EPA/600/R-20/436 | December 2020 www.epa.gov/homeland-security-research United States Environmental Protection Agency oEPA Literature Search and Review for Sampling, Analysis, and Decontamination of Chemical Warfare Agent - Contaminated Maritime Vessels Office of Research and Development Homeland Security Research Program ------- EPA/600/R-20/436 December 2020 LITERATURE SEARCH AND REVIEW FOR SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND DECONTAMINATION OF CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENT- CONTAMINATED MARITIME VESSELS Lukas Oudejans and David See Homeland Security and Materials Management Division (HSMMD) Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response (CESER) Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 ii ------- DISCLAIMER The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) through its Office of Research and Development funded and managed the research described herein under Contract Number EP-C- 15-002, Task Orders 68HE0C18F0807 and 68HERC20F0074 with Battelle. This study was funded through the Vessel Detection USCG Project by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate under EPA-DHS interagency agreement No. 7095923201 (DHS IAA No: HSHQM-17-X-00245). This report has been subjected to the Agency's review and has been approved for publication. Note that approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views of the Agency. Any mention of trade names, products, or services does not imply an endorsement by the U.S. Government or EPA. The EPA does not endorse any commercial products, services, or enterprises. The contractor role did not include establishing Agency policy. Questions concerning this document, or its application should be addressed to: Lukas Oudejans, Ph.D. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response Homeland Security and Materials Management Division 109 T.W. Alexander Drive Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Phone: 919-541-2973 Fax:919-541-0496 E-mail: Oudeians.Lukas@epa.gov in ------- FOREWORD The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is charged by Congress with protecting the Nation's land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions leading to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA's research program is providing data and technical support for solving environmental problems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our ecological resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and prevent or reduce environmental risks in the future. The Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response (CESER) within the Office of Research and Development (ORD) conducts applied, stakeholder-driven research and provides responsive technical support to help solve the Nation's environmental challenges. The Center's research focuses on innovative approaches to address environmental challenges associated with the built environment. We develop technologies and decision-support tools to help safeguard public water systems and groundwater, guide sustainable materials management, remediate sites from traditional contamination sources and emerging environmental stressors, and address potential threats from terrorism and natural disasters. CESER collaborates with both public and private sector partners to foster technologies that improve the effectiveness and reduce the cost of compliance, while anticipating emerging problems. We provide technical support to EPA regions and programs, states, tribal nations, and federal partners, and serve as the interagency liaison for EPA in homeland security research and technology. The Center is a leader in providing scientific solutions to protect human health and the environment. This report summarizes the current scientific literature on remediation-related activities associated with US Coast Guard vessels and other assets. It also provides descriptions of research gaps and needs for consideration by US Coast Guard and other federal agencies to improve on sampling and decontamination of vessels following a chemical warfare agent release scenario. Gregory Sales, Director Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response iv ------- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This effort was directed by the principal investigator (PI) from the Office of Research and Development's (ORD's) Homeland Security and Materials Management Division (HSMMD) within the Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response (CESER). The contributions of the following individuals have been a valued asset throughout this effort. EPA Project Team Lukas Oudejans, ORD/CESER/HSMMD (PI) Shannon Serre, OLEM/OEM/CMAD Worth Calfee, ORD/CESER/HSMMD Sandip Chattopadhyay, current OCSPP/OPPT/RAD Battelle Memorial Institute David See Ryan James U.S. EPA Technical Reviewers of Report Mace Barron, ORD/CESER/HSMMD (Detail) Stuart Willison, ORD/CESER/HSMMD U.S. EPA Quality Assurance Eletha Brady-Roberts, ORD/CESER Ramona Sherman, ORD/CESER/HSMMD U.S. EPA Editorial Review Joan Bursey v ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS DISCLAIMER Ill FOREWORD IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS V LIST OF ACRONYMS VIII 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background 1 1.2. Scope and Purpose 1 1.3. Objectives 2 1.4. Use of Secondary Data 4 1.5. Organization of Report 4 2. LITERATURE SEARCH 6 2.1. Literature Search Approach 6 2.1.1. USCG Vessels 6 2.1.2. Target CWAs 8 2.2. Literature Search Resources 8 2.3. Literature Search Criteria and Strategy 9 2.4. Literature Source Quality Assessment 11 2.4.1. Qualitative Quality Assessment 11 2.4.2. Quantitative Quality Assessment 12 2.5. Literature Search Results 13 2.6. Source Compilation Document 13 3. KNOWLEDGE REVIEW 14 3.1. CWA Fate and Transport 14 3.2. CWA Contamination Management and Response 16 3.3. CWA Decontamination Efficacy 21 3.4. CWA Decontaminant Material Compatibility 30 3.5. CWA Sampling and Analysis 32 3.6. Comprehensive Summary Tables 36 4. KNOWLEDGE/CAPABILITY GAP ASSESSMENT AND RESULTS 39 4.1. Knowledge/Capability Gaps 39 4.2. Additional Information, Discussion, and Notes 41 4.3. Gap Table 42 5. REFERENCES 43 vi ------- ATTACHMENTS Attachment A - Literature Assessment Factor Rating 52 Attachment B - Source Quality Evaluations 53 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Focus Materials 7 Table 2. Source Document Types 12 Table 3. Research Focus Areas and Sources Collected 13 Table 4. CWA Decontamination and Sampling Summary (USCG Materials) 37 Table 5. CWA Decontamination and Sampling Summary (Additional Materials) 38 Table 6. Gap Table 42 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Project Overview and Progression 3 Figure 2. 1st Search Run 10 Figure 3. 2nd Search Run 10 Figure 4. 3rd Search Run 11 vii ------- LIST OF ACRONYMS ฐc Degree(s) Celsius ฐF Degree(s) Fahrenheit a-Fe203 Iron oxide Hg Microgram(s) |iL Microliter(s) |im Micrometer(s) |imol Micromole(s) 2-PAM Pralidoxime ACES Advanced Catalytic Enzyme System AED Atomic emission detector AP-AI2O3 Aero-gel produced alumina APC Advanced Performance Coating b-NPP Bis(4-nitrophenyl) phosphate BIS Bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphite BTEX Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, /^-xylene BWA Biological warfare agent CAFTA Computer-aided fault tree analysis CaO Calcium oxide Ca(OCl)2 Calcium hypochlorite Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide CARC Chemical agent resistant coating CASCAD Canadian Aqueous System for Chemical/Biological Agent Decontamination CaS04 Calcium sulfate CBRN Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear CD Compact disk CE Capillary electrophoresis CEES 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide CEPS 2-chloroethyl phenyl sulfide CESER Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response ChE cholinesterase CIO2 Chlorine dioxide cm Centimeter(s) CREATIVE Contact hazard Residual hazard Efficacy Agent T&E Integrated Variable Environment CT Concentration time CWA Chemical warfare agent DEA Diethanolamine DEM Diethyl malonate DES Diethyl sulfide DESI-MS Desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry DETA Di ethyl enetri amine DFP Dii sopropylfluorophosphate DFPase Dii sopropylfluorophosphatase DHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security DIMP Diisopropyl methyl phosphonate ------- DMCP Dimethyl chlorophosphate DMMP Dimethyl methyl phosphonate DS2 Decontamination Solution 2 DTIC Defense Technical Information Center DVD Digital video disk EDEA N-ethyl diethanolamine EGME Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether EHDMAP Ethylhydrogen dimethylphosphonate EMPA Ethyl methylphosphonic acid EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ESAM Environmental Sampling and Analysis Methods ESI Electrospray ionization FGA Fourth generation agent FGAC Fiberglass-supported activated carbon FOUO For Official Use Only g Gram(s) GA Tabun GB Sarin GC/MS Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry GD Soman GF Cyclosarin h Hour(s) H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide HAD Hot air decontamination HCO4- Peroxymonocarbonate HD Sulfur mustard HL Agent Yellow HMRC Hazardous Materials Research Center HN1,HN2, HN3 Nitrogen mustard HPLC High performance liquid chromatography HSMMD Homeland Security and Materials Management Division HSRP Homeland Security Research Program HTH High test hypochlorite HVAC Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning IMPA Isopropyl methylphosphonate in Inch kg kilogram KOH Potassium hydroxide L Lewisite, liter LOD Limit of detection m Meter(s) M Molar MDEA N-methyl diethanolamine MDSPE Magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction MEM S Mi cro-el ectro-mechani cal - sy stem MeS Methyl salicylate ix ------- mg Milligram(s) MIL Military min Minute(s) mL Milliliter(s) mm Millimeter(s) MnO Manganese oxide MOF Metal organic framework MPA Methylphosphonate in VHP Modified vaporous hydrogen peroxide NA Not applicable NaCl Sodium chloride NaHC03 Sodium bicarbonate NaOCl Sodium hypochlorite NaOH Sodium hydroxide ND:YAG Neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:Y3AI5O12) ng Nanogram(s) nh3 Ammonia nm Nanometer NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance OP Organophosphorus OPAA Organophosphorus acid anhydrolase OPAB N-octylpyridinium 4-aldoxime bromide OPH Organophosphorus hydrolase ORD Office of Research and Development pAB pH-adjusted bleach PC Personal computer PDA Personal digital assistant PI Principal investigator PMPA Pinacolyl methylphosphonate ppb Part(s) per billion PPE Personal protective equipment ppm Part(s) per million ppmv Part(s) per million by volume PTE Phosphotriesterase QCM Quartz crystal microbalance (Q)SAR Quantitative structure activity relationship RAC Risk assessment code RB-M Response Boat - Medium RB-S Response Boat - Small RH Relative humidity RSD Relative standard deviation RSDL Reactive Skin Decontamination Lotion SAM Selected Analytical Methods SAW Surface acoustic wave SCID Sample Collection Information Document SDF Surface decontamination foam ------- slpm Standard liter(s) per minute SPME Solid phase microextraction SSMAS NMR Solid state magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy STB Super tropical bleach SWCNT Single-walled carbon nanotube TBP Tributyl phosphate TDI Tolyl diisocyanate TEA Triethanolamine TEP Triethyl phosphate TGD Thickened Soman TiCh/Au/Mg Titanium dioxide/gold/magnesium UPLC-MS/MS Ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry US United States USCG United States Coast Guard UV Ultraviolet VHP Vaporous hydrogen peroxide VOC Volatile organic compound VX O-ethyl S-[2-(diisopropylamino)-ethyl] methylphosphonothioate w/v Weight/volume Zr Zirconium ------- 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for preparing for, responding to, and recovering from threats to public health, welfare, or the environment caused by actual or potential hazardous materials incidents. Hazardous materials include chemical, biological, and radiological substances, whether accidentally or intentionally released. In 2002, Congress passed the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act (Bioterrorism Act). The Office of the President issued a series of Homeland Security Presidential Directives to specify the responsibilities of federal agencies as related to the Bioterrorism Act. EPA's roles and responsibilities include protecting human health and the environment from bioterrorism. Included within the scope of these responsibilities are the personnel and assets of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), the principal federal agency responsible for maritime safety, security, and environmental stewardship in U.S. ports and waterways. The USCG protects and defends more than 100,000 miles of U.S. coastline and inland waterways. To this end, the USCG may be responsible for countering and responding to incidents involving weapons of mass destruction, including biological warfare agents (BWAs) and chemical warfare agents (CWAs). To carry out their mission, the USCG maintains a fleet of small boats, larger cutters and aircraft, as well as a network of fixed infrastructure. Such assets are likely to be utilized in the event of a USCG response to an incident involving BWAs and/or CWAs and would likely become contaminated as a result. Following a contamination incident, decontamination is necessary so that assets may be returned to service and USCG capability can be maintained. Efficacious decontamination strategies are thus necessary. Further, effective sampling is necessary to determine the extent and magnitude of contamination, inform responders on selection of decontamination strategies, determine the success of decontamination strategies, and determine the presence/absence of residual contaminants to clear assets for return to service. USCG vessel usage scenarios, operating environments, and materials of construction present unique challenges to BWA and CWA decontamination and sampling that have not been previously addressed. 1.2. Scope and Purpose The purpose of this project was to (1) conduct a review of existing BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies, (2) assess their applicability to USCG vessels and the associated materials of construction, and (3) identify knowledge/capability gaps associated with decontamination and sampling of USCG vessel materials. The review of existing BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies was accomplished through completion of a systematic search of the open literature, focused primarily on representative USCG vessels and contaminant groups (refer to Sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2, respectively). 1 ------- 1.3. Objectives Specific objectives to support the purpose of this project included the following: Conduct a search of the open literature (including existing guidance documentation, information, scientific literature, secondary data, etc.) for BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies that are potentially applicable to USCG vessels and associated materials of construction. Develop summaries of the guidance documentation, information sources, scientific literature, secondary data sources, etc. that were identified and collected during the search and develop a source compilation document to collate the findings from the literature search according to primary research focus. Based on review of the search results and the secondary data and information collected related to BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies, identify knowledge/capability gaps associated with decontamination and sampling of USCG vessel materials due to the unique vessel usage scenarios, operating environments, and materials of construction. Develop reports to summarize and discuss: o The approach and resources used to conduct the literature search and results of the search. o The approaches, procedures, and methodologies for BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, sampling and analysis that were identified during the search and that may have relevance to USCG vessels and associated materials of construction. o The knowledge/capability gaps identified that relate to the unique challenges presented by USCG vessel operations and materials that must be overcome for development of effective decontamination and sampling strategies for BWA- and/or CWA-contaminated USCG vessels that allow for prompt and safe return to service. Figure 1 provides an overview of the steps taken during the project to accomplish the above project objectives to conduct the literature search, summarize the search results and collate the summaries into the source compilation document, identify knowledge/capability gaps based on the search results, and develop reports to present the search results, information and data collected, and gaps identified. 2 ------- Definition of Project Scope and Objectives Defined by EPA in consultation with project stakeholders Pre-Search Activities Selection of focus USCG vessels materials Selection of focus BWAs/CWAs Development of the search strategy (including selection of search terms and resources) Literature Search Application of the search terms to the search resources to collect information and secondary data Refinement of the search terms and re application to the search resources to elicit identification and collection of additional data and increase data relevancy to the project objectives Summary of Sources and Development of Source Compilation Document Summary of information secondary data sources using a standardized template As s e s sment of s ource quality Collation of source summaries into the source compilation document based on primary re search focus Identification and Discussion of Kno wle dge/C ap ability Gaps Presentation of the information and secondary data collected during the search to project stakeholders Identification of kno wle dge capability gap s. bas e d on the search results Reporting Presentation of the project objectives and search strategy Presentation of the information and secondary data collected Presentation of kno wle dge cap ability gaps identified Separate reports for BWAs and CWAs Figure 1. Project Overview and Progression 3 ------- 1.4. Use of Secondary Data Secondary data are defined as existing data, also termed non-direct measurements, that were not developed originally through the project to which they are being applied 1. For this project, secondary data that was gathered consisted of information and data related to BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies that are potentially applicable to USCG vessels and associated materials of construction. These data were collected from various sources including government reports and publications in the open literature. 