EPA-B-22-001
February 2022
An Interactive Guide to
Nonpoint Source Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
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The Guide's Target Audience
This guide is primarily for those who develop and implement
monitoring plans for watershed projects, but it can also be used by
those wishing to evaluate the technical merits of nonpoint source
(NPS) pollution monitoring proposals they might sponsor.
Leveraging existing work from your group's strategy and
monitoring documentation (e.g., standard operating procedures,
quality assurance project plans [QAPPs] with similar objectives)
will help you make the most of this interactive guide and develop
an effective plan for your project.
Note: If you are using Clean Water Act section 106 or 319(h) funds:
• Review your monitoring approach to determine if it conforms to your
state's/tribe's water quality monitoring strategy.
• Determine quality assurance needs early including developing and
approving a QAPP before collecting any samples.
Photos by USEPA
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Why Do We Need Nonpoint Source Monitoring?
Identify water quality problems, designated use
impairments and causes, and pollutant sources.
Develop total maximum daily loads (TMDLs),
including load and waste load allocations.
Analyze trends.
Assess the effectiveness of best management
practices (BMPs) or watershed projects.
Assess permit compliance.
Validate or calibrate models.
Conduct research.
/ f
Collecting samples (photo by NRCS)
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Fundamentals of Good Monitoring
Go to p. 2-4
of Guidebook
Good monitoring
• Provides fundamental information
about the water resource and its
impairments.
• Documents changes through time.
• Shows response to NPS pollution
reduction practices and programs.
• Confirms achievement of
management objectives.
• Provides basis for evaluating
progress (adaptive management).
Poor monitoring (x)
• Fails to meet objectives.
• Creates confusion.
• Leaves critical questions unanswered.
• Wastes time and money.
• Leads to bad decisions.
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This Interactive Guide Approach of Guidebook
This interactive guide offers a high-level
overview of USEPA's NPS monitoring guidebook,
Monitoring and_ EvaluatingNonpoint
Watershed^ Projects (referred to in this document
as the guidebook); it primarily focuses on
Chapters 2 and 3.
By using the map on the next page, users may
easily navigate directly to the details that are
most pertinent to their monitoring objectives.
Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source
Watershed Projects
May 2016
Developed under Contract to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by TetraTech. Inc.
GS Contract #GS-10F-0268K
Order # EP-G135-00168
Authors: Dressing, S.A., D.W. Meals, J.B. Harcum, J. Spooner, J.B. Striding, R-P. Richards2,
C.J. Millard, S.A. Lanberg, and J.G. O'Donnell
1 North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
2HekJelberg University, Tiffin, OH.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water
Nonpoint Source Control Branch
Washington, DC 20460
EPA 841-R-16-010
May 2016
This document is available at: https://www.epa-Qov/polluted-runofT-nonpomt-source-
TOlluton/rnonitorinQ-and-evaluatinq-nonpoint-soiirce-watershed
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Monitoring Plan Design Elements
ow to Use ]s
Interactive Guide
Click on the map to
learn more about
each design
element
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
9
9
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
9
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
9
9
SELECT
SCALE
9
9 9
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
SELECT
VARIABLES
9
W DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
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Initial Design Element: Identify Problem(s)
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
DETERMINE;
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
9
SELECT
SCALE
DESIGN
STATIONS
QAPP
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
9 *
SELECT
VARIABLES
9
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Identify Problems ^ ^ *1 9
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Identify
problems
Identify the causes of impairment and
the pollutant sources that need to be
controlled.
Considerations:
• How might the characteristics of your watershed affect water quality?
• How would you identify specific pollution problems?
Identify Problems
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Overview
Go to p. 2-4
Guidebook
Designing a monitoring program to assess response to NPS
control programs requires a thorough understanding of the
system.
Questions that should be addressed during this step:
~ What are the critical water quality
impairments or threats?
~ What are the key pollutants involved?
~ What are the sources of these
pollutants?
~ How are pollutants transported
through the watershed?
~ What are the most important drivers
of pollutant generation and delivery?
~ What are the areas that are
ecologically or culturally significant, or
critical, to your community?
Identify Problems
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Understand the System
Monitoring design influences
(Click on topic to ju
Causes and sources of pollution
Pollutant transport
Seasonality
Water resource types
Climate
Soils, geology and topography
Identify Problems
Go to p. 2-4
of Guidebook
Glenn Creek, New York (photo by NOAA)
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Causes and Sources of Pollution
• What, where and when should you sample?
• Knowing the pollution source(s) allows you to apply the
correct pollution control measures and to monitor the
watershed's response.
Photos by NRCS
Identify Problems
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Pollutant Transport Considerations of Guidebook
• How are pollutants transported from the source to
the receiving water?
- Particulate pollutants (e.g., sediment) generally move in
surface waters.
- Dissolved pollutants (e.g., nitrate-nitrogen) can be
transported in both surface and ground waters.
• The distinct pollutant pathways need to be
understood to decide where and when to sample.
(There might be pollutant sources upstream of your
watershed.)
• The timing of sampling during storm events can also
be informed by knowledge of pollutant pathways.
Agricultural runoff (photo by NRCS)
Field irrigation (photo by NRCS)
Identify Problems
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Pollutant Transport Considerations (2of2, of Guidebook
• Monitoring for sediment or particulate phosphorus is often
best focused on surface runoff and streamflow.
• In many cases, additional details regarding pollutant
pathways must be understood to fine-tune monitoring plans.
- Example: Monitoring decisions require an understanding of how
Dollutants move through the system, such as whether to focus on high-
Mow events (e.g., for particulate pollutants delivered episodically in
surface runoff or storm flows) or base flows (e.g., for dissolved
pollutants that tend to be delivered continuously via groundwater).
• The timing of sampling during storm events can also be
informed by knowledge of pollutant pathways.
Identify Problems
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Seasonality Considerations
Go to p. 2-6
Guidebook
How much will seasonal patterns affect pollutant loads?
• Seasonal patterns like snowmelt, rainfall, drought and humidity
are often critical factors in monitoring design because NPS
pollution is highly weather-driven.
- In northern regions, snowmelt and spring rains are often the
dominant hydrologic feature of the annual cycle, and most of the
annual pollutant load could be delivered in a few weeks.
• In cases where available water quality data are not sufficient to
assess seasonality in a specific watershed, it might be necessary
to perform seasonal synoptic surveys, collect year-round samples
initially, or rely on watershed modeling to better define
seasonality and facilitate fine-tuning of the monitoring design.
Click on photos
below for examples
of seasonality
Identify Problems
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Water Resource Considerations
Go to p. 2-7
of Guidebook
Waterbody type
Waterbody-specific considerations
(Click links for more information)
Rivers and streams
Lakes, reservoirs and
ponds
Wetlands
Estuaries
Coastal nearshore
waters
Groundwater
Variability
Strategies and tools
Dynamics
Variability
Dynamics
Variability
Spatial flow patterns
Variability
Sampling selection
Stratification
Shape
Flow patterns
Variability
Sampling options
Water resource examples (photos by USEPA)
Identify Problems
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Climate Considerations
js
Go to p. 2-21
of Guidebook
• What is the expected range of climate*
conditions?
• The frequency, intensity and duration of
runoff-producing storm events affect:
- Sampling frequency and duration
- Equipment selection
- Automatic sampler programming
- Many other elements of a monitoring program
*Climate change is discussed in future sections
Photo by USEPA
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Identify Problems
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Soils, Geology and Topography
Go to p. 2-22
of Guidebook
• Soil, geology, and topography influence the hydrologic
budget, pollution sources and loading, and other
factors that drive monitoring program design.
- Soil groups affect runoff and pollutant yields.
• What are the soil and substrate like? Is the area flat or
sloped?
- Geomorphology and substrate geology determine riparian
zone function and pollutant delivery to nearby waters.
• Slope influences the likelihood of landslides and debris flow,
erosional processes and weathering rates.
- Slope must be factored into the monitoring design:
• Height and slope length affect (1) the rate and duration of
runoff from a watershed, (2) rate of erosion, (3) depth of soil,
and (4) stream characteristics.
Soil types may vary across the landscape (photos by
NRCS)
Identify Problems
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Identify Problem(s)—Summary
Have you completed the following?
~ Identified the critical water quality
impairments or threats
~ Identified the key pollutants
~ Identified the sources of the key
pollutants
~ Identified methods of pollutant
transport
~ Identified the most important
drivers of pollutant generation and
delivery
The mouth of the Connecticut River as it enters Long Island
Sound (photo by NRCS)
Identify Problems
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Next Design Element—Form Objectives
SELECT
VARIABLES
SELECT
SCALE
QAPP
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
DETERMINE!
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
DESIGN
STATIONS
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
Form Objectives
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Form
objectives
Formulating clear monitoring objectives
is an essential first step in developing an
efficient and effective monitoring plan.
Considerations:
• What questions do you want to answer?
• How do your objectives fit into your overall program?
Form Objectives
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Overview
• Well-formulated monitoring objectives drive the rest of the
monitoring study design and are critical to a successful
monitoring project.
• NPS monitoring data can be used to:
- Identify water quality problems, use impairments and causes, and
pollutant sources
- Develop TMDLs and load or wasteload allocations
- Analyze trends
- Assess the effectiveness of BMPs or watershed projects
- Assess permit compliance
- Validate or calibrate models
- Conduct research Monitoring a river (photo by USEPA)
Form Objectives
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Monitoring Objectives
Questions that a monitoring
program can answer:
• Has a waterbody's condition changed
over time?
• Is there an emerging problem area that
needs additional regulatory and/or
nonregulatory actions to support water
quality management decisions?
See example: Little Miami River, Ohio
Form Objectives
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Program Objectives
• All monitoring programs should be designed to answer questions.
• Monitoring objectives should be directly linked to overall program or project objectives.
- Note: You might need to adapt monitoring objectives based on available resources.
• Program objectives should be linked to management decisions/actions.
• At the start of the project, ensure necessary resources are available.
Example program objective
Complementary monitoring objective
Reduce annual phosphorus loading to the lake by
at least 15% in 5 years using nutrient
management.
Measure changes in annual phosphorus
loading to the lake and link the changes to
management actions.
Reduce E. coli load to stream to meet water
quality standards within 3 years.
Measure changes in compliance with water
quality standards for E. coli.
Form Objectives
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Form Objectives—Summary
~ Have you formed your
monitoring objectives?
~ Do your monitoring
objectives fit into your
overall program?
Roosevelt Harbor, AK (photo by U.S. Forest Service)
Form Objectives
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Next Element: Design Experiment
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
DESIGN
STATIONS
9 J
5
SELECT
VARIABLES
SELECT
SCALE
QAPP
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
9
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Design Experiment M ~ *1 9
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Design
experiment
Choose a monitoring design before
monitoring begins to ensure you can
collect the data needed to best meet
your objectives.
Considerations:
• Will your design generate the data you need?
• Is your design financially and technically feasible?
Design Experiment
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Overview
• Your monitoring objectives will drive
decisions about your monitoring program.
- Several experimental study designs can be
applied to meet monitoring objectives, and
some of the choices are obvious.
• Select a monitoring design that:
- Best matches available resources.
- Presents the fewest logistical obstacles.
Collecting benthic samples (photo by NRCS)
Design Experiment
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Monitoring Design as a Function of Objective 01 of Guidebook
Objectives
Design options
(Click on a specific design
option to skip ahead)
Short description
Problem
assessment
TMDL loads
Trends
BMP
effectiveness
Reconnaissance/svnoptic
Multiple sites distributed across study area; monitored for short duration (<12 months)
X
Plot
Traditional research study design; BMPs replicated in randomized block design
X
Paired
Treatment and control watersheds monitored during control and treatment periods
X
X
Sinqle watershed before/after
Single station at study area outlet monitored before and after BMP implementation
X
X
Sinqle-station lonq-term trend
Single station at study area outlet monitored before and after BMP implementation
X
X
Above/below
Stations with paired sampling upstream and downstream of BMP(s)
X
X
X
Side-bv-side
Same as single watershed because there are no calibrating paired samples
X
X
Multiple
Multiple watersheds monitored in two or more groups: treatment and control
X
Inout/outout
Stations located at input and output of BMP
X
Design Experiment
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Reconnaissance or Synoptic Design
Go to p. 2-34
of Guidebook
Use to:
• Determine magnitude and extent of
problem.
• Target critical areas.
• Obtain preliminary data where none
exist.
Reconnaissance or Synoptic
Design Experiment
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Plot Design
js
Go to p. 2-35
of Guidebook
Use to:
• Assess soil conditions, including nutrient levels
• Assess pollutant transport pathways.
• Determine the effects of BMPs on pollutant
transport.
Plot Design
*
Monitoring
Station
Treated
Area A
Treated
Area B
Design Experiment
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Paired Design
Go to p. 2-36
of Guidebook
Use to compare data from two watersheds (treatment and control)
Paired Watersheds
Design Experiment
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Single Watershed Before/After Design of Guidebook
Use to measure pollutant loads before and after
implementation of the TMDL.
• A single monitoring station is located at the outlet of the study
area.
• Sampling is performed before and after BMP implementation.
• This design is not recommended for BMP effectiveness studies
because:
- There are no control stations (as in the paired design described
earlier).
- BMP effectiveness cannot easily be distinguished from other
confounding effects (USDA-NRCS 2003). Example: If the "before"
years are relatively dry and the "after" years are relatively wet,
the differences in water quality and loads could be due to
differences in weather rather than the effects of implemented
BMPs.
Single Watershed
Before After
Design Experiment
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Single Station Long-Term Trend Design of Guidebook
Use to determine changes in water quality or
pollutant loads overtime.
• Advantages:
- Single monitoring station
- Wide applicability
- Ability to account for lengthy lag times
• Challenges:
- Requires a long duration
Monitoring
Station
Design Experiment
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Above/Below Design
Use to compare data from above
and below treatment area.
