fractional Efficiency Test 2.4 $104K 22M
Method That Is Compatible with
Particulate Removal Air Cleaners
Used in General Ventilation
Evaluation of Test Methods for
Determining the Effectiveness and
Capacity of Gas Phase Air Filtration
Equipment for Indoor Air Applications
Literature Review
Matching Filtration to Health
Requirements
Optimum Airflow Velocity in
Cleanrooms
Control of Legionella Strains in
Reservoirs
Testing Grease Hoods
Human Response to Cooling With
Air Jets
A Study to Evaluate the Efficacy
of Biocides Against Legionella in
Open Recirculating Cooling Systems
Influence of Space Air Movement on
Exhaust Hood Performance
2.3 $27K 6M
2.4 $115K 46M
9.2 $52K 15M
EHC $158K 37M
9.7 $55K 24M
2.1 $115K 13M
3.6 $99K 24M
Est $250K 36M
5.8 Est $90K 18M
Effects of Temperature and Humidity 2.1
on Perceived Indoor Air Quality
A-9
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects In-Process or In-Place
Status Title
760-TRP Investigate and Identify Indoor
Allergens and Biological Toxins
That Can Be Removed by Filtration
438-RP/A Measurement and Rating of Air
Leakage in Building Components
464-RP/A Calculation of Room Air Motion
475-RP/A Investigation of Co-Sorption of
Gases and Vapors in Sorption
Dehumidification Equipment
496-RP/A Investigation of Water Vapor
Migration and Moisture Storage in
an Insulated Wall Structure
TC/TG Cost Time
2.4 Est $150K 12M
4.3 $69K 48M
4.10 $119K 36M
3.5 $334K 36M
(ASHRAE $50K)
4.4 $58K 44M
A-10
-------
RP No. Title
12 Air Sterilization by Solid Sorbents
17 Ventilation Requirements
27 Gas Diffusion Near Buildings
28 Habitability of Survival Shelters
35 Abstract on Odors
43 ASHRAE Environmental Studies
60 Soiling of Surfaces by Fine
Particles
70 Dev. of Criteria for Design, Selection
& In-Place Testing of Laboratory Fume
Hoods & Laboratory Ventilation Air
Supply
74 Odor Identification in Occupied
Spaces
86 Field Study of Air Quality in Air
Conditioned Spaces
88 Room Air Distribution
90 Soiling of Surfaces
91 A Study of Comfort, Health and
Learning in Schools with Differing
Therman Conditions
93 Effects of Air Conditioning Equipment
on Pollution in Intake Air
96 Odor Identification in School Room
Environments
97 A Study of Techniques for Evaluation
of Airborne Particle Matter
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects Completed
TC/TG Cost Completed
1958
$5.8K ?
$4.9K 1960's
TG/SS $11.2K 1962
TC 1.6 $20.3K 1960's
TC 1.4 $211K 1972
WS $5.6K 1966
TC 9.4
WS $26K 1978
TC 5.8
WS
$13K
1969
TC 1.6
$20K
1970
TC 4.1
$25K
1971
TC 9.4
$51K
1972
TC 1.4
$26K
1970
WS
$16K
1970
TC 1.6
$10K
1969
TC 2.4
$42 K
1975
A-11
-------
RPJ
99
108
130
136
142
144
169
183
223
227
238
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects Completed
Title
Study of Air Pollution Caused by
Residential and Commercial Heating
Systems
Perception of Odor Intensity and the
Time-Course of Olfactory Adaptation
Development of Monographs for
Practical Application of ASHRAE
Research on Thermal Comfort and Air
Distribution
Contamination of Building Air
Intakes from Nearby Exhaust Gas
Vents
Relating Indoor Pollutant
Concentrations of Ozone and Sulfur
Dioxide to Those Outside
Comfort, Discomfort in Thermal
Warmth
Destruction of Ozone
Organic Contaminants in Indoor Air
and Their Relationship to Outdoor
Contaminants
Contaminant Level Control in
Parking Garages
Analysis of Exhaust System
Tobacco Smoke Odor Control
Development of a Test Method
Latent Loads in Low Humidity Rooms
Due to Moisture Infiltration
TC/TG Cost
TC 3.5 $10K
$13K
SRP
R&T
URP
TC 5.8
TC 2.3
TC 2.1
TC 2.3
$3K
Completed
1970
1973
1972
$10K
$21K
$28K
TC 5.4 $20K
TC 2.3 $93K
WS $98K
TC 5.9
URP $25K
TC 1.7
$37K
1975
1979
1976
1976
1981
1979
1983
1982
WS $52K 1982
TC 9.2
A-12
-------
RPJ
268
308
(SP4
312
313
352
353
354
397
421
448
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects Completed
Title
Development of Test Method for
Gaseous Contamination Removal
Devices
Investigation of Duct Leakage
Minimum Exhaust Air Rates for
Hospitals
Design Criteria and Methods of
Removal and Control of Certain
Potentially Hazardous Gases and
Vapors in Hospitals
Analysis of Indoor Air Acceptability
Data Collected in the TRC/LBL Project
on Energy Conservation in Buildings
A Study to Determine Subjective
Human Response to Low Level Air
Currents and Asymmetric Radiation
at Lower Boundary of Human Comfort
A Study to Determine a Replacement
for the Dust Spot Test Method of
Determining Air Filter Efficiency
The Effect of Indoor Relative
Humidity on Survival of Airborne
Microorganisms and the Related
Absenteeism in Schools and Hospitals
Thermal Comfort of the Elderly: Effect
of Indoor Microclimate, Clothing,
Activity Level and Socioeconomics
Building Pressure Distribution for
Natural Ventilation Calculations
