E MANUAL
Second Edition
-------
Published by the National Association of State Departments
of Agriculture Research Foundation
-------
This manual was supported by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Office of
Pesticide Programs' Cooperative Agreement
X8-83456201 with the National Association
of State Departments of Agriculture Research
Foundation. EPA officials contributed comments
and suggestions intended to improve the
scientific validity and technical accuracy of the
document. However, the viezvs expressed in this
document are those of the authors and EPA does
not endorse any products or commercial services
mentioned in this publication.
NASDA
-------
Acknowledgments
The following team members generously contributed their time and expertise
by writing, revising, and/or reviewing the first and second editions of this
manual. EPA and NASDA Research Foundation are indebted to them for their
contributions.
Michelle Arling, U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs
Erin Bauer, University of Nebraska
Carol Black, Washington State University
Barb Bloetsher, Ohio Department of Agriculture
Amy Brown, University of Maryland
Patrick Burch, Dow AgroSciences
Edward Crow, Maryland Department of Agriculture
Kathy Davis, U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs
Thomas Delaney, Professional Landcare Network
Jeff Evans, U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs
Nancy Fitz, U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs
Laurie Gordon, Oregon Department of Agriculture
Patricia Hipkins, Virginia Tech
Winand Hock, The Pennsylvania State University
Colleen Hudak-Wise, North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services
Monte Johnson, USDANIFA
Reed Johnson, The Ohio State University
Jeanne Kasai, U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs
Mary Ketchersid, Texas A & M AgriLife Extension Service
Joanne Kick-Raack, The Ohio State University
Andrew Martin, Purdue University
Sandra McDonald, Mountain West PEST
Lori McKinnon, Tribal Pesticide Program Council
Donald E. Mullins, Virginia Tech
Patrick O'Connor-Marer, University of California-Davis
Kelly Over, The Pennsylvania State University
Jack Peterson, Arizona Department of Agriculture
Troy Pierce, U.S. EPA Region 4 - Atlanta, Georgia
Richard Pont, U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-------
Carolyn Randall, Michigan State University
Carl Rew, Office of Indiana State Chemist
Richard Robbins, Armed Forces Pest Management Board
Mary Rose, The Ohio State University
George Schultz, Armed Forces Pest Management Board
Larry Schulze, University of Nebraska
David Shetlar, The Ohio State University
Mark Shour, Iowa State University
Julia Storm, North Carolina State University
Larry Strand, University of California-Davis
Emelie Swackhamer, The Pennsylvania State University
Susan Terwilliger, Virginia Tech
Andrew Thostenson, North Dakota State University
William Tozer, Armed Forces Pest Management Board
Murray Walton, Texas Structural Pest Control Board
Phillip Weinstein, Michigan State University
Fred Whitford, Purdue University
Harold L. Witt, Virginia Tech
Robert Wolf, Kansas State University
Appreciation is extended to Susan Terwilliger for copyediting the second
edition and to the publication designers Maria Stein & Associates (first edition)
and Gerald Steffen (second edition).
^ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-------
Contents
INTRODUCTION xiii
CHAPTER 1 PEST MANAGEMENT 1
Pest Problems throughout History 1
Pest Control Over the Years 2
Pest Recognition 4
Ways to Identify Pests 4
Characteristic Damage 5
Pest Management Methods 5
Biological Control 5
Chemical Control 6
Cultural Control 7
Genetic Control 8
Mechanical/Physical Control 8
Regulatory Control 9
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 9
Why Practice IPM? 10
C omponents of IPM 10
Pest Population Thresholds
Prevention
Suppression
Eradication
Effectiveness of Pest Management Programs 13
Why Pesticide Applications Fail 13
Pesticide Resistance
Summary 15
Review Questions 17
CHAPTER 2 FEDERAL PESTICIDE LAWS
AND REGULATIONS 19
The Need for Regulation 19
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) 20
Pesticide Registration 21
Tolerances 22
Pesticide Reregistration 23
Registration and Tolerance Reassessment 23
CONTENTS
-------
Violations and Federal Penalties 24
Penalties 24
Federal Pesticide Regulations under FIFRA 24
Pesticide Container and Containment Regulation
(40 CFR Part 165) 24
Worker Protection Standard Regulation (40 CFR Part 170) 25
Certification of Pesticide Applicators Regulation
(40 CFR Part 171) 25
Other Federal Laws 25
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act 25
Food Quality Protection Act 25
Endangered Species Act 26
Federal Recordkeeping Requirements 26
Application Records 26
Training Records 27
Summary 27
Review Questions 29
CHAPTER 3 PESTICIDE LABELING 31
EPA Approval of Pesticide Labeling 32
The Label 32
Background of the Label 32
Toxicity and Toxicological Tests
Efficacy or Performance Tests
Degradation, Mobility, and Residue Tests
Effects on Wildlife and the Environment
Types of Pesticide Registration 33
When to Read the Pesticide Label 34
Parts of the Label 35
Trade, Brand, or Product Name 35
Ingredient Statement 35
Use Classification Statement 36
Type of Pesticide 36
Net Contents 36
Name and Address of Manufacturer 36
Emergency Telephone Number 36
Registration Numbers 36
Establishment Number 37
Signal Words and Symbols 37
Precautionary Statements 37
Routes of Entry Statements
Specific Action Statements
Protective Clothing and Equipment Statements
Other Precautionary Statements
First Aid Statements 39
Environmental Hazards 39
Special Toxicity Statements
General Environmental Statements
Physical or Chemical Hazards 40
Agricultural Use Requirements 40
Restricted-Entry Intervals
Nonagricultural Use Requirements 41
^ CONTENTS
-------
Storage and Disposal 41
Directions for Use 41
Other Label Resources 41
Information Resources 41
World Wide Web References on Pesticide Labels 43
Digital Pesticide Specimen Labels 43
Electronic or Web-Distributed Labeling 43
Mandatory and Advisory Statements 43
Mandatory Statements
Advisory Statements
Understanding the Difference
Safety Data Sheets 44
Summary 45
Review Questions 47
CHAPTER 4 PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS 49
Formulations: An Overview 50
Liquid Formulations 52
Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E) 52
Solutions (S) 53
Ready-to-Use (RTU) Low-Concentrate Solutions
Concentrate Solutions (C, LC, or WSC/WSL)
Liquid Baits
Ultra-Low Volume (ULV) 54
Invert Emulsions 55
Flowables (F or AF) 55
Aerosols (A) 55
Ready-to-Use Aerosols
Formulations for Smoke or Fog Generators
Dry or Solid Formulations 56
Dusts (D) 56
Granules (G) 57
Pellets (P or PS) 58
Wettable Powders (WP or W) 58
Water-Dispersible Granules (WDG) or Dry Flowables (DF) 59
Soluble Powders (SP or WSP) 59
Baits (B) 60
Pastels, Gels, and Other Injectable Baits
Other Formulations 61
Fumigants 61
Microencapsulated Pesticides (M) 61
Water-Soluable Packaging (WSB or WSP) 62
Impregnates 62
Animal Systemics 62
Pesticide-Fertilizer Combinations 62
Pesticide Mixtures 63
Adjuvants 63
Types of Adjuvants 64
Surfactants 64
Choosing the Right Adjuvant 65
Summary 66
Review Questions 67
CONTENTS ^
-------
CHAPTER 5 PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID 69
Toxicity, Exposure, and Hazard 70
Potential Harmful Effects of Pesticides 71
Exposure—How Pesticides Enter the Body 73
Skin or Dermal Route 73
Eyes or Ocular Route 74
Breathing or Inhalation Route 74
Swallowing or Oral Route 74
Product Toxicity and Health Concerns 74
Acute Toxicity 75
Signal Words and Skull & Crossbones Symbol
Danger—Poison
Danger
Warning
Caution
Chronic Toxicity 78
Delayed Effects 79
Factors Affecting Response 79
Symptom Recognition 79
Cholinesterase Inhibition 80
Cholinesterase Monitoring
First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning 81
General First Aid 81
Pesticide on the Skin
Pesticide in the Eyes
Inhaled Pesticide
Pesticide in the Mouth or Swallowed
How to Induce Vomiting (if appropriate)
Antidotes
Heat Stress 84
Symptoms of Heat Stress 84
Summary 85
Review Questions 87
CHAPTER 6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 89
Personal Protective Equipment 89
Good Work Practices 90
Protect Yourself from Pesticides 90
Protect Your Body 92
Work Clothing 92
Coveralls 92
Apron for Mixing 93
Headgear for Overhead Applications 93
Footwear 93
Gloves 94
Protect Your Eyes 95
Protect Your Respiratory System 96
Types of Respirators 97
Purifying Elements for Air-Purifying Respirators 97
^ CONTENTS
-------
Particulate Filters
Chemical Cartridges or Canisters
Combination Chemical Cartridge and Particulate Filters
Identifying the Respirator Type from the Pesticide Label 99
Use Tight-Fitting Respirators Properly 99
Maintaining Clothing and Personal Protective Equipment 100
Woven Work Clothes and Coveralls 100
Nonwoven Clothing 101
Boots and Gloves 101
Eyewear and Respirators 101
Summary 102
Review Questions 103
CHAPTER 7 PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT 105
The Environment 105
Pesticide Characteristics 106
Solubility 106
Adsorption 106
Persistence 106
Pesticide Breakdown
Volatility 107
How Pesticides Move in the Environment 107
Movement in Air 107
Movement in Water 107
Movement on or in Objects, Plants, or Animals 108
Preventing Pesticide Drift 108
Spray Drift 108
Classification of Droplet Size
Other Factors
Temperature Inversions
Vapor Drift 111
Particle Drift (Dust Drift) 111
Applicator Responsibility 111
Sources of Water Contamination 112
Pesticide Contamination of Surface Water 112
Pesticide Contamination of Groundwater 113
Leaching
Soil Properties
Texture and Structure
Organic Matter
Depth to Groundwater
Geology
Preventing Surface Water and Groundwater Contamination 115
Use Integrated Pest Management Principles 115
Identify Vulnerable Areas 115
Do Not Mix and Load Near Water 115
Keep Pesticides Away from Wells 115
Avoid Back-Siphoning 116
Improve Land Use and Application Methods 116
Time Pesticide Applications According to the Weather Forecast 116
Select Products Wisely 116
Handle Pesticides Safely 116
CONTENTS ^
-------
Preventing Harmful Effects on Sensitive Areas and
Nontarget Organisms 117
Sensitive Areas 117
Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Organisms 117
Nontarget Plants
Bees and Other Beneficial Insects
Fish, Wildlife, and Livestock
Protecting Endangered Species 119
Summary 120
Review Questions 121
CHAPTER 8 TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND SECURITY 123
Transportation 123
Transport Vehicle 124
Vehicle Operator 124
Other Safety Precautions 125
Vehicle Placards 125
Storage of Pesticides in Buildings 126
Secure the Site 126
Prevent Water Damage 126
Control the Temperature 126
Provide Adequate Lighting 127
Use Nonporous Materials 127
Maintain the Storage Site 127
Keep Labels Legible 127
Store Pesticide Containers Safely 127
Look for Damage 128
Note Shelf Life of Pesticides 128
Follow These Safety Tips 128
Isolate Unwanted or Waste Products 128
Pesticide Site Security 129
Benefits of Security Efforts 129
Risk Assessment 129
Employee Training and Security Awareness 130
Evaluating Pesticide Security 130
Steps to Prevent Security Problems 130
Summary 131
Review Questions 133
CHAPTER 9 EMERGENCY OR INCIDENT RESPONSE 135
Emergency Response Planning 135
Fires 137
Precautions to Reduce Fire Hazards 137
Pesticide Spills 138
Control the Spill 138
Contain the Spill 139
Clean up the Spill 139
Prevent Spills 140
Summary 140
Review Questions 141
-------
CHAPTER 10 PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION 143
Selecting the Pesticide 144
Reviewing the Pesticide Label 144
Determining Pesticide Compatibility 144
Conducting a Compatibility Test 145
Making Tank Mixes
Following Safe Mixing and Loading Practices 146
Select an Appropriate Mixing and Loading Area 146
Protect Water Sources 147
Use Personal Protective Equipment 147
Opening Containers Carefully 147
Measure Accurately 148
Transferring Pesticides Carefully 148
Cleaning and Disposing of Pesticide Containers 148
Container Rinsing Procedures 149
Applying Pesticides Correctly 149
Personal Protective Equipment 149
Hand-Carried and Backpack Applications
High-Exposure Applications
Application Procedures 150
Cleaning up after Mixing, Loading, and Application 151
Cleaning Procedures 151
Rinsates
Equipment Cleanup
Professionalism 153
What is Professionalism? 153
Demonstrate Professional Ethical Standards 153
Communicate with Customers, Neighbors, and the Public 154
Summary 154
Review Questions 155
CHAPTER 11 PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES 157
Application Methods 157
Safety Systems 158
Closed Mixing and Loading Systems 158
Mechanical Systems
Water-Soluble Packaging
Enclosed Cabs 159
Pesticide Containment Systems 159
Application Equipment 160
Sprayers 160
Sprayer Components 161
Granular Applicators 162
Other Application Equipment 162
Equipment Calibration 163
Calculating Area 164
Rectangular Areas 164
Triangular Areas 164
Circular Areas 164
CONTENTS ^
-------
Calculating the Application Rate 165
Techniques to Minimize Drift 166
Summary 168
Review Questions 169
APPENDICES
A. Answers to Review Questions 171
B. Glossary 173
C. Conversions & Calculations 189
D. Safety Data Sheets 193
E. Selected Pesticide References 195
G. Pesticide-Related Resources 197
^ CONTENTS
-------
Introduction
This manual is intended as a study
guide for preparing to take the
Pesticide Applicator Certification Core
Exam administered by your state, tribe,
territory, or federal department/agency.