• Design stations are located upstream
(or upgradient) and downstream (or
down-gradient) of the area or source
that will be treated with BMPs.
Go to p. 2-39
of Guidebook
Above Station
Below Station
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Side-By-Side Before/After Design
Use to monitor adjacent watersheds
without calibrating paired samples
before treatment.
• Not recommended for evaluating BMPs or
watershed projects
• Very likely you'll be unable to distinguish
among causal factors such as BMPs or land
treatment, inherent watershed differences, or
an interaction between BMPs and watershed
differences.
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Side-by-Side Watersheds
Monitoring
Station
Treated
Area A
Treated
J Area B
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Multiple Watersheds Design
Go to p. 2-41
of Guidebook
Use to estimate the variability in a large group of watersheds
• Requires that more than two watersheds are selected for monitoring within geographic area of
interest.
• Two different treatments, and sometimes a control, are replicated across the monitored
watersheds in roughly equal numbers.
Challenges:
• Often not a practical choice
• Several years of monitoring
is often necessary
• Cost can be high
See example:
Multiple watersheds
Control
Multiple Watersheds
Treated Treated
Monitoring Station
Treated Area
Partially Treated
Partially Treated Area
Design Experiment
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Input/Output Design
j05
Go to p. 2-41
Guidebook
Use to compare data from before and after water moves through a BMP.
Input/Output
Inflow
4
BMP
^ Outflow
14 -
w
4 Monitoring Station
Untreated
Treated
Design Experiment
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Critical Areas
Data collected in the problem assessment phase can be used to help define
critical source areas* for pollutants—this is key to understanding the
watershed, prioritizing land treatment, and evaluating project effectiveness.
• Example: With concurrent data from monitored subwatersheds or tributaries, you
can use statistical tests to identify significant differences in pollutant
concentration or load among multiple sampling points. These data can be
displayed graphically in a map to show watershed regions that could be major
contributors of pollutants.
Critical source area: An area within a watershed that can contribute a disproportionately large amount of pollution.
Generally located where high-magnitude pollutant sources (e.g., eroding hillsides) overlap or interact with land
areas that have a high pollutant transport potential (e.g., areas prone to generating high volumes of runoff).
Design Experiment
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Design Experiment—Summary
~ Have you selected a design for your experiment?
~ Reconnaissance is best for the assessment phase of a watershed project.
~ Above/below monitoring can help provide information about an isolated source
or area.
~ Paired, above/below-before/after, plot and input/output designs are generally
best for evaluating the effectiveness of BMPs or watershed projects.
~ The paired, single watershed before/after, single-station long-term trend,
above/below, side-by-side and multiple study designs can provide useful load
estimation in support of TMDLs if flow and relevant variables are monitored.
~ Single-station long-term trend design is often used for trend detection at
certain points in time.
Design Experiment
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Next Element: Select Scale
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
FORM
OBJECTIVES
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
DESIGN
STATIONS
9 ^
SELECT
VARIABLES
QAPP
SELECT
SCALE
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
9
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Select Scale
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Select scale
Determine the size of the area you will
monitor.
Considerations:
• What are the objectives of your study?
• What resources are available to you?
• What is your timeframe?
Select Scale
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Overview
• The choice of scale affects monitoring
costs, duration and logistics.
• Questions to address during this step:
- What is the study duration?
- What type of water resource will be
monitored?
- How complex is the project?
I . .iii Urban setting (photo by NRCS)
- What are the available resources?
Select Scale
<
~
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9
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Options for Scale Selection of Guidebook
Statewide or regional
Watershed BMP or practice
Note: The ability to isolate the factors of interest (e.g., BMP effectiveness, transport pathways) generally
increases as scale decreases, but the transferability of results generally decreases as scale decreases.
Select Scale
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Summary of Scale Options of Guidebook
Choosing monitoring scale as a function of objective:
Monitoring scale
(Click on o specific scale
option to skip oheod)
Objective
Problem
assessment
TMDL
loads
Trends
BMP
effectiveness
Watershed
project
evaluation
Statewide/regional
X
Watershed
X
X
X
X
BMP: Plot
X
BMP: Field
X
X
X
Note: Monitoring can be performed at scales ranging from national to single points, but the primary options for the types of
NPS monitoring studies addressed in detail by USEPA's guidebook are the watershed and BMP scales, the latter of which
includes plot-scale and field-scale studies.
Select Scale
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Statewide or Regional-Scale Monitoring of Guidebook
• A statewide or regional-scale study generally emphasizes larger streams and
rivers, public lakes and watershed outlets.
• Studies are typically designed to assess current conditions.
• Monitoring is often done near USGS gauging sites to take advantage of flow data.
• Cost and logistical constraints limit most monitoring efforts to the collection of
grab samples, a few field measurements (e.g., temperature, dissolved oxygen,
conductivity), and biological and habitat monitoring.
• Monitoring frequencies are generally low.
• Trend analysis is difficult to perform.
Select Scale
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Watershed-Scale Monitoring (iof2>
Go to p. 2-29
of Guidebook
• A key difference between watershed
and state-level monitoring is the
narrowing of focus and increased
intensity of watershed-level
monitoring.
• Important questions to ask include:
- What are the study's specific objectives?
- What is the size of the watershed?
- What are the parameters of concern?
Reviewing o mop with o landowner (photo by NRCS)
Select Scale
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Watershed-Scale Monitoring ^ of Guidebook
• Initial efforts generally focus on refining the problem definition, including:
- Better characterizing the water quality problem
- Determining the major sources and causes of the problem
- Providing data to help design a plan to solve the problems
• Monitoring during the pre-implementation phase of a watershed project
may include:
- A synoptic survey (see guidebook p. 2-34)
- Tests for toxicity (see guidebook p. 3-84)
- Flow measurements to support a load analysis (guidebook p. 3-10)
- Detailed habitat assessments (see guidebook p. 3-27)
Select Scale
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BMP- or Practice-Scale Monitoring
>R~~| Go to p. 2-31
Sp | of Guidebook
Monitoring at this scale:
. A
• Is typically the most intensive type.
• Ranges from plot-scale monitorinRto larger, field-scale
monitoring.
\ - *V 1 \
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Questions to ask:
\ /ww
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^ Urban/'
• What type of BMP is being used?
• What specific sources are being treated by the BMP?
" ' t'V
Treatment
5|rtL / 4 1
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• Is the monitoring only storm-event driven or does
base flow need to be considered?
• Is adequate funding available to support the higher
cost of monitoring at the BMP/practice scale?
Clarksburg monitoring study:
watershed types (image by USGS)
Select Scale
< * +1 s
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Selecting Scale—Summary
~ Have you selected the scale of
your monitoring project that best
meets your project objectives?
~ Does the scale meet your budget
and logistical constraints?
~ Statewide or regional
~ Watershed
~ BMP or practice
~ Plot
~ Field
Select Scale
<
~
*1
9
PREVIOUS
NEXT
RETURN
GOTO MAP
Wetlands in Alaska (photo by USEPA)
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Next Element: Determine Sampling Frequency
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
V
QAPP
9
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
y
SELECT
SCALE
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
STATIONS
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
9 9
5V
SELECT
VARIABLES
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Determine
sampling
frequency
Determine how often to collect samples
and determine the duration of your
sampling program.
Considerations:
• What types of waterbodies are involved?
• What variables need to be measured?
• What is the system's variability?
• What is your budget?
Determine Sampling Frequency
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1 Go to p. 3-43
Overview PJ °fGuidebook
This section covers two critical questions:
1) How often to collect samples (what is the
sampling frequency or interval between
samples)?
2) How long to conduct a sampling program
(what is the sampling duration)?
Decisions will depend on program
objectives, type of water body involved, GreatLakes
variables measured and available budget.
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Overview >
• Sampling frequency must be relatively
high (e.g., daily to weekly) to evaluate
effectiveness of a single BMP or to
document the mechanisms controlling
water quality at a particular site.
• A program with an objective of
detecting a long-term trend or
evaluating watershed program
effectiveness can accept longer
intervals (e.g., weekly to monthly)
between samples.
Taking a stream measurement (photo by NRCS)
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Selecting a Sampling Interval
js
Go to p. 3-43
of Guidebook
This schematic of sampling
frequency as a function of
system type offers a general
guide to the relationship
between system variability
and sampling interval.
(Source: USDA-NRCS 2003)
>.
O
c
CD
3
cr
0
O)
c
~Q_
E
en
CO
I
5
o
Low
High
System Variability
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Calculating the Appropriate Frequency of Guidebook
• Calculating the appropriate
sampling frequency varies with the
statistical objective for the
monitoring data and sampling
regime.
• The following slides provide
examples of how sampling
frequency in the context of simple
random sampling can be calculated
for estimating the mean and
detecting trends.
Water quality sampling (photo by Eric Vance, US EPA)
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Estimating the Mean
Go to p. 3-44
of Guidebook
• Estimating the Mean—A common monitoring objective is to
be able to estimate the mean value of a water quality
variable (with a specific level of confidence).
• You can calculate the necessary sample size using this equation:
where:
n = the calculated sample size
2 2
t S t= Student's t at n-l degrees of freedom and a specified
12, = confidence level
s = estimate of the sample standard deviation
d = acceptable difference of the estimate from the estimate of the
true mean, or Yi of the confidence interval from the mean
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Detecting a Change or Trend
js
Go to p. 3-45
of Guidebook
Another common monitoring objective is to
detect a change or trend in the value of a water
quality variable (with a specific level of
confidence).
Two types of change can occur in the water
quality variable being studied:
- A step change that compares the pre- and post-water
quality mean values
- A linear (gradual, consistent) trend over time
Trend analysis can
answer questions like:
"Are streamflows
increasing as
urbanization increases?"
or
"Have nutrient
loads decreased since
the TMDL was
implemented?"
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Minimum Detectable Change (MDC) jS °°gILI'I
• MDC—the minimum change in a pollutant
concentration (or load) during a given time
period required for the change to be
considered statistically significant.
• You can use the MDC to:
- Estimate the required sampling frequency based on
the anticipated change in pollutant concentration or
load.
- Estimate the change in pollutant concentration or
load needed for detection with a monitoring design
at a specified sampling frequency.
Minimum detectable change
analysis can answer questions like:
How much change must be
measured in a water resource
to be considered statistically
significant?"
or
"Is the proposed monitoring plan
sufficient to detect the change in
concentration expected from BMP
implementation f "
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Sampling Duration
• A monitoring program should be
conducted long enough to achieve
objectives or document a change.
• Basic guidelines for choosing a
sampling duration include:
- Capture at least one full cycle of natural or
cultural variability (e.g., weather,
construction management)
- Use statistical tests to evaluate a
monitoring period's adequacy
- Consider the lag time
Determine Sampling Frequency
Go to p. 3-56
of Guidebook
Flooding along the Monococy River; Buckeystown, MD
(photo by Eric Vance, USEPA)
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Lag Time dof2)
• Lag time—the time elapsed between when you install/adopt
management measures at the level projected to reduce NPS pollution
and when you see the first measurable improvement in water quality
in the target waterbody.
• Knowledge of key lag time factors can help determine the required
duration of a monitoring program.
Example 1: If groundwater travel time from an agricultural field through a riparian forest
buffer to a stream is known to be 5 to 10 years, it's reasonable to expect to continue
monitoring at least that long.
Example 2: A lake with a flushing rate of 1.5 years might respond much more quickly to
changes in pollutant inputs, so a shorter monitoring program could suffice.
50
Go to p. 6-4
of Guidebook
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Lag Time (20f2)
Components of lag
time experienced in
land treatment/
water quality
projects.
Time required
for practice(s)
to produce
desired effect
Determine Sampling Frequency
Go to p. 6-4
of Guidebook
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Overcoming Limited Resources
• Financial resources should not be the
primary basis for deciding on sampling
frequency.
• To achieve desired objectives when
resources are limited, determine whether
you can:
- Reduce the list of variables analyzed
- Reduce the number of stations
- Use less expensive surrogate variables
- Simplify field instrumentation
- Take composite samples
Photo by USEPA
Reminder:
When developing your
monitoring program objectives,
ensure that necessary
resources are available.
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Determine Sampling Frequency—Summary
_J Have you determined the variability
of your system?
~ Have you chosen your sampling
frequency?
~ Have you chosen the duration of
your project?
~ Have you factored in lag time?
~ Do you have the necessary
resources?
Determine Sampling Frequency
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Next Element: Locate Stations
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
9
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
y
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
A
SELECT
SCALE
QAPP
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
STATIONS
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
9 ?
SELECT
VARIABLES
9
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Locate Stations
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Locate
stations
Choose the specific locations where you
will collect samples.
Considerations:
• What is the waterbody type?
• Will samples represent the conditions being monitored?
• Are there logistical constraints?
Locate Stations
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Overview
Monitoring station locations must be determined at
two distinct scales:
- Macro-scale—sampling locations are determined by:
• Experimental design and monitoring objectives
• Waterbody type
- Micro-scale—sampling locations are determined by:
• Site accessibility
• Physical configuration
Fall River Watershed
(Image from Dressing 2018)
Impaired for
Dissolved
Oxygen
City
County
Fall River
Watershed
Verdigris River
Watershed
A Monitoring
Site
0 10 20 Miles
(Image from US EPA 2012)
Locate Stations
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Macro-Scale Factors: Design and Objectives ] of Guidebook
• Reminder—Monitoring design and objectives will control station location and can
differ depending on waterbody type. (For more information, refer to the Monitoring
Design as a Function of Objective section).
- Reconnaissance or synoptic: Needs many stations located in places that can isolate particular
drainage areas or NPS pollutant source areas (see example).
