EPA/600/R-16/067 I January 2017
www.epa.gov/homeland-security-research
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
oEPA
Wide Area Stabilization of Radiological
Particulate Contamination
St
Office of Research and Development
Homeland Security Research Program
-------
This page left intentionally blank
-------
Wide Area Stabilization of
Radiological Particulate
Contamination
January 2017
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio, 45268
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Homeland Security Research Program
-------
This page left intentionally blank
-------
Disclaimer
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), through its Office of Research and
Development's National Homeland Security Research Center, funded and managed this
investigation through Interagency Agreement 92392301 with Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. This report is peer- and administratively reviewed and approved for publication as
an EPA document. This report does not necessarily reflect the views of the EPA. No official
endorsement should be inferred. This report includes photographs of commercially available
products. The photographs are included for the purposes of illustration only and are not intended
to imply that EPA approves or endorses the products or their manufacturers. EPA does not
endorse the purchase or sale of any commercial products or services.
Questions concerning this document and its application should be addressed to the following
individual:
Sang Don Lee, Ph.D.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
National Homeland Security Research Center
109 T.W. Alexander Dr. (E343-06)
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Telephone No.: (919) 541-4531
Fax No.: (919) 541-0496
e-Mail Address: lee.sangdon@epa.gov
1
-------
Executive Summary
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration with the Department of Homeland
Security developed radiological decontamination and early phase waste management methods in
support of first responders. This work was conducted to study the containment of radiological
particle contamination, to develop best practices for gross decontamination and mitigation
following a radiological incident, to develop guidance for early phase storage of radiological
waste, and based on information gained in the first three work areas, to develop an easy-to-use
mobile device application that could be leveraged by first responders for technical information,
preparedness activities, and operational use during a response and recovery.
The current study determined the containment technologies that meet the needs for the early
phase application responding to a wide area radiological incident. The technologies were initially
identified through communication with the stakeholders. Literature search further identified
advantages and disadvantages for each of the technologies, which were grouped into tiers based
on the time-frame they would be available following a radiological release. Stakeholders then
ranked containment technologies in terms of their preference and interest in use and availability.
The laboratory and field experiments were conducted to fill the technical gaps of the top ranked
technologies. The final part of this study gathered operational information on the selected
technologies by conducting a field demonstration.
Stabilization technologies are designed to prevent the spread of particles (such as by
resuspension) and are routinely used in industries such as road construction for dust control. The
application of rapidly available and easily applied stabilization technologies has the potential for
accomplishing multiple goals following the release of radioactive particles from radiological
dispersal devices, improvised nuclear devices, or nuclear facility accidents. Preventing or
reducing resuspension provides a reduction in inhalation dose to responders. In addition, such
technologies would limit the spread of contamination to other non-contaminated, less-
contaminated or recently decontaminated areas, subsequently reducing the time and resources
needed for decontamination.
Technologies immediately available to first responders include fire hose water and fire-fighting
foam. These technologies, while quickly available, contain high water content and therefore may
result in decontamination incompatibilities and waste management problems, particularly for
soluble radionuclides such as Cesium-137 (Cs-137). More traditional technologies for
radionuclide stabilization include those used routinely in the nuclear industry. Such technologies
have previously been demonstrated as highly effective, but are difficult to obtain in enough
quantities to treat a wide area contamination event during the early phase response following a
radiological release.
Interim technologies such as those found at local hardware stores, city or county public works, or
state resource facilities offer wider availability in larger quantities, but have not previously been
tested for stabilization of radiological particulates. Three examples were selected for additional
testing, representing materials that can be quickly and easily applied to large areas using existing
equipment and for which experimental data would address technical gaps. SoihO®1 dust control
1 http://www.geltechsolutions.com/soil2o/home.aspx
11
-------
wetting agent, calcium chloride (CaCh) salt2 used in dirt-road dust mitigation, and Phos-
Chek®MVP-F3 fire retardant used to protect structures and create firebreaks in wildland fires
were each evaluated. The work presented in this technical report addresses the following
technical gaps identified for such materials:
• binding soluble radioactivity and preventing migration
• providing dose reduction
• preventing resuspension of particles (radioactive or surrogate)
• negatively impacting subsequent decontamination efforts and the environment
Experimental evaluations used Cs-137 to determine dose reduction and binding efficacy. The
presence of increasing concentrations of CaCh demonstrated enhanced sorption of aqueous Cs-
137 onto Arizona road dust (ARD), suggesting the transport of soluble contamination would be
hindered. The material properties of Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant and SoihO® wetting
agents made separation of aqueous Cs-137 from the solid material extremely difficult. While
quantitative data could not be obtained through traditional sorption studies, qualitatively it was
determined that Cs-137 was bound to both SoihO® and Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant.
Cesium-137 was also used to evaluate the dose-attenuation provided by an increasing thickness
of stabilization technology. Dose reductions were observed for both Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire
retardant resulting in greater than 20x reduction in dose for a 15 millimeters (mm) thickness, and
SoihO® wetting agent resulting in a 13x dose reduction for a 5 mm thickness. Both technologies
demonstrated that dose attenuation is affected by drying (and therefore water content). Cesium-
137 emits beta radiation and the daughter product emits gamma. It is believed that much of the
dose attenuation observed in these studies was from the beta emission. Gamma dose reduction
would require a significantly thicker water layer.
Fluorescent particles were used to mimic radioactive contamination in studies to determine
resuspension from surfaces during walking and driving over pavers coated with stabilization
technologies. Particles were applied to pavers, which subsequently were treated with
stabilization technologies, aged outdoors for between 3 and 30 days, and then were impacted by
walking and driving activities. The use of fabric swatches on pavers allowed a controlled
method of studying transfer of particles from pavers during surface disturbance. Imaging of
pavers and fabric swatches was performed under ultraviolet (UV) illumination, and the resulting
images were processed to remove background signal noise and to provide an assessment of the
area covered by fluorescent particles relative to a specified region of interest for each surface.
The transfer of particles from control pavers (containing no stabilization technology) onto fabric
swatches was similar during both walking and driving activities, with a median transfer factor of
between 6x and 8x for driving and walking after 14 days of aging, and lx for both driving and
walking after 27 and 30 days of aging respectively. For a shorter aging period of just 3 days, the
transfer factor for walking was 3x. Transfer of particles during walking over pavers aged for 3
and 14 days were typically lower than the controls, with SoihO®, CaCh and Phos-Chek®MVP-F
fire retardant. During driving activities, the transfer of particles from treated surfaces was least
2 http://www.tetrachemicals.com/products/calcium chloride/
3 http://phoschek.com/product/phos-chek-mvp-f/
-------
for Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant, followed by SoihO® and greatest for surfaces treated with
CaCh. These results, obtained in Lawrence Livermore facilities are consistent with initial results
observed during a demonstration event conducted with Battelle in Columbus, OH earlier in the
year. The results for stabilization technologies aged for 27 days with driving, and 30 days with
walking were affected by rain events. The results show that the application of stabilization
technologies on surfaces can reduce the transfer of particles removed from pavers during
walking and driving, provided no rain occurs.
An evaluation of the impacts on decontamination processes, waste generation and the
environment following stabilization suggests that while Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant, CaCh
and SoihO® bind Cs-137, the material properties of each stabilizer will effect decontamination.
Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant dries to form a rubbery material that can easily be removed
from surfaces and will contain much of the contamination, providing a positive impact on
decontamination processes. The volume of waste generated will depend on the thickness of
material applied, and the thickness will be a trade-off with dose reduction requirements. Fire
retardant is not considered a hazardous waste and can be disposed of in landfills, but it does have
documented toxicity for fish when drainage into populated water occurs. SoihO® wetting agent
dries to form chips and flakes. In experiments containing Cs-137, the flakes were strongly
adhered to glass surfaces and were associated with the contamination. While waste volume will
be less given the properties on drying, it may also be difficult to remove the flakes from surfaces,
potentially making decontamination difficult. SoihO® wetting agent is also non-hazardous and
does not appear to have negative environmental impacts. CaCh is not hazardous as supplied,
however it forms corrosive brines that may likely leach metals from surfaces, potentially creating
hazardous waste without radioactivity and mixed waste with radioactive components. Similarly,
the as-supplied material is not a pollutant, but the corrosive brine may leach metals with potential
environmental impacts.
In summary, widely available Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant, SoihO® wetting agent and
CaCh dust suppression technologies successfully demonstrate the feasibility of using less-
traditional materials to stabilize radiological material on surfaces. Additional studies should
evaluate the efficacy using technologies appropriate for wide areas (e.g., air-drop, sprayer truck,
hose, fast moving vehicles and different types of foot traffic, etc.)
IV
-------
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) for their support
of this work, in particular, Adam Hutter and Ben Stevenson. The following individuals are
acknowledged for review of this document:
United States Environmental Protection Agency
James Mitchell
Terry Stilman
Matthew Magnuson
Acronyms
Abs. RH
absolute relative humidity
ADT
average daily traffic
AFFF
aqueous film-forming foam
APP
ammonium polyphosphate
ARD
Arizona road dust
AS
ammonium sulfate
Atm. Press.
atmospheric pressure
Ba
barium
CaCh
calcium chloride
CaO
calcium oxide
CERCLA
Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act
Cs
cesium
C Sbound
sorbed/bound cesium
CsCl
cesium chloride
CSfree
non-sorbed/non-bound cesium
DAP
diammonium phosphate
DHS
U.S. Department of Homeland Security
DOE
U.S. Department of Energy
EPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
FEMA
Federal Emergency Management Agency
FFFP
film-forming fluoroprotein
HC1
hydrochloric acid
HDPE
high-density polyethylene
HPGe
high purity germanium
ID
identification
IND
improvised nuclear device
IR
infrared
Kd
distribution coefficient
Kf
Freundlich sorption constant
LC50
lethal concentration required to kill 50% of specified species
LED
light-emitting diode
LLNL
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
MAP
monoammonium phosphate
Mg
magnesium
-------
MgCh magnesium chloride
MgO magnexium oxide
MSDS material safety data sheets
n Freundlich sorption order constant
N sample number
NaCl sodium choride
NCF Nuclear Counting Facility
NIH National Institutes of Health
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NPP nuclear power plant
PFA pulverized fly ash
PPE personal protective equipment
QA quality assurance
QAPP quality assurance project plan
RCRA Resource, Conservation and Recovery Act
RDD radiological dispersal device
ROI region of interest
SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
SD, Std. Dev. standard deviation
Temp temperature
UV ultra violet
limits
cm
centimeter
CP
centiPoise
cpm
counts per minute
cy
cubic yard
dpm
disintegrations per minute
fl-oz
fluid-ounce
ft
feet
g
gram
gal
gallon
in
inch
lb
pound
keV
kiloelectron volts
MeV
mega electron Volt
mM
millimolar
mm
millimeter
mPa.s
milliPascal-second
mR/hr
milliRoentgen per hour
m/s
meter per second
t
ton
[id
microCurie
[j,L
microliter
[j,m
micrometer (micron)
W/m2
Watts per square meter
-------
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ii
Acknowledgements v
Acronyms v
Units vi
Table of Contents vii
Figures viii
Tables viii
1. Introduction 1
2. Selection of Stabilization Materials and Identification of Technical Gaps 4
2.1 Water Application 6
2.2 Fire-Fighting Foams and Retardants 6
2.3 Specialized Decon Gels, Polymers and Foams 8
2.4 Clays and Zeolites 9
2.5 Chloride Salts 10
2.6 Dust Wetting Agents 11
2.7 High Priority Technical Knowledge Gaps in the Literature 11
3. Laboratory Testing of Stabilization Materials 13
3.1 Fire Retardant 13
3.2 Chloride Salts 17
3.3 Wetting Agents 21
4. Outdoor Demonstration of Stabilization Materials 23
5. Outdoor Testing and Semi-Quantitative Measurement of Stabilization Materials 26
5.1 Walking Disturbance Studies 31
5.2 Driving Disturbance Studies 33
5.3 Discussion of Outdoor Test Results 35
6. Quality Assurance (QA) 38
6.1 Literature Survey of Stabilization Materials 38
6.2 Laboratory Testing of Stabilization Technologies 38
7. Waste Management and Decontamination Considerations 42
8. References 44
Appendix A: Information on Potential Stabilization Technology Provided to Stakeholders.... 48
Appendix B: ImageJ Macro 53
Appendix C: Information Table for Stabilization Technologies 55
Appendix D: Product Material Safety Data Sheets 61
-------
Figures
Figure 1-1. Down-Selection Approach 2
Figure 1-2. Radiological stabilization material tiers for availability 3
Figure 3-1. Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant initial qualitative studies with increasing drying
(A) through (D) 14
Figure 3-2. Cs-137 Count rate and dose rate attenuation study images 14
Figure 3-3. Measured Cs-137 count rate and dose rate reduction factor through PhosChek Phos-
Chek®MVP-F fire retardant 14
Figure 3-4. Dose rate reduction factors for wet (open circles) and dried layers (full circles) of
Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant with Cs-137 16
Figure 3-5. Conditional Kd sorption versus mass of Arizona road dust 18
Figure 3-6. Standard sorption isotherm for Cs-137 on Arizona road dust with varying CaCh
concentrations 19
Figure 3-7. Freundlich sorption isotherms for each CaCh concentration investigated 20
Figure 3-8. Cs-137 Measured count rate and dose rate attenuation through SoihO®wetting agent
21
Figure 3-9. Dose rate reduction factors for wet (open circles) and dried layers (full circles) of
SoihO® wetting agent 22
Figure 3-10. SoihO® wetting agent before and after heating / drying 22
Figure 4-1. Photograph taken during driving activities over pavers coated with Phos-Chek®MVP-
F fire retardant 24
Figure 4-2. Photograph of tire tracks in particles on positive control pavers after driving 24
Figure 4-3. Photograph of particles transferred to tire during positive control after driving 25
Figure 4-4. Photograph taken during walking activities on fire retardant material 25
Figure 5-1. Field test area 26
Figure 5-2. Aging of pavers 27
Figure 5-3. Laboratory imaging of pavers 27
Figure 5-4. Typical images after each post-processing operation 29
Figure 5-5. Median particle transfer factor for aged stabilization technologies under walking
disturbance 36
Figure 5-6. Median particle transfer factors for aged stabilization technologies under driving
disturbance 37
Tables
Table 2-1. Stakeholder ranked containment technologies 5
Table 2-2. Examples of long-term fire retardant products, gum thickened, containing corrosion-
inhibitors 8
Table 3-1. Cs-137 measured count rate and dose rate attenuation through wet Phos-Chek®MVP-
F fire retardant 15
Table 5-1. Outdoor study conditions 30
Table 5-2. Outdoor weather conditions during walking and driving studies 30
Table 5-3. Percentage area particle coverage, 3-day aging study 2a with walking disturbance... 31
Table 5-4. Percentage area particle coverage, 14-day aging study 3 with walking disturbance .. 32
Table 5-5. Percentage area particle coverage, 30-day aging study 2b with walking disturbance 33
Table 5-6. Percentage area particle coverage, 14-day aging study 4 with driving disturbance.... 34
Vlll
-------
Table 5-7. Percentage area particle coverage, 27-day aging study 5 with driving disturbance.... 35
Table 6-1. Data quality indicators for critical measurements 39
Table 6-2. Additional data quality indicators specific to the test matrix samples 40
Table 6-3. Equipment calibration schedule 40
IX
-------
1. Introduction
After a radiological dispersion device (RDD) or accidental radiological release, there may be a
large area that is contaminated. Re-suspension and tracking of contamination may create issues
with containing the contaminated area and create additional exposure to the first responders and
later decontamination workers during the early phase response. There is a need for technologies
and methodologies to reduce resuspension and tracking. Current radiological particle
containment relies on securing the area, setting up a single egress and ingress route, and
minimizing the amount of contaminated equipment and vehicles leaving the contaminated zone.
The re-suspension and tracking of contamination may greatly hamper the ability to conduct first
response activities in that zone, therefore, technologies that can reduce these spreading
mechanisms are needed. Nicholson et al. (1989) found that large amounts of fluorescent
particles were resuspended due to the turbulence created by a single passing vehicle and that
amounts resuspended increased with particle size and vehicle speed. Additionally, radionuclide
re-entrainment from rural areas (such as forests) into downstream, populated areas can lead to
protracted decontamination efforts. There are several articles documenting the resuspension of
radioactive particles released from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (NPP) in both the vicinity
of the reactor (Garger, 1994; Kashparov et al., 1994) and in Europe (Hollander, 1994; Garland
and Pomeroy, 1994), as well as, resulting from the Goiania Cs-137 accident (Pires do Rio et al.,
1994).
Evaluation of the capture and release of radionuclides in such areas can aid decontamination
planning and allow more accurate prediction of fate and transport models. Events in Japan
following Fukushima present a unique opportunity to learn and better inform U.S. and
international response and recovery planning for future radiological incidents. Improvements in
guidance for private citizens and contractors, advanced large area decontamination technologies
and large-volume waste treatment technologies can be realized through understanding and
learning from current practices in Japan. In most cases in Japan, public self-decontamination
guidance and resulting efforts have been derived by trial and error. Incident response and
subsequent guidance on stabilization and decontamination in the US can leverage prior efforts to
make more informed choices and create a toolbox for both decision makers and responders.
Similarly, wide area remediation efforts and waste treatment techniques deployed in in Japan
following the Fukushima Dai-ichi release can provide input for improved planning the U.S.
domestic response.
In the NPP decommissioning industry, coatings are employed to reduce the spread of contained,
small-scale contamination. These coatings are not readily available to the first responders and
the coatings' applicability in various situations relevant to wide area release (e.g. surface types,
applicable area, impact by environmental conditions, etc.) is unknown. First responders may
need containment methodologies that can be employed with existing equipment and materials on
site using techniques such as fire hosing, street sweepers, and painting.
Desirable properties for potentially successful containment technologies should have the
following properties in regard to implementation following a radiological release:
Ability to suppress particle resuspension and reduce in the spread of contamination
Ability to reduce dose to responders and public
Minimize waste consequences when applied and removed
i
-------
Long stability and favorable weathering
The study was designed to determine the containment technologies that meet the above listed
properties for the early phase application responding to a wide area radiological incident. The
technologies were initially identified by the communication with the stakeholders. Literature
search further identified advantages and disadvantages for each of the technologies, which were
grouped into tiers based on the time-frame they would be available following a radiological
release. Twenty-four technologies were identified and recommended by the stakeholders. Since
laboratory testing and field-scale evaluations cannot be performed on all technologies, a down-
selection of potential stabilization technologies is being performed and is shown in Figure 1-1.
Stakeholders including local, state, and federal responders then ranked containment technologies
in terms of their preference and availability. This task gathered more information on the
stakeholder-selected technologies and identified technical gaps that need to be addressed with
experimental research before technical procedures can be developed for containment technology
use in the field.
3 Tiers of potential stabilization technologies:
1: Fire-fighter materials available within several hrs
2: Locally available materials available within 24 hrs.
3: Rad specific commercially available materials > 24 hrs
I
Stakeholder Input
Highly ranked technologies:
Water; fire-fighting foams (and retardant); rad specific
foams, gels, polymers and coatings; clays; chloride salts,
dust wetting/suppressing agents
Literature review
Feasibility and technology gaps:
Fire retardants; chloride salts; dust wetting agents
u
CO
O
Q.
Q_
<
c
CD
E
CD
Q.
Sop analysis
3 Technologies requiring data
Fire retardants; chloride salts; wetting agents
*
Laboratory experiments
Most promising technology
Outdoor field experiments
DHSdemo
Top technology
Figure 1-1. Down-Selection Approach
As a starting point for selecting technological for potential investigation, technologies were
identified and grouped into one of three tiers based on how quickly they would be available in an
appropriate amount (mass or volume, ready for deployment) in response to a wide-area
application. The tiers are described in Figure 1-2.
2
-------
T1: Fire-fighter materials (those commonly available to fire-
fighters, available immediately) e.g., water, foams
T2: Locally available materials (those commonly found at large
hardware stores or local suppliers, or commonly used by city,
county or state public works, available within 24-48 hours) e.g.,
public works materials, Lowes, Home Depot materials
T3: Rad-specific, commercially available materials (those
demonstrated effective in stabilizing radiological contamination,
not readily available locally or quickly, >72 hours) e.g., coatings
Figure 1-2. Radiological stabilization material tiers for availability
A review by Parra et al. (2009) provided an overview of fixative/stabilization materials, which
(together with a literature search for fixatives, stabilizers, wetting agents, fogging, etc.) formed
the basis for a list of potential technologies presented at a stakeholder meeting in the initial
stages of this work. The 35 meeting participants (stakeholders) represented a wide range of
federal, state, and local government, health care professionals, emergency response personnel,
and academia. Additionally, the workshop included subject matter expertise from Japan's
National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES). Advantages and disadvantages were
identified for each of the technologies, which were grouped into tiers based on the time frame
they would be available following a radiological release.
Appendix A summarizes potential containment technologies for use after a radiological release
which include a wide range of materials from water to specialized products tested in nuclear
facilities. Pros and cons for each material were provided to stakeholders, who were asked for
input and any additional information (such as needs, other pros and cons, application techniques,
etc.)
-------
2. Selection of Stabilization Materials and Identification of Technical Gaps
Following stakeholder review, the list of containment technologies in Appendix A was evaluated
and revised. Median and average scores were calculated from the stakeholder feedback (n=l 1)
with the results shown in Table 2-1. For the purpose of the detailed literature review,
technologies with an average stakeholder score greater than 3.00 were evaluated. A dotted line
in Table 2-1 separates technologies for review from those that were excluded. Furthermore,
epoxy and acrylic type coatings were included and grouped with gels. Additional information
was collected from available literature on technologies with an average stakeholder score of
3.00. Specific information included:
• Demonstrated ability to prevent resuspension (Cs-137 contained particulates)
• Impact on ultimate decontamination and waste processes
• Reduction in dose with thickness (dose attenuation)
In some cases, technologies are known to prevent particle migration (e.g., specialized gels and
polymers designed to trap and remove contamination). In addition, more specialized
technologies may require long production lead times and delivery times, or may not be available
in enough quantity to provide wide area stabilization. For this work, the term "wide area" may
be considered to be one or multiple city blocks including buildings, streets, grass etc. "Low-
tech" containment technologies such as water fogging or fire-fighting foams will be readily and
rapidly available. Their ability to prevent resuspension of contaminants is somewhat understood,
but they may dissolve and spread contamination rather than serving as containment. Technical
gaps for technologies with scores greater than 3.0 require further assessment prior to application
in response to a wide area radiological event and are discussed below.