Passing the core exam is essential to
becoming a certified applicator. Check
with the pesticide regulatory agency
to determine whether this manual
prepares you for commercial or private
applicator certification or recertification
or registered technician status. This
manual satisfies the entry-level applica-
tor training requirements of the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA). More specific pest man-
agement information, pesticide termi-
nology, and application techniques are
covered in category-specific manuals
and in greater detail during recertifica-
tion (continuing education).
The questions found on state, tribe,
territory, or federal department/agency
core exams are based on information
presented in this manual. The table of
contents helps you identify important
topics and understand how they relate
to one another through the organiza-
tion of headings and subheadings. Each
chapter begins with a set of learning
objectives that help you focus on what
you should learn from the chapter. After
studying a chapter, answer the review
questions located at the end and go
back and make sure you can address the
learning objectives. The questions on
the certification exam pertain directly
to these learning objectives. The review
questions are not on the certification
exam, but a similar concept might be
addressed. The answers to the review
questions are found in Appendix A.
Other appendices, including a glos-
sary, provide supplemental information
that help you understand the topics
covered in the chapters. Terms in bold
type throughout the manual are defined
either within the text or in the glossary.
This certification manual ben-
efits both you and the general public.
By learning how to handle pesticides
correctly, you will be able to protect
yourself, others, and the environment
from pesticide misuse. For further
information, visit: www.epa.gov and
select "Pesticides."
INTRODUCTION
-------
-------
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Pest Management
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define "pest."
• State the four main groups of pests and give an
example of each.
• Discuss the importance of pest identification in pest control.
• List six general pest management methods.
• Define "integrated pest management (IPM)."
• List five benefits of using IPM.
• Discuss how using one or more control options can improve
pest control.
• Describe how selectivity and persistence affect chemical controls.
• Explain how pest population levels trigger control procedures.
• Distinguish between prevention and suppression when developing
pest management goals.
• Give several reasons why pesticide applications may fail.
• Explain the importance of a pesticide's mode of action in managing
pesticide resistance.
• List two tactics that will minimize the development of pesticide
resistance.
Pest: Brownbanded
cockroach.
PEST PROBLEMS THROUGHOUT HISTORY
Civilization has been combating
insects and other pests throughout
history. Perhaps the most infamous
human catastrophe was the Black
Plague of Europe, when millions of
people in the 141'1 century died from
a mysterious scourge. Centuries later,
it was determined that the cause was
a bacterial disease spread by rat fleas.
When rats, the normal host animals,
PEST MANAGEMENT
-------
were unavailable as a food source,
the fleas sought other warm-blooded
hosts—including humans. Although
the plague is still present in parts of
the world today, controlling rats, other
rodents, and fleas can greatly reduce
disease incidence.
The destruction of Ireland's potato
crop by a fungal disease in the 19th
century directly affected the popu-
lation of the United States. Late blight
essentially eliminated potatoes, the
staple food crop of Ireland. Potatoes not
destroyed in the field rotted in storage
during the winter. Thousands of Irish
starved in the resulting famine, and
more than a million migrated to the
United States. Late blight continues
to be a major problem of potatoes, but
today it is managed through the use
of resistant cultivars, proper sanitation
practices, and fungicides.
Malaria is a disease caused by the
transmission of a parasitic microor-
ganism (protozoan) by mosquitoes
when they feed on humans. Historians
credit malaria with altering the pat-
terns of human history and causing
the collapse of some civilizations.
During World War II, 500,000 soldiers
were infected in the South Pacific and
African theaters, with 60,000 deaths
recorded. In 2010, malaria cases num-
bered 219 million, with 660,000 people
dying from this debilitating disease.
Antimalarial drugs, insecticide applica-
tions, environmental modifications, and
mosquito (bed) nets have brought great
improvements to fighting this difficult-
to-control disease.
Outbreaks of the native mountain
pine beetle in the western United States
and Canada in the early 21st century
destroyed more than 4 million acres of
lodgepole, ponderosa, Scots, and limber
pines. Accidental introduction of the
emerald ash borer from Asia during
this same period has destroyed millions
of ash trees in the midwestern United
States. Preventive insecticidal treat-
ments are being used to manage these
two destructive beetles.
These examples illustrate the
enormity and complexity of pest
problems. But what is a pest? A pest is
an undesirable organism that injures
humans, desirable plants and animals,
manufactured products, or natural
substances. Many insects, pathogens
(disease-causing organisms, such as
viruses, bacteria, or fungi), plants
(known as weeds), mollusks (slugs
and snails), fish, birds, and a variety of
mammals (from mice to deer) compete
for our crops and livestock. In addition,
some pests destroy clothing, furniture,
and buildings; reduce the beauty and
recreational value of the landscape; and
invade our homes during the winter
months. As the battle between humans
and pests continues over time, so will
innovative methods of control.
PEST CONTROL OVER THE YEARS
For many centuries, the causes of
crop failures and human and animal
diseases were shrouded in mystery. The
first pest control measures were crude
—weeds were pulled, rats were clubbed,
and beetles were plucked from foliage.
Other ancient nonchemical control
methods included burning to control
weeds, diseases, and insects (950 B.C.);
Egyptians placing fishnets over beds to
prevent mosquito bites (440 B.C.); and
Romans using rat-proof grain storage
bins (13 B.C.). The first known use of
natural enemies is credited to Arabian
growers (1000 A.D.). Arab farmers
moved colonies of a predaceous ant
species from nearby mountains to an
oasis to control pest ants that were
damaging their date palms.
The earliest use of chemicals as
pesticides dates back to 2500 B.C,
when the Sumerians used sulfur com-
pounds to control mites and insects.
The Chinese used mercury and arsenic
compounds in 500 B.C. to control body
lice. Early plant-derived insecticides
included hellebore to control body
lice, nicotine to control aphids, and
pyrethrins to control a wide variety of
insects. In France during the late 19t^1
century, a farmer sprayed a mixture of
lime and copper sulfate on grapevines
-------
to deter passers-by from picking the
grapes. The farmer found that the
mixture also controlled downy mildew,
a serious fungal disease of grapes. Later
named Bordeaux mixture, it remains a
widely used fungicide worldwide.
Until the 1940s, pest control
chemicals were derived from plants
and inorganic compounds. During
World War II, the synthetic chemical
DDT saved many Allied soldiers from
insect-transmitted diseases. Synthetic
pesticides launched the modern-day
chemical industry and a new era in
pest control. Pesticides became the
primary means of solving pest problems
because they were effective, relatively
inexpensive, provided season-long crop
protection, and could be used with fer-
tilizers and other production practices.
Modern pesticides achieved wide accep-
tance following their successful use in
agriculture and for human health.
In recent years, however, some
drawbacks of heavy dependence on
pesticides have become increasingly
apparent. Pesticide resistance to DDT
was documented in 1947. Since that
time, hundreds of insects have become
resistant to one or more pesticides.
Most notable is the Colorado potato
beetle, which has developed resistance
to every major group of insecticides,
greatly complicating pest management
efforts. Resistance also has arisen in
many weeds and plant pathogens in
agricultural production. (See "Pesticide
Resistance" at the end of this chapter
for more information.)
The impact of increasing pesticide
use on the environment was graphi-
cally illustrated in 1962 by Rachel
Carson. Her book, Silent Spring,
focused on DDT and other chlori-
nated hydrocarbons because of their
long residual activity and persistence
Figure 1.1 Biomagnification in the Food Chain
DDT Concentration
(parts per million)
fl
20.00 ^
V \\\ Fish-eating
Birds
2.0 /
/ ^
/ ®
/ E
/ o
/ ^
/ °
f/V-N ^ Zooplankton
/ ^
/ &
/
/
/ °
¦04 / \
O
—
05
CD
03 Planktonic algae
o ^
* ° ® ^ CD ^CD ^ '
C
.000003 S
o
u
Water
PEST MANAGEMENT
-------
in the environment. Although these
characteristics contributed to their
effectiveness, chlorinated hydrocarbons
also accumulated in the fatty tissue of
some animals, especially those higher
in the food chain (bioaccumulation).
In certain situations, some organisms
accumulated chemical residues in
higher concentrations than those found
in the food organisms they consumed
(biomagnification). Ecologists refer
to a food chain as the sequence of
animals feeding in the natural envi-
ronment, where a particular plant,
animal, or microorganism is eaten
by an animal that is in turn eaten by
another animal. Animals at each level
normally consume individuals from
the previous level. Figure 1.1 depicts
how biomagnification of a pesticide can
i/l/eed pest
Canada thistle flowers,
Kristine Schaefer, Iowa State
University Extension & Outreach
PEST RECOGNITION
occur in a food chain. Organisms with
pesticides in their tissues are eaten by
fish, which are in turn eaten by birds.
The birds at the top of the food chain
accumulate the highest concentration of
pesticide residues.
Since the publication of Silent
Spring, the United States has expe-
rienced a level of environmental
awareness unequal to any other period
in history. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) was created
in 1970 by Congress to implement laws
passed to protect the environment and
the health of humans and other animals.
In 1972, EPA banned the use of DDT
in the United States. Regulatory action
has since been taken against many
chemicals thought to pose significant
environmental and health hazards.
you cannot pinpoint a specific plant or
animal, take or send the specimen to a
university diagnostic lab or a local pest
management specialist. Collect several
specimens, if possible. Ask the specialist
to recommend the best way to collect
and send samples.
It may be difficult to identify small
insects and most mites, nematodes, and
plant pathogens. Accurate identification
requires the use of a hand lens or micro-
scope, special tests, or careful damage
THE FOUR MAIN
GROUPS OF PESTS
1. Weeds (undesirable plants).
2. Invertebrates (insects, mites,
ticks, spiders, snails, and slugs).
3. Disease agents or pathogens
(bacteria, viruses, fungi,
nematodes [roundworms],
mycoplasmas [parasitic
microorganisms], and other
microorganisms).
4. Vertebrates (birds, reptiles,
amphibians, fish, and rodents
and other mammals).
Invertebrate pest:
Paper wasp.