- Single watershed or trend: Requires that a station be located at a watershed outlet to represent
the entire drainage area.
- Above/below or input/output: Calls for two or more stations to bracket a treated area or BMP to
allow comparison of concentrations or loads entering and leaving the area.
- Groundwater monitoring: Requires an extensive network of monitoring wells to determine flow
into and out of the area and to map the aquifer's hydrogeologic properties.
Locate Stations
~
+1
9
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Macro-Scale Factor: Waterbody Type (iof2) of Guidebook
• On streams or rivers, station locations might
be selected to capture or avoid the effects of
tributary streams, to isolate subcatchments,
or to focus on areas with particular
characteristics.
• In lakes and reservoirs,monitoring stations
at each major tributary discharge might be
required to measure load for a TMDL. Lake
morphology, vertical stratification, and
currents might require samples in several
lake regions and/or at several depths.
>¥
Natural Lake Impoundment
Water Column Sampling
Locations
Locate Stations
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Macro-Scale Factor: Waterbody Type ^ of Guidebook
For groundwater systems, the
location of stations is
determined by aquifer type
and by vertical, horizontal,
and longitudinal variability in
both water quality and water
quantity.
a Ground water aquifers
Leikj surface
c Multilevel wel Is
Stream
Conned aqufei
Impermeable lay&r
lifer ^S^-.
Bedr&ck
b Monitoring source areas
^ -*n/ 4fc
tquipctrntja:
lues /
T 1"
J-A'"" 133
i. ,,130
** J'y'"
-—~L
lurce are
,110
1 H /
11 r-
F'o«v / ^—
"j\
lines —~/ =
. J \ __ „ 100
—" 1 * I
Well >
• 1
* T
Stream
Well
Sand-'
oaefcn
£t»aon-| ~
*1
I
d Vertical locations
WbJI Source
—
SiUIMUU j-— 7*^""
PSTCfttid
/ 1 I
water Idbie
r ! L
7—^ * 1 '
Clay
y
Watartjahlp
BetJfoek
—"
(Images from USDA 2003)
Locate Stations
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Micro-Scale Factors: General jS %££££*
• Site should be representative of the conditions being monitored.
- What type of flow are you measuring?
- Are you collecting biological measurements?
• Consider site accessibility and physical configuration. Site should:
- Be easily accessible
- Be safe for field staff
- Have available power and communication links
- Have permission granted from property owners and state or local
transportation agency
- Be secure from both human interference and natural threats (e.g.,
flooding)
Locate Stations
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Micro-Scale Factors: Flow Measurement ^ ®] of Guidebook
Special consideration for locating stations when flow is measured in an open channel:
Want
• Select a reach that's unobstructed and straight, has
a flat streambed, and is located away from the
influence of changes in channel width.
• Choose an area with a stable cross-section and
where depth and velocity measurements can be
conducted safely at low flows.
• Seek an area where a bridge crossing or walkway
allows safe velocity measurements at high flows.
• Look for areas where the stage can be measured
and/or recorded continuously (e.g., a protected
area for a staff gauge).
Avoid
• Avoid culverts, waterfalls and bridges where
obstructions or degraded structures could cause
hydraulic anomalies.
• Avoid areas that are subject to frequent sediment
deposition or severe bank erosion.
Locate Stations
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Micro-Scale Factors: Flow Measurement (2of2) 0] of Guidebook
• When flow is measured at an edge
using a weir or flume, look for
sites where:
- Flow can be collected and/or diverted into
the device.
- Ponding caused by a weir will not cause
problems.
- Any concentrated discharge from a flume
can be safely conveyed away downstream.
120g V-notch weir, Englesby Brook; Burlington, VT (USEPA
2016)
Locate Stations
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Micro-Scale Factors: Biological Monitoring ® of Guidebook
• Several important considerations for locating
biomonitoring sites are:
- Ensure a comparable habitat at each station.
- Avoid locally modified sites unless project
objectives include assessing their effects.
- Avoid sampling near the mouths of tributaries
entering large waterbodies (these will not be
representative of the entire waterbody).
- Include a reference site to provide data on the
best attainable biological conditions in a local
or regional system of comparable habitat.
Field processing offish sample: toxonomic identification
and data recording (USEPA 2016)
Locate Stations
<
~
*1
9
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Locate Stations—Summary
Go to p. 3-43
of Guidebook
~ Have you selected the location for your
monitoring stations based on both the
macro-scale and micro-scale?
~ Macro-scale: sampling locations must
be determined by experimental design,
monitoring objectives and waterbody
type.
~ Micro-scale: sampling locations must be
determined by site accessibility and
physical configuration.
USGS Sampling station (photo by A. McGowan, USGS)
Locate Stations
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Next Design Element: Choose Sample Type
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
DESIGN
STATIONS
9- ^
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
SELECT
VARIABLES
SELECT
SCALE
QAPP
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
9
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Choose Sample Type M ~ *1 9
" * ' r»r»r\if mi-\/t ni—ri iom f~~r\ -rr\ iv
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Choose
sample type
Determines the spatial representation
of each sample taken at the specific
location.
Considerations:
• What is the waterbody type?
• Will samples represent the conditions being monitored?
• Are there logistical constraints?
Choose Sample Type
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Overview
• The goal of collecting water samples is to obtain information
representative of the target population for the monitoring
effort.
• Questions to ask include:
- Is monitoring directed only at storm flows?
- Are base flow conditions important to know?
- Do you need to estimate pollutant loads?
- Is monitoring directed at specific conditions that threaten or harm
aquatic life?
Choose Sample Type
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Basic Types of Samples
Go to p. 3-33
of Guidebook
Four basic types of water quality samples:
• Grab—A discrete sample taken at a specific point and time.
• Composite—A series of grab samples collected at different times and mixed
together.
- Time-weighted—A fixed volume of sample collected at prescribed time intervals and then
mixed together.
- Flow-weighted—A series of samples, each taken after a specified volume of flow has passed
the monitoring station, that are then mixed together.
• Integrated—Multi-point sampling that accounts for spatial variations in water
quality within a water body.
• Continuous—Truly continuous or very frequent sequential measurements using
electrometric probes.
Choose Sample Type
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Sample Type as a Function of Monitoring Objective dTI ^Guidebook
Click on monitoring type to learn more
Objective
Grab
Time-
weighted
composite
Flow-
weighted
composite
Integrated
Continuous
Problem identification & assessment
X
X
X
X
X
IMPS load allocation
X
Point source wasteload allocation
X
X
Trend analysis
X
X
X
X
Assess watershed project effectiveness
X
X
Assess BMP effectiveness
X
X
Assess permit compliance
X
X
X
Validate or calibrate models
X
X
X
Conduct research
X
X
X
X
Choose Sample Type
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Grab Samples
Go to p. 3-35
of Guidebook
• Definition—Discrete samples taken at a specific point and
time.
- Give a narrow representation of spatial and temporal
variability.
- Are obtained manually or through automatic samplers
using plastic or glass bottles/jars.
- Are used for wadeable streams, from boats on lakes, or
from bridges during high flows.
• Challenges of grab samples include:
- Exact location must be documented.
- Sample content is significantly influenced by the specific
method used.
- See Isokinetic vs. Nonisokinetic grab sample methods
Collecting grab samples (photo by USEPA)
Choose Sample Type
^ 9 SB
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Composite Samples
Go to p. 3-35
of Guidebook
• Definition—A series of grab samples collected at different times and mixed
together (collection is time-weighted or flow-weighted).
- Usually collected with automatic samplers.
- Time-weighted composites are used when flow is not a factor or is constant.
- Flow-weighted samples are better for capturing the influence of peak concentrations and
peak flows.
• Challenges of composite samples include:
- Collecting flow-weighted samples requires an established stage-discharge relationship,
prediction of flow conditions during sample collection, continuous flow measurement, and
instantaneous and continuous calculation of flow volume that has passed the sampling
station.
- Combining simple grab samples at a single location will not reflect spatial variability.
- Sample preservation (acidification, refrigeration) is often required.
Choose Sample Type
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Integrated Samples
-------
Integrated Samples <2of5)
Go to p. 3-36
of Guidebook
• Integrated grab samples are a useful sample type for lakes
because the temporal variability of lake conditions is
generally not as large as that found in streams.
• Grab samples at various lake depths can provide additional
information not captured by integrated grab samples.
• Combining seasonal, integrated and simple grab samples
taken at representative depths is a preferred approach for
problem assessment and trend analysis for lakes and other
still water bodies.
Choose Sample Type
< ~ *1 9 m
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Integrated Samples ^5)
Go to p. 3-36
of Guidebook
• Isokinetic, depth-integrating methods are
designed to produce a discharge-weighted
(velocity-weighted) sample.
• Using this method, each unit of stream
discharge is equally represented in the
sample, either by dividing the stream cross-
section into intervals of equal width (EWI)
or equal discharge (EDI) (Wilde 2006).
Lake sampling (photo by USEPA)
Choose Sample Type
^ 9 SB
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Integrated Samples ^si
Go to p. 3-36
of Guidebook
• Isokinetic depth-integrated
Accumulate a representative water sample
continuously and isokinetically (water
approaching and entering the sampler intake
does not change in velocity) from a vertical
section of a stream while transiting the vertical
at a uniform rate.
- These are often used for suspended sediment
sampling.
• Challenges of depth-integrated samplers:
- Some devices can require frequent maintenance.
- Can be impractical in northern climates because of
ice.
(Source: Wilde 2006)
E. US D-99 samplai
S. US DH-95 sampler
4, US DB-81 sampler
C. US D-95 sampler
0. US D-SK5 sampler
F. US DH-2 sampler
No! to scale
Choose Sample Type
^ 9 SB
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Integrated Samples
(5 of 5)
JS
Go to p. 3-36 and
3-71 of Guidebook
Nonisokinetic samplers—The sample enters
the device at a velocity that differs from
ambient.
- Types include hand-held open-mouth bottles,
weighted bottles on cables, and specialized
biological oxygen demand and volatile organic
compound samplers.
Depth-specific samplers—Used to collect
discrete samples from lakes, estuaries and
other deep water at a known depth.
- Common types include the Kemmerer and Van Dorn
samplers.
1
JL
e
A. Kaminerer sample* s, van Dorn sampler
Samplers (image from Wilde etal. 2014)
Choose Sample Type
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Continuous Samples
Go to p. 3-37
Guidebook
Definition—Truly continuous or very frequent sequential
measurements using electrometric probes.
- Useful for trend analysis or to assess BMP or watershed project
effectiveness (e.g., tracking exposure of aquatic organisms to harmful
levels of DO).
- Can track the duration of values exceeding thresholds (in particular,
those with significant diurnal variability).
- Can measure flow or in situ parameters (e.g., temperature and DO).
Challenges of continuous sampling include:
- Requires careful field observation and sensor cleaning/calibration.
- Provides no details about the spatial aspects of water quality conditions.
- Collecting too much data requires conducting data reduction and
addressing the problem of autocorrelation.
Continuous water quality monitor
deployed off a bridge in Westerly,
Rl (photo by J. Morrison, USGS)
Choose Sample Type
< ~ n 9
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Stage-Discharge Relationship
Go to p. 3-20
of Guidebook
• Continuous discharge measurement in open
channels usually requires that the stage-discharge
relationship is known, either by installing a weir or
flume or developing a stream rating.
• A stage-discharge relationship is an equation
determined for a specific site that relates
discharge to stage, based on a linear regression of
a series of concurrent measurements of stage and
discharge.
• As shown here, stage-discharge relationships
usually take on a log-log form. With a valid stream
rating, discharge can be determined simply from a
stage observation plugged into the equation or
read from a table.
Stream stage H (m)
Q = 42.17(H)1-302
Choose Sample Type
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Choose Sample Type—Summary
~ Have you decided which of t,
the following sample types *
are most appropriate for your -
study?
~ Grab I
~ Composite | > --j*
~ Integrated N
Compositing samples (photo by Eric Vance, USEPA)
~ Continuous
Choose Sample Type
< ~
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Next Design Element: Select Variable
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
9
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
DETERMINE
SAMPLING v B
FREQUENCY
V
\
SELECT
SCALE
DESIGN
STATIONS
9
QAPP
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
9
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
SELECT
VARIABLES
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Select Variable
< ~
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Select
variables
Determine variables that best meet the
program objectives with due
consideration to available resources.
Considerations:
• Which variables best support your project goals?
• How many variables should you choose? (Note: It's sometimes better to
focus efforts on monitoring a small set of variables.)
Select Variable
A ~ *1 9
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Overview
• Monitoring variables are often grouped into three main
categories:
- Physical (e.g., flow, temperature, suspended sediment)
- Chemical (e.g., dissolved oxygen, total phosphorus, pesticides)
- Biological (e.g., bacteria, benthic macroinvertebrates, fish)
• Issues to keep in mind:
- Use resources carefully by selecting only those variables that are
necessary.
- Pick specific variables that are important to the study instead of a
generic list of traditionally monitored variables.
Select Variable
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Select Variables
This section will cover the following factors related to selecting variables:
Factor
(Click on specific factor to skip
oheod)
Questions to ask
Program objectives
Are the objectives well-defined?
Waterbodv designated use
What are the waterbody's designated uses and is it impaired?
Water resource type and
pollutant source
What is the type of water? What is causing the pollution, and can
you measure the water's response to treatment?
Cost of analysis
What analytical methods are available, and are there ways to reduce
analytical costs?
Logistical constraints
How will you manage holding times and constraints?
Covariates
What are the important covariates to measure?
Select Variable
< ~ 9
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Program Objectives of Guidebook
• In many cases, the program objective will clearly indicate the appropriate
variable(s) to monitor.
- Example: If your objective is to reduce phosphorus loading to a lake, suggested variables
would be phosphorus and flow because measuring both concentration and flow are required
to calculate load.