1.5. Organization of Report This report is organized by section to (1) describe how the literature search was conducted to review existing BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies, and how the quality of the secondary data and information that were collected were assessed, (2) present and review the secondary data and information collected, and (3) describe the approach for identification of knowledge/capability gaps associated with decontamination and sampling of USCG vessel materials and present the outcomes of the gap discussions. The three primary sections of the report are outlined and described as follows: Literature Search The approach for conducting the literature search is described (Section 2.1). To focus the literature search efforts, specific USCG vessels and their associated materials of construction and specific CWAs were selected as focus materials/contaminants (Sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2). Search criteria including lists of strategic keywords (i.e., search terms) and the arrangements of the keywords with Boolean operators to execute the searches were developed (Section 2.3) and the criteria were applied to a variety of repositories/resources (Section 2.2) to identify and collect information and secondary data. Quality of the information and secondary data sources that were collected was assessed qualitatively and quantitatively (Section 2.4). Following completion of the search but prior to development of this report, the articles, reports, guidance documents, and other information and secondary data sources of sufficient quality that were collected during the literature search were summarized using a standardized summary structure, categorized according to content and primary research focus, and the summaries were collated into a source compilation document (Section 2.6). Knowledge Review The information and secondary data collected during the literature search are presented, categorized according to content and primary research focus, and bibliographic citations are provided for the literature sources from which the information and secondary data were collected. The research focus areas include (1) CWA fate and transport, (2) CWA contamination management and response, (3) CWA decontamination efficacy studies, (4) 4 ------- CWA decontaminant material compatibility studies, and (5) CWA sampling and analysis methodologies (Sections 3.1 through 3.5). Knowledge/Capability Gap Assessment Based on the results of the literature search, gaps in information/secondary data related to methodologies, procedures, and technologies for decontamination and sampling of CWA contamination on USCG assets were identified. Project stakeholders met to discuss the literature search and the identified gaps. The knowledge/capability gaps identified and other information, discussions, and notes from the meeting are presented (Section 4). As discussed in Section 1.2, the scope of this project included (1) review of existing contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies, (2) assessment of the applicability of the strategies to USCG vessels and their associated materials of construction, and (3) identification of knowledge/capability gaps associated with decontamination and sampling of USCG vessel materials for both BWA and CWA contaminants. Discussion of BWAs and the approach for conducting the literature search to include both BWAs and CWAs is included in Section 2 of this report, but the results of the literature search and discussions of knowledge/capability gaps provided in Sections 3 and 4, respectively, are focused only on CWAs in this report. Literature search results and discussion of knowledge/capability gaps related to methodologies, procedures, and technologies for decontamination and sampling of BWA contamination on USCG assets is provided in a separate report. 5 ------- 2. LITERATURE SEARCH 2.1. Literature Search Approach The literature search was conducted using the resources described in Section 2.2 and the search criteria and strategy described in Section 2.3. The secondary data gathered during this effort includes information on BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies that are potentially applicable to USCG vessels and associated materials of construction. For the purpose of this search, BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling are defined as: Contamination response and management - Initial action(s) taken in response to an incident involving creation or spread of contamination by BWA, CWA, or similar, as well as ongoing actions taken to assess the initial response and to direct and modify subsequent response steps. Such actions may include: initial steps to stop the spread of contamination and contain existing contamination (in the case of USCG vessels, such actions may include storing/staging of contaminated vessels that cannot be decontaminated immediately); procedures and guidance for development of response plans and for continuous assessment and modification of plans, as necessary; guidance and considerations regarding response safety and personal protective equipment (PPE) requirements; and information, considerations, and guidance related to disposition and disposal of contaminated and decontaminated wastes. Decontamination - General guidance and procedures for decontamination/neutralization of contamination by BWA, CWA, or similar. Information and secondary data related to use and efficacy of specific methodologies and technologies for decontamination of BWA, CWA, or similar. Sampling - General guidance and procedures for qualitative and/or quantitative detection of BWA and/or CWA (or similar) contamination, either prior to or following decontamination. Information and secondary data related to use, resolution, precision, and accuracy of specific methodologies and technologies for decontamination of BWA, CWA, or similar contamination. To focus search efforts, information and data related to specific USCG vessels and associated materials of construction and specific CWAs were sought primarily. 2.1.1. USCG Vessels 2.1.1.1. Vessels and Vessel Missions Four (4) USCG vessels were selected as focus assets for directing the literature search efforts. The vessels and their primary missions are provided and summarized below: Response Boat - Medium (RB-M) - The RB-M is a 45-foot multi-mission capable, all- aluminum utility boat. The RB-M includes wireless crew communication systems and is powered by twin diesel engines and water jet propulsion. RB-M missions include search 6 ------- and rescue, living marine resources, recreational boating safety, enforcement of laws and treaties, and port, waterways, and coastal security 2 Response Boat - Small (RB-S) - The RB-S (also referred to as the Defender-class boat) is a 25-foot boat introduced by the USCG in 2003 to replace shore-based non-standard boats. RB-S assets serve a variety of law enforcement, security, and vessel safety missions 2 RB-S II - The RB-S II is a 29-foot boat designed as an upgrade and replacement to the 25-foot RB-S. It is a high-speed deployable asset designed to operate year-round in shallow waters along coastal borders. The RB-S II supports search and rescue, recreational boating safety, law and treaty enforcement, marine environmental protection, defense, and port, waterways, and coastal security missions 2 Marine Protector-class Patrol Boat - The 87-foot Marine Protector-class patrol boat is a multi-mission vessel capable of supporting search and rescue, law enforcement, fishery patrol, drug interdiction, illegal immigrant interdiction, and homeland security missions up to 200 miles offshore. The vessel includes improved seakeeping abilities and enhanced habitability compared to other vessels, capability to interface with surface search radars used by U.S. warships, and is designed to maintain compliance with current and projected environmental protection laws 3. 2.1.1.2. Vessel Materials of Construction Specific materials used in construction of the vessels described in Section 2.1.1.1 were selected as focus materials for the purpose of further directing search efforts. The focus materials selected, categorized by vessel, are provided in Table 1. Table 1. Focus Materials Vessel Component 45-foot RB-M Vessel Type 25-foot RB-S 29-foot RB-S II 87-foot Patrol Boat Hull material Aluminum Aluminum Aluminum Coated steel Decking material Non-skid coatings Non-skid coatings Non-skid coatings Non-skid coatings Sensitive equipment/ components Propulsion (air and seawater intakes) Other electronic systems Propulsion (air and seawater intakes) Other electronic systems Propulsion (air and seawater intakes) Other electronic systems Ventilation Propulsion (air and seawater intakes) Other electronic and internal systems Additional relevant materials Foam Glass Glazing materials Insulation and other bulkhead coverings Foam Glass Glazing materials Insulation and other bulkhead coverings Foam Glass Glazing materials Insulation and other bulkhead coverings Glass Glazing materials Insulation and other bulkhead coverings 7 ------- 2.1.2. Target CWAs Three (3) CWAs were selected as focus contaminants for the purpose of directing the literature search efforts. The three CWAs include: Distilled sulfur mustard (HD) - Blister (vesicant)-type CWA that causes severe, delayed burns to the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract. Damages cells within minutes, though onset of pain and other health effects is delayed. Alkylating agent and known carcinogen 4 Sarin (GB) - Organophosphorus nerve CWA that inhibits acetylcholinesterase. Higher volatility than other G-series organophosphate nerve CWAs, thus generally considered to pose a significant vapor/inhalation hazard 5. O-ethyl S-[2-(diisopropylamino)-ethyl] methylphosphonothioate (VX) - Organophosphorus nerve CWA that inhibits acetylcholinesterase. Lower volatility than other nerve CWAs, thus generally considered to pose a long-term/persistent threat6. 2.2. Literature Search Resources The following resources were utilized to identify information and secondary data related to BWA and CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies that are potentially applicable to USCG vessels and associated materials of construction: SciTech Premium (also or formerly known as ProQuest Science & Technology) Multidisciplinary content collection of scholarly material in the natural sciences, technology, engineering and related disciplines. Includes a number of databases, including a military database that indexes over 700 scholarly journal articles, trade and industry journals, magazines, technical reports, conference proceedings, government publications, etc. Included as part of the military database is the National Technical Information Service which provides summaries of U.S. government research, development, and engineering, plus analyses prepared by federal agencies or their contractors. Scopus An abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature, with bibliometrics tools to track, analyze and visualize research. Scopus contains over 22,000 titles from more than 5,000 publishers around the world, covering the fields of science, technology, medicine, social sciences, and others. Scopus has 55 million records dating back to 1823, and 84% of these contain references dating from 1996. Battelle Library The Battelle library holds over 20,000 volumes and subscribes to over 10,000 print and e- journal titles in a range of scientific and technical disciplines, both foreign and domestic. In addition, the library manages access to more than 150 foreign and domestic databases, including, eBrary, Hooversฎ, Applied Science & Technology, EBSCOhostฎ, and National Technical Reports Library. 8 ------- Internet Internet searches (e.g. - EPA website, Google, Google Scholar, etc.) were used to identify available information on studies conducted using BWAs and CWAs focused on vessel response, decontamination, and sampling. 2.3. Literature Search Criteria and Strategy Prior to initiation of the literature search, the criteria used to perform the search were developed. The criteria included lists of strategic keywords anticipated to elicit identification of relevant secondary data and information, and the arrangement of the keywords with Boolean operators to execute the searches. Following each iteration of the search and subsequent review of the results, the arrangement of keywords and Boolean operators were revised in order to further focus the search and attempt to identify additional relevant secondary data and information. To ensure identification of a wide breadth of response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies potentially applicable to BWA and CWA-contamination on USCG vessels, initial search criteria were comprehensive, including provisions for identification of procedures, methodologies, techniques, and technologies for contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling for any type of contaminant (toxic chemicals, biological contaminants, radionuclides, etc., beyond the focus CWAs discussed in Section 2.1.2) from any maritime vessel or environment-related material (beyond the focus materials provided in Table 1 in Section 2.1.1.2). Information regarding fate and transport of persistent BWAs and CWAs on and across various materials were sought as well. Furthermore, the search criteria were developed to elicit collection of information related to all relevant aspects of BWA and CWA contamination on USCG vessel materials and impacts of use of the contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies identified. Boolean searches were performed using strategically-selected keywords with the operators AND and OR. After each search run (with a run defined as application of a particular arrangement of the keywords with the operators to the sources provided in Section 2.2) the resulting identified literature was reviewed to determine the effectiveness of the search and the relevancy of the results. Based on the search run results, the Boolean search strategy was revised, and another run was performed. Three runs were performed in this manner using the keywords and operators in different arrangements to refine and focus the searches to maximize the potential of identifying meaningful and relevant results. Figures 2, 3, and 4 below provide the search strategies used. 9 ------- Related to response Related to Related to , . , . ... Related to materials, . . ..... .. Related to contaminants . , and management decontamination sampling systems, and environments ResporT Decontaminat* Surface Chemical agent Marine OR Manag* OR Detoxif* OR Sam pi* OR Chemical warfare agent OR Maritime OR Mitigat* OR Disinfect* OR Analy* OR CWA OR Vessel OR Hazard* OR Clean* OR Wip* OR Distilled Mustard OR Boat OR Incident* OR Remov* OR Headspace OR HD OR Seawater OR Remediat* OR Attenuat* OR Vapor OR Sarin OR Foul* AND OR Steriliz* AMD OR Qualitative OR GB OR Hull OR Neutraliz* OR Quantitative OR VX OR Bulkhead OR Oxidiz* OR Detect* OR Biological agent OR Sensitive equipment OR Hydroly* OR Inhibit* OR Biological warfare agent OR Propulsion OR Degrad* OR Interfer* OR BWA AND OR Electronic OR Efficac* OR Sorbent OR Bacillus anthracis OR Ventilation OR Da mag* OR Fate OR Anthrax OR Intake OR Compatib* OR Transport AND OR Ebola OR Deck* OR Radiological agent OR Aluminum OR Radionuclide OR Non-skid OR Radioactive OR Glazing OR Radioisotope OR Steel OR Cesium* OR Insulation OR Cs-137 OR Foam OR Radiological dispersal device OR Glass OR Improvised nuclear device OR Fallout OR Nuclear OR Chlorinated biphenyl OR PCB OR Contamina* Figure 2. 1st Search Run Related to response Related to Related to ... Related to materials, ..... Related to contaminants . , and management decontamination sampling systems, and environments Mitigat* Decontaminat* Surface Chemical agent Marine OR Hazard* OR Detoxif* OR Sampl* OR Chemical warfare agent OR Maritime OR Incident* OR Disinfect* OR Analy* OR CWA OR Vessel OR Remediat* OR Clean* OR Wip* OR Distilled Mustard OR Boat OR Remov* OR Headspace OR HD OR Seawater OR Attenuat* OR Vapor OR Sarin OR Foul* OR Steriliz*" AND OR Qualitative AND OR GB OR Hull AND OR Neutraliz* OR Quantitative OR VX OR Bulkhead OR Oxidiz* OR Detect* OR Biological agent OR Sensitive equipment OR Hydroly* OR Inhibit* OR Biological warfare agent OR Propulsion OR Degrad* OR Interfer* OR BWA AND OR Electronic OR Efficac* OR Sorbent OR Bacillus anthracis OR Ventilation OR Damag* OR Fate OR Anthrax OR Intake OR Compatib* OR Transport OR Ebola OR Deck* OR JnajQMt* OR Aluminum OR Non-skid OR Glazing OR Steel OR Insulation OR Foam OR Glass Figure 3. 2nd Search Run 10 ------- Related to response Related to Related to , . .. ... Related to materials, systems. . .. Related to contaminants . and management decontamination sampling and environments Mitigat* AND Decontaminat* AND Sampl" AND Chemical warfare agent AND Marine OR Hazard* OR Detoxif* OR Analy* OR Distilled Mustard OR Maritime OR Incident*" OR Disinfect* OR Wip* OR HD OR Boat OR Remediat* OR Remov" OR Headspace OR Sarin OR Seawater OR Emergency OR Steriliz* OR Vapor OR GB OR Foul* OR Attack OR Neutraliz* OR Detect4, OR VX OR Hull OR Rescue OR Oxidiz* OR Interfer* OR Biological warfare agent OR Bulkhead OR Contain4" OR Hydroly* OR Sorbent OR BWA OR Sensitive equipment OR Risk OR Degrad* OR Fate OR Bacillus anthracis OR Ventilation OR Cleanup OR OR Transport OR Anthrax OR Deck* OR Ebola OR Aluminum OR Vesicant OR Non-skid OR Nerve agent OR Steel OR Foam OR Glass OR Sea OR Military OR Coast Guard (coast + guard) Figure 4. 3rd Search Run 2.4. Literature Source Quality Assessment 2.4.1. Qualitative Quality Assessment During the literature search, information and secondary data sources were qualitatively assessed according to the source document type. Table 2 provides the source document type list used during the literature search (not all source document types were accumulated during the search). Knowledge of the document type provided an indication of trustworthiness of the information/secondary data contained therein, based on general professional judgment of each document type. 11 ------- Table 2. Source Document Types Designation Description A Technical Report, U.S. Government B Technical Report, Contractor for U.S. Government C Translated Foreign-Language Document D Translated Foreign-Language Abstract E Untranslated Foreign-Language Document F Untranslated Foreign-Language Abstract G Peer-Reviewed English Language Literature, post-1975 H Peer-Reviewed English Language Literature, 1925-1975 I Peer-Reviewed English Language Literature, pre-1925 J Government Website, with citations K Government Website, without citations L Non-Government Website, with citations M Non-Government Website, without citations N Book Chapter or Book, with peer-review and/or editorial oversight 0 Book Chapter or Book, no peer-review nor editorial oversight P Book Chapter or Book, peer review and editorial oversight unknown Q Patent (United States) R Patent (International) S Thesis/Dissertation T News Article U Manufacturer-Supplied Literature V Other W Analysis Pending The majority of the sources collected were of type A (Technical Report, U.S. Government), type B (Technical Report, Contractor for U.S. Government), or type G (Peer-Reviewed English Language Literature, post-1975). 