Bio-Based Products and Chemicals, Waste-to-Energy Scoping Analysis

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery

April 2015

1.0 Background

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) characterizes the generation and management of municipal
solid waste (MSW) and other postconsumer wastes in their solid waste report1 series. As part of this
memorandum, EPA's contractor researched the major types of bio-based products and chemicals, including
cellulosic and biomass-related materials, which are being used in waste-to-energy scenarios. EPA considers MSW
combustion with energy recovery to be disposal for the purpose of calculating recycling rates, and promotes
source reduction, reuse, recycling and composting over materials management for energy recovery.

Figure 1. EPA Waste Management Hierarchy

\

V

Source Reduction & Reuse

Recycling I Composting

Energy Recovery

Treatment

& Disposal

V

o

v

Specifically, this memorandum focuses on postconsumer MSW waste feedstocks that are being used to produce
cellulosic bio fuel, biomass-based diesel, advanced biofuel, renewable fuel, and cellulosic diesel. This memo
defines each renewable fuel category shown below according to EPA's Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)
definitions at 40 CFR Part 80, Subpart M:

1 U.S. EPA. Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: Facts and Figures, formerly Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in
the United States: Facts and Figures report series located at http://www.epa.gov/solidwaste/nonliaz/municipal/msw99.htm


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•	Cellulosic biofuel is derived from feedstock with at least 75 percent cellulosic content (cellulose, hemi-
cellulose, or lignin) and has lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions that are at least 60 percent less than the
baseline lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions.

•	Biomass-based diesel has lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions that are at least 50 percent less than
baseline lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions, and 1) is a transportation fuel, transportation fuel additive,
heating oil, or jet fuel; 2) meets the definition of either biodiesel or non-ester renewable diesel; and 3) is
registered as a motor vehicle fuel or fuel additive under 40 CFR Part 79, if the fuel or fuel additive is
intended for use in a motor vehicle.

•	Advanced biofuel is a renewable fuel, other than ethanol derived from cornstarch that has lifecycle
greenhouse gas emissions that are at least 50 percent less than baseline lifecycle greenhouse gas
emissions.

•	Renewable fuel is a fuel that is produced from renewable biomass; is used to replace or reduce the
quantity of fossil fuel present in a transportation fuel, heating oil, or jet fuel; and has lifecycle greenhouse
gas emission that are at least 20 percent less than baseline lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions.

•	Cellulosic diesel is any renewable fuel that meets both the definition of cellulosic biofuel and biomass-
based diesel. Cellulosic diesel includes heating oil and jet fuel made from cellulosic feedstocks.

The following sections provide an overview of domestic renewable energy consumption, present renewable fuel
production under the RFS, and discuss the types and amounts (where possible) of waste feedstocks that are used
to produce each category of renewable fuel, focusing on postconsumer MSW waste feedstocks. The research
indicates that several existing facilities are capable of using MSW as feedstock, but few are using MSW to
produce fuel at commercial scale.

EPA's contractor gathered information by reviewing scientific journals, EPA and U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) publications, renewable fuel trade association data and market reports, and other publicly available
information. The National Biodiesel Board, the Advanced Biofuels Association, and the Renewable Fuels
Association (RFA) were also contacted. Where data are available, EPA's contractor quantified the amount of
waste feedstocks used in renewable fuel production.

This memorandum addresses the fuels listed above and does not include landfill gas or industrial wastes used as
feedstocks for fuels. Additional research could be conducted to expand the scope of this memorandum to cover
these waste-to-energy scenarios. Postconsumer food managed through anaerobic digesters is also excluded. EPA
addressed food managed through anaerobic digestion in separate research efforts.

2.0 Overall Renewable Energy Production and Consumption from Wastes Materials

The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) tracks domestic renewable energy production and
consumption; Figure 2 presents energy consumption from biomass sources, based on EIA information. The waste
energy consumption category includes MSW from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural
byproducts, and other biomass. EIA considers MSW consumption at combustion plants as renewable "waste
energy." As shown in the figure, renewable energy consumption from waste sources (i.e. MSW combustion) was
reported beginning in 1970, and has increased steadily since that time.