4
-------
Table 2-1. Stakeholder ranked containment technologies
Technology
Average Score
Water application/ fogging nozzle
3.73
Fire-fighting foam: Wet foam (protein, fluroprotein, aqueous
film-forming)
3.55
Gels/polymers/coatings (e.g., DeconGel, ANL Super gel,
Westinghouse WES Strip)
3.40
Decon foams (e.g., InstaCote Autofroth, GlobalMatrechs,
Inc. NuCap, SNL AFC-380, Allen Vanguard CASCAD and
SDF, Dow FrothPak)
3.50
Clays (e.g., montmorillonite, kaolinite, illite, bentonite)
3.27
Chloride salts (CaCh, MgCh with or without road salt)
3.18
Dry firefighting foam (high expansion e.g., Hi-Ex, Ultra
Foam, Jet X)
3.00
Dust wetting agents (e.g., propylene glycol products)
3.00
Rad-Specific Epoxys (e.g., Master Lee InstaCote CC Epoxy
SP InstaCote M-25)
2.80
Rad-Specific Acrylics (e.g., Master Lee InstaCote CC Strip,
CC Wet and CC Fix; Bartlett Stripcoat TLC and Polymeric
Barrier System, Isotron RADblock, A LARA andIsoFix)
2.90
Commercial Paint
2.27
Dust Surface Crusting Agents (e.g., acrylics)
2.09
Fire-extinguishers: CO2; Purple K (potassium bicarbonate)
2.00
Mulch
2.00
Gravel
2.00
Dust Binding Agents (e.g., lignin, emulsions)
2.00
Sand
1.73
Cakes (e.g., AGUA A3000)
2.10
Lignin
2.00
Imported Soil (non-local, non-contaminated)
1.73
Straw
1.73
Road oil
1.64
Emulsified Petroleum Resins
1.55
Note: high-ranking technologies from stakeholders shown above the dotted line, technologies not selected for
further evaluation shown with gray shading.
-------
2.1 Water Application
The application of water, either through a regular hose or a misting nozzle offers rapid
deployment by fire fighters. During the response to the Chernobyl incident about 200-300 tons
(t) of water per hour was injected into the intact half of the reactor using the auxiliary feed water
pumps, but this was stopped after half a day owing to the danger of it flowing into and flooding
units 1 and 2.4 Water is readily available in most areas in a large amount, is the fastest to deploy
and is the cheapest technology considered in this evaluation. Water is widely used in dust
suppression, from underground mining applications to construction sites and has demonstrated
the ability to prevent resuspension by increasing the weight or density of particulates (either
through temporary adhesion to surfaces or clumping), or dissolution.
In the case of radionuclide contamination (and those technologies that contain significant
quantities of water), we consider two types of representative particles, namely highly soluble Cs-
137 from a NPP accident or RDD release, and less soluble improvised nuclear device (IND)
debris. For Cs-137, while the use of water spray will significantly reduce the amount of
particulate contamination available for resuspension, it will also solubilize the contamination.
This may increase difficulty of decontamination with porous materials/surfaces in contact with
contaminated water (which subsequently adheres within pores), and clean areas including
sewer/drainage systems becoming contaminated. Traditional sources of fire-fighting water may
not be available following an IND, but rainfall will leach soluble components of IND debris, and
will cause migration of insoluble particles into sewer and drainage systems. Subsequent
treatment of large volumes of contaminated water may be required. An alternative would be to
deploy absorbent material (e.g., clay boom) to collect contamination prior to runoff into the
sewer or drainage system or treatment/filtering of sewer water. There are no technology gaps
associated with understanding the application of water as a particulate suppression technology
other than site-specific fate/transport and the combination of water and sorbent materials.
Because the contaminant ideally remains in place via reducing resuspension, the technology does
not purposefully result in dose reduction at the site of initial contamination beyond movement of
contamination to drainage areas and away from wide spread surfaces.
2.2 Fire-Fighting Foams and Retard ants
Traditionally, fire-fighting foams are designed to starve a fire of oxygen and subsequently
dissipate with quick, minimal cleanup. Fire-fighting technologies can be divided between short-
term (wet or dry fire-fighting foam) and long-term (fire retardants). Fire retardants were not
included in the original evaluation sent to stakeholders, but were recommended by a stakeholder
for consideration based on large quantity application and high viscosity. Gross and Hiltz (1980)
evaluated foams for mitigating air pollution from hazardous spills; however, the chemicals
treated were gases and vapors from solvents rather than particulates.
Foam sprays were used at Chernobyl, although mainly applied to rooms and areas containing
flammable materials.5 Wet, low expansion foam such as aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF),
4 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safetv-and-Securitv/Safetv-of-Plants/Chernobvl-Accident/
5 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safetv-and-Securitv/Safetv-of-Plants/Appendices/Chernobvl-Accident—
Appendix-1 -Sequence-of-Events/
6
-------
protein-based foams and film-forming fluoroprotein foams (FFFP) are more widely used and
carried by fire departments. Their high water content is not amenable to stabilization of soluble
contaminants such as Cs-137, which would result in dissolution followed by migration into
porous materials and contamination of sewer/drainage systems similar to plain water application
(Section 2.1). There may be some interesting behavior to be studied with regard to dissolved
cesium cations interacting with anionic surfactants in the foam, but since foam lifetime is
designed to be minimal (AFFF dissipation ~ 30 mins, FFFP dissipation ~ 1 hour), the application
of such wet foams in the stabilization of Cs-137 is fairly impractical. The nature of foam offers
no reduction in whole body ground-shine dose beyond movement of contamination to drainage
areas and away from wide spread surfaces.
High-expansion foams (e.g., Hi-Ex, Ultra Foam, Jet X) typically consist of 25-60% water and
have an expansion ratio above 200. While the water content is lower than that of low-expansion
foams, the likelihood of Cs-137 dissolution and subsequent migration may still be considered
problematic. Furthermore, Hi-Ex foam is most commonly used in enclosed locations. The foam
can be affected greatly by weather and transit and so outdoor use is limited. It is unlikely the
foam offers any dose attenuation from ground-shine.
Long-term fire retardants are most commonly known for their use in wildland/forest fires, often
dropped from the air. These materials were suggested by a fire-fighter interviewed during a
stakeholder interaction meeting. The retardants are typically dropped in-front of the fire to
create a control line or fire break as well as to extinguish fire and can provide protection from
days to months. Most are commonly available as a powder that can be mixed in water. The
current retardant technologies contain some mixture of monoammonium phosphate (MAP),
diammonium phosphate (DAP), ammonium sulfate (AS) and ammonium polyphosphate (APP).
A range of viscosities can be achieved by the addition of clay or (more commonly) guar gum as a
thickening agent. Examples of Phos-Chek® and Fire-Trol® products are given in Table 2-2. A
review by Gimenez et al. (2004) discusses the quality, effectiveness, application and
environmental considerations of long-term fire retardants.
Aquatic toxicity of fire retardants due to high ammonium concentrations may present a problem
for areas with bodies of water. Additionally, corrosion inhibitors such as sodium dichromate or
sodium fluorosilicate may be added, which have human toxicity considerations. The
environmental implications of fire-retardant chemicals (including PhosChek® and Fire-Trol®
reagents) has been evaluated by Little and Calfee (2002) showing that the presence of
ferrocyanide increased the toxicity amongst other factors.
The interaction with contamination (particularly soluble Cs-137) and the ability of long-term fire
retardants (such as Phos-Chek® and Fire-Trol® products) to stabilize contamination has not been
investigated and represents a technical gap that needs to be addressed before determining
whether such technologies are appropriate for application following a RDD/IND. Additionally,
the effect of dose attenuation with retardant thickness merits evaluation. The application of fire
retardants in a short timeframe may only be feasible in areas that have such wildfire resources, or
where retardants could be flown to the area in a rapid timeframe.
7
-------
The high viscosity (similar to honey or molasses) of some fire retardants such as Fire-Trol® and
Phos-Chek® products may be advantageous on non-horizontal surfaces such as roofs and walls,
as well as treating agricultural or forest lands, where resuspension from plants/leaves is a
concern. Additionally, the thickening agents used in some fire retardants (guar gum and
attapulgus clay) are known to bind contaminants, and in the case of clay (which can also be
included in fire retardants as a colorant), specifically binds Cs-137 and other radionuclides
(Belfiore et al, 1984).
Table 2-2. Examples of long-term fire retardant products, gum thickened,
containing corrosion-inhibitors6'7
Product
Type
Yield
Viscosity, cP
(or mPa.s)
Specific Weight,
lb/gal
Phos-Chek®P 100-F
MAP/AP, high viscosity
It = 2,150
gal
801 - 1,500
8.74
Phos-Chek®MVP-F
MAP/AS medium
viscosity, contains flow
conditioner
It = 2,225
gal
401-800
8.79
Phos-Chek®LC-95 A-
R
APP low viscosity
lt= 1,054
gal
75 - 225
8.97
Phos-Chek®259-F
DAP low viscosity non-
corrosive to magnesium
lt= 1,869
gal
75 -250
8.90
Phos-Chek®LV-R and
MV-R
MAP/AS, low/medium
viscosity, contains
stabilizers
It = 860 gal
75 - 225 /
450 -750
8.93
Phos-Chek®HV -R and
-F
MAP/AS high viscosity,
contains stabilizer
It = 775 -
860 gal
1,000 - 1,600
8.93
Fire-Trol®GTS-R
DAP/AS high viscosity
lt= 1325
gal
1,200- 1,800
9.07
Fire-Trol®LCA-R,
LCG-R, LCA-F
APP low viscosity
It = 923 -
989 gal
<50
9.07-9.13
Fire-Trol®931
(Canada only)
APP low viscosity
It = 962 gal
<50
9.00
Fire-Trol®300F
DAP/AS high viscosity
lt= 1250
gal
1,200- 1,800
9.12
Vote: For comparison, approximate viscosities (centipoise, cP equivalent to mPa.s) of common
liquids are: water: 1 cP, ethylene glycol 15 cP, vegetable oil 40-50 cP, tomato juice 180 cP,
maple syrup 400-500 cP, glycerin 650-800 cP, castor oil 1,000 cP, glycerol 1500 cP, honey
>2,000 cP, molasses >5,000 cP. 1 cp = 1 mPa.s; monoammonium phosphate (MAP), ammonium
Sulfate (AS), diammonium phosphate (DAP), Ammonium polyphosphate (APP).
2.3 Specialized Decon Gels, Polymers and Foams
Gels, polymers and coatings have been designed specifically for use in remediating radiological
contamination. In some cases, gels and polymer barriers act as "permanent" isolation, whereas
6 http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/fire/wfcs/products/index.htm
7 http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/fire/retardants/current/laaa/psi.htm
8
-------
others are designed to permanently encapsulate the contamination. Some coatings are
"strippable" such as Bartlett's Stripcoat TLC (US EPA, 2008a), Sherwin Williams Alara 1146
(Archibald et al., 1999a/b), Isotron Corp Orion SC (US EPA 2008b), Pentek 604 (Archibald et
al. 1999a/b), Westinghouse WES Strip (NEI, 1996) and DeconGel (US EPA, 2011), designed to
peel away to remove contamination. Strippable coatings offer stabilization plus a single solid
waste stream. An assessment of strippable coatings was performed by Ebadian (1998). Such
materials have been widely demonstrated and proven successful in removing a percentage of
surface-bound contamination on porous and non-porous surfaces for a variety of contaminants.
However, strippable coatings have limited impact on contamination that has penetrated into the
porous material, and recent outdoor demonstration of such coatings revealed difficulties in
removal (US EPA, 2016), potentially leading to excessive worker effort, costs and dose.
Bratskaya et al. (2014) provided evidence of a nanosized selective dust suppression coating
containing transition metal ferrocyanides that actively bind Cs in carboxylic latex.
Similarly, specialized foams and chemical treatments for use in decontaminating surfaces
containing radiological contamination such as Allen Vanguard's CASCAD and SDF-200 (US
EPA, 2013a) and EAI Rad-Release (US EPA, 2013b) have been tested on both horizontal and
vertical surfaces. Designed for quick decontamination rather than stabilization for longer
periods, such foams are generally accepted to be good at removing surface contamination and
even removing sub-surface contamination from porous materials.
Logistically, it may be difficult to obtain and mobilize enough specialized foam, gel or coating
depending on the area of outdoor contamination. Shelf-life, cure-time, application lifetime,
weathering, and effectiveness for particulate contamination are generally well known for these
products and are available from the manufacturers and suppliers.
2.4 Clays and Zeolites
Clay and zeolite materials are well known as strong adsorbers, particularly for Cs-137. Clays are
routinely used for stabilizing radioactive and hazardous waste. Lacy (1954) treated a mixed
fission product solution with montmorillonite. Biotite, zeolite, heavy clay, sepiolite, kaolinite
and bentonite uptake of Cs-137 and other radionuclides have been widely researched and
demonstrated by Dyer and Mikhail (1985), Passikallio (1999), Said and Hafez (1999) and
Bayulken et al. (2010). The ability of clay to sorb and seal when hydrated has led to their
inclusion in engineered barrier designs for many nuclear waste disposal concepts. The role of
reactive clay barriers in soil for Cs-137 retention and limiting bioavailability was evaluated by
Krumhansl et al. (2000). Approximately 1,800 tons of sand and clay, and 3,200 tons of boron,
dolomite and lead were dropped by helicopter on to the burning reactor core of Chernobyl in an
effort to extinguish the blaze and limit the release of radioactive particles.8'9 Vovk et al. (1993)
and Ahn et al. (1995) demonstrated decontamination of building surfaces (including those in
urban areas affected by Chernobyl) using naturally occurring clays from Korea and Ukraine.
8 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safetv-and-Securitv/Safetv-of-Plants/Chernobvl-Accident/
9 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safetv-and-Securitv/Safetv-of-Plants/Appendices/Chernobvl-Accident—
Appendix-1 -Sequence-of-Events/
9
-------
Since clays and zeolites have been well demonstrated both in the laboratory and in contaminated
areas including Chernobyl, few technical gaps exist. The major questions associated with
fielding clays and zeolites as a rapid stabilization technology following a radiological release are
whether enough material could be deployed in time and whether radionuclides bound to clay dust
could be resuspended. Nevertheless, clay should be considered a prime candidate for
stabilization, especially since it also serves as a decontamination technology.
2.5 Chloride Salts
Calcium and magnesium chloride salts are widely used for dust control on non-paved roads,
hence their availability, rapid deployment and ease of use are preferential. In fact, calcium
chloride has been used to treat roads since the 19th century. Both chemicals are hygroscopic,
which helps bind dust/particles to the surface. Performance depends on temperature, relative
humidity and traffic, with effectiveness generally lasting 6-12 months (Wisconsin Transportation
Information Center, 1997 and Han, 1992). Both technologies can well withstand average daily
(ADT) traffic up to 250 vehicles and offer fair protection above 250 vehicles (Han, 1992), where
ADT is the average number of vehicles in either direction passing a specific point in a 24-hour
period (vehicles per day). Sanders and Addo (1993) report 55% aggregate retention compared to
a control for CaCh and 77% retention for MgCh. Satterfield and Ono (1996) observed a 92%
dust reduction using a 26% MgCh solution applied during street sweeping (US EPA, 2004).
Both salts are highly soluble, so precipitation will disturb the surface and reduce effectiveness.
There are operational issues associated with chloride salt use, including corrosion and the
generation of slippery surfaces. Surfaces must be graded well; therefore, the technology cannot
be applied to sloped roofing or vertical surfaces. Magnesium chloride requires temperatures
above 70°F, RH above 32% and more material compared to calcium chloride to be effective, but
creates a harder surface (Wisconsin Transportation Information Center, 1997).
A report by the US EPA on the ecological impact of land restoration and cleanup (US EPA,
1978) states that chlorides can be applied to large affected areas using standard agricultural or
construction equipment, but application is restricted to areas where there is space for the
equipment to be used effectively. In addition, the EPA report notes that chlorides offer
intermediate durability lasting between 1 to 5 years. In practice however, reapplication is needed
after rain or after 6 months. Vegetation recovery requires removal of chloride material and the
technology is classified as acceptable as an alternative stabilization method for suburban and
coastal regions, but a last resort method for agricultural land (US EPA, 1978).
The application of such salts to address radiological contamination is not new; Tawil and Bold
(1983) included chloride salts in their guide to radiation fixatives stating that it has been
successfully used by the Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company at the Nevada Test Site
to reduce dust and prevent migration of particulate contamination. However, in the urban
environments considered for the current evaluation, the aqueous nature of the chloride
application may contribute to solubilization of Cs-137. The high concentration of chloride may
depress CsCl solubility, but experiments should be performed to evaluate the effect of MgCh
and CaCh on the mobility of Cs-137 in porous materials. The effectiveness of chloride salts to
bind or incorporate Cs-137 (thereby preventing migration or resuspension) has not been
investigated and represents a technology gap that should be addressed in determining
10
-------
applicability for RDD and IND response. It is anticipated that dose attenuation will be minimal
for chloride salt stabilization, similar to that achieved by a thin layer of water. The chloride cake
will dissolve under rain, but some researchers have studied additives such as calcium and
magnesium oxides (CaO, MgO), sodium silicate (Wu et al., 2007), pulverized fly ash (PFA)
(Salyak et al., 2008) with successful results. The use of such additives to chloride salts is
recommended for future stabilization experiments.
2.6 Dust Wetting Agents
Dust wetting agents were originally developed for coal mine dust suppression with applications
in subsurface mines, on mining roads and on storage and tailing piles to prevent loss and reduce
resuspension (Glanville and Wightman, 1979; Glanville and Haley, 1982 and Zeller, 1983). Dust
wetting agents are typically surfactants or organic compounds based on alcohols and diols (e.g.,
propylene glycol) that alter the interaction of particles and surfaces. Dust wetting agents suffer
from the same inherent technical problem when considering Cs-137 stabilization, namely the
solubility of Cs in the wetting agent and subsequent implications on the management of
containment and waste. In the liquid phase, Cs-137 is likely to migrate into porous materials and
enter sewer/drainage systems. However, the role of dust wetting agents on the agglomeration of
particulates resulting in the encapsulation of Cs-137 has not been investigated. It is assumed that
no dose attenuation can be achieved by using dust wetting agents beyond removal of
contaminants from the respirable range. Additionally, Instacote provides a wetting agent (CC
Wet)10 specifically for stabilizing radiological, beryllium, asbestos and other hazardous
contaminations, to be applied prior to Instacote CC Fix. A similar product (CC Demo 100)11
penetrates rubble and soil to form a penetrating protective layer over contaminated demolition
debris and may be useful in providing some level of protection from reaerosolization of
contaminants outdoors. However, a potential disadvantage of these two products is availability
at the incident scene in a short period of time in large enough amounts to treat a wide area.
2.7 High Priority Technical Knowledge Gaps In tie Literature
To evaluate the effectiveness of such non-traditional technologies, laboratory and field tests are
required to address technical knowledge gaps. The following evaluations were proposed:
• Fire Retardants
o Laboratory-scale sorption of Cs-137 to high viscosity gum-thickened fire
retardants;
o Laboratory-scale dose attenuation of Cs-137 through high viscosity retardants
studying the effect of thickness;
o Outdoor evaluation of aged fire retardant performance in reducing particulate
transfer during driving and walking activities; and
o Evaluation of impacts to decontamination and waste management.
10 http://instacote.com/cc-wet.htm
11 http://instacote.com/cc-demolition.htm
li
-------
• Chlorides
o Laboratory-scale sorption changes on coupons contaminated with Cs-137 using
chloride salt deposits, specifically examining the role of high chloride
concentration on the depression of CsCl solubility
o Outdoor evaluation of aged chloride performance in reducing particulate
contamination transfer during walking and driving activities.
• Wetting Agents
o Laboratory-scale sorption changes on coupons contaminated with Cs-137 using
wetting agents
o Laboratory-scale dose attenuation of Cs-137 using wetting agents
o Outdoor evaluation of aged wetting agent performance in reducing particulate
transfer during driving and walking activities.
12
-------
3. Laboratory Testing of Stabilization Materials
3.1 Fire Retardant
Laboratory studies using Cs-137 were undertaken to assess dose attenuation due to fire retardant
thickness and sorption experiments were conducted to determine fixation of contamination on
fire retardant material.
Initially, to evaluate the behavior of fire retardant in the laboratory, the Phos-Chek®MVP-F
powder was mixed with water at a variety of ratios spanning that recommended by the supplier.
Generally, the mixture formed a viscous material resembling syrup. Increasing layers of material
were qualitatively evaluated. At small thicknesses under ambient conditions, the mixture dried.
However, at greater thickness the mixture remained viscous, so thicker portions were heated on a
hot-plate to facilitate drying. Once dry, the material had a rubbery consistency, with a few
opaque precipitates dispersed heterogeneously. Images taken during these early qualitative
studies are shown in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1. Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant initial qualitative studies with
increasing d tying (A) through (D)
In dose rate attenuation studies, a 0.465 microCurie (uCi) Cs-137 solution (CsCl in a 0.1 Molar
(M) hydrochloric acid [HC1]) was added by stippling in microliter (jiL) aliquots to the bottom of
a glass dish and dried on a hot-plate. The dose rate and number of radioactive disintegrations
emanating from the deposited Cs-137 were measured at a fixed height (92 millimeters [mm]) as
a positive control using a Victoreen 45 IB survey meter and a Ludlum Model 12 survey ratemeter
for beta/gamma detection. Fire retardant material was mixed in a 4 g to 16 ml ratio with water,
and added stepwise to the glass dish on top of the Cs-137. The dose and activity of Cs-137 were
measured at each step through the deposited fire retardant at the same fixed height. Images taken
during the experiments are shown in Figure 3-2, and the results are shown in Table 3-1 and
Figure 3-3. The dose reduction factor was determined by dividing the dose rate (milliRoentgen
per hour [mR/hr]) emanating from the deposited and unshielded Cs-137 (no fire retardant, Figure
3-2A) by the dose rate measured through each thickness of fire retardant (Figure 3-2D). The
results show a 25-times reduction in dose rate after the application of a 20 mm thickness (3/4
13
-------
inch) of Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant compared to the bare Cs-137 deposited source.