2.4.2. Quantitative Quality Assessment Each source of information and/or secondary data was evaluated according to the following categories: focus, verity, integrity, rigor, utility, clarity, soundness, uncertainty and variability, and evaluation and review. A description of each attribute is provided in the Literature Assessment Factor Rating (Attachment A). Information sources were evaluated against the Literature Assessment Factor Rating and assigned an overall rating to accomplish a semi- quantitative assessment of the quality of the source. For the quality of a source to be deemed sufficient, it was required that the source receive an overall Literature Assessment Factor Rating score of 15 or greater. Source quality evaluations (document type designations and Literature Assessment Factor Rating scores) for all sources of sufficient quality that were collected during the literature search, included in the source compilation document (refer to Section 2.6), and discussed in Section 3 are included as Attachment B. 12 ------- 2.5. Literature Search Results During the literature search, 94 sources of information and secondary data related to CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling strategies that are potentially applicable to USCG vessels and the associated materials of construction (the focus materials provided in Table 1 in Section 2.1.1.2) were collected. All articles, reports, guidance documents, and other pertinent information sources of sufficient quality that were collected during the literature search were summarized using a standardized summary structure and categorized according to content and primary research focus. Table 3 provides a list of the research focus areas and the number of information/secondary data sources collected for each category during the literature search. Table 3. Research Focus Areas and Sources Collected Research Focus Area Number of Sources Collected CWA Fate and Transport 6 CWA Contamination Management and Response 21 CWA Decontamination Efficacy Studies 28 CWA Decontaminant Material Compatibility Studies 12 CWA Sampling and Analysis Methodologies 27 Total 94 2.6. Source Compilation Document Following the literature search and summarization of the information/secondary data sources that were collected, the summaries were collated into a source compilation document according to the primary research foci listed in Table 3. The source compilation document also provided descriptions of the literature search approach, strategy, criteria, and resources (as described in Sections 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3) and provisions for assessment of the quality of information/secondary data sources that were collected during the search (as described in Section 2.4). 13 ------- 3. KNOWLEDGE REVIEW Any interpretations or conclusions presented in the knowledge review are those of the authors of the articles/publications from which the information is taken. 3.1. CWA Fate and Transport Fate and transport of CWA contamination on USCG vessel construction materials will impact the efficacy of decontamination and sampling strategies and thus drive contamination response and management decisions. The information and secondary data related to CWA fate and transport described below were collected during the search and should be assessed, as applicable, alongside the information and data on decontamination strategies (described in Section 3.3) and sampling strategies (described in Section 3.5) when decisions are made and strategies are developed for response to incidents that involve CWA contamination of USCG vessels. Data on persistence and evaporation characteristics of HD, HD simulants, and VX on various materials are described below: Mechanisms and rates for evaporation of HD from stainless steel and aluminum were determined for a variety of temperatures and droplet sizes7. HD droplets of 1 microliter (|iL), 6 |iL, or 9 |iL (> 95% purity) were evaluated. Temperature was controlled to 15, 25, or 35 degrees Celsius (ฐC), and relative humidity (RH) was controlled to 10%. Air flow across the droplets was controlled to 175 standard liters per minute (slpm). Evaporation rates from stainless steel of 9 microgram (|ig)/minute (min) at 15ฐC, 12 |ig/min at 25ฐC, and 19 |ig/min at 35ฐC were measured. Evaporation rates from aluminum of 10 |ig/min at 15ฐC, 14 |ig/min at 25ฐC, and 22 |ig/min at 35ฐC were measured. Previous studies measured HD evaporation rates from glass of 9 |ig/min at 15ฐC, 16 |ig/min at 25ฐC, and 29 |ig/min at 35ฐC. Evaporation rates were observed to be linearly proportional to droplet size, regardless of substrate. Vapor concentrations downwind of evaporating droplets were evaluated for HD and HD simulants to compare vapor phase mass transport and assess representativeness of the simulants for HD in terms of the associated chemical properties8. Single l-|iL droplets of HD and the simulants methyl salicylate (MeS), 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), diethyl malonate (DEM), and 2-chloroethyl phenyl sulfide (CEPS) were deposited onto an impermeable material in a dynamic contact angle analyzer environmental chamber with a stagnant air environment at 20ฐC to 40ฐC. Based on the results, the use of a one- to-one correspondence between simulant-to-agent vapor pressure ratio and concentration ratio is valid if certain conditions are met. Degradation of VX on crushed glass, air-dried sand, and oven-dried sand at a variety of temperatures and evaporation of VX from glass and sand were investigated9.31P solid state magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (SSMAS NMR) spectroscopy showed that the final VX degradation product was nontoxic ethyl methylphosphonic acid 14 ------- (EMPA), though an intermediate was toxic EA-2192. The degradation process was autocatalytic (EMPA was both the catalyst and product for VX degradation). Degradation rate was approximately 5 to 9 times slower on moist sand than on air-dried sand. Relative to evaporation of VX, approximately 9% of an initial 6-|iL droplet of VX on sand and approximately 60% of an initial 6-|iL droplet of VX on glass had been recovered as VX vapor after four days. Data related to fate and transport of CWAs and CWA simulants in various coatings and coating systems and in porous materials (concrete) as described below: Uptake and distribution of CEES and dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP) into polyurethane and alkyd coatings applied to aluminum and silicone substrates were evaluated10. Air Force Advanced Performance Coating (APC), water-dispersible chemical agent resistant coating (CARC), and Navy ship coat samples were produced according to military (MIL) standards for use during evaluations. APC and Navy ship coat samples were each contaminated with single 20-|iL droplets of CEES (to simulate HD) and DMMP (to simulate VX), and CARC samples were contaminated with 40-|iL droplets of each simulant. Droplet spreading, evaporation, and sorption characteristics/behaviors varied with the contaminant and coating type. Contamination on both APC and Navy ship coat by CEES and DMMP was largely isolated to the topcoat layer regardless of residence time. Widespread distribution of contaminants in CARC was observed. Mass transport parameters of the CWAs HD and VX in different paint and coating systems were determined experimentally11. Two coating types were evaluated: a solvent- dispersible aliphatic polyurethane coating system and a water-dispersible aliphatic polyurethane coating system. Coatings were applied to 1-square inch (in2) stainless steel shim stock with a coating thickness of approximately 100 micrometers (|im). Each sample was contaminated with a single l-|iL droplet of either neat HD or VX and aged for 60 minutes at 20ฐC. Experimental results for HD and VX demonstrated that HD and VX formed a macroscopic thin film across the substrates within a few minutes following contamination. Liquid and vapor HD sorption onto, diffusion into, and degradation on/within concrete was assessed12. HD vapor began to adsorb onto concrete as relative vapor pressure (P/Ps) increased above 0.1. Sorption of HD at over 30 milligrams per gram (mg/g) could be measured as the HD vapor concentration reached saturation. An 80-|iL droplet of HD in concrete was degraded into less toxic byproducts (likely due to basic sites within the concrete matrix) but at a very low rate (k = 4.8 x 10"5/min and ti/2 = 16 x 104 minutes at room temperature). HD droplets of 80 |iL were able to break through the 3-millimeter (mm)-thick concrete wafers in 12 minutes. Diffusion coefficient of HD molecules in concrete was determined to be approximately 1.3 x 10"4 square centimeters (cm2)/min. 15 ------- The following additional data and findings (beyond the six sources indicated in Table 3 related to CWA fate and transport that were collected during the search) on CWA fate and transport in marine waters may be relevant to USCG CWA contamination response strategies given the operational settings of USCG vessels. The following data highlight the need for adequate decontamination of CWA and careful consideration and planning related to waste handling and conscientious waste disposal strategies following a contamination incident and response operations. Until the 1970s, disposal of unexploded ordnance and munitions was accomplished by dumping into oceans. After many decades, these unexploded munitions (many likely containing CWAs) are now facing a high-corrosion stage and could leak toxic, even mutagenic, products into the marine ecosystem13. Risk assessments to determine human and/or environmental risks posed by ocean- dumped CWAs from World War I and World War II have been performed14. In lieu of reliably measured property data, the dissipation of CWA at deep sea levels (>100 meters [m]) may be modeled. Assessments have also included evaluations of the environmental threat posed by dumped CWA and CWA munitions to benthic species15. Sediments have been sampled at sites adjacent to chemical and conventional discarded military munitions at depths of 400 to 650 m. Results have demonstrated that HD and its degradation products can persist in the deep-marine environment for decades following disposal of munitions by ocean-dumping16. Similarly, results of geophysical and chemical investigations carried out at a chemical munition dumpsite in the Baltic Sea indicated a widespread contamination that reached far beyond the dumpsite boundary17. Literature searches have been performed to identify locations, quantity, and types of sea- dumped chemical weapons, related environmental concerns, and human encounters with sea-dumped chemical weapons18. Findings were discussed in the context of risk due to increasing deep-sea accessibility and threats to the benthic habitat. 3.2. CWA Contamination Management and Response USCG vessel materials and operational settings present unique challenges to the development of effective, efficient, and safe strategies for management of and response to CWA contamination incidents. Despite these challenges, the objectives of USCG vessel CWA contamination incident management, response, and remediation operations must remain unchanged from those of any other CWA contamination incident - (1) Personnel safety must be ensured, (2) CWA contamination must be identified, contained, and adequately decontaminated, and (3) deleterious environmental, equipment/infrastructure, and financial impacts must be avoided or minimized to the greatest extent possible. CWAs are highly toxic, and exposure (as a direct result of a CWA attack, during incident response and remediation actions, after an incident due to residual contact hazard, etc.) can often 16 ------- be lethal. Numerous literature assessments19'20'21 and data analyses have been conducted to collate available information and summarize and describe CWA types/classes, toxicological characteristics and mechanisms of toxicity, delivery/exposure routes, exposure symptoms and medical diagnosis guidance, treatments/interventions, etc. Studies have evaluated the effects of various decontamination regimens on levels of VX in the skin, VX plasma levels, and blood cholinesterase following exposure22. The impacts of various decontamination regimens on hairless guinea pig survival rates following VX exposure were also evaluated, with the survival rate measured for control groups (no decontamination, no clinical treatment) being the lowest, followed by decontamination alone, then clinical treatment alone, and the highest survival rate (100%) observed from the group that received a combination of decontamination and treatment. Highly volatile CWAs such as GB pose significant vapor hazards, while persistent CWAs such as VX can leave lasting contact hazards (VX is approximately 2,000 times less volatile than GB)23. As highlighted in Section 4.1, studies and data demonstrate that CWA contamination can volatilize and transport hazards via vapor to previously unaffected areas, persist in the environment in porous materials and surface coatings, and persist in marine environments. These data and considerations highlight the need for effective, comprehensive, and rapidly mobilized contamination management, response, and remediation strategies following incidents involving USCG vessels/assets and CWA. Assessment of the effectiveness of response and management strategies used during prior CWA contamination incidents (whether accidental or terrorism-related), the associated outcomes, and the successes and failures that were experienced can provide invaluable insight during post- incident refinement and improvement of procedures and development of new and/or modified procedures and/or capabilities based on any knowledge/capability gaps that were exposed. During a period of time spanning from 1994 to 1995, terrorism-related incidents resulted in exposure of Japanese citizens to GB and VX on eleven (11) different occasions19, including the Tokyo subway GB incident that occurred in March of 1995 that left at least 640 victims immediately hospitalized24, over 5,500 injured, and 13 dead23. Several analyses of the response strategies used during the 1995 Tokyo subway GB attacks, as well as other incidents involving GB, have been conducted, including: Discussions of the various incident response areas that were identified as requiring improvement based on response assessments made in the aftermath of the Tokyo subway incident, including PPE considerations, methods for detection and analysis of GB, decontamination procedures, antidote administration, and management systems and preparations24. Various other chemical attacks/disasters that occurred in Japan were summarized25, and the changes in chemical terrorism countermeasures that were developed and enacted after these attacks are described. Focus surrounds two GB attacks from the 1990s (the Matsumoto incident in 1994, and the Tokyo subway attack in 1995) and the measures taken in response. 17 ------- A focused analysis of the GB attack in the Tokyo subway system was performed to review toxicology and management of GB poisoning26. Recommendations for a mass casualty management strategy were summarized, including considerations for incident response, treatment, infrastructure, and post-incident patient monitoring. YouTube videos which documented the near-real-time consequences of GB gas poisonings from the 2013 GB attacks that occurred on the outskirts of Damascus in Syria were analyzed to delineate the clinical presentations observed and treatments administered during the mass causality event27. Findings were also compared against the current paradigm for such an event. While, as discussed, review, assessment, and consideration of past incidents and the associated response actions utilized (both successful and unsuccessful) can be valuable for directing the development of new and improvement of existing strategies for management and response during CWA incidents, as mentioned previously, the environmental settings in which the USCG operates and the assets requiring decontamination are likely to be very different from those involved during incidents in civilian/urban/etc. settings. Nonetheless, various basic principles for contamination management and response strategies may still be translatable. Quantitative risk analysis systems, computer simulations, and mathematical models have also been developed as valuable tools used to assist with contamination management and response operation planning, such as in the following examples: Correlations from literature were used to assign hazard severity levels to various postulated VX contamination/release incidents that could occur at the U.S. Army Newport Chemical Agent Disposal Facility. Computer-Aided Fault Tree Analysis (CAFTA) was then used to quantitatively determine hazard occurrence frequency. Based on the severity and frequency, risk assessment codes (RACs) were assigned to the potential hazard incidents, and possible mitigations were identified28. A suite of regression-based models (Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship [(Q)SAR]) was used to estimate acute aquatic toxicity of CWAs29. A compilation of predicted environmental toxicity data of parent and hydrolysis products of CWAs was provided. The persistence and bioconcentration potential of some CWAs were presented. A semi-empirical, deterministic model (Contact hazard Residual hazard Efficacy Agent T&E Integrated Variable Environment [CREATIVE]) has been developed to characterize and predict laboratory-scale decontaminant efficacy and hazards for a range of CWAs (current focus on HD), operational surfaces common to ground vehicle, aircraft, and equipment construction (e.g., aluminum, glass, CARC, silicone), realistic threat challenges (0.5-10 g/m2), environmental conditions (10-40ฐC) and decontamination process parameters (decon, residence time, etc.)30. The model is intended to enable faster characterization of decontaminant performance and provide the capability to predict performance and hazards under untested conditions. An example application of the model 18 ------- was provided involving HD contamination on aluminum, glass, and silicone. Decontamination approaches included use of DF200 and bleach as well as no decontaminant. Output data included contact hazard, vapor hazard, and residual HD contamination. Existing plans governing operations for sampling and detection of CWAs, contamination management, and infrastructure at other sites/facilities/installations/etc. can be used as templates for development of effective similar plans and guidance documents tailored to specific USCG sites, vessels, and/or assets. Existing plans may often also provide insight into strategies for selection of adequate PPE and development of emergency response and exposure control/response plans. Examples from the literature include the following: A site safety plan was developed to describe procedures for: (1) sampling for the presence of HD in the south plant of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, (2) protection of workers during HD sampling operations, and (3) procedures for decontamination should HD be detected31. The current standard protocol for nerve agent exposure treatment (post-exposure administration of atropine and oxime) was discussed32, as well as drawbacks associated with the protocol. Alternatives are then presented, including competitive acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and nerve agent scavengers (administered as pretreatments/preventive measures). Summaries of some of the regulations concerning designation and safety in a CWA analysis and research laboratory and medical countermeasures in