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Renewable fuel (biofuel)2 consumption was reported beginning in 1981, and has increased drastically since 2000.
The data include consumption of renewable fuel from both virgin and waste feedstocks. Only a subset of this
renewable fuel (i.e. those produced from waste feedstocks and shown in Section 1.0) is discussed in this
memorandum.

The EIA waste energy data shown in Figure 2 includes additional waste-to-energy scenarios that are not covered
in this memorandum, but provides general trend information on waste energy consumption and use.

Figure 2. Annual Renewable Energy Consumption by Source, Biomass Only (1949-2013)

4,000

3,500

« 2,500

Q. '

E

3

i/>

C

u 2,000

c

LLI

1,500

^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^

Year

Biofuels Consumption

Waste Energy Consumption

Wood Energy Consumption

Source: EIA, 2014a.

Biofuel—fuel ethanol (minus denaturant) and biodiesel consumption, plus losses and co-products from the production of fuel
ethanol and biodiesel.

Waste—MSW from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts, and other biomass. Through 2000,

also includes non-renewable waste (MSW from non-biogenic sources and tire-derived fuels).

Wood—wood and wood-derived fuels.

2 EIA data include biomass-based diesel (biodiesel) and renewable fuel (ethanol) only.


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3.0 Renewable Fuel Production Under the RFS

In addition to combustion for energy recovery, waste biomass and other materials are used in renewable fuel
production. The RFS was created to establish renewable fuel volume mandates and to build a market for
renewable fuels in the transportation sector. Created under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and revised under the
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, the RFS program (RFS2) requires 36 billion gallons of renewable
fuel to be blended into transportation fuel by 2022.

EPA has been tasked with administering the RFS. The RFS sets separate mandates for each category of renewable
fuel, allows U.S. producers and importers to generate Renewable Identification Numbers (RINs) to represent each
gallon of renewable fuel produced under an EPA-approved pathway, and creates a market for trading RINs.

Figure 3 shows renewable fuel production under RFS2 based on RIN generation in EPA's Moderated Transaction
System (EMTS), a system that manages RIN transactions and trades under the RFS. The data cover the period
from July 2010 to September 2014 and include renewable fuel produced or imported into the United States. Table
1 presents the underlying data. Of these amounts, only a portion of renewable fuel was produced from waste
sources. No RINs were generated for the cellulosic biofuel and cellulosic diesel categories until 2012; of the five
categories reviewed in this memorandum, these two continue to remain a very small portion of the total renewable
fuel production.

In August 2014, EPA modified regulatory provisions related to renewable fuel made from biogas (primarily a
mixture of methane and carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic material), including a
new CNG/LNG (compressed natural gas/ liquid natural gas) cellulosic biofuel pathway, and adding a new
cellulosic biofuel pathway for renewable electricity (used in electric vehicles) produced from biogas.

These policy changes will influence actions and data going forward. These pathways have the potential to
provide notable volumes of cellulosic biofuel for use in complying with the RFS program. For example, the new
rule could cause a flaring landfill to make a different choice between the CNG/LNG options versus making
electricity, as a function of RIN price and environmental considerations such as lifecycle GHG emissions. The
biogas that is cellulosic has a higher RIN value (Babson 2014).

Additional research of biofuel from these pathways is not included in this memorandum.


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Figure 3. Renewable Fuel Production under RFS (July 2010-September 2014)

1,600,000,000
1,400,000,000

1,200,000,000

Js 1,000,000,000
E

o
>

« 800,000,000

u_

_a;

-Q

ro

5

= 600,000,000
aj

400,000,000

200,000,000

0

N® N®	N1, nV S1, N1, ¦v*' ^ 'v' ^ -y1 ^	^ N®1 ^ ^

* cf'	^	c^> ^	^	^ * c/	^	^

Month

¦JCellulosic Diesel (D7) Ml Renewable Fuel (D6) H Advanced Biofuel (D5) UBiomass-Based Diesel (D4) ¦ICellulosic Biofuel (D3)

Source: EPA OTAQ RFS2 data, http://www.epa.aov/otaa/fuels/rfsdata/2014emts.htm. Downloaded November 10. 2014.