David Cappaert, Michigan State
University, Bugwood.org
Disease pathogen:
Hawthorne rust
Iowa State University Plant &
Insect Disease Clinic
There are four main groups of pest
organisms: weeds, invertebrate
animals, pathogens, and vertebrate
animals. Never classify an organism
as a pest until it is clearly determined
to be one. Be certain any injury or
observed damage is actually due to
the identified organism and not to
some other cause. Some plants, for
example, can be damaged by factors in
the environment. These factors include
weather extremes, air pollutants, road
salt, and inadequate or excessive fertil-
ization. This damage may be mistaken
for that caused by living pests.
The first step in pest management
is to accurately identify the pest. Once
the pest is identified, applicators can
learn about its life cycle, behavior,
characteristic damage, factors that
favor its development, susceptible
life stage(s), and known control
methods. Misidentification and lack
of accurate information could cause
pest control failure.
Ways to Identify Pests
To identify an organism, consult
reference materials: identification books,
Extension bulletins, field guides, and
online identification keys that contain
pictures and biological information. If
CHAPTER 1
-------
analysis. Often the pest's host (the
animal or plant on which an organism
lives) and location are important clues
in making a correct identification.
Information on the environmental con-
ditions where you collect pests and the
time of year of collection provide clues
to the pest's identity.
Pest species have different physical
forms depending on the life cycle stage
or the time of year. Weed seedlings,
for example, often do not resemble
the mature plant. Many insect species
undergo changes in appearance as they
develop from eggs through immature
stages to the adult form.
PEST MANAGEMENT METHODS
Once a pest problem is identified, you
can begin planning how to manage
the pest. Determine what management
methods are available and the benefits
and limitations of each. Select methods
that are most effective in controlling
the pest yet the least harmful to people
and the environment.
Abiotic factors are natural control
measures within the environment that
injure or destroy plants and animals,
including pests. They include climatic
factors (e.g., wind, temperature, sun-
shine, and rain), air or water pollution,
and topographic features (rivers, lakes,
PEST MANAGEMENT
METHODS
Natural Controls
Applied Controls
1. Biological Control
2. Chemical control
3. Cultural Control
4. Genetic control
5. Mechanical/Physical Control
6. Regulatory Control
and mountains) that can affect pest
movement. If such natural controls do
not hold pests in check, humans must
intervene and apply pest management
tactics. Applied controls include bio-
logical, chemical, cultural, genetic,
mechanical/physical, and regulatory
methods.
Biological Control
In an undisturbed ecosystem, most
organisms have one or more natural
enemies or competitors that keep them
from developing into large, damag-
ing populations. When an organism
is removed from one ecosystem to
another, this natural check-and-balance
is disturbed. The organism can become
a pest in the new geographical area,
especially when its natural enemies do
not accompany it to the new location.
One pest management method
involves reuniting the introduced pest
with its natural enemies. Biological
control is the use of natural enemies
—predators, parasites, pathogens, and
competitors—to control pests and
their damage. These biological control
(biocontrol) agents are being used suc-
cessfully to manage certain insect, mite,
fungal, fish, and weed pests.
Once suitable natural enemies from
the native home of an introduced pest
are located, extensive testing and evalu-
ation are necessary to ensure that these
Characteristic Damage
Pests may leave signs of their
presence or damage that will help
you determine what they are. Birds
and rodents often build charac-
teristic nests. The type of feeding
damage and excrement can help
you identify many insects. Burrows,
gnaw marks, tracks, trails in the grass,
and/or feces are often characteristic
of certain mammals. Weeds may have
unique flowers, seeds, or fruits or
unusual growth habits. Fungi and other
pathogens often cause specific types of
damage, deformation, or color changes
in host tissues.
Vertebrate pest:
Rock dove.
PEST MANAGEMENT
-------
Biological control:
Lacewing larva.
Biological control:
Ichneumonid wasp.
natural enemies will not become
pests themselves in the new
environment. Laws and
regulations strictly con-
trol the importation
of all organisms—
including biological
control agents—
into the United
States. The selected
natural enemies are
imported, reared,
and released. If suc-
cessful, these biocontrol
agents become established
within large areas. Over time,
they will lower target pest popula-
tions for long periods with no further
human intervention.
A second biological control
technique is the mass release of large
numbers of natural enemies into fields,
orchards, greenhouses, or other loca-
tions to control specific pests. Because
this method usually does not yield long-
term results, the natural enemies must
be released periodically. For example,
predatory mites are used to control
plant-feeding spider mites. Parasitic
wasps are used to manage specific pests,
while praying mantids, lady beetles, and
lacewings are used as general predators
in a garden or greenhouse. Nematodes
and fungi are being studied as bio-
logical control agents for certain weeds
and insects.
Another aspect of biological
control is to maintain healthy
populations of native natu-
ral enemies. This could
mean planting crops
or groundcovers to
ensure a diverse
plant community
of pollen and nec-
tar sources for
adult insects. This
method also requires
careful selection and
use of pesticides that
are less toxic to natural
enemies. Additionally, appli-
cators should apply pesticides at
lower-than-label rates (if recommended
and effective) to lessen the impact on
natural enemies.
Chemical Control
Chemical control is the pest man-
agement method that involves using
naturally derived and/or synthetic
chemicals to manage pests. These
chemicals are often called pesticides.
A pesticide is defined as any material
that is applied to plants, soil, water,
harvested crops, structures, clothing
and furnishings, or animals to kill,
attract, repel, or regulate or interrupt
the growth and mating of pests, or to
regulate plant growth.
Chemical control.
Pesticides often play a key role
in pest management programs and
may often be the only known control
method for a given pest. Major benefits
associated with the use of pesticides
are their effectiveness, the speed arid
ease of controlling pests, and their
reasonable cost compared with other
control options. Pesticides include a
wide assortment of chemicals with spe-
cialized names and functions. They are
often grouped according to the type of
pest they control:
• Avicides control or repel pest birds.
• Bactericides control bacteria.
• Chemosteriiants sterilize insects
or pest vertebrates.
• Defoliants cause leaves (foliage) to
drop from plants.
• Desiccarits promote drying or loss
of moisture from plant tissues and
insects.
• Disinfectants (antimicrobials) con-
trol microorganisms.
CHAPTER 1
-------
• Fungicides control fungi.
• Growth regulators alter the
growth or development of a
plant or animal.
• Herbicides control weeds.
• Insecticides control insects and
related arthropods.
• Miticides (acaricides) control
mites.
• Molluscicides control snails and
slugs.
• Nematicides control nematodes
(roundworms).
• Ovicides destroy eggs.
• Pheromones attract insects.
• Piscicides control pest fish.
• Predacides control predatory
vertebrates (e.g., coyotes).
• Repellents repel insects, mites,
ticks, pest vertebrates, inverte-
brates, birds, and mammals.
• Rodenticides control rodents.
Each group of pesticides includes
several classes or families. For example,
the classes of insecticides include the
organophosphates, organochlorines,
carbamates, pyrethroids, botanicals,
insecticidal soaps, and microbials,
among others. The pesticides within a
particular class have similar chemical
structures or properties or share a
common mode of action (how they kill
the pest) or site of action (the specific
biological system affected within the
pest). The various classes of chemicals
work in different ways and present dif-
ferent risks and problems.
Some chemicals are called selective
pesticides because they are toxic to
some pests but have little or no effect
on others. For example, certain selective
herbicides control broadleaf weeds but
not grasses, and ovicides kill only the
eggs of certain insects and mites. In
contrast, fumigants are nonselective
and will kill a wide variety of pests:
fungi, insects, weeds, nematodes, and
other organisms. Nonselective her-
bicides control any susceptible plant,
given a sufficient dose.
Pesticides may move
in various ways after they
contact a host. Systemic
pesticides are absorbed and
translocated within a plant or
animal. Systemic herbicides
are absorbed through leaves
or roots and are then trans-
ported within the treated plant.
Similarly, systemic insecticides
can be eaten by or injected into
livestock to control insect pests.
By contrast, contact pesticides
are not absorbed by treated
plants or animals. These pes-
ticides must directly touch the
pest or a site the pest frequents
to be effective (see Figure 1.2).
Pesticides also vary in
their persistence, or how long
they remain active to control
pests. Some residual pesti-
cides control pests for weeks,
months, or even years. Others provide
only short-term control, sometimes
lasting only a few hours.
Cultural Control
Systemic
Pesticides
inside plant
Contact
Pesticides
on surface
of plant
fO i/> -
5 '
Figure 1.2
Systemic and contact
pesticides on treated
plants.
Cultural controls are practices that
reduce pest establishment, reproduction,
dispersal, and survival. Cultural prac-
tices and sanitation are two examples of
cultural control.
Many cultural practices affect pest
survival. Mowing, irrigation, aeration,
and fertilization are all important ways
of producing healthy turf and preventing
pest buildup and damage. In agricultural
production, cultivation, selection
of crop plant varieties, timing
of planting and harvest-
ing, irrigation manage-
ment and timing, crop
rotation, and the use
of trap crops help
decrease populations
of weeds, micro-
organisms, insects,
mites, and other pests.
Cultivation is one
of the most important
ways to control weeds. It
is also used to manage some
insects and other soil-inhabiting
pests. Plows, disks, mowers, cultivators, Cultural control: Mulch.
and bed conditioners destroy weeds or
PEST MANAGEMENT
-------
control their growth. These tools also
disrupt soil conditions suitable for the
survival of some microorganisms and
insects. Weeds also can be managed by
mulching (with plastic, straw, shred-
ded bark, or wood chips) and by using
cover crops.
Sanitation involves eliminating
the necessities important to a pest's
survival, such as food, water or shelter.
In crop production, sanitation includes
such practices as removing weeds that
harbor pest insects or rodents, elimi-
nating weed plants before they produce
seed, destroying diseased plant mate-
rial or crop residues, and keeping field
borders or surrounding areas free of
pests and pest breeding sites.
Animal manure management
is an effective sanita-
tion practice used to
prevent or reduce fly
problems in poultry
and livestock opera-
tions. Mosquitoes
can be controlled by
draining standing
water. Closed garbage
containers and frequent
garbage pickup eliminate
food sources for flies, cock-
roaches, wasps, and rodents.
Removing soil, trash, and wood
debris from around and under buildings
reduces termite and fungal rot damage.
Sanitation: Aquatic
herbicide application.
Genetic Control
Sometimes plants and animals can
be bred or selected to resist specific pest
problems. For example, certain livestock
breeds are selected for physical charac-
teristics that prevent attack by some
pests or provide physiological resis-
tance to disease or parasitic organisms.
Certain plant varieties are naturally
resistant to insects, pathogens, or
nematodes. Many plants actually repel
various types of pests, and some contain
toxic substances. Plant resistance to
insect pests can sometimes be achieved
by transferring genetic material from
certain insect-destroying microor-
ganisms to hybrid seed. Genetic control
has been widely used in the past and
may be an effective tool in the future,
especially when combined with new
gene manipulation techniques. Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) corn and potatoes and
herbicide-resistant corn (e.g., Roundup
Ready corn and Liberty Link corn),
cotton (e.g., Roundup Ready cotton),
and soybean (e.g., Roundup Ready
soybean) are examples of genetic control.
The plant is genetically modified
through molecular techniques to add a
small amount of genetic material from
other organisms. The incorporated
genetic traits provide protection from
pests (e.g., Bt crops produce a protein
that kills caterpillars), tolerance to herbi-
cides, or an improvement in quality.
Mechanical/Physical
Control
Mechanical and physical controls
can kill a pest directly or make its envi-
ronment unsuitable. Rodent traps are
examples of mechanical control. Several
types of traps are commonly used.
Some kill animals that come across
them; others snare animals that are then
relocated or destroyed. Traps can be
mechanical devices or sticky surfaces,
some with pheromones incorporated to
increase trapping efficiency.
Physical controls include mulches
for weed management, steam soil ster-
ilization for disease control, deer fences,
screens to keep insects out, and cloth
mesh to exclude birds from fruit trees.
Another example is sealing cracks,
crevices, and other small openings in
buildings to exclude insects, rodents,
bats, birds, and squirrels. A band of
sticky material painted around tree
trunks prevents crawling insects from
reaching the tree's leaves.