Accordingly, the counts per minute decrease, but plateau at approximately 100 cpm
Figure 3-2. Cs-137 Count rate and dose rate attenuation study images
(A) Cs-13 7 deposited on base of dish; (B) measurement of positive control Cs-13 7 without Phos-
Chefc" MVP-W-; f() addition of Phos-Chek* MVP-F; (D) measurement of Cs-137 through Phos-
Chek^MlP-F
Cs-137 decays via two parallel paths to metastable Barium-137m (Ba-137m) via emission of a
0.512 Mega electron Volts (MeV) beta particle (94.6%) and to stable Ba-137 via a 1.174 MeV
beta particle (5.4%). The meta-stable Ba-137m in the excited state subsequently undergoes
further decay through the emission of a 0.662 MeV gamma photon. Consequently, Cs-137 emits
both beta and gamma radiation. With the beta slide open, the Victoreen 45 IB survey meter can
detect beta radiation above 0.1 MeV and gamma above 0.007 MeV, so all emissions were
detected.
Counts per
Minute
10000
30
25
1000
100
Cs-137 Dose
Rate
Reduction
Factor
10
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Wet Fire Retardant Thickness [mm]
Figure 3-3. Measured Cs-137 count rate and dose rate reduction factor
through PhosChek Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant
14
-------
Table 3-1. Cs-137 measured count rate and dose rate attenuation through wet Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire
retardant
Layer
Volume,
cm3
Thickness,
mm
Measured counts per minute, cpm
Repl Rep2 Rep3 Average SD
Measured Dose Rate, mR/hr
Repl Rep2 Rep3 Average SD
Dose Rate Reduction Factor
Repl Rep2 Rep3 Average SD
0
0
0.00
8000.00
7500.00
6500.00
7333.33
763.76
0.72
0.78
0.76
0.75
0.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1
17
0.83
2100.00
2500.00
2000.00
2200.00
264.58
0.32
0.29
0.30
0.30
0.02
2.25
2.69
2.53
2.49
0.22
2
34
1.65
1200.00
1500.00
1400.00
1366.67
152.75
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.00
3.60
3.90
3.80
3.77
0.15
3
51
2.48
1000.00
1000.00
1000.00
1000.00
0.00
0.15
0.13
0.14
0.14
0.01
4.80
6.00
5.43
5.41
0.60
4
68
3.30
750.00
750.00
700.00
733.33
28.87
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.01
6.00
7.09
6.91
6.67
0.58
5
102
4.95
350.00
450.00
400.00
400.00
50.00
0.09
0.09
0.10
0.09
0.01
8.00
8.67
7.60
8.09
0.54
6
136
6.60
280.00
320.00
300.00
300.00
20.00
0.06
0.06
0.09
0.07
0.02
12.00
13.00
8.44
11.15
2.39
7
170
8.26
250.00
280.00
250.00
260.00
17.32
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.01
14.40
13.00
10.86
12.75
1.78
8
204
9.91
200.00
230.00
220.00
216.67
15.28
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.00
14.40
15.60
15.20
15.07
0.61
9
272
13.21
175.00
200.00
200.00
191.67
14.43
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.01
24.00
15.60
15.20
18.27
4.97
10
340
16.51
160.00
180.00
180.00
173.33
11.55
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.01
24.00
19.50
19.00
20.83
2.75
11
408
19.81
140.00
140.00
140.00
140.00
0.00
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.00
24.00
26.00
25.33
25.11
1.02
12
476
23.12
120.00
120.00
130.00
123.33
5.77
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.00
24.00
26.00
25.33
25.11
1.02
13
544
26.42
90.00
100.00
110.00
100.00
10.00
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.00
24.00
26.00
25.33
25.11
1.02
14
612
29.72
90.00
90.00
90.00
90.00
0.00
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.00
24.00
26.00
25.33
25.11
1.02
cm3 = cubic centimeter
cpm= counts per minute
mm = millimeters
mR/lir = milliRoentgen per hour
Rep = replicate
SD = standard deviation
15
-------
The dose rate reduction appears to be from both the solid material and the water contained in the
matrix. This is not surprising since it is likely that the water provided some gamma dose rate
reduction and a combination of solid and water matrix provided beta dose rate reduction. It is
assumed that the fire retardant retained some water based on the rubbery nature of the dried
material, and the thickness of the dried material was not measured or calculated. According to
calculations performed (RadProCalculator)12, a 26.7 cm thickness of water is required to reduce
the gamma dose rate from Cs-137 from 1 mR/hr to 0.1 mR/hr (dose rates similar to the two
extremes of the dose attenuation measurements). This thickness is an order of magnitude greater
than that observed during the laboratory studies. Therefore, it is concluded that the dose rate
reduction observed for fire retardant and wetting agent was largely derived from attenuation of
beta radiation rather than attenuation of gamma.
14
12
1-
o
tJ 10
ra
u.
0 8
u
1 6
ae
DC
0)
V)
o ^
a
o
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fire Retardant Thickness [mm]
Figure 3-4. Dose rate reduction factors for wet (open circles) and dried layers
(full circles) of Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant with Cs-137
Sorption experiments were undertaken to determine the efficacy of Cs-137 binding to Phos-
Chek®MVP-F fire retardant. As can be seen in the photographs in Figure 3-1, when Phos-
Chek®MVP-F powder is added to water, a viscous material is generated. Despite a variety of
methods, liquids could not be filtered from the solid due to the gummy nature of the fire
retardant. While this prevented the determination of free (unbound) Cs-137 and calculation of
sorption efficiency, it did suggest that leaching of Cs-137 from the fire retardant material would
be unlikely or at least slow.
-
0
0
n
•
0
0
•
0
9
•
"
i i i
i i i
1 1 1
1 1 1
12 http ://www. radprocalculator. com
16
-------
3.2 Chloride Salts
Because chloride salts are dissolved before application, and applied in a thin layer, no dose rate
attenuation studies were commissioned. The binding of Cs-137 onto surfaces using CaCh
solutions was investigated through sorption studies on Arizona road dust, a National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST)-traceable particulate material that is well characterized and
similar to some material found in urban areas, particularly pertaining to roadways. Calcium
chloride was chosen because it is the most commonly used in dirt road stabilization.
Batch sorption experiments were performed to evaluate the sorption behavior of Cs-137 with
increasing amounts of Arizona road dust material (nominally 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, 750 and
1000 mg) that were added to individual sample tubes followed by 1 ml of solution containing Cs-
137 (nominally 0.155 |LxCi) and 9 milliliters (ml) of milli-Q deionized water, and varying
volumes of 0.333 M CaCh and 1 M NaCl up to 1 ml (NaCl being used to provide consistent
ionic strength and volume (11 ml total liquid)). Samples were capped, shaken by hand and then
placed on an incubating orbital shaker table (Model 3500, VWR) with the temperature set at
25°C. Samples were equilibrated for 4 days before being filtered through a 0.2 micrometer (|J,m)
pore syringe filter. Experiments were performed in triplicate.
The liquid supernatants containing Cs-137 were analyzed at the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory (LLNL) Nuclear Counting Facility (NCF). The NCF utilizes gamma-ray
spectroscopy systems that employ high purity germanium (HPGe) co-axial detectors from
ORTEC. Each detector system is comprised of an HPGe detector connected to an ORTEC
DSPEC multi-channel analyzer interfaced using ORTEC Maestro PC software for spectral
acquisition. Initial calibration of the detectors was accomplished by characterizing the detectors
intrinsic efficiency, peak shape parameters, energy linearity and other detector parameters using
NIST-traceable point sources that have gamma-ray energies spanning the 0 - 2,000 kiloelectron
Volts (keV) energy range. Once the detector had been fully characterized, calibration
verification was performed by analyzing NIST-traceable standards of various matrices and
geometries (e.g. a point-source, liquid, and soil).
Spectral analysis was performed using LLNL's in-house software code GAMANAL (Gunnick,
1972). The code allows for the automated analysis of gamma-ray spectra collected for a wide
array of sample matrices and geometries by using radiation transport physics algorithms to
account matrix attenuation and geometry effects.
Samples were prepared for counting by pipetting a known volume (nominally 10 ml) of the Cs-
137 bearing solution into high-density polyethylene (HDPE) containers (LLNL-designed
"Prindle" vials). These containers' geometry and material are well characterized and designed
for use in the LLNL NCF automated sample changer systems. Count times for these samples
ranged from 30 min - 90 minutes depending the Cs-137 activity present in the samples. Count
times were selected to optimize counting statistics and sample throughput. For these count
times, most samples achieved counting uncertainties < 3% for the 661.6 keV gamma peak from
Cs-137. Uncertainties reported for the Cs-137 results reflect only the uncertainties on the
counting statistics for the 661.6 keV peak. Sorption results are shown in Figure 3-5 and 3-6 for
various Arizona road dust to Cs-137 ratios, and for 5 different concentrations of CaCh (0, 7.6,
15.1, 22.7 and 30.3 millimolar [mM]), using the equation:
17
-------
CSbound Kd X CSfree
where Csbound (sorbed/bound cesium) is the activity (disintergrations per minute [dpm]) of Cs-
137 bound per gram of Arizona Road Dust (ARD) and Cstee (non-sorbed/non-bound cesium) is
the activity of Cs-137 free (unbound) in 1 ml of liquid in equilibrium with the solid phase. A
sorption distribution coefficient can be determined either individually (conditional) or as a batch
with one changing variable. The average (from triplicate analysis) conditional distribution
coefficient (Kd) values (ml/gram [g]) are plotted in Figure 3-5 against the actual mass of Arizona
road dust added to each experiment. Here it can be seen that increasing the concentration of
CaCh results in higher binding of Cs-137, particularly in the presence of higher amounts of
Arizona road dust. Optimal binding of Cs-137 is observed when the CaCh concentration was
highest (30.3 mM) and the mass of Arizona road dust was 750 mg, resulting in a mean
conditional Kd value of 5430 (a = 600). The results show that Cs-137 binding to road dust can
be increased with the addition of chloride salts such as CaCh.
Additionally, a standard 'linear-type' sorption isotherm plot of the activity (dpm) of Cs-137
sorbed (bound) per gram of Arizona road dust, versus the activity of free (unbound) Cs-137 per
ml of solution showed non-linear behavior, suggesting complex equilibrium or kinetic sorption
behaviors, which are not unexpected from adsorbent materials and heterogeneous adsorption
systems.
6.0E+03
5.0E+03
DJD
a 4.0E+03
3.0E+03
2.0E+03
1.0E+03
0.0E+00
->-0 mM CaC12
•-7.6 mM CaC12
*-15.1 mM CaC12
*22.7 mM CaC12
-8-30.3 mM CaC12
200 400 600 800
Mass of ARD, mg
1000 1200
Figure 3-5. Conditional Kd sorption versus mass of Arizona road dust
18
-------
3.5E+07
3.0E+07 T /
2.5E+07 1 / /I/ /
-~-0 mM CaC12
-®-7.6 mM CaC12
-*-15.1 mM CaC12
*22.7 mM CaC12
~30.3 mM CaC12
5.0E+06 /
O.OE+OO
O.OE+OO 5.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.5E+04 2.0E+04
Cs-137 dpm / ml
Figure 3-6. Standard sorption isotherm for Cs-137 on Arizona road dust with
varying CaCk concentrations
Since Arizona road dust includes more than one mineral phase capable of binding Cs, the
Freundlich sorption isotherm (Freundlich, 1906) may be a more appropriate model. Such
isotherms are applicable to heterogeneous sorption sites and are widely used in quantifying
sorption on environmental surfaces, with the sorption-order constant (n) reflecting a measure of
non-linearity. Plots are linear and yield both the Freundlich sorption constant, Kf (taken from the
intercept on the y-axis) and the sorption order constant, n (taken from the gradient):
C Sbound — Kf X C Sfree'1
The results for each concentration are shown in Figure 3-7 and show that the log of the
Freundlich sorption constant (Kf) is proportional to the CaCh concentration, as shown in the
lower right panel (red). Additionally, the trend in Freundlich sorption-order constant (n) with
CaCh concentration is shown in the lower right panel (blue), decreasing with increasing CaCh
concentration. A sorption-order value less than unity indicates that sorption is favorable at CaCh
concentrations greater than approximately 20 mM (where the interception on the y-axis equals
unity). This suggests that CaCh concentrations must be kept above approximately 20 mM on
surfaces to maintain the positive sorption influence on Cs-137. Rain events will be problematic
for CaCh deposits as rain will cause dissolution of the chloride salt and will likely lead to the
migration of Cs-137 originally stabilized by the salt. Over time, without rain events or wetting,
the concentration of CaCh will increase due to evaporation. On drying, flakes will be generated,
and while Cs-137 may be incorporated into the flakes (potentially hindering migration), it would
be desirable to reapply either additional chloride salt solutions or rewet with water. Care must be
taken not to apply water in quantities significant enough to lower the CaCh concentration below
approximately 20 mM.
19
<
M 2.0E+07
rf) 1.5E+07
1.0E+07
-------
8.0
7.5
BC
1 7.0
a
-a
ft 6.5
1
U 6.0
T3
B
i 5.5
;Q
M c n
o 5.0
J
4.5
4.0
1,5
0 mM CaCl2
y= 1.6949x +0.5565
R* = 0.96005
2,5 3 3.5 4
Log (free Cs-137 dpm/ml)
4.5
8.0
7.5
"3
1 7.0
a
T3
2 6'5
U 6.0
•a
B
I 5.5
&
o 5.0
4.5
4.0
7.6 mM CaCL2
y= 1.3588x+ 1.6149
RJ = 0.9733
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Log (free Cs-137 dpm/ml)
4.5
8.0
7.5
3
1 7.0
a
-a
r- 6 5
U 6.0
TJ
E
g 5.5
g,
o 5.0
4.5
4.0
1.5
15.1 mM CaC12
y= 1.1818X + 2.3406
R* = 0.97714
8.0
7.5
3
1 7.0
a
T3
2 6'5
eh
U 6.0
= 5.0
4.5
4.0
22.7 mM CaC12
y = 0.9939x +3.0377
R2 = 0.9633
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Log (free Cs-137 dpm/ml)
4.5
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Log (free Cs-137 dpm/ml)
4.5
8.0
7.5
"St
7.0
a.
-a
f-
m
6.5
1
U
6.0
TJ
B
a
e
5.5
w
5
5.0
J
4.5
4.0
30.3 mM CaC12
y = 0.758x +4.1886
R1 = 0.99087
Cs-137/ARD Freundlich Constants
y = -0.0296X + 1.6453
RJ = 0.98616
= 0.1148x + 0.6101
RJ = 0.99183
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Log (free Cs-137 dpm/ml)
4.5
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0
CaCI2, mM
Figure 3-7. Freundlich sorption isotherms for each CaCh concentration
investigated
20
-------
3.3 Wetting Agents
Dose rate reduction studies were performed using SoibO® wetting agent. Similar to the studies
using fire retardant, the dose rate from stippled and dried Cs-137 solution was measured through
increasing thicknesses of wetting agent. The data are shown in Figure 3-8, where it can be seen
that the dose rate can be decreased by up to 17x with a thickness of 10 mm of wet SoibO® gel
(greater than that achieved using the same thickness of Phos-Chek®MVP-F). It is suspected that
the reduction in dose rate is due to the attenuation of beta particles through water associated with
SoibO®.
10000
1000
100
10
Counts per
Minute
Cs-137 Dose
Rate
Reduction
Factor
2 4 6 8
Wet Soil20 Thickness [mm]
20
15
10
10
Figure 3-8. Cs-137 Measured count rate and dose rate attenuation through
SoibO Svetting agent
When left to air-dry for 1.5 hours, the dose rate reduction factor for SoibO" decreased versus
that for wet SoibO®, as shown in Figure 3-9. The last data point for dried material (full square)
represents a sample that was air-dried over a weekend, clearly showing that with additional
drying the dose rate climbed (dose rate reduction factor decreased) as water was evaporated from
the SoibO® material. This supports the hypothesis that much of the dose rate reduction observed
is a result of water content.
When taken to dryness, the SoibO® material cracks (as shown in Figure 3-10), and on removal
from the glass dish, it was found that the Cs-137 was associated with the dried SoibO® "chips"
or flakes.
As with fire retardant material, sorption studies were difficult to perform because SoibO"
powder when added to water forms a gel-like material from which soluble (free) Cs-137 could
not be filtered or extracted.
21
-------
14
12
o
tJ 10
ro
8
6
0
c
u
3
T3
01
ce
I 4
ra
cc
0)
s 2
0
-
"
"
u
"
0
°
1
1
1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Soil20 Thickness [mm]
Figure 3-9. Dose rate reduction factors for wet (open circles) and dried layers
(full circles) of SoibO® wetting agent
Figure 3-10. SoibO" wetting agent before and after heating / drying
22
-------
4. Outdoor Demonstration of Stabilization Materials
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration with the Department of Homeland
Security conducted the "Wide-Area Urban Radiological Contaminant, Mitigation, and Cleanup
Technology Demonstration" in Columbus, Ohio on June 22-25, 2015.13 Radiological
decontamination and mitigation technologies were demonstrated on an urban building, including
building and vehicle wash technologies as well as several approaches to contain wash water and
radioactive particles. Demonstrations were conducted using a 75-year old brick building and the
surrounding area (including parking lots) in Columbus, OH. No radioactive contaminants were
applied during either demonstration, as the objective was to duplicate and implement realistic
operational conditions for these technologies. As part of this demonstration, the particle
containment technologies demonstrated two methods of surface disturbance, driving and walking
over the 0.3 m x 0.3 m concrete pavers covered with simulated radioactive dust (same as used for
vehicles above in Section 3).
The following reagents were prepared based on the manufacturers' recommendations:
• Tracer solution: 1 g PDT-6 mixed in 6 fl-oz water, 8 fl-oz isopropyl alcohol
• Phos-Chek®MVP-F (fire retardant): 100 g Phos-Chek®MVP-F added to 200 ml water to
make gel/slurry
• SoihO® (dust suppression product): 5 g added to 56 fluid ounces (fl-oz) water
• CaCh flakes: 100 g dissolved in 56 fl-oz water
According to the product website, PDT-6 tracer is an invisible green contamination simulation
powder used to simulate a contaminant that can be washed off and is very luminous under long
wave black light activation.14 Pavers were sprayed twice with fluorescent PDT-6 tracer particles
in solution and allowed to dry for one hour indoors (without being exposed to wind or
rain). Additional pavers were left untreated to serve as blank controls and contaminant-transfer
controls.
A portion of the pavers were then treated with each stabilization technology using a paint roller
(in the case of Phos-Chek®MVP-F and SoihO®) or sprayed on (in the case of CaCh) and allowed
to dry indoors for approximately 16 hours. Additional pavers containing tracer solution were not
sprayed with stabilization to serve as positive controls. Pavers were placed indoors on a tarp-
covered floor immediately before the demonstration. Pavers were spaced such that the tires
contacted 5 pavers, and such that one revolution of exposed tire would contact the clean pavers.
Four vehicles (including 3 mid-size cars and one medium-sized sports utility vehicle, SUV) were
used in the study. One vehicle was driven over the positive control pavers to qualitatively
determine the portion of tracer particles transferred to a car tire and clean pavers without the
application of stabilization material. Contamination was observed on both the tires and the
transfer study pavers. This was used as the basis for comparison of pavers and tires also exposed
to stabilization materials. Subsequently, cars were driven over SoihO®, CaCh and Phos-
Chek®MVP-F treated pavers. A UV light was used to highlight the presence of fluorescent
tracer particles on tires and pavers. The transfer of tracer particles from the SoihO® and CaCh
treated pavers to clean pavers and tires was qualitatively less than that observed in the positive
13 http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2015/06/25/disaster-prepared.html
14 http://www.riskreactor.com/invisible-green-contamination-simulation-powder-detail/
23
-------
control, and was approximately the same as each other. Transfer of particles from the pavers
treated with Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant qualitatively appeared much less than that of the
control, SoibO® and CaCh. Example photographs taken during driving activities are shown in
Figures 4-1, 4-2 and 4-3.
Figure 4-1. Photograph taken during driving activities over pavers coated
with Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant
.v* * " V
*» 4.' r
Li'-*,''
• -A.*
1 r . "•
¦ -i* r/ v*.«
: ;¦>.¦ » •:
-i T'V- '/- . v'v ' ii ''
!,• • r *sV- r. > , - j'L * , r • •*' *
Figure 4-2. Photograph of tire tracks in particles on positive control pavers
after driving
24
-------
Figure 4-3. Photograph of particles transferred to tire (luring positive control
after driving
A similar demonstration was performed using shoe covers and walking on pavers. Again, a UV
light was used to highlight the presence of fluorescent tracer particles on transfer pavers and shoe
covers. Pavers treated with Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant were tested first by slowly walking
across treated pavers and subsequently onto clean pavers. The transfer pavers and shoe covers
showed very little tracer particles. Pavers treated with SoikO® and CaCk were then evaluated
again by walking across treated pavers and onto clean pavers. Transfer in these cases was
greater than that observed for Phos-Chek®MVP-F. Finally, positive control pavers were walked
on, showing a greater transfer of particles compared to pavers treated with stabilization
technologies. Example photographs taken during the walking activities are shown in Figure 4-4.
Additional information on the DHS/EPA Ohio demonstration event in 2015 can be found in
Technical Report for the Demonstration of Radiological Decontamination and Mitigation
Technologies for Building Structures and Vehicles, US EPA (2016).
Figure 4-4. Photograph taken during walking activities on fire retardant
material.
25
-------
5. Outdoor Testing and Semi-Quantitative Measurement of Stabilization
Materials
To provide semi-quantitative data beyond the qualitative demonstration event, outdoor field-
testing of each stabilization material was performed in a 40 feet (ft) by 30 ft enclosed facility
located in the Northeast corner of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Main site. The
field test facility was enclosed within a chain link fencing with added plastic barrier material
covering the lower 3 feet to protect samples from wildlife and to prevent the entry of endangered
species (e.g., red legged frog) into the test facility. A 10 ft by 20 ft canopy was located within
the test facility to protect samples from precipitation and to limit the amount of direct sunlight
for the "sheltered" study samples (Figure 5-1).
All samples in the test facility were placed on 6 ft by 6 ft containment pallets (Figure 5-2) to
collect any precipitation that may have come in contact with the stabilized samples because the
laboratory has a zero materials discharged to the ground policy at the location where the test
facility was located. In addition, a heavy-duty weather resistant tarp was placed on the paved
surface within the test facility before any other items were placed inside. The PDT-6 fluorescent
particle solution, Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant, Soil20" wetting agent and CaCh solutions
were prepared as described previously in Section 4.