• It's more challenging to select monitoring variables when program objectives are
less specific.
- For monitoring aimed at assessing water quality standards compliance, your variables should
focus on what is required to assess violations of water quality standards.
- For monitoring objectives that involve watershed reconnaissance or characterization, your
choice of variables must consider the nature of the impairment, type of water resource, and
likely pollutant sources.
Select Variable
< ~ *1 9 m
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Waterbody: Designated Use dof2) of Guidebook
• Variable selection can be driven by a waterbody's designated use. Designated uses are one of
three elements contained in water quality standards. Typical designated uses include:
- Protection and propagation offish, shellfish, and wildlife
- Recreation
- Public drinking water supply
- Agricultural, industrial, navigational and other purposes
• States and Tribes designate water bodies for specific uses based on their goals and expectations
for their waters.
• Water quality criteria are set to protect each designated use by describing the chemical, physical
and biological conditions necessary for safe use of waters by humans and aquatic life.
• These criteria should help guide variable selection and other monitoring details (e.g., sampling
period, frequency) where use attainment or protection is the primary monitoring concern.
Select Variable
< ~ *1 9 m
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Waterbody: Designated Use (2of2,
Go to p. 3-3
of Guidebook
• Monitoring waterbodies with use impairments can differ
substantially from monitoring to assess use attainment
or protection.
- Example: The impairment could be the result of a single
pollutant, rather than a failure to meet all applicable water
quality criteria.
• Monitoring can be focused on the specific variables that
are violating criteria instead of all potential variables.
• Although the variable list associated with criteria can be
narrowed, additional variables should be considered to
address the causes of the violation(s).
Eroding streombonk (photo by NRCS)
Select Variable
^ 9 SB
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Water Resource Type and Pollutant Source ] of Guidebook
• Type of Water Resource—Appropriate variables often differ
between surface and groundwater and between streams and
lakes.
• Pollutant Source—Variables monitored should reflect the NPS
pollutants known or suspected to be present in the watershed.
- Crop agriculture is likely to influence suspended sediment, turbidity,
nutrients and pesticides measured in water.
- Intensive livestock agriculture in a watershed would justify measuring
biological oxygen demand, nutrients and indicator bacteria.
- Urban stormwater sources are likely to influence variables such as
discharge, temperature, turbidity, metals and indicator bacteria.
Select Variable
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Cost of Analysis
Go to p. 3-6
of Guidebook
• The choice of suitable variables can be influenced by the
cost of analysis* if you have budget constraints.
• Ways to reduce costs:
- Use an in-house laboratory, such as a university or a
state agency.
- Select alternate variables that cost less.
• Turbidity instead of suspended sediment.
• Specific conductance instead of total dissolved solids.
- Use a less-costly analytical method (if sensitivity is
acceptable).
*For more information on overall monitoring costs see Chapter 9 of
the guidebook.
Sample analysis (photo by NRCS)
Select Variable
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Logistical Constraints
Go to p. 3-2
of Guidebook
Most water quality variables have specified
permissible holding times and holding conditions
(i.e., refrigeration), which determine the length of
time a sample can be stored between collection
and analysis without significantly affecting the
analytical results.
Questions to ask:
- Is refrigeration necessary?
- Is there adequate power to planned locations of
automated samplers or continuous flow
measurements?
- Can the samples be delivered to the lab under the
required conditions within the specified holding time?
Processing bacteria samples (photo by USEPA)
Select Variable
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Covariates
Go to p. 3-9
of Guidebook
• Covariates are variables that are not directly required by project
objectives or pollutant sources but might be important in
understanding or explaining the behavior of other critical variables.
• Examples of covariates:
- Precipitation and other weather variables are often collected to explain
pollutant loading and transport.
- Flow or stage measurements can help explain observed patterns of
suspended sediment or particulate phosphorus that are delivered
predominantly in surface runoff during high-flow events.
- Temperature, chlorophyll a and algae are related to nutrient loading in lakes.
Select Variable
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Response to Treatment of Guidebook
• When a monitoring program is designed to evaluate water
quality response to implementation of a management measure,
you must monitor variables that focus on the dimensions of
water quality expected to change in response to treatment.
- Example: For an agricultural watershed that uses a suite of
conservation practices to address an erosion problem, your
monitoring program should measure flow, peak flow, suspended
sediment and turbidity because these variables are likely to
respond to widespread changes from conventional cropping
practices.
Select Variable
< ~ 9
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Method Comparability
Go to p. 3-7
of Guidebook
• Advances in sampling and analytical methods can reduce interference
and improve reliability and accuracy.
• Difficulties can arise when advances occur during a current project or
when trying to design a new project that uses historical data.
• Ensuring that samples can be compared is critical.
- One option is to perform a comparability study by implementing both
methods with laboratory splits and comparing the resulting paired data.
- For a project of limited duration, sometimes it's best to continue with an
older method rather than updating to a new method.
Select Variable
< ~ 9
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Set Priorities
• Because there are many water quality variables to choose from, it's
important to take a deliberate approach to setting priorities when
designing a monitoring program.
- Prepare a justification for each candidate variable.
- Consider a ranking system where:
• A minimum set of essential variables are is identified.
• A set of additional, justifiable variables is included if other constraints allow.
- Conduct a systematic evaluation of correlations among candidate variables to
determine:
• Are any variables highly correlated?
• If so, do they both need to be measured?
Select Variable
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Select Variables—Summary
~ Have you considered the
following when selecting your
variables?
~ Program objectives
~ Type of water resource
~ Pollutant source
~ Cost of analysis
~ Logistical constraints
~ Covariates
Collecting samples (photo by USEPA)
Select Variable
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Next Element: Design Stations
SELECT
VARIABLES
DESIGN"
STATIONS
SELECT
SCALE
QAPP
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
9i
Design Stations
< ~
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Design
stations
Determine the best way to design and
operate the physical facilities* involved
in fixed monitoring stations.
Considerations:
• What are your project objectives?
• Is there a need for fixed monitoring stations?
*This element is not necessary in every case. Physical facilities are not always needed.
Design Stations
< ~ 9
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Overview
Go to p. 3-56
of Guidebook
• Not all monitoring designs require fixed
station facilities. When they are required,
several important principles apply:
- Select monitoring sites according to specific
criteria based on program objectives and needs.
- Design the station to collect representative
samples from the target population under
foreseeable circumstances.
- Strive for simplicity.
- Include redundancy.
- Provide security.
Automated sampling equipment (photo from Hall
2004)
Design Stations
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Grab Sampling Stations
Go to p. 3-57
of Guidebook
• Monitoring programs based solely on grab sampling might
not require stations with physical facilities; however, the
selected monitoring site must be located and identified so
that samples can be repeatedly collected from the same
location.
- Make sampling sites easy to find (e.g., road crossings on streams, pipes
delivering flow to or from a stormwater treatment system).
- Record stations on a map or in a standard operating procedure.
- Use GPS coordinates for more challenging locations, such as in a lake.
- For depth location, use a weighted line or an electronic depth sounder.
• Lake and wetland monitoring typically require grab sampling.
Design Stations
< ~ 9
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Fixed Station Design Aspects
• The next slides will cover important aspects of fixed station design for
several common applications*
Application
(Click on specific
opplicotion to skip oheod)
Measurement types
Perennial streams Stage/discharge equipment, automated samplers, water quality
and rivers data loggers, wingwalls, berms
Edge-of-field
Stage/discharge equipment, automated samplers, water quality
data loggers
Structure/BMPs Passive first flush sampler, flume inserts for pipes
Meteorological
Meteorological station, rain gauge
*Note: Although fixed stations can be used to monitor groundwater, they are not covered in the NPS guidebook.
Design Stations
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Perennial Streams and Rivers Sampling (iof3) @] S
Go to p. 3-58
Guidebook
• Long-term stations used to continuously record
streamflow and collect periodic water samples
require structures and facilities to house
monitoring equipment.
• Continuous flow measurements require a staff
gauge and a way to continuously record stage,
using:
- A stilling well with a float bubbler. These are highly
reliable and are protected from turbulence, ice and
debris n the stream channel.
- A bubbler, pressure transducer or ultrasonic device.
These can be placed directly n the stream channel,
data can be logged electronically, and flow data can be
linked to an autosampler.
Satellite antenna
Stream sampling station (image by L.S. Coplin, USGS)
Design Stations
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Perennial Streams and Rivers Sampling (20f3) d)] 3-77 of Guidebook
• Water samples at continuous monitoring stations are typically
collected by autosamplers, which can:
- Pump samples from the stream through plastic tubing and collect the water in
one or more bottles.
- Collect timed samples of specific volume or storm-event or flow-proportional
samples when linked to a flow recorder or other triggering device.
- Operate unattended for extended periods.
- Be linked together with a data logger for sampling control and data storage.
- Be equipped to communicate through cell phone systems or the Internet in
real time, allowing data to be downloaded and commands for sampling or
recording data to be sent remotely.
Design Stations
< ~ 9
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Perennial Streams and Rivers Sampling
(3 of 3)
JS
Go to p. 3-58 and
3-77 of Guidebook
Challenges with using autosamplers:
• Sampler intake is usually fixed at a single point in the stream; samples
collected might not be representative of vertical or horizontal
variability.
• Depth-integrated intake devices can require frequent maintenance
and can be impractical in northern climates where ice is a problem.
• They require electrical power or deep-cycle automotive or marine
batteries, which need servicing and recharging.
• Operation in winter weather might require robust shelter and heating
tape or propane heaters.
• Operation in hot climates might require special cooling/ ventilation.
It
Design Stations
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Edge-of-Field Sampling Stations dofs) of Guidebook
• At edge-of-field, flow is intermittent, and channels might not be
defined.
• Challenges include:
- The need to measure flow (when it occurs).
- The need to collect representative water samples and other data.
- The need for power to run equipment.
- Extreme weather events.
Design Stations
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Edge-of-Field Sampling Stations (2ofa>
•Typical edge-of-field stations
include:
- Enclosures to house equipment
designed to measure stage,
collect samples and provide
telecommunication.
- Stage and discharge equipment.
- Sampling equipment.
Go to p. 3-60
of Guidebook
Ausmu
Jr
Edge-of-field monitoring stations. Left and top right, Wisconsin
Discovery and Pioneer Forms (Stuntebeck et ol. 2008); bottom right,
Vermont (Meals et a I. 2011).
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enclosure
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Design Stations
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Edge-of-Field Sampling Stations (3of3)
Go to p. 3-60
of Guidebook
• Elements of edge-of-field stations
(continued)
- Data logging and control instruments
- Communications
- Power
- Camera
• Stations will be dormant for extended
periods but need to be ready for
activation. Regular maintenance visits
are required.
Edge-of-field monitoring stations, VT
(photo by Meals et al. 2011)
Design Stations
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Structures/BMPs Sampling Stations dof4) ^3 of Guidebook
• Many individual BMP monitoring efforts have similar requirements
for flow measurement, water sampling, data logging, communications
and security as other station types, but are often constrained by
physical characteristics.
• Examples:
- Monitoring inflow and outflow from a constructed wetland is generally
comparable to monitoring flow in an intermittent stream.
- Runoff from a parking lot entering an infiltration BMP may be difficult to
quantify and sample; outflow from the BMP may be carried in an
underground pipe.
Design Stations
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Structures/BMPs Sampling Stations ^ of Guidebook
Some specialized equipment for such monitoring has been developed, including
passive runoff samplers and flume inserts for pipes with integrated stage sensors.
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Flow measurement and water quality sampling
in stormwaterpipes (USEPA 2016)
Street runoff sampler (image from Waschbusch et al.
1999)
Water Quality
Sampler on Shelf
Flow Meter
Mounted on
Ladder
Ultrasonic Flow
Sensor
Design Stations
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Structures/BMPs Sampling Stations ^ of Guidebook
In urban runoff monitoring, the first
flush phenomenon requires special
consideration because pollutant
loads during the first part of an
event may be much larger than
those in the later flows.
Examples of first flush runoff
samplers are shown at the right.
I*
A. Nalgene® first-flush sampler.
Installed below grate (at right).
B. Edge -of-road sampler.
"TP ~ TT~
*4**4
C. GKY first-flush sampler.
(Images from US EPA 2016)
Design Stations
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Structures/BMPs Sampling Stations ^ ^3 of Guidebook
• Monitoring the input/output of a BMP requires two monitoring
stations that are coordinated but not simultaneous.
• If sampling is conducted simultaneously at the entrance and exit of a
BMP, the outflow sample may represent "old" water pushed out of
the BMP by "new" inflow, rather than new inflow after treatment by
the BMP.
• Time of travel or residence time in the BMP must be considered in
setting up monitoring stations. Establishing links between the
upstream and downstream stations allow for better coordination
between them. Click here for an example of time of travel.
Design Stations
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Meteorological Sampling Stations ^ of Guidebook
• Meteorological data, particularly precipitation data, are nearly always
relevant to NPS monitoring projects.
• Most important criterion for precipitation measurement = location.
- For BMP or field monitoring efforts, a single meteorological station may be
sufficient.
- For larger watershed monitoring, multiple stations are usually necessary to
account for variations of weather with elevation and other geographic factors.
- Multiple precipitation stations are used when data are needed for model
application.
- Stations must be unobstructed to obtain accurate measurements.
Design Stations
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Meteorological Sampling Stations of Guidebook
• Instrumentation:
- Electronic instruments record
directly into dataloggers.
- Tipping bucket rain gauges measure
both total accumulated rainfall and
rainfall rate. They can be connected
to other monitoring instruments to
log data and/or trigger sample
collection.
Meteorological monitoring station
(Meals et a I. 2011)
Design Stations
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Design Stations—Summary
~ Are fixed stations necessary
in your program for the
following types of
continuous monitoring?