Table 1. Renewable Fuel Production Quantity under RFS (July 2010-December 2013)



EMTS Batch Volume (gal)

RIN Year

Cellulosic Biofuel
(D3)

Biomass-Based
Diesel (D4)

Advanced Biofuel
(D5)

Renewable Fuel
(D6)

Cellulosic Diesel
(D7)

2010

0

215,402,913

19,233,282

6,789,828,018

0

2011

0

1,122,699,193

215,755,059

13,613,229,503

0

2012

20,069

1,146,899,177

618,671,889

12,987,396,467

1,024

2013

281,819

1,793,394,504

527,775,069

13,251,209,617

232,808

Source: EPA OTAQ RFS2 data, http://www.epa.gov/otaq/fuels/rfsdata/2014emts.htm.

EMTS also captures information on the types and amounts of feedstocks used in renewable fuel production,
including waste cellulosic and biomass materials. According to EMTS data and publicly available information,
current cellulosic biofuel, biomass-based diesel, advanced biofuel, renewable fuel, and renewable diesel
production use waste materials including cellulosic materials, agricultural residue, biogas, wood residues, waste
vegetable oil, and food.


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Several facilities are capable of using the mixed MSW stream to produce renewable fuel; however, many of these
facilities are not producing at commercial quantities. The sections below provide more information for each
renewable fuel category of interest.

3.1 Renewable Fuel Category: Cellulosic Biofuel

Fuels in the cellulosic biofuel category can include, but are not limited to, cellulosic ethanol, cellulosic renewable
gasoline blendstock, renewable compressed natural gas (CNG), renewable liquefied natural gas (LNG), and
renewable electricity produced from biogas.

Cellulosic biofuel was not produced at commercial quantities as of the last quarter of 2013 (AEC, 2013; Mufson,
2013). Under the RFS, only 281,819 gallons of cellulosic biofuel were produced during 2013. The Advanced
Ethanol Council (AEC) describes "high capital risk from OPEC-induced price distortions, constrained blending
markets and policy uncertainty" as causes of the delayed commercialization (AEC, 2013).

AEC's report (2013) details existing and upcoming cellulosic biofuel facilities in the United States. The report
also provides information on the feedstock used or planned for use at each facility for cellulosic biofuel
production. Table 2 lists types of waste feedstock that are used or could be used at these facilities.

Table 3 lists the name and location of each facility as reported by AEC.

There is no publicly available information to quantify the amount of postconsumer wastes that was used in
cellulosic biofuel production in 2013. Even though AEC suggests that several facilities are capable of using MSW
as feedstock, the actual use quantity is likely low, based on low levels of cellulosic biofuel production, compared
to other renewable fuel categories.

In 2014, most cellulosic biofuel consisted of renewable CNG and LNG produced from biogas. However, the
quantity of postconsumer feedstock used to create the biogas used to produce the renewable CNG and LNG is not
published.


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Table 2. Cellulosic Biofuel Waste Feedstock Types

MSW Post-Consumer Wastes

Other Wastes



Agricultural residue



Bagasse

Mixed MSW

Biogas from landfills, municipal wastewater treatment facility
digesters, agricultural digesters, separated MSW and other
waste digesters

Separated food waste

Corn crop residue and corn stover

Vegetative and yard waste

Forestry residue or other waste forestry biomass

Wood and paper waste

Other cellulosic waste
Wood residue
Wheat straw

Source: AEC, 2013.