case of an accidental exposure are provided33. Discussion of decontamination and protection means against CWAs is also presented. Limitations, challenges, and procedures associated with treatment of acute CWA poisoning are reviewed34. Data and discussions focus on nerve agents and HD. Background on the physical nature of CWAs and BWAs is provided along with brief overviews of the basic principles of particle and vapor filtration, and information and sample calculations are presented to illustrate the viability of retrofitting heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems with filtration to remove CWAs/BWAs from air35. In a report submitted to the Office of Naval Research, a conceptual design for a scalable emergency response system to manage at-sea response and decontamination of a chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear (CBRN) event is presented36. Information presented and discussed includes: Description of a three-phased scalable emergency response system to address at-sea CBRN events. Phases include: (1) detailing current on-vessel and local response that 19 ------- could be expected if a CBRN event were to occur, (2) actions to lay the groundwork for thorough decontamination, and (3) options for additional decontamination, if necessary. Capability concepts for decontamination and recovery of affected vessels. Required reach-back, operational, research and development (including decontamination, PPE, waste processing and treatment, and sensitive equipment-related efforts), and maintenance functions. As part of the development of effective, efficient, and risk-based strategies for management of and response to CWA contamination incidents involving USCG vessels, procedures for conscientious, risk-based, and effective processing of wastes (including secondary wastes37), use of PPE38 (as well as decontamination of PPE; refer to Section 3.3), and administrative and engineering controls39'40 (as applicable) are critical. Additionally, during contamination management and response operations, USCG personnel may be inadvertently exposed to/contaminated by CWAs and require decontamination and treatment. Thus, methods and technologies for personnel treatment and decontamination following CWA exposure must also be considered as part of contamination management and response planning. Secondary information and data collected during the literature search from studies focused on decontamination and treatment of personnel exposed to CWA include the following: Skin samples (dermatomed human skin) were exposed to neat and dilute VX, and then decontaminated using four commercially available products (Reactive Skin Decontamination Lotion [RSDLฎ; oxime-based technology], Fuller's Earth [dry absorbent without degradative properties], PS 104 [decontaminant with both absorptive and reactive properties], and alldecontMED [liquid hypochlorite-based decontaminant]) and plain water41. All decontamination procedures resulted in a statistically significantly decreased VX penetration rate when decontamination was initiated five (5) minutes post- exposure to neat VX. RSDL lotion was superior for skin decontamination. Enzymes (cholinesterase [ChE]) and oximes immobilized in a polyurethane foam sponge were evaluated as a skin decontamination system42. The system was tested on guinea pig skin to decontaminate Soman (GD) and compared to the M291 decon kit. Tolyl diisocyanate (TDI; 5%) polymer was used as the sponge material. Mechanistically, the sponge soaks up organophosphorus (OP) on skin, then the immobilized ChE and oxime detoxify the OP in the sponge. Triacetin and tetraglyme provided additional ability to remove GD from the skin, protecting guinea pigs approximately four to five-fold better than the M291 kit. Sponges containing pralidoxime (2-PAM) also showed increased protection against GD skin toxicity compared to the M291 kit (at least fourfold). Two skin decontamination systems were evaluated against HD and VX using hairless mice43. CWA was delivered to the backs of mice (2 |iL HD or 50 |ig/kilogram [kg] VX), and decontamination was performed five (5) minutes after exposure. Fuller's Earth (75 mg) was deposited followed by a 30-second rub with a glove 30 seconds after deposition. 20 ------- RSDL was applied at decontaminant/toxicant ratios of 10, 20, and 50. RSDL was applied for 30 seconds followed by a 30-second sponge rub. RSDL was more effective in reducing epidermal necrosis and erosion. Only Fuller's Earth demonstrated significant efficiency in preventing ChE inhibition. Real hair locks were exposed to MeS or CEES vapor and then decontaminated by RSDL and rinsing, RSDL and showering, Fuller's Earth and showering, or showering alone44. MeS decontamination efficacy reached 67% with RSDL and rinsing. For CEES, decontamination efficacy reached 85% with Fuller's Earth and showering. Various foam-making blends and alkalized hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) removed CWAs (GD, VX) from skin and transformed them into nontoxic compounds45. The efficacies of skin decontamination products were evaluated against a 10-|iL droplet of 14C-MeS applied to the surface of porcine skin46. Further work is necessary to fully evaluate the five most effective products, which include the military product Fuller's Earth, Fast Act, and three novel polymers against HD, GD, and VX. An evidence-based guidance document is focused on providing flexible and scalable recommendations for practices for planning for and responding to mass chemical exposure incidents47. The subject matter is limited to external decontamination of living people with hazardous chemicals (including CWAs) but also attempts to address the full spectrum of the response operation (from initial assessment through evaluation of decontamination effectiveness). Skin decontamination efficacy of Pickering emulsions (solid-stabilized emulsions containing silica or Fuller's Earth) was evaluated 45 minutes after an exposure to VX48. The Pickering emulsion formulations resulted in removal of greater than 90% of VX contamination. 3.3. CWA Decontamination Efficacy CWA decontamination is most often accomplished via: (1) physical removal of CWA through natural attenuation, wiping, or through use of rinsing/washing procedures, surfactants, sorbents, etc., (2) chemical neutralization by one or more of a variety of active species that have been evaluated for efficacy, or (3) a combination of both mechanisms49. Technologies for chemical decontamination of CWAs should, ideally: (1) be broad-spectrum in nature (i.e., reactive/effective against a variety of CWA classes), (2) be material-compatible, (3) not interfere with contamination monitoring or measurement equipment and methodologies, (4) be easy to transport, prepare, and apply, as applicable, (5) be of low toxicity, flammability, and environmental impact, and (6) minimize waste products and avoid generation of hazardous wastes (i.e., avoid formation of hazardous or toxic decontamination byproducts)49. 21 ------- CWA decontamination approaches and technologies based on a wide range of neutralization and removal mechanisms have been evaluated for efficacy. Mechanisms and active chemistries for CWA decontamination that are commonly used and evaluated include (but are not limited to): Natural attenuation and weathering, which can be applicable to all CWAs and most surfaces if sufficient time is available for complete evaporation and/or degradation of contaminants50'51. Attenuative decontamination can be enhanced using hot air (hot air decontamination [HAD]). The effectiveness of HAD varies with respect to evaporative characteristics of the contaminant CWA, the extent of distribution, and the characteristics of the contaminated material (i.e., higher efficacy against higher volatility CWAs on nonporous materials)51. Water rinsing, which can be applicable to all CWAs and most surfaces and is often utilized and recommended in immediate-response situations in the absence of more specific/targeted decontamination formulations and when decontamination of personnel is required. Efficacy of water washing/rinsing can be improved with addition of soap/surfactants and/or heat (including use of steam)50'51. Oxidative chlorine and hypochlorite-based formulations, including bleach (sodium hypochlorite [NaOCl]), diluted bleach, pH-adjusted bleach (pAB) high test hypochlorite (HTH; calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)2]), super tropical bleach (STB), dichloroisocyanurate (e.g., Fichlor and Canadian Aqueous System for Chemical/Biological Agent Decontamination [CASCAD]) and trichloroisocyanurate- based formulations, chlorine dioxide (CIO2; liquid or vapor application), Chloramine-B, and others. Hypochlorite-based technologies such as bleach are well established as efficacious decontaminants for neutralization of a wide range of CWAs, though they are corrosive on many materials and not recommended for use on sensitive equipment and surfaces or on personnel (i.e., skin, unless extremely dilute)49'50'51. Strong bases such as calcium oxide (CaO), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), potassium hydroxide (KOH), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which demonstrate efficacy in hydrolysis of CWAs, particularly against organophosphate nerve CWAs (e.g., GB, GD, Tabun [GA])50'51. Decontamination Solution 2 (DS2) is comprised of 2% NaOH, 70% diethylenetriamine (DETA), and 28% ethylene glycol monomethylether (EGME), forming a very strong basic solution51 demonstrating high efficacy against HD, VX, GA, and GB49, although EGME is corrosive and destructive to many materials and also flammable50. H2O2 and H202-based decontamination systems (including Sandia foam formulations, e.g., DF200), and vaporous H2O2 (VHP). VHP has demonstrated efficacy against HD and VX, and addition of ammonia (NH3) gas to H2O2 vapor imparts efficacy against GD (resultant vaporous decontaminant is referred to as modified VHP [mVHP])49'50. 22 ------- Various other technologies and methodologies including nonreactive and reactive sorbents (e.g., Fuller's Earth, metal oxides and metal organic frameworks [MOFs]), oximes, microemulsions, enzyme-based technologies, and plasma-based technologies49'50'51. Furthermore, decontaminant evaluations have measured the efficacies of decontamination technologies on a variety of material types, including the materials listed in Table 1 as USCG vessel materials of construction. Also, in some cases, decontamination data for a specific material may be translatable to one or more similar materials (e.g., high efficacy on aluminum may suggest high efficacy on stainless steel). Several secondary information and data sources were collected during the literature search from studies focused on evaluation of decontaminants based on a variety of active species applied as liquids, including hypochlorite-based decontaminants (bleach, diluted bleach, and pAB), H2O2 and FhCh-based decontaminants (including DF200 and Steriplexฎ Ultra), CASCAD Surface Decontamination Foam (SDF), soap and water, RSDL, and other decontamination technologies. The CWA decontamination efficacy data collected include the following: Decon Green is a peroxide-based decontaminant designed to be more environmentally benign and material-compatible and less corrosive than other more commonly used CWA decontaminants (i.e., bleach and other hypochlorite-based decontaminants). A cold- weather variant of Decon Green, CA2WT, has also been developed for use in subfreezing temperatures. The efficacies of the two Decon Green formulations (the standard formulation, referred to as New Decon Green, and the CA2WT cold weather variant) were evaluated against CWA simulants at temperatures of 4ฐC, -5ฐC, and -15ฐC52'53. CARC-coated aluminum coupons were contaminated with CEPS (HD simulant) or bis- (2-ethylhexyl) phosphite (BIS, a VX simulant) at 10 g/m2 A volume of 1 milliliter (mL) of either CA2WT Decon Green (for the -5ฐC or -15ฐC tests) or New Decon Green (for the 4ฐC tests) was applied for various contact times (10, 20, 30, 40 or 120 min). Contact- hazard assessments were then conducted to simulate the transfer of CWA simulants to skin. Generally, the first of two contact hazard transfer measurements collected post- decontamination resulted in approximately twice the hazard of the second of the two measurements. Decontamination with Decon Green significantly reduced contact hazards for both CEPS and BIS. At -5ฐC and -15ฐC, CA2WT was found to be 87% and 93% effective against CEPS and 73% and 86% effective against BIS, respectively. The efficacies of a 0.5% hypochlorite bleach solution containing trisodium phosphate and the decontaminants Decon Green, Allen Vanguard CASCAD SDF, and Modec Inc. Sandia Decontamination Foam (DF200) were evaluated against the CWAs GB, GD, HD, and VX on the surface of materials including stainless steel, latex-painted drywall, glass, vinyl floor tile, and concrete54. Decontamination efficacies of greater than or equal to 98%) from the surface of stainless steel and glass were demonstrated for all four decontaminant technologies after a contact period of 24 hours against VX and HD, with 23 ------- the exception of bleach/VX (67% efficacy on stainless steel, 60% efficacy on glass). Decontamination efficacies of greater than or equal to 98% from the surface of glass were demonstrated for all four technologies after 24 hours against GD. Decontamination efficacies for other combinations of decontaminant, material, and CWA ranged from 20% to greater than 99%. Bleach (5.65% to 6% sodium hypochlorite), dilute bleach (0.5% to 0.6% sodium hypochlorite), H2O2 (3%), and DF200 were evaluated for efficacy against the vesicant CWAs HD, Agent Yellow (HL), and Lewisite (L) on wood, glass, and galvanized metal55. Decontaminant contact periods of 30 to 60 min were evaluated. Dilute bleach reduced L contamination by greater than 92% after 30 minutes but had limited efficacy against HD. Full strength bleach was the most efficacious, reducing HD and L below sampling and analysis method detection limits (solvent extraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry [GC/MS]) after 30 minutes on metal and glass (although lower efficacy was demonstrated by full strength bleach on wood). H2O2 exhibited generally high efficacies (i.e., below detection limit after 30 minutes) against both HD and L on all materials, except HD on glass. DF200 showed limited efficacy against HD but higher efficacy against L (generally 80% or greater). Decontamination of PPE-related materials (including butyl rubber, neoprene, Vitonฎ, and nitrile) and laboratory equipment-related materials (polyethylene, acrylic, and stainless steel) by detergent (Tideฎ Original) and water, bleach (Cloroxฎ Concentrated Germicidal Bleach; 8% sodium hypochlorite), diluted bleach (1:10 dilution of the full strength bleach decontaminant), pH-amended bleach (diluted bleach acidified to an average pH of 6.8), EasyDeconฎ DF200, RSDLฎ, and Steriplexฎ Ultra (a peroxide- based sporicidal decontaminant) was evaluated56. Material coupons were contaminated with 20 |iL of malathion (VX simulant), CEES (HD simulant), nitrobenzene (toxic industrial chemical), phenol (toxic industrial chemical), or chlordane (pesticide), or 40 |iL of carbaryl (insecticide). Full strength bleach and RSDLฎ demonstrated approximately 60% efficacy against malathion (other decontaminants ranged from just 5 to 15% efficacy). DF200 demonstrated 47% average efficacy (when applied as a liquid) or 64% average efficacy (when applied as a foam) against carbaryl. Against CEES, no decontaminant showed greater than 50% decontamination efficacy. DF200 and RSDLฎ efficacies were generally low (17% or less). Hot gases (hot combustion exhaust gases), steam, FREONฎ vapor circulation, flashblast (high intensity xenon-quartz strobe light that thermally decomposes surface contaminants), monoethanolamine (rapidly alkylated by HD), ammonia, ammonia/steam, and an aqueous solution of iV-octylpyridinium 4-aldoxime bromide (OPAB; oxime-based decontaminant) were experimentally evaluated for their effectiveness in decontaminating HD, GB and VX from painted and unpainted mild and stainless steels and unpainted 24 ------- porous materials57. Data demonstrated destruction efficacies of up to 99.8% for steam and OPAB across all CWA/material combinations that were evaluated. Enzyme-based decontaminants carry benefits such as being generally non-toxic, non-corrosive, and environmentally benign. Efficacies of currently studied enzyme-based decontamination options are still being definitively determined. However, further investigation and development of technologies is likely required before enzyme-based systems can be reliably fielded. Secondary information and data collected during the literature search from studies focused on evaluation of enzyme-based CWA decontamination technologies include the following: Efficacy of a decontaminant consisting of "First Defense" firefighting foam surfactant solution (4%) added to a solution of organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH; a nerve agent hydrolyzing enzyme) was evaluated against paraoxon (simulant of the nerve CWA VX) on the surface of glass (contamination load ranging from 0.26 micromoles (|imol)/cm2 to 1.51 |imol/cm2)58. Depending on the initial paraoxon load and the strength of OPH solution (i.e., concentration of OPH enzyme), conversion of paraoxon to />nitrophenol ranged from complete conversion to 69.7% conversion after a decontaminant contact period of 60 minutes. Recombinant enzymes used for decontamination of CWAs often show limited activity under nonideal environmental conditions (e.g., salinity, pH, etc.). To mitigate environmental impacts to enzymatic decontaminant activity, phosphotriesterase was encapsulated in a bacterial outer membrane vesicle. Efficacy of the encapsulated enzyme decontaminant was then evaluated against paraoxon (VX simulant)59. Coupons of nylon/cotton fabric, polyurethane paint-coated aluminum, and borosilicate glass were contaminated with paraoxon at 10 g/square meters (m2). Spiked materials were then treated with 2 mL of the encapsulated phosphotriesterase decontaminant. Average removal from painted aluminum was 76%, and little to no paraoxon was detected from glass. The nylon/cotton fabric surface retained significantly more paraoxon. Advanced Catalytic Enzyme System (ACES) is an enzymatic CWA decontamination technology designed to be non-corrosive, non-toxic, environmentally safe and user- friendly. ACES incorporates three enzymes that hydrolyze OP-based CWAs - OPH, organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA), and diisopropylfluorophosphatase (DFPase). Retention of catalytic activity of ACES in the presence of various firefighting foams, degreasers, detergents, and commercial disinfectants has been evaluated. To produce a decontaminant that is efficacious against both CWAs and BWAs, retention of ACES activity was evaluated in the presence of two broad-range disinfectants/antimicrobials - Biocidal ZFฎ (a commercial disinfectant based on quaternary ammonium compounds) and EcoTruฎ (chloroxylenol-based)60. In the presence of Biocidal ZFฎ alone, OPAA, OPH, and DFPase retained 94, 52, and 75% enzymatic activity, respectively. A reduction of over 85% enzymatic activity of these enzymes was measured in the presence of EcoTruฎ disinfectant. 