Figure 5-1. Field test area
26
-------
Figure 5-2. Aging of pavers
The outdoor stabilization field-tests were completed using 3 in x 7 in x 2 inch (in) concrete
driveway pavers purchased at a local hardware store. Pavers were purchased in bulk and used in
as-received condition. Paver preparations were conducted indoors before being moved outdoors
for aging and surface di sturbance tests (walking and driving over pavers). Each paver was given
a unique identifier. The top surface of the pavers was photographed while the fluorescent PDT-6
particles on the surface were illuminated with a light-emitting diode (LED) UV (blacklight)
flashlight. The position of the paver and the distance between the light source and paver surface
were held constant by using a marked photo tray and lab stand to hold items in a fixed position
(Figure 5-3). A Canon Powershot A2000 IS digital camera with the flash manually disabled was
used for all photographs. The exposure time (1/8 s), f-stop <173.2). ISO (800) and distance to
sample were kept constant for all images, generating RGB-type jpg files that were 3648 x 2736
pixels.
Figure 5-3. Laboratory imaging of pavers
27
-------
Images of each paver were captured at the following stages of the field study:
1) clean, as received, no particles or stabilization technology added (considered to be a
blank control or background for each paver)
2) spiked with PDT-6 fluorescent particles (considered to be a positive control for each
paver)
3) stabilized with each technology (i.e., Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant, SoihO® dust
suppression and CaCh)
4) after aging outdoors
5) after walking or driving over
For walking and driving studies, a piece of black fabric (100% cotton, 4 inch x 7.5 inch) was
applied to the surface of the pavers with tape around the outside edge so as to provide a standard
method of assessing transfer of particles from pavers. While fabric swatches do not have the
same material properties (e.g., texture, adhesion etc.) as rubber tires and shoe soles, they
provided a uniform surface that could be placed between the shoe and the tire (being subject to
the same weight and movement) and were easily protected and analyzed. Treads on tires and
shoe soles would greatly change the surface area contacting the particles, and analysis of that
area would be difficult. It is acknowledged that the differences in material properties and surface
areas of tires, shoes and fabric are a limitation of the experiment.
During walking activities, twenty steps were taken on each paver, attempting to cover as much of
the paver surface as possible with each step, with the heal of the foot central to the paver and the
toes emanating out towards the paver edges. During the driving study, pavers were driven over
with a Chevy Silverado 2500 HD extended cab truck (curb weight approximately 5,500 lbs),
with the tire contacting the paver swatch in a forward and then reverse direction to complete two
total passes. Fabric swatches were then carefully removed from the paver and both paver and
swatch were imaged. Similar to the pavers, each swatch was imaged before and after contacting
the pavers. The studies were performed in 7 groups, shown in Table 5-1. Study 1 was
abandoned due to previously selected paver incompatibility, specifically pavers in Study 1 were
not within specification to allow drive-over studies, and the large size (1 ft2) did not permit
analysis indoors. Studies 2a, 2b and 3 involved walking over pavers, while studies 4 and 5
evaluated driving over pavers. Outdoor (exposed) weather conditions during the study are
described in Table 5-2 utilizing LLNL's site-wide meteorological data collection, typically used
to demonstrate compliance with federal, state, and local laws, regulations, and orders. DOE
directives require LLNL to collect sufficient meteorological data to assess the impact of
hazardous material releases on the environment and the public. On-site meteorological
monitoring is required to accurately assess the transport and diffusion of airborne materials and
the impacts of planned and unplanned airborne releases on public health. The meteorological
data also serves as a source of conditions for outdoor testing. Aging/weathering studies were
performed at time intervals of 3, 14 and 30 days.
Images of pavers and swatches taken under UV illumination were evaluated using ImageJ image
analysis software (National Institutes of Health [NIH])15. Since pavers and swatches had some
level of broad-wavelength auto-fluorescence under the UV light, digital post-processing of
15 https://imagei .nih. gov/ii/
28
-------
images was required in order to distinguish between fluorescent particles and background noise.
For each image the green channel was extracted from the RGB jpg file (discarding the red and
blue channels). The green channel was then background subtracted using a rolling-ball size of
50 pixels, followed by setting a threshold of 0-35/255. Finally, the image was converted to
binary (white background with black particles), a region of interest (ROI) was defined, and the
percentage of the ROI containing black (particles) was measured. A macro was used in ImageJ
to process the large number of files (shown in Appendix B).
The region of interest was selected such that a central portion of each image would be examined;
excluding any edges of pavers and fabric swatches. Settings for the macro were evaluated such
that example clean paver images (blank controls) would have near-zero particles compared to
spiked pavers (positive controls) that had the maximum number of particles. Results tables were
converted to an Excel format in the ImageJ application and data were evaluated. Each sample
had between 3 and 6 images taken at each stage. Screening of images before post-processing
was performed to check image quality and sample identification (ID). Each condition
(stabilization agent, walking/driving, and aging time) was performed with triplicate pavers.
Black Area x 100
Camera RGB Extracted green Background Threshold, Measure
image channel subtracted binary and ROI black area
Figure 5-4. Typical images after each post-processing operation
The limitations of image analysis given the background auto-fluorescence are such that changes
in surface area covered by particles (effectively how efficient are the stabilization agents in
preventing transport to fabric swatches during walking and driving) can only be given in terms of
factors (e.g., a factor of 2x increase in the particles on surfaces) or orders of magnitude (e.g., lOx
decrease in particles on surfaces). Additional precision can only be achieved using a
combination of non-auto-fluorescent materials and a physical narrow band-pass filter at the exact
wavelength of the particle fluorescence between the camera and the sample. However,
observations in terms of factors and orders of magnitude for this study is sufficient to determine
whether the technology is viable in preventing or minimizing transport of particles from surfaces.
Post-process images were evaluated to determine the percentage of surface area within a
specified region-of-interest that contained particles. Data for each aging period (3, 14 and 30
days) are grouped by the stabilization material used. The average and standard deviation for
each sample are given, based on replicates of images taken for each sample. Each technology
was evaluated in triplicate (3 pavers, 3 fabric swatches).
29:
-------
Table 5-1. Outdoor study conditions
Studv Number
Test conditions
Start date
End date
Notes
1
Abandoned
Paver incompatible with study
2a - walking
No shade for 3 days
9-25-15
9-28-15
Full exposure, pavers not placed under
canopy
2b - walking
No shade for 30 days
9-25-15
10-26-15
Full exposure, pavers not placed under
canopy, rained on at least twice
3 - walking
Shaded for 14 davs
10-13-15
10-27-15
Pavers placed underneath canopy
4 - driving
Shaded for 14 days
10-15-15
10-27-15
Pavers placed underneath canopy
5 - driving
Shaded for 27 days
10-15-15
11-11-15
Pavers placed underneath canopy.
During heavy precipitation rain was
blown into canopy and most pavers were
wetted
Table 5-2. Outdoor weather conditions during walking and driving studies
Ebrte
AarT«p
(«•«& Q
Prebfiilatm
(-)'
Abs-KTT
tfm 3
R«LKH
e»)
DevPL
PeikWMIGvt
(-*)
Wad Speed
(-*)
AlrDtHiy
kg/™ 3
Ata-Press.
(.fa)
If irIK
(wmtUmT)
HortFlu
(wakVml)
9/25/15
14 J 33.6 (22j6)
0 0 (0)
4_58 9J28 (733)
123 61 4 (393)
05 103 (6 7)
02 8.8 (33)
02 53(13)
113 12(117)
990 1 992-7(9913)
317 - 381 (341)
29 261(59)
9/26/15
131-32.2(22)
0-0(0)
5.74 - 8.85 (7 8)
163 - 672 (42-8)
33 - 93 (75)
0.6 8.1 (33)
02-53(2)
113-121 (137)
9883 - 9923 (9905)
313 - 377(341)
-27 - 283 (61)
9/27/15
13 7 30-8(217)
0 0 (0)
5.06 921 (736)
16.6 74 4 (423)
2 102 (72)
0.4 52 (23)
02 23(13)
113 12(1.17)
986 8 989 7 (9883)
308 406(346)
21 282 (40)
9/28/15
13_3-29-4 (193)
0 0(0)
639 - 10 72 (835)
214 832(552)
53 - 123 (9Ji)
02 - 63 (23)
02 -4(1.6)
1.14-121 (1J8)
988.8 - 9923 (990 4)
299 - 370(340)
10 356(55)
9/29/15
13_3-24_1 (173)
0 0 (0)
636 1038 (9 82)
282 - 89 K (672)
5 - 12.6 (11)
13 6.7 (3.7)
08-35(2)
116-121 (139)
9915 995 (9932)
304-371 (344)
13 - 201 (45)
9/30/15
131 183 (15 5)
0 0J)1 (0-02)
931 13 (11-47)
72 J 92.7 (82-7)
11J 153 (133)
0.6 5.6 (2.4)
03 33 (13)
119 121 (12)
9913 995.8 (993.7)
312 400(367)
14 83 (7)
10/1/15
14_5-24_4 (183)
0-0-D1 (0-02)
1027 -12_79 (11.8)
463 - 92 4 (752)
12.1 -15.1 (133)
1 - 92 (3.4)
0-4-5-6 (15)
116-121 (139)
992 - 9965 (9943)
316 - 404(364)
20 - 329 (41)
10/2/15
10 8 29 (18 7)
0 0 (0)
741 1146(936)
253 953 (62-1)
7 J - 132(103)
0.7 8.4 (23)
03-43(13)
114 122 (139)
9892 9963 (9933)
308 365(338)
28 309 (63)
10/3/15
95 28.4(162)
0 0 (0)
5.46 9 81 (8J3)
202 852(616)
3-113(83)
02 - 133 (4.8)
02 - 75 (2.6)
113 122 (138)
9765 989(9815)
284 360(314)
18 311 (69)
10/4/15
8.6 - 26 (17)
0 0 (0)
5 74 9.03 (7JS8)
233 - 88 8 (563)
3.6 - 93 (73)
0.7 - 82 (33)
0.4-45(15)
1.14 121 (138)
9763 985 4 (981.4)
290 - 348(319)
18 294 (66)
10/5/15
11-1-25-5 (17-8)
0 0 (0)
7.62 - 1127 (834)
313 - 833 (59.7)
73 - 132 (93)
03 65 (3-1)
02-3-7 (1.6)
1.16-121 (139)
985 4 9943 (990)
302 - 354 (326)
22 318(61)
10/6/15
12-1 -263 (18)
0 0 (0)
831 1135(103)
332 - 922 (693)
93 133 (12.1)
0-6 - 73 (31)
02 4-4(17)
1.16 122 (139)
9943 9991 (997)
316 362(333)
20 300 (61)
10/7/15
11_9 - 29-6 (19-9)
0 0(0)
8.67 1133 (10.4)
28 4 94.6 (64)
95-134(12)
0-7 6.6 (25)
03-3.4(13)
1.15 -122 (139)
996 7 1000 (9983)
315 - 376(351)
-12 290 (56)
10/8/15
14.2-31-6 (22.5)
0 0 (0)
7 66 1033 (9 43)
23 80JS (493)
8J - 12 (10.7)
02 65 (2-6)
02-4-4(13)
1.14 - 121 (138)
995 6 999 (9972)
308 - 387 (353)
-19 - 258 (47)
10/9/15
12.1 307(21)
0 0 (0)
4 82 933 (738)
155 72 7 (46.4)
13 112(8)
03 6.7 (2.8)
02-33(13)
114 122 (138)
9935 9983 (9962)
296 362 (325)
36 287 (54)
10/10/15
11-7-274(183)
0 0 (0)
731 13.14 (10-77)
39 - 92 (673)
65-153 (123)
02 8.8 (3.8)
02 53(22)
115 122 (139)
993.4 9963 (9945)
298 356(321)
-25 - 357 (67)
10/11/15
11-1 -303 (198)
0 - 0 (0)
6.83- 1134(933)
213 - 94.6 (623)
63 - 13.4(113)
0-6 - 52 (22)
03-23 (13)
1 14 -122 (138)
9922 - 996 4 (994-4)
312 - 362(341)
-22 - 274 (54)
10/12/15
117 - 32 (21_5)
0 0 (0)
735 10.07 (8.86)
23 853(513)
8 JS 114(9.7)
02 8.4 (23)
02 4 4(13)
1 13 122(138)
991 7 995 (9936)
304 367(336)
36 317(58)
10/13/15
146 - 35(23-8)
0 0 (0)
5.61 - 931 (777)
163 - 685 (39.8)
3.4 102 (75)
03 63 (2.6)
02-33 (14)
112-121 (137)
992_6 996 (9943)
323 - 390(353)
-25 268 (45)
10/14/15
15.9-28-6(21)
0 0 (0)
439 - 8.7 (63)
17 - 593 (38.4)
-0 J - 9 4 (5-7)
02 - 53 (22)
02 -33 (12)
115-12(118)
991.7 - 995 6 (994)
330 - 390(361)
82 205 (6)
10/15/15
163 291 (21 -2)
0 0 (0)
4 89 11.13(9)
25.4 722 (48.6)
1J 13 J (95)
0.7 73 (2.7)
03 4(13)
1.14 12 (1.18)
990.8 993.8 (9923)
329 410(367)
18 233 (33)
10/16/15
15.4-28-6 (19.8)
0 0(0)
10-01 123(1139)
34 6 863 (672)
113 -152 (13.4)
0.6 8 (23)
03-4.7(13)
1.14-12(118)
9885 9933(9913)
331 -409(370)
36 315(41)
10/17/15
15.2-21 (171)
0 0 (0)
10 76 12-08 (1131)
623 84 (75.7)
12_4-143 (132)
3.8 75 (5 7)
1-6-4.6 (32)
1 18 12(119)
992 9943 (993.4)
309 399(373)
13 196 (37)
10/18/15
141 - 20_5 (16.8)
0 0 (0)
9.89 123 (11J02)
543 91 (76)
112 14 .4 (12-7)
2 93 (53)
1 5-7(34)
118 121 (12)
992-6 995 1 (994)
296 384 (342)
27 320 (42)
10/19/15
12-4-22.5 (172)
0 0(0)
9.72 - 12 J 7 (11 16)
473 - 923 (75.4)
112-142(13)
03 - 82 (43)
0.4 4.7 (2.4)
117-121 (1.19)
9932 - 9963 (994 7)
311 -384(351)
-14 - 289 (56)
10/20/15
9.5 - 26-8 (17 4)
0 0 (0)
534 10.7 (7.88)
213 - 96-6 (58-7)
33 122 (73)
0.6 103 (3 4)
0.4 53(15)
1.15 123 (139)
9913 9953 (993-4)
30 1 367(328)
44 288 (50)
10/21/15
10 4 26-9(173)
0 0 (0)
5.04 7.64 (6 43)
192 72J (451)
15-7-1(4.8)
0.6 81 (3-1)
03 4.7(1.7)
1.15 122 (139)
991 994 6 (9923)
286 328(306)
39 240 (45)
10/22/15
9.4 - 26-5 (17_2)
0 0 (0)
5.8 8-43(633)
223 - 72 (493)
35 - 8.6 (53)
0 4 7.4 (24)
02-43 (14)
1.15 -123 (1J9)
9913 - 9943 (9925)
287-341 (311)
16 286(49)
10/23/15
9-9 27j8 (17 6)
0 0 (0)
539 8.79 (632)
19-6 773 (49 7)
25 - 93 (5.8)
03 43 (1.8)
03 25 (03)
1.15 123 (139)
9933 9953 (994j6)
292 - 379(320)
34 198 (37)
10/24/15
93-263(176)
0 0(0)
6 04 - 8 82 (738)
264-753(51 1)
42 - 93 (6 8)
03 - 53 (2)
03-33 (13)
1.15 -123 (1J9)
992 - 9955 (994)
287 - 362(327)
-9-197(33)
10/25/15
10 6-244(17)
0-0(0)
733 - 11.84 (9.14)
33J - 89 J (63)
65 - 14 1 (93)
0 7 - 73 (33)
03-35(15)
1.16-122(1.19)
9923 - 9958 (994)
287-355(322)
-15 - 236 (44)
10/26/15
7 25-5 (16)
0 0 (0)
6 62 1028 (836)
28 J 98-6 (662)
5JS 113(83)
03 63 (2-1)
02 3.4(13)
1.16 124 (12)
9922 995 7 (994)
288 365(327)
15 240 (44)
10/27/15
12_9-20_8 (17)
0-0(0)
7 84 1035 (923)
49 4 - 79.6 (623)
73-12^(10.1)
0-7 8 7 (23)
03-4.4(12)
1.18-121 (12)
992.8 - 9963 (9941>)
323 - 379(361)
-12-109(11)
10/28/15
10.7-21.9 (16.2)
0 0JM (0-01)
9 1 -11-83(10 72)
50 7 - 95.7 (773)
10.1-13.8(123)
03 7.8 (32)
03-4-4(17)
1.17-122(12)
9933 996 8 (995.4)
306-398(340)
-17 278 (33)
10/29/15
8 J - 25 (153)
0 0 (0)
431 10.83 (7 44)
19 J 982 (63.1)
02 123 (6.4)
03 11 (3)
03 63 (1J5)
1.16 123 (12)
992.7 9962 (9943)
281 -365(317)
29 248 (43)
10/30/15
8_1 -283(171)
0-0(0)
337 - 711 (538)
133 73 4 (453)
1.4-63(3.6)
0.7 43 (22)
03-2.6 (13)
1.15-123(12)
993.7 996.8 (9953)
280 - 341 (309)
-18 - 223 (38)
10/31/15
9J8 - 295 (18.6)
0 0 (0)
611 12-07 (7.8)
214 92(513)
43 143 (7.4)
03 7.4 (3)
02 -3.6 (1.7)
1.15 123 (139)
995.8 999.4 (9973)
299 384(327)
32 272 (36)
11/1/15
12.1 233(17j6)
0 0 (0)
1037 13.45 (1137)
495 943 (761)
116 153(133)
1.4 73 (43)
03 4 (2.4)
1.17 122 (12)
992_7 10003 (997 4)
303 394(355)
9 211 (44)
11/2/15
93 - 17 J (12.6)
0-031 (1-4)
7 64 1355 (939)
64 4 - 953 (87 6)
73 - 163(11)
0.7 10.6 (35)
0.4-4.7(13)
1.19 - 122(121)
9862 - 992.6 (989)
342 - 396(369)
59 76 (4)
11/3/15
63 163 (112)
0-0JD1 (0-01)
4 74 836 (7JD9)
325 985 (72-1)
03 93 (5.7)
03 92 (3.1)
03 5.7(1.7)
119 124 (122)
9882 993 4 (991-4)
268 368 (307)
23 178 (30)
11/4/15
4.6 - 16.4 (10)
0 0 (0)
331 - 733 (438)
232 - 963 (563)
-4.4 - 62 (03)
05 11.6 (4 4)
0.4-73(2.4)
12-125(123)
9931 999 8 (996)
246 - 313(270)
-62 200 (34)
11/5/15
2.8 - 17.7 (9.4)
0 0 (0)
334 618 (524)
28 90 4(613)
-23 - 35 (14)
0.4 6 (13)
03-27(1)
12 127(124)
999 6 10043 (1002.4)
252 - 319(276)
25 - 231 (35)
11/6/15
3.8 183 (10.4)
0 0 (0)
434 - 6-71 (538)
263 - 93 (622)
be
1
03 62 (2)
03-33 (1)
12 126(123)
10013-1005(10032)
260 - 314(281)
45 200 (39)
11/7/15
3Ji 18 (10)
0 0(0)
5.77 - 713 (6 46)
372 94 7 (70 7)
3 - 6 (43)
03 6 (2)
03-33 (12)
1.19 -126 (123)
995.6 1001.7 (998.7)
265 - 322(287)
-5-241 (39)
11/8/15
42 14.7 (102)
0 0-02(0-03)
63 10 74 (8J 5)
64 4 - 963 (83 4)
33 - 122 (7.7)
03 6.7 (3)
03 -43 (1-7)
12-125(122)
992.6 9963 (994-6)
273 - 384(328)
-27 - 77 (7)
11/9/15
6 J - 123 (93)
0-031 (0.45)
632 8 68 (7_74)
70 - 96 4 (84.4)
5-4 8 8 (7-1)
03 9.7 (42)
03-5(23)
121 - 124 (123)
991-7 - 9953 (9933)
264 - 365 (308)
58 91 (-2)
11/10/15
3-7 - 133 (8-8)
0 0 (0)
631 -739(73)
553 - 973 (80)
3 7 65 (5.8)
03 - 83 (2.6)
03 -43 (13)
122 127 (124)
996 1006-7 (1001-7)
261 -344(309)
-17 - 155 (21)
11/11/15
13-15J (7.8)
O-0JD1 (0-01)
5-66 - 738 (633)
462 - 993 (80.7)
13 63 (4 4)
03 - 52 (13)
03-33 (1)
122 - 128 (125)
10053 -10085 (10063)
263 - 334(290)
-26 - 219 (30)
11/12/15
13 - 15J5 (83)
0 0 (0)
527 - 718 (6J 9)
41.7 983 (74.8)
15-6-1 (35)
02 56 (2)
02-3.6 (13)
121-127 (124)
9983 10054 (10022)
264 - 331 (290)
-17 - 177 (30)
11/13/15
3 - 16.4 (9)
0 0 (0)
537 7 62 (6.79)
463 983 (77.8)
3 63 (51)
03 71 (2.4)
02 45(14)
12 126(123)
995 9992 (9972)
271 -333(296)
-23 187 (28)
11/14/15
25 19X (10 4)
0 0 (0)
5 88 - 8-75 (7J 1)
34 J - 993 (752)
23 - 91 (5.8)
03 83 (2-7)
03-53 (13)
118 126 (122)
9893 - 995-4 (9923)
275 - 350(299)
-51 143 (18)
11/15/15
73 14.4 (10.8)
0 0-05 (0.29)
5.04 9 48 (7.08)
50 J 942 (693)
13 102 (5j6)
14 122 (63)
05 6j6 (33)
12 124 (122)
986 1 997 (990.7)
250 364 (304)
54 204 (10)
11/16/15
3 4 143 (8.5)
0 0 (0)
2-06 5.13 (3 7)
163 733 (45.7)
10-6 13 ( 3 7)
0-7 13 (57)
03 7 4(32)
122 127 (124)
996.7 10055 (1002.7)
237 261(251)
-11 146 (20)
Note: values are daily min - max (average), except "precipitation: min - max (sum). All values are at ground level
for LLNL site (which includes, but not specific to, the test location). Data courtesy of LLNL's site-wide
meteorological data collection.