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Table 3. U.S. Cellulosic Biofuel Facility That Use or Plan to Use Waste Feedstock

Facility Name

Location

Feedstock

Feedstock Capacity

Renewable Fuel Capacity

Status

Abengoa Bioenergy
commercial site

Hugoton, KS

Agricultural residues,
dedicated energy crops,
prairie grasses

1,100 dry tons/day

25 MGY

Under construction; estimated
completion in December 2013

BlueFire Renewables
demonstration facility

Anaheim, CA

Various wood and paper
wastes, MSW, bagasse

Unknown

200 lb/day
(cellulosic sugar)

Used to produce cellulosic sugars
for sale to companies developing
processes to convert to bio-products

BlueFire Renewables
commercial facility

Fulton, MS

Forestry residues, other
cellulosic wastes

Unknown

19 MGY

Pending construction financing

Enerkem (commercial
strategy)

Pontotoc, MS

MSW, wood residues

Unknown

10 MGY

Under development

Fiberight commercial facility

Lawrenceville,
VA

MSW, commercial
waste, energy crops

Unknown

1 MGY

Operations commenced in 2012

Fiberight commercial facility

Blairstown, IA

MSW, non-food wastes

1,000 ton/day MSW

6 MGY

Existing facility to be modified in
2013

Fulcrum commercial facility

McCarran, NV

MSW

Unknown

10 MGY

Pending construction financing;
estimated completion in 2014

KL Process Design Group1

Upton, WY

Wood waste

Unknown

1.5 MGY

Operational

INEOS Bio commercial
facility

Vero Beach, FL

Vegetative and yard
waste, MSW

Unknown

8 MGY
6MW, gross
(electricity generation)

Estimated startup in 2012

KiOR demonstration facility

Pasadena, TX

Forestry residuals

Unknown

15 bbl/day
(cellulosic diesel, gasoline)

Began operation in 2010

KiOR commercial facility

Columbus, MS

Forestry residuals

Unknown

13 MGY
(cellulosic gasoline/diesel)

Operational

KiOR commercial project

Natchez, MS

Forestry residuals

Unknown

40 MGY
(cellulosic gasoline/diesel)

Estimated completion in 2014

LanzaTech commercial
facility

Soperton, GA

Waste biomass from
regional forest
operations

Unknown

4 MGY

Estimated startup in 2014

POET demonstration facility

Scotland, SD

Corn crop residue

Unknown

20,000 GPY

Operational

POET commercial facility

Emmetsburg,
IA

Corn crop residue

Unknown

20 MGY

Estimated completion in 2013; goal
is to harvest 285,000 tons/year
biomass

Sources: AEC, 2013; RFA, 2014.

1 RFA, 2014.

bbl/day—barrels per day lb/day—pounds per day
MGY—million gallons per year GPY—gallons per year


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3.2 Renewable Fuel Category: Biomass-Based Diesel

The biomass-based diesel category consists predominantly of biodiesel, or fatty acid methyl esters produced from
lipids (fats, oils, and greases) (NREL, 2013). Under the RFS program, nearly 1.8 billion gallons of biomass-based
diesel were produced in or imported into the United States in 2013 (U.S. EPA, 2014). Of this amount,
approximately 1.4 billion gallons were produced domestically (EIA, 2014b).

EPA approves the use of biogenic waste oils/fats/greases as feedstock for biodiesel production and RIN
generation. Biogenic waste oils/fats/greases include animal fats (e.g. poultry fat, tallow, white grease) and waste
vegetable oils (e.g., yellow grease, other recycled greases). Waste animal fats typically come from the rendering
industry and are considered industrial wastes. Recycled feeds3 such as yellow grease are usually waste restaurant
cooking oils; however, some lower-quality yellow grease consists of fats from rendering plants.

EIA collects monthly data on U.S. feedstock usage and biodiesel production through the Form EIA-22M Monthly
Biodiesel Production Survey, a mandatory reporting form under the Federal Energy Administration Act for any
facility that produces biodiesel meeting ASTM D6751-07B specifications and used for commercial purposes.
Figure 4 presents EIA data on monthly usage of animal fats and recycled feeds in biodiesel production from
January 2012 to May 2014. Table 3 presents the same EIA data, tabulated on an annual basis, but includes all
feedstock usage and corresponding biodiesel production. As shown in the data, animal fats and recycled feeds
make up only a small portion of all biodiesel feedstock.

3 EIA defines "recycled feedstock" as material (biomass) used to produce biodiesel fuel that is not virgin, i.e. not produced
for the first time or for the express purpose of making biodiesel.


