Analysis of National Solid Waste Recycling Programs and Development of Solid Waste Recycling Cost Functions A Summary of the Literature


July 1999

Analysis of National Solid Waste Recycling Programs and Development of Solid
Waste Recycling Cost Functions: A Summary of the Literature

by:

B. Thomas Schuman
The University of Tennessee
Department of Political Science

with

Robert A. Bohm
The University of Tennessee
Department of Economics

David H. Folz
The University of Tennessee
Department of Political Science

Jean H. Peretz
The University of Tennessee
Energy, Environment and Resources Center
(423) 974-3803
speretz@utk.edu

Bruce E. Tonn
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Policy Analysis Systems Group

Research Product 1 from a cooperative agreement titled: Research into Economic
Factors Influencing Decisions in Environmental Decision Making

U.S. EPA Cooperative Agreement CR822614-01

Project Officer:

Dr. Michael J. Podolsky
Office of Policy
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460

Prepared for:

Office of Policy
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460

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DISCLAIMER

This report has neither been reviewed nor approved by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency for publication as an EPA report. The contents do not necessarily
reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does the
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use. The report is being made available for its scientific interest.

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Analysis of National Solid Waste Recycling Programs
and Development of Solid Waste Recycling Cost
Functions: A Summary of the Literature

Contents	page
Summary of the Literature

1.0 Descriptive Data/Information on Solid Waste

Recycling Programs	2

2.0 Community/Environmental Features Related

to Recycling Operations	4

3.0 Materials Processing and Marketing	8

4.0 Recycling Program Finances	9

5.0 Decision-Making Processes	11

Conclusion	13

Literature Coding Scheme	15

Literature Review	16

Supplemental Readings	47

Appendix A: Journals Included in Literature Search	52

Appendix B: Glossary Terms	57

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Analysis of National Solid Waste Recycling Programs
and Development of Solid Waste Recycling Cost
Functions: A Summary of the Literature

In response to concerns raised by the federal government, state governments, and the
public at large, the philosophy of "reduce, reuse, and recycle" has been implemented to
varying degrees and across diverse policies and programs in American communities.
Perhaps as a reflection of this diversity, the recycling literature between 1990-95 exhibits
the controversy that exists today over choices for collection processes, incentives for
participation, materials processing and marketing, financing options, and decision-
making mechanisms.

This paper summarizes the 1990-95 recycling literature within the following broad
subject categories:

¦	descriptive data/information on solid waste recycling programs

¦	community/environmental features related to recycling operations

¦	materials processing and marketing

¦	recycling program finances

¦	decision-making processes

Wthin these categories, the principal subjects of research, the various research
approaches employed, issues and findings, and neglected areas of study are identified
and discussed. Citations of some of the prominent contributions in each area are
noted. This summary is followed by a detailed listing of articles, organized by primary
subject matter and author(s). In addition, we have included 38 supplemental articles
outside the 1990-95 time frame. Although these articles are beyond the scope of the
task, they are included for their contribution to the solid waste recycling literature.

The literature review is inclusive in that it contains articles from both academic and
popular press sources. The latter supports our effort to assist practitioners who are
dealing with solid waste recycling issues on a daily basis, while the former provides a
comprehensive review for researchers. It should be noted that criteria for identifying
the key findings in each article were: (1) suggested in the abstract, if one existed; (2)
suggested by the author(s) in the text or conclusion of the articles; or (3) subjectively
identified from the emphases the author(s) made in the article. Although much effort
went into making this literature review as thorough and comprehensive a summary as
possible, the information presented is a reference work that can never be fully complete.

Appendix A includes a list of all journals searched for the literature review and Appendix
B is a glossary of terms found in the literature review.

1.0 Descriptive Data/Information on Solid Waste Recycling Programs

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The majority of the descriptive research on solid waste recycling programs focuses on
existing U.S. and foreign solid waste collection and processing infrastructure.

Research methods include specific and comparative case studies using quantitative and
qualitative measures of performance of U.S. city and state initiatives as well as programs
in Canada, Brazil, Singapore, and other international efforts. Commonly addressed
issues include details of the motivation for recycling initiatives; methods of collection and
materials collected; materials processing methods and infrastructure; and waste
reduction, recycling, landfilling, and/or incineration measures.

Key findings for domestic operations include:

(1)	mobile drop-off systems may prove to be an effective alternative to less cost-effective
or impractical implementation of curbside collection (Watson 1991);

(2)	the collection infrastructure for paper goods has expanded faster than processing
capability with a corresponding effect on market prices (Ducey 1991);

(3)	the debate over "bin versus bag" methods of curbside collection is best resolved by
local decision makers choosing the method that best suits their needs (Polk 1994);

(4)	large U.S. cities have tried to improve recycling collection despite minimal net
benefits and have reduced their costs while increasing diversion rates (White 1991);

(5)	state initiatives have contributed to increased recycling rates, expanded curbside
collection, source reduction, and improved markets for recycled materials (Hursch 1993;
Sudol 1991); and

(6)	crisis-driven recycling activity (e.g., local responses to unfunded mandates, landfill
shortfalls, etc.) in some states has created a situation of need for comprehensive
recycling programs but few financial resources (Watson 1991).

From international research, it appears that:

(1)	fundamental obstacles to solid waste management in some Third World countries
include too much service (e.g., unneeded daily collection), local government corruption,
lack of program coordination, inconsistent cash flow, and a failure to recognize local
opportunities (e.g., recyclables markets) (Ward 1995);

(2)	economic incentives in themselves have functioned to encourage recycling (Watson

1990);

(3)	municipal solid waste (MSW) reuse and recycling in some Third World countries
operate through a disorganized, informal sector that should be supported and
empowered to enhance MSW management (Iqbal and Mansoor 1993); and

(4)	regional culture is an important influence on acceptance of recycling initiatives (Wells

1991).

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Especially with regard to major Canadian cities, there is an emphasis on source
reduction to get the most material recovery/waste diversion for the lowest cost, while
phasing in comprehensive recycling programs to meet waste reduction goals (Apotheker
1992).

The research describing features of various program types generally employs specific
and comparative case studies of plastic bag collection systems (Polk 1994; Wagner
1991), barriers to recycling programs (White 1991), WasteCap programs (Hess and
Bishop 1995), MSW reduction strategies (Gillis 1992; Pleuddemann 1994), volume-
based approaches (Cuthbert 1994; Skumatz 1990), and the German Green Dot program
(Rousso 1994). Research in this subcategory exhibits qualitative discussions of
program details, costs/benefits, and incentives/disincentives to program implementation
and/or participation. However, a 10-year quantitative case study of Seattle's program
estimates the contribution of volume-based garbage rates to successful recycling/waste
reduction programs (Skumatz 1990).

Significant findings concerning program types include:

(1)	volume-based rate systems can contribute to recycling/waste reduction success
without legal requirements that mandate citizen recycling (Miranda 1993; Miranda etal.
1994; Skumatz 1990);

(2)	recycling program approaches vary among cities depending on presence/absence of
the constraints of unionized labor, large bureaucracies, cultural diversity, socio-economic
status diversity, and legal, political, financial, and organizational barriers (White 1991);

(3)	many communities opt for the cost-saving benefits of plastic bag collection systems
(limited up-front costs, use of existing collection infrastructure/equipment, reduced
marketing/advertising costs) despite disadvantages of disproportionate costs to low-
income residents, costly content processing, and poor aftermarkets (Polk 1994);

(4)	key state and local MSW strategies include financial disincentives to waste disposal,
consumer education, product restrictions/bans, and product standards (Hursch 1993;
Pleuddemann 1994; Sudol 1991); and

(5)	the European Community's packaging materials recycling strategy will require
attention to technical standards, local interpretation, and restrictions on competition
before standardized approaches can be developed (The Economist 1995).

Two quantitative case studies present findings on the program effects of including
various materials in the recycling effort. An assessment of Oregon's beverage
container deposit system finds that legal mandates, comprehensive recovery systems,
technological advancements in material sorting, and maximized public program access
contribute to program success and add to the feasibility of mixed plastics recycling
(Powell 1995). A review of EPA reports and local/state data concerning organic waste
recycling suggests that including organic material in recycling programs benefits

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communities seeking lower landfill costs and larger stocks of salable compost (Gillis
1992).

2.0 Community/Environmental Features Related to Recycling Operations

The principal focus of research in this category concerns incentive structures and their
record of performance. Within this research area, articles tend to focus on one of three
general issue areas:

(1)	the relative impacts of various hypothesized internal and external incentives to
recycling (Allen etal. 1993; Dinan 1992; Miranda etal. 1994);

(2)	the relative influence of unit-pricing incentives on recycling participation (Cuthbert
1994; Miranda etal. 1994); and

(3)	the influence of specific incentives other than unit-pricing approaches (Hong et at.
1993; Vining and Ebreo 1990; Ward 1995).

Methods include specific qualitative case studies, survey analysis, census analysis,
marginal cost pricing studies, controlled experiments, and nonscientific experiments with
analyses ranging from qualitative argument and development of theoretical frameworks
to cross-tabular analysis and various regression analysis techniques for hypothesis
testing.

Studies seeking an understanding of many hypothesized incentives focus on such
issues as:

(1)	the relative influence of monitoring (e.g., mandatory comprehensive reporting
systems) versus convenience (e.g., curbside charges or flexible systems of retail
charges) (Menell 1990);

(2)	effects on household welfare gains attributable to unit pricing (Jenkins 1991);

(3)	the relative impact of commitment and incentive-based efforts to promote recycling
(Wang and Katzev 1990);

(4)	factors contributing to societal costs of waste disposal and economic incentives to
change consumption patterns (Dinan 1992; Menell 1990);

(5)	the influence of mandatory versus voluntary programs and fee versus no-fee
programs (Fenton and Hanley 1995; Judge and Becker 1993); and

(6)	factors influencing household recycling incentives (Dinan 1992; Hong et al. 1993;
Miranda etal. 1994).

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Results from this area of research find that:

(1)	household recycling varies as a function of convenience and demographic
characteristics. Consideration only of costs/benefits of recycling ignores social
importance (e.g., altruistic incentives) which also influences participation (Judge and
Becker 1993). In another study, however, individual education level and the time a
recycling program has been in effect were found to significantly influence household
choice to recycle, while penalties, convenience, and types of materials recycled were
insignificant influences on choice (Duggal etal. 1991);

(2)	group commitment (e.g., a group pledge to participate in the recycling effort) without
added incentives is a more significant influence on recycling behavior than individual
commitment (e.g., an individually pledged commitment) without incentives (Wang and
Katzev 1990; Katzev and Pardini 1987);

(3)	options for household waste reduction incentives include household charges,
combined disposal tax/reuse subsidies, and recycling credit systems (Dinan 1992;

Dobbs 1991);

(4)	in Ward's framework, voluntary-fee recycling programs approximate performance of
mandatory programs (Ward 1995); and

(5)	curbside charges and/or retail charges are strong incentives for source reduction,
material separation, and purchase of reusable/recyclable materials (Menell 1990).

Research on unit pricing addresses such issues as advantages/disadvantages (e.g.,
advantage of overcoming public concerns for convenience versus such disadvantages
as low levels of public funding for waste management) of the usefulness of hybrid rate
options (Skumatz 1993); effects on diversion, landfilling, and source reduction (Cuthbert
1994; Miranda 1993; Miranda etal. 1994); comparison with set-fee systems (Harder and
Knox 1993); effects on fund collection, recycling, and waste reduction (Moriarty 1994;
Morris and Holthausen 1994); comparison with weight-based programs (Skumatz et al.
1994); and influence on residential waste production (Glenn and Byrd 1990; Stone and
Hansen 1991).

Information gained from this research includes:

(1)	various tests confirm previous findings that unit-pricing programs increase recycling
behavior, but there are contradictory findings as to the effect on source reduction (Hong
etal. 1993; Hornik etal. 1995; Miranda 1993; Repetto etal. 1992);

(2)	program effects (waste reduction/increased recycling) are dependent on both
community and program features, but generally, high prices tend to modify waste
behavior (Hong etal. 1993; Jenkins 1991);

(3)	hybrid rate options may benefit communities resistant to unit pricing due to concerns
for convenience, implementation costs, or revenue recovery (Skumatz 1993);

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(4)	unit pricing contributes to less landfilling tonnage, but there is no significant
difference in source reduction between high-fee and low-fee communities (Miranda
1993); and

(5)	weight-based rates may provide a greater incentive for source reduction than unit
pricing programs (Skumatz etal. 1994).

A great deal of research focuses on a wide variety of incentives issues including the
effects of beverage container deposit laws (BCDL's), "polluter pays" laws, coupon
incentives, curbside recycling, and incentives for multi-family property residents. In this
regard,

(1)	programs with both BCDL's and curbside recycling have higher costs. BCDL's do
not contribute to higher waste diversion in communities with existing recycling programs
(Alter 1993);

(2)	coupon incentives positively influence recycling behavior, and coupon value is
directly related to increased recycling frequency (Allen et al. 1993);

(3)	maintaining recycling behavior and encouraging other conservation activities may be
more effective than forcing initial compliance (Vining and Ebreo 1992);

(4)	the strongest influences on multi-family unit recycling rates are management interest
in recycling, convenience to residents, socio-economic factors, and resident organization
(Yuhas and Hyde 1991); and

(5)	as revealed by Germany's Green Dot program, "polluter pays" policies to shift
economic costs from the public sector to private waste generators are a viable policy
alternative (Rousso and Shah 1994).

Considerable study has focused on the issue of who recycles and why. This research
seeks to address:

(1)	the difference between recyclers and non-recyclers (Hornik etal. 1995; Lansana
1993; Oskamp et al. 1991; Vining and Ebreo 1990);

(2)	the extent to which recycling is altruistic behavior (DeYoung 1990; Hopper and
Nielsen 1991);

(3)	factors contributing to household recycling rates (Matsuto and Ham 1990; Oskamp et
al. 1991; Saltzman etal. 1993);

(4)	the influence of social context on recycling behavior (Derksen and Gartrell 1993);

(5)	the effects of income on recycling behavior (Saltzman etal. 1993);

(6)	effects of demographic (e.g., age, education, income, race, etc.), attitudinal (e.g., pro-
versus anti-recycling attitudes), and behavioral (e.g., external influences on behavior

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such as convenience, direct or indirect costs, etc.) factors on recycling participation
(Hornik etal. 1995; Oskamp etal. 1991);

(7)	influence of recycling education on participation (DeYoung 1990);

(8)	the influence of lifestyle on household waste/recycling generation (Matsuto and Ham

1990);	and

(9)	the effect of income and owner occupancy on curbside participation (Sudol and Zach

1991).

With one exception key findings in this broad area of research suggest the importance of
internal facilitators (e.g., demographic characteristics, attitudes, social norms) as
incentives to recycle. These include:

(1)	internal facilitators (e.g., education, pro-recycling attitudes) are the strongest
predictors of recycling behavior, with external incentives (e.g., economic or punitive)
being the next best predictors (Hornik etal. 1995);

(2)	recycling behavior is consistent with altruistic behavior, influenced by social and
personal norms and an awareness of consequences (Hopper and Nielsen 1991). In
another study, however, demographic (e.g., age, education, income, race, etc.),
attitudinal (e.g., pro- versus anti-recycling sentiments), and behavioral (e.g., influences
such as convenience, direct or indirect costs, etc.) did not predict curbside participation,
while simple conservation knowledge did. This study also finds that demographic
variables (especially income) reflect different impacts on recycling levels, depending on
the material in question (Duggal et al. 1991; Reschovsky and Stone 1994; Saltzman et
al. 1993);

(3)	recycling behavior is consistent with altruistic behavior, influenced by social and
personal norms and an awareness of consequences (Hopper and Nielsen 1991);

(4)	variation in participation rates across communities is due mainly to differences in
demographic characteristics (e.g., age, education, race) (Lansana 1993);

(5)	recycling education programs that promote pro-recycling attitudes should focus on
how to recycle and non-monetary incentives (DeYoung 1990); and

(6)	there is a positive relationship between income and owner occupancy indicators and
curbside recycling participation.

One study, however, suggests that the strongest predictor of recycling behavior is easy
and convenient access (i.e., the opportunity costs associated with access). Social
context (in this study, presented as broad, societal support or lack of support for
recycling) has a strong effect but is insufficient in itself to produce desired behavior.
Individual environmental concern enhances recycling participation but does not
overcome the barrier of lack of access (Derksen and Gartrell 1993).

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Generally, the work to date highlights the debate over the influence of internal (e.g.,
altruism, education, attitude) and external (e.g., economic or punitive) incentives to
recycle (Sudol and Zach 1991).

3.0 Materials Processing and Marketing

The principal focus of research in this subject area concerns trends, instability, and
predictability of material prices. In addition to broad assessments of recycling markets
in general, researchers also address key issues concerning old newspaper (ONP) and
recycled plastics markets. With few exceptions, analyses employ aggregate market
data to describe or interpret materials price/market questions that assess the influence
of advance disposal fees on recyclable markets; cooperative marketing of recyclables;
public attitudes and recyclable markets; disposal costs and product prices;
macroeconomic effects and market stability; recyclables recovery and market prices;
marketable permit systems and ONP demand; improved technology, regional demand,
and export markets and ONP supply/demand; economic and political forces and the
plastics recycling market.

The findings in this research show that:

(1)	advance disposal fees (e.g., predetermined fees included in retail price of items)
stimulate demand for recovered materials by showing consumers that some products
have higher environmental costs than others (Martin 1994);

(2)	the potential of cooperative marketing is largely untapped and the influence of private
sector and local government competition is as yet unknown (Kohrell and Olsen 1991);

(3)	expanding recycled goods markets will require improving the image of recycled
goods among consumers and industry and initiating cost incentives to promote recycled
goods purchases over virgin materials products (Kashmanian et al. 1990);

(4)	the uncontrolled market forces of supply and demand, world events, and
macroeconomic effects can influence recyclable material values (Misner 1991);

(5)	changes in industry use of recovered materials and a healthy economy contribute to
higher demand for recycled materials (Sutherland etal. 1995);

(6)	marketable permit systems for ONP contribute to increased demand for ONP (Dinan
1992); and

(7)	despite an overwhelming demand market, the plastics recycling market must still
overcome the obstacles of public misperceptions of plastic materials (e.g., that plastics
are not recyclable or that recycled plastic items are in some way inferior to "new" plastic
products), processing problems, and material bulk that increases transportation costs
(Powell 1990).

Studies addressing the legal mechanisms used to promote improved materials
processing and/or marketing use both qualitative and quantitative case study

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assessments of cooperative marketing arrangements between U.S. communities,
recycling organizations in the United States and Canada, and the impacts of zoning
ordinances, recycled content laws, and packaging take-back programs. The
contributions found in this work are:

(1)	there has been continued growth in membership and budgets of recycling
organizations, and the top policy priority continues to be market development (Apotheker
1992, 1993);

(2)	cooperative marketing programs have been established in both rural and urban
environments with no predictable size/population relationship (Johnson and Kohrell
1992);

(3)	German packaging waste take-back ordinances have improved the demand side of
the recycled product market, are a less expensive option than landfilling or incineration,
and have contributed to source reduction/recycling (Burt 1994); and

(4)	recycled content laws are relatively inexpensive to implement, have experienced high
company compliance, and may contribute to improved markets for post-consumer
materials (Aunan and Martin 1994).

Other research in this subject category includes assessments of options to improve end-
use markets and increase waste diversion, costs and benefits of waste management
strategies, and state approaches to overcoming barriers to recycling program
implementation, participation, and marketing. Findings consist of:

(1)	MSW strategies using both composting and recycling reduce landfilling and save
energy, with combined strategies producing the greatest net benefits (Powers 1995);

(2)	taxes on virgin materials, minimum content standards, material specific-use
requirements, "take-back" programs, and creation of a national secondary materials trust
fund are options that may improve end-use markets and increase waste diversion
(Grogan 1993); and

(3)	public and legislative interest, private incentives, and governmental initiative and
funding can overcome barriers to recycling and market development (Powell 1990).