Pests living in enclosed areas may
sometimes be suppressed by altering
CHAPTER 1
-------
physical and environmental condi-
tions, such as water, air movement,
temperature, light, and humidity.
Refrigeration, for example, protects
stored food products, furs, and other
items from insect pests. Lowered tem-
peratures kill the insects, cause them to
stop feeding, and prevent egg hatch or
development. Installing bright lights in
attics sometimes discourages bats from
roosting there. Lowering the humidity
of stored grains and other food products
reduces damage from molds and some
insects. Increasing air movement in
greenhouses often helps to prevent
fungal diseases from developing on
plants.
Regulatory Control
Some pest problems cannot be
controlled successfully at a local level
or by individuals. These problems are
caused by pests that seriously endanger
public health or are likely to cause wide-
spread damage to agricultural crops or
animals, forests, or ornamental plants.
Quarantine or eradication programs
directed by governmental agencies
according to federal and state laws
target the introduction and spread of
such pests.
Quarantine is a pest control
process designed to prevent entry of
certain pests into pest-free areas. Some
states maintain inspection stations
at all major entry points to intercept
pests or materials that might harbor
pests. Regulatory agencies monitor
airports and ocean ports. Quarantine
also prevents movement of designated
pests within a state. Identified items
being shipped from a quarantine area
must be treated to destroy pests before
shipment. Nursery stock, plant cut-
tings, seed shipments, and budding and
grafting material are also regulated to
prevent the spread of pests.
Eradication is the elimination of
a pest from a designated area. Often,
these pests are under quarantine restric-
tions. When eradication is required, the
geographical extent of pest infestation
is determined and control measures are
taken to eliminate this pest from the
defined area. Procedures may include an
area-wide spraying program, releasing
sterile insects, and intensive monitoring
for pests within and around the borders
of the infested area.
Government agencies are autho-
rized to destroy weeds and plants that
cause fire hazards, harbor harmful
pathogens or animals, or are noxious
to people or livestock in and around
agricultural areas. Similar authority
applies to diseased or infected livestock
or poultry and to weeds and nuisance
plants in residential, commercial, and
industrial areas. Mosquito abatement
is an important pest control function
undertaken to protect public health.
Mosquito abatement laws allow state
agencies to drain or treat standing
water that provides breeding sites for
mosquitoes.
Regulatory control: USDA inspections.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
Pesticide use is a significant factor
in food and fiber production, for-
estry, turf and landscape maintenance,
and public health. In recent years,
pest management has shifted from
relying heavily on pesticides to using
an integrated approach based on pest
assessment, decision-making, and eval-
uation. This pest management approach
has benefited pest managers and the
PEST MANAGEMENT
-------
environment, decreased pesticide use,
and reduced the occurrence of pesticide
resistance in pest populations.
Integrated pest management is
a balanced, tactical approach to pest
control. It defines ways to anticipate
pest outbreaks and prevent pest dam-
age. IPM is a pest management strategy
that uses a wide range of pest control
methods (e.g., cultural, biological,
mechanical, and chemical) or tactics
such as sanitation and exclusion. The
goal of this strategy is to prevent pests
from reaching damaging levels with the
least risk to the environment. Such pest
management programs enable the spe-
cialist to make intelligent, site-specific
decisions about control.
INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT (IPM)
A pest management strategy
that utilizes a wide range of pest
control methods or tactics. The
goal of this strategy is to prevent
pests from reaching economically
or aesthetically damaging levels
with the least risk to the envi-
ronment.
Why Practice IPM?
IPM helps preserve a balanced
ecosystem—Every ecosystem, made
up of living things and their nonliving
environment, has a balance: the actions
of one kind of organism usually affect
other species. Introducing chemicals
into the ecosystem can change this
balance, destroying certain species and
allowing other species (sometimes other
pests) to dominate. Unfortunately, pes-
ticides can kill beneficial insects that
consume pests, leaving few natural pest
control mechanisms.
Pesticides can be ineffective—
Chemical pesticides do not always work.
As mentioned earlier, many common
weeds, insects, and disease-causing
fungi have developed a resistance to pes-
ticides. Furthermore, pests may survive
if the chemical does not reach them, is
washed off, or is applied improperly.
IPM can save money—A good IPM
program can prevent crop loss and
landscape or structural damage caused
by pests. IPM may also avoid the cost
of purchasing unnecessary pesticides.
Moreover, IPM can reduce the costs
of treating chronic conditions such as
asthma by controlling disease triggers.
IPM promotes a healthy envi-
ronment—Using IPM strategies helps
reduce environmental injury. Using
fewer pesticides lowers the risk that
persistent chemicals may harm living
creatures and contaminate ground-
water. It also lessens the need to dispose
of containers and unused pesticides.
IPM helps maintain a good public
image—IPM is a well-known strategy
that is requested in many areas of
society. IPM is used to grow food,
manage turf and ornamentals, protect
homes and businesses, manage school
grounds, and safeguard the health of
humans, pets, and livestock.
WHY PRACTICE IPM?
1. IPM helps to keep a balanced
ecosystem.
2. Pesticides can be ineffective.
3. IPM can save money.
4. IPM promotes a healthy
environment.
5. IPM maintains a good public
image.
Components of IPM
The components of an IPM
approach can be grouped into the fol-
lowing five steps:
1. Identify the pest and understand
its biology—-The first step in any pest
management program is to identify the
pest, whether you are dealing with an
insect, weed, plant disease, or vertebrate
animal.
Once you have identified the pest,
you can determine its significance and
the need for control. Some pests have
-------
little impact on a plant, animal, or
structure and do not require control.
Others warrant immediate control
because they cause serious damage or
present a significant threat to human
health or public safety.
Key pests may cause major damage
on a regular basis unless they are con-
trolled. Many weeds, for example, are
key pests because they compete with
crop or ornamental plants for resources
and require regular control efforts to
prevent or reduce damage. Cockroaches
and rodents are also examples of key
pests because their waste and body
coverings (shed cockroach skins; rodent
hairs) can trigger asthma in some people.
Secondary pests become a problem
when a key pest is controlled or absent.
For example, some weed species become
pests only after key weeds, which are
normally more successful in competing
for resources, are controlled. Certain
species of fleas, ticks, and blood-feeding
bugs attack people only when their
natural hosts, such as pet dogs or cats,
are no longer present.
Occasional pests become trou-
blesome only once in a while because of
their life cycles, environmental influ-
ences, or as a result of human activities.
For instance, ants may become occa-
sional pests when sanitation practices
change, providing them with food that
previously did not exist. They also may
move into buildings after a rainfall or
other event destroys an outdoor food
source.
2. Monitor the target pest—The
key to a successful IPM program is
regular monitoring. This involves
measuring pest populations and/or the
resulting damage or losses. Monitoring
procedures vary with the pest and the
situation.
Carefully looking at plants or ani-
mals over time (scouting) and trapping
are often used to monitor insects and
their activity. Weather and temperature
data are particularly helpful in following
a pest's life cycle or in predicting how
long it takes a certain pest to develop.
Models exist for specific insects and
plant diseases that predict the need for
and timing of pesticide applications.
Pest Population Thresholds
Agricultural or ornamental pro-
ducers must understand the concept
of economic thresholds. The presence
of a pest does not always cause a loss
in quality or quantity of a product. To
justify the cost of control, pest popula-
tions must be large enough to cause
significant damage. This is called the
economic threshold (ET). The eco-
nomic threshold is the pest population
density (number of pests per unit area)
at which control measures are needed
to prevent the pest from reaching the
economic injury level. The economic
injury level (EIL) is the pest population
density that causes losses equal to the
cost of control measures. To justify
using a control method, it is necessary
to set the ET below the EIL (see
Figure 1.3). Otherwise, producers lose
money—first from the damage caused
by the pest, and then by the cost of the
control method. Setting the ET below
the EIL triggers the appropriate control
method before pests reach the EIL.
For pest managers not directly
involved in commodity production,
the concept of an action threshold is
more appropriate. An action threshold
is the pest level at which some type of
pest management action must be taken.
This is a predetermined pest level that
is deemed to be unacceptable. Often
the action threshold is expressed as the
number of pests per unit area. Below
this level, IPM practitioners do not
use any control measures, though they
should continue to moni-
tor the situation and do
sanitation inspections
as needed. Once a pest
is at or above the action
threshold, you should
implement appropriate
IPM strategies.
In some situations,
the action threshold for
a pest may be zero (i.e.,
no presence of the pest
is tolerated). Examples
include pests capable of transmitting
a human pathogen (e.g., mosquitoes
and the West Nile virus) or of cre-
ating a public health emergency (e.g.,
cockroaches or rodents). In an urban
Inspecting a plant for pests.
COMPONENTS
OF IPM
1. identify the pest
and understand its
biology.
2. Monitor the pest to
be managed.
3. Develop the pest
management goal.
4. Implement the IPM
program.
5. Record and evaluate
results.
Economic
injury leve!
V > V Economic
\ ¦% threshold
\%
Pest population n
Time
Figure 1.3
To make a control measure
profitable (or at least break
even), it is necessary to set
the economic threshold below
the economic injury level.
PEST MANAGEMENT
-------
^ CHAPTER 1
landscape, action thresholds consider
not only the economic value of the
landscape but also its ecological and aes-
thetic roles. A higher action threshold
would be set for insect damage when no
harm is done to the plant (e.g., leaf galls
on a shade tree) compared to a wood-
borer that may destroy the tree (action
threshold of zero).
Action thresholds may vary by pest
(e.g., a stinging insect in a classroom vs.
a foraging ant), by site (e.g., a storage
room vs. a school infirmary), and by
season (e.g., pests present daily vs. two
weeks of a year). Establishing action
thresholds for a new IPM program
will require a practical approach. First,
establish an arbitrary action threshold
for the major pests you encounter.
Then, revise the action levels up or
down as you gain understanding of a
specific pest management setting.
3. Develop the pest management
goal—-The goal of IPM programs
is to keep pest damage at economi-
cally or aesthetically acceptable levels.
Prevention and suppression techniques
are often combined in an effective IPM
program. As discussed above, eradi-
cation is sometimes (though rarely) the
goal. The strategy for a sound IPM
program is to coordinate the use of
multiple tactics into a single integrated
system. Pesticides are just one control
method. Nonchemical methods may
provide longer and more permanent
pest control. Consider these first when
developing a pest management strategy.
Evaluate the costs, benefits, and liabil-
ities of each tactic.
Prevention
There are economically and envi-
ronmentally sound ways to prevent loss
or damage from pests. Such techniques
include planting weed- and disease-free
seed and growing varieties of plants resis-
tant to diseases or insects. Other choices
are using cultural controls to prevent
weedy plants from seeding and choosing
planting and harvesting times that lessen
pest problems. Sanitation methods often
reduce pest buildup. Other preventive
methods involve excluding pests from
the target area or host and using practices
that conserve natural enemies. Making
sure that plants, poultry, or livestock
receive adequate water and nutrients
often reduces stress and susceptibility to
diseases or pests.
Pesticides are sometimes used for
pest prevention. For instance, growers
treat some crops and landscapes with
preplant or preemergence herbicides
because they know that weed seeds are
present. If plant pathogens have already
infected susceptible plants, economic
damage usually cannot be prevented.
For this reason, fungicides are nor-
mally applied before infection occurs
whenever environmental conditions
favor infection. Likewise, pesticides
may be applied to structural lumber
before construction to protect it from
wood-destroying insects and fungi.
Suppression
Suppressive pest control methods
aim to reduce pest population levels.
These methods usually do not eliminate
all pests but reduce their populations
to a tolerable level or to a point below
the EIL. Suppression sometimes lowers
pest populations so that natural enemies
can maintain control. Suppression is
the goal of most pesticide applications.
Other techniques, such as cultivation,
mowing weeds, and releasing biological
control agents, are also used to suppress
pest populations.
Eradication
Eradication efforts are effective
in buildings or other small, confined
spaces where, once the pest is elimi-
nated, it can be excluded. For example,
eliminating cockroaches, rats, and
mice from commercial food establish-
ments requires eradication. Over larger
areas, however, eradication is very
expensive and often has limited success.