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Figure 4. Animal Fats and Recycled Feeds Inputs to Biodiesel Production (January 2012-May 2014)

Month

¦ Other Animal Fats	¦Poultryfat	¦Tallow	HWhiteGrease	BOther Recycled Feeds	YellowGrease

Source: El A, 2014b.


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Table 4. U.S. Feedstock Inputs and Biodiesel Production (January 2012-May 2014)

Year

Vegetable Oils Input
(MM lb)

Animal Fats
(MM lb)

Recycled Feeds
Input
(MM lb)

Biodiesel
Production
(MM gal)

Canola
Oil

Corn
Oil

Cottonseed
Oil

Palm
Oil

Soybean
Oil

Other

Poultry

Tallow

White
Grease

Other
Animal
Fats

Yellow
Grease

Other
Recycled
Feeds

B100

2012

790

645

0

0

4,043

0

176

385

409

49

672

290

990

2013

646

1,066

0

442

5,508

6

161

465

466

17

1,048

310

1,358

2014 Partial
January-May

221

357

0

0

1,621

4

53

150

192

15

420

114

442

Source: EIA, 2014b.

Definitions:

White grease: Inedible rendered pork fat.

Yellow grease: A term from the rendering industry that is generally assumed to include used frying oils from deep fryers and restaurants' grease traps. It can
also refer to lower-quality grades of tallow from rendering plants.

Brown grease: A generic term that includes trap grease, sewage grease, black grease, and grease from all other sources whose free fatty acid content exceeds
limits for animal feed.

Poultry fat: Poultry tissues obtained during the rendering process. It must contain less than 90% total fatty acids, not more than 2.5% unsaponifiables, and not
more than 1% soluble matter.

Recycled feedstock: Material (biomass) used to produce biodiesel fuel that is not virgin, i.e., not produced for the first time or for the express purpose of making
biodiesel. The "other recycled feeds" category includes brown grease.

Tallow: Solid fat extracted from the tissues and fatty deposits of cattle and sheep. Pure tallow is white, odorless, and tasteless; it consists chiefly of triglycerides
of stearic, palmitic, and oleic acids. There is both inedible tallow, used to produce biodiesel, and edible tallow, used for food.

MM lb—million pounds
MM gal—million gallons


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3.3	Renewable Fuel Category: Advanced Biofuel

In 2013, nearly 528 million gallons of advanced biofuel were produced or imported into the United States. The
following types of waste feedstocks are approved for use in advanced biofuel production and RIN generation
under the RFS:

•	Biogenic waste oils/fats/greases

•	Non-cellulosic portions of separated food waste

•	Biogas from waste digesters

Biogenic waste oils/fats/greases (e.g., waste restaurant cooking oils) and separated food wastes are postconsumer
wastes. Biogas could also come from digesters processing postconsumer wastes. Public RFS data do not include
quantities of waste feedstock used in advanced biofuel production.

3.4	Renewable Fuel Category: Renewable Fuel

In 2013, 13 billion gallons of renewable fuel were produced or imported into the United States, more than 98
percent of which consisted of non-cellulosic ethanol. According to data published by RFA and BBI International,
most non-cellulosic ethanol plants use corn or grain sorghum as feedstock. A negligible number use waste
feedstock to produce ethanol. Table 5 lists the types of waste feedstocks that are being used in ethanol production.
Table 6 lists the ethanol facilities that use these waste feedstocks. These facilities make up less than 1 percent of
the domestic ethanol production capacity. The exact amount of waste feedstock processed at each facility is not
known.

Table 5. Renewable Fue

Waste Feedstock Types

MSW Postconsumer Wastes

Other Wastes



Bagasse

Beverage waste1

Brewery waste

Health and beauty items

Cheese whey

Waste beer

Waste sugars/starches



Wood waste

Source: RFA, 2014.

1 According to the company website, Parallel Products recycles unsaleable beverage products (packaged or bulk) and
converts them into ethanol. Beverage products recycled include soda, water, juices, beer, wine, spirits, flavorings,
ingredients, and line flush.