4.0 Recycling Program Finances

A fundamental concern in this subject category has been the factors affecting perceived
financial feasibility of recycling programs. The research reveals a continuing
controversy over the relative costs/benefits of recycling versus other waste management
strategies and includes a variety of qualitative and sophisticated quantitative
approaches. Key results cover:

(1) in some circumstances, disposal costs may generally exceed recycling costs (Bogert
and Morris 1993);

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(2)	recycling initiatives have been pushed past economically efficient levels due to
landfill siting problems, misperceptions of environmental impacts of landfills,
overestimates of recycling benefits, and underestimates of recycling costs (Wiseman
1992);

(3)	savings in transportation costs (e.g., reduced loads due to diversion of recyclables)
alone may economically justify recycling programs (Highfill etal. 1994);

(4)	there is a continuing need for research to identify and communicate the true social
costs of various waste management scenarios, and to rectify problems where a lack of
cost data and analysis exist (Wiseman 1991);

(5)	desirability of incineration and the optimal size of energy recovery facilities depend
on costs of the available options and waste stream characteristics. Under most
conditions, allocating resources to incineration reduces incentives to recycle (Keeler and
Renkow 1994);

(6)	recycling may be no more than a short-run solution. Final-goods producers are
effectively subsidized by voluntary recycling efforts, and their accumulation intensity (i.e.,
high output growth) rises to a point that offsets unit savings of primary/virgin materials
(Mainwaring 1995; Nestor 1991). Implication is that long-term concerns for
environmental sustainability must first contend with high-consumption, high-output
market demands; and

(7)	because waste disposal costs tend to increase as landfills are filled, it may be optimal
to postpone waste reduction programs until landfills are partially full (Ready and Ready
1995).

Research addressing methods for determining/evaluating program costs covers such
questions as optimal selection and scheduling to minimize total present value costs, the
most efficient incentive systems, correct fee calculation, socially optimal levels of
recycling, equitable distribution of plastic collection costs, and problems posed by
recycling program data. Findings include:

(1)	economic and optimization theory can benefit recycling program design efforts (Lund
1990);

(2)	a system of Pigouvian taxes and government mandated refunds may be a more
efficient alternative to existing volume-based fees and lump sum taxes (Atri and
Schellenberg 1995);

(3)	measurable/workable collection fee structures require accurate measurement of
household garbage generation to provide a fair return at minimal public cost (Johnson
and Carlson 1991);

(4)	recycling is both economically and environmentally justified as an approach to
balance resource and waste stocks (Huhtala 1994);

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(5)	available technology and current market prices can keep costs of plastic collection
consistent with other materials (Perkins 1991); and

(6)	recycling program data generally lack standardized measures, and consistent,
standard, and meaningful terminology (deKadt 1992).

Other issues addressed by research in this subject area include the relative cost-
effectiveness of curbside recycling versus landfilling, recycling industry contributions to
employment and capital demands/technical assistance needs, impacts of financing
methods on recycling program success, and the effect of Pigouvian tax/price solutions
on litter and waste management.

Available studies indicate that:

(1)	curbside recycling may be marginally cost-effective under favorable conditions. Low
landfill disposal costs limit the impact of avoided costs (Deyle and Schade 1991);

(2)	the potential for recycling-industry employment should encourage state efforts to
provide capital access, technical assistance, and a stable regulatory environment (Fox
1991);

(3)	pay-per-bag systems are the best method to divert waste from landfills without
imposing tax burdens on citizens; flat fee systems lack recycling incentives (Moriarty
1994); and

(4)	from the assumptions that high user charges encourage illegal dumping/burning and
low user charges encourage higher consumption, findings suggest that refunds or user
subsidies (in lieu of user charges for trash collection/disposal) may be used to balance
these negative behaviors and enhance proper waste disposal practices (Dobbs 1991;
Fullerton and Kinnaman 1995).

5.0 Decision-Making Processes

The principal focus of research in this subject area is with the process, change, and
evolution of program design. Research questions address such issues as what
variables influence municipal choices to adopt curbside recycling; the influence of citizen
background characteristics and attitudes on preferred policy options; determinants of
recycling program success; approaches to understanding recycling behavior; the value
of long-term planning and financing; the influence of politics on MSW management
decision making; alternatives to adversarial relations between government and business;
and municipal responses to public, political, and state pressures to recycle.

Key findings in this subject area include:

(1) the need to recycle (e.g., public demand, landfill shortages, legal mandates),
intergovernmental influence, and economic factors are significantly related to municipal
decisions to recycle (West 1992);

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(2)	citizen environmental attitude indicators are significantly associated with recycling
preferences, and should be considered by program planners to devise options that will
improve participation (Bacot et al. 1993);

(3)	recycling program success is more dependent on the policies chosen, how they are
selected, and how they are implemented rather than on local community characteristics
(Folz and Hazlett 1991);

(4)	democratizing program planning and design and mandatory participation significantly
influence citizen participation (Folz 1991);

(5)	it may be efficient to implement options more expensive than landfills (e.g.,
composting, recycling, incineration) to defer the higher costs of future, more expensive
landfills (Everett and Modak 1993);

(6)	developing integrated solid waste management plans and adequate information,
expanding recycling/education efforts, and developing flexible financing plans can help
program planners respond to changing program needs (Folz 1991);

(7)	despite lower costs than other waste management alternatives, landfill siting and
capacity issues present political difficulties that encourage costly recycling efforts.
Policies should be established to maintain landfill standards, impose unit pricing to place
cost/benefit assessment on households, and reduce local power to grant or deny landfill
permits (Wiseman 1992); and

(8)	the growth in curbside programs confirms the political necessity of recycling, but
rapid growth can contribute to program chaos (Watson 1990).

The bulk of the remaining literature addressing this subject category focuses primarily on
intergovernmental influences on decision making and operational problems and
challenges in the decision-making process. Research questions address the nature of
current and future state solid waste management initiatives; the influence of voluntary or
mandatory minimum content legislation; the problems and challenges of recycling (e.g.,
participation, development of recyclable markets); influences on state inclination to
recycle; the effects of economics and federal, state, and local policy responses on
wastepaper recovery, markets, production, and utilization; effects of federal subsidies on
virgin material use; effectiveness of mandatory participation in business/institution
recycling programs; recycling strategies to overcome implementation/economic barriers;
and the effects of regional economics on recycling.

Some conclusions from this research reveal:

(1)	voluntary or mandatory minimum content legislation can close the recycling loop in
ONP markets (Beck and Grogan 1991);

(2)	recycling policy initiatives have overlooked the industrial changes needed to shift to
recycling and may undermine financing for domestic recycling while subsidizing foreign
markets with inexpensive raw materials (Relis 1992);

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(3)	the influence of population density, region, and environmental bureaucratic strength,
innovativeness, and commitment are significant predictors of a state's recycling effort
(Khator 1993);

(4)	ONP recovery/recycling policies have been implemented with no regard for economic
and social costs of various alternatives (Wiseman 1990);

(5)	while federal energy subsidies may be an economic barrier to recycling, several
federal policies benefiting virgin resource industries do not act as significant barriers
(Powell 1992);

(6)	the strongest impetus for local recycling programs is pressure from state government
(Khator and Huffman 1993); and

(7)	the most important factor in improving program performance is to find markets for
recyclables in one's own state (Khator and Huffman 1993).

Conclusion

This literature review covered 173 recycling-related citations for the period 1990-95.1
As might be expected, the majority of this research concentrated on subject areas that
are still open to debate. This is likely the best explanation for the focus on the nature
and performance of incentive structures, local government practices and involvement in
material processing and marketing, factors affecting perceived financial feasibility of
recycling programs, and decision-making processes in program design.

The overwhelming preference across this body of research has been for both qualitative
and quantitative case study, either of a specific case or comparison across cases.
Generally the quantitative work consists of single or bivariate analysis of aggregate data,
but there is evidence of a trend to use more sophisticated methods to test hypotheses
concerning recycling incentives, recyclable markets, and the costs/benefits of recycling
versus other MSW options.

In addition to a general lack of sophisticated, generalizable research, there are
significant gaps in research of certain subjects including description of equipment
configurations, composting operations, and generators (individuals and/or industrial),
and management/administration decision-making processes. Again, a lack of
controversy may be the best explanation for the disinclination of researchers to broach
these subjects.

1ln addition, we have included 38 supplemental articles outside the 1990-95 time frame.
Although these articles are beyond the scope of the task, they are included for their contribution
to the solid waste recycling literature.

13

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Generally the findings reflect the diversity in program choice, incentives employed,
markets exploited, financing methods, and decision making that is to be expected given
the degree of discretion available to state and local governments and populations.
Given that, a few findings stand out:

(1)	state initiatives have contributed to increased recycling rates, expanded curbside
collection, source reduction, and improved markets for recyclable materials;

(2)	curbside and/or retail charges are strong incentives for source reduction, material
separation, and purchase of reusable/recyclable materials;

(3)	pay-per-bag systems serve to divert waste from landfills without imposing tax
burdens on citizens, while flat fee systems lack recycling incentives; and

(4)	democratizing program planning and design, and mandatory participation
significantly influence citizen participation.

14

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The following section contains summaries of each publication included in this literature
review, organized by primary subject code in alphabetical order by author(s). The
coding scheme is:

1.00 Descriptive data/information on SW recycling programs

1.01	program types

1.02	materials recycled

1.03	participation trends, recycling/recovery rates

1.04	existing SW collection/processing infrastructure

2.0 Community and environmental features related to recycling operations

2.01	who recycles and why

2.02	incentive structures . . . record of performance

2.03	public participation in program design/operation

3.0 Materials processing and marketing

3.01	problems, challenges

3.02	local government practices . . . technical aspects

3.03	legal vehicles . . . in-house, contracts, cooperative agreements, regional
associations

3.04	material prices, trends, instability, and predictability

4.0 Recycling program finances

4.01	problems, challenges

4.02	local government practices

4.03	cost elements of curbside, drop-off, and buy-back operations

4.04	methodologies for determining/evaluating program costs

4.05	public versus private sector risk assumption

4.06	factors that affect the perceived financial feasibility

4.07	recyclables trading/futures markets

5.0 Decision-making processes

5.01	program design process/changes/evolution

5.02	management/administration mechanisms

5.03	intergovernmental dimension . . . state/national policies and/or standards

5.04	operational problems, challenges

5.05	online data bases/information sources/software to help recycling program
design/decision makers

Use coding

1	academic orientation

2	practitioner orientation

3	applicable as both academic/practitioner reference

15

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1.0 DESCRIPTIVE DATA/INFORMATION ON SW RECYCLING PROGRAMS

Title

Vol./Edition

Description/

Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

1.01 Program Types

Hess, Emily and
Tim Bishopbric

199
5

"WasteCap: A

Business-to-Business Recycling
and Waste Reduction Program"

Resource Recycling

(Nov.)
39-42

Q: What factors contribute to the success of WasteCap programs? Discusses the nonregulatory,
nongovernmental approach to waste reduction and recycling adopted by five states. Findings: Success
depends on program commitment by state government and the business community; its function to link
business people who can share solutions; confidentiality for service users; access for all businesses; no
service or membership fees. Business communities' control is a key element - success or failure reflects
directly on business commitment.

Pleuddemann,
David W.

199
4

"Creating Incentives for Waste
Reduction: State and Local
Perspective"

Journal of Environmental Health

57
23-26

General list/discussion of "reduce, reuse, recycle" waste management strategies used at state and local
levels. Identifies financial disincentives, consumer education, product restrictions/bans, and product standards
as key MSW reduction strategies. Also includes discussion of procurement policies, tax incentives, fees,
source separation, deposit programs, disposal restrictions, labeling requirements, education, and grants and
loans as key elements of recycling strategies.

Polk, Tom

199
4

"Plastic Bags for Recycling
Collection: A Mixed Bag of
Results"

Resource Recycling

(Feb.)
45-48

Q: What are the advantages, disadvantages of plastic bag collection systems? Case study comparison of
several community systems. Details collection options, bag processing, and marketing. Suggests that
advantages include limited up-front costs for municipalities, savings from use of existing collection trucks/ease
of implementation, and reduced marketing/advertising costs since manufacturers will usually provide
educational/promotional materials. Suggests disadvantages include disproportionate costs to low-income
residents, time-consuming/expensive content processing, bag contamination that limits recyclability, and poor
aftermarkets due to use of inconsistent bag types by residents. Suggests that many communities continue to
opt for the cost benefits despite disadvantages.

Skumatz, Lisa

199
0

"The Buck is Mightier than the
Can"

Biocyde

(Jan.)
40-42

Q: Do volume-based garbage rates contribute to successful recycling/waste reduction programs? Case
study of Seattle program. Reviews 10-year aggregate results of Seattle program. Findings suggest that
volume-based rates have led to successful recycling and waste reduction goals without mandatory features.

The Economist

199
5

" European Rubbish: Tied up
in Knots"

The Economist

335
62

Q: What are the anticipated effects of new European directives to recycle packaging materials? Presents
details of the new directive, suggests questions that will remain unanswered until future laws regarding
technical standards, local interpretation, and restrictions on competition are developed. Suggests need for
the European Commission to take the initiative in standardizing approaches to implement the directive and
draw up new packaging legislation.

White, Michele
Marie

199
1

"Big Cities Recycle"
Resource Recycling

(Dec.)
38-42

Q: How have large cities overcome barriers to recycling? Describes constraints facing four US cities intent
on meeting state-mandated recycling and waste reduction goals: unionized labor; large bureaucracies;
diverse culture, language, class; legal constraints; political constraints; financial constraints; organizational
constraints. Presents case studies based on interviews with recycling managers in New York, Philadelphia,
Los Angeles, and Chicago. Findings: Approaches to implementing recycling programs vary depending on
the constraints. Suggests that "continued activism" and financial constraints may lead to more innovations in
big city programs.

1.02 Materials Recycled

Gillis, Anna Maria

199
2

"Shrinking the Trash Heap"
Bioscience

42
90-93

Q: Can an emphasis on organic solid waste improve the solid waste recovery effort? Review of EPA
reports and local/state level data regarding organic waste recycling. Findings suggest that added emphasis

-------

Title

Vol./Edition

Description/

Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

on recycling of organic materials will benefit communities seeking lower landfilling costs and contribute to
added stocks of saleable compost usable in agriculture, horticulture, silviculture, and land reclamation.

1.02 Materials Recycled (Cont.)

Powell, Jerry

199
5

"Is Mixed Plastic Bottle Recycling
Working?"

Resource Recycling

(Sept.)
17-20

Q: What factors contribute to successful all-bottle plastic recycling? Presents quantitative results of Oregon's
beverage container deposit system. Findings: Legal mandates, comprehensive recovery systems, technological
advances in material sorting, and maximized public access to the program all contribute to the program's success.
Suggests for most curbside programs that mixed plastics collection is not too challenging. Instead recycling
programs need to allow some time for program users to add new materials. Also concludes that all-bottle plastics
collection is not excessively time-consuming, guaranteed floor prices are a key incentive for suppliers of loose
bottles, and healthy market prices have been key to program success. Market unrest and supply issues mean
all-bottle recycling is not easy or attractive to all program participants.

1.03 Participation Trends, Recycling/Recovery Rates

BioCycle

199
2

"What's New in the Waste
Stream"

BioCycle

(Oct.)
40-41

Q: How has recycling impacted the solid waste stream? Presents aggregate data from various sources.
Findings: Recycling has been growing at a rapid pace. Percentages of MSW being recycled continue to
increase while landfilling has continued at a slow decline. Glass, metal, and paper recycling has increased.
The number of curbside and composting programs have increased. Suggests continued growth in recycling
and waste stream diversion, reduced landfilling.

Environmental
Protection Agency

199
5

"Characterization of Municipal
Solid Waste in the United
States; 1995 Update"

En vironmental Protection
Agency Report, Washington, DC

134 pp.

Q: How much MSW is being generated, recovered, discarded in the U.S.; what are trends in MSW
management; what are the projections for MSW generation through 2010? Describes national waste stream
based on data from 1960-94. Findings: Rate of growth in MSW generation is slowing, per capita MSW
generation is expected to remain constant; recycling/composting recovered 24% of MSW in 1994, an
estimated 49 million tons; landfills managed 61% of MSW generated, incinerators, 15%. Projected MSW
generation is expected to be 223 million tons by 2000, 262 million tons by 2010. Per capita generation rates
are projected to remain constant at 4.4 pounds/person/day. Early research suggests source
reduction/recycling have potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Felton, K. Mary

199
5

"A Snapshot of Waste
Generation and Recovery"

Resource Recycling

(Jan.)
50-53

Q: How much waste is being generated, discarded, and recycled in the US, and what are the projected
amounts of waste to be managed in the future? Summary of 1994 EPA Characterization of Municipal Solid
Waste in the United States. Findings: MSW generation continued to increase at a slower pace, while per
capita generation showed no growth between 1990 and 1993, with projections to decline by 2000. Material
recovery increased from 17% in 1990 to 22% in 1993 and is projected to increase to 30% by 2000.
Landfilling will continue to be the most common method of waste management.

1.04 Existing SW Collection/Processing Infrastructure

Apotheker, Steve

199
3

"Curbside Recycling Collection
Trends in the 40 Largest U.S.
Cities"

Resource Recycling

(Dec.)
27-33

Q: What is the status of curbside recycling in the 40 largest U.S. cities? Presents program information
collected by interview. Tables present aggregate data regarding recovery/cost levels, program
characteristics. Of the interviewed communities, 40% of residents had access to curbside recycling;
community motivation stems from high disposal fees, aggressive state mandates, strong markets, and active
advocacy groups. Article also suggests that despite marginal net benefits, cities are trying to improve their
recycling collection programs and that costs are being reduced, diversion rates are increasing.

Apotheker, Steve

199
2

"Recycling in Canada's Big Cities"
Resource Recycling

(Dec.)
37-42

-------

Title

Vol./Edition

Description/

Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

Q: How have Canada's major cities confronted the MSW crisis in the face of trying economic times? Profiles
different approaches used by Canada's largest cities to develop waste reduction programs. Tables present data
regarding recycling collection programs. Findings: Most major cities rely on source reduction efforts to get the
most material recovery/waste diversion for the lowest cost. Common use of beverage container deposit systems
removes amber glass from the waste stream, frees collection vehicles for other materials. Drop-off recycling sites
have been effective opportunities for multi-family dwelling residents to participate. Most large cities are phasing in
comprehensive, city-wide recycling collection programs to meet waste reduction goals.

1.04 Existing SW Collection/Processing Infrastructure (Cont.)

Ducey, Michael J.

199
1

"Market vs. Infrastructure for
Waste Paper"

BioCyde

(May)
36-37

Q. Can national goals of paper recovery for recycling be achieved by 1995? Presents background of
market and policy activity, and details the specific elements of the MSW paper product market. Findings
suggest that collection infrastructure is expanding faster than processing capability; domestic market prices
remain low, while the export market is unstable. Also concludes that recycled paper product markets will
grow through the 1990s and recycled wastepaper use in paper production will offer future opportunities to
community-based programs.

Hursh, Carl

199
3

"The Largest State Recycling
Program: A Progress Report"

Resource Recycling

(Jan.)
57-60

Q: How has Pennsylvania overcome barriers to recycling? Discussion plus aggregate data regarding
state's implementation of the 1988 Municipal Waste Planning and Waste Reduction Act. Findings:

Recycling rates have increased from 2% to 10%, with 18 communities meeting/exceeding the 25% goal. AN
communities with populations over 5,000 have implemented curbside recycling collection. Total waste
production declined from 9.2 million tons in 1988 to 9 million tons in 1991. Data reveal increased buying/use of
recycled products, increased recycling education, increased composting.

Iqbal, AN and Syed
Mansoor AN

199
3

"Solid Waste Recycling Through
Informal Sector in Developing
Countries"

Journal of Resource
Management and Technology

21
82-86

Q: What MSW management approaches hold the most promise in developing countries? Employs field
interviews and tests of waste materials from the source to disposal to assess recycling and reuse practices in
Karachi, Pakistan, and to estimate the separated volumes of recyclable items. Findings suggest that MSW
reuse and recycling in Karachi operate "mostly through disorganized and unknown informal sector."

Suggests need to recognize, support, and empower this sector to abet MSW management in developing
countries.

National

Renewable Energy
Laboratory

199
5

"Integrated Solid Waste
Management of Seattle,
Washington"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.
Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service

Q: How has Seattle, Washington implemented its solid waste program? How much and what types of solid
waste were collected during 1992? What were the MSW cost factors in Seattle, the energy consumed to run
the program, and the total annual costs to run the program? Detailed description of Seattle's solid waste
management program, the costs factors associated with that program, and the tonnage/costs associated with
their MSW collection during 1992. Findings: Total FY 1992 costs (collection, transfer, hauling, processing,
composting, disposal and marketing of recovered materials) was about $30.2 million, or an estimated
$130/ton. Collection and processing accounted for more than half of the total program cost of the program,
and transfer, hauling, and disposal accounted for more than 30% of total costs. Curbside collection of 48,200
tons contributed to an incremental savings of $17,200 during 1992, while collection of 45,500 tons of yard
waste incurred an incremental cost of $568,000 (or $13/ton).