25 ------- Decontamination of three CWA simulants by OPH and OPAA was evaluated to assess the relative efficacies of the enzymes in degradation of three different organophosphate bond substrates61. The simulants included paraoxon (P-0 bond), demeton-S (P-S bond), and diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP; P-F bond). OPH outperformed OPAA in degradation of all three simulants. Both enzymes demonstrated the lowest catalytic efficiency against demeton-S (the P-S bond substrate; simulant for the CWA VX). The mechanism of hydrolyzation of GA, GB, GD, and VX by the enzyme phosphodiesterase (PTE) was elucidated 62. Modifications of the enzyme (specifically, substitution of Zn2+ ions for Al3+ ions in the enzyme active site structure) resulted in reduced activation energies and faster hydrolysis rates. As a vaporous/volumetric decontamination technology, VHP and mVHP provide decontamination approaches that can be used on accessible surfaces, across larger areas, and in confined or "hard to reach" areas. VHP breaks down safely into water and oxygen so hazardous residues from application and use of the decontaminant are avoided, though hazardous/toxic byproducts from decontamination of the target CWAs must still be considered, and compatibility of the decontaminated items/surfaces/structures must also be considered (e.g., condensation in electronic equipment). Secondary information and data from studies focused on evaluation of VHP/mVHP include the following: Decontamination efficacy of mVHP was evaluated against CWAs on glass63. Glass microfiber disks (24 mm) were contaminated with VX, GD, or HD in amounts of either 1 g/m2 (the anticipated interior surface/sensitive equipment contamination level) or 10 g/m2 (the anticipated exterior vehicle/terrain contamination level). Following contamination, the disks were treated with mVHP. H2O2 and NH3 at concentrations of 160 to 200 parts per million (ppm) and 10 ppm, respectively, reduced HD contamination to undetectable levels within 20 min. H2O2 and NH3 at concentrations of 50 to 100 ppm and 100 ppm, respectively, reduced VX contamination to undetectable levels within 60 min (additionally, no EA-2192, a toxic VX decontamination byproduct, was formed). H2O2 and NH3 at concentrations of 20 to 40 ppm and 100 ppm, respectively, reduced GD contamination to undetectable levels in under 5 min. mVHP (using H2O2 and NH3 concentrations of 600 ppm and 100 ppm, respectively) was used to decontaminate glass wool microfiber disks contaminated with VX at 10 g/m2 64. Decontamination efficacy of 85% was achieved after 30 minutes. Efficacy increased to 98% after 60 minutes. No trace of VX was detected after two hours of mVHP treatment. Furthermore, no toxic EA-2192 was detected, though another toxic VX byproduct was detected (O-ethyl S-vinyl methylphosphonothioate). mVHP decontamination of VX, GD, and HD on stainless steel, glass, CARC-painted steel, aluminum, Air Force topcoat-coated aluminum, butyl rubber-covered cloth, Kapton (polyimide; wiring insulation), nylon webbing, and concrete was evaluated65. CWA or 26 ------- simulant was applied to samples (2 to 4 |iL), and samples were subsequently treated with mVHP (250 ppm H2O2, 20 ppm NH3) for 3, 8, or 24 hours. Decontamination using mVHP for 24 hours reduced contact hazard of HD, GD, and VX to below limits of detection. 24-hour mVHP decontamination reduced the GD and VX vapor hazard from decontaminated materials to limits of detection, but detectable amounts of HD vapor from materials remained, especially from porous surfaces. Decontamination of HD, GD, thickened Soman (TGD), and VX on bare aluminum, CARC-painted aluminum, Air Force topcoat-painted aluminum, glass polycarbonate, Vitonฎ, Kaptonฎ, and silicone by mVHP was evaluated66. Results demonstrated that mVHP (target 500 ppm H2O2 and 30 ppm ammonia) can decontaminate CWAs on the materials to below target levels (0.00087 mg/m3 for GD, TGD, 0.000036 mg/m3 for VX, and 0.0058 mg/m3 for HD). As discussed, technologies and methodologies for physical removal of CWA contamination include application of sorbent materials, surface wiping (with solvent-wetted or sorbent- impregnated wipes, etc.), contaminated coating removal, etc. Secondary information and data that were collected during the literature search from studies focused on physical removal of CWA contamination include the following: PPE material (chemically protective suit; butyl rubber-based protective layer) and painted steel (gloss exterior alky-based paint) were contaminated with VX at 2.1 g/m2, HD at 10 g/m2, o-cresol at 50 g/m2, or acrylonitrile at 50 g/m2. Surfaces were then decontaminated with Desprach sorbent (commercial version of Fuller's earth), FAST-ACT nano-sorbent, wiping with a FAST-ACT-impregnated glove, RSDL sponge (reactive oximes), Hvezda foam applicator (surfactant and H2O2), or using the INDEHA kit (ethanol wipe for physical removal of contaminants from a surface)67. The only procedure that reduced contamination levels of all substances on both surfaces to below permissible residual contamination levels was wiping with ethanol (INDEHA). The high efficacy of ethanol wiping was attributed to the INDEHA application procedure that used multiple wipes. In ongoing efforts to identify efficacious decontamination technologies for CWA contamination on sensitive equipment, a variety of dry and solvent-moistened wipes were evaluated for CWA removal efficacy on a range of sensitive equipment-related surface types that were contaminated with droplets of neat HD, TGD, and VX (i.e., physical removal of CWAs, to avoid material compatibility issues related to chemical decontaminants)68. Test surfaces evaluated included stainless steel, aluminum, CARC- painted panels, alkyd-painted panels, polyethylene, polycarbonate, and nylon webbing. The most effective wipe system was a woven activated carbon fabric wipe pre-moistened with a commercial ethoxy-nonafluorobutane solvent (3M NoveeTM HFE-7200). This wipe system effectively removed from 90% (by weight) to greater than 99% of HD, TGD, and VX contamination on non-absorptive and low-absorptive test surfaces. Furthermore, HFE-7200 is nonflammable, essentially nontoxic, generally non-hazardous 27 ------- to personnel, has a low environmental impact, and is compatible with a wide range of plastics, metals, and elastomers. Decontamination of coated surfaces (coated hull steel, non-skid-coated decking, etc.) may require removal of the coating layers to achieve adequate levels of decontamination (e.g., aqueous-based decontaminants may not be capable of sufficient penetration to reach and decontaminate deeply permeated contaminants). Blast processes (e.g., dry media blasting), chemical processes (e.g., strippers), and applied light energy processes (FlashJet and neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet [Nd:Y3AI5O12; Nd:YAG] lasers) have been evaluated and used previously for removal of a variety of coating systems. Removal of CARC from aluminum, steel, and composite materials by media blasting (using a variety of media including walnut hull, zirconia alumina, plastic media, garnet abrasive, stainless steel shot, and wheat starch), chemical stripping (using a variety of strippers, including formulations that both include and exclude dichloromethane), FlashJet, and neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd: YAG) lasers was evaluated69. Stripping technology application parameters and stripping test results (including strip rates) for all technologies on all tested substrates were determined. Numerous proof-of-concept and reactor studies have been performed to evaluate a wide variety of emerging chemistries and technologies for decontamination and/or removal of CWAs, including MOFs, nanoparticles, micromotors, etc. Many of these technologies are still in developmental and investigatory phases and are not yet incorporated into field ready systems for application and use, but demonstration of generally high CWA decontamination/removal efficacies, anticipated high material compatibility, and low environmental threat are attractive features that continue to drive research. Bicarbonate (NaHC03)-activated H2O2 efficiently degraded CWAs into nontoxic products70. Peroxymonocarbonate (HCO4-) was observed in the NaHC03-activated H2O2 solution, and pH was a key factor in its production (optimal pH of 8.5 for activation of the decontaminant). Two (2) mL of NaHCCb-activated H2O2 was used to decontaminate 10 |iL of HD and GD during reactor studies. Reaction half-lives of 1 minute for hydrolysis of GD, 1.8 minutes for hydrolysis of VX, and 33 minutes for hydrolysis of HD have been measured using zirconium (Zr)-based MOFs71. With the exception of VX, rapid hydrolysis rates require fixing pH at 8.5 or above. Silica nanoparticles impregnated with reactive chemicals were evaluated for efficacy as reactive adsorbents to remove CWAs and CWA simulants from solutions72. A reactive sorbent system based on trichloroisocyanuric acid impregnated (10%, w/w) silica nanoparticles was found to be the best-performing among prepared systems to remove and detoxify CWAs into non-toxic products effectively in less time. HD, GB, and CWA simulants were mixed with octane, and the prepared nanoparticles added to the mixture. 28 ------- Upon demonstration of adequate efficacy, reactive sorbent systems can be incorporated into decontamination devices or filtration systems. Zinc-iron and copper-iron mixed hydroxides were evaluated as reactive adsorbents for decontamination of CWA simulants73. The mixed metal oxides were exposed to vapors of CEES and dimethyl chlorophosphate (DMCP), a vesicant and nerve CWA surrogate, respectively. CEES was observed to be degraded mainly via dehydrochlorination and DMCP by hydrolysis. The mixed hydroxides showed activity for the decomposition of both surrogates. A half-life of 30 min was measured for hydrolysis of GB by aero-gel produced alumina (AP-AI2O3) nanoparticles during decontamination kinetics reactor studies74. Reactor studies were performed to evaluate decontamination of GD, VX, and CWA simulants in aqueous solutions by aluminum sulfate (alum), sodium aluminate, or mixtures of the two75. Saturated alum solution alone degraded approximately 10%, 20%, and 94% of DMMP, tributylphosphate (TBP), and triethylphosphate (TEP), respectively. Malathion was decomposed within 4 days. VX was unaffected. GD was eliminated within 18 hours. Efficacies were pH-dependent. Titanium dioxide/gold/magnesium (TiCh/Au/Mg) micromotors were evaluated during reactor studies for efficacy against CWA simulants76. The micromotors (described as Janus sphere micromotors consisting of a highly-photoactive TiC>2 outer shell [containing gold nanoparticles] and a Mg-based inner core) were immersed in 600 |iL of 0.08 molar (M) sodium chloride (NaCl) solution spiked with methyl paraoxon and bis(4- nitrophenyl)phosphate (b-NPP) and irradiated with ultraviolet (UV) light. Using a 10- minute reaction time, approximately 95% degradation of methyl paraoxon and b-NPP was achieved. Catalytic degradation of vapor-phase diethyl sulfide (DES; simulant of HD) at higher concentration (approximately 1200 ppm) using a fixed bed flow reactor over manganese oxide (MnO)/zeolite-13X catalysts of different Mn content was evaluated77. Degradation studies were carried out at temperatures ranging from 100ฐC to 400ฐC using air as the oxidizing agent. A Mn content of 7% (by weight) MnO/zeolite-13X exhibited the highest catalytic performance. As an alternative to the use of chemical or biological means or the use of granular activated carbon for purification of drinking water, a low-cost fiber glass supported activated carbon (FGAC) filter technology has been prepared that displays enhanced adsorption characteristics for the removal of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and p- xylene (BTEX) to below EPA maximum contaminant levels and two CWA simulants (diisopropylmethyl phosphonate [DIMP] and CEES) to barely detectable levels78. 29 ------- Decontamination approaches selected for remediation of CWA contamination on USCG vessels must be simultaneously efficacious and material compatible to ensure CWA surface and vapor hazards are sufficiently neutralized while not compromising the integrity and function of vessel materials, construction, and mechanical and electrical systems, allowing for unlimited return of vessels to service. It may also be critically important that decontamination approaches avoid: (1) substantial logistical burden related to application and/or use of technologies (i.e., high utility requirements, bulky equipment, high raw material or reagent needs, etc.) and (2) production of large amounts of wastes and/or hazardous wastes, given the operational settings of USCG vessels. 3.4. CWA Decontaminant Material Compatibility Reactive CWA decontaminants are largely designed to oxidize or hydrolyze CWAs, as most CWAs are susceptible to breakdown via these two mechanisms, and an important category of decontaminant reactions is oxidative chlorination using hypochlorite in alkaline solution50. Oxidative technologies may be unsuitable for use, however, in certain circumstances given the corrosive nature of the reaction chemistries toward the surface(s) to be decontaminated49, especially critical for sensitive equipment and related surface materials, as such equipment and materials are often associated with high procurement costs and long lead times. Sensitive equipment and surfaces are incorporated extensively into the construction of USCG vessels. Consideration of the compatibility of decontamination systems with the materials incorporated into the construction of USCG vessels, including sensitive equipment and related materials, is critical to ensure a prompt and unlimited return to service of the assets following decontamination. Secondary information and data collected during the literature search from studies focused on evaluation of the compatibility of decontamination technologies with a variety of materials (including sensitive equipment and sensitive equipment-related materials). Most of the data were related to BWA contamination-related material compatibility studies. Material compatibility studies that use decontaminants that are not suitable for CWA remediation are excluded here. Described test conditions are based on biological agent remediation and may not yield high efficacy against CWAs. The compatibilities of unpainted concrete cinder block, standard stud lumber (fir), latex- painted gypsum wallboard, ceiling suspension tile, painted structural steel, carpet, and electrical circuit breakers with VHP (application conditions of < 30% RH and > 30ฐC) were evaluated79. Materials were exposed to either 250 ppm VHP for four (4) hours for a total concentration time (CT) of 1000 ppm-hour (h), or 125 ppm VHP for eight (8) h also for a total CT of 1000 ppm-h. Generally, VHP-exposed building materials showed no change in appearance or integrity compared to non-exposed samples. Compatibilities of CIO2 gas (CTs ranging from 900 ppm by volume [ppmv]-hours to 9,000 ppmv-hours) and VHP with sensitive equipment (including functioning personal 30 ------- computers [PCs]) were evaluated80. CIO2 treatment caused material degradation, but PCs remained functional. No changes in visual appearance or functionality due to exposure to VHP were observed. Fumigation technologies that have been used to decontaminate sensitive equipment materials were reviewed81. VHP treatment is effective and material-compatible, but the application process must be closely monitored and controlled to prevent damage (due to condensation). CIO2 gas is generally a more efficacious decontaminant than VHP but demonstrates decreased material compatibility in comparison to VHP. Compatibility of CIO2 fumigation with sensitive electronic components and materials was evaluated using multiple conditions, including: (1) 3,000 ppmv CIO2 with 75% RH, (2) 75 ppmv CIO2 with 75% RH, (3) 75 ppmv CIO2 with 40% RH, and (4) 3,000 ppmv CIO2 with 90% RH82. No visual or functional changes for stainless steel, laser-printed paper, or gaskets were observed. Circuit breaker screws and inkjet-printed paper were affected under every condition (including tests using only high RH [i.e., no CIO2]). RH at 75% severely affected low carbon steel, copper, photographs, and drywall nails and screws. CIO2 fumigation at high temperature and RH led to intermittent light switch failures. No impacts to personal digital assistant (PDA) devices under any fumigation condition were observed. Mild discoloration and fading of cell phone screens were noted under certain conditions. CIO2 and condensing humidity caused severe corrosion of fax machine printer bars, compact disks (CDs), and digital video disks (DVDs). At lower RH, these impacts were not observed. Power state of PCs affected material/decontaminant compatibility. Use of CIO2 and RH resulted in corrosion of computer components at least 75% of the time. CD/DVD drives were damaged by 3,000 ppmv CIO2 and RH greater than 75%. Unpainted concrete cinder block, standard stud lumber (2-in by 4-in fir), latex-painted 0.5-in gypsum wallboard, ceiling suspension tile, painted structural steel, carpet, and electrical (circuit) breakers were exposed to CIO2 vapor83. Fumigation conditions were 2,000 ppm CIO2 for six (6) h for a total CT of 12,000 ppm-h, or 1,000 ppm CIO2 for twelve (12) h also for a total CT of 12,000 ppm-h. RH target was 75% and temperature target was 75 degrees Fahrenheit (ฐF). No visual differences were observed for any of the materials following CIO2 exposure. Tensile strength of standard stud lumber furring strips was reduced by exposure to high concentrations of CIO2 for short durations. Under a 30- amp load, C102-exposed circuit breakers tripped more slowly than the control units. Otherwise, no functional impacts were observed. The material demand (mass flux) of selected materials for CIO2 under select fumigation conditions (specifically, CIO2 concentrations of 1,000 ppmv or 2,000 ppmv to achieve a total CT of 12,000 ppmv-h) was determined84. The materials included concrete, painted steel, wood, gypsum wallboard, ceiling tile, and carpet. Required feed concentration and the time required to reach the target CIO2 fumigant concentration were found to be functions of building material. Rank of CIO2 demand for the building materials over the 0 31 ------- to 12,000 CT range was (from highest demand to lowest) ceiling tile > wood > gypsum wallboard > carpet > concrete = steel = baseline for the 1,000 ppmv tests, and ceiling tile > gypsum wallboard > carpet > wood > concrete = steel = baseline for the 2,000 ppmv tests. Compatibility of H2O2 (3% liquid), and bleach (0.58% hypochlorite) were evaluated on metals (copper, brass, silver, tin, titanium, iron, and gold), inks, cellulose from new and aged paper and cotton fabrics, collagen, keratin, and fibroin (silk)85. Results demonstrated that the decontaminants damaged the materials, but the degree of damage varied with the specific decontaminant and the material. Damage can be minimized with the appropriate choice of decontaminant. H2O2 was generally the least aggressive on metals. Bleach decontamination affected a higher percentage of inks. The material demands of unpainted concrete cinder block, standard stud lumber, latex painted gypsum wallboard, acoustical ceiling suspension tile, primer-painted structural steel, and carpet for VHP was evaluated86. Concrete cinder block coupon had the greatest impact on maintaining the VHP concentration, while carpet and steel had a low impact on the VHP concentration. 