Regulatory eradication programs are
usually directed at exotic or introduced
pests posing an area-wide public health
or economic threat.
4. Implement the integrated pest
management program—Once you
have selected appropriate methods and
have set predetermined thresholds, you
can initiate the IPM program. IPM
-------
programs are specific to each sit uation
and can be adjusted as you learn more
about the pest and the site. Observe
all local, state, and federal regulations
regarding the methods chosen.
5. Record and evaluate results—It
is extremely important to record and
evaluate the results of each pest man-
agement effort. Some control methods,
especially nonchemical ones, are slow to
yield measurable results. Other methods
may be ineffective or even damage the
target crop, animal, treated surface,
or natural enemy. Objectively evaluate
how well your strategies work so that
you will be better prepared if you must
control a specific pest again.
EFFECTIVENESS OF PEST MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
As noted earlier, pesticides rep-
resent only one tool in the IPM
toolbox. When combined with other
control methods, they can help create an
effective treatment plan to reduce pest
populations. However, pesticides might
not control the pests as expected. A good
pest manager needs to find out why.
Why Pesticide
Applications Fail
Pest identification—Sometimes a
pesticide application fails because the
pest was not identified correctly. Being
able to accurately identify pests requires
patience and practice. For example,
knowing the difference between a
caterpillar and a sawfly will result in
success (control) or failure when using
Bacillus thuringiensis. Bt is effective on
caterpillars but not on sawflies. Even
nonchemical tactics may fail if the pest
and susceptible life stages are not accu-
rately identified.
Dosage—Make sure that you
have applied the correct pesticide at
the correct dosage, according to label
instructions.
Correct use—Some herbicides are
formulated to kill grasses, others for
broadleaf weeds, and still others can kill
both types of weeds. Always read the
pesticide label to see if the target pest
is listed.
Application timing—Other appli-
cations fail because the pesticide was
not applied at the correct time. The
pest may not have been in the area
during the application, or it may have
been in a life cycle stage where it was
not susceptible to the pesticide. Insects
are usually more vulnerable when they
are immature, and weeds are most
easily controlled before they flower and
go to seed. Also, remember that current
pests may be part of a new infestation
that developed long after the chemical
was applied.
Application equipment—Con-
cealed pests (under leaves or bark, in the
soil, or within stems or fruits) are diffi-
cult to reach. This means that knowing
the best type of application equipment
to use is very important. For example,
use an air-blast sprayer for pests hiding
under apple tree leaves but a granular
applicator during planting operations
for soil-dwelling agronomic pests.
Environmental conditions—In
general, do not apply pesticides just
before a rainstorm. The pesticide may
be washed off the target plants and away
from the application site. Temperature
extremes and windy conditions can
move pesticides away from the target
pests and site.
Pesticide degradation—Pesticides
may degrade when stored. Under some
PEST MANAGEMENT
-------
conditions, pesticides can change into a
form that is ineffective. This might be
due to the age of the product or the pes-
ticide storage conditions. For example,
granular pesticides stored in wet or very
humid conditions will draw moisture.
This may cause clumping and possible
deactivation of the pesticide.
Pesticide Resistance
Pesticide resistance is the ability of
a pest to tolerate a pesticide that once
controlled it. Resistance develops when
intensive pesticide use kills the suscep-
tible individuals in a population but
leaves the resistant ones to reproduce.
Initially, higher labeled rates and more
frequent applications are needed to
control resistant pests. Eventually the
pesticide will have little or no effect
on the pest population as the resistant
population grows (see Figure 1.4).
Resistance may develop to a single
insecticide, fungicide, herbicide, or
rodenticide. More often, however, pest
populations become resistant to chemi-
cally related pesticides in a class of
compounds. It is also possible for a pest
to develop resistance to pesticides in
two or more classes of compounds with
different modes of action.
Continual use of pesticides from
the same chemical class, such as all
growth regulator herbicides or all
pyrethroid insecticides, increases the
likelihood that resistance will develop in
a pest population. Frequent applications
and greater persistence of the chemical
further increase the chances of pesticide
resistance. Finally, resistance can spread
through a pest population much more
rapidly in pests that have many genera-
tions per year and many offspring per
generation, such as many insects, mites,
fungi, and rodents.
Several pest management tactics
help prevent or delay the occurrence of
pesticide resistance. One approach is the
use of new or altered pesticides. Using
new compounds with different modes
of action will lessen the likelihood of
resistance developing in a population.
Most pesticides have a code number at
the top of the label indicating the mode
of action (e.g., Group 4A Insecticides—
Neonicotinoids, or Group 2 Herbicides
—ALS Inhibitors). Unfortunately, new
replacement products are often quite
complex, difficult to synthesize, and
very costly to develop. Moreover, they
have very specific modes of action,
which can rapidly lead to the devel-
opment of resistant pest populations
even after limited use in the field. No
longer can we expect to respond to pes-
ticide resistance by merely substituting
one pesticide for another.
Changing pesticide use patterns
is an important step in preventing
resistance. When dosages are reduced,
fewer pests are killed, so the pressure
to develop resistant pest populations
Figure 1.4 Pesticide resistance
Some individuals in a pest population
have genetic traits that allow them to
survive pesticide application.
^ CHAPTER 1
A proportion of the survivor's offspring
inherit the resistance traits. At the next
spraying these resistant individuals will
survive.
If pesticides are applied frequently,
the pest population will soon consist
mostly of resistant individuals.
susceptible individual
-------
is decreased. Applying pesticides over
limited areas reduces the proportion
of the total pest population exposed to
the chemical. The result is a large pool
of individuals still susceptible to the
pesticide. This tactic tends to delay the
development of a resistant population
because pesticide-susceptible individuals
continue to interbreed with resistant
ones, thus diluting the resistance in the
population. Also, treating alternate gen-
erations of pests with pesticides that have
different modes of action decreases the
selection pressure for resistance.
Managing pesticide resistance is a
critical aspect of integrated pest man-
agement. Monitor pest populations
carefully and treat only when necessary
instead of on a schedule. Good pesticide
application records are another important
part of resistance management. Pesticides
are more effectively managed when
treatment history is known. Resistance
must be detected when it is at a very
low level. It should then be controlled
by using all available pest management
techniques to extend the useful life of
our current pesticides.
SUMMARY
A successful pest management pro-
gram begins with the proper
identification of the pest. Choosing the
appropriate pest control method depends
on recognizing and understanding the
pest, its life cycle, habits, and habitat.
Integrated pest management programs
attempt to balance the need for pest con-
trol with the desire to protect the envi-
ronment from pesticide contamination.
Monitoring is critical to knowing
where pests are located, when to act
against growing pest populations, and
what type of control measures to use.
Evaluation and recording results help to
determine how well the IPM program is
working and whether there are any harm-
ful human or environmental effects.
Minimizing pesticide resistance is
critical for sustaining the effectiveness
of pest management programs. Using
a variety of tools and techniques will
help prevent or delay the occurrence of
pesticide resistance.
If the pest has not been properly
identified, even nonchemical control
tactics will fail. It is your responsibility
to consider the effects of pest control
actions on the entire treatment site,
whether an outdoor area or inside a
structure. Use good judgment—espe-
cially when pesticides are part of the
control strategy—to avoid harmful
effects to other living organisms and
the environment.
PEST MANAGEMENT ^
-------
^ CHAPTER 1
-------
CHAPTER 1: PEST MANAGEMENT
Write the answers to the following questions, and th
1. Using barriers to prevent pests from getting
into an area is an example of which type of
pest management method?
A. Biological.
B. Mechanical.
C. Genetic.
2. Making use of plant varieties that are naturally
resistant to insect feeding is an example of
which type of pest management method?
A. Biological.
B. Genetic.
C. Regulatory.
3. Which statement about biological control
methods is true?
A. Modifying the environment to enhance
natural enemies is recommended in bio-
logical control.
B. Biological control involves importing
exotic pests to control natural enemies.
C. Using several cultural practices and a
wide variety of pesticides works best in
biological control.
4. Sealing cracks and crevices and small openings
in buildings is an example of which type of
pest management method?
A. Physical.
B. Genetic.
C. Biological.
i check your answers with those in Appendix A.
5. Which statement about cult viral control prac-
tices is true?
A. They reduce pest establishment,
reproduction, and survival.
B. They use naturally derived and/or
synthesized chemicals to control pests.
C. They involve the release of parasites and
predators found in foreign countries.
6. Monitoring pests at airports and ocean ports
that pose a serious threat to public health or
widespread damage to crops or animals is an
example of which type of pest management
method?
A. Regulatory.
B. Genetic.
C. Biological.
7. Which statement about pest management
strategies in IPM is true?
A. The goal is to prevent pests from reaching
damaging levels.
B. Eradication is never the goal of an
IPM program.
C. Nonchemical methods are short-term
solutions to control pests.
8. Which would be considered a preventive pest
management strategy?
A. Planting weed- and disease-free seed on an
athletic field.
B. Releasing natural enemies to help reduce
pest populations.
C. Removing a pest that is a public health
concern from an area.
continued
REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
9. Which statement about action thresholds is
true?
A. The IPM technician needs to implement
control measures below the action
threshold level.
B. The action threshold for a pest may be set
at a zero pest population density.
C. In an urban landscape, action thresholds
are usually more related to economics than
aesthetics.
10. Which would increase the likelihood of
pesticide resistance?
A. An insect that has one generation per year.
B. Continual use of pesticides from the same
chemical class.
C. Applying a pesticide that has little or no
residual effect.
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain how and why pesticides are regulated in the
United States.
• Discuss the importance of knowing and
following federal laws and regulations related
to pesticide use.
• State why certain pesticides are classified as
restricted use.
• Distinguish between restricted-use and general-use
pesticide classifications.
• Explain the importance of maintaining accurate
records of pesticide applications and employee
training.
i «ri» 150 rr»
''"""J « "fWr t. low
Protection of Envj
Federal Pesticide Laws
and Regulations
' St3fes
"e fecfej
'""igic/de
Act(FIFRAl
Fo°d, OfUg
a»(ffdcA,
THE NEED FOR REGULATION
Pesticides are hazardous substances
that can cause serious harm if used
improperly. However, they also provide
important socioeconomic benefits when
used correctly Pesticides are regulated
to utilize their benefits while pro-
tecting public health and welfare and
preventing harm to the environment.
Federal and state pesticide laws and
regulations control the labeling, sale
and distribution, storage, transpor-
tation, use, and disposal of pesticides
in the best public interest. Except for
human and veterinary drugs, few other
chemicals sold in the United States are
required to undergo such extensive
regulatory review and testing before
being registered and marketed.
This chapter addresses the require-
ments of federal laws and regulations
only. States, tribes, territories, and
some local jurisdictions may have their
own legal requirements concerning
pesticides that may be more restrictive
than federal law. You are responsible
for learning about and complying with
all such requirements before making
any pesticide application. Ignorance of
the law is never an excuse for noncom-
pliance or violations.
PESTICIDE LAWS
-------
FEDERAL INSECTICIDE, FUNGICIDE, AND RODENTICIDE
ACT (FIFRA)
o
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) is
the federal law or statute that regu-
lates the production, transportation,
sale, use, and disposal of pesticides.
FIFRA is administered by the U.S.
f D S Environmental Protection Agency
^/C^\ (EPA). Congress originally
11 V,|
PRn^5y
PRO
The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA)
is the agency responsible
for administering the
Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA).
enacted FIFRA, amended it
considerably in 1972, and
then again in 1975, 1978,
and 1988.
FIFRA provides the
overall framework for the
federal pesticide regulatory
program. Under FIFRA,
EPA is responsible for
registering or authorizing
pesticide products for sale, dis-
tribution, and use in the United
States. Pesticide registration deci-
sions are based on a detailed assessment
of the potential effects of a product on
human health and the environment
when used according to its labeling
directions. This EPA-approved labeling
has the force of law.