National

Renewable Energy
Laboratory

199
5

"Integrated Solid Waste
Management of Scottsdale,
Arizona"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.

Q: How has Scottsdale, Arizona implemented its solid waste program? How much and what types of solid
waste were collected during 1992? What were the MSW cost factors in Scottsdale, the energy consumed to
run the program, and the total annual costs to run the program? Detailed description of Scottsdale's solid
waste management program, the cost factors associated with that program, and the tonnage/costs associated
with their MSW collection during 1992. Findings: Total FY 1992 costs (collection, transfer, hauling,
processing, composting, disposal and marketing of recovered materials) was about $6.6 million, or an
estimated $59/ton. Collection costs accounted for 62% of total costs; general and administrative expense

-------

Title

Vol./Edition

Description/

Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service

was 25% of the total; and landfilling accounted for 14% of total costs. Energy consumed to manage garbage,
brush and recyclable was equivalent to a total of 14.2 gallons/ton.

1.04 Existing SW Collection/Processing Infrastructure (Cont.)

National Renewable
Energy Laboratory

199
5

"Integrated Solid Waste
Management of Minneapolis,
Minnesota"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.
Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service

Q: How has Minneapolis, Minnesota implemented its solid waste program? How much and what types of
solid waste were collected during 1992? What were the MSW cost factors in Minneapolis, the energy
consumed to run the program, and the total annual costs to run the program? Detailed description of
Minneapolis' solid waste management program, the cost factors associated with that program, and the
tonnage/costs associated with their MSW collection during 1992. Findings: Total FY 1992 cost (collection,
transfer, hauling, processing, composting, disposal and marketing of recovered materials) was about $23.8
million, or an estimated $167/ton. Collection costs accounted for 49% of total costs; general and
administrative expense was 19% of the total; and landfilling accounted for 6% of total costs. Energy
consumed to manage garbage, yard waste, bulky waste and recyclables was equivalent to a total of 9.7
gallons/ton.

National

Renewable Energy
Laboratory

199
5

"Integrated Solid Waste
Management of Springfield,
Massachusetts"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.
Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service

Q: How has Springfield, Massachusetts implemented its solid waste program? How much and what types
of solid waste were collected during 1992? What were the MSW cost factors in Springfield, the energy
consumed to run the program, and the total annual costs to run the program? Detailed description of
Springfield's solid waste management program, the cost factors associated with that program, and the
tonnage/costs associated with their MSW collection during 1992. Findings: Total FY 1992 cost (collection,
transfer, hauling, processing, composting, disposal and marketing of recovered materials) was about $7.17
million, or an estimated $120/ton. Collection costs accounted for 39% of total costs; general and administrative
expense was 16% of the total; and landfilling accounted for 7% of total costs. Energy consumed to manage
garbage, bulky waste office paper, and recyclables was equivalent to a total of 11.9 gallons/ton.

National Renewable
Energy Laboratory

199
5

"Integrated Solid Waste
Management of Sevierville,
Tennessee"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.
Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service

Q: How has Sevierville, Tennessee implemented its solid waste program? How much and what types of solid
waste were collected during 1992? What were the MSW cost factors in Sevierville, the energy consumed to run the
program, and the total annual costs to run the program? Detailed description of Sevierville's solid waste
management program, the cost factors associated with that program, and the tonnage/costs associated with their
MSW collection during 1992. Findings: Total FY 1992 cost (collection, transfer, hauling, processing,
composting, disposal and marketing of recovered materials) was about $1.09 million, or an estimated $106/ton.
Collection costs accounted for 38% of total costs; the composting facility accounted for 32% of total costs; general
and administrative expense was 9% of the total; and landfilling accounted for 19% of total costs. Energy consumed
to manage municipal solid waste total of 18.44 gallons/ton.

National Renewable
Energy Laboratory

199
5

"Integrated Solid Waste
Management of Palm Beach
County, Florida"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.
Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service

Q: How has Palm Beach County, Florida implemented its solid waste program? How much and what types of
solid waste were collected during 1992? What were the MSW cost factors in Palm Beach County, the energy
consumed to run the program, and the total annual costs to run the program? Detailed description of Palm Beach
County's solid waste management program, the cost factors associated with that program, and the tonnage/costs
associated with their MSW collection during 1992. Findings: Total FY 1992 cost (collection, transfer, hauling,
processing, composting, disposal and marketing of recovered materials) was about $101 million, or an estimated
$144/ton. Collection costs accounted for 54% of total costs; general and administrative expense was 8% of the
total; and landfilling accounted for 4% of total costs. Energy consumed to manage garbage, trash, and
recyclables was equivalent to a total of 7.98 gallons/ton.

1.04 Existing SW Collection/Processing Infrastructure (Cont.)

National Renewable
Energy Laboratory

199
5

-------




Title

Vol./Edition

Description/



Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use





"Integrated Solid Waste
Management: Six Case Studies of
System Cost and Energy Use. A
Summary Report"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.

Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service



Presents principal findings from case studies of integrated municipal solid waste management systems in
Minneapolis, MN; Palm Beach County, FL; Scottsdale, AZ; Seattle, WA; Sevierville, TN; and Springfield, MA.
Primary purpose of studies was to develop and present consistent cost, resource use, and environmental
regulatory information on each system. Findings: The case studies "illustrate the decision-making
advantages of examining program costs on an incremental basis"; that comparisons of average cost/ton of
managing garbage to average cost/ton of diversion or resource recovery is inappropriate and can lead to
mistaken conclusions; that when materials are diverted from the waste stream, local governments should
determine if they can reduce costs for municipal solid waste collection and disposal; that high incremental
costs do not necessarily mean a diversion or resource recovery program is not well-designed or operated; that
collection costs are consistently that largest percentage of total system costs; that landfill disposal costs are a
relatively small percentage of overall costs; that the added energy used to collect and process recyclables and
yard waste is relatively small; and that waste diversion, recycling, and resource recovery programs tend to
increase municipal solid waste management costs.



Ohnesorgen, Frank

199
3

"Sorting Out Solid Waste"
Public Management

75
9-12

Case study identifying fundamental problems with SW management systems in Botswana, Costa Rica,
Ecuador, Honduras, Morocco, and Swaziland. Common problems include: Too much service with
corresponding strains on personnel and equipment; lack of "self-confidence" about service provision; local
government corruption; lack of coordinated recycling effort; ignoring the value of composting; failure to
recognize local opportunities; inconsistent cash flow.

3

Smith, Susan J.
and Kathleen M.
Hopkins

199
2

"Curbside Recycling in the Top
50 Cities"

Resource Recycling

(Mar.)
101-104

Q: Which of the 50 largest U.S. cities have curbside recycling programs, what materials are collected, and
what entities collect the materials? Presents data from survey of recycling coordinators, community
organizations, and recycling companies. Findings: 47 of 50 cities have recycling collection programs in
place: 28 of these programs were operated by the municipality, 14 by private firms, and 5 by a combination
of public and private operators. Most cities collect metals, old newspapers, and plastic bottles. Aluminum
cans were the most common commodity in collection programs.

3

Wagner, T.C.

199
1

"In Search of the Perfect
Curbside System"

BioCyde

(Aug.)
34-35

Q: What options are available to enhance curbside collection programs? Discusses pros/cons of the "bin
versus bag" methods. Suggests local officials must choose the method best suited to their own needs, and
that the search for "perfect" recycling systems continue.

2

Watson, Tom

199
1

"Drop-offs on the Move"
Resource Recycling

(Jan.)
48-55

Q: What are the benefits of mobile drop-off programs as alternatives to curbside and standard drop-off centers?
Profiles programs in Pennsylvania, Florida, New Mexico, Wisconsin, and Newfoundland. Findings suggest benefits
of lower cost than curbside programs, potential for community involvement, higher quality of collected materials,
potential for use of more attractive sites, less stringent permit requirements, and opportunity to introduce recycling to
an area. Disadvantages: limited collection capacity of vehicles, potential for materials to be left at site before/after
hours, safety of volunteer workers, and restrictions on plastic collection due to volume limitations. Also suggests the
value of this approach when curbside programs are not cost effective or traditional drop-off centers are unacceptable
to the community.

3

1.04 Existing SW Collection/Processing Infrastructure (Cont.)

Watson, Tom

199
0

"Singapore: Recycling in a
Southeast Asia City-State"

Resource Recycling

(July)
102-105

Q: Are economic forces sufficient in themselves to encourage recycling? Case study of Singapore based on
interviews with officials and private recycling operators. Findings: Singapore's government has taken limited
policy action despite land and waste disposal facility shortages. Government's method of choice for waste disposal is
incineration which includes emission controls, electricity generation, ferrous metal recovery. Waste reduction,
recycling efforts have been initiated by the private sector. Market incentives function to encourage private recovery
of ferrous metals, old newspapers, and corrugated containers, glass, scrap plastic, oil, old tires, and compost.

2

20

-------

Title

Vol./Edition

Description/

Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

Watson, Tom

199
1

"The State of New York:
Innovations, Funding Woes"

Resource Recycling

(Jan.)
92-97

Q: Why and how has New York State confronted the need to recycle? Descriptive profile that details the
motivation for, variety of programs to enhance, performance of, and anticipated challenges to recycling.
Suggests that current activity is crisis driven, largely due to disappearing landfill space and limits of
incineration and shipping garbage to other states. New emphasis on recycling and composting has created a
situation of many needs and limited financial resources. Voters rejected increased funding measures,
threatening existing programs and local governments implementing programs. Despite the state's leadership
in recycling programs and market development, questions about public/political support present a
questionable future.

Wells, Christopher

199
1

"Brazil: The Morning After
Industrialization"

Resource Recycling

(Apr.)
71-75

Q: How have recycling programs evolved in Brazil? Case study describing evolution of recycling in Brazil
as well as aggregate performance data. Article suggests there has been regional variation in the acceptance
of recycling initiatives. Barriers to recycling include low income, low education. Opportunities include
inexpensive labor costs, viable private markets in paper and paperboard, greater effect of financial incentives
on lower income consumers. Also suggests that recycling in Brazil is a mix of First and Third Worlds: large
volumes of recyclable waste are produced, but collection and separation channels are based on cheap labor.
Regional culture will also influence acceptance of recycling. Further each communities' commitment to
recycling is inversely proportional to participation in Carnival. "Metropolitan Rio, for example, still has no
plans for curbside recycling collection programs, while the relatively sedate cities further south are expanding
their recycling operations."

-------
2.0 COMMUNITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATUF

IES RELATED TO RECYCLING OPERATIONS

Title

Vol./Edition

Description/

Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

2.01 Who Recycles and Why?

Derksen, Linda and
John Gartrell

199
3

"The Social Context of
Recycling"

American Sociological Review

58
434-442

Q: What is the role of social context in the link between individual attitudes regarding environment and
recycling behavior? Comparative analysis using survey data from the Province of Alberta, Canada. Sampling
design divides province in three major areas: Edmonton (with a curbside recycling program), Calgary (with
no recycling program), and the rest of the province (with no recycling program). Uses OLS regression to test
four hypotheses: 1) There should be no significant relationship between individual concern for the
environment and sociodemographic or recycling behavior variables; 2) Recycling levels should be low in areas
providing little support for recycling; 3) Individuals with program access and higher environmental concern
should recycle more; 4) Influence of social structural characteristics and individual characteristics should be
strongest in communities with recycling programs. Findings: Analysis confirms that the strongest
determinant of recycling behavior is access to programs making recycling easy and convenient. Social
context has a strong, independent effect on recycling behavior, but on its own is insufficient to produce desired
behavior. Environmental concern enhances effects of recycling programs, but does not overcome barrier
presented by lack of access.

DeYoung,
Raymond

199
0

"Recycling as Appropriate
Behavior: A Review of Survey
Data from Selected Recycling
Education Programs in
Michigan"

Resources, Conservation and
Recycling

253-266

Q: To what degree do recycling education programs meet goals to increase public knowledge of waste
reduction and recycling behaviors, develop positive attitudes about recycling behaviors, and encourage
nonparticipating and participating households to increase recycling behavior? Uses data from six separate
surveys of Michigan recycling education programs. Findings: Strong pro-recycling attitudes exist among
sampled populations, and a significant number plan to increase recycling levels. Data suggest education
efforts should focus on familiarizing people with how to recycle and to focus on non-monetary motives.

Feiock, Richard C.
and Jonathan F.
West

199
3

"Testing Competing
Explanations for Policy
Adoption: Municipal Solid
Waste Recycling Programs"

Political Research Quarterly

46
399-419

Q: What variables influence a municipal government's choice to adopt curbside recycling programs?
Employs probit analysis to assess influence of competing conceptions of municipal policymaking upon the
choice to adopt recycling policies. Findings: Tests of the models revealed that six of seven competing
explanations were related to policy adoption. Three - need, intergovernmental influence, and economic
factors - were significantly related to municipal decisions to recycle.

Hopper, Joseph R.
and Joyce McCarl
Nielsen

199
1

"Recycling as Altruistic
Behavior: Normative and
Behavioral Strategies to Expand
Participation in a Community
Recycling Program"

En vironment and Beha vior

23
195-220

Q: To what extent is recycling altruistic normative behavior? To what extent can normative processes be
shaped through interpersonal contact? What are the differing effects of communication techniques versus
social techniques on participation? Employs pre- and post-experimental survey data. Findings: Data
confirmed "that recycling behavior is consistent with...altruism, according to which behavior is influenced by
social norms, personal norms, and awareness of consequences." Block leader programs in which residents
urged neighbors to participate increased recycling behavior. Communications strategies (prompting and
information) increased recycling behavior, but had no effect on norms and attitudes.

Hornik, Jacob;
Joseph Chernian;
Michelle Madansky;
and Chem Narayana

199
5

"Determinants of Recycling
Behavior: A Synthesis of
Research Results"

Journal of Socio-Economics

24
105-127

Q: What factors serve as the best predictors of recycler behavior? Findings: Authors assess 67 empirical studies
and classify consumer recycling behavior variables into four theoretical groups: "intrinsic incentives, extrinsic
incentives, internal facilitators, and external facilitators." Using meta-analysis (A procedure in which results of
quantitative studies are coded according to the direction of the empirical tests of factors influencing recycling
behavior. The analysis, based on correlation, permits determinations of the relative strengths of simple correlations
and, in this study, provides estimates of the strongest predictors of recycling behavior.) of the clustered variables,

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findings suggest the strongest predictors of recycling behavior are internal facilitators, with external incentives being
the next best predictors.

2.01 Who Recycles and Why? (Cont.)

Lansana, Florence
M.

199
3

"A Comparative Analysis of
Curbside Recycling Behavior in
Urban and Suburban
Communities"

Professional Geographer

45
169-179

Q: What factors contribute to household recycling participation rates? Using data from two communities, uses linear
structural equations methodology (LISREL) to assess a causal model comparing resident demographic attributes,
program awareness, environmental attitudes, and "overall" willingness to recycle. Findings: Results suggest that
variation across communities is due mainly to differences in demographic characteristics and evaluation of program
policies.

Matsuto, Toshihiko
and Robert K. Ham

199
0

"Residential Solid Waste
Generation and Recycling in the
U.S.A. and Japan"

Waste Management and
Research

229-242

Q: How does lifestyle affect the quantity/quality of waste across countries? Analysis of survey data from
Madison, Wl and Sapporo, Japan. Estimated household waste/recycling materials. Findings: Average
Madison resident produced twice the paper waste and half the food waste of Sapporo residents, but
approximately the same total quantity of waste.

Oskamp, Stewart;
Maura J.

Harrington; Todd C.
Edwards; Deborah
L. Sherwood;
Shawn M. Okuda;
and Deborah C.
Swanson

199
1

"Factors Influencing Household
Recycling Behavior"

En vironment and Beha vior

23
494-519

Q: What factors encourage or deter recycling? Findings: Most demographic, attitude and behavior
variables did not predict participation in curbside recycling, while simple conservation knowledge did.

Saltzman, Cynthia;
Vijaya G. Duggal;
and Mary L.
Williams

199
3

"Income and the Recycling
Effort: A Maximization
Problem"

Energy Economics

15
33-38

Q: Is there a theoretical rationale for the differing effects of income on recycling behavior? Specifies a model
that incorporates recycling into the utility function, where utility is maximized subject to budget constraints.
"The comparative statics of the model are then developed to derive theoretically the impact of income on the
household recycling effort." Findings: The impact of household income is dependent on the household's
ability to change the recycled proportion of a given product [i.e., while the impact of income on newspaper
recycling is expected to be consistently positive, it may be negative when the household has significant choice
in the containers that suit their own recycling style.)

Shrum, L. J., Tina
M. Lowrey, and
John A. McCarty

199
5

"Applying Social and Traditional
Marketing Principles to the
Reduction of Household Waste"

American Behavioral Scientist

38
646-657

Q: What conditions contribute to greater attitude-behavior correspondence with regard to recycling and
green buying? Presents overview of prior research, discusses social marketing principles, offers suggestions
for applying findings to solve environmental problems. Suggests marketers need, as they do with any
product, to figure out why "what consumers say and do" doesn't always correspond.

Sudol, Frank J. and
Alvin L. Zach

199
1

"Newark's Curbside Recycling
Program: A Participation Rate
Study"

Resources, Conservation and
Recycling

35-46

Q: What are the participation rates in curbside recycling programs, and what is the nature of the items being
recycled? Uses survey data collected in Newark, NJ over a 4-week period. Findings: Base participation
was 37.7% of surveyed residents, with approximately 47% of participants recycling newspapers only, and
23% recycling bottles/cans only. Findings also reflect a positive relationship between income and
participation and owner occupancy and participation.

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Vining, Joanne and
Angela Ebreo

199
0

"What Makes a Recycler?: A
Comparison of Recyclers and
Nonrecyclers"

Environment and Behavior

Q: Do recyclers differ from non recyclers? Survey of 119 Illinois households found recyclers were more
knowledgeable about the why and how of recycling; nonrecyclers were more motivated by financial, convenience
concerns; few demographic differences.

2.02 Incentive Structures ... Record of Performance

Allen, Jeff; Duane
Davis; and Mark
Soskin

199
3

"Using Coupon Incentives in
Recycling Aluminum: A Market
Approach to Energy
Conservation Policy"

Journal of Consumer Affairs

27
300-318

Q: What effect do coupon incentives have on consumer intent and behavior in recycling aluminum?
Conducted a field experiment on a stratified sample of recyclers/nonrecyclers. Findings: Modest coupon
incentives positively influence recycer's behavior, do not effect nonrecyclers. Coupon value is directly related
to increased recycling frequency. Suggests value of coupon programs as a consumer incentive, a policy tool
for increasing recycling frequency.

Alter, Harvey

199
3

"Cost of Recycling Municipal
Solid Waste With and Without a
Concurrent Beverage Container
Deposit Law"

Journal of Consumer Affairs

27
166-186

Q: What are the effects of beverage container deposit laws (BCDLs) on the cost and amount of household
MSW that is recycled? Author employs data, theoretical arguments from existing literature to retest GAO
conclusions that BCDLs and curbside systems are more costly in combination than when alone, and that dual
systems will be more cost-effective as landfill disposal costs increase. Findings: Communities with dual
systems (BCDLs and curbside collection) have higher recycling costs; dual systems are not more
cost-effective with increased landfill disposal costs. In communities with recycling programs, BCDLs do not
contribute to diverting more waste from disposal.

Cuthbert, Richard

199
3

"Variable Disposal Fees Reduce
Waste"

American City and County

(June)
47

Q: Do variable disposal fees enhance fund collection for disposal services and promote recycling and waste
reduction? Descriptive report incorporates data from selected cities to illustrate positive effects of variable
disposal fees. Suggests that few cities/counties have ability to quantify effects of fee increases on waste
disposal or program funding. Case study findings suggest that "both variable curbside disposal fees (e.g.,
single can service rates) and quantity-based tipping fees (e.g., bag and tag fee systems) do assist and support
waste reduction efforts."