30
-------
5.1 Walking Disturbance Studies
The results of the walking study after 3 days of aging outdoors are tabulated in Table 5-3. These
samples were exposed to direct sunlight and temperatures ranging from 13.1 to 33.6°C (55 to
92°F), no rain, average wind gusts of 3 m/s, and an average heat flux of 54 Watts per square
meter (W/m2) based on LLNL site meteorological data. The control sample (no stabilization
material) showed no significant change after being outdoors for 3 days. Two of the three
samples showed greater than 2x loss of particles from pavers during walking, and transfer onto
fabric swatches showed a variety of results, from no transfer to greater than two orders of
magnitude transfer. It is important to note here that this study was one of the first undertaken, so
experimental variability was higher than for other studies.
Table 5-3. Percentage area particle coverage, 3-day aging study 2a with
walking disturbance
Control
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P1
S2-P2
S2-P3
0.35 0.10
1.43 1.48
0.30 0.00
34.77 3.00
26.06 1.00
20.40 0.37
-
36.39 3.98
14.55 1.95
13.69 1.18
24.35 1.25
6.98 0.64
5.01 1.85
1.55 0.42
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
1.39 0.51
0.85 1.75
0.01 0.01
Soil20
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P7
S2-P8
S2-P9
0.26 0.02
0.21 0.02
0.18 0.02
35.51 1.19
33.71 6.76
37.57 1.62
15.45 0.95
21.61 0.94
17.77 1.11
19.82 0.46
13.78 0.71
29.43 1.60
12.96 1.03
7.20 2.11
27.48 1.40
0.00 0.00
0.55 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.06 0.04
0.56 0.02
CaCI2
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P16
-
-
21.55
1.03
14.86 1.68
26.81
8.04
20.01
3.51
0.02
0.01
0.01 0.00
S2-P17
0.05
0.00
13.14
1.94
9.08 1.24
14.08
0.90
50.94
1.23
0.07
0.03
1.53 0.84
S2-P18
0.03
0.00
12.32
1.62
10.48 1.22
38.53
2.56
31.37
2.02
0.35
0.04
0.47 0.03
MVP
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P19
0.02
0.00
20.23
0.00
1.42
0.48
2.73
0.73
2.37
1.27
0.05
0.00
0.10 0.00
S2-P20
0.03
0.00
22.67
3.69
0.79
0.51
1.08
0.26
1.26
0.04
0.34
0.11
1.28 0.08
S2-P24
-
-
26.29
6.23
1.04
0.22
1.69
0.07
1.19
0.28
0.06
0.01
0.17 0.01
Notes: Dashes indicate individual samples not analyzed. Clean = blank control. Spike = only PDT-6 added. Stab =
PDT-6 plus stabilizer. Aged = PDT-6 plus stabilizer and aged for the number of study days. Walked = paver after
walking. Clean felt = transfer material blank control. Walked Felt = transfer measurement after walking.
The corresponding experiments incorporating SoihO®, CaCh and Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire
retardant showed promising results. In the case of SoihO® dust wetting agent, there was less
than a factor of 2x loss of particles from pavers during walking, and negligible transfer onto
fabric swatches. Following CaCh application, loss of particles from pavers was approximately
the same as that for SoihO®, although one sample did show a 20x increase in particles on a
fabric swatch after walking on treated pavers. The application of Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire
retardant on pavers reduced the number of particles visible before walking, due to the opaque
nature of the Phos-Chek®MVP-F material (which differs from the other two products tested).
Loss of particles during 3 day aging was similar to that observed for CaCh and transfer of
particles onto fabric swatches increased by factors of 2x to 4x. During the 3-day outdoor aging
study, it appears that all three technologies reduced the transfer of particles, with SoihO® and
Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant performing similarly, and CaCh yielding higher transfer.
31
-------
The results of the walking disturbance study after 14 days of aging outdoors are tabulated in
Table 5-4. These samples were stored outside under shade and exposed to temperatures ranging
from 7 to 35°C (45 to 95°F), no rain, average wind gusts of 3 m/s, and an average heat flux of 38
W/m2 The control pavers showed no significant loss of particles during the 14-day aging, no
significant measurable loss of particles from pavers during walking, but two of the three control
fabric swatches did show almost an order of magnitude difference in particles between clean and
exposed.
Table 5-4. Percentage area particle coverage, 14-day aging study 3 with
walking disturbance
Control
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S3-P1
S3-P2
S3-P3
0.00 0.00
50.01 0.18
33.50 1.47
29.17 8.16
-
34.47 8.36
19.11 2.15
33.06 7.30
33.56 4.11
15.15 2.49
34.63 1.69
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.12 0.01
0.01 0.00
0.11 0.12
Soil20
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S3-P7
S3-P8
S3-P9
-
25.03 0.82
22.05 0.70
18.35 2.53
31.89 1.77
22.26 2.29
21.71 1.73
10.35 4.51
16.53 2.04
31.66 2.18
18.51 0.77
16.32 0.76
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.03 0.04
0.02 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.01
CaCI2
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S3-P10
S3-P11
S3-P12
-
27.81 0.13
30.77 1.92
16.20 1.42
11.19 0.99
32.38 0.12
6.52 1.94
25.28 1.74
3.59 1.08
3.00 0.78
24.61 0.91
3.36 1.52
1.47 0.16
0.01 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
MVP
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S3-P4
S3-P5
S3-P6
-
25.30 1.35
28.02 0.73
16.12 0.58
1.19 0.19
1.40 0.04
0.39 0.02
3.03 1.21
2.19 0.38
0.60 0.11
1.91 1.04
2.21 0.72
1.22 0.26
0.08 0.04
0.07 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.06 0.00
0.00 0.00
Notes: Dashes indicate individual samples not analyzed. Clean = blank control. Spike = only PDT-6 added. Stab =
PDT-6 plus stabilizer. Aged = PDT-6 plus stabilizer and aged for the number of study days. Walked = paver after
walking. Clean felt = transfer material blank control. Walked Felt = transfer measurement after walking.
The corresponding pavers covered with SoihO®, CaCh and Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant
showed changes on aging. Pavers coated with SoihO® and CaCh in some cases showed a loss of
particles, whereas Phos-Chek®MVP-F showed a gain in particles compared to the stabilized
images. This is not surprising given that Phos-Chek®MVP-F masks the particles, and suggests
that some Phos-Chek®MVP-F was lost from the surface without losing particles, whereas
particles were likely lost with SoihO® (showing approximately a 5x increase in particles on a
fabric swatch) and CaCh (similar to the control with no stabilization technology). None of the
technologies resulted in a measureable loss of particles from the surface of the pavers, but there
was some transfer onto fabric swatches in the case of SoihO® and CaCh. There was no
significant transfer of particles onto fabric swatches in the case of Phos-Chek®MVP-F. The 14-
day outdoor aging study results suggest that Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant provides the best
longer term efficacy for preventing transfer of particles, despite some loss of the material over
the 14 days.
Samples exposed for 30 days saw quite different environmental conditions compared to the
shorter timescale studies detailed above. Pavers were not sheltered under a canopy and
subsequently experienced rain events on two days early in the study, with up to 0.02 inch (0.5
32
-------
mm) of precipitation. Pavers were exposed to temperatures ranging from 7 to 35°C (45 to 95°F).
Average wind gusts were 3 m/s with a maximum of 13.5 m/s and an average heat flux of 48
W/m2 The control samples showed a varying degree of particles lost from the surface during
aging/rain, ranging from almost a 4x to over 200x decrease. For pavers covered with SoihO®,
aging for 30 days showed varying factors of loss, from approximately 3x to 17x and therefore
some particles did remain on the surface even after the unexpected rain exposure. With the
exception of one paver for which an increase in particles after walking was observed and a
measurable transfer of particles to the fabric swatch, walking did not result in a significant
change in the particle loading on pavers covered with SoihO®. For CaCh and Phos-Chek®MVP-
F fire retardant, results were similar to SoihO®; specifically, a significant reduction in particles
occurred after aging and resulting in no appreciable transfer to fabric swatches on walking. The
results for the 30-day study show that none of the stabilization technologies can reliably contain
particulates after rain/wind events, which was surprising.
Table 5-5. Percentage area particle coverage, 30-day aging study 2b with
walking disturbance
Control
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P4
S2-P5
S2-P6
-
15.02 0.45
27.01 1.68
24.00 0.78
-
0.47 0.04
0.12 0.08
6.30 2.97
0.41 0.06
0.40 0.25
5.28 0.83
0.01 0.00
0.05 0.01
0.12 0.04
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.10 0.05
Soil20
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P13
S2-P14
S2-P15
0.10 0.02
0.22 0.05
0.05 0.00
9.83 1.90
36.44 3.29
20.84 2.69
15.98 1.48
17.91 0.39
18.59 4.96
5.85 1.95
1.04 0.46
2.15 1.05
5.19 2.25
15.41 2.44
1.36 0.89
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.19 0.12
CaCI2
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P10
S2-P11
S2-P12
0.24 0.02
0.09 0.01
0.73 0.08
27.14 2.64
14.74 0.97
25.79 3.87
7.79 2.37
10.16 2.30
14.86 1.90
0.08 0.04
1.07 0.33
8.76 0.78
0.20 0.15
0.72 0.31
6.17 0.65
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.02 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
MVP
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Walked
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Walked Felt
Average Std. Dev
S2-P21
S2-P22
S2-P23
-
24.43 2.45
35.88 2.24
21.59 4.78
0.85 0.02
2.69 0.12
0.70 0.15
1.10 0.24
1.58 0.46
1.21 0.52
1.67 0.03
3.27 1.40
1.02 0.42
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
Notes: Dashes indicate individual samples not analyzed. Clean = blank control. Spike = only PDT-6 added. Stab =
PDT-6 plus stabilizer. Aged = PDT-6 plus stabilizer and aged for the number of study days. Walked = paver after
walking. Clean felt = transfer material blank control. Walked Felt = transfer measurement after walking.
5.2 Driving Disturbance Studies
During the 14-day aging study followed by driving disturbance, pavers were stored under a
canopy and were exposed to temperatures ranging from 7 to 29°C (45 to 84°F), no precipitation,
average wind gusts of 3 m/s with a maximum of 10 m/s, and an average heat flux of 56 W/m2.
The results are shown in Table 5-6. The positive control sample showed very little loss on aging
under the weathering conditions. Driving over the positive control resulted in up to 4x loss of
material and deposition of particles on the swatch. Results for SoihO® and CaCh stabilization
technologies after aging under the same conditions followed by driving were similar in that
negligible loss of particles was observed during aging, but significant transfer of particles onto
swatches after driving disturbance was observed. For Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant,
33
-------
negligible particle transfer onto fabric swatches occurred when pavers were driven over after 14
days of outdoor aging.
Table 5-6. Percentage area particle coverage, 14-day aging study 4 with
driving disturbance
Control
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S4-P1
S4-P2
S4-P3
0.00 0.00
55.61 2.66
33.50 1.47
29.17 8.16
-
32.79 0.92
39.50 2.72
29.00 3.15
29.85 1.88
16.33 0.88
7.62 3.40
0.01 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.02 0.01
0.13 0.08
0.03 0.00
0.10 0.05
Soil20
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S4-P7
S4-P8
S4-P9
-
25.03 0.82
22.05 0.70
18.35 2.53
22.26 2.29
21.71 1.73
31.02 3.36
20.51 3.68
30.40 3.26
38.68 1.37
20.86 2.57
34.12 3.87
0.17 0.01
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.15 0.03
0.11 0.01
CaCI2
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S4-P10
S4-P11
S4-P12
-
34.58 2.23
39.93 0.33
40.29 1.49
29.02 1.57
22.46 1.51
22.65 2.13
39.95 1.60
25.18 2.09
18.76 2.91
35.77 1.13
12.86 1.27
32.75 1.81
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.11 0.05
0.56 0.20
0.35 0.14
MVP
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S4-P4
S4-P5
S4-P6
-
25.30 1.35
28.02 0.73
16.12 0.58
-
1.01 0.23
0.87 0.24
1.29 0.36
1.78 0.73
1.11 0.03
0.13 0.03
0.18 0.01
0.01 0.00
0.02 0.02
0.03 0.02
0.00 0.00
Notes: Dashes indicate individual samples not analyzed. Clean = blank control. Spike = only PDT-6 added. Stab =
PDT-6 plus stabilizer. Aged = PDT-6 plus stabilizer and aged for the number of study days. Driven = paver after
driving. Clean felt = transfer material blank control. Driven Felt = transfer measurement after driving.
During the 27-day aging study, pavers were stored under a canopy and were exposed to
temperatures ranging from 1.9 to 29.8°C (35 to 86°F), average wind gusts of 3 m/s with a
maximum of 12 m/s and an average heat flux of 34 W/m2 Rain events occurred on 6 of the 27
days, but because pavers were under a canopy, most precipitation was not a problem. On two
days, significant precipitation occurred together with strong gusts (1.4 inch total rain with 11 m/s
gusts on 11/2/15 and 0.45 inch total rain with 10 m/s gusts on 11/9/15). During these two
weather events, rain blew under the canopy and pavers were wetted.
34
-------
Table 5-7. Percentage area particle coverage, 27-day aging study 5 with
driving disturbance
Control
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S5-P1
S5-P2
S5-P3
-
34.34 1.16
40.14 0.22
40.33 1.35
-
10.52 3.05
13.24 2.15
10.15 1.21
7.69 1.15
7.73 2.09
7.90 0.44
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.02 0.01
0.00 0.00
Soil20
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S5-P7
S5-P8
S5-P9
-
25.57 9.90
25.37 4.71
25.79 8.31
33.22 0.69
15.61 1.14
17.53 1.87
9.91 0.47
40.27 1.66
16.79 1.36
13.17 0.77
0.03 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.15 0.06
0.07 0.00
0.02 0.00
CaCI2
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S5-P10
S5-P11
S5-P12
-
25.83 3.24
31.93 6.46
35.12 1.55
20.82 3.38
6.18 1.33
3.38 0.78
9.48 0.55
1.28 0.38
6.43 0.88
6.65 1.50
0.02 0.02
0.00 0.00
0.07 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.02 0.00
0.01 0.00
MVP
Paver
Clean
Average Std. Dev
Spike
Average Std. Dev
Stab
Average Std. Dev
Aged
Average Std. Dev
Driven
Average Std. Dev
Clean Felt
Average Std. Dev
Driven Felt
Average Std. Dev
S5-P4
S5-P5
S5-P6
-
43.88 0.65
33.02 12.10
40.14 3.52
0.78 0.04
0.91 0.14
0.52 0.08
2.70 1.32
1.62 0.54
7.86 0.38
2.45 0.17
2.29 0.64
0.07 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.12 0.00
0.32 0.04
0.01 0.00
Note: Dashes indicate individual samples not analyzed
The results of the driving disturbance study on pavers aged outdoors for 27 days are tabulated in
Table 5-7. The positive control pavers show a 3x decrease in particles on aging for 27 days,
which was more than the 14-day study. This result was potentially due to the rain events that
subsequently showed negligible particle transfer from the paver to the swatch during driving
activities. Results for pavers treated with SoihO® and CaCh stabilization technologies showed
similar loss of particles during aging, however there was significant transfer of particles on some
pavers in both cases. Pavers treated with Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant showed a 2x to 3x
increase in visible particles on aging. Because Phos-Chek®MVP-F is opaque, this increase may
be due to removal of Phos-Chek®MVP-F from the surface, leaving more particles visible
compared to initially stabilized images. Subsequent driving over pavers coated with Phos-
Chek®MVP-F fire retardant show negligible transfer to swatches placed between the paver and
the tire.
The results of both the 14-day and 27-day aging studies followed by driving show more transfer
of particles from pavers for SoihO® and CaCh than for Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant despite
the two studies experiencing different weathering conditions.
5.3 Discussion of Outdoor Test Results
The relative efficacy of each technology in preventing removal of particles during walking and
driving disturbance activities can be determined for each technology. The results are shown
graphically in Figure 5-5 and 5-6, with median transfer factors onto fabric swatches. The
transfer factor is determined by dividing the percentage area of the image ROI containing
particles for a fabric swatch following walking or driving, by the percentage area of the image
ROI for the corresponding clean swatch before walking or driving.
35
-------
Transfer of particles from control pavers was similar during both walking and driving activities,
with a median transfer factor of 3x for walking after 3 days of aging, between 6x and 8x for
driving and walking after 14 days of aging, and lx for both driving and walking after 27 and 30
days of aging respectively. The latter 27- and 30-day results may have been catastrophically
impacted by rain events. No driving experiments were performed following 3 days of aging.
For stabilization technologies, transfer factors were typically lower when walking over pavers
after 3 and 14 days of aging, with SoihO® and CaCh performing slightly better than Phos-
Chek®MVP-F fire retardant. Results of walking on pavers after 30 days of aging showed a very
high transfer factor for SoihO®, less for CaCh and Phos-Chek®MVP-F, but were likely impacted
by rain events.
Transfer of particles during driving over pavers treated with stabilization technologies showed a
median transfer factor for SoihO® of lOx. By comparison, the median transfer factor for CaCh
was 91x and approximately lx for Phos-Chek®MVP-F (~lx). Median transfer factors during
driving over pavers aged for 27 days were 6x for SoihO®, 3x for CaCh and 2x for Phos-
Chek®MVP-F, although these latter results may have been impacted by rain events.
The results show that the application of stabilization technologies on surfaces can reduce the
transfer of particles removed from pavers during walking and driving. The performance of these
materials appears dependent on the presence of precipitation and subsequent run-off from
surfaces.
control
Soil20
CaCI2
MVP
Particle Transfer Factor
Figure 5-5. Median particle transfer factor for aged stabilization technologies
under walking disturbance
Legend: Control (red), SoihO" (green), CaCb (blue), Phos-ChekS)MVP-F (orange). Aging: 3 day (checkered), 14
day (diagonal stripes), 30 day walking and 27 day driving (solid)
36
-------
Control
Soil20
CaCI2
MVP
0 20 40 60 80 100
Particle Transfer Factor
Figure 5-6. Median particle transfer factors for aged stabilization technologies
under driving disturbance
Legend: Control (red), SoikO® (green), CaCL (blue), Phos-Chek®MVP-F (orange). Aging: 3 day (checkered), 14
day (diagonal stripes), 30 day walking and 27 day driving (solid)
p
Upi
'WMWMm
WMMMM
WWMZWM
J
vMmmma,
vyyyyyzw/,
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i
i i i i
37
-------
6. Quality Assurance (QA)
6.1 Literature Survey of Stabilization Materials
The evaluation of literature and information pertaining to stabilization materials is described in
Section 2 of this report. The work was performed according to a Quality Assurance Project Plan
(QAPP) for the identification of technical gaps in radiological contamination containment
technologies (Sutton, 2014a).
Four sources of information were used to understand technical gaps, and they are ranked in order
of reliability:
1. Peer-reviewed journal articles and conference abstracts
2. Government reports
3. Commercial vendor reports
4. Commercial and community websites
By nature of their review by peers, journal articles and some conference abstracts are considered
trusted sources of information. Similarly, reports published by government agencies such as US
EPA, US DOE, Interstate Technology Regulatory Council (ITRC) were considered highly trust-
worthy. Additionally, government sources may include State and Local documents and
websites. International governmental reports were also utilized, including those from the UK and
EU as well as the Japanese Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) and the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA), particularly those relating to response following Fukushima and Chernobyl.
Commercial vendor reports were considered and included in the survey if data and claims made
were reasonable and tests were carried out appropriately. Often commercial
vendors/manufacturers perform product testing in collaboration with other research agencies.
Finally, data available on commercial websites and community websites were searched for
relevant information, although this information should carry minimal weight in analyzing
technology gaps.
Since the determination of technical gaps for containment technologies was evaluated, the
assurance of data quality in source documents was not evaluated beyond that which a journal
article peer- reviewer would perform. No data reduction was required for the development of a
technical gap analysis.
6.2 Laboratory Testing of Stabilization Technologies
The quantitative evaluation of Cs-137 interaction and dose attenuation is described in Section 3
of this report and the work was performed according to a QAPP (Sutton, 2014b). The
experimental objective was to address technical gaps associated with promising stabilization
technologies for RDD and IND contamination, applied before decontamination to prevent
resuspension and minimize dose, as follows:
• Impacts of selected stabilization technologies on ultimate decontamination and waste
management strategies;
• Dose attenuation of selected stabilization technology;
• Interaction and solubility of Cs-137 with stabilization technologies;
38
-------
• Effectiveness of selected stabilization technology to prevent resuspension during
disturbance mechanisms;
• Long-term stability and effectiveness of selected stabilization technology over time.
Critical measurements that were required to fulfill these objectives included:
• Temperature during testing;
• The mass of liquids and solids used in each experiment;
• The purity of reagents used in each experiment;
• The uniformity (homogeneity) of each of material tested;
• The volume of liquid used in each experiment;
• The amount of Cs-137 at the beginning and end of each experiment;
• The amount of radioactivity bound to solid material;
• The amount of radiation and dose exiting a layer of stabilization material;
• The collection and analysis of particles used in outdoor field experiments;
• The time taken for stabilization technologies to degrade in outdoor field experiments.
Data quality indicators for the critical measurements will be used to determine if the collected
data meet the quality assurance objectives. A list of these data quality indicators can be found in
Table 6-1.
Table 6-1. Data quality indicators for critical measurements
Measurement
Parameter
Analysis
Method
Accuracy
Precision/
Repeatability
Detection
Limit
Completeness
%
Temperature
Temperature
probes
± 1°C
2%
0.0 °c
90
Supernatant
volume and solid
mass
Mass balance
±2%
2%
N/A
100
Activity in
supernatant /
eluent
Gamma spec /
gamma
counting
±2%
±2%
Cs-137:
5.5xl0"3pCi
95
Activity
emanating
through
stabilization
layer
Hand-held dose
and rate meters
±2%
±2%
Unknown
100
An additional set of quality indicators is applied to the laboratory blanks, positive controls, and
test coupons. These quality indicators are listed in Table 6-2. The equipment used to make the
critical measurements was calibrated according to Table 6-3.
39
-------
Table 6-2. Additional data quality indicators specific to the test matrix
samples
Coupon Type
Data Quality Indicator
Corrective Action
Blank samples
Above natural background
If value is significant and consistent then
use value as background. If value is high
in a small number of samples, investigate
possible sources of cross contamination.
Table 6-3. Equipment calibration schedule
Equipment
Responsible Group
Frequency
Temperature sensor
Manufacturer
Annual
Mass balance
Laboratory Personnel
Annual
HPGe detector
Laboratory Personnel
Annual / 90-days
Hand-held dose and survey
Laboratory ES&H Tech
Annual
meters
Measures that demonstrate whether the data meet quality assurance obj ectives include the
precision, accuracy, and completeness of the collected data. These measures are defined below.