Although it is a violation of federal
law to use any pesticide registered by
EPA in a manner inconsistent with its
labeling, FIFRA Section 2(ee) excludes
several use situations and application
procedures. Unless specifically pro-
hibited by the labeling, FIFRA allows:
• A pesticide to be applied to
control a target pest not spec-
ified on the label if the pesticide
is applied to a crop, animal, or
site specifically listed on the
labeling (e.g., interior of a home,
food-handling establishments,
exterior ornamental plants, corn,
and tomatoes).
• Any method of application.
• A pesticide to be applied at a
dosage, concentration, or fre-
quency less than that specified
on the labeling (except in the
case of termiticides labeled for
preconstruction treatments).
• A pesticide-fertilizer mixture.
Realize that if you exercise any
of the Section 2(ee) exclusions under
FIFRA, you alone are responsible for
any consequences resulting from such
an application.
FIFRA also gives EPA the authority
to:
• Impose civil and/or criminal
penalties on any person who
misuses a pesticide or commits
any of the other unlawful acts
listed in FIFRA Section 12.
• Stop the sale or use of any pes-
ticide.
• Issue removal orders and seize
products to keep them out of the
market if it determines the prod-
ucts pose an unreasonable risk.
• Reevaluate older pesticides to
ensure that they meet more
recent safety standards.
• Implement programs to require
the certification of applicators of
restricted-use pesticides (RUPs).
• Protect agricultural workers and
pesticide handlers from occupa-
tional pesticide exposure.
All pesticides are classified accord-
ing to their potential hazards under
CHAPTER 2
Restricted-use pesticides (RUPs) may be sold only to certified applicators.
RESTRICTED use pesticide
Due to very high toxicity to humans and birds.
forthosTuses covered by the certified applicators
certification.
-------
the circumstances in which they are
to be used. The two main classifica-
tions are restricted use and unclassified
use. Unclassified-use pesticides are
commonly referred to as general-use
pesticides. It should be noted, however,
that EPA has officially classified very
few pesticides as general use. Most
pesticides that might be expected to
fit into the general-use category cur-
rently remain unclassified. Normally,
general-use pesticides have a lower
toxicity than RUPs and so are less likely
to harm humans or the environment.
The general public can buy general-use
pesticides without special permits or
restrictions.
Generally, EPA classifies a pes-
ticide as restricted use if it exceeds one
or more human health toxicity criteria
or based on other regulatory standards.
EPA may also classify a pesticide as
restricted use if it meets certain criteria
for hazards to nontarget organisms or
ecosystems. Still another reason for the
restricted-use classification is a deter-
mination by EPA that a product (or class
of products) may cause unreasonable
harm to human health and/or the envi-
ronment without such restriction. The
restricted-use classification designation
must be prominently placed on the
top of the front panel of the pesticide
product labeling.
Some pesticide active ingredients
may be listed in both use categories
depending on the formulation, the
application method, and the intended
uses. For example, an emulsifiable
concentrate formulation of a certain
insecticide used on fruit trees might be
classified as restricted use if it contains
a high percentage of active ingre-
dient (e.g., 70%). However the same
chemical with a low percentage of active
ingredient (e.g., 5%) in a granular for-
mulation used to treat turf insects might
be regarded as a general-use pesticide.
RUPs may be sold only to certified
applicators or their authorized repre-
sentatives. A certified applicator is an
individual who has been recognized
(certified) by the state, tribe, territory,
or agency responsible for regulating
pesticides as being competent to use
or supervise the use of RUPs. There
are two types of certified pesticide
applicators: private and commercial.
Private applicators are defined as cer-
tified applicators who use or supervise
the use of any RUP for the purpose of
producing an agricultural commodity
(e.g., field and forage crops, fruit, veg-
etables, nursery stock, Christmas trees,
greenhouse plants, and livestock) on
their own property or property they
rent or lease. Commercial applicators
are individuals who use or supervise the
use of any RUP for any purpose on any
property except for those listed under
the definition of a private applicator.
Only certified applicators or
individuals under their direct super-
vision may mix, load, or apply RUPs.
To become certified, a person must
demonstrate knowledge of and com-
petency in pesticide use and handling.
Certified applicators must know how
to read pesticide labeling and be
able to follow directions to use these
products properly and safely. Pesticide
applicator certification programs and
the RUP classification process provide
an alternative to cancellation of these
important and beneficial pesticides or
more stringent controls on their use.
Only certified
applicators
or individuals
under their
direct super-
vision may mix,
load, or apply
restricted-use
pesticides.
PESTICIDE REGISTRATION
Except for minimum-risk pesticides,
all pesticides distributed and sold
in the United States must be registered
by EPA. Pesticide registration is based
on scientific data showing that these
products will not cause unreasonable
risks to human health, workers, or the
environment when used as directed on
the labeling. The process of registering
a pesticide begins with the pesticide
company (manufacturer or registrant's
submission of an application package to
EPA. EPA's review of this application
includes an assessment of the risks to
human health and the environment
that may be posed by the use of the pes-
ticide. Based on this review, EPA may
classify the pesticide as restricted use
PESTICIDE LAWS ^
-------
FOR ntSTRIRIJTIftN IJBF ONI Y 'A1THIM TT-F 3TATF OF AHY A\n
Ul ¦JtUI IUKL! ukusl
frfc-LK-H
ON 24(c) SPECIAL LOCAL NEElT .
Weed Destroyer 3,2 EC
Herbicide
EPA Ron
2:^-4444
Pllhl
11 h 1 a
urn Ivwud
LLr.t
r-rSJI
kHMCK
An example of a label
for a Section 24(c) special
local need registration.
or general use—or the pesticide
may remain unclassified.
Depending on the
class of pesticide and
the priority assigned
to it, this review and
decision process may
take several years.
Pesticides must be
registered or exempted
from registration by
EPA's Office of Pesticide
Programs before they may be
States. Once registered, a pesticide may
not legally be used unless the use is con-
sistent with the approved directions for
use on the pesticide's labeling. FIFRA
has several types of registration and
exemption actions that enable pesticides
to be used in the United States:
• Special local need registrations
under Section 24(c).
• Emergency exemptions under
Section 18.
• Exemption of minimum-risk
pesticides from registration
under Section 25(b).
These registration and exemption
actions are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 3, Pesticide Labeling.
EPA also plays a role in regulating
devices used to control pests. A "device"
is any instrument or contrivance (other
than a firearm) intended to trap, destroy,
repel, or mitigate any pest. A black light
trap is an example of a device. Unlike
pesticides, devices do not need to be
registered. However, EPA does require
the establishment producing the device
to be registered. Devices are subject to
• Federal registration of pesticides certain labeling, packaging, recordkeep-
under Section 3. ing, and import/export requirements.
TOLERANCES
pesticide can be used with "reasonable
certainty of no harm." To make this
finding, EPA considers:
• The toxicity of the pesticide and
its breakdown products.
• How much of the pesticide is
applied and how often.
• How much of the pesticide (i.e.,
the residue) remains in or on
food by the time it is marketed
and prepared.
Pesticide manufacturers must sub-
mit a wide variety of scientific studies
for review before EPA sets a tolerance.
These data are designed to identify
possible harmful effects the chemical
could have on humans (its toxicity),
the amount of the chemical residue (or
breakdown products) likely to remain in
or on food, and other possible sources of
exposure to the pesticide (e.g., through
use in homes or other places).
A pesticide applicator can-
not measure residues on crops or in
livestock commodities because such
Tolerance
The maximum
pesticide
residue limit
that may
legally remain
on or in
treated crops
and animals
or animal
products sold
for food or
feed.
Pesticides are widely used in pro-
ducing food. These pesticides may
remain in small amounts (called resi-
dues) in or on fruits, vegetables, grains,
and animal feed. Before allowing the
use of a pesticide on food crops, EPA
sets a tolerance, or maximum residue
limit. A tolerance is the amount of pes-
ticide residue that may legally remain
on or in treated crops and
animals (and animal prod-
ucts, such as milk or eggs)
to be sold for food or feed.
Federal agencies monitor
food and feed products
for tolerance violations—
such as when the residue
exceeds the established
tolerance. If residues are
found to exceed the toler-
ance, the commodity will
be condemned or subject
to seizure by the govern-
ment, and violators may be
prosecuted.
In setting the toler-
ance, EPA must make a
safety finding that the
^ CHAPTER 2
-------
measurements require highly special-
ized equipment and techniques. But by
following labeling instructions, you can
be sure that products you have treated
with pesticides have residues well below
the tolerance level when put on the mar-
PESTICIDE REREGISTRATION
EPA is responsible for ensuring that
each registered pesticide continues
to meet safety standards to protect
human health and the environment.
These standards have become stricter
over the years as EPA's ability to
evaluate the potential harmful effects
of pesticides has improved. Therefore,
the agency has embarked on several
programs to reevaluate pesticides as the
standards evolve.
Reregistration and
Tolerance Reassessment
EPA has completed a one-time pro-
gram to review older pesticides (those
initially registered before November
1984) to ensure that they meet current
scientific and regulatory standards. This
process, called reregistration, consid-
ered the human health, environmental,
and ecological effects of pesticides. It
resulted in numerous actions to reduce
risks of concern identified during
the review. The conclusions of those
reviews are called Reregistration
Eligibility Decisions (REDs).
In addition to the reregistration
effort, Congress passed the 1996 Food
Quality Protection Act (FQPA) amend-
ments to FIFRA. It also passed the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act
(FFDCA), which called for reassess-
ing existing tolerances and tolerance
exemptions to ensure that they meet the
legal safety standard. Implementation
of REDs and tolerance reassessment
decisions, including the movement of
revised labeling into the marketplace,
has continued beyond the completion of
the reviews in 2008.
Finally, FQPA mandated a new
program: registration review. Under
this program, EPA periodically reevalu-
ates pesticides to ensure that products
in the marketplace can still be used
ket. It is especially important to follow
instructions on the correct application
rate and the minimum number of days
allowed between the pesticide applica-
tion and harvest, slaughter, freshening,
or grazing.
safely as policies and practices change.
As the ability to assess risk evolves,
registration review allows EPA to verify
that all registered pesticides continue
to meet the statutory standard of no
unreasonable adverse effects.
Through these assessments, EPA
has identified risks of concern for some
uses. In many cases, these risks could be
reduced to acceptable levels by changing
the product labeling. Examples include
use sites, application rates and meth-
ods, timing of harvest, restricted-entry
intervals, and requirements for personal
protective equipment (PPE). Changes
in application rates, timing of applica-
tion to crop harvest, or the removal of
some uses can reduce crop residues,
decreasing dietary exposure and risk.
Labeling requirements for PPE, closed /4 USDA chemist prepares
systems, and extended restricted-entry extracts of fruits and
intervals may be established to protect vegetables for analysis of
agricultural workers and handlers, pesticide residues.
Limitations on applications in some soil
types reduce the chance of groundwater
contamination. EPA expects the imple-
mentation of revised labeling in the
field to be a continuing process.
How do these
processes affect you,
the applicator? You
must review each
product's labeling
before application
to check for recent
changes and to
ensure that you use
the product accord-
ing to the directions.
Product labeling can
change frequently.
You can avoid misuse
by making sure you
are referencing the The EPA uses data from the USDA on what
most current product food people eat and how much they eat,
labeling. collected through the Pesticide Data Program.
PESTICIDE LAWS
-------
VIOLATIONS AND FEDERAL PENALITIES
A variety of actions by pesticide
manufacturers, sellers, distributers,
and users are considered unlawful acts
under the provisions of FIFRA. These
include:
• Distributing, selling, or deliv-
ering an unregistered pesticide.
• Making any advertising claim
about a pesticide not included in
the registration statement.
• Selling any registered pesticide if
its content does not conform to
labeling data.
• Selling an adulterated or mis-
branded pesticide.
Both civil and criminal
penalties can be assessed
for FIFRA violations.
Remember...
The label
is the law!
Detaching, altering, defacing,
or destroying any part of a con-
tainer or labeling.
Refusing to keep records or per-
mit authorized EPA inspections.
Making a guarantee other than
that specified by the labeling.
Advertising an RUP without
giving the product classification.