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Table 6. Biorefineries That Use Waste Feedstocks

Company

Location

Feedstock

Nameplate
Capacity (MGY)3

Operation Production
(MGY)

BP Biofuels North America

Jennings, LA

Sugar cane bagasse

1.5

1.5

Dubay Biofuels Greenwood

Greenwood, Wl

Cheese whey

NA (under
construction, 5 MGY)

NA

Golden Cheese Company
of California

Corona, CA

Cheese whey

5

0

KL Process Design Group1

Upton, WY

Wood waste

1.5

1.5

Land O' Lakes

Melrose, MN

Cheese whey

2.6

2.6

Merrick and Company

Aurora, CO

Waste beer

3

3

Parallel Products

Louisville, KY

Beverage waste;
health and beauty items

5.4

5.4

Summit Natural Energy

Cornelius, OR

Waste sugars/starches2

1

1

Wind Gap Farms

Baconton, GA

Brewery waste

0.4

0.4

Sources: RFA, 2014; company websites.

1	This facility produces cellulosic ethanol, which is also a type of cellulosic biofuel.

2	Raw biomass byproducts from agricultural sources, food processing wastes, etc.

3	RFA does not define "nameplate capacity"; however, this term typically refers to the maximum sustained output for a facility.
The industry has 213 nameplate biorefineries (all feedstock types), with 14,932.4 MGY nameplate capacity.

MGY—million gallons per year

3.5 Renewable Fuel Category: Cellulosic Diesel

The cellulosic diesel category includes heating oil and jet fuel made from cellulosic feedstocks. The types of
waste feedstocks that could be used to produce cellulosic diesel would be similar to those listed in Table 2. No
additional information is available to quantify the amount of waste feedstocks used for this renewable fuel
category.

4.0 Summary

Biomass-based diesel is currently produced from both postconsumer waste (restaurant waste oils and greases) and
industrial wastes (animal fats from rendering). Data are available to quantify the amount of waste feedstock that is
being diverted from the waste stream and used in biomass-based diesel production (see Figure 4 and Table 4).

Only limited data are available to quantify the amount of waste feedstock used to produce the other renewable
fuel categories of interest. Existing renewable fuel facilities can use postconsumer waste feedstocks such as mixed
MSW streams; beverage wastes; health and beauty items; and industrial waste feedstocks such as agricultural
residues, various waste cellulosic materials, cheese whey, and brewery wastes. At this time, few MSW feedstocks
are used for renewable fuel production at commercial scale.

This scoping analysis focused on identifying public data that quantifies postconsumer feedstocks used to create
the renewable fuels of interest. With the exception of biomass-based diesel, limited feedstock data were identified.
Gathering end-fuel production data and calculating backward to feedstock input could potentially provide more
insight into postconsumer wastes used to create renewable fuels.


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References

AEC (Advanced Ethanol Council). 2013. Cellulosic Biofuels Industry Progress Report 2012-2013.

Babson, David. 2014. U.S. EPA. Comments received December.

EIA (U.S. Energy Information Administration). 2014a. Monthly Energy Review, Renewable Energy Topic 10.1
Production and Consumption by Source. July.

EIA (U.S. Energy Information Administration). 2014b. Monthly Biodiesel Production Report, with Data for May
2014. July.

Mufson, S. 2013. Cellulosic Ethanol, Once the Way of the Future, Is Off to a Delayed, Boisterous Start.
Washington Post. November 8. http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economv/cellulosic-ethanol-once-the-
wav-of-the-future-is-off-to-a-delaved-boisterous-start/2013/ll/08/alc41a70-35c7-lle3-8a0e-
4e2cf80831fc storv.html

NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory). 2013. The Feasibility of Producing and Using Biomass-Based
Diesel and Jet Fuel in the United States. NREL/TP-6A20-58015. December.

RFA (Renewable Fuels Association). 2014. Biorefinery Locations. Updated November 6.
http://www.ethanolrfa.org/bio-refinerv-locations/

U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2014. 2014 RFS2 Data. Updated November 10.
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/fuels/rfsdata/2014emts.htm


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