Precision describes the closeness of data, obtained using the same procedure. There are three
functions that are used to describe precision: standard deviation, variance, and coefficient of
variance. The precision of a data set can be defined using the following equation:
a =
1
i=\
N
where
N= the number of replicates in the data set
Xi = the measured value in the data set
j.i = the data set mean.
When applied to a smaller data set, a sample standard deviation is calculated changing the
equation to the following:
5 =
1
N
Z^-x)2
N-1
where
5 = the sample standard deviation
x = the mean of the smaller data set.
The variance is simply the square of the standard deviation and the coefficient of variance is the
standard deviation divided by the mean of the data set, multiplied by 100.
40
-------
Accuracy describes the closeness of the data to the true value. There are two functions
frequently used to describe accuracy: absolute and relative error. Absolute error is the measured
value minus the actual value, while the percent relative error is the same difference divided by
the actual value and multiplied by 100.
The percent completeness of the data is simply the ratio of the number of data points taken to the
total number of data points planned, multiplied by 100.
Ortec HPGe detectors were used to measure Cs-137 in aqueous samples from sorption
experiments. The detectors were calibrated against NIST certified isotopic standards, plus
additional quality control checks during routine operation as follows:
• The efficiency and energy calibrations of the gamma counters are checked routinely
using NIST-traceable sources.
• Seven day background - every 90 days
• Calibration efficiency check - every 30 days
• Calibration energy & near source check - every 30 days
• Calibration far source check - every 30 days
• Calibration near environmental source - every 60 days
A hand-held Victoreen 45 IB survey-meter and a Ludlum Model 12 rate-meter were used to
measure dose and count rate attenuation through a variety of thicknesses, and were calibrated
against certified isotopic standards, plus additional quality control checks during routine
operation as follows:
• Background checks - before and after each measurement of samples
• Calibration efficiency check - daily, start and end of day
• Battery check - daily, start and end of day
• Physical integrity - daily, start and end of day
A qualitative outdoor demonstration of stabilization technologies during driving and walking
activities is documented in Section 4 of this report and a subsequent semi-quantitative study is
documented in Section 5.
Both blank and positive control were included in the test matrix to determine background values
and the relative effect of stabilization technologies in each of the experimental studies described
in Sections 3, 4 and 5 - Cs-137 dose reduction, Cs-137 absorption, and indoor/outdoor testing
using simulated contamination. Additional information on control samples, replicates and results
are presented in individual sections.
41
-------
7. Waste Management and Decontamination Considerations
Waste management information can be extracted from the product safety data sheets in relation
to intended application. However, when used for radiological stabilization, additional waste
management considerations must be considered. Additionally, the impact the material has on
subsequent decontamination must be considered.
All three stabilization technologies tested in this work dry over time, so the majority of waste
will be solid (containing some water content). If physically removed from surfaces in the
applied form, solid waste will be similar in mass to the material applied plus the content of
residual water and accounting for removal of all of the material deposited. Alternatively, the
material can be washed off surfaces resulting in a mixture of mostly liquid waste with some
residue remaining. Residue from Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant and SoihO® will be greater
than that for CaCh, which can be completely dissolved. Information on the "normal" (non-
radioactive) waste generated from each technology was collected from the product material
safety data sheets (MSDS) and product websites. The MSDS information for each product is
provided in Appendix D.
Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant: "This material when discarded is not a hazardous
waste as that term is defined by the Resource, Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
40 CFR 261. Dry material may be landfilled or recycled in accordance with local, state
and federal regulations. Consult your attorney or appropriate regulatory officials for
information on such disposal" (Phos-Chek®MVP-F).
SoihO® wetting agent: "In concentrate form, this product is a non-hazardous waste
material suitable for approved solid waste landfills. Diluted product is non-soluble and
can be disposed of in suitable effluent treatment plants. Dispose of contents/container in
accordance with local/regional/national/international regulations" (Soil20 MSDS)
CaCh salt: "This material, as supplied, is not a hazardous waste according to Federal
regulations (40 CFR 261). This material could become a hazardous waste if it is mixed
with or otherwise comes in contact with a hazardous waste, if chemical additions are
made to this material, or if the material is processed or otherwise altered. Consult 40 CFR
261 to determine whether the altered material is a hazardous waste or local regulations
for additional requirements" (CaCh MSDS).
Since each technology is considered non-hazardous, the addition of radioactive material should
not result in mixed waste.
The environmental impact is also an important consideration in selecting and using each of the
stabilization technologies. The following information was obtained from the product safety data
sheets:
Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant: "Coldwater fish: 96-hr lethal concentration 50%
(LC50). Rainbow trout: 1845 mg/L, practically nontoxic" (Phos-Chek®MVP-F)
SoihO® wetting agent: "No negative or toxic effects on the environment are anticipated
when released in dilution for terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; based on government
42
-------
testing. Composted polyacrylate polymers are nontoxic to aquatic or terrestrial organisms
at predicted exposure levels from current application rates. Decomposes over time or in
the presence of natural sunlight when applied to terrestrial substrate or vegetation.
Polyacrylate polymers are relatively inert in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. They are
immobile in landfills and soil systems (>90% retention), with the mobile fraction
showing biodegradability. They are also compatible with incineration of municipal solid
waste. Incidental down-the-drain disposal of small quantities of polyacrylic polymers will
not affect the performance of wastewater treatment systems" (Soil20 MSDS).
CaCh salt: "This product does not contain any substances regulated as pollutants
pursuant to the Clean Water Act (40 CFR 122.21 and 40 CFR 122.42). This material, as
supplied, does not contain any substances regulated as hazardous substances under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
(40 CFR 302) or the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) (40 CFR
355). There may be specific reporting requirements at the local, regional, or state level
pertaining to releases of this material. It is important to note here that CaCh will form
corrosive brines that will leach metals from some surfaces" (CaCh MSDS).
For CaCh, application will result in acidic, metal containing solutions that may (when combined
with radioactive material) generate mixed waste.
Finally, the impact on the ultimate decontamination process is an important consideration. The
selected stabilization technology should not hinder decontamination processes once stakeholders
have agreed on the selection of the decontamination.
Experimental testing of Cs-137 with Phos-Chek®MVP-F fire retardant showed the formation of a
rubbery material on drying that contained the vast majority of the radioactivity. The material
was easily removed from the experimental glassware, suggesting that there would be a positive
impact on decontamination (with activity being trapped in the dried fire retardant matrix). It is
not known whether similar results would be achieved on different surfaces such as asphalt or
concrete.
Experimental testing of SoihO® wetting agent showed that on drying, solid chips were formed
that adhered to the glass surface. When removed, these particles contained much of the activity
added to the experiment, but significant effort was required to pry the particles away from the
surface. This suggests that in the dry form, the SoihO® may have negative implications for
subsequent decontamination, but it does appear that maintaining some level of moisture in the
SoihO® product would prevent the formation of chips and aid in the removal of radioactive
contamination. This could be accomplished by rewetting the SoihO® periodically to maintain
desired properties.
Similarly, CaCh dries to form solid chips that also contain Cs-137, but can be redissolved on the
application of water. However, excessive water can lead to complete dissolution of CaCh and
subsequent migration of Cs-137. It was found in experimental studies that higher concentrations
of aqueous CaCh aid the sorption properties of Cs-137 on solid material such as Arizona road
dust.
43
-------
8. References
Ahn, G., Won, H.J. and Oh, W.Z. (1995) Decontamination of Building Surface Using Clay
Suspension, Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology 32(8):787-793.
Archibald, K., Demmer, R., Argyle, M., Lauerhas, L. and Tripp, J. (1999a) Cleaning and
Decontamination using Strippable and Protective Coatings at the Idaho National Engineering
and Environmental Laboratory, report INEEL/CON-98-00797.
Archibald K.E. and Demmer, R.L. (1999b) Tests Conducted with Strippable Coatings, Idaho
National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, report INEEL/EXT-99-00791, August
1999 available at: http://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/11008.
Bayulken, S., Bascetin, E., Guclu, K. and Apak, R. (2010) Investigation and Modeling of
Cesium(I) Adsorption by Turkish Clays: Bentonite, Zeolite, Sepiolite, andKaolinite,
Environmental Progress and Sustainable Energy 30(l):70-80.
Belfiore, A., Panciatici, G. and Lomoro, A. (1984) Removal of Thorium and Uranium from
Surfaces by Attapulgus Clay Suspensions, Inorganica Chimica Acta 94:159-160.
Bratskaya, S.Yu., Zheleznov, V.V. and Avramenko, V.A. (2014) Dust Suppression Composite
Coatings Containing Nanosized Selective Sorbents for the Prevention of Cesium Radionuclide
Migration, Doklady Physical Chemistry 454(1): 12-15.
Dyer, A. and Mikhail, K.Y. (1985) The use of Zeolites for the Treatment of Radioactive Waste,
Mineralogical Magazine 49(April):203-210.
Ebadian, M. A. (1998) Assessment of Strippable Coatings for Decontamination and
Decommissioning, Topical Report DOE/EM/55094032, January 1998, US Department of
Energy's Office of Environmental Management.
Garger, E.K. (1994) Air concentrations of radionuclides in the vicinity of Chernobyl and the
effects of resuspension, Journal of Aerosol Science 25(5):745-753.
Garland, J. A. and Pomeroy, I.R. (1994) Resuspension offall-out material following the
Chernobyl accident, Journal of Aerosol Science 25(5):793-806.
Gimenez, A., Pastor, E., Zarate, L., Plana, E. and Arnaldos, J. (2004) Long-term Forest Fire
Retardants: A Review of Quality, Effectiveness, Application and Environmental Considerations,
International Journal of Wildland Fire, 2004, 13, 1-15.
Glanville, J.O. and Haley, L.H. (1982) Studies of Coal Dust Wetting by Surfactant Solutions,
Colloids and Surfaces 4:213-227.
Glanville, J.O. and Wightman, J.P. (1979) Actions of Wetting Agents on Coal Dust, Fuel 58:819-
822.
44
-------
Gross, S.S. and Hiltz, R.H. (1980) Evaluation of Foams for Mitigating Air Pollution from
Hazardous Spills, US EPA Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, OH EPA/600/282-
029.
Han, C. (1992) Dust Control on Unpaved Roads, Minnesota Local Road Research Board, March
1992, St. Paul, MN.
Hollander, W. (1994) Resuspension factors of137Cs in Hannover after the Chernobyl accident,
Journal of Aerosol Science 25(5):789-792.
Kashparov, V.A., Protsak, V.P., Ivanov, Y.A. and Nicholson, K.W. (1994) Resuspension of
radionuclides and the contamination of village areas around Chernobyl, Journal of Aerosol
Science 25(5):755-759.
Krumhansl, J.L., Brady, P.V., Anderson, H.L. (2000) Reactive Barriers for 137Cs Retention,
Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) report SAND2000-1270C.
Lacy, W.J. (1954) Decontamination of Radioactively Contaminated Water by Slurrying with
Clay, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 46(5): 1061-1065.
Little, E.E. and Calfee R.D. (2002) Environmental Implications ofFire-Retardant Chemicals,
US Geological Survey, June 2002.
NEI (1996) Westinghouse Unveils WES Strip, Nuclear Engineering International (NEI)
41(502):42
Nicholson, K.W., Branson, J.R., Giess, P and Cannell, R.J. (1989) The effects of vehicle activity
on particle resuspension, Journal of Aerosol Science 20(8): 1425-1428.
Parra, R.R., Medina, V.F. and Conca, J.L. (2009) The use of Fixatives for Response to a
Radiation Dispersal Devise Attack - a Review of the Current (2009) State-of-the-Art, Journal of
Environmental Radioactivity 100:923-934.
Paasikallio, A. (1999) Effect of Biotite, Zeolite, Heavy Clay, Bentonite and Apatite on the
Uptake of Radiocesium by Grass from Peat Soil, Plant and Soil 206(2):213-222.
Pires do Rio, M.A., Amaral, E.C.S. and Paretzke, H.G. (1994) The resuspension and
redeposition of137Cs in an urban environment: the experience after the Goiania accident,
Journal of Aerosol Science 25(5): 821-831.
Said, F.I. and Hafez, M.B. (1999) Fixation of Radioactive Isotopes on Bentonite as a Radioactive
Waste Treatment Step, Journal of Radioanalyical and Nuclear Chemistry 241(3):643-645.
Sanders, T.G., Addo, J.Q. (1997) Relative Effectiveness ofRoad Dust Suppressants, Journal of
Transportation Engineering, 123(5).
45
-------
Satterfield, C.G. and Ono, D. (1996) Using Magnesium Chloride in Street Sweepers to Control
PM-10 Emissions from Winter-Time Sanding of Roadways, Air and Waste Management
Association, In: Proceedings of the 89th Annual Meeting and Exhibition, June 23-28, Nashville
TN.
Saylak, D., Mishra, S.K., Mejeoumov, G.G. and Shon, C-S. (2008) Fly Ash-Calcium Chloride
Stabilization in Road Construction, Transportation Research Record 2053:23-29.
Sutton, M. (2014a) Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP) for a Literature Search to Identify
Technical Gaps in Radiological Contamination Containment Technologies Selected by
Stakeholders, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory technical report LLNL-MI-657800, July
2014, Livermore CA.
Sutton, M. (2014b) Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP) for Experimental Evaluation of
Selected Stabilization Technologies, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory technical report
LLNL-MI-664280, November 2014, Livermore CA.
Tawil, J.J. and Bold F.C. (1983) A Guide to Radiation Fixatives, Pacific Northwest Laboratory
Report PNL-4903, November 1983, Richland WA.
US EPA (1978) The Ecological Impact of Land Restoration and Cleanup, US EPA Washington
DC, EPA/520/3-78-006.
US EPA (2004) Potential Environmental Impacts of Dust Suppressants: "Avoiding Another
Times Beach ", An Expert Panel Summary, May 30-31st, 2002 Las Vegas NV, EPA/600/R-
04/031.
US EPA (2008a) Bartlett Services Inc. Stripcoat TLC Free Radiological Decontamination
Strippable Coating - Technology Evaluation Report, EPA/600/R-08/099, September 2008, US
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).
US EPA (2008b) Isotron Corp. Orion Radiological Decontamination Strippable Coating -
Technology Evaluation Report, EPA/600/R-08/100, September 2008, US. Environmental
Protection Agency (US EPA).
US EPA (2011) CBI Polymers DeconGel 1101 and 1108 for Radiological Decontamination -
Technology Evaluation Report, EPA/600/R-11-084, August 2011, US Environmental Protection
Agency (US EPA).
US EPA (2013 a) Environment Canada's Universal Decontamination Formulation - Technology
Evaluation Report, EPA/600/R-13/048, May 2013, US Environmental Protection Agency (US
EPA).
US EPA (2013b) Decontamination of Cesium, Cobalt, Strontium, and Americum from Porous
Surfaces - Technology Evaluation Report, EPA/600/R/13/232, November 2013, US
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).
46
-------
US EPA (2016) Technical Report for the Demonstration of Radiological Decontamination and
Mitigation Technologies for Building Structures and Vehicles, EPA/600/R-16/019, March 2016,
US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).
Vovk, I.F., Movchan, N.P., Fedorenko, Y.G. and Zlobenko, B.P. (1993) Research on Clean-up
of Buildings and Structures in Urban Areas of Ukraine affected by the Accident at Chernobyl
NPP, Proceedings of ASME Conference on Nuclear Waste Management and Environmental
Remediation, Prague.
Wisconsin Transportation Information Center (1997) Dust Control on UnpavedRoads,
Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin No. 13, January 1997, Madison, WI.
Wu, C., Zhou, B. and Li, Z-J. (2007) Test of Chlorides Mixed with CaO, MgO, and Sodium
Silicate for Dust Control and Soil Stabilization, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
19(1): 10-13.
Zeller, H.W. (1983) Laboratory Tests for Selecting Wetting Agents for Coal Dust Control,
Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations, Report RI-8815, US Department of the Interior.
47
-------
Appendix A: Information on Potential Stabilization Technology Provided to Stakeholders
Technology
Availability &
Cost
Additional
Labor and
Material
Requirements
Anticipated Efficacy
Unintended
Consequences
Waste Volume
Data Availability
Water application/
fogging nozzle
Most widely
available and
cheapest
technology
Flydrant,
hoses, fire
truck, run-off
collection
Good knock-down of airborne
particles; soluble
contamination will not be
available for reaerosolization
unless non-porous surfaces
dry out
Solubilize contamination,
migration into surfaces,
run-off into groundwater
and sewer system;
fogging may increase
aerosol mobility
Potential for large
volumes given both water
volume and contaminated
porous materials
Cloud-seeding after
Chernobyl resulted in
rainfall that subsequently
removed contamination
from the atmosphere and
deposited on to land
Fire-extinguishers:
Carbon dioxide (C02);
Purple K dry chemical
extinguishing agent
(potassium
bicarbonate)
Widely available;
limited volume
would require
many units; $160
for 20 pound (lb)
handheld unit,
$900 for 50 lb
wheeled unit
None
C02 dries to leave no residue
- poor efficacy;
E)ry powder may form barrier
to prevent reaerosolization
without solubilizing, K
competes with Cs for sorption
and chemistry
Potential for particle
reaerosolization during
application
C02 - zero
Purple K - removed by
suction; on wetting,
forms thick/crusty,
difficult to remove layer
None for rad or particle
stabilization
Fire-fighting foam:
Wet foam (protein,
fluroprotein, aqueous
film-forming)
Typically 5
gal/fire-engine;
airport depts. have
larger quantities ;
$180/5 gallon
(gal) pail
Fire trucks and
hoses,
proportioning
system; run-
off collection;
airport units
may be
reserved for
airport use and
cannot attend
unless airport
is shut down
Good for a short period of
time (solubilizing
contamination)
Run-off, high flow; large
contamination of sewer
system and porous
materials possibly
resulting in more
extensive/expensive
decon; fast dissipation
time may require
reapplication; depends on
environmental conditions
(wind, RH, temp)
After dissipation, waste
volume is approximately
the same as the water
added; however, volume
of contaminated sewer
water and porous
materials will be large (if
contamination enters
porous material)
No data available on
particle suppression;
designed and used for
fire suppression
Dry firefighting foam
(high expansion, e.g.,
Fli-Ex Ultra Foam. Jet
X)
Typical fire-
engine carries 1
gal; typically used
for indoors and
wildland pre-
treatment;
wildland fire units
carry more but
may not be
available
immediately
depending on
location; $95/ 5
gal pail
Fire truck,
hoses,
proportioning
system
Good; longer dissipation time
than wet foam; can be applied
to vertical surfaces
Run-off, possible
contamination of sewer
system and porous
surfaces; movement
through foam (e.g.
walking/driving) can
destroy foam cover;
depends on
environmental conditions
(e.g. wind, RF1, temp)
After dissipation, volume
is approximately the
same as the water added
plus porous materials if
dissolution of
contamination occurs and
contamination enters
porous materials; dry
uses significantly less
water than wet foam
48
-------
Table 1. continued...
Technology
Availability &
Cost
Additional
Labor and
Material
Requirements
Anticipated Efficacy
Unintended
Consequences
Waste Volume
Data Availability
Hazmat materials
SDF-200 (in addition
to typical foams)
Carried by
Hazmat and
FEMA task force
only
Proportioning
system
Good, demonstrated for rad
Volume approximately
equal to collapsed foam
plus rinsing any solution
Rad-Specific Acrylics
(e.g. InstaCote CC
Strip. CC Wet and CC
Fix, Bartlett Stripcoat
TLC and Polymeric
Barrier System, Isotron
RADblock. ALARA
and IsoFix)
Typically short
shelf-life with
limited quantities
on-hand with lead-
time of ~ 1 week;
$400-500/ 5 gal;
typically <$1/ sq-
ft
Sprayer
Demonstrated, very good;
some products appropriate for
vertical surfaces
Typically 18-24 hour
cure time.
At a 2015 demonstration
(after this table was
provided to
stakeholders), it was
shown that some coatings
could not be removed
from building walls.
Small and limited to the
amount of material
applied
Demonstrated in nuclear
installations and
experimental tests
LTnlikely to be available
locally. Specific logistics
and training required for
application
Rad-Specific Epoxys
(e.g. InstaCote CC
Epoxy SP. InstaCote
M-25 {ML})
Typically limited
quantities on-hand
with lead time;
Typically
require some
surface prep
Demonstrated, good; vertical
and horizontal surfaces; cures
in short period of time
Some compounds are
toxic/hazardous -
environmental and health
concerns
Small and limited to the
amount of material
applied
Demonstrated in nuclear
installations and
experimental tests
LTnlikely to be available
locally. Specific logistics
and training required for
application
Decon Foams
(InstaCote Autofroth,
Global Metrechs Inc.
NuCap. SNL AFC-380
and SF-200, CTRI
CASCAD SDF, Dow
FrothPak, Celcore
GeoFill)
Relatively
inexpensive, may
require lead-time
depending on
supply and
availability; $1-10
/cubic ft
Proportioning
and delivery
system
Good, demonstrated for rad
Volume approximately
that of collapsed foam
plus any rinse solutions
Demonstrated in nuclear
installations and
experimental tests
LTnlikely to be available
locally. Specific logistics
and training required for
application
Cakes (e.g. AGUA
A3000)
Long lead-times
depending on
supply and
availability
High-volume
spray delivery
system
Good, demonstrated for
hazardous materials including
rad at Fukushima
May be difficult to
remove from some
surfaces
Possibly larger volumes
compared to acrylic and
epoxy, limited to the
amount of material
applied
Demonstrated at
Fukushima
LTnlikely to be available
locally. Specific logistics
and training required for
application
Gels/Polymers (e.g.
DeconGel, ANL
Supergel, NEI WES
Strip)
Long lead-times
depending on
supply and
availability; $400-
500/ 5 gal pail;
Spray system
Good, demonstrated for rad
incl. Fukushima
Cure times typically 18-
24 hours
Volume approx. same as
application volume
Demonstrated in nuclear
installations,
experimental tests and at
Fukushima
LTnlikely to be available
locally. Specific logistics
and training required for
application
-------
Table 1. continued...