Making an RUP available to a
noncertified applicator (except as
provided by law).
Using a pesticide in any manner
inconsistent with the labeling.
Penalties
Anyone who uses a pesticide in a
manner inconsistent with its labeling
directions and restrictions may be
subject to civil and/or criminal penalties.
Generally, any registrant, com-
mercial applicator, wholesaler, dealer,
retailer, or other distributor in vio-
lation of FIFRA may be assessed a civil
penalty. In determining civil penalties,
EPA considers the size of the business,
how the penalty may affect the ability of
the firm to remain in business, and the
gravity of the violation. Other consid-
erations include any economic benefit
realized by illegal profits or unfair
gains. In cases involving only minor
violations, EPA may issue a warning
instead of assessing a penalty.
A knowing (intentional) violation
by any registrant, applicant for regis-
tration, producer, commercial applicator
of a restricted-use pesticide, or other
person distributing or selling pesticides
or devices is a criminal act. The penalty
may include a fine and/or up to one year
imprisonment. A knowing violation by
a private applicator is a misdemeanor
and will result in a fine and/or up to 30
days imprisonment.
Remember, you must use all pes-
ticides exactly according to labeling
directions—the label is the law!
FEDERAL PESTICIDE REGULATIONS UNDER FIFRA
EPA develops regulations to carry
out the provisions of FIFRA. The
primary federal regulations pertaining
to pesticides are found in Parts 150 to
189 of Title 40 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (40 CFR Parts 150-189).
The most important federal pesticide
regulations of concern to pesticide appli-
cators are briefly summarized below.
Pesticide Container and
Containment Regulation
(40 CFR Part 165)
In 2006, EPA published regulations
on pesticide containers and containment
structures to ensure the safe use, refill,
and disposal of containers. While most
of these requirements apply to pesticide
manufacturers and refillers, commercial
applicators who store pesticides in con-
tainers greater than 500 gallons may need
to verify that the container is surrounded
by a secondary containment structure.
Contact your state pesticide regulatory
agency because some states are imple-
menting state—instead of federal—con-
tainment regulations. In addition, all
applicators must follow the container
handling and cleaning instructions in
the "Storage and Disposal" section of
the pesticide labeling.
CHAPTER 2
-------
Worker Protection
Standard Regulation
(40 CFR Part 170)
EPA's Worker Protection Standard
(WPS) is intended to reduce the
incidence of occupational pesticide
exposure and related illnesses and
injuries among agricultural workers
and pesticide handlers covered by the
rule. The WPS requires employers to
provide agricultural workers and pes-
ticide handlers with certain protections.
These include pesticide safety training,
personal protective equipment, and
decontamination supplies designed to
prevent or reduce harm from occupa-
tional pesticide exposures. Owners and
operators of agricultural establishments
(such as farms, nurseries, and forest
and greenhouse operations producing
agricultural plants) and of commercial
businesses hired to apply pesticides or
to perform crop advising tasks on agri-
cultural establishments must comply
with the WPS. The WPS also requires
employers to maintain certain records
and to display specific pesticide safety
information on the premises.
Certification of Pesticide
Applicators Regulation
(40 CFR Part 171)
As previously mentioned, EPA
has the authority to classify certain
products as RUPs and to require anyone
applying or supervising the use of RUPs
to become a certified pesticide appli-
cator. To carry out this requirement,
EPA has established standards for the
certification of pesticide applicators
and requirements for state, tribal, ter-
ritorial, and federal agencies to establish
pesticide applicator certification pro-
grams. Any such agency that wants to
certify applicators to use RUPs must
have an EPA-approved certification
plan that describes how the certifying
authority will carry out its credentialing
program. This includes the require-
ments to become a certified applicator,
recertification requirements, and the
standards of competency for each cat-
egory of applicator. At a minimum, all
certification plans must meet federal
standards and requirements.
All 50 states, as well as several
tribes, territories, and federal agencies,
have EPA-approved certification plans
and pesticide applicator certification
programs. Additionally, all 50 states
have signed cooperative enforcement
agreements with EPA that designate an
agency within the state (i.e., the state
lead agency) as the primary pesticide
regulatory authority to enforce the pro-
visions of FIFRA. In some situations,
more than one state agency may be
designated to enforce various parts of
FIFRA. (For example, some states have
structural pest control boards respon-
sible for regulating the structural pest
control industry.)
OTHER FEDERAL LAWS
Although FIFRA is the main
federal law regulating pes-
ticide use, the FFDCA is another
statute that provides the EPA with
regulatory authority for pesticides.
Other federal laws cover certain
pesticide-related activities, such as
transportation, storage, disposal,
protecting the safety of employees,
and reporting accidents and spills.
Applicators will encounter other
laws and regulations that they must
be aware of and obey. In some cases,
the pesticide labeling will alert the
applicator to these laws.
Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act
The FFDCA governs the estab-
lishment of pesticide tolerances for
food and feed products. As discussed
earlier, a tolerance is the maximum
level of pesticide residues allowed in
or on human food and animal feed.
The EPA and the Food and Drug
Administration are responsible for
administering this act.
Food Quality Protection Act
The FQPA set a higher standard
Aggregate Pesticide Residue
Exposure Risk under FQPA
. I'whI Water
Risk Cup
Figure 2.1
Under FQPA, the EPA must
consider both dietary
(food) and non-dietary
(garden, home, water, pets,
etc.) risks of exposure when
setting tolerance levels for
pesticide residues in food.
PESTICIDE LAWS ^
-------
Endangered mammal:
Gray wolf.
Endangered bird:
Northern spotted owl.
for pesticides used on food. It estab-
lished a single, health-based standard
to be used when assessing the risks
of pesticide residues in food or feed.
This safety standard considers the
aggregate risk from dietary and
other nonoccupational sources of
exposure, such as drinking water
and residential lawn use (see Figure
2.1). In addition, when setting new or
reassessing existing tolerances, the
FQPA requires EPA to focus explicitly
on exposures and risks to infants and
children. This act also requires EPA
to assume an additional safety factor to
account for any uncertainty in data.
Other FQPA mandates require
EPA to:
• Establish a tolerance only if
there is "a reasonable certainty"
that no harm will result from all
combined sources of exposure to
pesticides (aggregate exposures).
The combined effects of human
exposure to different pesticides
that may act in similar ways on
the body (cumulative exposure)
must also be considered.
Endangered insect:
Karner blue butterfly.
Review all old pesticides to make
sure that the residues allowed on
food meet the new safety standard.
Test pesticides for endocrine-
disruption potential. Endocrine
disruptors may be linked to a
variety of sexual, developmental,
behavioral, and reproductive
problems.
Distribute a brochure discussing
pesticides on foods to supermar-
kets to better inform the public.
Endangered Species Act
The Endangered Species Act
(ESA) is a federal law administered by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
the National Marine Fisheries Service
(jointly referred to as the Services).
The ESA makes it illegal to kill, harm,
or collect endangered or threatened
wildlife or fish, or to remove endan-
gered or threatened plants from areas
under federal jurisdiction. It also
requires other federal agencies to
ensure that any action they carry out or
authorize is not likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of any endangered
or threatened species, or to destroy or
harm its critical habitat. Therefore,
EPA must ensure that no registered
pesticide use is likely to jeopardize
the survival of any endangered or
threatened species.
Each state pesticide regulatory
agency is responsible for implementing
the federal Endangered Species
Protection Program in cooperation
with EPA. Under this program, a
pesticide product that might harm an
endangered species carries a labeling
statement instructing applicators to
consult a county bulletin to determine
if they must take any special precautions
when using the product in a specific
county. EPA is developing these county
bulletins and making them available
through the Internet-based "Bulletins
Live!" system. Precautionary measures
included in the bulletins may include
buffer strips, reduced application rates,
or timing restrictions. An applicator
might also be prohibited from using the
pesticide within the identified habitat.
REQUIREMENTS
USDA's. Both private and commercial
applicators must be aware of the record-
keeping requirements for their industry.
Keeping appropriate application
records not only meets the legal
requirements but is also a wise practice
because records:
• Are invaluable documentation
in the event of a complaint or
lawsuit.
FEDERAL RECORDKEEPING
Application Records
The United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA) administers
the program that establishes federal
recordkeeping requirements for
private applicators. States establish
pesticide recordkeeping requirements
for commercial applicators. States
may also establish private applicator
recordkeeping requirements that exceed
Endangered plant:
Painted trillium.
CHAPTER 2
-------
• Help determine which pesticide
treatments work, which do not
work, and why.
• Help applicators plan future pur-
chases so that they buy only the
amount needed.
• Provide information needed by
medical staff.
• Document the steps taken to
protect farmworkers and the
environment.
• Are used for federal and state
surveys.
Training Records
Owners and operators of pesticide
application businesses should consider
keeping documentation of employee
training in pesticide use and handling.
Though not currently required by fed-
SUMMARY
Federal pesticide laws and regulations
are designed to protect the public
and the environment from possible
adverse effects of pesticides. It is your
responsibility as an applicator to comply
with these laws and regulations. FIFRA
is the primary law that regulates how
pesticides are produced, transported,
sold, used, and disposed of. FIFRA also
establishes the process for the regis-
tration and reregistration of pesticide
products, and for the certification of
pesticide applicators. All states, tribes,
and territories must comply with
FIFRA and its accompanying regula-
tions. They may establish additional
pesticide regulations more (but not less)
restrictive than FIFRA.
The FFDCA regulates the toler-
ances (i.e., the maximum amounts of
pesticide residue) that may remain in
human food and animal feed. To set tol-
erance levels, EPA requires the review
of many scientific studies to ensure the
safety of food and feed products in the
United States.
The FQPA has put in place
even more stringent requirements to
assess the risks of pesticide residues
in food or feed. Under this standard,
EPA must now consider the risk of
aggregate (combined) pesticide expo-
sures. These include exposure through
diet, residential lawn and home uses
of pesticides, and residues that may be
found in drinking water. The standard
also emphasizes the risk of pesticide
exposure to infants and children. Under
the FQPA, EPA must review all old and
new pesticides to make sure the residues
allowed on food and feed meet the new
safety standard.
The ESA protects endangered or
threatened species from harm, including
pesticide injury. Pesticide products that
might harm an endangered species must
carry a statement instructing appli-
cators to consult a county bulletin to
determine if they must take any special
measures to protect an endangered
species when using the product.
All applicators must comply with
recordkeeping requirements for RUP
applications. Even though it is not a
current federal requirement, main-
taining employee training records is
Both private and
commercial applicators
must be aware of
the recordkeeping
requirements for
their industry.
eral law, such documentation may be
required in the future. Therefore, make
sure you are aware of applicable train-
ing requirements. Your state, tribal,
territorial, or federal pesticide regula-
tory agency may require written proof
that employees received training on
proper pesticide use when they were
hired. In the case of the WPS, records
document that the mandatory training
requirements were satisfied. Consider
including the following in your training
records:
• Employee's name and Social
Security or work identification
number.
• Date of the training.
• Materials used and source/
provider of the training.
• Employee's signature
and the date signed.
PESTICIDE LAWS ^
-------
a good idea. Such records, which may
eventually be required by the applica-
tor's state, tribal, territorial, or federal
agency, document that the WPS safety
training requirement has been met.
^ CHAPTER 2
-------
Review Questions
o p^f ita t*. ik9
- ^J=^ rvviurd a* effrly t _ 2000
<*3
bXD
£j
tf
Protection of Envj
CHAPTER 2: FEDERAL PESTICIDE LAWS AND
Regulations
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your answers with those in Appendix A.
1. Which statement about FIFRA is false"?
A. It provides the overall framework for the
federal pesticide regulatory program.
B. It prevents states, tribes, and territories
from creating pesticide use laws more
stringent than federal regulations.
C. It allows applicators to deviate from the
pesticide label under specific use situations.
5. Which of die following criteria is used by EPA
in establishing pesticide tolerances?
A. Research data completely independent of
the pesticide manufacturer's.
B. The anticipated volume of product to be
sold in any given year.
C. The toxicity of the pesticide and its break-
down products.