3.5. CWA Sampling and Analysis To identify specific CWA contaminants, accurately and precisely determine the extent of CWA contamination, and assess the effectiveness of CWA decontamination efforts, effective sampling procedures, methodologies, and technologies for qualitative and/or quantitative measurement of CWA concentrations/amounts in a variety of environmental matrices are necessary (including measurement of surface concentration levels, concentrations in liquid matrices, and vapor concentrations). As with approaches for decontamination, the unique operational settings and construction materials associated with USCG vessels can create challenging sampling scenarios. Effective surface sampling can be challenged by the materials themselves (which, at times, incorporate complex coating systems) and/or by various contaminants and foulants introduced by USCG vessel operational settings (e.g., seawater, grime, etc.). Summaries and overviews of common sample collection and analysis techniques for detection and quantitation of CWAs in various matrices are available in the literature87. Sampling of vapor-phase CWAs present in gas matrices such as air is often accomplished by sorption onto solid-phase extraction media (either passive sorption or by drawing a sample via vacuum onto the sorption media) followed by extraction of the collected CWA from the media via solvent extraction or thermal desorption and subsequent analysis of the extracted CWA by GC/MS, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), or other analytical approach. Solid phase microextraction (SPME) is an increasingly common method of sample collection which involves immersion of a specially coated fiber into a sample matrix (which can be solid, liquid, or gas/vapor) to allow for adsorption of target analytes onto the fiber88. The adsorbed target analytes are then thermally desorbed for analysis via, e.g., GC/MS, LC-MS/MS, etc. 32 ------- Derivatization of target CWA analytes can also be performed to facilitate and/or enhance detection capabilities. The EPA Homeland Security Research Program's (HSRP) Environmental Sampling and Analytical Methods (ESAM) program includes Sample Collection Information Documents (SCIDs) which provide general sample collection, handling, and shipping information for collection of samples analyzed using methods described in the Selected Analytical Methods for Environmental Remediation and Recovery (SAM) 2017 document89. Methods for sampling and analysis described in Environmental Sampling and Analysis Methods (ESAM/SAM) may be applicable, translatable, and/or adaptable for use on USCG vessel-related materials. Wipe sampling is often used to identify the types and amounts of contaminants on the surface of materials. Secondary information and data collected during the literature search from studies focused on collection of CWA samples via surface wiping methodologies include the following: Commercially-available wipe materials were evaluated to determine the optimal wipe sampling method parameters for recovery of nerve CWA degradation products (including EMPA, isopropyl methylphosphonate [IMPA], pinacolyl methylphosphonate [PMPA], methyl phosphonate [MPA], and ethylhydrogen dimethylphosphonate [EHDMAP]) from surfaces that are largely porous/permeable (vinyl tile, painted drywall, and wood) and nonporous/impermeable (laminate, galvanized steel, and glass)90. The selected wipe sampling method involved use of a cotton gauze wipe wetted with 1 mL of water and two successive "S" wipe patterns. Following collection, wipes were extracted in 5 mL of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-grade water and extracts were analyzed via ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC- MS/MS). Recoveries were 60% to 98% for PMPA, 60% to 103% for IMP A, and 61% to 91% for EMPA. MP A and EHDMAP recoveries were lower. Data indicated that wipe samples may be held for up to 30 days prior to analysis, and target analytes can persist on the tested surfaces for at least six (6) weeks. Cotton gauze, glass fiber filter, non-woven polyester fiber, and filter paper wipes were evaluated for efficacy in collection of degradants of nitrogen mustards (HN1, HN2, and HN3) from the surface of porous (vinyl tile, painted drywall, wood) and mostly nonporous (laminate, galvanized steel, glass) materials91. Filter paper wipes were selected over the other wipe types that were tested. Detection limits achieved were 0.2 nanogram (ng)/cm2 for triethanolamine (TEA), 0.03 ng/cm2 for N-ethyldiethanolamine (EDEA), 0.1 ng/cm2 for N-methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), and 0.1 ng/cm2 for diethanolamine (DEA). Efficacy of wipe methods has been compared to strippable coatings for sampling CWAs on the surface of materials92. Surfaces that were tested include glazed ceramic tile, grade 304 stainless steel, painted drywall, ceiling tile, smooth cement, upholstery fabric, finished and unfinished wood flooring, and escalator handrail. Average percent 33 ------- recoveries using solvent-wetted gauze wipes and body paint, respectively, were: (1) finished wood, 30.2%, 2.97%; (2) escalator handrail, 4.40%, 4.09%; (3) stainless steel, 21.2%, 3.30%; (4) glazed ceramic tile, 49.7%, 16.7%; (5) ceiling tile, 0.33%, 11.1%; (6) painted drywall 2.05%>, 10.6%; (7) cement, 1.20%, 35.2%; (8) upholstery fabric, 7.63%, 6.03%; and (9) unfinished wood, 0.90%, 1.74%. Given that: (1) identification and quantitation of CWA contamination during incident management and response as well as following decontamination efforts is critical to operational success, and (2) collection of samples and transport offsite for ex-situ analysis can be prohibitively time-consuming, portable on-site CWA detection equipment is being evaluated and used by a variety of first responder teams and military forces (including the USCG). A variety of CWA sensing and detection technologies have been developed and evaluated including mass sensitive sensors, surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors, micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) sensors, chemicapacitors, chemiresistive sensors, carbon nanotubes, field-effect transistors93, and bioassays94. Secondary information and data collected during the literature search from studies focused on evaluation of various detector and sensor technologies for identification and measurement of CWA contamination include the following: Raman spectroscopy is being evaluated for standoff detection of CWAs. Raman spectra of 22 CWAs were measured using 785 nanometer (nm) and 1064 nm excitation95. Generally, for pure CWA detection, 785-nm excitation is preferred, but for crude samples (e.g., identification of CWAs in a gasoline mixture), 1064-nm excitation yields better detection performance. A prototype system that couples a Raman spectrometer with a reflective telescope using fiber optics has also been developed and evaluated96. The system was capable of detection of CWA simulants including DMMP and CEES at standoff distances of up to 6.6 m. Quantification studies using the prototype Raman system demonstrated a DMMP limit of detection (LOD) value of 3% weight/volume (w/v) at a distance of 6.6 m. The ability of the OPAA enzyme to selectively hydrolyze the P-F bond of fluorine- containing OP CWAs (e.g., GB and GD) has been studied to investigate the possibility of using the enzyme to create a discriminative detection capability97. The CWA simulants DFP (P-F bond), paraoxon (P-0 bond), and demeton-S (P-S bond) were used. No sensor response was observed for paraoxon or demeton-S, but DFP concentrations down to 20 micromolar (|iM) were readily detected. A single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)-polyaniline composite sensor was evaluated using DMMP gas98. A response of 27.1% was achieved within 5.5 seconds of exposure to 10 ppm DMMP gas (better than pure SWCNT network sensors). Response increased linearly with increasing DMMP gas concentration. 34 ------- A nanocomposite gas sensor comprised of iron oxide (a-Fe203), graphite, and calcium sulfate (CaSC>4) achieved a detection limit of 1 part per billion (ppb) for DMMP vapor 99 Results demonstrated that the presence of CaSC>4 in the nanocomposite allowed for the observed sensor performance at room temperature (avoiding the need for operation at high temperature, which is a known drawback to the use of metal oxide gas sensors). Flexible epidermal tattoo- and textile-based electrochemical sensors incorporating stretchable OPH enzyme electrodes have been developed for continuous vapor-phase detection of OP threats100. A detection limit of 12 mg/L was achieved for methyl paraoxon (nerve CWA simulant). SAW sensors can be used for detection of CWA vapors101. Real time detection capabilities, high specificity (when sensor arrays are utilized), and selectively tuned detection algorithms are benefits to the use of SAW sensor-based detection systems. Other secondary information and data collected during the literature search from studies focused on CWA sampling and analysis methodologies include the following: A novel method for extraction of CWAs from liquid matrices has been developed that uses iron oxide microspheres as a sorbent, coupled with magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction (MDSPE) followed by GC/MS analysis102. Parameters affecting the efficiency of the method were evaluated and optimized. Recoveries of the CWAs GA, GD, and cyclosarin (GF) were in the range of 72 to 90% (3.9 to 5.5% relative standard deviation [RSD]) from dodecane, 84 to 95% (3.3 to 6.2% RSD) from silicon oil, and 70 to 82% (5.3 to 8.2% RSD) for the CWAs in ซ-hexane. Studies have been conducted to evaluate the sampling efficiency of different combinations of SPME fibers and analysis methods to quantify numerous CWAs in a variety of sample matrices (e.g., air, water, soil, etc.). For collection and quantitation of HD and associated byproducts, a butyl acrylate SPME fiber was found to be most efficient, whereas for organoarsenic compounds, a methyl acrylate/methyl methacrylate copolymer fiber was found to be the best-performing fiber103. Using a polydimethylsiloxane/divinylbenzene fiber, detection limits for nerve CWAs in water matrices were 0.05 |ig/L for GB, GD, and GA, and as low as 0.05 |ag/m L for VX depending on the sample analysis method88. Agentase Disclosure Spray is an enzyme-based CWA-detection system in a spray formulation that changes color when sprayed on contaminated surfaces. Detection of CWA at sub-microgram levels within five minutes has been reported104. A rapid, sensitive, and robust method for identification of Lewisite(s) and hydrolysis products in aqueous and multiphase sample matrices has been developed that incorporates in-sorbent-tube butylthiolation derivatization105. Experiments were designed to determine the optimal injection sequence of sample and derivatization agent into a 35 ------- thermal desorption tube, the sequence of derivatization and water removal steps, the best solvent for the derivatization reagent, the optimal volume of the derivatization reagent solution, and the optimal sample pH. Analysis of CWA degradation products (including MP A, EMPA, IMP A, and PMPA) in environmental samples was performed by capillary electrophoresis (CE) using electrokinetic injection106. Detection limits for CWA degradants were as low as 1 to 2 |ig/L for water samples and 25 to 50 |ig/L for aqueous leachates of soil samples (10 mL of leachate/1.5 g of soil). An evacuated canister method was validated for sampling specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can be used as simulants for CWAs107. The method was found to be suitable for sampling VOCs (including cyclohexane, chloroform, methylene chloride, methyl ethyl ketone, hexane, and carbon tetrachloride) in the range of 2.3 to 50 ppb. OP-active enzymes have been immobilized onto porous polyurethane foam to produce CWA detection sponges/badges108. The technology can be used to sample OPs in anything from soil to water to air and is CWA-selective through use of a variety of enzymes including OPH (hydrolyzed GB more readily than other G-series CWAs) and laccase (preferentially hydrolyzes VX over G-series CWAs). A "dip and shoot" method has been developed for rapid sampling and analysis of CWAs and hydrolysis products (by desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry [DESI- MS]) in liquid and soil samples109. Sampling was performed by dipping a fused silica, stainless steel, or SPME tip into organic or aqueous samples. The tip was then immediately introduced through the septum port on the electrospray ionization (ESI) housing during DESI-MS analysis. A variety of analytical methodologies were used to characterize bulk-CWA waste to screen for presence of CWAs and CWA degradants110. The study provides a summary of the techniques used as well as degradants of interest for each CWA. Techniques included GC/MS, GC/atomic emission detection (AED), LC/MS, CE, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). A multilayered extraction membrane disk system was developed and used to recover DIMP and DMMP (CWA simulants) from aqueous samples, achieving detection limits as low as 0.20 |ig/Lm. 3.6. Comprehensive Summary Tables Table 4 provides a summary of techniques, technologies, and methodologies for decontamination and sampling of the target CWAs (or simulants of the target CWAs) indicated in Section 2.1.2 from the USCG vessel-relevant materials listed in Table 1 in Section 2.1.1.2, based on the information and secondary data collected during the literature search. 36 ------- Table 4. CWA Decontamination and Sampling Summary (USCG Materials) Vessels Material Information/Data Area HD GB VX Aluminum (hull) Decontamination mVHP 65 66 Wiping 68 NA ni VHP 6566 Wiping 68 Sampling NA NA NA Coated steel (hull) Decontamination ni VHP 65 RSDL 61 Reactive sorbents/materials 61 Physical removal methods 69 Thermal decontamination 57 Physical removal methods 69 Thermal decontamination 57 ni VHP 65 RSDL 61 Reactive sorbents/materials 61 Physical removal methods 69 Thermal decontamination 57 Sampling NA NA NA C3 HH O a w ^ ฉ Foam Decontamination NA NA NA Sampling NA NA NA CQ 5-1 2 ^ 2 Ph o *- 2 Non-skid coatings Decontamination NA NA NA (decking) Sampling NA NA NA *7 <ฉ OS i r- r. CO 1 l >n sS "T Glass Decontamination Bleach, diluted bleach 54'55 Liquid H202 55 DF200 54 55 Decon Green 54 CASCAD. SDF 54 ni VHP 65'66 Bleach, diluted bleach 54 DF200 54 Decon Green 54 CASCAD. SDF 54 Enzyme-based 5& 59 ni VHP 61 6-66 Bleach, diluted bleach 54 DF200 54 Decon Green 54 CASCAD. SDF 54 Enzyme-based 58 59 Sampling Wipe sampling 91 Wipe sampling 90 Wipe sampling 90 Insulation, other Decontamination ni VHP 65 NA ni VHP 65 bulkhead coverings Sampling NA NA NA Glazing materials Decontamination NA NA NA Sampling NA NA NA Sensitive equipment Decontamination NA NA NA and components Sampling NA NA NA NA - Not applicable; no related information o secondary data were collected during the literature search Table 5 provides a summary of techniques, technologies, and methodologies identified during the search for decontamination and sampling of CWAs (including the target CWAs provided in Section 2.1.2 [VX, HD, and GB] as well as other G-series [e.g., GD] and vesicant [e.g., L, HL] CWAs) from various other materials (apart from the USCG vessel-relevant materials identified in Table 1 of Section 2.1.1.2). 37 ------- Table 5. CWA Decontamination and Sampling Summary (A dditional Materials) Material Decontamination Sampling Noncoated metals (excl. aluminum; e.g., stainless steel, galvanized metal, etc.) Bleach, diluted bleach 54 55-56 pAB 56 Liquid H202 55 DF200 5455-56 Decon Green 54 CASCAD. SDF 54 m VHP 65 Soap and water 56 RSDL 56 Steriplex56 Wiping 68 Thermal decontamination 57 Wipe sampling 91191 92 Bioassays 94 Strippable coating 92 Tile (e.g., glazed ceramic, vinyl, acoustic ceiling, etc.) Bleach, diluted bleach 54 DF200 54 Decon Green 54 CASCAD SDF 54 Wipe sampling 9119192 Strippable coating 92 Plastics (e.g., LDPE, HDPE, acrylic, laminate, etc.) Bleach, diluted bleach 56 pAB 56 DF200 56 niVHP 65'66 Soap and water 56 RSDL 56 Steriplex56 Wiping 68 Wipe sampling 91191 Coated porous materials (e.g., drywall, concrete, wood, etc.) Bleach, diluted bleach 54 DF200 54 Decon Green 54 CASCAD SDF 54 Wipe sampling 9119192 Strippable coating 92 Coated nonporous (e.g., coated metals excl. steel, CARC- coated aluminum, etc.) Enzyme-based 59 Decon Green 5153 ni VHP 65'66 Physical removal methods 69 Wiping 68 NA Noncoated porous materials (e.g., drywall, concrete, wood, etc.) Bleach, diluted bleach 54 55 Liquid H202 55 DF20 0 54 55 Decon Green 54 CASCAD SDF 54 ni VHP 65 Wipe sampling 9119192 Strippable coating 92 Fabric Enzyme-based 59 ni VHP 65 Wipe sampling 92 Strippable coating 92 Rubber Bleach, diluted bleach 56 pAB 56 DF200 56 ni VHP 65 Soap and water 56 RSDL 56 Steriplex56 Wipe sampling 92 Strippable coating 92 Liquid or solid matrices NA Raman 96 Enzyme-based detectors Solid sorbent105 Extraction disks/filters 111 108 Capillary electrophoresis 106 "Dip and shoot" DESI-MS 109 Vapor-phase CWA NA Enzyme-based detectors Reactive material-based sensors 98 99 SPME 103 100. 108 Raman 95 SAW sensors 101 Evacuated canister 107 Developmental, reactor studies, or similar Enzyme-based 60-6L 62 NaHC03-activated H202 70 Reactive sorbents/materials 7L 49- 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78 DS2 49 C8 49 Plasma 49 Liquid H202 49 Wipe sampling 89 MDSPE 102 Enzyme-based detectors Reactive material-based sensors 93 97.1M -SPME 8887 Solid sorbent87 PPE materials Bleach, diluted bleach 56 pAB 56 DF200 56 Soap and water 56 RSDL5467 Steriplex56 Reactive sorbents/materials 67 NA Skin, hair Liquid H202 45 Enzyme-based 42 Soap and water 44 RSDL41'4344 Reactive sorbents/materials 46 PS 104 41 Fuller's Earth41'43'44 46.48 alldecontMED 41 Oxime 42 NA NA - Not applicable; no related information or secondary data were collected during the literature search 38 ------- 4. KNOWLEDGE/CAPABILITY GAP ASSESSMENT AND RESULTS As described in Section 2.6, information/secondary data source summaries were collated into the source compilation document according to the content and primary research focus of the sources. This arrangement of the literature summaries in the source compilation document served to illustrate the distribution of the information and secondary data that were collected during the search across the research focus areas and support identification of gaps in information/secondary data related to methodologies, procedures, and technologies for decontamination and sampling of CWA contamination on USCG assets. On 27 April 2020, project stakeholders from the USCG and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) joined with the EPA and Battelle in a meeting to review and discuss the information and secondary data collected during the literature search and to identify data/information/capability gaps related to decontamination and sampling capabilities for CWA contamination on USCG assets. Prior to the discussion, EPA and Battelle provided expected attendees with the complete results of the literature search for review (specifically, the source compilation document was provided, which, as described in Section 2.6, included summaries of all secondary data and information sources collected during the literature search categorized by research focus). Meeting discussions focused on identification of knowledge/capability gaps related to the unique challenges imposed on CWA contamination response and management, decontamination, and sampling and analysis strategies due to USCG vessel operations and operational environments and/or vessel construction materials (based on the information/secondary data collected during the literature search). The knowledge/capability gaps that were identified and discussed, as well as additional discussion topics, are provided in Sections 4. 