Dinan, Terry

199
2

"Solid Waste: Incentives That
Could Lighten the Load"

En vironmental Protection
Agency Journal

(May/June)
12-14

Q: What options are available to enhance household incentives to reduce waste? General presentation of
factors contributing to societal costs of solid waste disposal, economic incentive options to change
consumption patterns. Findings: Suggests the usefulness of household charges, combined disposal
tax/reuse subsidies, and recycling credit systems.

Duggal, Vijaya G.;
Cynthia Saltzman;
and Mary L. Williams

199
1

"Recycling: An Economic
Analysis"

Eastern Economic Journal

17
351-358

Q: What factors influence household incentives to recycle? Using 1980 socioeconomic data and recycling
program data from 58 communities, authors used regression to test hypothesized influence of income, education,
ease of recycling effort, time program has been in effect, number of items recycled, and financial benefit/penalty.
Also ran separate equations to explain recycled material per household of newspaper and glass. Findings:
Penalties for non-recyclers, number of items recycled, ease of recycling were insignificant influences, while
education and program duration were significant in almost all equations. For glass, results suggest that once a
week pickup (as opposed to bi-weekly collection) increases the amount recycled by about 23
pounds/household/year.

Fenton, R. and N.
Hanley

199
5

"Economic Instruments and Waste
Minimization: The Need for
Discard-relevant and
Purchase-relevant Instruments"

Q: Can economic instruments contribute toward achievement of waste-minimization goals? Theoretical, rhetorical
argument. Article suggests a conceptual framework categorizing economic instruments as purchase-relevant,
discard-relevant, or jointly relevant. Argues the usefulness of considering purchase-, discard-, or joint-relevance of
economic instruments for waste minimization policy. Also suggests need to mix strategy elements, identify target

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Environment and Planning

1317-1328

for action. Framework suggests that, while UK policy has emphasized consumer discard decisions, the use of other
instruments holds greater promise.

2.02 Incentive Structures ... Record of Performance (Cont.)

Grogran, Peter L.

199
3

"Target Seattle"
BioCycie

(Oct.)
82-83

Q: Is recycling working? Rebuttal to Wall Street Journal critique of Seattle's recycling/waste reduction programs.
Clarification and presentation of aggregate data of program results. Contrary to critique, the article suggests city
service costs are less expensive than traditional collection/disposal, with recycling contributing to reduced overall
waste management costs; that combined recycling and trash collection service is less costly than trash only service;
that active participation is higher than that reported by WSJ; and that there is an undersupply of many recyclable
materials.

Harder, Greg and
Linda Knox

199
2

"Implementing Variable Trash
Collection Rates"

BioCycie

(Apr.)
66-69

Q: Have variable-rate systems improved upon performance of set-fee systems? Details rationale for variable rate
systems, and survey data on 36 variable rate systems in Pennsylvania. Findings: Most common problem was
inadequate dissemination of public information. Communities also found an increase in illegal dumping/backyard
burning. While not all programs were successful, findings suggest that correcting for implementation errors can help
cities reach diversion goals.

Hong, Seonghoon;
Richard M. Adams;
and H. Alan Love

199
3

"An Economic Analysis of
Household Recycling of Solid
Wastes: The Case of Portland,
Oregon"

Journal of En vironmental
Economics and Management

25
136-146

Q: What are the influences of price incentives and other socio-economic factors on household recycling? Uses
Portland, OR survey data in an ordered probit model of recycling participation, and two-stage least squares to
estimate demand for solid waste collection. Findings: Increased disposal fees encourage recycling, but do not
significantly reduce the demand for solid waste collection services.

Jenkins, Robin R.

199
1

"Municipal Demand For Solid
Waste Disposal Services: The
Impact of User Fees"

Dissertation, The University of
Maryland, Economics Department

Q: Do waste disposal service user fees provide incentive to households to reduce discarded trash? Employs data
from five "user fee communities" and four "non-user fee communities" in a utility maximization model to test
household decisions regarding waste disposal and recycling. Independent variables include per capita income,
prices received for recyclables, and employment levels. Findings: Results suggest significant influence of user fees
on household/firm choice of waste disposal or recycling.

2.02 Incentive Structures ... Record of Performance (Cont.)

Jenkins, Robin R.

199
3

"The Economics of Waste
Reduction"

Brookfield, VT: Edward Elgar
Publishing Company

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Q: Do households reduce waste in response to user fees? How large is the welfare loss to society due to the
absence of residential user fees? What factors explain the quantity of waste discarded by commercial
establishments? Develops utility maximization model for the residential and profit maximization model for the
commercial sector to assess data from five communities levying user fees and four cities that did not charge user
fees. Findings: Results suggest user fees substantially contribute to reductions in the household solid waste
stream, and that residential waste declines about 1 % in response to a 10% increase in user fees. The analysis also
suggests that a community decision to implement user fees will result in significant welfare gains (based on the
average cost of solid waste disposal). Results indicate that the response of commercial establishments to user fees
is greater than the response by households, and that increased commercial user fees are viable approach to
prolonging landfill life. Author also suggests the value of the models for forecasting quantities of waste discarded by
a community. Required data include the user fee for residential/commercial solid waste (for both residential and
commercial model); average annual household income (for residential model); mean temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit (for both models); total monthly precipitation in inches (for both models); average household size (for
residential model); percent of population aged 18-49 (for residential model); population density (for both models);
regional ONP price per short ton (for residential model); regional price for old corrugated containers (for commercial
model); employment in the community (for commercial model); population (for residential model); CPI/100 (for
residential model); and PPI/100 (for commercial model).

Judge, Rebecca and
Anthony Becker

199
3

"Motivating Recycling: A
Marginal Cost Analysis"

Contemporary Policy Issues

11
58-68

Q: Does the quantity of household material diverted vary as a function of convenience factors and demographic
characteristics? Conducted a controlled field experiment over a 6-month period to observe household recycling
efforts. Material quantities were monitored under increasingly more convenient/more costly programs. Used
TOBIT analysis to regress convenience factors, recycling education efforts, and demographic characteristics on the
amounts of material diverted. Findings: Recycling behaviors differ significantly. Increased recycling convenience
had the predicted effect on behavior; special education efforts had no measurable effect; and household size and
educational attainment affect recycling effort. Using marginal analysis, program costs/household vary directly with
program convenience. Suggests that considering only explicit cost/benefit of recycling ignores social importance;
policymakers should weigh costs/benefits when designing recycling programs. Planners should consider marginal
analysis to determine which program options should be offered to residents.

Menell, Peter S.

199
0

"Beyond the Throwaway Society:
An Incentive Approach to
Regulating Municipal Solid Waste"

Ecology Law Quarterly

17
655-739

Q: Are there policies that can systematically address the causes of the throwaway ethic? Uses an economic
framework to assess a range of policy options to remedy the "distorted" incentives of the existing solid waste
regulation system. Focuses on market interventions that will cause true disposal costs to be taken into account in
public/manufacturer decisionmaking. Findings: While comprehensive monitoring systems have prohibitive costs,
other economic incentive systems can be effective. Curbside charges and/or flexible systems of retail charges
provide strong incentives for source reduction, material separation, and purchase of reusable/recyclable materials.
Suggests federal/state/local roles to implement incentive-based systems.

Miranda, Marie Lynn

199
3

"Managing Residential Municipal
Solid Waste: The Unit-pricing
Approach"

Resource Recycling

(Nov.)
37-40

Q: What are the effects of unit pricing on waste diversion, landfilling, and source reduction? Analysis of survey
data from 21 cities with unit-pricing programs. Findings: All cities reported reduced landfilling tonnage; unit-pricing
programs coupled with aggressive recycling programs had larger decreases in landfilling; there was no significant
difference in source reduction between high- and low-fee cities; cities with pre-existing recycling programs
experienced 128% increase in material tonnage; there were no noticeable increases in burning or illegal dumping.
Suggests unit-pricing provides incentive to source reduce and recycle, and may engender commitment to resolve
MSW problems. Suggests avenues for further research.

2.02 Incentive Structures ... Record of Performance (Cont.)

199
4

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Miranda, Marie Lynn;
Jess W. Everett;
Daniel Blume; and
Barbeau A. Roy, Jr.

"Market-Based Incentives and
Residential Municipal Solid
Waste"

Journal of Policy Analysis and
Management

13
681-698

Q: Do market-based incentives improve the efficiency of residential solid waste management? Employs mail and
phone survey data from 21 cities to test effects of unit-pricing programs on residential waste production. Findings
suggest that unit pricing is an incentive for residents to reduce waste production and to increase recycling.

Although recycling programs running concurrent with unit-pricing programs reduce incentives to reduce waste, data
suggest that significant source reduction still occurs.

Miranda, Marie Lynn;
Scott D. Bauer; and
Joseph E. Aldy

199
6

"Unit Pricing Programs for
Residential Solid Waste: An
Assessment of the Literature"

School of the Environment, Duke
University, Durham, North
Carolina

33 pages

Q: To what degree do unit-pricing programs accomplish stated goals? Analysis of academic/professional
literature. Findings: Unit pricing results in increased recycling participation and may be an incentive for source
reduction. It is fairer to those producing less garbage; may provide aesthetic benefits; may contribute to undesirable
diversion and waste compaction; adversely impacts low income residents and multi-unit housing residents.

Suggests MSW managers implementing unit-pricing programs may want to consider system specifications; design of
the rate structure; problems with illegal disposal and fee impacts on low income residents; degree of public/political
support; and the need for education and enforcement mechanisms.

Morris, Glenn E. and
Denise C. Byrd

199
0

"Unit Pricing for Solid Waste
Collection"

Popular Government

56
37-44

Q: What are the advantages/disadvantages of unit-pricing schemes? What is the record of unit-pricing programs
in the communities they serve? Findings: Effects of unit-pricing programs depend on both community and
program features. Examination of 16 programs found high customer acceptance, with bag programs encouraging
intended reductions in the waste stream and increased recycling. Higher prices do tend to modify waste behavior.

Morris, Glenn E.
and Duncan M.
Holthausen, Jr.

199
4

"The Economics of Solid Waste
Generation and Disposal"

Journal of Environmental
Economics and Management

26
215-234

Q: Does better understanding of the economics of household waste management offer a better basis for
assessing impacts of solid waste management policy? Developed a theoretical model of household choice
that reflects key purchase, processing, and disposal options. Findings: Model simulation reveals that
household response elasticities can vary across price ranges, and that large household "welfare gains" may
result from adoption of curbside recycling and unit pricing programs.

Powers, Kathleen J.
and Fred Thompson

199
4

"Managing Coprovision: Using
Expectancy Theory to Overcome
the Free-Rider Problem"

Journal of Public Administration
Research and Theory

179-196

Rhetorical argument and case study to support value of expectancy theory in designing/organizing service delivery
that promotes coproduction (such as recycling programs). Expectancy theory stresses the importance of citizen
understanding of what is expected of them, what is required to fulfill those expectations, and an incentive to
participate. And it requires an inclination of public employees to encourage citizen contribution and effort in service
provision, and to structure service provision to reduce administrative complexity, and decentralize controls.

Repetto, Robert;
Roger C. Dower;
Robin Jenkins; and
Jacqueline
Geoghegan

199
2

"Green Fees: How a Tax Shift Can
Work for the Environment and the
Economy"

Washington, DC: World
Resources Institute

Q: Can "green fees" (e.g., charges on pollution, waste, and congestion) produce a cleaner environment, reduce
economic disincentive of the current tax system, and strengthen the economy? Develop an empirical demand model
to assess potential economic savings from taxes in the form of pay-by-the-bag household solid waste collection
charges, rush-hour tolls, and carbon taxes. Present detailed argument for potential gains of shifting revenue burden
from economic "goods" to environmental "bad"; the nature of green fee incentives, and estimated cost savings for
each of the suggested tax programs. Findings: In addition to benefits of reducing amounts of solid waste for
disposal, highway congestion and in pollution, and carbon dioxide emissions, authors estimate these taxes could
"yield at least $100 billion in annual revenues for federal, state, and local governments.

2.02 Incentive Structures ... Record of Performance (Cont.)

Reschovsky, James
D. and Sarah E.
Stone

199
4

"Market Incentives to Encourage
Household Waste Recycling:
Paying for What You Throw Away"

Journal of Policy Analysis and
Management

13
120-139

Q: How does quantity-based pricing of SW disposal affect household recycling behavior? Uses random survey
data from one upstate New York county to examine effects of quantity-based pricing when used by itself or in
combination with curbside pickup or mandatory recycling laws. Findings: Policy combinations that include
curbside recycling are most effective. Suggests intrinsic returns of recycling are important; further research is
needed to estimate private and public costs of SW disposal, reduction.

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Rousso, Ada S. and
Shevtank P. Shah

199
4

"Packaging Taxes and Recycling
Incentives: The German Green
Dot Program"

National Tax Journal

47
689-701

Q: What are the policy effects of the "polluter pays" principle in Germany's Green Dot Program? Case study
presenting the underlying rationale, mechanics, financing, and results of this program, with a brief comparison to
other European initiatives. Results suggest the viability of policies to shift economic costs from public waste
management systems to the private parties creating the waste.

Skumatz, Lisa A.

199
3

"Introducing the Hybrid Variable
Rate System"

BioCyde

(Nov.)
38-40

Q: Can hybrid rate options counter community resistance to variable rates due to concerns over convenience,
implementation costs or revenue recovery? Discusses pros/cons of traditional variable rate systems (cans, bags,
stickers, weight based). For communities unable to face the risks of these traditional options, suggests advantages
of an evolving 'hybrid' system where base levels of service are funded through property taxes or fixed fees and
increments are paid through a variable rate basis such as bag or sticker systems. Presents data from three
communities implementing this hybrid approach. Suggests the hybrid system may well serve communities through
a price incentive to reduce waste generation/increase recycling quickly and with reduced risk.

Skumatz, Lisa A.;
Hans VanDusen;
and Jennie Carton

199
4

"Ready to Roll With Weight
Based Fees"

BioCyde

(Nov.)
76-79

Q: What is the potential for 'billing by weight' systems. General presentation of arguments for and against
volume-based pricing versus weight-based billing, and discussion of survey findings from four weight based
pilot programs. Findings suggest: 1) Seattle's pilot program led customers to reduce garbage set-outs by
15%. 2) New technologies tested in Columbia, SC, Durham, NC, and British Columbia hold promise
(sensors to automate billing data, accurate scale systems, equipment to simultaneously weigh, and collect
three different waste streams.)

Stone, Sarah and
Ellen Harrison

199
1

"Residents Favor User Fees"
BioCyde

(Aug.)
58-59

Q: What are the results of combined trashtag/curbside recycling programs? Analysis of survey data from
households in Tompkins County, NY, soon after implementation of programs. Findings: Residents overall
felt favorable to the trashtag program, and want increased disposal costs to be reflected in higher trashtag
fees. Half of the respondents claimed to recycle more after implementation of the trashtag program.
Respondents also indicated increased effort in composting and attention to packaging. Results suggest
merits of user-fee systems.

Vining, Joanne and
Angela Ebreo

199
2

"Predicting Recycling Behavior
from Global and Specific
Environmental Attitudes and
Changes in Recycling
Opportunities"

Journal of Applied Social
Psychology

1580-1607

Q: What effects does availability of curbside recycling programs have on recycling behavior and attitudes?
Longitudinal data from household surveys in one community are used to assess changes in environmental
concern, recycling attitudes, and recycling behavior as recycling opportunities were increased over time.
Findings: Over time, proportion of recycling households increased as did volume of recycled materials.
General environmental concerns and specific attitudes toward recycling also became more favorable over
time. Results suggest that maintaining recycling behavior and encouraging other conservation activities may
be more influential than forcing initial compliance.

2.02 Incentive Structures ... Record of Performance (Cont.)

Wang, Theodore H.
and Richard D.
Katzev

199
0

"Group Commitment and
Resource Conservation: Two
Field Experiments on Promoting
Recycling"

Journal of Applied Social
Psychology

20
265-275

Q: What are the relative impacts of commitment and incentive-based efforts to promote resource conservation?
Uses data from two experiments to compare the relative impact of commitment and incentive-based strategies to
promote recycling. Experiment 1 evaluated the effect of group commitment procedures, while Experiment 2 focused
on individually pledged commitments. Findings: Subjects in the group commitment cohort (Experiment 1) recycled
47% more paper than during baseline, and continued at this level for 4 weeks after the commitment was removed.
The test group in Experiment 2 recycled 3 to 5 times as much material as the control groups, but when treatments
were removed, only individually committed subjects continued to recycle significantly more than controls.

Ward, James D.

199
5

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"Exploring the Implementation of
Solid Waste Recycling Programs"

International Journal of Public
Administration

18
659-673

Q: Do collection mechanisms influence participation rates? Do recycling service fees impact participation?
Analysis of survey data from four states. Examines mandatory versus voluntary programs, and controls for in-house
versus privatized and fee versus no-fee programs. Findings: Voluntary-fee programs approximate mandatory
programs, while independent voluntary-fee mechanisms revealed the lowest participation rates. Length the
program was in effect contributes to greater awareness and support. There was no significant difference between
in-house versus privatized program participation rates. Suggests that recycling studies need to include voluntary
program characteristics for better understanding of compliance variations and methods to enhance participation.
Researchers need to assess influence of regional political culture.

Yuhas, Barbara and
Jennifer Hyde

199
1

"Getting Multi-family Residents
into the Act"

Solid Waste and Power

(June)
54-60

Q: How can communities provide means of recycling to all residents, and help meet mandated goals? Case study
of Prince George's County, MD program to implement apartment recycling. Impetus stemmed from 1989 county
recycling law requiring multi-unit property owners to provide opportunities for tenants to recycle. County offered
owners guidance in planning and recycling manual preparation; provided owners with information to set up their
programs; educated owners and residents; encouraged formation of recycling committees; and established grants to
help owners cover capital goods purchases. In lieu of unreliable participation rate data, early data based on county
surveys and contractor records of recyclable generation rates suggest: 1) Strongest influences on generation rates
were management interest in recycling, convenience to the residents, socio-economic factors, and resident
organization. 2) Program costs translate to $5 to $6 per unit per month, largely due to labor and collection
frequency.

2.03 Public Participation in Program Design/Operation

Folz, David H.

199
1

"Recycling Solid Waste:
Citizen Participation in the
Design of a Coproduced
Program"

State and Local Government
Review

(Fall)
98-102

Q: Does citizen involvement in recycling program planning and design contribute to higher citizen
participation? Analysis of national mail survey of municipal recycling coordinators. Findings: Participation
in recycling programs is significantly higher in municipalities that stress citizen involvement in recycling
program planning and design.

Fox, Gerald G.

199
1

"Building Support for
Environmental Initiatives"

Public Management

73
7-9

Case study specifying method used in Mecklenburg County, NC's approach to building public support for its
integrated solid waste management program. Suggests five rules to build and maintain public support: 1)
prepare for all possible outcomes and publicly address issues, 2) follow a written action plan, 3) anticipate
who and what groups will be affected and make every effort to get them involved, informed; 4) identify the
range of possible responses and reactions to proposal, and be proactive; and 5) anticipate the "opportunities
and vulnerabilities" of plan.

3.0 MATERIALS P

ROCESSING AND MAF

FETING

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hallenges

Grogan, Peter L.

199
3

"Policy Options for Market
Development"

(July)

Q: What policy options are available to improve end-use markets and increase waste diversion? Presents
proposals of the National Recycling Coalition Recycling Advisory Council. Options suggested include: 1)
tax imposed on virgin materials in product manufacturing/packaging; 2) minimum content standards for use of

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BioCyde

34

recovered materials in products/packages; 3) material specific utilization requirements; 4) making producers
and consumers responsible for package recycling; 5) "take-back" programs making manufacturers
responsible for developing the complete infrastructure for collection, processing, and end-use markets; and 6)
creation of a national secondary materials trust fund to promote use of recyclable commodities.



Powers, Roger W.

199
5

"Curbside Recycling: Energy &
Environmental Considerations"

Solid Waste Technologies

(Sept./Oct.)
32-40

Q: Does recycling save energy? What are recycling's environmental emissions? Analysis of national Keep
American Beautiful study to quantify energy and environmental effects of the four waste management
strategies ("recycling, composting, waste to energy, and landfilling"). Uses Life Cycle Inventory technique to
quantify results for given products/systems. Findings: Strategies using composting and recycling reduced
landfilling and saved energy. The more comprehensive the recovery system, the greater the energy savings.
Suggests that systems combining strategies produce the greatest net benefits. Energy and environmental
effects of curbside recycling occur both at the curb and at often distant remanufacturing plants, while
composting and waste-to-energy facilities are usually located near the site of waste generation.