~ Perennial streams and rivers
~ Edge-of-field
~ BM Ps/structures
~ Meteorological
measurements
New England coastal waterway (photo by USEPA SNEP)
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Next Element: Define Collection & Analysis Methods
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
QAPP
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
DETERMINE;
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
DESIGN
STATIONS
SELECT
SCALE
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
9 9
SELECT
VARIABLES
9
9 DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
< ~
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Define
collection
and analysis
methods
Collection and analysis of samples
requires training, appropriate
equipment, careful adherence to
standard procedures and detailed
record keeping.
Considerations:
• Can you align your proposed methods with those used in the past?
• Are the methods you want to use approved by a reliable source?
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Overview
• Documentation and records
- Use field sheets, SOPs and logbooks.
• Preparation for sampling
- Cleaning, calibrating and testing equipment.
• Cleaning
- Use clean sample containers to avoid
contamination.
• Safety
- Don't work alone.
- Pay attention to weather.
- Use safety devices when flow is high.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
Collecting samples from o bridge (photo by NRCS)
< ~
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Data Collection and Analysis Options
This section covers different types of field measurements, methods of sample collection, information
on sample handling and transport, and laboratory considerations.
(Proceed through presentation or click on specific topic in this table to skip ahead.)
Field
measurements
Sample collection
Sample processing,
transportation and analysis
Laboratory
Single point
Grab
Processing
Tvpe of lab
Multiple points
Passive
Storage, preservation and transport
Methods used
In situ or onsite
Autosampling
Chain-of-custodv
Certifications
Groundwater
Benthic macroinvertebrates
Performance audits
Aquatic habitat
Fish
Aquatic plants
Pathogens
Specialized
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Field Measurements jS 2
Go to p. 3-70
Guidebook
Variables such as water temperature and DO concentration must be measured directly in the
waterbody; properties such as pH, specific conductance and turbidity can be measured either in situ or
immediately on the site using a sample taken from the source.
In flowing water, a single
sampling point in a well-mixed
area is generally used to
represent an entire cross-section.
In lakes or other still water,
field measurements might be
made at multiple locations
and depths.
Groundwater generally requires
purging the monitoring well of
standing water and then taking
field measurements.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Grab Sampling Collection Methods of Guidebook
• Grab sampling can be done manually by dipping a sample bottle by
hand under the water at a certain depth. Proper procedures must be
followed.
• As already described in the Choose Sample Type section, a variety of
devices are available to collect grab samples from waterbodies for
different purposes:
- Isokinetic depth-integrated samplers
- Nonisokinetic samplers
- Depth-specific samplers
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
< ~ *1 9 m
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Passive Sampling Collection Methods of Guidebook
Passive samplers collect unattended grab samples
without relying on external power or electronic
activation. The exact time and circumstance of
sampling is unknown unless other data are taken at
the same time.
Examples of passive samplers include:
- Runoff samplers
- Single-stage samplers
- Tipping-bucket samplers
- Coshocton wheel samplers
- Lysimeters
Passive runoff sompier/flow splitter,
University of Georgia, Tifton, GA
(photo by D. Meals, USEPA)
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Autosampling Collection Methods of Guidebook
• Autosamplers generally consist of:
- An intake line submerged in the waterbody or the flow through a pipe or
flume
- A peristaltic or submersible pump that pumps water to the sampler
- One or more bottles to contain collected samples
- Electronic controls to initiate sample collection and record data
• Some autosamplers might be refrigerated to preserve samples for
extended periods.
• Some autosamplers might be designed specifically to fit into storm
drains and catch basins.
• Most autosamplers operate with either DC or AC power.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Autosampling Collection Methods of Guidebook
Autosamplers can be set to take time-based
samples either continuously (e.g., collect a sample
every 8 hours) or as initiated by an external trigger
(e.g., detection of rainfall, rising stream stage).
When connected to a flow meter, autosamplers can
take flow-proportional samples.
Autosamplers can collect discrete samples in
individual bottles or a composite sample in one
large container.
A portable outosompler
(photo by Tele dyne Isco,
2013)
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
< ~ n 9
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Autosampling Collection Methods (30f3) of Guidebook
Disadvantages with autosamplers include the following:
• Intakes are generally fixed in one position in a waterbody and therefore might not fully
represent variability, especially where strong vertical or horizontal gradients exist.
• The size of the intake line and the velocity achieved by the autosampler pump, as well as
the position in the streamflow, might prevent collection of a representative sample,
especially of suspended sediment and particulate-bound pollutants.
• Monitoring for some pollutants like volatile organics or pathogens could be challenging
because of special limitations for materials that contact the sample and requirements for
sterilization between sample-intake events.
• Because samples are taken at intervals, regardless of whether an autosampler collects on
a time- or flow-based program, the possibility always exists that a transient pulse of a
pollutant (e.g., from a spill or first-flush) may pass by unsampled. (This, of course, is also
a risk in manual sampling.)
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Benthic Macroinvertebrate Sampling (iof2) of Guidebook
• Sampling of benthic macroinvertebrates from stream
bottoms and lake beds must consider:
- How to physically collect samples.
- The diversity of stream habitats that influence the
numbers and types of organisms.
• The habitats sampled should be based on monitoring
objectives and regional stream or lake characteristics.
• In streams, two distinct habitats are generally sampled:
riffles and pools.
• In lakes, substrates and habitats vary between near-
shore areas and deeper lake regions; thus, organisms will
differ, and different sampling approaches will be needed.
Using a D-frame net to sample a
grovel-bottom stream for benthic
macroinvertebrates (USEPA 2016)
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Benthic Macroinvertebrate Sampling ^ of Guidebook
Active sampling:
• In rivers and streams, active collection is often accomplished by disturbing the streambed and
capturing the dislodged organisms in a net as the current carries them downstream.
- Kick-seines, D-frame nets and Surber square-foot samplers are common devices used.
- It's important to quantify both the area of the streambed disturbed and the time/effort of sampling so that
results can be quantified (e.g., organisms/m2), repeated and compared over time.
• In lakes, active sampling in shallow areas can be done by similar methods.
- Grab samplers, such as the petite ponar or larger dredges, are used for collecting sediment samples from hard
bottoms (e.g., sand and gravel).
Passive sampling:
• Uses artificial substrates like the Hester-Dendy plate sampler or rock baskets that are anchored
in the waterbody. After organisms colonize them, they are retrieved and counted.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Aquatic Habitat Assessment Methods of Guidebook
• Assessing aquatic habitat is important for interpreting data collected
from monitoring of benthic invertebrates and fish. Habitat
characteristics can be response variables for land treatment or stream
restoration efforts.
• Habitat quality is typically measured in three dimensions:
- Habitat structure:Includes physical characteristics of stream environment,
such as channel morphology, gradient, instream cover, substrate types,
riparian condition and bank stability.
- Flow regime:Defined by velocity and volume of water moving through a
stream, both the average and during extreme events (wet or dry).
- Energy source:Energy enters stream systems through nutrients from runoff
or groundwater (as leaves/other debris falling into streams) or from
photosynthesis by aquatic plants and algae.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Fish Sampling Collection Methods
Go to p. 3-80
| of Guidebook
• As with benthic macroinvertebrates, distinct fish
assemblages are found in different habitat types.
-T* . ... , v
• Water temperature, flow, dissolved oxygen,
cover and shade, and substrate type are
important habitat characteristics.
TjA -v-
- w.
f Mf*iv
• Major habitat types like riffles, pools and runs
should be sampled.
* f ¦Mlf -y •
• Habitats and the size of sampling areas should
be consistent between sampling events to allow
for long-term comparisons.
r
• Fish are most commonly sampled by
electrofishing, but seines, gill nets, traps or
underwater observations are also used.
•> W- 4
*
Backpack electrofishing (photo by USEPA)
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Aquatic Plant Sampling Collection Methods (w @1
• Aquatic plants sampled for water
quality monitoring include:
- Algae: small free-floating plants
- Periphyton: the community of algae,
microbes and detritus attached to
submerged surfaces
- Macrophytes: large plants rooted in
aquatic sediments
• Many of these plants are good
indicators of nutrient enrichment
and ecosystem condition.
Aquatic plants in a Washington wetland (photo by NRCS)
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Aquatic Plant Sampling Collection Methods (20f2)
-------
Bacteria/Pathogen Sampling Collection Method
Go to p. 3-82
of Guidebook
• Indicator bacteria, pathogens, or other microorganisms are
usually collected by grab sampling.
- Example sample volumes:
• E. coli bacteria analysis requires small volumes (e.g., 100 ml_).
• Giardia and Cryptosporidium might require up to 20 L.
• Requires sterile sample containers (e.g., pre-sterilized, single-
use bags/bottles, or autoclaved polyethylene containers).
• Sample collection should be done by clean technique, with
samples allowed to contact only sterile surfaces; field personnel
should wear gloves.
• Samples typically require more rapid delivery to the laboratory
than samples from physical and chemical analyses.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Specialized Sampling Collection Methods of Guidebook
• Specialized sampling techniques are sometimes needed for unusual
or emerging pollutants.
- Microbial source tracking requires water sampling and can involve collecting fecal
material from human and animal sources in the watershed.
- Urban stormwater monitoring can involve tests for optical brighteners as indicators
of wastewater or septic effluent contamination—this requires cotton pads to be
deployed in streams for several days, collected, and then tested for fluorescence
with an ultraviolet light source.
- Sentinel chambers, dialysis membrane diffusion samplers, polar organic chemical
integrative samplers (POCIS), and other passive sampling devices have been used
to passively sample low-concentration pollutants like volatile organic compounds,
estrogen analogs, endocrine disruptors, and other emerging pollutants in a variety
of settings.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
< ~ 9
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From Field to Laboratory
• There are several important
steps to consider between
sample collection and analysis,
including:
- Sample processing
- Sample preservation and
transport
- Sample custody tracking
- Performance audits
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
Go to p. 3-84
of Guidebook
Photo by NRCS
<*19 SB
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Sample Processing
js
Go to p. 3-84
of Guidebook
Sample processing refers to the measures taken to prepare and
preserve a water sample at or after collection, but before it's
delivered to the laboratory for analysis.
Goals are to prepare samples for analysis, prevent contamination
and cross-contamination, and preserve sample integrity until
analysis.
- Samples requiring filtration must be filtered during or immediately after
collection.
- Surface water samples might be composited or subsampled in the field
using an appropriate device, such as a churn or cone splitter.
- Groundwater samples are not composited but are pumped either directly
through a splitter or through a filtration assembly into sample bottles
(unless a bailer or other downhole sampler is used to collect the sample).
Cone filter (photo
by FISP 2014)
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Sample Storage, Preservation and Transport ©] 2
Go to p. 3-84
Guidebook
S3
Water samples to be analyzed for most water quality variables have
specified permissible holding times and holding conditions
- For more details, see Table 3-12 in the guidebook.
Storage and preservation for most analytes involve:
- Cooling
- Using chemical preservatives
- Getting sample to the lab quickly
- Using proper packaging when shipping
- Using proper labeling and documentation
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Sample Chain of Custody
Go to p. 3-89
of Guidebook
• The location and status of collected samples must be
tracked at all points to:
- Prevent loss of samples and data.
- Document the conditions under which the samples were held.
- Preserve sample and data security and integrity.
• Sample custody starts with a consistent numbering and
labeling system that uniquely identifies each sample's
source, monitoring program, date and time of collection,
responsible person(s) and desired analysis.
• Custody is tracked using forms and other records that are
signed and dated by each individual in the chain.
Define Collection & Analysis Methods
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Performance Audits
Go to p. 3-90
of Guidebook
• Regular field operations performance audits should be part of the overall
quality assurance/quality control process. These audits include:
- Sample container and equipment blanks: Distilled/deionized water is processed
through sampling equipment and sample containers to rule out contamination.
- Trip blanks: Distilled/deionized water is transported from the laboratory through the
field sampling process to document any potential contamination acquired during
travel and transport.
- Field duplicates: Two grab samples are collected in quick succession to assess
repeatability of sampling.
- Field splits: A collected sample is split into two subsamples to assess analytical
performance by the laboratory or to make comparisons between labs.
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Laboratory Considerations
Go to p. 3-90
of Guidebook
• Type of lab: The accuracy and precision generally required in NPS monitoring
programs require formal laboratory analysis. Laboratories are typically operated
by state agencies, universities or private companies.
• Methods used: Analyses should be conducted using accepted laboratory
methods.
• Certification: Use a laboratory certified either by a state program or the USEPA
Drinking Water Program.
• In addition to the above considerations, also look for a laboratory that:
- Participates in regional comparative proficiency testing programs.
- Provides documentation of methods and QA/QC protocols used.
- Provides assurance that samples will be handled and processed expeditiously.
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Define Collection and Analysis Methods—Summary
J Have you determined which of the following
collection methods you will need?
~ F eld measurements
~ Grab sampling
~ Passive sampling
~ Autosampling
~ Benthic macro invertebrate sampling
~ Aquatic plant sampling
~ Bacteria/pathogen sampling
~ Habitat sampling
~ Specialized sampling
~ Have you planned for all steps from sample
processing to laboratory analysis?
Photo by NRCS
Photo by NRCS
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Next Element: Define Land Use Monitoring
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
9
LOCATE
STATIONS
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
DESIGN
STATIONS
9, J
SELECT
VARIABLES
SELECT
SCALE
QAPP
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
9
9
DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Define
land use
monitoring
Determine what land use activities are
generating NPS pollution and how to
effectively monitor them.
Considerations:
• How will you track both land use and land treatment?
• How will you link land treatment to water quality response?
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Overview
• NPS pollution Is generated by activities on the
land that vary in location, intensity and duration.
- Land use refers not only to the general category of
land use or cover (e.g., residential, row crop) but
also to land management or source activities (e.g.,
street sweeping, agrichemical applications,
tillage).