1 and 4.2, respectively. 4.1. Knowledge/Capability Gaps Although outside the scope of the current work, data on efficacy of decontamination and sampling technologies and methodologies in/on other matrices (not just the select material surfaces) would be valuable. o This may be especially true for air and liquid matrices (i.e., seawater, bilge water, oil, lubricants, fluids, other vessel areas that may require liquid sampling, HVAC, and exhaust systems, etc.). o Liquid matrices can become contaminated during decontamination and/or sampling efforts, spread contamination or re-contaminate surfaces, and/or cause further penetration into other contaminated materials, areas, and/or surfaces, o This may be especially important for CWAs, as some (e.g., VX and Fourth Generation Agents [FGAs]/Novichok Agents) can be persistent. While some data were collected, collection of additional data (and thorough evaluation of collected data) related to sampling from porous materials would be valuable. 39 ------- The generally smaller amount of data related to decontamination and sampling of CWAs on coated steel that was collected is notable. o Some coated steel-related CWA decontamination and material compatibility data source summaries were presented, but none that were focused on evaluation/efficacy of sampling technologies or methodologies, o Likely more data have been generated, but such data may be For Official Use Only [FOUO] and/or unpublished. No data that appear (initially, at least) to be related to decontamination (or any other focus area, actually) on bumper foam were collected. o The term "bumper foam" may have been too restrictive ("elastomeric foam" or just "foam" may have been a better approach for the literature search), o Decontamination and/or sampling data related to bumper foam may have been collected, though the report/article/data source/etc. does not refer to the material as "bumper foam". o Need to consider what the bumper foam material is comprised of to determine if data related to CWA decontamination and/or sampling from the specific composition material(s) have already been collected. ฆ Determined that the bumper foam material is comprised of a polyurethane fabric wrapped around a (rounded) interior foam, o Data related to decontamination and/or sampling of CWAs on other types of plastic and/or rubber may be applicable/translatable to bumper foam. Additional data on and consideration of the impacts to decontamination and/or sampling by fouling of/on a surface (i.e., salt/seawater, grime, etc.) would be valuable. o Need data related to realistic surfaces (most of the collected studies used clean [i.e., unused, pristine] materials/surfaces), o A few search terms were included to attempt to collect some data related to fouling/foulants, and some data related to BWA decontamination and sampling in the presence of heavy/light organic load were collected112, but more emphasis should be placed on this topic/focus, o Sea/saltwater was discussed as an "interferent" and/or "foulant" impacting decontamination and sampling efficacy. Other specific foulants of interest should be identified. In addition to vessels, an area of focus to consider would be areas/locations within USCG bases or stations (and the specific/associated construction materials) that are more susceptible to frequent contamination and/or re-contamination/cross-contamination. o Analogous to subway trains/stations, o Surfaces/items that are frequently touched/interacted with. Collection and inclusion of additional data/information from CWA decontamination efficacy studies conducted by other government agencies would be valuable. 40 ------- Additional data/information related to compatibility of hot/humid air decontamination with the materials of interest would be valuable. o Reports/articles on studies performed by other government agencies on efficacy of hot/humid air decontamination of CWAs may also include data/information on compatibility of the tested materials with the decontamination process, o It was discussed that studies have been conducted/data have been generated related to the operability of CI30 aircraft after hot/humid air decontamination. Other characteristics of CWA decontamination and sampling technologies and approaches must be considered also, beyond just efficacy of the technologies/approaches. Such considerations include "scale-up" requirements (for larger areas and/or multiple assets/vessels, etc.), supply-chain, availability limitations, surge capacities, etc. Although outside the scope for this effort, data related to decontamination and sampling of CWAs on soil and vegetation (foliage, grass, etc.) would be valuable. 4.2. Additional Information, Discussion, and Notes Scientific articles, reports, guidance documents, etc. that are publicly available from/through the Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) were collected and summarized during the literature search and included in the source compilation document. Anything not publicly available from/through DTIC (i.e., classified, controlled, limited distribution, etc.) was not collected or included. Quality of the scientific articles, reports, guidance documents, etc. collected during the literature search was assessed both qualitatively through use of source document type designations (refer to Section 2.4.1) and quantitatively through use of the Literature Assessment Factor Rating (refer to Section 2.4.2). The absence of data in the open literature related to decontamination and/or sampling of a particular contaminant on the surface of a particular material does not necessarily indicate that such knowledge/data/capabilities do not exist. Similarly, the presence/existence of data related to decontamination and sampling of specific contaminants on specific materials in the literature does not indicate that the decontamination and/or sampling technologies/methodologies are efficacious. Although there do appear to be gaps in the data/information that were collected and/or that exist related to decontamination and sampling of CWAs on the specified USCG materials, sampling plans and future research can be directed at filling these gaps. In addition to specific technologies for decontamination and sampling of CWAs, the methods/procedures for use/application of technologies must be considered (i.e., decontamination and sampling tactics/strategies in addition to technologies). CWA sampling and analysis technologies/methodologies may carry inherent susceptibilities to various interferents that may cause false positive/negative results and/or impact quantification of the level/concentration of CWA contaminants. Knowledge of such susceptibilities is critical during selection of CWA sampling and 41 ------- analysis technologies/methodologies, and susceptibilities must be considered in light of specific target analytes, sample matrices, sampling/analysis conditions, etc. 4.3. Gap Table The knowledge/capability gaps described in Section 4.1 and the additional information, discussion topics, and notes described in Section 4.2 are summarized in Table 6. Table 6. Gap Table Knowledge/Capability Gaps Data on efficacy of decontamination approaches in/on other matrices (besides the target USCG vessel-related materials). Limited data were collected related to decontamination of CWAs on coated steel. No data were collected related to decontamination of CWAs on bumper foam. Additional data on the impacts of foulants to the efficacy of decontamination technologies/approaches would be valuable. In addition to vessels, consider areas/locations within USCG bases or stations that are susceptible to contamination. Additional data on the efficacy of hot, humid air decontamination would be valuable. Consider other characteristics of CWA decontamination technologies/approaches (e.g., "scale-up" requirements, supply-chain, availability, surge capacities, etc.). Data related to decontamination of CWAs on soil and/or vegetation would be valuable. Additional Information, Discussion, Notes Literature and data publicly available through DTIC were collected. Anything not publicly available through DTIC was not collected. Literature and data source quality was assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively (refer to Section 2.4). The absence of data in the open literature related to decontamination of CWA on a particular material does not necessarily indicate that such knowledge/capability does not exist. Similarly, the presence/existence of such data does not indicate that the described decontamination technology/method is efficacious. Future research can be directed at filling the knowledge/capability gaps identified during this effort. In addition to specific technologies for decontamination of CWA, methods/procedures for use/application of decontaminants must be considered. Data on efficacy of sampling approaches in/on other matrices (besides the target USCG vessel-related materials). Need additional data related to sampling from porous materials. Limited data were collected related to sampling of CWAs on coated steel. No data were collected related to sampling of CWAs on bumper foam. Additional data on the impacts of foulants to the efficacy of sampling technologies/approaches would be valuable. In addition to vessels, consider areas/locations within USCG bases or stations that are susceptible to contamination. Consider other characteristics of CWA sampling technologies/approaches (e.g., "scale-up" requirements, supply-chain, availability, surge capacities, etc.). Data related to sampling of CWAs on soil and/or vegetation would be valuable. Literature and data publicly available through DTIC were collected. Anything not publicly available through DTIC was not collected. Literature and data source quality was assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively (refer to Section 2.4). The absence of data in the open literature related to sampling of CWA on a particular material does not necessarily indicate that such knowledge/capability does not exist. Similarly, the presence/existence of such data does not indicate that the described sampling technology/method is efficacious. Future research can be directed at filling the knowledge/capability gaps identified during this effort. In addition to specific technologies for CWA sampling, methods/procedures for use/application of sampling technologies must be considered. CWA sampling and analysis technologies/methodologies may carry inherent susceptibilities to interferents that must be considered. 42 ------- 5. REFERENCES 1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. EPA Requirements for Quality Assurance Project Plans, Office of Environmental Information: Washington, DC. 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Prepared for 27th DDESB Explosives Safety Seminar Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board on 21 August 1996. 40 Baylis, J.; Allenby, D. Remediation of contaminated industrial sites. Waste and Resource Management. August 2010, 163, WR3, pp 95-109. 41 Thors, L.; Koch, M.; Wigenstam, E.; Koch, B.; Hagglund, L.; Bucht, A. Comparison of skin decontamination efficacy of commercial decontamination products following exposure to VX on human skin. Chemico-Biological Interactions. 267, 2017, pp 82-89. 42 Gordon, R.K.; Feaster, S.R.; Gunduz, A.T.; Doctor, BhupendraP.; Lenz, D.E.; Maxwell, D.M.; Macalalag, R.C.; Clarkson, E.D.; Skvorak, J.P.; Ross, M.C. Decontamination and Detoxification with Sponges. ADA409494 Proceedings of the 2001 ECBC Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research. 2002. 43 Taysse, L.; Dorandeu, F.; Daulon, S.; Foquin, A.; Perrier, N.; Lallement, G.; Breton, P. 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Preliminary evaluation of military, commercial and novel skin decontamination products against a chemical warfare agent simulant (methyl salicylate). Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology. 2016, 35, 2, pp 137- 144. 47 Cibulsky, S.M.; Mirk, M.A.; Ignacio, J.S.; Leary, A.D.; Schwartz, M.D. Patient Decontamination in a Mass Chemical Exposure Incident: National Planning Guidance for Communities; U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C.; December 2014. 48 Salerno, A.; Bolzinger, M.; Rolland, P.; Chevalier, Y.; Josse, D.; Briantjon, S. Pickering emulsions for skin decontamination. Toxicology in Vitro. 2016, 34, pp 45-54. 49 Singh, B.; Prasad, G.K.; Pandey, K.S.; Danikhel, R.K.; Vijayaraghavan, R. Decontamination of chemical warfare agents. Defence Science Journal, 60, 4, July 2010, pp 428-441. 50 Talmage, S.S.; Watson, A.P.; Hauschild, V.; Munro, N.B.; King, J. Chemical warfare agent degradation and decontamination. Current Organic Chemistry. 2007, 11, pp 285-298. 51 Fatah, A.A.; Barrett, R.D.; Arcilisi Jr., R.D.; Ewing, K.J.; Lattin, C.H.; Helinski, M.S.; Baig, I. A. Guide for the Selection of Chemical and Biological Decontamination Equipment for Emergency First Responders, NIJ Guide 103-00, Volume I. NC J Number 189724, 2001. 52 Reynolds, C.M.; Ringelberg, D.B.; Perry, L.B.; Wagner, G.W. Performance of an emerging all-weather decontamination solution against nerve and mustard agent simulants at subfreezing temperatures. Cold Regions Science and Technology. 2008, 52, pp 244-253. 53 Reynolds, C.M.; Ringelberg, D.B.; Perry, L.B. Efficacy ofDECONGreen against VXNerve and HD Mustard Simulants at Subfreezing Temperatures. ERDC/CRREL TR-06-14. June 2006. 54 Love, A.H.; Bailey, C.G.; Hanna, M. L.; Hok, S.; Vu, A.K.; Reutter, D.J.; Raber, E. Efficacy of liquid and foam decontamination technologies for chemical warfare agents on indoor surfaces. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2011, 196, pp 115-122. 55 Stone, H.; See, D.; Smiley, A.; Ellingson, A.; Schimmoeller, J.; Oudejans, L. Surface decontamination for blister agents Lewisite, sulfur mustard and agent yellow, a Lewisite and sulfur mustard mixture. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2016, 314, pp 59-66. 56 Oudejans, L.; O'Kelly, J.; Evans, A.S.; Wyrzykowska-Ceradini, B.; Touati, A.; Tabor, D.; Snyder, E.G. Decontamination of personal protective equipment and related materials contaminated with toxic industrial chemicals and chemical warfare agent surrogates. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 2016, 4, pp 2745-2753. 57 Zamejc, E.R.; Mezey, E.J.; Hayes, T.L.; Wetzel, D.K.; Garrett, B.C. Development of Novel Decontamination Techniques for Chemical Agents (GB, VX, HD) Contaminated Facilities, Phase II - Laboratory Evaluation of Novel Agent Decontamination Concepts. AMXTH-TE- 46 ------- TR-85012. U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous Materials Agency, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD. June 1985. 58 LeJeune, K.E.; Russell, A.J. Biocatalytic nerve agent detoxification in firefighting foams. Biotechnology andBioengineering. 1999, 62, 6, pp 659-665. 59 Alves, N.J.; Moore, M.; Johnson, B.J.; Dean, S.N.; Turner, K.B.; Medintz, I.L.; Walper, S.A. Environmental decontamination of a chemical warfare simulant utilizing a membrane vesicle-encapsulated phosphodiesterase. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 2018, 10, pp 15712-15719. 60 Cheng, T.-C.; Rastogi, V.K.; DeFrank, J.J.; Fry, I. Compatibility of CWAgent Degrading Enzymes with Disinfectants and Foams. ADM001851, Proceedings of the 2003 Joint Service Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research, 2003. 61 Kern, R.J. Enzyme-Based Detoxification of Organophosphorus Neurotoxic Pesticides and Chemical Warfare Agents. December 2007. Texas A&M University, Ph.D. dissertation. 62 de Castro, A.A.; Caetano, M.S.; Silva, T.C.; Mancini, D.T.; Rocha, E.P.; da Cunha, E.F.F.; Ramalho, T.T. Molecular docking, metal substitution and hydrolysis reaction of chiral substrates of phosphotriesterase. Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening. 2016, 19,4. 63 Wagner, G.W.; Sorrick, D.C.; Procell, L.R.; Brickhouse, M.D.; Mcvey, I.F.; Schwartz, L.I. Decontamination of VX, GD, and HD on a surface using modified vaporized hydrogen peroxide. Langmuir. 2007, 23, pp 1178-1186. 64 Ryu, S.G.; Lee, H.W. Effectiveness and reaction networks of H2O2 vapor with NH3 gas for decontamination of the toxic warfare nerve agent, VX, on a solid surface. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 2015, 50, pp 1417-1427. 65 Wagner, G.; Procell, L.; Sorrick, D.; Maclver, B.; Turetsky, A.; Pfarr, J.; Dutt, D.; Brickhouse, M.; Schwartz, L.; McVey, I.; Wiget, P.; Stark, D. Large scale tests of vaporous hydrogen peroxide (VHPฎ) for chemical and biological weapons decontamination. Presented at the 2004 Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research. November 2004. 66 Lalain, T.; Mantooth, B.; Brickhouse, M.D.; Gater, S.; Williams, K.; Hendershot, J.; Stark, D. Chemical Warfare Agent Decontamination Efficacy Testing Large-scale Chamber mVHPฎ Decontamination System Evaluation. ECBC-TR-731. Edgewood Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD. February 2010. 67 Capoun, T.; Krykorkova, J. Comparison of selected methods for individual decontamination of chemical warfare agents. Toxics. 2014, 2, pp 307-326. 68 Maclver, B.; Spafford, R.; Kaiser, R. Development of a Portable Sensitive Equipment Decontamination System. ECBC-TR-766. Edgewood Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD. May 2010. 69 Low Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Chemical Agent Resistant Coating (CARC) - Final Technical Report; Project PP 1056/789; U.S. Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center; Picatinny Arsenal, NJ, April 2000. 47 ------- 70 Zhao, S.; Xi, H.; Zuo, Y.; Wang, Q.; Wang, Z.; Yan, Z. Bicarbonate-activated hydrogen peroxide and efficienct decontamination of toxic sulfur mustard and nerve gas simulants. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2018, 344, pp 136-145. 71 Liu, Y.; Howarth, A.J.; Vermeulen, N.A.; Moon, S.-Y.; Hupp, J.T.; Farha, O.K. Catalytic degradation of chemical warfare agents and their simulants by metal-organic frameworks. Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 2017, 346, pp 101-111. 72 Saxena, A.; Srivastava, A.K.; Singh, B.; Goyal, A. Removal of sulphur mustard, sarin and simulants on impregnated silica nanoparticles. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2012, 211 212, pp 226- 232. 