3

Roy F. Weston,
Inc., and The Solid
Waste

Management
Association of
North America

199
5

"Environmental, Economic, and
Energy Impacts of Materials
Recovery Facilities"

Report Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Energy.
Springfield, VA: National
Technical Information Service



Q: What are the environmental, economic, and energy implications of Material Recovery Facilities (MRF's)?
Performed a comprehensive evaluation of six MRF's geographically distributed across the country, that
received both commingled and separated wastes, and used various techniques to recover recyclables with the
primary purpose of understanding the effects of MRF operations on public health, the environment, and on
occupational health and safety. Study considered the economic and energy aspects of MRF's; impacts on
air quality, receiving waters and community noise levels; and chemical exposure, biological aerosols,
occupational noise, physical safety, and ergonomics. Findings: All six MRF's presented a net cost to their
respective integrated municipal solid waste management systems. Costs and revenues were dependent on
a number of variables, including collection practices, facility design, market availability, and contractual
arrangements. Energy consumption/ton of waste handled was higher for recyclables compared with solid
waste. MRF's do not seem to pose a threat to public health or the environment. Health and safety
hazardous can be controlled by design and implementation of OSHA worker protection programs.

3

3.02 Local Government Practices ... Technical As

pects

Cummings, Mary
Leffler

199
1

"The State of the State:
Recycling in Florida"

Resource Recycling

(May)
32-38

Q: How has Florida worked to achieve its recycling goals? Details key features of Florida's 1988 Solid
Waste Management Act including methods for data collection, goal determination, funding, dealing with
special wastes, providing for public education, and development of regulations, procurement procedures,
market development, and intergovernmental cooperation.

3

Gainer, Margaret

199
1

"Recycling Entrepreneurship:
Local Markets and Economic
Development"

Resource Recycling

(Feb)
48-51

Q: What are some of the creative approaches being used to strengthen market conditions for recyclables?
Suggests presence of mutually beneficial opportunities for local governments and business. Cites a
consulting group report outlining recycling market development strategy, and a model for encouraging local
small-scale enterprises as end use markets. Includes case studies of small-scale manufacturers using
recycled materials.

2

Powell, Jerry

199
0

"The State of the State:
Recycling in New Mexico"

Resource Recycling

(Nov.)
54-58

Q: How has New Mexico overcome barriers to recycling? Presents examples, details of private and public
efforts to implement recycling services. Suggests that public and legislative interest, private incentives, and
government initiative and funding can overcome the barriers of small population, vast size, low disposal rates,
and remoteness from recycling markets.

2

3.03 Legal Vehicles ... In-House, Contracts, Cooperative Agreements, Regional Associations

Apotheker, Steve

199
3

"State and Provincial Recycling
Associations Mature"

(May)

Q: What is the status of recycling organizations in the face of economic challenges, reduced growth in
development of recycling collection programs? Discussion, data from survey of 38 state and five provincial

3

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Resource Recycling

35-41

recycling organizations. Findings: Two groups were added to prior year totals, but overall membership
declined 6%; budgets increased, indicating an ability to increase services, and attract other funding sources;
the top policy priority for recycling organizations is market development.

Apotheker, Steve

199
2

"State and Provincial Recycling
Organizations Get Busy"

Resource Recycling

(May)
50-59

Q: What are key characteristics and activities of evolving state and provincial recycling organizations (ROs)?
Presents data (comparative and aggregate) from 1992 survey of 36 state, 5 provincial ROs. Tables detail
membership growth; membership and financial features of ROs; and staffing and membership services provided by
ROs. Findings: There was a 50% increase in membership over three years. ROs represent the majority of
recycling professionals/activists, but have not focused their expertise, political power; resources tend to be used for
more services for more members. Almost all ROs offer newsletters, conferences to members. Two-thirds are
involved in advocacy at the state or provincial level, take part in major events, keep member directories, provide
technical assistance, and conduct seminars/workshops. Over 80% of state ROs have, or plan to be, affiliated with
the National Recycling Coalition.

Aunan, Lauri and
Tom Martin

199
4

"Recycled Content Laws: How
Are They Working?"

Resource Recycling

(May)
30-36

Q: How and at what cost are states implementing Recycled Content Laws (RCLs)? Are affected parties complying
with RCLs, and are RCLs being enforced? What are the measurable results of RCLs? Summary of National
Environmental Law Center survey/interview research. Findings: RCLs are fairly simple to implement, cost ranges
between $500-$83,000/year. Affected companies tend to comply. Officials do think RCLs lead to improved
markets for post-consumer materials.

Becker, Jeanne and
April Richards

199
2

"Zoning for Recycling"
Resource Recycling

(Mar.)
80-85

Q: Does community use of zoning ordinances "minimize negative land use impacts associated with recycling
facilities"? Describes the various types of recycling facilities, and the impacts and concerns sometimes associated
with them. Compares regulations used in several municipalities. Article suggests that zoning ordinances that
permit recycling facilities in certain zones and include appropriate regulation of such facilities will limit conflicts-all
facilities function as an important part of the community.

Burt, Justine and
Patricia Dillon

199
4

"What the US Can Learn From
Germany's Packaging Take-Back
System"

Resource Recycling

(Sept.)
87-89

Q: Can U.S. MSW policy benefit from packaging take-back programs? Discusses performance of German
Ordinance on the Avoidance of Packaging Waste, and suggests applicability to U.S. policy. Article suggests
German program has shown value of including environmental costs in the product price to alter industry behavior and
to develop demand-side of the recycled product market. Findings suggest the system is a less expensive option
than landfilling or incineration; that making companies responsible for their products from design to disposal is an
efficient/effective tool to enhance source reduction/recycling; has not achieved adequate market demand for recycled
materials. Also suggests that U.S. can learn that by internalizing externalities of disposal methods, recycling can be
cost-effective, and manufacturers should bear some responsibility for their share of the garbage; finally suggests that
U.S. needs to develop demand side of the market.

Johnson, Holly J.
and Mary G. Kohrell

199
2

"Trends in Cooperative Marketing
of Recyclables"

Resource Recycling

(Sept.)
41-47

Q: What is the status of cooperative marketing? Summary of results of a survey of existing cooperative marketing
programs. Findings: Cooperative marketing is being established in both rural/urban environments with no
predictable size/population. The public sector outweighs private membership; most programs began after 1990;
and most are incorporated as non-profit entities. State and EPA grants are the most common funding source.

3.04 Material Prices, Trends, Instability, and Predictability

Apotheker, Steve

199
3

"It's Black and White and
Recycled All Over"

Resource Recycling

(July)
36-44

Q: What is the current/projected status of supply/demand for old newspapers (ONP)? Analysis of 1988-92
market data. Findings: Over five years, ONP recovery rate increased from 35% to 55%; ONP export levels
have increased at slower rates since 1989; spotty price changes are due to higher regional demand by U.S.,
Canadian mills; purchase of inexpensive northern ONP for Southeastern markets; and flattening of the export
market. Better technology, export markets are expected to contribute to better supply/demand balance in
1993.

Dinan, Terry M.

199
2

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"Implementation Issues for
Marketable Permits: A Case
Study of Newsprint"

Journal of Regulatory Economics

71-87

Q: Are potential efficiency gains of a marketable permit system for newsprint likely to increase demand for old
newspapers (ONP)? Findings: Marginal cost equations support suggestions that marketable permit systems will
contribute to a successful market for ONP.

Kashmanian,
Richard M.; Trisha
Ferrand; Andrew
Stoeckle; and Tapio
L. Kuusinen

199
0

"Source Reduction and
Recyclability: Recent
Marketplace Activities"

Resource Recycling

84-89

Q: What options are available to promote source reduction and recyclability in the marketplace? Analysis of
various public opinion poll responses relevant to the question. Findings: There is a need to improve the image of
recycled materials to attract new markets, the reputation of recycled goods among consumers and industry, and cost
incentives to purchase recycled products as opposed to less-expensive virgin material products. Other activities
include: Capitalizing on public awareness; cause-related marketing; environmental shopping programs;
letter-writing campaigns; and product/packaging labeling.

Klein, Yehuda L. and
H. David Robinson

199
3

"Solid Waste Disposal Costs,
Product Prices, and Incentives for
Waste Reduction"

Atlantic Economic Journal

21
56-65

Q: What are the impacts of solid waste disposal costs on product prices? Uses standard input-output method to
assess impact of SW disposal costs on product prices during 1977, 1982, and 1985. Findings: Results confirm
that rising waste disposal costs lead firms to reduce their waste stream.

Kohrell, Mary and
Gary J. Olson

199
0

"What's the Future of Cooperative
Marketing?"

Resource Recycling

(June)
34-37

Q: What is the future of cooperative marketing of recyclables, and is it the solution to market glut problems?
Discussion of the growth in cooperative marketing of recyclables, five steps to evaluating the feasibility, planning and
implementing programs. Suggests potential of cooperative marketing has been largely untapped, but influence of
private sector competition, local government competition will have unknown impacts.

Martin, Russ

199
4

"Improving Recycling Through
Market Forces"

BioCyde

(Oct.)
75-77

Q: Do advanced disposal fees enhance recyclable markets? Details the 1993 Florida program that set goals for
sustained recycling rate, recycled material content, and takeback provisions to give competitive advantages to
companies meeting those goals. Findings: Florida's ADF has stimulated demand for recovered materials; has set
goals that increase over time and incorporates some flexibility for companies trying to meet those goals; helps show
consumers that some products have higher environmental costs than others.

Misner, Michael

199
1

"Six Months of Recyclable Prices
Show Market Instability"

Waste Age

(Sept.)
36-44

Q: What factors contribute to recycling market instability? Tracks price trends of several materials over a 6-month
period in 1991. Findings: Uncontrolled market forces of "supply and demand, world events, and macroeconomic
effects...can rapidly change the value of any recyclable." Data include average prices paid over six months for
aluminum UBC's, clear glass, paper, and PET and HDPE plastic.

Moore, Bill

199
5

"Increasing Supply: What's the
Paper Industry Doing?"

Resource Recycling

(Nov.)
63-68

Q: What is the status of the recovered paper supply market? Discussion of key elements of recovered paper
market, processing, and supply/demand. Suggests long-term recovered paper supply market is healthy, but that the
supply network must increase tonnage before the paper industry will make the needed investment to add new
recycled capacity.

Powell, Corey S.

199
0

"Plastic Goes Green"
Scientific American

(Aug.)
101

Q: How have economic, political forces influenced the plastics recycling market? Discussion, presentation of
aggregate data about the status of the plastics recycling market. Suggests demand for recycled plastic has and will
continue to outstrip supply. In response, industry is tapping into the market, and manufacturers are responding with
more use of recycled plastics. Obstacles include public misperceptions of plastic materials, processing problems,
and material bulk that increases transportation costs.

3.04 Material Prices, Trends, Instability, and Predictability (Cont.)

Sutherland, Greg;
Dan Cearley; and
Marc Tormey

199
5

"Market Prices for Recyclables:
A Five-year History"

Resource Recycling

(Aug.)
51-60

Q: What is the five-year trend for recyclables recovery and prices? Presents the R.W. Beck Recycling
Markets Index of overall recycling market indicators for 10 major recyclable materials. Findings: 1994 was
the first year in many that showed an upturn in market prices reflecting a basic change in industry use of
recovered materials and a healthy economy permitting companies to recapture high raw material costs in
prices for finished products.

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G PROGRAM FINANCES

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hallenges

Beede, David N.
and David E. Bloom

199
5

"The Economics of Municipal
Solid Waste"

The World Bank Research
Observer

10
113-143

Q: What are the future implications of current trends, practices, and policies in generation and management
of solid waste? Uses economic rationale, data analysis, and review of literature to make three points: 1)
While a great deal of MSW is collected and disposed of through controlled programs, much of the remainder is
openly burned or dumped. Authors suggest that improvements in hazardous waste handling now will be less
expensive than "undoing in the future the damage to the environment and to human health caused by current
practices;" 2) Some solid waste resource value is being captured by informal scavenging and recycling in the
developing world, and some through community-sponsored recycling, waste-to-energy, composting programs;
3) "Because the benefits of solid waste disposal extend beyond the households and firms that incur the costs,
community intervention may promote the social good."

Earle, Ralph III

199
0

"Northeast Promotes Recycling
Markets"

Journal of State Government

(March/
April)

64-66

Descriptive report on the market and economic forces encouraging formation of the Northeast Recycling
Council. Emphasis on need for states to develop markets for recycled goods through use of economic
development, regional cooperation, innovative environmental management, and government/industry
partnerships.

Kirkpatrick, David

199
5

"What do Recycling Businesses
Want and Need?"

Resource Recycling

(June)
23-26

Q: What is the recycling industry contribution to state employment, and what are their capital demands and
technical assistance needs? Summarizes findings of the North Carolina Recycling Business study.
Findings: In 1994, there were an estimated total of 8,700 recycling jobs; inadequate financing is the main
obstacle to recycling business growth; more than one-third of companies suggested a need for expanded
business or technical assistance. Suggests the rapid growth in recycling, reuse, composting, and
manufacturing companies largely spurred by state and local laws/programs. States need to nurture the
growth of recycling industry with such options as capital access, technical/business assistance, stable
regulatory environment.

Kriz, Margaret E.

199
2

"Recoup d'Etat"
National Journal

1116-1120

Wide ranging report on the relatively new approaches being considered at the federal, state, and local levels
to shift a greater portion of recycling costs onto U.S. consumer product companies.

4.02 Local Government Practices

Bauer, Scott and
Marie Lynn Miranda

199
6

"The Urban Performance of Unit
Pricing: An Analysis of
Variable Rates for Residential
Garbage Collection in Urban
Areas"

Prepared for: Office of Policy,
Planning and Evaluation,
En vironmental Protection
Agency

How does unit pricing for MSW collection perform in large urban areas? What issues are important to these
communities? Findings: Unit pricing increases recycling diversion. Unclear effect on source reduction.

Cuthbert, Richard

199
4

"Variable Disposal Fee Impact"
Biocycie

(May)
63-65

Q: What are the measurable effects of variable fee systems in place for at least one year? From 1993 survey
data, presents anecdotal information from six communities to assess effectiveness of fees in promoting waste
reduction. Findings: Variable curbside disposal fees do help and support waste reduction efforts. Effects
depend on social, demographic, and economic variables. Variable disposal fees are generally well accepted
by the public, and support other waste reduction activities.

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4.02 Local Government Practices (Cont.)

Moriarty, Patrick J.

199
4

"Financing Waste Collection for
Maximum Diversion"

BioCyde

(Jan.)
66-68

Q: Can financing methods impact the success of recycling programs? Analysis of survey data from 23 Cook and
DuPage County, IL municipalities. Findings: Pay-per-bag systems are the best of the methods surveyed to divert
waste from landfills without imposing tax burdens on citizens. Flat fee systems lack incentives to recycle.

4.03 Cost Elements of Curbside, Drop-Off, and Bu\

r-Back Operations

Deyle, Robert E.
and Bernd F.
Schade

199
1

"Residential Recycling in
Mid-America: The Cost
Effectiveness of Curbside
Programs in Oklahoma"

Resources, Conservation and
Recycling

305-328

Q: What is the relative cost-effectiveness of curbside recycling versus land disposal systems? Use 20-year
net present value analysis to assess cost-effectiveness. Findings: Curbside recycling may be marginally
cost-effective under favorable conditions. Low land disposal costs limit impact of avoided costs. Suggest
that achieving RCRA goals will require recycling of materials other than those amenable to curbside recycling.

4.04 Methodologies for Determining/Evaluating Program Costs

Atri, Said and

Thomas

Schellenberg

199
5

"Efficient Management of
Household Solid Waste: A
General Equilibrium Model"

Public Finance Quarterly

23
3-19

Q: Can a more efficient incentive system be devised to enhance solid waste disposal and recycling?
Findings: Authors develop a system of Pigouvian taxes and government-mandated refunds as a more
efficient alternative to existing schemes relying on volume-based fees and/or lump sum taxes and employ a
dynamic general equilibrium model to illustrate that tax/refund incentives are more efficient, and suggest
methods for implementation.

Carroll, Wayne

199
5

"The Organization and
Efficiency of Residential
Recycling Services"

Eastern Economic Journal

21
215-225

Q: Do recycling costs differ significantly between municipal, private-contract, and market-based programs?
Analysis incorporated grant application, program details obtained through telephone survey, and census data
of 57 Wisconsin cities with curbside recycling programs in 1993. Used regression analysis to assess
hypothesized influences on average (net) recycling costs per household. Findings: Residential recycling
costs are a decreasing function of population density and are higher with municipal collection than with
private-contract collection. Scale economies (e.g., population) and collection frequency do not appear to be
important influences on per household recycling costs.

deKadt, Marten

199
2

"Evaluating Recycling
Programs: Do You Have the
Data?"

Resource Recycling

(June)
28-36

Q: What are the problems associated with comparing recycling program data? Examines problems posed
by data compiled using different definitions and methodologies, and representing waste streams with different
compositions. In comparing Islip, NY and Somerset County, NJ, findings suggest that published recycling
rates do not evaluate either the scope or effectiveness of recycling programs; lack consistent, standard, and
meaningful terminology; lack standardized data. Findings suggest comparisons have little validity unless
data can be manipulated to reflect similar waste streams. Standardized data collection categories are
needed, desegregated data are essential.

Fullerton, Don and
Thomas C.
Kinnaman

199
5

"Garbage, Recycling, and Illicit
Burning or Dumping"

Journal of Environmental
Economics and Management

29
78-91

Q: Should garbage be taxed to reflect its negative externality, or subsidized to avert illicit dumping? Should
recycling be subsidized or would taxing virgin materials have the same effect? What is the effect of deposits
on purchases and refunds on returns? Authors employ a general equilibrium model of household choice to
test hypothesized influences of consumption versus leisure, and the options of garbage/recycling and illicit
burning or dumping. Findings suggest an optimal deposit-refund fee structure equal to the direct resource
cost plus external environmental cost.

4.04 Methodologies for Determining/Evaluating Program Costs (Cont.)

Huhtala, Anni
Hannele

199
4

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"Is Environmental Guilt a Driving
Force? An Economic Study on
Recycling"

Dissertation, University of
California at Berkeley

Q: What is a socially optimal level of recycling to ease resource scarcity, pollution and waste accumulation
problems? If consumers' "greening" preferences are accounted for in monetary terms, will this affect
adoption of waste management policies? Develops a materials balance framework to suggest that by
recycling, "it is possible for an economy to achieve a steady state where both resource and waste stocks are
kept constant." Uses data from a case study in the Helsinki region in Finland to assess people's willingness
to pay for waste management options. Examines "how to allocate available and future landfill capacity over
space in a socially optimal way when recycling was considered." Results suggest that people favor recycling
over incineration, and that landfilling becomes a more costly disposal option relative to other options.
Generally, findings suggest recycling is "both economically and environmentally justified."

Hyde, Jeff and
Stephen B. Lovejoy

199
5

"Recycling: The High Cost of
Being Environmentally Correct"

Staff Paper, Department of
Agricultural Economics, Purdue
University

11 pp.

Q: Are there economies of scale in the refuse/recycling markets? What are the effects of privatization? Analyzes
survey data from 209 Indiana cities and towns. Findings: Per-household costs from recycling are higher than per
household revenue generated. Privatization reduces per household costs related to recycling. Scale economies
exist in both recycling and refuse services. Suggest that unquantified benefits of recycling compared to benefits of
other environmental improvement programs should be part of each community's decision-making process.

Johnson, Margit and
William L. Carlson

199
1

"Calculating Volume-based
Garbage Fees"

Biocyde

(Feb.)
48-50

Q: How should garbage fees be calculated? Suggests that correct fee calculation requires accurate measures of
garbage generated by each household. Measures may vary with hauler's equipment, level of service, billing
system, or other local factors. Suggests that a measurable/workable fee structure for haulers and customers may
be coaxed from such typical measurement models as: 1) actual weight of garbage, 2) variable cans or bags, 3)
pre-paid bags, or 4) pre-paid stickers/tags. The challenge to communities is to provide a fair return to haulers at
minimum cost to the public.

Lund,Jay R.