TC/TG Cost Completion
WS $73K 1984
TC 2.3
WS $105K 1985
TC 5.2
WS $33K 1984
TC 9.8
WS $28K 1982
TC 9.8
URP $8K 1983
TC 2.3
WS $55K 1986
TC 2.1
WS $52K 1984
TC 2.4
URP $51K 1985
TC 2.1
URP $44 K 1984
TC 2.1
WS $34K 1987
TC 4.7
A-13
-------
RPJ
464
475
496
518
525
586
590
594
623
625
652
671
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects Completed
Title TC/TG
Calculation of Room Air Motion WS
TG/IEC
Investigation of Co-Sorption of WS
Gases & Vapors in Sorption TC 3.5
Dehumidification Equipment
Investigation of Water Vapor WS
Migration and Moisture Storage in TC 9.6
an Insulated Wall Structure
Human Response to Cooling with WS
Air Jets TC 2.1
Indoor Air Quality Evaluations of URP
Three Office Buildings EHC
A Study to Evaluate the Efficacy of WS
Biocides Against Legionella in Open TC 3.6
Recirculation Cooling Systems
Control of Outside Air and Building WS
Pressurization in VAV Systems TC 9.1
Test of Blower-Door Building WS
Pressurization Devices TC 4.3
Testing Grease Hoods WS
TC 9.7
Matching Filtration to Health WS
Requirements TC 2.4
Optimum Airflow Velocity in WS
Cleanrooms TC 9.2
Define a Fractional Efficiency Test WS
Method that is Compatible with TC 2.4
Particulate Removal Air Cleaners
Used in General Ventilation
Cost Completion
$119K 1990
$50K 1991
$58K 1989
$115K 1991
$71K 1989
$99K 1991
$94K 1990
$15K 1989
$55K 1991
$17K 1990
$52K 1991
$104K 1992
A-14
-------
92-93 ASHRAE Research Plan
lAQ-Related Projects Completed
RP No. Title TC/TG Cost
674 Evaluation of Gas Phase Air WS $27K
Filtration Equipment as Used TC 2.3
in Common Building Applications
675 Determination of Air Filter WS $95K
Performance Under Variable-Air- TC 2.4
Volume (VAV) Conditions
702 Field Study of Occupant Comfort and WS $143K
Office Thermal Environments in a TC 2.1
Hot-Humid Climate
703 Room Air Movement Data for WS $120K
Validating Numerical Models TC 4.10
705 Low Temperature Air Distribution: WS $90K
Jets of Low Temperature Air TC 6.9
730 Development of Ventilation Rates WS $104K
and Design Information for Laboratory TG/LS
Animal Facilities
Completion
1991
1991
Not
Complete
Not
Complete
Not
Complete
Not
Complete
A-15
-------
APPENDIX B
DOE VENTILATION-RELATED RESEARCH
B-1
-------
Environmental Measurements Laboratory, NY
Annual Report - Calendar Year 1991
EML-545, April 1992.
Intercomparison of a modified microorifice uniform deposit impactor and a high
volume screen diffusion battery for radon progeny particle size measurements.
Investigator: K-W Tu.
A study of variables affecting surface deposition of radon progeny. Investigators:
G. Klemic, E.O. Knutson, and C.V. Gogolak.
DOE-CEC Particle Size Measurement Intercomparison. Investigators: E.O.
Knutson and A.C. George.
Indoor Air Quality, Infiltration, and Ventilation Program
at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Healthy Building Study at National Renewable Energy Laboratory (Sandia)
B-2
-------
APPENDIX C
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY
FY 1992 VENTILATION-RELATED RESEARCH
C-1
-------
Field Assessment of Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality. Development of automated
system for monitoring ventilation system performance and local ventilation conditions.
Airflow and Pollutant Transport Modeling in Multizone Buildings. Apply computer
simulation model, CONTAM88, to study multizone airflow and contaminant dispersal
problems.
Indoor Pollutant Levels and Ventilation System Performance. Field measurements to
study the relationship between indoor pollutant levels and ventilation system performance,
e.g., carbon dioxide, particulates and ozone.
Building and HVAC Characterization for IAQ Evaluations. Develop parameters for
characterizing building and HVAC features in conjunction with studies of indoor air quality
in commercial building. (w/EPA)
Field Measurements of Ventilation Effectiveness. Develop and apply tracer gas
methods for quantifying ventilation effectiveness in mechanically ventilated buildings.
(w/DOE)
Three-Dimensional Modeling of Room Air Motion. Apply computer models to study
effects of ventilation rate, temperature, thermal load and supply/return vent configuration
on room air motion, comfort, ventilation effectiveness and contaminant dispersal. (w/DOE)
Indoor Air Quality in New Office Buildings. Long-term, automated measurements of
ventilation and contaminant levels in a new Federal office building in Overland, MO.
(w/GSA)
Comparison of Ventilation Measurement Techniques. Comparison of tracer gas decay,
direct airflow rate measurements, and temperature and tracer gas balances in BPA
Building in Portland, OR; assessment of BPA building ventilation rates 2 years after NIST
study. (w/BPA)
Presentation by A. Persily, August 1992.
C-2
------- |