73 Florent, M.; Giannakoudakis, D.; Rajiv, W.; Bandosz, T.J. Mixed CuFe and ZnFe (hydr)oxides as reactive adsorbents of chemical warfare agent surrogates. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2017, 329, pp 141-149. 74 Saxena, A.; Srivastava, A.K.; Beer, S.; Gupta, A.K.; Suryanarayana, M.V.S.; Pandey, P. Kinetics of adsorptive removal of DEC1P and GB on impregnated AI2O3 nanoparticles. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2010, 175, pp. 795-801. 75 Williams, D. J.; Bevilacqua, V. L. H.; Creasy, W. R.; Maguire, K. J.; McGarvey, D. J.; Brevett, C. A. S.; Rice, J. S.; Dupont Durst, H. Investigation of alum mixtures for the removal and decontamination V and G type chemical warfare agents from aqueous solution. ADM001851, Proceedings of the 2003 Joint Service Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research, November 2003. 76 Li, J.; Singh, V.V.; Sattayasamitsathit, S.; Orozco, J.; Kaufmann, K.; Dong, R.; Gao, W.; Jurado-Sanchez, B.; Fedorak, Y.; Wang, J. Water-driven micromotors for rapid photocatalytic degradation of biological and chemical warfare agents. ACS Nano. 2014, 8, pp 11118-11125. 77 Ramakrishna, C.; Gopi, T.; Shekar, S.C.; Gupta, A.K.; Krishna, R. Vapor phase catalytic degradation studies of diethyl sulfide with MnO/Zeolite-13X catalysts in presence of air. Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy. 2018, 37, 5, pp 1705-1712. 78 Yue, Z.; Mangun, C., Economy, J.; Kemme, P.; Cropek, D.; Maloney, S. Removal of chemical contaminants from water to below USEPA MCL Using fiber glass supported activated carbon filters. Environmental Science and Technology. 2001, 35, pp 2844-2848. 79 Brickhouse, M.D.; Lalain, T.; Bartram, P.W.; Hall, M.; Hess, Z.; Reiff, L.; Mantooth, B.; Zander, Z.; Stark, D.; Humphreys, P.; Williams, B.; Ryan, S.; Martin, B. Effects of Vaporized Decontamination Systems on Selected Building Interior Materials: Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide; ECBC-TR-661; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Homeland Security Research Center; Research Triangle Park, NC, January 2009. 80 EPA Technical Brief- Assessment of the Impact of Decontamination Fumigants on Electronic Equipment; EPA/600/R-14/316; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2014. 81 EPA Technical Brief- Decontamination Options for Sensitive Equipment in Critical Infrastructure following a Bacillus anthracis Incident, EPA/600/S-17/166; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2017. 48 ------- 82 Compatibility of Material and Electronic Equipment with Chlorine Dioxide Fumigation; EPA/600/R-10/037; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, August 2010. 83 Brickhouse, M.D.; Lalain, T.; Bartram, P.W.; Hall, M.; Hess, Z.; Mantooth, B.; Reiff, L.; Zander, Z.; Stark, D.; Humphreys, P.; Ryan, S.; Martin, B. Effects of Vaporized Decontamination Systems of Selected Building Interior Materials: Chlorine Dioxide, EPA/600/R-08/054; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 2008. 84 Bartram, P.W.; Lynn, J.T.; Reiff, L.P.; Brickhouse, M.D.; Lalain, T.A.; Ryan, S.; Martin, B.; Stark, D. Material Demand Studies: Interaction of Chlorine Dioxide Gas With Building Materials; EPA/600/R-08/091; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, September 2008. 85 Solazzo, C., Erhardt, D., Marte, F., Von Endt, D., Tumosa, C. Effects of chemical and biological warfare remediation agents on the materials of museum objects. Applied Physics A. 2004, 79, pp 247-252. 86 Procell, L.R.; Hess, Z.A.; Gehring, D.G.; Lyann, J.T.; Bartram, P.W.; Lalain, T.; Ryan, S.; Attwood, B.; Martin, B.; Brickhouse, M.D. Material Demand Studies: Materials Sorption of Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide. ECBC-TR-778. Edgewood Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD. June 2010. 87 Witkiewicz, Z.; Sliwka, E.; Neffe, S. Chromatographic analysis of chemical compounds related to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2016, 85, pp 21-33. 88 Popiel, S.; Sankowska, M. Determination of chemical warfare agents and related compounds in environmental samples by solid-phase microextraction with gas chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A. 2011, 1218, pp 8457-8479. 89 EPA Technical Brief - EPA Technical Brief - Shipment, Preservation, and Analysis of Chemical Warfare Agents (CWAs) in Environmental Matrices, EPA/600/S-18/332; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2018. 90 Willison, S.A. Investigation of the persistence of nerve agent degradation analytes on surfaces through wipe sampling and detection with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry. 2014, 87, pp 1034-1041. 91 Willison, S.A. Wipe selection for the analysis of surface materials containing chemical warfare agent nitrogen mustard degradation products by ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A. 2012, 1270, pp 72-79. 92 Hernon-Kenny, L. A.; Behringer, D.L.; Crenshaw, M.D. Comparison of latex body paint with wetted gauze wipes for sampling the chemical warfare agents VX and sulfur mustard from common indoor surfaces. Forensic Science International. 2016, 262, pp 143-149. 93 Zheng, Q.; Fu, Y.-c.; Xu, J.-q. Advances in the chemical sensors for the detection of DMMP - A simulant for nerve agent sarin. Procedia Engineering. 2010, 7, pp 179-184. 94 Claborn, D.M.; Martin-Brown, S.A.; Sagar, S. G.; Durham, P. A rapid and inexpensive bioassay to evaluate the decontamination of organophosphates. U. S. Army Medical Department Journal. 2012 Jul-Sep, pp 36-42. 49 ------- 95 Kondo, T.; Hashimoto, R.; Ohrui, Y.; Sekioka, R.; Nogami, T.; Muta, F.; Seto, Y. Analysis of chemical warfare agents by portable Raman spectrometer with both 785 nm and 1064 nm excitation. Forensic Science International. 2018, 291, pp 23-38. 96 Ortiz-Rivera, W.; Pacheco-Londono, L.C.; Hernandez-Rivera, S.P. Remote continuous wave and pulsed laser Raman detection of chemical warfare agents simulants and toxic industrial compounds. Sensing and Imaging. 2010, 11, pp 131-145. 97 Simonian, A.L.; Grimsely, J.K.; Flounders, A.W.; Schoeniger, J.S.; Cheng, T.-C.; DeFrank, J.J.; Wild, J.R. Enzyme-based biosensor for the direct detection of fluorine-containing organophosphates. Analytica Chimica. 2001, 442, pp 15-23. 98 Yoo, R.; Kim, J.; Song, M.-J.; Lee, W.; Noh, J. S. Nano-composite sensors composed of single-walled carbon nanotubes and polyaniline for the detection of a nerve agent simulant gas. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 2015, 209, pp 444-448. 99 Alizadeh, T.; Jahani, R. A new strategy for low temperature gas sensing by nano-sized metal oxides: Development of a new nerve agent simulant sensor. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2015, 168, pp 180-186. 100 Mishra, R.K.; Martin, A.; Nakagawa, T.; Barfidokht, A.; Lu, X.; Sempionatto, J.R.; Lyu, K.M.; Karajic, A.; Musameh, M.M.; Kyratzis, I.L.; Wang, J. Detection of vapor-phase organophosphate threats using wearable conformable integrated epidermal and textile wireless biosensor systems. Biosensors andBioelectronics. 101, 2018, pp 227-234. 101 McGill, R.A.; Antevil, J.; Anderson, M.R.; Venezky, D.L. Fire Detection by Surface Acoustic Wave Chemical Sensor Systems', NRL/MR/617093-7421; Office of Naval Research, Technology Directorate, Arlington, VA, December 1993. 102 Singh, V.; Purohit, A.K.; Chinthakindi, S.; Raghavender, D. G.; Tak, V.; Pardasani, D.; Shrivastava, A.R.; Dubey, D.K. Analysis of chemical warfare agents in organic liquid samples with magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction and gas chromatography mass spectrometry for verification of the chemical weapons convention. Journal of Chromatography A. 2016, 1448, pp 32-41. 103 Nawala, J.; Czuprynski, K.; Popiel, S.; Dziedzic, D.; Beldowski, J. Development of the HS- SPME-GC-MS/MS method for analysis of chemical warfare agent and their degradation products in environmental samples. Analytica Chimica Acta. 2016, 933, pp 103-116. 104 Anonymous. Enzyme-Based Chemical Agent Detection Spray. Security, 2008, 45, 3, pp 25. 105 Terzic, O.; Bartenbach, S.; de Voogt, P. Determination of Lewisites and their hydrolysis products in aqueous and multiphase samples by in-sorbent tube butyl thiolation followed by thermal desorption-gas chromatography-full scan mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A. 2013, 1304, pp 34-41. 106 Nassar, A.F.; Lucas, S.V.; Hoffland, L.D. Determination of chemical warfare agent degradation products at low-part-per-billion levels in aqueous samples and sub-part-per- million levels in soils using capillary electrophoresis. Analytical Chemistry. 1999, 71 pp 1285-1292. 107 Coffey, C.C.; LeBouf, R.F.; Calvert, C.A.; Slaven, J.E. Validation of an evacuated canister method for measuring part-per-billion levels of chemical warfare agent simulants. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 2011, 61, pp 826-833, 50 ------- 108 Gordon, R.K.; Gunduz, A.T.; Feaster, S.R.; Doctor, B.P.; Cronin, T. Selective, Specific, and Versatile Personal Biosensors to Organophosphate Chemical Toxins Composed of Polyurethane Immobilized Enzymes. ADA409494, 2001 ECBC Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research, Hunt Valley, MD, January 2002. 109 D'Agostine, P. A.; Chenier, C.L. Rapid Analysis of Chemical Warfare Agents and their Hydrolysis Products by Desorption Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (DESI-MS). Defence R&D Canada, Technical Memorandum, DRDC Suffield TM 2009-027, October 2009. 110 Creasy, W. R.; Brickhouse, M. D.; Morrissey, K. M.; Stuff, J. R.; Cheicante, Jr., R. L.; Ruth, J.; Mays, J.; Williams, B. R. Analysis of chemical weapons decontamination waste from old ton containers from Johnston Atoll using multiple analytical methods. Environmental Science & Technology. 33, 1999, pp. 2157-2162. 111 Tomkins, B.A.; Griest, W.H.; Hearle, D.R. Determination of Small Dialkyl Organophosphonates at Microgram/L Concentrations in Contaminated Groundwaters Using Multiple Extraction Membrane Disks. CONF-9608262. Rocky Mountain Arsenal, U.S. Dept. of Energy, 1996. 112 Guan, J.; Chan, M.; Brooks, B.W.; Rohonczy, L. Influence of temperature and organic load on chemical disinfection of Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores, a surrogate for Bacillus anthracis. The Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research. 77, 2013, pp 100-104. 51 ------- Attachment A - Literature Assessment Factor Rating Rate each factor from 0 (not applicable) to 5 (strongly applicable) and total for the overall rating. Title of Secondary Data Source: Reviewer: Rating (1-5) Focus The work not only addresses the area of inquiry under consideration but also contributes to its understanding; it is germane to the issue at hand. Verity The data are consistent with accepted knowledge in the field or, if not, the new or varying data are explained within the work. The data fit within the context of the literature and are intellectually honest and authentic. Integrity The data are structurally sound and present a cohesive story. The design or research rationale is logical and appropriate. Rigor The work is important, meaningful, and non-trivial relative to the field. It exhibits sufficient depth of intellect rather than superficial or simplistic reasoning. Utility The work is useful and professionally relevant. It makes a contribution to the field in terms of the practitioners' understanding or decision-making on the topic. Clarity The work is written clearly, not dependent on jargon. The writing style is appropriate to the nature of the study. Soundness The extent to which the scientific and technical procedures, measures, methods, or models employed to generate the information is well documented and reasonable for, and consistent with, the intended application. Uncertainty and Variability The extent to which the variability and uncertainty (quantitative and qualitative) in the information or in the procedures, measures, methods, or models are evaluated and characterized. Evaluation and Review The extent of independent verification, validation, and peer review of the information or of the procedures, measures, methods, or models. Total: Overall Rating: 3545 Source and secondary data are deemed to be high quality 2534 Source and secondary data are deemed to be moderately high quality 1524 Source and secondary data are deemed to be lower quality article but with some useful information <15 Unacceptable/Do not use 52 ------- Attachment B - Source Quality Evaluations Source quality evaluations (document type designations and Literature Assessment Factor Rating scores) for all sources of sufficient quality that were collected during the literature search, included in the source compilation document (refer to Section 2.6), and discussed in Section 3, are provided below. Refer to Section 5 for bibliographic citations (according to the reference number) for each source. Refere Source Literature Assessment Factor Rating Score nee Numbe r* nt Type Designat ion Foe us Veri ty Integri ty Rig or Utili ty Clari ty Soundn ess nty and Variabili ty Evaluati on and Review Tot al 7 G 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 39 8 G 5 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 35 9 G 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 33 10 G 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 38 11 G 5 5 4 5 4 5 4 4 4 40 12 G 3 4 3 3 3 1 2 2 3 24 13 G 4 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 31 14 G 4 5 4 5 4 4 3 4 4 37 15 G 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 2 30 16 G 3 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 4 30 17 G 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 34 18 G 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 38 19 G 3 4 4 2 3 4 4 3 4 31 20 G 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 43 21 G 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 30 22 G 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 4 41 23 G 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 2 3 31 24 G 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 3 42 25 G 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 3 3 35 26 G 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 33 27 G 2 4 4 4 3 5 3 1 4 30 28 G 3 4 2 3 4 4 3 0 3 26 29 G 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 33 30 A 5 3 5 5 5 4 5 3 3 38 31 V 4 3 4 3 1 3 3 0 0 21 32 V 3 3 4 4 3 4 0 3 3 27 33 G 3 4 3 3 3 3 2 0 3 24 34 G 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 4 32 35 B 2 5 5 3 3 5 4 2 4 33 36 A 5 4 4 5 5 2 3 3 3 34 37 V 5 3 3 4 4 5 4 3 3 34 38 G 5 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 4 39 39 A 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 31 40 G 5 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 38 41 G 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 4 42 42 A 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 33 43 G 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 2 4 31 44 G 4 4 4 3 5 5 3 3 3 34 45 G 4 5 4 4 5 3 4 4 4 37 53 ------- Literature Assessment Factor Rating Score Uncertai _ . . Foe Veri Integri Rig Utili Clari Soundn nty and vaua i j()t us ty ty or ty ty ess Variabili al , Review ty 46 G 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 39 47 V 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 32 48 G 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 35 49 G 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 31 52 G 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 39 53 A 4 5 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 38 54 G 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4 43 55 G 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 35 56 G 4 5 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 39 57 B 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 42 58 G 5 4 5 5 4 4 4 5 4 40 59 G 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 35 60 V 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 34 61 s 4 4 4 5 4 2 4 4 4 35 62 G 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 35 63 G 5 5 4 5 5 3 4 4 4 39 64 G 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 37 65 A 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 42 66 A 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 4 4 41 67 G 5 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 38 68 A 5 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 3 38 69 A 5 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 37 70 G 4 5 4 5 4 3 3 5 4 37 71 G 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 38 72 G 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 38 73 G 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 5 5 41 74 G 5 5 4 4 5 3 5 4 5 40 75 A 3 3 3 4 5 3 2 2 1 26 76 G 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 33 77 G 5 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 37 78 G 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 33 79 A 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 44 80 V 4 4 4 5 4 5 3 3 4 36 81 V 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 30 82 B 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 32 83 A 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 33 84 A 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 32 85 G 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 2 3 29 86 A 5 5 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 40 87 G 4 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 39 88 G 5 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 37 89 V 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 31 90 G 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4 40 91 G 5 3 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 37 92 G 4 4 4 3 5 4 4 2 4 34 93 G 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 32 94 G 3 4 5 3 4 5 5 3 4 36 95 G 5 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 37 96 G 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 31 Refere nee Numbe Source Docume nt Type Designat 54 ------- Refere nee Source Docume nt Type Foe Veri Integri Rig Literature Assessment Factor Rating Score Uncertai i Rig Utili Clari Soundn nty and Evaluati mimue r* Designat ion us ty ty or ty ty ess Variabili ty on anu Review al 97 G 4 4 5 5 4 2 3 4 4 35 98 G 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 35 99 G 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 35 100 G 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 34 101 A 4 4 4 3 4 2 2 3 3 29 102 G 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 36 103 G 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 36 104 V 4 0 3 3 3 4 0 0 0 17 105 G 5 4 4 4 5 4 3 5 4 38 106 G 4 4 4 5 4 2 5 3 4 35 107 G 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 37 108 V 4 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 24 109 V 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 29 110 G 4 4 5 3 4 3 3 3 4 33 111 B 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 2 2 27 *: Reference IDs 1-6 and 50,51 are report references and not literature review references and are therefore not assessed 55 ------- vvEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency PRESORTED STANDARD POSTAGE & FEES PAID EPA PERMIT NO. G-35 Office of Research and Development (8101R) Washington, DC 20460 Official Business Penalty for Private Use $300 ------- |