199
0

"Least-Cost Scheduling of Solid
Waste Recycling"

Journal of En vironmentai
Enqineerinq

116
182-197

Q: How should recycling efforts be selected and scheduled over time to minimize total present value cost of
recycling and of landfill operation, closure, and replacement? Author designs and evaluates a series of linear
programs to determine the least-cost schedule of recycling efforts and the least-cost landfill lifetime. Findings suggest
the value of economic and optimization theory to assess and design recycling efforts, and the need for better
identification of recycling measures.

Perkins, Ron

199
1

"Collection Economics for Plastics
Recycling: A New Methodology"

Resource Recyciinq

(May)
66-69

Q: How can plastic collection costs be equitably distributed? Presents results of collection efficiency analyses of
18 curbside recycling collection programs. Suggests cost variations due to number of materials collected, number
of curb separations performed, collection frequency, crew size, type of truck used, and unspecified qualitative
parameters. Suggests a cost-allocation method that distinguishes between collection costs attributed to a specific
material and costs that are systemic and must be allocated to all materials. Findings suggest that available
technology and market prices can keep costs of collecting plastic consistent with other materials.

4.05 Public Versus Private Sector Risk Assumption

Dobbs, Ian M.

199
1

"Litter and Waste Management:
Disposal Taxes versus User
Charges"

Canadian Journal of
Economics

24
221-227

Q: Can Pigouvian tax/price solutions correct depletable or undepletable externalities of litter and waste
management? Employs a market model to assess the divergence between the private and social costs of
littering and trash collection. Findings suggest the need to consider these problems jointly. Separately,
user charges for trash collection have been promoted to internalize waste management externalities, but
viewed as part of a larger problem, these charges may be negative. Suggests that refunds or user subsidies
should be associated with proper trash disposal.

4.05 Public Versus Private Sector Risk Assumption (Cont.)

Environmental
Protection Agency

199
0

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"Charging Households for
Waste Collection and Disposal:
The Effects of Weight- or
Volume-Based Pricing on Solid
Waste Management"

Research Triangle Institute
report prepared for the
En vironmental Protection
Agency

Q: Does unit pricing affect household waste generation/disposal behavior or the cost of managing solid
waste? Do other features of unit pricing/other programs promote or mitigate the effects of unit pricing?
Employs case study of 17 communities with detailed data from Perkaskie, PA, llion, NY, and Seattle, WA.
Findings: Unit pricing programs have both positive and negative effects that are interrelated with other
system features. Effects observed in this study include: significant waste stream reductions; unit pricing
programs and recycling programs are complementary-both are more effective together than separately;
household response to higher prices may be reduced when recycling facilities are less easily accessible or
there is a large proportion of multifamily housing; implementation of unit pricing did not contribute to increased
littering and/or sewerage; households in smaller communities evidenced more significant changes in waste
generation; added costs of unit pricing and recycling programs were offset by savings from waste reduction
and reduced service frequency; unit pricing was well received by the public.

Goldberg, Dan

199
0

"The Magic of Volume
Reduction"

Waste Age

19
98-104

Q: Will volume-based waste management costs increase illegal dumping or increase recycling rates? Case
study assessment of aggregate data from communities in New Jersey, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Washington
and Canada. Findings: Generally, while the volume-based approach is not trouble-free, most communities
report favorable results in reducing the waste stream and increased recycling.

Strathman, James
G.; Anthony M.
Rufolo; and Gerard
C. S. Mildner

199
5

"The Demand for Solid Waste
Disposal"

Land Economics

71
57-64

Q: What are the effects of pricing on landfill disposal? Analysis of monthly data from Portland, OR in an
empirical model in which tons of landfilled space/1,000 residents is specified as a function of tipping fees,
average weekly income, and construction employment. Findings: Increased tipping fees lead to significant
declines in landfilled waste/per capita. Estimated tip fee elasticity is larger than elasticities estimated in
earlier studies, suggesting greater responsiveness to pricing than previously thought. In the absence of
variable cost pricing, there is evidence of large efficiency losses. Communities should have more successful
recycling programs when prices for collection and landfilling are greater than zero. More data are needed to
evaluate illegal disposal activities and costs of disposal alternatives.

4.06 Factors That Affect The Perceived Financial Feasibility

Bacot, Hunter;
Terry Bowen; and
Michael R.
Fitzgerald

199
4

"Managing the Solid Waste
Crisis: Exploring the Link
Between Citizen Attitudes,
Policy Incentives, and Siting
Landfills"

Policy Studies Journal

22
229-244

Q: What policy options mitigate citizen opposition to landfill siting? Employs a causal model to evaluate the
potential of operation and economic incentives for tempering citizen opposition to all solid waste options.
Findings: Local committee oversight, property tax credits, school funding have the greatest potential for
promoting citizen acceptance of siting a landfill in their community.

Bogert, Susan and
Jeffrey Morris

199
3

"The Economics of Recycling"
Resource Recycling

(Sept.)
76-80

Q: Does recycling cost more than disposal? Summary of prior case study of four Washington state cities
that are geographically diverse, use different collection/materials marketing/disposal methods, and differ in
population. Documents 1992 costs of curbside recycling versus disposal and compares costs/prices for use
of five recycled materials against common virgin material substitutes. Findings: Disposal costs exceeded
recycling costs in all four cities; where disposal systems are expensive, recycling programs are also
expensive; mandatory garbage collection fees fund all curbside or disposal costs; households that recycle
may save by reduced frequency or volume of garbage collection. Suggests recycling makes economic sense
when compared to disposal.

Carroll, Wayne

199
5

"The Organization and
Efficiency of Residential
Recycling Services"

Q: Do recycling costs differ between municipal, private-contract, and market-based operations? Uses 1992
grant application data from 57 Wisconsin cities with curbside recycling programs to regress mean net
household recycling costs on several sets of independent variables. Findings suggest that residential

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Eastern Economic Journal

215-225

recycling costs have some similarities with garbage collection costs. Recyclable collection is subject to
economies of density but not economies of scale. Costs are lowest in cities contracting with single haulers.

4.06 Factors That Affect The Perceived Financial Feasibility (Cont.)

Dinan, Terry M.

199
3

"Economic Efficiency Effects of
Alternative Policies for
Reducing Waste Disposal"

Journal of Environmental
Economics and Management

25
242-256

Q: Are combined disposal tax/reuse subsidies more efficient policies to reduce the waste stream than virgin
material taxes? Examines the production of two goods and determines the "optimal" levels of production,
selections of inputs, and number of firms in industry that would result if disposal costs were internalized.
Findings: Virgin materials taxes cannot lead to optimal resource allocation while combined disposal tax and
reuse subsidies can. Suggests that this "combination" policy is theoretically consistent with unit-based
pricing initiatives, but may in some situations have advantages.

Folz, David H.

199
5

"The Economics of Municipal
Recycling: A Preliminary
Analysis"

Public Administration Quarterly

19
299-320

Q: What are the key cost/benefit factors of city recycling programs? Based on actual cost/benefit data, what
are the most fiscally efficient forms of recycling programs? Cost/benefit analysis based on 1989 survey
responses of 450 municipal recycling coordinators in 25 states. Representative nature of the distribution of
responses enables generalization to the nation. Comparisons are made between jurisdictions with similar
programs among two program types: curbside collection of materials and drop-off/buy-back operations.
Findings: There is considerable variation among recycling program funding sources; however, the city general
fund is the most important source of program revenues. Revenue from refuse-derived sources (sale of
materials, fees or charges for collection/disposal of waste) accounted for about 35% of municipal recycling
operation funding. Key program costs depend on the program type, size, and scope. Average total costs of
curbside programs was $171,272; mean total cost of drop-off only programs was $23,317. City curbside
recycling programs recovered revenues averaging 83.3% of mean operating and capital costs per ton. Drop-
off programs recovered 78.5% of their costs. Mandatory curbside recycling pickup was found to be the most
cost-effective option, but there are strong economic incentives to implement either voluntary curbside or drop-
off programs "when these options are compared to the costs incurred for the traditional methods of waste
disposal." Cities with lower unit recycling costs reflect higher popular participation and adopted several
policies to encourage more participation. In general, recycling is found to be the preferred financial
alternative for solid waste management "(compared to landfilling or incineration) if material revenue is cut by
half and the estimated savings in disposal costs are reduced by half.

Highfill, Jannett;
Michael McAsey;
and Robert
Weinstein

199
4

"Optimality of Recycling and the
Location of a Recycling Center"

Journal of Regional Science

34
583-597

Q: What conditions indicate a city should implement a recycling program? Employs a static model to
"determine the relationship between the amount of recycling and the location of a recycling center," and to
identify conditions by which recycling will reduce SWM costs enough to make recycling optimal. Findings:
Cost savings solely from transportation costs may economically justify community recycling programs; with
increased recycling, optimal facility location shifts from landfills to centrally located sites in the city; factors
optimizing recycling programs include sorting costs/unit of waste, transportation costs/unit of waste, and city
size; restrictions limiting siting of the recycling facility can reduce optimality (that is, recycling centers located
near landfills increase the likelihood of optimal city recycling versus recycling facilities that must be sited on
the opposite side of the community from the landfill.)

Keeler, Andrew G.
and Mitch Renkow

199
4

"Haul Trash or Haul Ash:
Energy Recovery as a
Component of Local Solid
Waste Management"

Journal of Environmental
Economics and Management

27
205-217

Q: How do economic variables function to affect local choice over disposal strategies? Developed a model
of municipal choice of MSW disposal technologies to examine incineration, landfilling and recycling options.
Findings show that desirability of incineration and optimal size of an energy recovery facility depend on costs
of the various options and characteristics of the waste stream, and that "under most conditions allocating
resources to incineration reduces the incentives to recycle."

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4.06 Factors That Affect The Perceived Financial Feasibility (Cont.)

Ludwig, Kathy and
Tom Jones

199
2

"The Advance Disposal Fee:
Has Its Time Come?"

Resource Recycling

(Sept.)
94-101

Q: What are the pros/cons of advanced disposal fees (ADFs)? Discusses two key issues regarding ADFs,
trends in implementation. Suggested benefits of ADFs are as a funding source to support waste
reduction/recycling, and incentive for source reduction. As no true ADF has yet been implemented, there is
no conclusive proof of effects. Key questions for policymakers are: At what point in distribution chain should
ADF be levied; how are revenues to be used? Profiles "pseudo" ADF used in 12 states. Suggests that
increased use of ADFs indicates appeal to policymakers, but, while prior experience is promising, true
effectiveness is unclear.

Mainwaring, Lynn

199
5

"Primary Resource Use and
Voluntary Recycling Schemes:
Dynamic Issues in Global
Context"

Resource and Energy
Economics

17
341-356

Q: What is the impact of voluntary recycling programs on the use of primary or virgin materials? Developed
a dynamic model to test the hypothesis that voluntary programs may in the long run do more harm than good
to the environment. This global growth model distinguishes between primary material use and primary
material production. Dynamics are modeled in a discrete-time framework. Findings: Recycling may be no
more than a short-run solution. In the long run we must address the question of environmental sustainability
of high-output growth. Producers of final goods are effectively subsidized by voluntary recycling efforts, and
their "accumulation intensity" rises to a point that may offset unit savings of primary/virgin materials.

Nestor, Deborah
Vaughn

199
1

"Increasing the Rate of
Recycling When Demand is
Price-Inelastic: A Case Study
of the Market for Old
Newspapers"

Dissertation, The University of
Tennessee, Knoxviiie, TN

Q: Have policies intended to encourage recycling not been effective due to the price inelasticity of the old
newspapers (ONP) input demand schedule? Developed and tested model of the demand for ONP as "an
input in newsprint production." Findings: ONP recycling is more dependent on influences of the final output
market than on relative input prices. Suggests that expanded output requires added new newsprint capacity
investment, and that this investment has been "biased toward ONP-based mills."

Nestor, Deborah
Vaughn

199
2

"Partial Static Equilibrium Model
of Newsprint Recycling"

Applied Economics

24
411-417

Q: Do policies to increase supply of old newspapers (ONP) stimulate the rate of recycling? Do "fiscal
biases" favoring raw materials hinder newsprint recycling? Employs a static equilibrium model to test
hypotheses regarding ONP recycling. Findings suggest policies to lower ONP prices/increase ONP supplies
are ineffective stimulants for recycling; policies favoring timber industry growth have not hindered ONP
recycling; growth in output is the key incentive for ONP use in the newsprint industry.

Ready, Mark J. and
Richard C. Ready

199
5

"Optimal Pricing of Depletable,
Replaceable Resources: The
Case of Landfill Tipping Fees"

Journal of Environmental
Economics and Management

28
307-323

Q: How can optimal tipping fees for a regional landfill best be determined? Uses a general model for
pricing a depletable, replaceable asset, and illustrated its use in determining optimal tipping fees. Findings:
Optimal fees include an element that grows at the real interest rate as landfill space is depleted, and drops
when a new landfill is built. "Because the scarcity cost of landfill space increases as the landfill is filled, it
may be optimal to delay a waste reduction program (such as recycling, composting, or incineration) until the
landfill is partially full."

The Economist

199
1

"Recycling: How to Throw
Things Away"

The Economist

319
17-22

Q: With the prospect of ambitious industry recycling targets, will the benefits of recycling outweigh the
economic costs of reusing recycled materials? Presents rhetorical arguments for/against recycling policies,
aggregate recycling data regarding trends in Europe, Japan and U.S. Findings: Governments should be
more logical in their policy approaches to encouraging recycling. Economic pressures, issuing/auctioning
permits for materials to be landfilled, and reducing packaging should also be considered in the policy arsenal.

Wiseman, A. Clark

199
1

General discussion of impediments to least-cost solid waste management including a lack of cost data and
analysis; failure to correctly price waste collection/disposal; and political obstacles. Suggests need for
research and public information programs to identify and communicate the true social costs of various
management scenarios.

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"Impediments to Economically
Efficient Solid Waste
Management"

Resources

105
9-11





4.06 Factors That Affect The Perceived Financial Feasibility (Cont.)

Wiseman, Clark

199
2

"Government and Recycling:
Are We Promoting Waste?"

Cato Journal

122

Q: Have factual misreadings and misrepresentations distorted local government decision making promoting
governmental programs and incentives? Uses rhetorical argument and aggregate data to make the case that
recycling has been pushed past economically efficient levels due to landfill siting problems and
misperceptions of the environmental impact of landfills, overestimates of recycling benefits, and
underestimates of recycling costs. Suggests that efficient, rational management of MSW should incorporate
adequate environmental standards for landfills; pricing of solid waste disposal services on a per-unit basis
equal to full disposal costs; and the political difficulty of siting landfills should be averted by reducing the power
of local elected officials to grant/deny landfill permits.

3

4.07 Recyclables Trad

ing/Futures Markets

Shulman, Seth

199
6

"Curbside Commodities"
Technology Review

99
14-15

Descriptive editorial presenting aggregate data justifying addition of recycled plastic, paper and glass to
futures trading on the floor of the Chicago Board of Trade. Suggests that commodities exchange attention
will help bring competition, standardization to the recycled materials market.

2

Watson, Tom

199
1

"Cooperative Marketing: A
Delicate Balance"

Resource Recycling

(Feb)
26-31

Q: How can local governments set up successful cooperative marketing programs? Uses case studies of
New Hampshire, Vermont, New York and Tennessee programs to assess benefits, pitfalls of marketing
cooperatives. Findings suggest considerable promise for cooperative marketing, but care must be taken not
to aggravate the private sector.

2

39

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5.01 Program Design

Process/Changes/Evolution

Allen, Phillip C.;
Peter Foye; and
Thomas M.
Henderson

199
0

"Recycling and Incineration:
Not Mutually Exclusive in
Broward County, Florida"

Government Finance Review

6
7-12

Q: How can SWM planning and financing incorporate responses to changes in technology, environmental
and tax laws, service demands, public perceptions and attitudes? Case study of Broward County, FL.
Findings suggest importance of developing integrated SWM plans, developing/maintaining adequate program
information, expanding recycling/education efforts, and developing flexible financing plans to meet changing
needs.

Anderson, Deborah
D. and Laurie
Burnham

199
2

"Toward Sustainable Waste
Management"

Issues in Science and
Technology

(Fall)
65-72

Q: Can our industrial society change how it handles its end products and make more efficient use of
materials, use better disposal methods, and enhance its environmental sensitivity? General review and
assessment of options, barriers, market incentives, government strategies, and consumer participation issues.
Findings suggest that new technologies have made comprehensive solid waste management strategies
viable, and that there is unprecedented interest by industry, government and consumers in environmental
issues. Suggests that, by avoiding simplistic legislated solutions and permitting market forces to function,
U.S. can succeed.

Bacot, Hunter; Amy
S. McCabe;

Michael R.
Fitgerald; Terry
Bowen; and David
H. Folz

199
3

"Practicing the Politics of
Inclusion: Citizen Surveys and
the Design of Solid Waste
Recycling Programs"

American Review of Public
Administration

23
29-41

Q: Are citizen background characteristics and citizen environmental attitudes associated with preferred
recycling policy options? Opinion poll data are used for bivariate tests of hypothesized associations. Findings
suggest that hypothesized associations vary according to citizen involvement needed to sustain a particular
program. While race was the only background characteristic consistently associated with various recycling
preferences, several environmental attitude indicators were significant. Suggests need for being aware
of/sensitive to local opinions, and using this information for program decision making to improve participation.

Everett, Jess W.
and Abhijit R.
Modak

199
3

"Optimal Scheduling of
Composting, Recycling, and
Landfill Operations in an
Integrated Solid Waste
Management System"

Journal of Resource
Management and Technology

21
122-131

Q: Can deterministic linear programming assist decision makers in long term planning for an integrated
SWM system? Developed a mathematical model to schedule landfill operations and diversion options and
employed case study to illustrate model viability in identifying optimal long term cost solutions given a variety
of disposal options. Results suggest it may be practical to implement more expensive options than landfills to
defer future, more expensive landfills.

Fletcher, Jeff

199
2

"Why Unit Pricing Makes Sense
for Solid Waste"

Nation's Cities Weekly

(Oct. 19)
10

Q: What is unit pricing, what are its advantages? Discusses alternative fee structures in common use,
presents arguments for use of unit pricing. Suggested advantages of unit-pricing: 1) equitable method for
increasing recycling and composting, sending pricing signals to consumers, reducing landfill tip fee costs; 2)
providing realistic picture of waste collection and disposal costs to consumers while permitting some control
over household costs; 3) relies on market forces and does not favor one waste reduction method over others;
and 4) rewards waste source reduction.

Florini, Karen L.,
Richard A.
Denison, and John
Ruston

199
0

"An Environmental Perspective
on Solid Waste Management"

Integrated Solid Waste
Management: Options for
Legislative Action, Frank Krieth
(ed.)\ Schenctady, NY: Genuim
Publishing Co.

173-196

Q: What are the major issues confronting SWM? Presents an examination of the issues of removing
economic barriers for recycling and creating markets for recycled goods; the need for a broad approach when
assessing risks of incineration as an element of waste management; and proposed revisions, potential pitfalls
to federal landfilling criteria.

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5.01 Program Design

Process/Changes/Evolution (Cont.)

Folz, David H.

199
1

"Recycling Program Design,
Management, and Participation:
A National Survey of Municipal
Experience"

Public Administration Review

51
222-231

Q: How can municipalities maximize and sustain citizen participation in solid waste recycling programs?
Analyzes data from a national survey of municipal recycling coordinators. Findings: "Democratizing"
program planning and design processes, and mandatory recycling participation significantly influence citizen
participation. Combining voluntary participation with other strategies, such as curbside delivery, use of
private contractors, or free bins, also worked well.

Folz, David H. and
Joseph M. Hazlett

199
1

"Public Participation and
Recycling Performance:
Explaining Program Success"

Public Administration Review

51
526-532

Q: "What determines the success of different local recycling programs?" Using national recycling program
survey data, authors used bivariate analysis and OLS regression to assess independent influences on
recycling participation and diversion. Findings: Program success depends more on the policies chosen,
how they are selected, and how they are implemented rather than on local community characteristics.

Frosch, Robert A.