Technology
Availability &
Cost
Additional
Labor and
Material
Requirements
Anticipated Efficacy
Unintended
Consequences
Waste Volume
Data Availability
Mulch
Routinely used by
construction and
transit agencies,
available from
large hardware
stores and mulch
suppliers; $40-
120/ cubic yards
(CY) installed
Trucks for
transport and
equipment for
dispersal
commonly
used by city,
county and
state
landscaping
Good, assuming a layer
thickness and maintenance
that prevents movement of
base layer; much material may
also adsorb soluble
contamination.
Slopes greater than 3:1 usually
requires additional treatment
such as a tackafier; long
fibrous or shredded bark, not
chips; 4" mulch depth must be
reapplied every 2-3 years (3"
3-4 years)
Approx same volume as
applied
Data from Caltrans
Roadside Toolbox
fhttt>://www.dot.ca.eov/h
a/LandArch/roadside/det
ail-sm.htmt
None for radiological
contamination
Gravel
Routinely used by
construction and
transit agencies;
available from
large hardware
stores and gravel
suppliers; $10 -
$15/yd2 on flat
areas, $11 -
$23/yd2 on slopes
Trucks for
transport,
equipment for
spreading
Good, assuming a layer
thickness that prevents
resuspension between gravel
pieces
Spaces between gravel
pieces can allow water
infiltration, leading to
possible migration of
aqueous Cs-137 into
subsurface, groundwater
and sewer water
Approx same volume as
applied
Used in Japan following
Fukushima
Cost data from Caltrans
Roadside Toolbox
fhttt>://www.dot.ca.eov/h
a/LandArch/roadside/det
ail-sm.htmt
Imported Soil (non-
local, non-
contaminated)
1" depth =140
CY/acre;
3" depth = 420
CY/acre;
6" depth = 840
CY/acre $15-
70/CY
Trucks for
transport and
equipment for
dispersal
commonly
used by city,
county and
state
landscaping
Good; may require wetting to
maintain
Infiltrating water may
leach contamination
Approx same volume as
applied
None for rad
Sand
Cheap material,
widely available
but typically
carried in a 5 gal
bucket; obtain
large quantities
from public works
yard; $42-80/CY
Trucks for
transport;
equipment for
spreading;
possible
wetting to
prevent
movement
Good; may require wetting to
prevent movement from site
of application
Potential to clog
infrastructure (e.g.
surface drains - which
may be a positive)
Approx same volume as
applied
None for rad
-------
Table 1. continued...
Technology
Availability &
Cost
Additional
Labor and
Material
Requirements
Anticipated Efficacy
Unintended
Consequences
Waste Volume
Data Availability
Straw
2 tons/A; $8-
24/bale
(14x18x41")
Trucks for
transport and
equipment for
dispersal
commonly
used by city,
county and
state
landscaping
Unknown; would require
regular maintenance (e.g.
wetting)
Infiltrating water may
leach contamination;
potential to resuspend
Approximately the same
volume as applied
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq
/LandArch/ec/hydroseed/
punched straw.htm
None for radiological use
Commercial Paint
Cheap material,
widely available
Motorized
sprayer or
vehicle;
surfaces
should be
"clean" before
painting
Will provide effective barrier
if allowed to cure correctly
before mechanical contact
Requires curing,
consideration of surface
type and aging,
hazardous environmental
considerations
Once stripped, the
volume is approximately
the same as that applied.
Clays
(montmorillonite,
kaolinite, illite)
Readily available
from specialized
suppliers;
relatively low
cost; $8-32/50 lb
bag
May also
require wetting
to prevent
cracking
Demonstrated for rad: good.
Wet clay swells to form
impermeable layer
Volume approx. same as
that applied
Krumhansl et al., 2000
Chloride Salts
(CaCl2, Magnesium
Chloride (MgCl2) w/ or
w/o road salt)
Most commonly
used dust control
agents; 0.27
gal/yd2, $0.66/gal
^1983); -300- "
600/acre; readily
available
Standard
city/county
public works
or state
highway truck
for distributing
on the road
Typically last 6-12 months;
Good (55-77%); reapplication
1-2 times a year, good for
traffic areas
Environmentally safe;
CaCl2 is corrosive to
vehicles and application
equip.; can create
slippery surface; easily
leached away;
exothermic; MgCl2
requires T>70F.
RH>32%
Tawil 1983; also
httt>://et>dfiles.engr.wisc.e
du/odf web files/tic/bull
etins/Bltn 013 DustCont
rol.odf; most common
road dirt stabilization;
also used at mining sites
Lignin
Untreated material
is available for
free from wood
pulp digestion
processes. Dried
and processed
lignin is not free;
037 gal/yd2,
$0.1/gal (1983)
Spreading
equipment and
expertise
Demonstrated for rad
including in Ukraine and
Belarus following Chernobyl
Untreated material is
highly acidic, foul-
smelling when spread,
and very sticky, clinging
to vehicles. Diluted by
heavy rains and becomes
slippery when wet and
very brittle when dry.
Tawil 1983; also
httt>://et>dfiles.engr.wisc.e
du/odf web files/tic/bull
etins/Bltn 013 DustCont
rol.odf
Road oil
0.4 gal/sq-yd,
—$0/7/gal (1983)
Spreading
equipment and
expertise
Good, 20-year durability
Difficult removal and
cleanup
-------
Table 1. continued...
Technology
Availability &
Cost
Additional
Labor and
Material
Requirements
Anticipated Efficacy
Unintended
Consequences
Waste Volume
Data Availability
Dust Wetting Agents
(e.g. propylene glycol
products)
Low cost;
typically available
on smaller scale
for piles
Hose or spray
vehicle
Moderate (30-50%), requires
reapplication
Not appropriate for
traffic areas
Large volume can be a
problem
LTsed at mining sites
Dust Binding Agents
(e.g. lignin, emulsions)
~$750/acre;
available on a
reasonably large
scale
Hose or spray
vehicle
Moderate (30-50%); may
require reapplication
Leaching of lignin may
occur
Brittle when dry, slippery
when wet
LTsed at mining sites
Dust Surface Crusting
Agents (e.g. acrylics)
~$700/acre;
available on a
reasonably large
scale; may require
4-6 weeks lead-
time beyond
supplier stocks
Hose or spray
vehicle
Good
May not be appropriate
for traffic areas
LTsed at mining sites
Emulsified Petroleum
Resins
~$800-5000/acre;
available on a
reasonably large
scale
Spreading
vehicle
Good (50-90%); reapplication
1-2 times a year, suitable for
traffic areas
Environmental impacts;
difficult to remove
LTsed at mining sites
52
-------
Appendix R: I mage J Macro
dir = getDirectory("Choose a Directory ");
setBatchMode (true);
count = 0;
countFiles(dir);
n = 0;
processFiles(dir);
//print(count+" files processed");
function countFiles(dir) {
list = getFileList(dir);
for (i=0; i
-------
minX = 700;
minY = 1000;
maxX = 2500;
maxY = 2500;
makeRectangle(minX,minY,maxX-minX,maxY-minY);
//save(path);
run("Measure");
row = nResults-1;
setResult("Label",row,imgName);
roiArea = (maxX-minX)*(maxY-minY);
setResult("roiArea",row,roiArea);
// close();
//close();
}
}
-------
Appendix C: Information Table for Stabilization Technologies
Stabilization
Objective Temporary binding of particulate contamination to minimize migration and
resuspension, providing reduction in both surface dose rate and inhalation
risk to workers within the first 48-72 hours. Technologies differ from
traditional fixatives and strippable coatings in that large amounts of material
can be made available and deployed early in the response phase.
Other benefits Provides stakeholders with additional time to prioritize and plan
decontamination efforts, controls the contaminated area.
Management option descriptionLocally available, non-traditional stabilization technologies can be obtained
quickly and applied easily using pre-existing methods. Such technologies do
not require specialized equipment or operator knowledge. Three examples of
such materials include: (a) fire retardant, (b) dust wetting agents, and (c)
chloride salt road stabilizers.
Fire retardants: Phosphate-based material, thickened with either guar gum
or clay can be applied via a range of methods, from hand or backpack sprayer
for smaller areas, fire-truck and hose for local areas, to aerial drop via plane
or helicopter for wide area application. Research is needed to determine
whether turbulence from aerial drop or fire-truck applications would result in
resuspension of particles. Available in a range of viscosities in both powder
and pre-mixed liquid. Powdenwater ratio can be increased to increase
viscosity, aiding application on non-horizontal surfaces such as roofing and
walls. Red colorant allows easy identification of treated areas. Provides dose
reduction. Surface layer prevents resuspension.
Dust wetting agents: Used in dust suppression for mining and soil
operations, can be applied via a range of methods, from hand/backpack
sprayer for smaller areas, truck sprayer for roads, and hose for non-horizontal
surfaces. Available from a variety of suppliers, mixed with water to desired
viscosity. Provides dose reduction, and surface layer prevents resuspension.
Chloride salt road stabilizers: Commonly used to stabilize dirt and gravel
roads, can be applied via a range of methods, from hand/backpack sprayer for
smaller areas, truck sprayer for roads, or hose. Dries to form crust,
preventing resuspension. Aids in the binding of Cs-137 to surfaces. Further
wetting (rain or hose) can resolubilize chloride crust.
Walls: Most practical stabilization material for walls is high-viscosity fire
retardant, will adhere to vertical surfaces. Application may vary from
individual wall application and hose application to aerial with diagonal
deposition.
Roofs: Similar to walls, most practical stabilization material for roofs is high-
viscosity fire retardant. May also use higher viscosity mixture of dust
wetting agent. Application may vary from individual roof application and
hose application to aerial deposition.
Roads and paved areas: All three technologies may be applied to roads and
paved areas. Prevention of resuspension from traffic highest with fire
retardant, and also appreciable with wetting agent and chloride salt
application.
Open spaces, parks, forests, and vegetation: All three technologies may be
applied to areas containing soil and vegetation.
55
-------
Stabilization (continued)
Target
Contaminated external walls and roofs of buildings, outdoor surfaces ranging
from paved roads and dirt roads to vegetation. May also be applied to semi-
enclosed areas and vehicles but may cause corrosion on metal surfaces.
It may be beneficial to give particular focus to schools, kindergartens,
hospitals and other buildings frequented by large numbers of people.
Targeted radionuclides
All long-lived radionuclides (half-life greater than expected time to
reoccupancy or recovery time). Short lived radionuclides (half-life less than
expected reoccupancy/recovery time) only if implemented quickly.
Demonstrated with Cs-137, which is highly soluble.
Scale of application
Any size.
Time of application
Maximum benefit if carried out soon after deposition (within 24-72 hours)
when maximum contamination is still on the surfaces. As time passes before
stabilization, the amount of resuspension will likely increase given
disturbances across the surfaces on which particles have deposited. Early
application will minimize resuspension, reduce surface dose rates, reduce
inhalation dose and reduce the expansion of the contaminated area.
C "(nisi r;iiiils
Legal constraints
Liabilities for possible damage to property (e.g., corrosion). Ownership and
access to property.
Disposal of contaminated water / run-off via public sewer system.
Use on listed and other historical buildings, or in conservation areas.
Environmental constraints
Severe cold weather (snow and ice may cause problems and water mixtures
would need to be heated).
Fire retardants may pose danger to fish.
r.lTecli\eness
Reduction in contamination
migration from surfaces
The stabilization achieved depends on the type of application, weathering. A
higher degree of stabilization will be achieved if there has been minimal
surface disturbance before application. Disturbances may be natural (wind,
rain) or anthropogenic (driving, walking).
Laboratory testing and outdoor field-testing shows cesium-137 and surrogate
particulate contamination trapped on surfaces, thus minimizing resuspension
from natural and anthropogenic turbulent mechanisms. However, rain
appears to be detrimental to effectiveness.
Repeated application or wetting required for chloride salts.
Reduction in surface dose rates External gamma and beta dose rates from surfaces are attenuated by both fire
retardant and wetting agent stabilization technologies. A 1-inch thickness
of fire retardant can provide a 25x reduction in dose rates. It is believed
that the dose rate attenuation is due to the water content of both the fire
retardant and the wetting agent. Drying of these materials yields an
increase in dose rate, but does fully return to an unshielded level.
Reduction in resuspension Resuspended activity in air following application of stabilization technologies
may be significantly reduced. Of the three materials tested, fire retardant may
offer the greatest reduction in transfer. As a result, a reduction in the
inhalation dose may be expected, as may a reduction in the transfer of
contamination, minimizing the growth of the contaminated area from the
original source term.
-------
Stabilization (continued)
Method used - sprayer, hose, aerial drop, mixture ratio, viscosity, thickness,
pressure/force used during application.
Application method will affect coverage and accuracy of deposition. Aerial
drop will apply materials over a wider area that hose or sprayer, but will
result in less accurate application and lacks the ground-based observations
during application to know if enough (or too much) material has been applied
to the relevant surfaces.
Environmental conditions and effects (e.g., drying or runoff). Drying will
reduce dose attenuation (from beta emissions) for fire retardant and wetting
agent. Drying will also lead to cracking of chlorides. Chlorides may require
periodic rewetting to maintain effectiveness. Rain events may cause runoff
of fire retardant and excessive rain may cause dissolution and runoff of
chloride technology.
Surface type and orientation - rough horizontal surfaces are more amenable
to chloride stabilization, while vertical surfaces and rooftops may require
more viscous technologies such as high-viscosity fire retardant.
Time of implementation: the longer the time between deposition and
implementation of the option, the less effective it may be due to stabilizing
the contamination on surfaces and the wider the area requiring stabilization
given resuspension prior to implementation.
Social factors influencing
N/A
effectiveness
l-'easihilil.t
Equipment Equipment needed to disperse stabilization technology material depends on
scale of application, from backpack sprayer for small, localized areas to fire-
trucks, sprayer trucks, helicopter and airplane.
Chloride salts and wetting agents require water. Dry fire-retardant requires
water, although retardant can be purchased in pre-mixed formulation.
Sprayer trucks can be used for chloride salt solutions and wetting agents,
commonly applied by public works and highway agencies. Fire-truck
application requires eductor and mixing equipment. Aerial application
requires mixing equipment and transportation vessel. For aerial application,
wild-fire department equipment could be utilized.
Utilities and infrastructure Roads for transport of equipment. Water and power supplies.
Runway/airport for aerial deployment.
Consumables Fuel and parts for generators and transport vehicles. Water.
Calcium chloride, wetting agent or fire retardant.
Skills Personnel skilled in the use of sprayer trucks, backpack sprayers, fire-
department fire-truck operation and aerial application (pilots for helicopter
and airplanes). These skills could be found readily through public works,
state highway agencies, fire departments and wildland fire departments.
Safety precautions Water-resistant clothing will be required, particularly in highly contaminated
areas.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) will be required, including respiratory
protection, to protect workers contamination before and during application of
stabilization technologies.
Clear airspace for aerial drop application. Limited access for people on the
ground immediately before aerial drop.
For tall buildings: OSHA-required fall-protection and safety helmets.
Technical factors influencing
effectiveness
57
-------
Stabilization (continued)
\\ iislo
Anion ill
All liiree ilabili/alion leclmologieb dr\ o\ or lime, bo the niujorilN ol wuble
will be solid (containing some water content). Solid waste will be similar in
mass and volume to the material applied (accounting for recovery efficiency)
due to wet application followed by evaporation/drying reducing mass and
volume and collection of surface materials increasing volume. Alternatively,
the material can be washed off surfaces. Disposal will be subject to
conditions depending on the activity levels and other properties of waste.
Type
Fire retardant residue, wetting agent residue, chloride salts, water. The
following applies only to the material as supplied by the manufacturer and may
differ with the presence of radionuclides.
Fire retardant: This material when discarded is not a hazardous waste as that
term is defined by the Resource, Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 40
CFR 261. Dry material may be landfilled or recycled in accordance with local,
state and federal regulations. Consult your attorney or appropriate regulatory
officials for disposal information on such disposal. (Phos-Chek®MVP-F
MSDS).
Wetting asent: In concentrate form this Droduct is a non-hazardous waste
material suitable for approved solid waste landfills. Diluted product is non-
soluble and can be disposed of in suitable effluent treatment plants. Dispose of
contents/container in accordance with local/regional/national/international
regulations. (Soil20 MSDS)
Chloride salt: This material, as sutrolied. is not a hazardous waste according
to Federal regulations (40 CFR 261). This material could become a hazardous
waste if it is mixed with or otherwise comes in contact with a hazardous waste,
if chemical additions are made to this material, or if the material is processed
or otherwise altered. Consult 40 CFR 261 to determine whether the altered
material is a hazardous waste, or local regulations for additional requirements.
(CaCl2 MSDS).
Dose rsiies
Averted dose rates
Estimated dose rate reductions are typically up to 25x reduction as
demonstrated by fire retardant but may vary with a number of factors such as
weathering and amount and type of other natural and anthropogenic
disturbances.
Factors influencing averted
dose rate
Consistency in effective implementation of option over a large area,
including thickness, viscosity and drying rate.
Population behavior in the area.
Number of buildings.
Additional Exposures
Relevant exposure pathways for workers are:
- external exposure from radionuclides in the environment and contaminated
equipment
- inhalation of radioactive material resuspended from the ground and other
surfaces (may be enhanced over normal levels)
- inhalation of dust
- inadvertent ingestion of dust from workers' hands
Contributions from pathways in italics will not be significant and doses from
these pathways might be controlled by using PPE and good safety and
housekeeping practices. Exposure routes from transport and disposal of
waste are not included. No illustrative doses are provided as they will be
very specific to the type of contamination, environmental conditions, the
tasks undertaken by an individual, controls placed on working and the use of
PPE.
-------
Stabilization (continued)
Inlenenlion costs
Material Cost Specific equipment
Specific supplies
Operator time Work rate (m2/hr per
team)
Team size (people)
Equipment already available, cost will be labor and
fuel
Fire retardant: $125 / 50 gal, product is often sold
in bulk (2000 lb) units.
Wetting agents: $108 for a 15 lb pail, 45 lb of
product is mixed with 2000 gal water to treat an
area of 80,000 sq ft, a maintenance load at 1/3
strength is applied approx. lx per week
Chloride salts: $16 for a 50 lb bag, product is
often sold in bulk units, 0.5-1.0 kg/ sq m, applied
as dry flake; 0.9 -1.6 1/sq m liquid application. For
unpaved road dust suppression, product is
reapplied 1-2 times per season
Backpack sprayer: 10 - 30
Fire truck: 70 for roofs, 600-700 for walls, 1000 for
roads
Sprayer truck or aerial drop: depends on vehicle,
deposition rate, desired consistency and
minimization of resuspension on impact.
Depending on the PPE used individuals may need
to work restricted shifts.
Depends on the method of application. For
backpack sprayer and fire-truck, typically 2-3,
possibly up to 5, will depend on equipment used
and access to buildings.
Sprayer truck typically 1-2 people.
Aerial application typically 3 people.
Factors influencing costs Weather.
Size of areas to be treated.
Topography of area when treating roads and paved areas. Type of
equipment used.
Access.
Use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
-------
Stabilization (continued)
Side elTecls
Environmenlal impact The follow my applies onl\ lo die material supplied b\ die iiiaiiulaclurer
and may differ with the presence of radionuclides.
Fire retardant: Coldwater fish: 96-hr LC50 Rainbow trout: 1845 mg/L,
Practically Nontoxic (Phos-Chek®MVP-F MSDS).
Wetting agent: No negative or toxic effects on the environment are
anticipated when released in dilution for terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems;
based on government testing. Composted polyacrylate polymers are
nontoxic to aquatic or terrestrial organisms at predicted exposure levels
from current application rates. Decomposes over time or in the presence of
natural sunlight when applied to terrestrial substrate or vegetation.
Polyacrylate polymers are relatively inert in aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. They are immobile in landfills and soil systems (>90%
retention), with the mobile fraction showing biodegradability. They are also
compatible with incineration of municipal solid waste. Incidental down-the-
drain disposal of small quantities of polyacrylic polymers will not affect the
performance of wastewater treatment systems. (Soil20 MSDS).
Chloride salt: This product does not contain any substances regulated as
pollutants pursuant to the Clean Water Act (40 CFR 122.21 and 40 CFR
122.42). This material, as supplied, does not contain any substances
regulated as hazardous substances under the Comprehensive Environmental
Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) (40 CFR 302) or the
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) (40 CFR 355).
There may be specific reporting requirements at the local, regional, or state
level pertaining to releases of this material. (CaCh MSDS).
Social impact Acceptability of stabilizing contamination rather than removing and
disposing of contamination.
Practical experience Small-scale test on the treatment of roads and paved areas have been
conducted in Denmark and the USA under varying conditions.
Used following the incident in Goiania.
The only practical experience so far has been the study at LLNL for the
selected stabilization technologies. Non-radioactive stabilization is the
objective of wetting agent and chloride salt - both have been widely
demonstrated in road and soil stabilization. Fire-retardant application has
been demonstrated widely to provide fire-break in wildland fires, but have
not been previously demonstrated for radiological stabilization.
60
-------
Appendix D: Product Material Safety Data Sheets
Material Safety Data Sheet ij&i
ICL performance *¦
¦ IP Responsible Care
S Iwllww^ ftl OUS. COMMITMENT! fO SUSTAINAB1I1TY
1. CHEMICAL PRODUCT AND COMPANY IDENTIFICATION
Product Name: PHOS-CHEK® MVP-F
Reference Number AST 10176
Date: Apri 27,2012
Company Infonnation:
ICL PERFORMANCE PRODUCTS LP
622 Emerson Road - Suite 500
St. Louis, Missouri 63141
Emergency telephone: In USA call CHEMTREC: 1 800 424 9300
Outside the USA, including ships at sea, call CHEMTREC's international
and maritime telephone number (collect cals accepted):
+1 (703) 527-3887
In Canada call CANUTEC: 1 613 996 6666
General Information: +1 800 424 6169 (Worldwide)
2. COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS
Component GAS No. % w/w
Monoammonium Phosphate 7722-76-1 75-85
Diammonium Phosphate 7783-28-0 8-12
Performance Additives*- Trade Secret < 15
+ Components are Company Trade Secret - Business Confidential. ICL Performance Products
LP is withholding the specific chemical identity under provision of the OSHA Hazard
Communication Rule Trade Secrets (1910.1200(i)(1)). The specific chemical identity wil be made
available to health professionals in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.1200 (i)(1) (2) (3) (4)..
3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Appearance and Odor Reddish colored mixture of powdered and granular components with little
or no odor.