- Land treatment refers not just to the existence of
a specific treatment or BMP (e.g., sediment basin,
reduced tillage) but also to the management of
the BMP (e.g., sediment basin clean-out, tillage
dates, nutrient application rate, timing and
method).
Define Land Use Monitoring
Go to p. 3-91
of Guidebook
Urban development in the proirie pothole region of
northeastern South Dakota (photo by NRCS)
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Link Land Treatment to Water Quality Response ©1 ^*5;^
• Linking land treatment to water quality response requires both land
use/treatment and water quality monitoring.
• Specific needs can differ by monitoring type.
• Understanding pollutant loading patterns requires information about both
the spatial and temporal variability of source activities.
• It's necessary to track land use/treatment when planning to attribute water
quality trends to activities on the land.
• Because monitoring for trend analysis can continue for decades, consider
costs when deciding about the scope, level of detail, and frequency of
monitoring that will be done.
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Define Land Use Monitoring jS
The following slides will cover these different aspects of land use monitoring.
Topic
Example
Activities to monitor
Consider land use/land cover and BMPs—and the associated
management of each.
Methods of data
collection
Options include direct observation, logbooks, interviews, agency
reporting and remote sensing.
Temporal and spatial
scale
What land area contributes to the water being sampled?
Should you match the temporal scale to that of the water quality
monitoring?
Variables
Match the land use/treatment variables to the water quality variables.
Frequency
Choose frequency based on whether your land use/treatment data is
static or dynamic.
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Important Things to Document jS
• For individual BMP effectiveness monitoring, it's important
to document:
- The design specifications of the practice evaluated.
- The degree to which the practice was implemented, maintained
and operated according to specifications.
- Management activities conducted under the scope of the practice.
- Any situations where the BMP operated under conditions outside
of the design range.
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Basic Methods
Go to p. 3-92
of Guidebook
• The basic methods used to
monitor land use and land
treatment are:
- Direct observation
- Logbooks
- Interviews
- Agency reporting
- Remote sensing
Photo by NRCS
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Direct Observations
Go to p. 3-92
of Guidebook
Personal observations might be the best way to track land
use/treatment for plot and field studies.
Common types of observations include:
- Tracking forms
- Windshield surveys
- Photography
Disadvantages of direct observation methods:
- Potential for bias due to lack of understanding of activities
- An established schedule misses important events
- The inability to assess information about rate or quantity
wr wWm
fmrni-'V
u«n»,c< Wi !„>¦ .» •.
Photo by Minnesota Deportment
of Natural Resources
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Logbooks
• Logbooks can be given to
landowners and managers to
record activities relevant to the
monitoring study.
• Advantage of this method: the
same individual who is responsible
for the activity does the reporting.
• Disadvantage: it's difficult to
guarantee compliance or consistent
reporting between individuals.
Define Land Use Monitoring
Go to p. 3-93
of Guidebook
Photo by U.S. Forest Service
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Interviews
Go to p. 3-93
of Guidebook
• When conducted in person, interviews offer the opportunity to gather
additional information that is important to the study.
• Disadvantages of interviews include:
- Potential for less-than-complete reporting of information by the person
interviewed.
- Potentially inadequate or uneven interview skills by those conducting the
interviews.
• A combination of the logbook and interview approach works well in
small watersheds with a relatively small number of participants.
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Agency Reporting
Go to p. 3-94
of Guidebook
Land use data are available through many different agencies, including:
Data source
(click for summary)
Link to more information
(click to oisit Web page)
Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act (RCA)
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/rca/national/technic
Report-Interactive Data Viewer
al/nra/rca/ida/
USDA's National Resources Inventory (NRI)
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/techn
ical/nra/nri/
Census of Agriculture
https://www.nass.usda.gov/AgCensus/index.php
NOAA's Coastal Change Analvsis Program's (C-CAP) https://coast.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/data/ccapregional.html
National Land Cover Database (NLCD)
https://www.mrlc.gov/
U.S. Census Bureau's TIGER (Topologicallv Integrated
Geographic Encoding and Referencing) Program
https://www.census.gov/programs-
survevs/geographv/guidance/tiger-data-products-guide.html
Water Qualitv Portal
https://www.waterqualitvdata.us/
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Remote Sensing
Go to p. 3-95
of Guidebook
Science (EROS) Data Center.
- Landsat data, elevation, greenness, "Nighttime Lights," and
coastal and Great Lakes Shorelines (USEPA 2008).
- Low-altitude aerial photography to assess compliance with
crop insurance programs are done annually by the USDA
Farm Service Agency.
- Commercial web-based resources such as Bing Maps and
Google Earth can be useful tools for land use monitoring.
• Remote sensing can be useful for tracking practices
and land management that are monitored visually.
• Many remote sensing datasets are available:
- Data products at the USGS's National Map Viewer and
Download Platform or Earth Resources Observation and
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Temporal and Spatial Scale nof2)
Go to p. 3-97
of Guidebook
• Land use/treatment monitoring should address the entire area contributing to
flow at the water quality sampling point. Some parts of a larger area might be
emphasized more than others.
- Example: Land nearest to the sampling point can have a major effect on the measured water
quality, so these areas must be monitored carefully. Spatial coverage of land use monitoring
might range from a single field (or portion of a field) up to an entire river basin.
• There is often the mistaken assumption that the temporal scale of land
use/treatment monitoring should match that of the water quality monitoring
when the data are to be combined for analyses. Also consider the inherent
variability of what is being measured.
- Example: Road salt is applied under icing conditions, while wash-off tends to occur during
periods of thawing or rainfall. Matching weekly water quality and land use/treatment in this
case could result in associating high salinity levels with periods of no road salt application.
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Temporal and Spatial Scale ^
• The following multi-level monitoring approach can address certain issues with
matching the temporal scales of land use/treatment monitoring to that of water
quality monitoring:
- Characterization: An initial snapshot of land use/land cover, focusing on static parameters
(e.g., water bodies, highways, impervious cover).
- Annual: A survey for annually varying features such as crop type.
- Weekly: Weekly observations to identify specific dates/times of critical activities (e.g.,
manure or herbicide applications, tillage, construction).
- Quantitative: Data collection on rates and quantities (e.g., nutrient or herbicide application
rates, number of animals on pasture).
• The guiding principle of timing is to collect land use/treatment data at a fine
enough time resolution to be able to explain water quality results as they occur.
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Monitoring Variables
Go to p. 2-4 and
3-98 of Guidebook
• The appropriate set of land use/treatment variables for any monitoring plan will
depend on the monitoring objectives, monitoring design, and characteristics of
the watershed or site to be monitored.
• The set of variables needed for problem assessment is usually broad, whereas the
set of variables for BMP effectiveness monitoring is tailored to the BMP and the
conditions under which it's being evaluated.
• Refer to the guidebook for:
- Information on the appropriate selection of land use/treatment variables (Table 2-2).
- Examples of pairing water quality and land use/treatment variables (Table 3-13).
Define Land Use Monitoring
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I • p- /r\~\ Go to p. 3-98
Sampling Frequency
• The frequency for sampling dynamic data will vary depending on the type
and magnitude of the variable's impact on measured water quality.
- For BMP effectiveness studies at the plot or field scale, observations should be made
each time the site is visited.
- Although construction activities might occur daily at any given construction site, note
that certain phases of construction might warrant closer attention.
• The availability of records should be considered when determining
sampling frequency.
- Many nutrient management plans require producers to keep field-by-field records of
manure and chemical nutrient applications; therefore, sampling can theoretically be
done on an annual basis assuming that the records are clear and accurate.
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Challenges
Go to p. 3-99
of Guidebook
• Challenges associated with tracking land use/treatment include:
- Gaining access to locations for direct observation or communication
with landowners or managers.
- Obtaining cooperation on field logs, especially when confidential
business information is involved.
- Checking all source activities of potential interest in a mixed-use
watershed can be logistically difficult, labor intensive and complicated.
- Assuring confidentiality of data to landowners.
- Addressing data gaps when using large-scale agency data.
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Define Land Use Monitoring—Summary of Guidebook
~ Have you done the following?
~ Determined which land use
activities you will monitor.
~ Selected methods for collecting
data on each activity.
~ Considered spatial and temporal
scale.
~ Selected variables.
~ Selected sampling frequency.
River in Idaho (photo by NRCS)
Define Land Use Monitoring
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Next Design Element: Design Data Management
SELECT
DESIGN^
STATIONS
IDENTIFY
PROBLEM(S)
FORM
OBJECTIVES
DESIGN
EXPERIMENT
LOCATE
STATIONS
DETERMINE
SAMPLING
FREQUENCY
CHOOSE
SAMPLE
TYPE
SELECT
SCALE
QAPP
DEFINE
COLLECTION
& ANALYSIS
METHODS
DESIGN
DATA
MANAGEMENT
DEFINE
LAND USE
MONITORING
Design Data Management
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Design data
management
Developing, executing and supervising
plans, policies, programs and practices
that control, protect, deliver and
enhance the value of data and
information assets.
(Mosley et al. 2009)
Considerations:
• How will you acquire, store and backup your data?
• Are you using any publicly available data?
• Have you developed a quality assurance project plan (QAPP)?
Design Data Management
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Overview
Go to p. 3-105
of Guidebook
• Data management must be part of initial project planning. It
includes:
- The path the data follows, from generation to final use or storage.
- Standard record-keeping procedures.
- Document control system.
- Approach used for data storage and retrieval on electronic media.
- Control mechanism for detecting and correcting errors and
preventing loss of data during data reduction, data reporting and
data entry.
- Examples of forms or checklists.
- Descriptions of data-handling equipment and procedures for
processing, compiling and analyzing data.
- Performance requirements for computer hardware and software.
• Describe the aspects of data management in a QAPP.
Quality Assurance Project Plan for
National Coastal Condition Assessment (NCCA)
2020 Great Lakes Human Health Fish Sample Preparation
July 15, 2020
Prepared for:
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water
Office of Science and Technology (OST)
Standards and Health Protection Division
Prepared with support from:
Tetra Tech, Inc.
under
OST Engineering and Analysis Division
Contract No, EP-C-17-024
Design Data Management
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Design Data Management of Guidebook
• The following aspects of data management are presented in the following slides:
Data management
topic
(click on link to skip ahead)
Considerations
QA/QC
Develop a QAPP at the beginning of the project and implement
and maintain it throughout the project.
Data acquisition
Consider different issues with manual vs. electronic data entry
and measured data versus data acquired from other sources
(e.g., databases, literature, other programs or agencies).
Data storage
Store manual and electronic data safely. Back up all data.
Design Data Management
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Quality Assurance/Quality Control of Guidebook
• A QAPP details the technical activities and quality assurance/quality control
(QA/QC) procedures that should be implemented to ensure data meet specified
standards. A QAPP should identify:
- Who will be involved in the project and their responsibilities and the nature of the study or
monitoring program.
- The questions to be addressed or decisions to be made based on the data collected.
- Where, how and when samples will be taken and analyzed.
- The requirements to ensure data quality.
- The specific activities and procedures to be performed to obtain the requisite level of quality
(including QC checks and oversight).
- How data will be managed, analyzed and checked to ensure that they meet the project goals.
- How the data will be reported.
• The QAPP should be implemented and maintained throughout a project.
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Data Acquisition
-------
Data Acquisition &of3)
Go to p. 3-105
of Guidebook
• Newer methods of data acquisition include the use of data loggers,
laptops, tablets and smartphones.
• Advantages:
- Manual data entry and the associated transcription errors are avoided.
- Remote access allows direct transfer of field data from a data logger to
the main data storage site.
• Disadvantages:
- Storage capacity is limited.
- Once storage capacity is full, any new data might not be recorded, or
older data might be overwritten and thus lost.
Design Data Management
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Data Acquisition
-------
Data Storage
• All field and laboratory notebooks must
be fully documented and stored safely.
Consider creating scanned images.
• Use spreadsheets for simple projects.
• Use a relational database for complex
projects involving many sites or variables.
• Back up all computerized data and
project files.
Design Data Management
Go to p. 3-106
of Guidebook
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Design Data Management—Summary of Guidebook
~ Have you done the following?
~ Developed a QAPP.
~ Included data management in
the project planning phase.
~ Determined how you will
acquire data.
~ Determined how you will store
data.
Photo by Eric Vance, USEPA
Design Data Management
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References d^i
• Alberts, E.E., G. E. Schuman and R.E. Burwell. 1978. Seasonal runoff losses of nitrogen and phosphorus from Missouri Valley loess watersheds. Journal of Environmental Quality
7(2):203-208.
• Brakensiek, D.L., H.B. Osborn, and W.J. Rawls. 1979. Field Manual for Research in Agricultural Hydrology. Agriculture Handbook No. 224. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Science
and Education Administration, Washington, DC.
• Chesapeake Bay Program. 1995. Chesapeake Bay: Introduction to an Ecosystem. Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.
• Coffey, S.W., J. Spooner, and M.D. Smolen. 1993. The Nonpoint Source Manager's Guide to Water Quality and Land Treatment Monitoring. North Carolina State University,
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, NCSU Water Quality Group, Raleigh, NC.
• Dressing, S. A. 2018. Critical Source Area Identification and BMP Selection: Supplement to Watershed Planning Handbook, EPA 841-K-18-001. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C.
• FISP (Federal Interagency Sedimentation Project). 2014. Federal Interagency Sedimentation Project.
• Hall, D.W. 2004. Surface-Water Quantity and Quality of the Upper Milwaukee River; Cedar Creek, and Root River Basins, Wisconsin. United States Geological Survey, Open-File
Report 2006-1121.