199
5

"The Industrial Ecology of the
21st Century"

Scientific American

(Sept.)
178-181

Q: What factors may contribute to a clean and efficient industrial economy? Discussion of environmental
concerns, ability of industry to mimic natural world's ability to recycle, minimize waste. Suggests need for
industry to solve waste problems internally; the industrial sector should act to minimize overall waste
production with design/production of reusable products and the information available on who has/needs/uses
what materials; a regulatory framework that limits barriers to reuse by allowing the flow of used materials
between consumers and manufacturers, one firm and the next, and one industry an another.

Grogan, Terry

199
0

"The Environmental Protection
Agency's Municipal Solid Waste
Program: Current Action and
Future Plans"

Integrated Solid Waste
Management: Options for
Legislative Action, Frank Krieth
(ed.), Schenctady, NY: Genuim
Publishing Co.

155-172

Q: What are EPA's current projects to address the MSW crisis? What agency activities are planned for the
near future? Descriptive report of the EPA's efforts to address the MSW problems identified by the
Municipal Solid Waste Taskforce, and the agency's goals and objectives for resolving the crisis. Includes an
edited version of author's question and answer session with state legislators.

Guerra, Sarith

199
2

"Markets for Recyclables: The
Challenge for Local Government
Recycling Programs"

Municipal Yearbook

59
16-26

Extensive description of recycling and recycling issues. Topics include: 1) description of the recycling
process; 2) role of local government in the marketplace; 3) recycling terminology; 4) barriers to marketing; 5)
supply and demand; 6) competing in today's marketplace; 7) contracting arrangements; 8) cooperative
marketing; 9) developing local markets; 10) closing the loop; 11) action steps for local governments; and 12)
local government procurement.

Kreith, Frank (ed.)

199
0

"Integrated Solid Waste
Management: Options for
Legislative Action"

Schenectady, NY: Genvim
Publishing Corporation

Collection of articles based on presentations at the 1989 NCSL solid waste forum. Common theme is the need
for integrated waste management systems that fit local conditions. Each chapter examines a step in dealing
with disposal of waste generated.

5.01 Program Design

Process/Changes/Evolution

Cont.)

199
1

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Lodge, George C.
and Jeffrey F.
Rayport

"Knee-deep and Rising:
America's Recycling Crisis"

Harvard Business Review

(Sept/Oct)
128-138

Q: Can American governments and businesses move beyond adversarial relationship to a constructive,
problem-solving relationship? Uses case studies, aggregate data regarding plastics recycling to suggest that
current practices have resulted in everyone (government, business, the public, and the environment) losing,
and the problem getting worse. Findings suggest the need for comprehensive, systemic solid waste disposal
infrastructure to make an integrated approach workable. For the approach to work, system must include five
key values: 1) Government and industry must work as partners; 2) Policy initiatives must balance the supply
and demand in the recycling system; 3) Recycling infrastructure must operate at national or regional scale to
capture real economies; 4) Local, state and federal governments must act in partnership to coordinate
processing and sale; and 5) MSW disposal systems must integrate decisions regarding recycling, incineration
and landfilling, address issues of scale, balance supply and demand, and involve all necessary participants in
the process.

Pieters, Rik G. M.

199
1

"Changing Garbage Disposal
Patterns of Consumers:
Motivation, Ability, and
Performance"

Journal of Public Policy &
Marketing

10
59-76

Q: How do environmental issues shape human behavior? Assesses consumer waste disposal in
environmental-friendly ways, and develops a three-step approach to understanding consumer recycling
participation. Analyzes the consumer's effort to change material streams, and evaluates determinants of
these decisions. Results suggest that these three steps serve as a general approach to assessing consumer
behavior in environmental protection programs.

Spang, Aletha

199
0

"Recycling in Review: Year
Two for New Jersey"

Government Finance Review

11-14

Q: Can mandatory recycling succeed? Review of statewide survey results taken two years after program
implementation. Program was adopted in response to crisis situation that forced closure of more than 80% of
state landfills, and higher tipping fees. Program requires all communities to recycle leaves and at least three
of paper, metals, glass, plastics, and food wastes. Financial incentives were used to encourage recycling of
auto scrap, asphalt, oil, demolition waste. Early data and survey results suggest significant increases in
public participation, public awareness, waste diversion.

Stavins, Robert N.

199
3

"Market Forces Can Help Lower
Waste Volumes"

Forum for Applied Research and
Public Policy

8
6-15

General summary of concerns that should be addressed by decision makers faced with the need to establish
waste-management policies.

Watson, Tom

199
0

"Municipal Programs Booming
in the 10 Biggest Cities"

Resource Recycling

(Dec.)
27-36

Q: How have the nation's most populous cities responded to public, political, and state mandated pressures
to recycle? Presents descriptive data on 10 municipal recycling programs based on survey of recycling
officials. Includes details of community population, square miles, current recycling effort, planned recycling
efforts, recycling budget, number of administrative staff, and the key recycling personnel. Suggests that
growth in curbside programs is "proof of the political necessity of recycling but that the rapid growth resulting
from this political pressure can contribute to program chaos.

West, Jonathan P.;
Richard C. Feiock;
and Stephanie J.
Lee

199
2

"Municipal Solid Waste
Management and Recycling:
Strategies and Issues"

Municipal Yearbook

59
27-35

Q: What are the strategies being employed, issues being faced by municipal officials? Analysis of
responses by public works directors in U.S. cities of 5,000+ population. Among findings: Results confirmed
general acceptance of EPA waste management hierarchy; the majority of programs appeal to citizens'
environmental conscience to encourage recycling participation rather than other forms of incentives; major
concerns include the cost/construction of landfills and waste-to-energy plants, and hazardous waste
collection, disposal, and enforcement.

5.01 Program Design Process/Changes/Evolution (Cont.)

Wiseman, Clark

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199
2

"Government and Recycling:
Are We Promoting Waste?"

Cato Journal

12
443-461

Q: Is the MSW issue an ecological/economic problem or is it a political issue manifested through "flawed"
government decision making? Rhetorical argument/discussion of perceptions/views of MSW options,
economic costs/benefits, and non-economic rationale for recycling. Suggests that landfilling, while
environmentally sound and cost-effective, presents political difficulties that encourage costly recycling efforts.
Suggests that recycling policies have been overextended past economically efficient levels due to siting
problems and public misperceptions of the negative impacts of landfilling. Suggests the need for three basic
policies: 1) Maintain adequate environmental standards for landfills; 2) Adopt unit pricing at rates equal to
disposal costs to place the cost/benefit assessment on the household; and 3) Reduce local officials' power to
grant/deny landfill permits.

Young, John E.

199
1

"Tossing the Throwaway Habit"
World Watch

26-33

Q: How can we confront inefficient use of raw materials and energy? Presents rhetorical argument,
aggregate data to suggest inadequacy of current policies to contend with the garbage crisis. Suggests
preventing waste with more efficient use of resources can reduce the garbage problem and reduce
environmental damage.

5.02 Management/Administration Mechanisms

Jones, Teresa B.;
Edward J.
Calabrese; Charles
E. Gilbert; and Alvin
E. Winder

199
0

"Solid Waste Education
Recycling Directory"

Boca Raton, FL: Lewis
Publishers

1109

Summary of waste management curricula for each state by categories and features specific to each program.
Includes curriculum description and goals, project history, legislative initiative and funding sources,
educational requirements/infrastructure.

5.03 Intergovernmental Dimension ... State/National Policies and/or Standards

Beck, Patty and
Pete Grogan

199
1

"Minimum Content Legislation:
An Effective Marketing Tool"

Resource Recycling

(Sept.)
90-99

Q: Does minimum content legislation stimulate markets for recyclable materials? Describes the conditions
leading up to the negative market for old newspapers in 1990 and details the types of minimum content
legislation enacted in states to stimulate this market. Findings: Voluntary or mandatory minimum content
legislation can be a means to close the recycling loop. More effective requirements include mandatory use of
post-consumer materials. Suggests the need to standardize requirements across states; that states will likely
rely on minimum content legislation to expand market capacity for other commodities.

Boerner,
Christopher and
Kenneth Chilton

199
4

"Recycling: What a waste?"
The American Enterprise

14-18

Q: Should U.S. policymakers consider proposals to increase demand for recycled materials? Presents
rhetorical argument, aggregate data, and case study of Germany's green dot program. Findings: Efforts to
fix the demand side of the recyclable market are far from inexpensive, causing consumers to pay the costs
rather than taxpayers. Suggests such measures also reduce packaging innovations and distort market
efficiency without benefiting the environment.

Cairncross,
Frances

199
2

"How Europe's Companies
Reposition to Recycle"

Harvard Business Review

(Mar/Apr)
34-45

Q: How has recycling policy evolved in the European Community? Describes the uncoordinated efforts of
the EC to limit packaging waste. Discusses German, Dutch, and French initiatives and approaches.

Suggests that, while the EC wants a coherent, unified policy, such a directive is unlikely in the near future.
Industry response to these pressures has been to innovate and cooperate, refocus on environmental effects of
their products. Suggests that governments must be clear about priorities/goals, and should avoid exclusive
focus on recycling. Recommends one goal for industry: minimize waste. Industry should then take
responsibility for most efficiently meeting that target.

Glenn, Jim and
David Riggle

199
1

"The State of Garbage in
America"

BioCycie

(May)
30-35

Q: What were the key solid waste initiatives passed by state legislatures in 1990? Presents aggregate
data, discussion of BioCycle's nationwide survey of state laws. Findings: State legislation was less plentiful
than in 1988-89, and is characterized as adjustments, revisions, additions to existing statutes. The 1990
record illustrates great versatility, with bans on specific materials, mandated waste reduction goals, market
development, advance disposal fees.

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5.03 Intergovernmental Dimension ... State/National Policies and/or Standards (Cont.)

Khator, Renu

199
3

"Recycling: A Policy Dilemma
for American States"

Policy Studies Journal

21
210-226

Q: What factors contribute to a state's inclination to recycle? Employs separate statistical methods to test
four conceptual models: 1) political model; 2) economic model; 3) policy-perpetuation model; and 4) physical
factor model. Findings: Economic variables have little explanatory power; the political model yields mixed
results. Both the policy-perpetuation and physical factor models reveal significant relationships. Overall,
results suggest the importance of physical composition (population density, region), and policy image
(environmental bureaucratic strength, innovativeness, and commitment) as significant predictors of a state's
recycling effort.

Kundell, James E.

199
0

"Municipal Solid Waste
Management in Georgia: Policy
Alternatives"

Carl Vinson Institute of
Government, The University of
Georgia

Discussion of integrated waste management and the policy alternatives available to Georgia decision makers
seeking to effectively manage municipal solid waste. Emphasis is on the lack of adequate funding to
compete with other state priorities.

Kundell, James E.
and Deanna L.
Ruffer

199
3

"10 Commandments for Solid
Waste"

Forum for Applied Research and
Public Policy

16-21

General discussion of suggestions to "guide" state legislators developing statewide solid waste management
laws and regulations.

McCabe, John

199
3

"What Happens When
Businesses Must Take Part in
Recycling?"

Resource Recycling

(Mar.)
73-80

Q: Does mandatory participation of business and institutions in recycling programs work? Case study of
Rhode Island experience with mandated commercial recycling participation. Discusses program
details/results, presents aggregate data regarding percent of waste recovered, composition of collected
materials, economic effect of recycling, annual implementation costs. Findings: State businesses are
recycling 34% of their waste; 58% of businesses indicate savings from recycling; implementation costs rarely
exceeded $5,000.

Powell, Jerry

199
2

"Federal Disincentives to
Recycling"

Resource Recycling

(June)
44-45

Q: What is the effect of federal subsidies for virgin material use? Summarizes conclusions of preliminary
assessment prepared for EPA. Suggests that the broad area of energy subsidies can be considered a
significant economic barrier to recycling, but that several federal policies and programs that benefit virgin
resource industries do not act as significant barriers.

Pytte, Alyson

199
0

"Congress May Have to
Intervene as Garbage Wars
Intensify"

Congressional Quarterly

48
173-177

Discussion of pending RCRA reauthorization, state and local demands for Congressional action. Also
presents a history of EPA regulatory action and events contributing to the "landfill crisis."

Relis, Paul

199
2

"Recycling: An Answer Waiting
for a Solution"

Forum for Applied Research and
Public Policy

52-55

Summary of the problems/challenges following the national shift to recycling. Suggests current approaches
may endanger the industry's future; have overlooked the industrial changes a shift to recycling requires; may
undermine financing for domestic recycling while subsidizing foreign markets with inexpensive raw materials.
Suggests federal government needs to assess supply/demand for recycled commodities, share information
with state and local governments, and coordinate legislation to enhance demand for secondary materials.

5.03 Intergovernmental Dimension ... State/National Policies and/or Standards (Cont.)

Stolzenberg, John

197-211

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199
0

"State Solid Waste Legislation"

Integrated Solid Waste
Management: Options for
Legislative Action, Frank Krieth
(ed.), Schenctady, NY: Genuim
Publishing Co.

Q: What are the current and future initiatives in state legislatures to address solid waste management
issues? Presents details of current legislative activities in the states and Puerto Rico, and summary of key
areas being, and expected to be addressed.

Wiseman, A. Clark.

199
0

"U.S. Wastepaper Recycling
Policies: Issues and Effects"

Resources for the Future
Discussion Paper ENR 90-14,
Washington, DC

(Aug.)
66 pgs.

Q: What are the potential effects of increased waste paper recovery on markets, production technologies,
material utilization rates? Summarizes economic issues, the record of federal, state and local policy
responses. Presents preliminary estimates of potential effects of increased wastepaper recovery. Findings:
Recovery/recycling policies are being implemented without regard to economic and social costs of various
alternatives. Studies promoting recycling benefits tend to ignore the high cost of human time. When taken
into account, this cost weighs against recycling as a waste disposal option, suggesting that high levels of
recycling will be wasteful of social resources. Volume-based pricing provide a rational incentive for voluntary
household recycling. Increased recycling will reduce demand for virgin wood fiber; however, with increased
recycling, it is likely that land now used for silviculture will be put to other uses, contributing to smaller forest
inventories.

5.04 Operational

Prob

ems, Challenges

Butterfield, David
W. and Atif A.
Kubursi

199
3

"Regional Economic Effects of
Recycling in Ontario"

Canadian Journal of Regional
Science

16
413-431

Q: What are the regional economic effects of increased recycling? Employs a regional input-output model
to estimate economic effects of various economic policies in Ontario, and calculate economic effects for six
scenarios. Findings suggest that larger employment losses are related to losses in export markets due to
foreign demand for recycled content in paper/paper products. Regional employment gains are related to
increased recyclable waste collection industries and shifts in location of employment in the paper/paper
products industry.

Khator, Renu and
John Huffman

199
3

"A Survey of Recycling
Coordinators"

Biocycie

(Oct.)
37

Q: What do recycling coordinators see as effective recycling strategies, barriers to program implementation,
economic issues? Survey of 1000 local recycling coordinators. Findings: The strongest impetus for
recycling programs was pressure from the state; community drop-off centers and curbside pick up are the
most common recycling programs; buy-back centers and tax incentives are viewed as the least effective
recycling strategies; and absence of recycled product markets, cost-effectiveness, and a lack of funding are
the key barriers to recycling programs. The most important factor in improving program performance is seen
as finding markets for recyclable materials in their own states.

5.05 Online Data Bases/Information Sources/Software to Help Recycling Program Design/Decision Makers

Powell, Jerry

199
2

"A Directory of MRF Vendors
and Equipment Suppliers"

Resource Recycling

(Mar.)
52-61

Directory of materials recovery facility service and equipment suppliers.

Resource
Recycling

199
4

"Recycling and Composting
Equipment Directory"

Resource Recycling

(Aug.)
63-102

Directory of recycling and composting manufacturers and distributors.

Resource
Recycling

199
2

"Recycling Equipment Directory"
Resource Recycling

(Aug.)
97-146

Recycling Equipment Company Directory.

-------




Title

Vol./Edition

Description/



Author (s)

Date

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

5.05 Online Data Bases/Information Sources/Software to Help Recycling Program Design/Decision Makers (Cont.)

Resource
Recycling

199
1

"Resource Recycling Equipment
Company Directory"

Resource Recycling

(Aug.)
47-103

Directory listing approximately 400 companies manufacturing and/or distributing recycling equipment.

2

46

-------
SUPPLEMEN1

fAL READINGS ORGANIZED BY DATE, AUTHORS

Title

Vol./Editio
n

Description/

Author (s)

Dat
e

Publication Name

Pages

Findings

Use

Gray, Ralph

197
2

"The Economics of Disposal
Pollution and Recycling"

Quarterly Review of Economics
and Business

12
43-51

Q: How can recycling be organized in a throwaway society? Rhetorical argument raising questions and
suggesting answers associated directly and indirectly with container, newspaper, and automobile disposal.
Models resource allocation effects, disposal/avoidance alternatives, consumer costs/benefits to suggest that
recyclable sorting should be done in the home, and that "reverse flow" in marketing/distribution channels can
produce recycling without added incentives.

Reid, Dennis H.;
Paul D. Luben;
Robert J. Rawers;
and Jon S. Bailey

197
6

"Newspaper Recycling
Behavior: The Effects of
Prompting and Proximity of
Containers"

Environment and Behavior

471-482

Q: Do prompts and proximity affect newspaper recycling behavior? Case study of one community using
pre- and post-test measures and interviews. Findings: Informing people of recycling locations and closer
proximity increases recycling behavior.

Dunlap, Riley E.
and Kent D. Van
Liere

197
8

"The New Environmental
Paradigm"

Journal of Environmental
Education

10-19

Q: Has the public come to accept the ideas embodied in the "New Environmental Paradigm?" Survey
findings: Both environmentalists and the general public accept the NEP. Findings also support authors'
construct of an "NEP Scale."

Luyben, Paul D.
and Jon S. Bailey

197
9

"Newspaper Recycling: The
Effects of Rewards and
Proximity of Containers"

Environment and Behavior

539-557

Q: Do convenient containers and/or rewards contribute to increased newspaper recycling? Findings:
Both conditions increase newspaper recycling, but rewards are most effective. Recyclers should consider
procedures and target population.

Schnelle, John F.;
M. Patrick McNees;
Murphy M.

Thomas; John G.
Gendrich; and
Gwen P. Beagle

198
0

"Prompting Behavior Change in
the Community: Use of Mass
Media Techniques"

Environment and Behavior

12
157-166

Q. Do antilittering newspaper campaigns contribute to reduced littering? Uses a multiple baseline, time
series design to assess effects of media campaign. Findings suggest relationship between newspaper
intervention and reduced levels of litter.

Larson, Mark A.
and Karen L.
Massetti-Miller

198
4

"Measuring Change After a
Public Education Campaign"

Public Relations Review

10
23-32

Q. Do public education campaigns increase community recycling? Compare pre- and post-campaign
survey data. Found little change in overall attitudes or in levels of recycling behavior.

Curlee, T. Randall

198
6

"The Economic Feasibility of
Recycling: A Case Study of
Plastic Waste"

Greenwood Press

Identifies, assesses the economic and institutional incentives and barriers to recycling/disposing of plastic
wastes. Finds that while plastic recycling is expected to increase, basic economic, institutional and technical
constraints will limit increases.

DeYoung,
Raymond

198
6

"Some Psychological Aspects of
Recycling"

-------

Environment and Behavior

435-449

Q: What satisfactions do people derive from recycling? Uses mail survey of 107 households. Findings
reveal that people derive separate and distinct satisfactions from material recycling and reuse, but need
further inquiry as to why people bother to conserve.

DeYoung,
Raymond and
Stephen Kaplan

198
6

"Conservation Behavior and the
Structure of Satisfactions"

Journal of Environmental
Systems

15
233-242

Q: What factors influence energy-conserving behavior? Interviewed 30 "conservers" to identify factors
associated with daily energy conservation activities. Found eleven distinct types of satisfaction, only one
being economic in nature.

Geller, E. Scott and
Galen R. Lehman

198
6

"Motivating Desirable Waste
Management Behavior:
Applications of Behavior
Analysis"

Journal of Resource
Management and Technology

15
58-68

Argues for the antecedent-behavior-consequence approach in waste management programs, and describes
how applied behavior analysis may be relevant to organizing/implementing programs to encourage waste
reduction, litter control, and resource recovery.

Schwab, Jim

198
6

"Garbage In, Garbage Out"
Planning

52
4-9

General discussion of landfill controversy in several midwestern states and the problems/opportunities
presented by other alternatives (incineration, transfer, recycling). Suggests need for building consensus
behind the most logical alternative(s).