WARNING STATEMENTS
CAUTION
CONTAINS MATERIAL WHICH MAY CAUSE RESPIRATORY TRACT IRRITATION
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS
Likely Routes of Exposure: Skin contact and dust inhalation
61
-------
ICL Performance Products LP Material Safety Data Sheet
Material: PhosChek® MVP-F
Reference No.: AST10176
Page 2 of 4
A pril 27. 2012
EYE CONTACT: This product is minirially irritating
SKIN CONTACT: This product is no more than slightly toxic.
INHALATION: May cause nasal and respiratory tract imitation based on toxicity information of
components.
INGESTION: Practically non toxic. No significant adverse health effects are expected to develop
if only small amounts (less than a mouthful) are swallowed.
Refer to Section 11 for toxicological information.
4. FIRST AID MEASURES
IF IN EYES OR ON SKIN, immediate first aid is not likely to be required. However, this material
can be removed with water. Remove material from eyes, skin and clothing. Wash heavily
contaminated clothing before reuse.
IF INHALED, remove to fresh air. If breathing, immediate first aid is not likely to be required. If
breathing is difficult, give oxygen. If not breathing give artificial respiration. Get medical attention.
IF SWALLOWED, immediate first aid is not likely to be required. A physician or Poison Control
Center can be contacted for advice.
5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES
FLASH POINT: Not combustible
HAZARDOUS PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION: Not applicable
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA: Not applicable
UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS: None known
FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT: Not applicable
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
In case of spil, sweep, scoop or vacuum and remove. Rush residual spil area with water.
Refer to Section 13 for disposal information and Sections 14 and 15 for reportable quantity
information.
7. HAN DUNG AND STORAGE
HANDLING
Avoid breathing dust. Keep container closed. Use with adequate ventlation.
Emptied container retains dust and product residue. Observe all labeled safeguards until
container is cleaned, reconditioned, or destroyed. The reuse of this material's container for
nonindustrial purposes is prohibited and any reuse must be in consideration of the data provided
in the MSDS.
STORAGE: Product is stable under normal conditions of storage and handling.
8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION
EYE PROTECTION: This product does not cause significant eye irritation or eye toxicity
requiring special protection. Use good industrial practice to avoid eye contact.
62
-------
ICL Performance Products LP Material Safety Data Sheet
Material: PhosChek® MVP-F
Reference No.: AST10176
Page 3 of 4
A pril 27. 2012
SKIN PROTECTION: Although this product does not present a significant skin concern, minimize
skin contamination by foB owing good industrial practice. Wearing protective gloves is
recommended. Wash hands and contaminated skin thoroughly after handling.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: Avoid breathing dust. Use NIOSH/MSHA approved respiratory
protection equpment when airborne exposure is excessive. Consult respirator manufacturer to
determine appropriate type equpment for given application. Observe respirator use limitations
specified by NIOSH/MSHA or the manufacturer. Respiratory protection programs must comply with
29CFR 1910.134.
VENTILATION: Provide natural or mechanical ventiation to minimize exposure. If practical, use
local mechanical exhaust ventiation at sources of air contamination such as open process
equpment
AIRBORNE EXPOSURE LIMITS:
OSHA and ACGIH have not established specific exposure limits for this material. However,
OSHA and ACGIH have established Imits for particulates not otherwise classified (PNOC) which
are the least stringent exposure limits applicable to dusts.
Components referred to herein maybe regulated by specific Canadian provincial legislation.
Please refer to exposure limits legislated for the province in which the substance wll be used.
9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
NOTE: These physical data are typical values based on material tested but may vary from
sample to sample. Typical values should not be construed as a guaranteed analysis of any
specific lot or as specifications for the product.
10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY
STABILITY: Product is stable under normal conditions of storage and handling.
MATERIALS TO AVOID: None known
HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: Ammonia and phosphoric acid may be formed
when these products are heated above 90 °C (194 °F).
HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: Does not occur.
11. TOX1COLOGICAL INFORMATION
Oral - rat LD50: > 5,050 mg/kg practically nontoxic
Dermal - rabbit LD50: > 2,020 mg/kg; No More Than Slightly Toxic
Eye Irritation - rabbit 4/110.0; minimally irritating
Skin Irritation - rabbit: 0.0/8.0 (24-hr. exp.); nonimtating
12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
Cddwater fish: 96-hr LCso Rainbow trout: 1845 mg/L, Practically Nontoxic
13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
OSHA PEL
15mg/m:l (total dust) 8-hr TWA
5 mg/m3 (respirable) 8-hr TWA
ACGIH TLV
10 mg/m3 (in halable) 8-hr TWA
3 mg/m3 (respirable) 8-hr TWA
Appearance:
Odor
Viscosity:
Reddish powder
Essentially odorless
401-800 centipoise @ 21 "C (70 °F) when dissolved in water at the
recommended level of 0.95 Ibs/gaL of water.
5.0-6.0
pH:
63
-------
ICL Performance Products LP Material Safety Data Sheet
Material: PhosChek® MVP-F
Reference No.: AST10176
Page 4 of 4
A pril 27. 2012
This material when discarded is not a hazardous waste as that term is defined by the Resource,
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 40 CFR 261. Dry material may be land filed or recycled
in accordance with local, state and federal regulations. Consult your attorney or appropriate
regulatory officials for information on such disposal.
14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION
The data provided in this section is for information only. Please apply tfie appropriate regulations
to properly classify your shipment for transportation.
US DOT: Not regulated for transportation
Canadian TDG: Not regulated for transportation
15. REGULATORY INFORMATION
TSCA Inventory:
DSL Inventory:
WHMIS Classification:
All Components Listed
Listed
Not Controlled
SARA Hazard Notification
Hazard Categories Under Title III Rules (40 CFR 370): Not Applicable
Section 302 Extremely Hazardous Substances: Not Applicable
Section 313 Toxic Chemical(s): Not Applicable
CERCLA Reportable Quantity: Not applicable
This product has been classified in accordance with the hazard criteria of the Canadian
Controlled Products Regulation and the MSDS contains al the information required by the
Canadian Controlled Products Regulation.
Refer to Section 11 for OSHA/HPA Hazardous Chemical(s) and Section 13 for RCRA
classification.
16. OTHER INFORMATION
Health Fire
Suggested NFPA Rating 1 1
Suggested HMIS Rating 1 1
Reason for revision: New Product
Product Use: Fire Retardant
Reactivity Additional Information
0
0 E
Supersedes MSDS dated: n/a
Phos-Chek ® is a registered trademark of ICL Performance Products LP.
Responsble Care © is a registered trademark of the American Chemistry Councl.
Although the information and recommendations set forth herein (hereinafter "Information") are
presented in good faith and believed to be correct as of the date hereof, ICL Performance
Products LP makes no representations as to the completeness or accuracy thereof. Information
is supplied upon the condition that the persons receiving same wil make their own determination
as to its suitability for their purposes prior to use. In no event will ICL Performance Products LP
be responsible for damages of any nature whatsoever resulting from the use of or reliance upon
information. NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EfTHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR OF ANY OTHER
NATURE ARE MADE HEREUNDER WITH RESPECT TO INFORMATION OR THE PRODUCT
TO WHICH INFORMATION REFERS
AST10176. doc
64
-------
emenls. Including precautionary statements
65
-------
WPS-TET-012 - Calcium Chloride Solution
a physician.
66
-------
WPS-TET-012 -
Calcium Chloride Solution
torage
67
-------
WPS-TET-012 -
Calcium Chloride Solution
No data available
68
-------
WPS-TET-012 - Calcium Chloride Solution
ed as a carcinogen.
69
-------
WPS-TET-012 -
Calcium Chloride Solution
g requirements of the Act and Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 372.
70
-------
WPS-TET-012 -
Calcium Chloride Solution
In combination with any other material or In any process, unless specified In the text.
71
-------
Soil20 Dust Control
G E LT E C H* Safety Data Sheet
SOLUTIONS
SECTION 1: Identification of the substance/mixture and of the company/undertaking
1.1. Product identifier
Product name : Soi20 Dust Control
1.2. Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against
Use of the substanceAn Kture : Dust Control Agent
1.3. Details of the supplier of the safety data sheet
GefTech Solutions
1460 Paik Lane S, Suite 1
Jupiter, FL 33458
T 561-427-6144 - F 561-427-6182
1.4. Emergency telephone number
T 561-427-6144 - F 561-427-6182
Toll Free: 1-800^24-4874
SECTION 2: Hazards identification
2.1. Classification of the substance or mixture
Classification (GHS-US)
Eye In* 2B H320
2.2.
Label elements
GHS-US labeling
Hazard pictograms (GHS-US)
Signal word (GHS-US)
Hazard statements (GHS-US)
Precautionary statements (GHS-US)
Warning
H320 - Causes eye irritation
P264 - Wash thoroughly ater handling
P305 + P351 + P338 - If h eyes: Rinse cautiously wih water for several minutes. Remove
contact lenses, if present and easy to do. Continue rinsing
P337 + P313 - If eye irritation persists: Get medical advice/attention
2.3. Other hazards
No additional ritormation avaiable
2.4. Unknown acute toxicity (GHS-US)
No data avaiable
SECTION 3: Composition/information on ingredients
3.1. Substance
Not applicable
Name
Product identifier
Classification (GHS-US)
Polyacrytate Polymer
(CAS No) Trade Secret
Eye Infl. 2B, H320
Water
(CAS No) 7732-18-5
Not classified
SECTION 4: First aid measures
4.1. Description of first aid measures
First-aid measures after inhalation
First-aid measures after skin contact
First-aid measures after eye contact
First-aid measures after ingestion
Remove to fresh air and remove material from affected areas. Seek medical advice or attention
n the event of any adverse s^nptoms or irritation.
Wash wih water. Seek medical acfrice if skii irritation develops or persists.
Flush with plenty of water for at least 15 m nutes. Seek medical art/ice if irritation develops or
persists.
Immediate first aid is not litely to be required. Seek medical advice or attention ri the event of
any adverse symptoms.
EN (Encash US)
Page 1
72
-------
Soil20 Dust Control
Safety Data Sheet
4.2.
S^nptoms/nunes after rihalation
Symptoms/njunes after skin contact
S^nptoms/iijuries after eye contact
Svvnptoms/riiuries after rigestion
Most important symptoms and effects, both acute and delayed
: Exposure to lespirable dust may cause respiiatoiy tract and lung irritation and may aggra/ate
existing respratory conditions.
: Exposure to the dust, such as In manufacturing, may aggravate existing skii conditions due to
dry rig effect.
: Dust may cause burning, dryhg, itching and other discomfort, resiithg n redden ng of the eyes.
Alhough not a Ikely route of entry, tests have shown that polyacrytate absoibents are non-toxic
if ingested However, as in any instance of nonfood consumption, seek medical attention in the
event of any adverse symptoms.
4.3. Indication of any immediate medical attention and special treatment needed
No additional reformation avaiable
Vtoter Water spray. Foam. Caibon dioxide (C02). Dry powder
None.
SECTION 5: Firefighting measures
5.1. Extinguishing media
Suitable extinguish rig media
Unsuitable extriguishrig media
5.2. Special hazards arising from the substance or mixture
Fire hazard : None known
Explosion hazard : None known
5.3. Advice for firefighters
Protection during firefighting : Firefighters should wear full protective gear.
SECTION 6: Accidental release measures
6.1.
6.1.1
No addtional information avaiable
Personal precautions, protective equipment and emergency procedures
For nonemergency personnel
6.1.2. For emergency responders
No additional information avaiable
6.2. Environmental precautions
Avoid release to the environment.
6.3.
Methods and material for containment and cleaning up
For containment
Methods for cleaning up
6.4. Reference to other sections
No additional reformation avaiable
SECTION 7: Handling and storage
7.1. Precautions for safe handling
Precautions for safe hand hg : Avoid contact with eyes.
7.2. Conditions for safe storage, including any incompatibilities
Storage conditions : Store in a dry, closed container.
7.3. Specific end use(s)
No additional information avaiable
SECTION 8: Exposure controls/personal protection
8.1. Control parameters
No additional reformation avaiable
Stop the flow of material, if this is wihout rek. Use caution ater contact of product with water as
slppery conditions may resut
Sweep or vacuum material when possble and shovel rto a waste contaner. Dispose of waste in
accordance with local, state and federal regulations
8.2. Exposure controls
Appropriate engrteemg controls
Hand protection
Eye protection
Local exhaust and general ventiation must be adequate to meet exposure standards
Use impervious gloves such as neoprene, nitile, or rubber for hand protection.
Safety glasses
08/26/2014
EN (Engisti US)
73
-------
Soil20 Dust Control
Safety Data Sheet
Skin and body protection : Wear suitable woikng clothes.
Respiratory protection : If working in a well-ventiated area, none required. If aiibome concentrations are above ttie
applicable exposure Irnis, use NIOSH approved respiratoiy protection.
SECTION 9: Physical and chemical properties
9.1. Information on basic physical and chemical properties
Physical state
Solid
Appearance
Powder
Color
White
Odor
None
Odor threshold
No data salable
PH
55-6.5 {1% ii water)
Relative evaporation rate (butyl acetate l)
No data asaiable
Relative evaporation rate (ethep=1)
< 1
Melting poilt
390 "F
Freezing point
No data avaiable
Boiiig point
No data avaiable
Flash port
No data avaiable
Auto-ignition temperature
No data araiable
Decomposition temperature
No data asaiable
Flammabiiy {solid, gas)
No data asaiable
Vapor pressure
< 10 mm Hg
Relative vapor density at 20 °C
No data a/aiable
Specific gravty
0 4 -0.7g/l
Sdubity
Insoluble.
Log Pow
No data avaiable
Log Kow
No data avaiable
Viscosity, kinematic
No data avaiable
Vscosity, dynamic
No data a/aiable
Explosn/e properties
No data a/aiable
Oxidizrtj properties
No data avaiable
Explosive linis
No data a/aiable
9.2. Other information
No additional nforrnation avaiable
SECTION 10: Stability and reactivity
10.1. Reactivity
No additional information avaiable
10.2. Chemical stability
The product is stable at normal handrig and storage conditions.
10.3. Possibility of hazardous reactions
Wil not occur.
10.4. Conditions to avoid
None
10.5. Incompatible materials
None
10.6. Hazardous decomposition products
None known
EN (Engisti US)
74
-------
Soil20 Dust Control
Safety Data Sheet
SECTION 11: Toxicological information
11.1. Information on toxicological effects
Acute tox iciy
Skfi corrosion/irritation
Serious eye damage/irritation
Respiratory or skin sensiization
Geirn cell mutagenicity
Carcfoogen icity
Reproductive tox iciy
Specific target organ tox icily (single exposure)
Not classified
Not classified
Causes eye in tat ion
Not classified
Polyaciylate Polymer had no effect w\ mutagenicity tests
Not classified
Not classified
Not classified
Specific target organ tox icily {repeated : Not classified
exposure)
Aspiration hazard : Not classified
SECTION 12: Ecological information
12.1. Toxicity
No negathse or toxic effects on the envron merit are antic pated when released ri diution for terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; based on government
testfog. Composted polyacrylate polymers are nontoxic to aquatic orterrestrial organisms at predicted exposure levels from current application rates.
12.2. Persistence and degradability
Decomposes overtrne or vi the presence of natural sinlight when applied to terrestrial sifostrate or vegetation Polyacrylate polymers are relatwely inert
fi aerobic and anaerobic conditions They are vnmobie in landfills and sol systems {>90% retention), wih the mobie fraction show rig biodegradabiiy
They are also compatble wih incneration of municipal solid waste Incidental down-the-drain disposal of smal quantities of polyacrylic polymers wil not
affect the performance of wastewater treatment systems.
12.3. Bioaccumulative potential
No additional ^formation avaiable
12.4. Mobility in soil
Polyacrylate polymeis are immobie in landfills and sol systems {>90% retention), with the mobie fraction showfog biodegradabiiy.
12.5. Other adverse effects
Effect on ozone layer : No additional information avaiable
Effect on the global warning : No known ecological damage caused by this product
SECTION 13: Disposal considerations
13.1. Waste treatment methods
Waste disposal recommendations : In concentrate form, this product is a non-hazardous waste material sutable for approved solid
waste landfills. Diuted product is non-soluble and can be disposed of in suitable effluent
treatment plants. Dispose of contents/container m accordance wih
local/regional/national/litemational regulations.
SECTION 14: Transport information
ki accordance wih DOT
Not a dangerous good as defined in transport regulations
SECTION 15: Regulatory information
15.1. US Federal regulations
No addiional information a/aiabie
15.2. US State regulations
No addiional ^formation avaiable
EN (Engisti US)
75
-------
Soil20 Dust Control
Safety Data Sheet
SECTION 16: Other information
Full text of H-phrases:
Eye Int. 2B
Eye damage/eye imtation Category 2B
H320
Causes eye irritation
Jhts mtarmabon is based on ouf anient tvxmlccigc and is mtertckd to desaibe tttc p/ocfucl for the purposes aiheatSi, safety and enwvnmental requtremenis only. It dtoufd not therefore becon&rued as
guaranteeing any specOc properfy of the ptoAxi
EN (Engish US)
76
-------
rish Reacxor
www-nskreactor.com
Rare Earths * Glow Paints * Tracers * UV Dyes * UV & Glow Pigments * Security Inks * Invisible Inks * Black Lights * Service
Risk Reactor Inc.
2676 South Grand Ave.,
Santa Ana, California 92705
United States of America
Tel: (714) 641-3500 Fax: (714) 641-7100
Email: s^es@riskreactor.com
Al information, recommendations and suggestions appeartig hereri concern rxj this product are based if)on data obtailed from the
manufacturer and/or recognized technical sources. However, Risk Reactor makes no warranty, representation or guarantee as to the
accuracy, sufficiency or completeness of the material set forth herein. It is the user's responsfcfity Id determine the safety, toxicity and
suitabSty of his own use, handing and cfisposal of the product, Adffitional product Bterature may be avaSable upon request Since
actual use by others is beyond our control, no warranty express or vnpied, is made by Risk Reactor as to the effects of such use, the
results to be obtaiied or the safety and toxicity of the product, nor does Risk Reactor assume any Babfity arising out of use by other of
the product referred to herein. The data in the USDS relates only to specific material designated hereh and does not refate to use ii
compilation with any other materal or in any process,
l i l lCIIVI DATE : 3 08 13 SUPERSEDES: 6-6 12
Section One — Identity liifofinailioii
trade Name: Svraiation Powder
CAS Number: No
Product Type: PDT-06
This product is considered to be a non-hazardous substance under that standard.
Section Two — Hazard Inyedterts
Inyedients GAS nuntoer % ACGIH-TLV OSHA-PEL
As inert dust (total) 3mg/m3 ACGIN-TLV 3mg/m3 OSHAT>B_
Section Tlree — Physical Data
Appearance: Light YeBow Powder/No Order
Melting Poirt Dissociates 1200 C
Vapor Pressure: N/AP
Vapor Dm sty: N/AP
Soiubfity In Water: Neglgfc4e(< 1%)
fTammabfity Class: N/AP
Extihguttiiig Mecfia: Water
Specific Gravity: 4.1
Freezing Point: N/AP
Percent Volatie: N/AP
Evaporation Rate: N/AP
pH (% in water): N/AP
Flash Posit: N/AP
Auto-Ignition Temp: N/AP
Fire Fighting Procedure-Speckl
Pre Fighters should wear self oontaried breathrig apparatus when fighting chemical fires. Use water spray to cool nearby contaiiers
and structures exposed to fire.
Unusual Fire And Explosion Hazards: This product vM not bum use appropriate techniques to fight surrounding fire.
Section Four — Reactivity Data
Stabfity: Stable
Hazardous Polymerization: Wfl not occur.
Conditions to Avoid: Contact with adds
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Hydrogen Sitfide Gas: Thermal Decompoatfon may evoke
Section Five — Health Hazard Data
Respiratory Equpment l ocal Exhaust/mechanical (general)
Protective Gloves: Plastic or Neoprene
Eye Protection: Chemical Glasses
Veitiatton:
Other Protective Equipment: Lab Coat
Threshold limit value: OSHA* PEL Total Dust 3mg/m3
Primary Routes of Exposure: I relation/In gestion/S kin
OSHA PEL: 3mg/m3
ACGIN TLV: 3mg/m3
Effects of Overexposure: May Cause mechanical Irritation to eyes, dasts & mucous membranes
Listed Carcinogen: None
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
SPECIAL NOTICE
Risk Reactor Inc.
2676 South Orand Ave., Santa Ana, California 92705
United States of America
Tel: 714-641-3500 Fax:714-641-7100 Email: sales@tiskreactor.coni
77
-------
rish Reacxor
www-nskreactor.com
Rare Earths * Glow Paints * Tracers * UV Dyes * UV & Glow Pigments * Security Inks * Invisible Inks * Black Lights * Service
Section Six— Emergency & Fret Aid Data
Skin: Wash off with soap and water
Eyes: Flush with water for 5minLrtes
Inhalation: Remove to fredi ar
Ingestion: Drink quantities of water and induce vomiting
Section Seven — Tcsdcclogy Information
This product is erf nontoxic, please contact the manufacturer for further information
Section Eight—SpB or Leak Procedures
SpM Procedires: Wear appropriate protective equipment avoid the generation of dust, vacuum or shovel material and place ki dosaWe
contaeiers for disposal
Waste Disposal Methods: Dispose ii accordance with state and local regiiations
Section Nine — Regulatory Information
SARA 313 Title III
Toooc Substance Control Act (TSCA): Al ingredients *1 this product are fisted on the US BP A TSCA Inventory of cbem kal aibstances.
Section Ten—fecial Precautions for Industrial Use Only
Hancfirig and Storage Information: Store dosed in cool dry area when hand&ig wear protective dotting and reqaratwy protection.
Avoid scatter bi the air.
Other Precautions: Maintain a schedule of regular housekeeping to ensure deanfiness.
Section Eleven — Addendum
Definitions and Abbreviations: AQHIH = American Conference of Governmental Industrial HycpenistR
CAS = Chemical Abstract Service Registry Number
EPA= Environ mental Protection Agency
N/AP = Not Appicable
N/AV = Not Avaflable
NOISH = National Institute for Occupational Scfety and Health
OSHA = Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PEL = Permissijle Expoare Limits.
SARA = Supgfand Ainenefcnents» hazard categories: Immediate health hazard
Risk Reactor Inc.
2676 South Grand Ave.;, Santo Ana California 92705
United States of America
Tel: 714-641-3500 Fax:714-641-7100 Email: sales@tiskreactor.coni
78
-------
vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
PRESORTED STANDARD
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
EPA
PERMIT NO. G-35
Office of Research and Development (8101R)
Washington, DC 20460
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use
$300
------- |