• Klatt, J.G., A.P. Mallarino, J.A. Downing, J.A. Kopaska and D.J. Wittry. 2003. Soil phosphorus, management practices, and their relationship to phosphorus delivery in the Iowa
Clear Lake agricultural watershed. Journal of Environmental Quality 32(6):2140-2149.
• Lewis, J. 2006. Fixed and Mixed-Effects Models for Multi-Watershed Experiments. Pacific Southwest Research Station, U.S. Forest Service, Areata, CA.
• Meals, D.W., D.C. Braun, and J.A. Hanzas. 2011. Assessment of Dairy Manure Management Practices to Reduce Pathogen Runoff Losses in Agricultural Watersheds. Final Report.
Prepared for U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, by Stone Environmental, Inc., Montpelier, VT.
• Meals, D.W. and S.A. Dressing. 2008. Lag time in water quality response to land treatment. Tech Notes 4, September 2008. Developed for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
by Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA.
• Mosley, M., M.H. Brackett, S. Earley, and D. Henderson. 2009. DAMA Guide To The Data Management Body Of Knowledge (DAMA-DMBOK Guide). Technics Publications, Bradley
Beach, NJ.
• NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). 2005. Ocean Explorer. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Accessed November 9, 2021.
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/.
• OEPA (Ohio Environmental Protection Agency). 2021. Surface and Ground Waters Monitoring Strategy. AMS/2021-TECHN-1. Ohio EPA, Division of Surface Water. Columbus, OH.
• Stuntebeck, T.D., Komiskey, M.J., Owens, D.W., and Hall, D.W. 2008. Methods of Data Collection, Sample Processing, and Data Analysis for Edge-of-Field, Streamgaging,
Subsurface-Tile, and Meteorological Stations at Discovery Farms and Pioneer Farm in Wisconsin, 2001-7. Open-File Report 2008-1015. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA.
• Teledyne Isco. 2013. Portable Samplers. Teledyne Isco, Lincoln, NE.
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References ^
• USDA-NRCS (U.S. Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service). 2003. National Water Quality Handbook. 450-VI-NWQH. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC.
• USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 1990. The Lake and Reservoir Restoration Guidance Manual. EPA-440/4-90-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Water, Washington, DC.
• USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2002. Methods for Evaluating Wetland Condition: #16 Vegetation-Based Indicators of Wetland Nutrient Enrichment. EPA-822-R-02-
024. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
• USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2004. Review of Rapid Assessment Methods for Assessing Wetland Condition. EPA/620/R-04/009. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Laboratory, Corvallis, OR.
• USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2008. Handbook for Developing Watershed Plans to Restore and Protect Our Waters. EPA 841-B-08-002. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
• USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) 2012. Cooperative Watershed Management Improves Dissolved Oxygen Levels in Fall River. U.S. EPA Nonpoint Source Success
Stories, EPA 841-F-12-001H. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
• USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2016. Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed Projects. EPA 841-R-16-010. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Nonpoint Source Control Branch, Washington, DC.
• Waschbusch, R.J., W.R. Selbig, and R.T. Bannerman. 1999. Sources of Phosphorus in Stormwater and Street Dirt from Two Urban Residential Basins in Madison, Wisconsin, 1994-95.
Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4021. U.S. Geological Survey, Middleton, Wl.
• Wetzel, R.G. 1975. Limnology. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA.
• Wilde, F.D., ed. 2006. Collection of Water Samples (Version 2.0). Book 9, Chapter A4 in Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA.
• Wilde, F.D., M.W. Sandstrom, and S.C. Skrobialowski. 2014. Selection of Equipment for Water Sampling (Ver. 3.1). Book 9, Chapter A2 in Techniques of Water-Resources
Investigations. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Accessed February 5, 2016.
• Photos (Public domain sources): NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Photo Library); NRCS (U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation
Service Photo Gallery); USEPA Flickr; USEPA SNEP (USEPA Southeast New England Program Photo Gallery); U.S. Forest Service (Image Galley); USGS (U.S. Geological Survey Image
Gallery)
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How to Use this Interactive Guide
9
Click on the color-coded design elements icon on the design element map to learn more about each topic.
Each section includes about 6-27 pages of information. (Note: These elements do not necessarily need to be
followed in a step-wise manner. In practice, some are completed concurrently.)
The navigation bar at the bottom of each slide allows you to move to the PREVIOUS or NEXT slide in the slide
deck, RETURN to the slide you viewed most recently (important for pop-up box navigation), or to GO TO MAP
(main design element map). Some sections include a GO TO TABLE link that allows navigation within the section,
<^~19
PREVIOUS NEXT
RETURN GO TO MAP GO TO TABLE
Most topics are discussed in greater detail in the Monitoring and Evaluating Nonpoint Source Watershed
Projects guidebook. To move to the relevant guidebook section, click on the linked guidebook icon
at the top right of some pages (also noted by page number).
Other links will take you to additional information online or will direct you elsewhere within the presentation.
*1
RETURN GO TO MAP
-------
Prepare your QAPP before data collection begins and refer to
it during all phases of the monitoring program.
olementation and
ar project, as well as any
A QAPP documents the planning, im
assessment procedures for a particu
specific quality assurance and quality control activities.
Use a QAPP to document planning results for environmental
data operations and to provide a project-specific "blueprint"
for obtaining the type and quality of environmental data
needed for a specific decision or use.
For more on QAPPs, refer to the Design Data Management
section.
QAPP
+1
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-------
Seasonality
• February accounted for 23% of
the total phosphorus (P) load in
a 2-year study in the Clear Lake
watershed in Iowa, indicating
that the snowmelt period is a
time of significant P loss from
fields (Klatt et al. 2003).
Example 1 jS of Guidebook
lowo winter (photo by NRCS)
9
RETURN GO TO MAP
-------
Seasonality
• A 7-year study on corn-cropped
watersheds in southwestern Iowa
showed that most of the average
annual total nitrogen and
phosphorus losses occurred
during the fertilizer application,
seedbed preparation and crop
establishment period from April
through June (Alberts et al.
1978).
Example 2 jS of Guidebook
tnrmt
lowo cornfield (photo by Lynn Betts, NRCS)
9
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Seasonality Considerations—Example 3 of Guidebook
• For herbicides such as atrazine, losses from
agricultural fields in humid areas are highly episodic,
with most of annual losses occurring in transient
storm events soon after herbicide application.
• A significant portion of the load of some pesticide
degradation products, however, can be transported
under base-flow conditions in humid environments.
- Here, a monitoring effort would need to reliably monitor
short, intense and unpredictable events during specific Pesticide application (photo by C. Loper, USGS)
seasons (depending on seasonal & agronomic factors).
- Sampling of base flow would be needed to track degradation
products.
y -
,
Bam
1
l.'^W
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Rivers and Streams: Spatial Flow Patterns 0] of Guidebook
• Accurate flow measurement is essential to
estimating pollutant loads. Therefore, it's
important to understand spatial flow
patterns in the monitored stream or river.
- Streams can be perennial or intermittent.
- Water velocity varies horizontally and vertically.
- Tributaries can add pollutant loads, dilute
pollutant loads and create horizontal gradients.
- Suspended solids, dissolved oxygen and algal
productivity can vary with depth.
Mod River, VT (photo by USEPA)
9
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Rivers and Streams: Variability
Go to p. 2-7
of Guidebook
• Vertical variability is particularly important during
runoff events and in slow-moving streams because
pollutants can vary substantially with depth
(Brakensiek et al. 1979).
• Contaminant levels in bed sediment vary
horizontally and vertically as deposition and
scouring are strongly influenced by water velocity
• Biological communities in stream systems vary with
many factors, including landscape position, type of
substrate, light, water temperature, current velocity,
and amount and type of aquatic and riparian
vegetation.
*1 9
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Mine drainage (photo by USEPA)
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Rivers and Streams: Sampling Selection 0] of Guidebook
• If a representative sample of a river is required,
it is important to select a sampling point where
the flow is uniform and well-mixed, without
sharp flow variations or distinct tributary inflow
plumes.
• If more detail is required, segmentation of a
stream into fairly homogeneous segments
before monitoring might be necessary, with
one to several monitoring stations located in
each segment (Coffey et al. 1993).
Gum Run, Hinton, VA (photo by Tetro Tech)
9
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Lakes, Reservoirs, and Ponds: Stratification @] of Guidebook
The physical, chemical
arid biological
characteristics of lakes
vary horizontally,
vertically, seasonally
and throughout the
day.
These characteristics
are strongly
determined by
hydrology and
geomorphology (Wetzel
1975).
Thermally stratified lake in mid-summer (image by USEPA 1990)
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EPlUMNlOW OR MIXED LAYER - WARM {LIGHT) WATER
THERMOCUHE
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Lakes, Reservoirs, and Ponds: Shape jS
• Lake shape has major implications for
monitoring design.
- Simple, rounded shapes tend to be well-mixed at
most times and might require only a single
sampling station to provide an accurate
representation of water quality.
- Complex interconnected basins or dendritic
shapes (e.g., reservoirs) tend to exhibit significant
spatial variability as mixing is inhibited; such lakes
may require numerous sampling stations to
represent the more uneven water quality
characteristics.
Photo by NRCS
9
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Lakes, Reservoirs, and Ponds: Flow
• Vertical variability can affect water quality and consequently monitoring design choices.
- Uniformly shallow lakes tend to be well-mixed vertically and have extensive photic zones, yielding a
fairly homogeneous water column that can be effectively sampled at a single depth.
- Deeper lakes tend to stratify seasonally because of the temperature-density properties of water.
- Monitoring at different points with depth during periods of peak stratification is sometimes
appropriate. Other times, sampling during the periods when the water column is completely mixed
(e.g., at spring or fall turnover) may yield information on the general character of the lake for that year.
• Tributary inflows and effluent discharge points contribute to horizontal variations in water
quality.
- Localized inputs of large water or pollutant loads can influence localized water quality. Currents
influence the dispersal of pollutants.
- Locations of such discharges are key factors in placing monitoring stations—either to deliberately
sample them to represent important localized impairments or distinct components of total lake inputs,
or to deliberately avoid them as unrepresentative of the broad lake, depending on program objectives.
• Sediment/water interactions exert strong controls on some pollutant dynamics.
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Wetlands: Variability jS £
Go to p. 2-12
Guidebook
• Due to the diversity among natural wetlands, a wetland monitoring
program must be based on a specific wetland's attributes.
• Key consideration for wetlands monitoring: define the assessment
area (i.e., is it the entire wetland or just a portion?)
• Wetlands cycle sediments, nutrients and other pollutants vary
actively among physical (e.g., sediment), chemical (e.g., water
column) and biological (e.g., vegetation) compartments.
• Vegetation is a key element of wetland systems (seasonality of
vegetation growth and senescence may be an important driver for
nutrient cycling) and therefore important for monitoring design
(USEPA 2002).
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Wetlands: Strategies and Tools
Go to p. 2-12
of Guidebook
• Strategies for designing an effective monitoring program build
from a hierarchy of three levels that vary in intensity and scale:
- Level 1: Broad, landscape-scale assessments.
- Level 2: Rapid field methods.
- Level 3: Intensive biological and physio-chemical measures (USEPA
2004).
• Rapid assessment procedures are sensitive tools to assess
anthropogenic impacts to wetland ecosystems; they can be
used to:
- Evaluate best management practices.
- Assess restoration and mitigation projects.
- Prioritize wetland-related resource management decisions.
- Establish aquatic life use standards for wetlands.
Wetland in Washington (photo by NRCS)
9
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Estuaries: Dynamics
• Estuaries differ from freshwater bodies
largely due to the mixing of fresh water
with salt water and the influence of tides
on the spatial and temporal variability of
chemical, physical, and biological
characteristics.
- Incoming tides push salt water shoreward.
- Outgoing tides pull water toward the ocean and
freshwater fills the gap left by the receding
submerged salt water.
- Because of the dynamic interaction of fresh water
and salt water, pollutants in the water and
sediment remain in the estuary for a long time.
Go to p. 2-14
of Guidebook
River
Ocean — >
Fresh Water I
pr
A?
>-
Sediment
Mixing of salt and fresh water in an estuary (Chesapeake Bay
Program 1995)
9
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Estuaries: Variability
Go to p. 2-14
of Guidebook
• Basin shape, mouth width, depth, area, tidal range, surrounding
topography and regional climate all help to determine the nature of an
estuary.
• The earth's rotation, barometric pressure and bathymetry affect
circulation and spatial variability.
• Freshwater inflow is a major determinant of the physical, chemical and
biological characteristics.
- Freshwater inputs can vary seasonally and affect the concentration and
retention of pollutants, the distribution of salinity, and the stratification of
fresh water and salt water.
• Temporal variability is also influenced by factors other than freshwater
inputs.
- Temperature profiles vary seasonally
- Tidal cycles can affect the mixing of fresh and salt waters and the position of
the fresh water-salt water interface.
Photo by NRCS
9
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Coastal Nearshore Waters: Dynamics
• Nearshore waters include an indefinite zone
extending away from shore, beyond the breaker
zone; the term applies to both coastal waters and
large freshwater bodies such as the Great Lakes.
• The interplay of wind, waves, currents, tides,
upwelling, tributaries and human activities
influence water quality and monitoring
requirements.
- Wind and tides are the primary sources of energy.
- Waves play a central role in the transport and
deposition of coastal sediments as well as the
dispersion of pollutants and nutrients.
South Beach, TX (photo by USEPA)
9
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Coastal Nearshore Waters: Variability
• Upwelling brings cold, nutrient-rich waters to the surface, encouraging biological growth.
- Extremely variable in space and time, depending on winds and topography.
• Tributaries introduce fresh water and can alter nearshore currents depending on tide stage, wind
conditions, and flow rate.
- Headlands, breakwaters, and piers can affect the circulation pattern and alter the direction of nearshore
currents.