Arcury, Thomas A.
and Timothy P.
Johnson

198
7

"Public Environmental
Knowledge: A Statewide
Survey"

Journal of Environmental
Education

17
31-37

Q: What is the general level of public environmental knowledge? Survey findings: Public environmental
knowledge remains low, major correlates are education, income and sex.

Goldoftas, Barbara

198
7

"Recycling: Coming of Age"
Technology Review

90
28-35

Overview of the evolution and comparative state of recycling worldwide.

Katzev, Richard D.
and Anton U.
Pardini

198
7

"The Comparative Effectiveness
of Reward and Commitment
Approaches in Motivating
Community Recycling"

Journal of Environmental
Systems

17
93-113

Q: Do cost effective recycling programs require some form of incentive to encourage participation? Directly
compared the relative impact of commitment and incentive techniques in promoting recycling among 59
middle to upper-middle class households in Portland, OR. "Commitment" households made a formal, signed
pledge to recycle newspapers over a five-week period. "Incentive" households received tokens good for
purchases at local merchants each time they recycled their newspapers. The study also included a combine
"commitment and incentive" group of households and an untreated control group. Findings: No single
treatment technique was uniformly more effective than any other. Among households recycling at least one,
the commitment condition, was the most effective. The combined commitment and incentive was more
effective on some recycling measures, and the commitment only condition was on others; neither group was
clearly superior to the other. In general, results suggest no evidence to support the notion that incentives are
required to promote recycling. In both conditions using a commitment manipulation, the overall occurrence
of recycling was more than with the incentive condition. This suggests that it may be more effective to have
individuals commit to a behavior rather than reward them for doing so.

Marshall, Eliot L.

198
7

"America's Big Mess: After
You Take Out the Trash, Where
Will They Put It?"

Governing

Review of events leading up to Philadelphia's trash crisis and later decision factors, problems in their choice
of "waste-to-energy" options.

-------
Mohai, Paul and
Ben W. Twight

198
7

"Age and Environmentalism:
An Elaboration of the Buttel
Model Using National Survey
Evidence"

Social Science Quarterly

68
798-815

Q: Do aging effects contribute to environmental concern? Employs national survey data to confirm Buttel's
hypothesis that age is the strongest predictor of environmental concern. These age effects are quite
independent of other influences.

Pollock, Cynthia

198
7

"There's Gold in Garbage"
Across The Board

24
28-38

General, descriptive, comparative discussion of U.S. and foreign recycling performance, and environmental
and economic incentives for recycling.

Hodges-Copple,
John

198
8

"Minimizing Solid Waste"

Growth and Environmental
Management

1-22

Reviews waste management strategies in the South (i.e., source reduction, recycling, reduction by treatment,
and waste disposal). While states are moving from regulating bad practices to promoting desired ones, other
approaches will be needed.

Kindel, Stephen

198
8

"Taking Out the Garbage"
Financial World

157
48-56

General review of the debate over the merits/demerits and economic consequences of incineration, landfills,
and recycling. Author recommends regulations to promote best use of each approach and economic
incentives (disincentives) for compliance.

Kovacs, William L.
and Anthony A.
Anderson

198
8

"States as Market Participants in
Solid Waste Disposal
Services — Fair Competition or
the Destruction of the Private
Sector?"

Environmental Law

18
779-816

Examines Supreme Court market participation doctrine; expansion and limits that permit states to prohibit
other states waste disposal within their borders; impacts on state/private sector competition. Critiques findings
regarding state/private rights.

McEntee, Ken

198
8

"Paper Recyclers Battle Effects
of State Legislation"

Recycling Today

26; 70-71;
96-97

General discussion of the market problems facing East Coast states having, or considering, mandatory waste
paper recycling. Identifies key interests (cities, collectors, recyclers, state legislatures) and the
political/market issues driving decisions.

Reaven, Sheldon

198
8

"One Person's Opinion: We
Need a Model Professional
Recycling Curriculum"

Resource Recycling

36-37; 66

Author proposes and details a 13-unit curriculum promoting the technical instruction, theoretical
understanding, skills needed for dealing with individuals and groups, and analytical skills essential to career
recycling managers.

Schwab, Jim

198
8

"Waste Not, Want Not"
Planning

54
16-19

Compares several cities that are recycling using either mandatory or voluntary programs. Suggests that,
while some voluntary programs have had considerable success, mandatory programs are becoming more
common.

Schwartz, Stephen
C.; Harry G. Bhatt;
and Sherri K. Hess

198
8

"State of the Art of Recycling:
Comparing Community
Operations"

Recycling Today

26
86-90

Case histories of recycling systems in eight communities. Authors suggest local choices will vary due to
budget and equipment concerns; geographic distribution of the population; existing private sector operations;
and unique community traits.

Spurr, Mark

198
8

"Curbside Sampling of
Recyclables"

Resource Recycling

26-29

Q: How much, how many different kinds of materials are Minneapolis households recycling? Sampled
materials set out for recycling in two neighborhoods. Found high participation, but limited numbers of
different types of program materials being recycled.

-------
Watson, Tom

198
8

"Recycling at Crossroads in
Chicago"

Resource Recycling

7

22-23; 53,
55

General discussion of the evolution of recycling efforts in Chicago, and the perceived need for the city to
develop the consensus needed to arrive at a comprehensive recycling strategy.

2

Byrd, Jacqueline;
Robert Fulton;

Terry Schutten; and
Jon Walsh

198
9

"Recycling Policy and
Implementation Strategies for
Recycling"

Resource Recycling

October
34-58

Q: Why do/don't residents recycle; what, how frequently do they recycle; does recycling advertising have an
impact? Surveyed one county before and after a public information campaign. Suggests need to stress
environmental protection, monetary incentives.

2

Dunlap, Riley E.

198
9

"Public Opinion and
Environmental Policy"

in James Lester (ed.)
Environmental Politics and
Policy. Durham, NC: Duke
University Press

87-134

Q: To what degree does the public support environmental protection? Has support increased/decreased
over 20 years? Uses several sets of trend data. Despite success in maintaining public support, environmental
goals do not outweigh economic concerns.

1

Environmental
Protection Agency

198
9

"The Solid Waste Dilemma: An
Agenda for Action"

Final Report of the Municipal
Solid Waste Task Force Office
of Solid Waste



Presents data defining scope of the solid waste "dilemma," leading to the Task Force recommendation for a
holistic integrated waste management system custom designed to meet local environmental, economic, and
institutional needs.

2

Lewis, Jack

198
9

"What's in the Solid Waste
Stream?"

Environmental Protection
Agency Journal

15 (No. 2)
15-17

Descriptive presentation of aggregate data characterizing the solid waste stream, specifically concerning the
materials, products and sources.

3

Office of

Technology

Assessment

198
9

"Facing America's Trash: What
Next for Municipal Solid
Waste?"

U. S. Government Printing
Office



Extensive presentation of the national solid waste problem and policy options available for federal, state, local
and intergovernmental action.

3

BioCycle

199
6

"Chicago Board of Trade
Recycling Exchange"

BioCycle

(Oct.)
14

Update on efforts to make the Recyclables Exchange more user friendly, reduce subscriber costs, and
improve commodity parameters for buyers and sellers. Changes are hoped to attract more users, contribute
to better price discovery.

2

DeYoung,
Raymond

199
6

"Some Psychological Aspects of
Reduced Consumption
Behavior: The Role of Intrinsic
Satisfaction and Competence
Motivation"

Environment and Behavior

28
358-409

Concept development. Suggests need to recognize and focus on 'competence motivation' in conservation
behavior research. New focus on internal, intangible incentives may enhance strategies to emphasize
conservation behavior.

1

50

-------
Fullerton, Don and
Thomas C.
Kinnamon

199
6

"Household Responses to
Pricing Garbage by the Bag"

The American Economic
Review

86
971-984

Q: What is the household response to unit pricing on the weight of garbage, the number of containers, the
weight per container, the amount of recycling, and illegal dumping? Use pre- and post-test experimental
data from the Charlottesville, VA program to charge $0.80 per bag or can of garbage collected at the curb.
Counted and weighed garbage and recyclables from 75 randomly selected (although unrepresentative of the
population as a whole) households for four weeks before and four weeks after program implementation.
Findings: The average household member reduced the weight of their garbage by 14%, reduced the volume
of their garbage by 37%, and increased the weight of recyclables by 16%. The measures for illegal dumping,
however, suggest 28 to 43% of the reduction in garbage may be accounted for by illegal dumping or burning.
While the weight reduction in household garbage was statistically significant, it was also small. In addition,
many households already participated in voluntary recycling before the program began. Authors conclude
that the incremental benefit of unit-pricing is limited, and "that the social benefit does not cover the
administrative cost" (983).

Giltenan, Ed

199
6

"Ups and Downs of Recycling"
Chemical Marketing Reporter

2509

Q: What factors have contributed to the collapse of secondary fiber markets? What are the prospects for the
future? Presents aggregate data and discussion of factors affecting the fiber market. Suggests that industry
downturn, decline in consumer "infatuation" with recycling, increased use of coated paper in publishing/printing, and
decline of newsprint has led to: reduced availability and less inclination to pay premium prices for recycled
newsprint. Also, unfavorable economics (reduced demand, unreasonable growth in prices/industry capacity,
demand for higher quality) are the key problems. Suggests, however, that long-term demand is still strong; new
technology will help wastepaper compete with virgin pulp quality; better collection methods are leading to larger
volumes of mixed- and high-grade paper collection. Good markets will return for secondary fibers.

Luton, Larry S.

199
6

" The Politics of Garbage"

Pittsburgh, PA: University of
Pittsburgh Press

Q: How are factors involved in solid waste policymaking related? Case study of Spokane, WA informed by
systems theory to understand SW policymaking process. Assesses influence of political culture, local political
system, intergovernmental relations, economic influences, public participation, and the media. Findings suggest the
value of the systems model for improved understanding of solid waste policy making.

Ackerman, Frank

199
7

"Why Do We Recycle?"
Washington, DC: island Press

Q: Why do we recycle? Discussion of the debates regarding recycling and the economic/environmental
costs/benefits; the research and policy concerning packaging; and suggestions regarding future waste reduction and
materials policy. Findings suggest support for recycling is not understandable solely in terms of financial incentives.
Suggests revision of textbook consumption models to reflect reality that there is "such a thing as enough," and that
many needs must be satisfied through social change rather than private spending. And textbook images of people
as effort minimizers are misleading. The urge to recycle should include the understanding that individual actions do
express responsibility and responsiveness.

Horrigan, Alice and
Jim Motavelli

199
7

"Talking Trash"
E Magazine

(Mar/Apr)
28-35

Q: What are the pros and cons of recycling? General discussion of the debate over recycling. Conclusion
suggests reuse makes more sense than waste.

Palmer, Karen;
Hilary Sigman; and
Margaret Walls

199
7

"The Cost of Reducing Municipal
Solid Waste"

Journal of En vironmentai
Economics and Management

33
128-50

Q: What are the least/most cost efficient of three price-based policies for solid waste reduction? Authors develop
a model of waste disposal using supply and demand elasticities and 1990 prices for aluminum, glass, paper, plastic,
and steel to evaluate the cost effectiveness of deposit/refund fees, advance disposal fees, and recycling subsidies.
Employ data from previous empirical studies and 1990 price and quantity data for each type of material. Findings:
Results suggest there are "substantial" differences in the levels of intervention needed to reduce waste disposal with
various policies. A $45/ton deposit/refund reduces all wastes in the model by 10%, while it would require an
advance disposal fee of $85/ton or a recycling subsidy of $98/ton to achieve comparable reductions. Comparisons
of policies that set common waste reduction targets for specific materials and least-cost approaches permitting larger
reductions in some materials than other finds that setting goals for individual materials is more costly than
establishing a single disposal price for all materials. Authors suggest the need for more research on the social
benefits of waste reduction to address uncertainty about the benefits of waste reduction vs. its marginal costs.

-------
Appendix A

52

-------
Publication Name

Administration and Policy Journal

Administration and Society

Administrative Management

Administrative Science Quarterly

American Academy of Political and Social Science

American Behavioral Scientist

American City and County

American Economic Review

American Journal of Political Science

American Journal of Sociology

American Political Science Review

American Politics Quarterly

American Psychologist

American Review of Public Administration

American Sociological Review

Amicus Journal

Annals of Public Administration

Annals of Regional Science: International Journal

of Urban Regional and Environmental Research and Policy

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

Applied Economics

Atlantic Economic Journal

Behavioral Science

Biocycle

Bioscience

California Management Review
Canadian Journal of Economics
Canadian Journal of Regional Science
CATO Journal

Columbia Journal of Environmental Law
Contemporary Policy Issues
Decision Sciences
Eastern Economic Journal
Ecology Law Quarterly
Economic Review
Energy Economics
The Energy Journal

53

-------
Energy Systems and Policy
Environment

Environment and Behavior
Environment and Planning
Environmental Action
Environmental Forum
Environmental Law
Environmental Planning
EPA Journal
Evaluation

Evaluation and Program Planning
Evaluation Review

Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy

Good Government

Governing the States and Localities

Government Finance Review

Harvard Journal on Legislation

International Journal of Public Administration

Issues in Science and Technology

Journal

0

Accounting and Public Policy

Journal

0

Air and Waste Management

Journal

0

Applied Behavioral Science

Journal

0

Consumer Affairs

Journal

0

Economic Literature

Journal

0

Environmental Economics and Management

Journal

0

Environmental Management

Journal

0

Environmental Planning and Management

Journal

0

Environmental Systems

Journal

0

Policy Analysis and Management

Journal

0

Politics

Journal

0

Public Administration

Journal

0

Public Administration: Research and Theory

Journal

0

Public Economics

Journal

0

Public Policy

Journal

0

Regulatory Economics

Journal

0

Regulatory Science

Journal

0

Social Issues

Journal

0

Socio-Economics

54

-------
Journal of the American Planning Association

Journal of the American Institute of Planners

Journal of Voluntary Action Research

Journal of Volunteer Administration

Land Economics

Law and Society Review

Maxwell Review

Midwest Review of Public Administration

National Cities

National Civic Review

National Journal

National Tax Journal

Natural Resources Journal

Non-Profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly

Operations Research

Planning

Policy Sciences

Policy Studies

Policy Studies Journal

Policy Studies Review

Political Research Quarterly

Population and Environment

Public Administration Quarterly

Public Administration Review

Public Administration Times

Public Choice

Public Finance Quarterly

Public Management

Public Management Series

Public Opinion Quarterly

Public Policy and Administration

Public Productivity Review

Publius: The Journal of Federalism

Resource and Energy Economics

Resource Recycling

Resources

Resources Conservation and Recycling

Sage Professional Papers in Administrative and Policy Studies

55

-------
Sage Yearbooks in Politics and Public Policy
Scientific American
Social Science Quarterly
Society

Southern Review of Public Administration

Spectrum (Journal of State Government)

State and Local Government Review

State Legislatures

Technology Review

The Economist

Municipal Yearbook

Urban Affairs Annual Reviews

Urban Affairs Quarterly

Urban Research News

Urban Research Reports

Voluntary Action Leadership

Waste Age

Western Political Quarterly
World Bank Research Observer
World Watch

56

-------
Appendix B

57

-------
Glossary Terms

(Note: Some definitions copied from Decision-Maker's Guide to Solid Waste Management,
Second Edition, U.S. EPA: OSWER, EPA530-R-95-023, August 1995)

Advance disposal fee:

Fee charged to retail
items that reflects incremental disposal
costs.

Bag method:

Feature of solid waste collection
programs requiring residents to purchase
bags used exclusively for waste disposal
and/or recycling.

Bin method:

Bottle bill:

Buy-back center:

Commingled recyclables:

Curbside collection:

Diversion rate:

Feature of recycling programs that
issue/sell bins to residents for curbside
collection of recyclables. Depending on
the program, bins may be designated for
commingled or separated recyclables.

A law

requiring deposits on beverage containers
(see Container Deposit Legislation).

A facility to
which individuals bring recyclables in
exchange for payment.

Two or more
recyclable materials collected together (i.e.,
not separated). In some types of collection
programs, recyclable materials may be
commingled, as long as they do not
contaminate each other. For example,
glass and plastic can be commingled, but
glass and oil cannot.

Programs in

which recyclable materials are collected at
the curb, often from special containers, and
then taken to various processing facilities.

The amount of
material being diverted for recycling,
compared to the total amount that was
previously disposed of.

58

-------
Drop-off collection:

Generation rate:

Incinerator:

Integrated solid waste management (ISWM):

Level of recycling:

Mandatory recycling program:

Marginal social cost:

Marginal social benefit:

Mobile drop-off system:

Municipal solid waste (MSW):

A method of
collecting recyclable or compostable
materials in which the materials are taken
by individuals to collection sites, where they
deposit the materials into designated
containers.

The amount of
waste that is produced over a given amount
of time. For example, a district may have a
generation rate of 100 tons per day.

A

facility in which solid waste is combusted.

A practice using several alternative waste
management techniques to manage and
dispose of specific components of the
municipal solid waste stream. Waste
management alternatives include source
reduction, recycling, composting, energy
recovery, and landfilling.

Generally

refers to quantity/volume of recyclables
collected.

Recycling program that
imposes legal requirement on residents to
separate recyclables from their solid waste.

Incremental
cost of production or consumption that
includes private (market) costs and the
value of any externalities.

Incremental benefit of
production or consumption that includes
private (market) benefits and the value of
any externalities.

Drop-off recycling
program using portable mobile collection
units.

MSW means household
waste, commercial solid waste,
nonhazardous sludge, conditionally exempt

59

-------
small quantity hazardous waste, and
industrial solid waste.

Negative externality:

Participation rate (recycling):

Pigouvian tax:

Plastic bag collection system:

Recycling:

Recycling level:

Residential waste:

Solid waste:

60

A condition
where marginal social cost exceeds
marginal private cost (or where marginal
private benefit exceeds marginal social
benefit) resulting in a spillover or non-
market cost or benefit. Pollution is
normally thought of as creating a negative
externality.

Percentage of eligible
households that actively participate in the
recycling program.

An optimal emissions tax or
fee equal to the divergence between
marginal social cost and marginal
private cost at the socially desirable
level of production or consumption.

MSW program requirement
that waste and recyclables be disposed of
with plastic bags (as opposed to cans, bins,
etc.). Programs may or may not include
features of the bag method.

The

process by which materials otherwise
destined for disposal are collected,
reprocessed, or remanufactured, and are
reused.

Measure of
the amount of materials recycled relative to
the total solid waste stream (often measures
in tons or as a percentage).

Waste

generated in single- and multiple-family
homes.

Any

garbage, or refuse, sludge from a
wastewater treatment plant, water supply
treatment plant, or air pollution control
facility and other discarded material,
including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or

-------
Source reduction:

Source separation:

Tipping fee:

Unit-pricing:

Variable disposal fee

contained gaseous material resulting from
industrial, commercial, mining, and
agricultural operations, and from community
activities, but does not include solid or
dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or
solid or dissolved materials in irrigation
return flows or industrial discharges that are
point sources subject to permit under 33
U.S.C. 1342, or source, special nuclear, or
by-product materials as defined by the
Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended (68
Stat. 923). (Definition from 40CFR 258.2.).

The design,
manufacture, acquisition, and reuse of
materials so as to minimize the quantity
and/or toxicity of waste produced. Source
reduction prevents waste either by
redesigning products or by otherwise
changing societal patterns of consumption,
use, and waste generation. (See also,
"waste reduction.")

The

segregation of specific materials at the point
of generation for separate collection.
Residential generators source separate
recyclables as part of curbside recycling
programs.

A fee

charged for the unloading or dumping of
material at a landfill, transfer station,
recycling center, or waste-to-energy facility,
usually stated in dollars per ton.

(Sometimes called a disposal or service
fee).

Generic name for various
incremental pricing schemes.

Service based charges for
solid waste disposal that may
include variable disposal fee
systems and quantity-based tipping
fees.

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Volume-based fees
Waste reduction:

Waste stream:

Volume-based
pricing scheme for solid waste disposal.

Waste

reduction is a broad term encompassing all
waste management methods—source
reduction, recycling, composting—that
result in reduction of waste going to a
combustion facility or landfill.

A term

describing the total flow of solid waste from
homes, businesses, institutions and
manufacturing plants that must be recycled,
burned, or disposed of in landfills; or any
segment thereof, such as the "residential
waste stream" or the "recyclable waste
stream."

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