- Current patterns must be sufficiently understood to determine the best locations for monitoring and to
establish pollutant pathways and the likely relationships between land-based activities and nearshore water
quality.
- Because circulation and pollutant transport is so variable in nearshore areas, designing monitoring plans
based on assumptions about current patterns is not recommended.
- The current system drives the relationship between land-based pollutant sources and receiving water quality.
• Monitoring should include provisions to track variables needed to characterize the current enough to aid
interpretation of other chemical, biological, and physical data that are generated.
• Basic data on salinity, water temperature, and depth are often essential to identifying the source of the sampled
water and characterizing current patterns.
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Groundwater: Variability
Go to p. 2-17
of Guidebook
Occurs in either confined or unconfined aquifers.
Water quality is influenced by aquifer type, native geology,
precipitation patterns, flow patterns, land use, pollutant sources, and
pollutant characteristics.
The interaction of surface water and groundwater can be considered
from the perspective of:
1) Surface water recharging groundwater, which is important when
determining the impact of surface water on a groundwater resource.
2) Groundwater discharging to a stream or lake, which should be a key
element of monitoring when groundwater comprises a significant
portion of the water or contaminant budget of a surface water body.
Karst systems (a geologic condition shaped by the dissolution of
channels or layers of soluble bedrock due to the movement of water)
present special challenges because sources of aquifer contamination
may be widely dispersed and difficult to map.
Artesian well in Sycamore Valley, MO
(photo by J. Baughn, USGS )
9
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Groundwater: Sampling
• Regional or statewide groundwater level recording and water quality monitoring
networks are common across the nation, especially in areas where groundwater
is a primary source of drinking and irrigation water.
- These networks often detect contaminants via well monitoring and model contaminant
transport based on groundwater level data.
- Watershed-level monitoring of groundwater is still relatively rare.
• Successful monitoring design begins with an understanding of the groundwater
system and the establishment of specific monitoring objectives.
• Monitoring often requires a two-stage approach:
- First stage is a hydrogeologic survey.
- Second stage is an investigation of water quality.
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Monitoring Objectives—Example
• Each year Ohio EPA (OEPA 2021) collects data from streams
and rivers in five to seven different areas of the state. About
400-450 sampling sites are examined, and each site is visited
more than once per year.
• During these studies, technicians collect chemical samples,
examine and count fish and aquatic insects, and take
measurements of the stream.
• There are three major objectives for the studies:
1. Determine how the stream is doing compared to goals
assigned in the Ohio Water Quality standards;
2. Determine if the goals assigned to the river or stream are
appropriate and attainable; and
3. Determine if the stream's condition has changed since the last
time the stream was monitored.
Little Miami River, OH (photo by Ohio EPA)
9
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Multiple Watersheds Design of Guidebook
Example:
• Lewis (2006) describes a multiple-watershed approach in which:
- Three of 13 watersheds are used as controls
- Five are fully treated
- Five are partially treated
• He argues that this design has a significant advantage over paired-
watershed studies in that it allows for prediction under different
conditions or treatment levels, whereas prediction based on paired-
watershed study results requires the assumed treatments are
identical to the treatments used in the study.
+1
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Plot-Scale Monitoring
• Generally used in designs that
feature replication (e.g., to meet
research objectives).
• Can be used for preliminary
assessment of BMP effectiveness.
• Focuses on storm events and
generally requires:
- Automatic samplers
- Continuous flow measurement
- Considerable annual expense
£]5
Go to p. 2-32
of Guidebook
Rain over Hart Mountain, OR (photo by L.J. Hartley; USGS)
9
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Field-Scale Monitoring
• Samples are taken from episodic
runoff rather than from waterbodies.
• Study units are larger than individual
plots but vary in size, such as:
- Parking lots
- Rooftops
- Street segments
- Cropland segments
- Paddocks
- Barnyards
Go to p. 2-32
of Guidebook
Rain garden in Washington, DC (photo by A. Goldstein,
USEPA)
9
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Detecting a Step Change of Guidebook
• To determine the sample size needed to detect a
change,the detectable change must first be calculated
based on the standard deviation of the difference between
the pre- and post-mean values with an anticipated number
of samples.
©J See guidebook p. 3-50 for an example calculation
• The sample size needed to detect a step change difference of
acceptable magnitude can be estimated using an iterative
process of trying different pre- and post-sample sizes.
+1
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Detecting a Linear Change
Go to p. 3-45
of Guidebook
Monitoring for trend detection must be sensitive enough to detect
the level of water quality change likely to occur in response to
management changes.
For a linear trend,this monitoring is based on the confidence interval
on the standard deviation of the slope.
50 For equations and calculations, see guidebook p. 3-45.
Calculate sample size interactively by trying various sample
frequencies and durations until your monitoring approach would be
able to detect the amount of change expected by implementing
BMPs.
+1
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Macro-Scale Design: 5
• Possible sampling locations
for a synoptic survey
Go to p. 3-38
of Guidebook
*1
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Grab Samples: Isokinetic vs. Nonisokinetic 0] of Guidebook
• Wilde et al. (2014) define samples for which the velocities of the stream
and water entering the sampler intake are the same and different as
isokinetic and nonisokinetic, respectively.
• Example: Isokinetic vs nonisokinetic samples of stream water.
- Because the suspension of particulate materials depends largely on the stream
velocity, an isokinetic sample might have a different and more accurate sediment
concentration compared to a nonisokinetic sample.
• Nonisokinetic samplers include the hand-held bottle, the weighted-
bottle sampler, the biological oxygen demand (BOD) sampler, and the
so-called "thief samplers" such as the Kemmerer and Van Dorn samplers
that are often used for lake sampling at specific depths.
+1
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Time of Travel Example ^ of Guidebook
• Stuntebeck et. al (2008) modified the basic above/below design in a
Wisconsin barnyard runoff study by setting the samplers to be activated by
precipitation and programming them to collect time-integrated samples for
an initial period.
- This modification allowed for sampling of barnyard runoff in the receiving stream
before stream water level increases could be sensed, thereby effectively isolating the
barnyard runoff from nonpoint pollution sources upstream.
- This approach allowed sampling during small storms in which local inputs from the
barnyard were apparent, but little storm runoff from the upstream areas of the
watershed were observed.
- A second modification took advantage of the close proximity of the two stations to
create a direct electronic connection between the stations for collection of
concurrent samples.
1 9
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RCA Report-Interactive Data Viewer jS
USDA maintains data on conservation practices
implemented with USDA cost-share funds or
technical assistance. State-level information can
be obtained through the Soil and Water
Resources Conservation Act (RCA) Report-
Interactive Data Viewer.
The RCA authorizes USDA to report on the
condition of natural resources, and to analyze
conservation programs and opportunities. The
Interactive Data Viewer provides data from a
variety of sources, including data on the status
and trends of natural resources, conservation
efforts (funding and conservation practices
applied), and the agricultural sector.
RCA Report - Interactive Data Viewer
What's New | Interactive Data View [Instructions] [ Text Only View | National Reports | Program Reports
• The Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act (RCA) provides broad natural resource strategic assessment and planning authority for the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA). The purpose of the RCA is to ensure that USDA programs for the conservation of soil, water, and related
resources are responsive to the long-term needs of the Nation.
Click OK and disregard any Google error messages, access to all reports is still available.
Click on the map to see available reports
for the selected states or regions. Only
one scale may be selected at a time.
O D & Farm Production Regions
b-Q |£3 CEAP Regions
© States
Subjects (Optional)
Select in order to restrict map queries to
the specified subjects. Multiple subject
areas may be selected.
0"LJ(C3 Conservation Programs
O Lj|£3 Profiles
O ~ ED Natural Resources
B | : |j3 CEAP Conservation Assessments
Please wait while data is loaded...
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USDA's National Resources Inventory
USDA's National Resources Inventory (NRQ provides survey-
based inventories of land use information.
The NRI program collects and produces scientifically
credible information on the status, condition, and trends of
land, soil, water, and related resources on the Nation's non-
federal lands in support of efforts to protect, restore, and
enhance the lands and waters of the United States.
NRI survey results are based upon a particular set of
definitions, protocols, and instructions. These have been
developed to support NRCS programs and USDA analytical
needs, so they differ in some cases from those used by
other agencies. These differences need to be considered
when analyzing/interpreting the data.
ySDA
2017
National Resources Inventory
Summary Report
September 2020
*1
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Census of Agriculture
• USDA's National Agricultural Statistics Service
(NASS) conducts the Census of Agriculture
once every 5 years. It's a comprehensive
summary of agricultural activity for the U.S.
and for each state. It includes the number of
farms by size and type, inventory and values
for crops and livestock, operator
characteristics, and other information.
• NASS publishes only aggregated data. NASS is
bound by law (Title 7, U.S. Code, and CIPSEA,
Public Law 107-347)—and pledges to every
data provider—to use the information for
statistical purposes only.
£]5
Go to p. 3-94
of Guidebook
1 JCr^A United States Department of Agriculture
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*1
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NOAA's C-CAP
• NOAA's Coastal Change Analysis Program
(C-CAP has a nationally standardized
database of land cover and land change
information for U.S. coastal regions,
derived from the analysis of multiple dates
of remotely sensed imagery.
• Two file types are available: individual
dates and change files.
• C-CAP data form the coastal expression of
the National Land Cover Database (NLCD)
and the A-16 land cover theme of the
National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The
data are updated every 5 years.
Go to p. 3-94
of Guidebook
*1
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National Land Cover Database
£]5
Go to p. 3-94
of Guidebook
The National Land Cover Database (NLCD) and
USGS's Land Use and Land Cover data provide
historical GIS datasets.
The Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC)
Consortium is a group of federal agencies who
coordinate and generate consistent and relevant
land cover information at the national scale for a
variety of environmental, land management and
modeling applications. Maps of the lower 48
states, Hawaii, Alaska and Puerto Rico have been
compiled into a comprehensive land cover
product (NLCD) from decadal Landsat satellite
imagery and other supplementary datasets.
QSefiraling 20- years o' Partnership
Mufti-Resolution Land Characteristics
Consortium
Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC)
Consortium
the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MW.CJ consortium is a group of federal agencies who coordinate
ar.fl genera*? consistent and relevant land caver information at the ratlonaS scale for a w-ri? variety of
environmental, lanes management, arid modeling applications. The creation of this consortium has resulted
in the mapping of the rower 48 Jnited States Hawaii, Alaska and Puerto Rico frrto a comprehensive land
cover product termed, the Nattona! Lane Cover Database (NLCD), from aecadal Landsat satellite imagery
and oOier supplemental y dacaieti.
Project Highlights
NLCD 2016
HOW AV'AlLAflt £
Direct Product Partners
zusgs
*1
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U.S. Census Bureau's TIGER Program jS
The U.S. Census Bureau (USCB) through the TIGER
(Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and
Referencing) program provides GIS data for mapping
human population.
It includes land features (roads, rivers and lakes),
counties, census tracts and census blocks. Some of
the geographic areas represented in TIGER are
political areas, while others are statistical areas.
The TIGER program was developed to support
USCB's mapping needs for the Decennial Census
and other programs. Every 1-3 years, USCB creates
an extract from this database and releases a TIGER
update. These extracts are known as TIGER/Line
files.
—. United States
Census
MBMBuirn
C\ Search
BROWSE BY TOPIC EXPLORE DATA LIBRARY PROG^MS INFORMATION FIND A CODE ABOUT US
TIGER Data Products Guide
| Sections
V I
Which Product Should I Use?
TIGER/Line
Shapefiles
File Format Type of Data
TIGER/Line
with Selected
Demographic
and Economic
Data
Cartographic
Boundary
Cartographic
Boundary
Shapefiles
Most mapping projects-this is our most
comprehensive dataset Designed for use
with GIS (geographic information systems).
Shapefiles
(.shp) and
database files
(dbf)
Boundaries, roads, address information,
water features, and more
Full detail
(not
generalized)
Extensive
2006-
2020, CD
113
Useful for users needing national datasets
or all major boundaries by state. Designed
for use in ArcGIS. Files are extremeiy large.
Geodatabase
(gdb)
Boundaries, roads, address information,
water features, and more
Full detail
(not
generalized)
Limited
2013-
2019
Data from selected attributes from the 2010
Census. 2006-2010 through 2014-2018 ACS
5-year estimates and County Business
Patterns (CBP) for selected geographies.
Designed for use with GIS
Shapefiles
(.shp) and
Geodatabases
(gdb)
Boundaries, Population Counts, Housing
Unit Counts, 2010 Census Demographic
Profile 1 attributes, 2006-2010 through
2013-2017 ACS 5-year estimates data
profiles, CBP data.
Full detail
(not
generalized)
Limited
2012 CBP.
2010,
2006
2010 to
2014-
2018 ACS
5-Year
Estimates
Small scale (limited detail) spatial files
clipped to shoreline. Designed for thematic
mapping use In ArcGIS.
Geodatabases
(gdb)
Selected boundaries
Less detail
(generalized)
Limited 2019
Limited 2013-
Is this page helpful? X
Yes Q No
Small scale (limited detail) spatial files
clipped to shoreline. Designed for thematic
mapping using GIS.
Shapefiles
(shp)
Selected boundaries
Less detail
(generalized)
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Water Quality Portal
Go to p. 3-94
of Guidebook
• The Water Quality Portal (WQP) is a cooperative
service sponsored by the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), USEPA, and the National Water Quality
Monitoring Council (NWQMC). It serves data
collected by over 400 state, federal, tribal and
local agencies.
• The WQP combines physical, chemical and
biological water quality data from multiple data
sources at one location and provides the data in
one format. It provides a single, user-friendly
web interface to access more than 250 million
water quality data records collected by over 400
federal, state and tribal agencies and other water
partners.
Country: ) Ail * Within North:
State: I All ? miles of South:
Lat:
County: All ? East:
*1
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