2. Under federal law, which statement about
trained and certified applicators is true?
A. They may apply and/or supervise the
application of restricted-use pesticides.
B. They must receive supplemental training
before mixing RUPs.
C. They are exempt from obtaining county
bulletins for the protection of endangered
species.
3. What is the purpose of the pesticide registration
and reregistration process?
A. To control the flow of new pesticide
products entering the marketplace.
B. To provide evidence that the pesticide will
not cause unreasonable risks to human
health or the environment.
C. To make sure the amount of pesticide
residue remaining on food and feed crops
is zero.
6. Under federal law, which of the following
actions is unlawful and subject to civil or
criminal penalties?
A. Allowing a person under the direct
supervision of a certified applicator to
apply RUPs.
B. Detaching, altering, defacing, or destroying
any part of a container or labeling.
C. Keeping inadequate records of employees
who received training on the proper use of
pesticides.
7. Which federal regulation requires employee
training in the use of pesticides?
A. Worker Protection Standard.
B. Pesticide Container and Containment
Regulation.
C. Food Quality Protection Act.
4. Which statement about federal pesticide regu-
lation is true?
A. To ensure future compliance, civil
penalties are typically assessed against
first-time violators.
B. Like pesticides, devices used to control
pests must also be registered with EPA.
C. Approved pesticide labels have the force
of law.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
^ CHAPTER 2
-------
Pesticide Labeling
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Distinguish between the various types of pesticide
registrations.
• Explain when to read the pesticide label.
• State who may use a pesticide.
• Accurately identify the common, chemical, and
brand or trade name of a pesticide.
• Determine the percentage of active ingredient(s)
in a formulation.
• interpret the meaning of label signal words, symbols,
and their relative hazard levels.
• identify the following types of statements on a
pesticide labei:
> Precautionary.
> First aid.
>- Personal protective equipment.
> Environmental, physical, or chemical hazards.
> Mixing, loading, storage, and disposal.
> Restricted entry and reentry.
• Describe how to interpret other documents and online
resources referenced on the label.
• Distinguish between advisory and mandatory statements
on a label.
• Discuss how to use information on a Safety Data Sheet.
PESTICIDE LABELING
-------
The pesticide label is the main
method of communication between
a pesticide manufacturer and pesticide
users. The information printed on and
attached to the pesticide container is
the label. By law, pesticide users are
required to comply with all instruc-
tions and use directions found on
the pesticide product label. Labeling
includes the label itself plus all other
information about the product ref-
erenced on the label and given when
you buy the product. For example, the
labeling may include information that
accompanies the product in the form of
a comprehensive product-use manual,
brochures, leaflets, and/or Safety
Data Sheets (SDSs). Pesticide labeling
includes instructions on how to use the
product safely and correctly.
EPA APPROVAL OF PESTICIDE LABELING
turer (registrant) proposes to include in
the product labeling. Exceptions to the
registration requirement are covered
under a specific exemption (see "Types
of Pesticide Registration" later in this
chapter).
Only after EPA has reviewed the
labeling and registered the product can
a pesticide product be sold for use. If
the manufacturer wants to change the
information on the labeling after the
product and labeling are registered,
EPA must approve the change.
No pesticide may be sold
in the U.S. before it has
been reviewed by EPA.
discussed in Chapter 2
(Federal Pesticide Laws and
Regulations), no pesticide may
be sold in the United States until
the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has reviewed the
manufacturer's application for reg-
istration and determined that the
use of the product does not present
an unreasonable risk to humans,
wildlife, or the environment. As part
of the registration process, EPA must
approve all language that the manufac-
THE LABEL
The label is an important tool for the
safe and effective use of pesticides.
Pesticide manufacturers are required
by law to put certain information on
the label. Failure to heed and follow
label directives can result in a pesticide
accident and legal action against the
user. Labels are legal documents pro-
viding directions on how to mix, apply,
store, and dispose of pesticide products.
Background of the Label
To appreciate the value of the
information that appears on a pesticide
label, one must consider the time,
effort, and money spent to gather it.
This research-based information takes
at least six years to obtain and costs a
chemical company millions of dollars.
Manufacturers continually make and
screen new compounds for possible pes-
ticide use. For every new pesticide that
successfully meets the standards, thou-
sands of other compounds are screened
and discarded for various reasons. Once
a promising pesticide is identified,
its potential use must be evaluated to
determine if it is a worthwhile candidate
for the label registration process. Many
carefully controlled tests are conducted
to determine the effectiveness and
safety of each pesticide under a wide
range of environmental conditions.
Toxicity and Toxicological Tests
How poisonous or dangerous is
a pesticide to humans, wildlife, and
other organisms? Does the chemical
cause any long-term (chronic) effects?
Does it cause any skin (dermal) reac-
tions? To determine these and other
health effects, researchers administer
the pesticide at various dosages to test
animals, usually rats and mice. Newer
methods now coming into use rely on
mathematical models able to predict the
^ CHAPTER 3
-------
same toxic endpoints without involving
animal testing.
Efficacy or Performance Tests
The company must have perfor-
mance data to show that the pesticide
controls a particular pest or group of
pests on one or more hosts or sites,
including plants, animals, soil, and
structures. Data must show that the
pesticide, when used for its intended
purpose and according to directions, is
a useful product.
Information is also needed on
crop varieties, soil types, application
methods and rates, and a number of
required applications. Tests must show
that the pests are controlled, crops
or animals are not injured, yield and/
or quality has been improved, and the
pesticide provides a measurable benefit.
Degradation, Mobility, and
Residue Tests
A series of studies shows how long
it takes for the compound to break
down (degrade) into harmless materials
under various conditions. In addition,
it is important to know if the pesticide
moves through the soil into ground-
water or if it moves into the plant from
treated soil.
Residue studies are conducted
for each application method on every
treated crop or animal. These tests
determine how much, if any, of the pes-
ticide residue or its breakdown products
remain on or in the crop or animal at the
time of harvest or slaughter. Pesticide
residues on or in food or feed com-
modities must not exceed the residue
tolerances established by EPA when the
crop or animal (including meat, milk,
and eggs) is ready for market or live-
stock feed.
Although specific tolerances are
not included on product labels, pre-
harvest intervals (days to harvest)
and/or preslaughter intervals (days to
slaughter) are often listed on labels of
agricultural pesticides. These are the
minimum number of days between the
last application of a pesticide and the
harvest of crops or the slaughter of live-
stock. Intervals are set by EPA to allow
time for the pesticide to break down on
crops or in livestock. Adhering to these
intervals prevents unacceptable residues
on food, feed, or animal products. If
residues exceed the EPA tolerance or are
found on commodities that do not have
a specified tolerance, the commodity
may be condemned and destroyed.
Effects on Wildlife and the
Environment
The pesticide manufacturer must
determine the effects of field applica-
tions of the pesticide on wildlife and the
natural environment. Any potentially
harmful effects that are recognized
during these studies must be included
in the environmental impact statement
submitted to EPA.
TYPES OF PESTICIDE REGISTRATION
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) has several
types of registrations and exemptions
that enable pesticides to be used in the
United States. You are responsible for
applying only pesticides registered or
exempted from registration by EPA and
your respective state, territory, or tribe.
Section 3 registrations are the
most common. Look for the official
EPA registration number required on
the label (except for products that EPA
classifies as minimum-risk pesticides) to
be sure you are buying an approved and
registered product.
Special local need (SLN) registra-
tions are categorized as Section 24(c).
They allow states to expand or limit
the uses of certain registered pesti-
cides within their jurisdictions. For
instance, some SLNs allow uses of
pesticides for crops or sites not listed
on the label. Others limit the uses
of certain pesticides to address local
concerns. Manufacturers must provide
supplemental labeling for each SLN
registration.
PESTICIDE LABELING ^
-------
You must have SLN
labeling in your possession
to use a pesticide for that
purpose. The registration
numbers of special local
need labeling include the
SLN number and code
for the state issuing the
registration. These reg-
istrations are legal only
in the region, state, or
local area specified in the
labeling. It is illegal to
apply a pesticide that has
an SLN registration from
other states or regions.
Emergency exemp-
tions under Section 18
address pest problems
for which no pesticides
are currently registered.
A Section 18 exemption
allows the sale and use
of a registered pesticide
product for a specific non-
registered purpose during
a specified period. EPA
can issue an emergency
exemption at the request of
the state, tribe, or territory
Potential adverse effects regulatory agency for a public health
of pesticides to wildlife
and the environment
must be included in
environmental impact
statements submitted
to EPA,
concern or other pest crisis. There must
be no other feasible pesticide alternative
to the exemption.
Regulations impose strict controls
and require recordkeeping for all emer-
gency uses. The state, tribe, or territory
pesticide regulatory agency prescribes
application rates, safety precautions,
and other vital application information.
Applicators must have a copy of the
Section 18 approval on hand to legally
use the product.
Minimum-risk pesticides under
Section 25(b) are exempt from regis-
tration provided the products satisfy
certain conditions. Products identified
as exempt pose a minimal risk to
humans and the environment, do not
require EPA label approval, and do not
undergo review by EPA. Furthermore,
these products have no label require-
ments for an EPA registration number,
an EPA establishment number, any
signal word, or any personal protective
equipment (PPE).
To qualify for a Section 25(b)
exemption from registration, each of the
active ingredients in any such product
must be on a list of specified minimal-
risk active ingredients. Additionally,
any inert ingredients in these products
must also be listed as minimal-risk inert
ingredients.
Minimum-risk pesticides still have
certain label requirements imposed
by EPA. Product labels may not claim
to control microorganisms that pose a
threat to human health. For example,
the label may list a pest such as a mos-
quito or tick, but it must not claim to
control any microorganisms that the
pest transmits to humans.
Many states do not permit the sale
of a Section 25(b) product unless it is
first registered in the state.
WHEN TO READ THE PESTICIDE LABEL
It is your responsibility as the user
to read and understand all labeling
before buying, using, storing, or dis-
posing of a pesticide. Read the label:
• Before buying the pesticide
—Make sure the product is
registered for your intended
use. Confirm that there are no
restrictions or other conditions
that prohibit using this pesticide
at the application site. Find out
what PPE and special application
equipment you will need.
• Before mixing and applying
the pesticide—Determine what
precautions to take to prevent
exposure to people and non-
target organisms. Learn what
first aid and medical treatments
are necessary should an accident
occur. Be certain the product's
use is suitable for weather condi-
tions at the time of application.
Also, be sure it controls the
appropriate life stage of your
pest.
CHAPTER 3
-------
When storing pesticides—Find
out how to store the pesticide
properly. Understand any special
precautions to prevent fire
hazards.
Before disposing of unused
pesticides and empty con-
tainers—From the label, learn
how to prevent environmental
contamination and hazards to
PARTS OF THE LABEL
Some labels are easy to understand;
others are complicated. Each label
component will be discussed in this
section. See Figure 3.1 for an example
of a pesticide label.
Trade, Brand, or Product
Name
Every manufacturer has trade
names for its products. Most companies
register each trade name as a trademark.
Various manufacturers use different
trade names, even when the products
contain the same active ingredient.
The brand name often indicates
the type of formulation and the per-
centage of active ingredient present.
For example, "Tempo 20WP" is a brand
name. Tempo is the registered trade
name, and the formulation is a wettable
powder containing 20% active ingre-
dient. The trade or brand name shows
up plainly on the front panel of the label
and is the one used in advertisements.
Ingredient Statement
Every pesticide label must list the
active ingredients and the percentage
of each active ingredient found in that
particular product. The active ingre-
dient (a.i.) is the chemical or chemicals
in a pesticide product responsible for
its pesticidal activity. It is the material
in a pesticide formulation that actually
controls a pest or performs a desired
function (e.g., repellent or growth regu-
lator). Inert ingredients are usually not
named, but the label must show what
percentage of the total contents they
make up. The ingredient statement
people. Check with
your state pesticide
regulatory agency
for any disposal
restrictions and
requirements. Find
out whether your
state has pesticide
container recycling
and waste disposal
programs.
must list the official chemical names
and/or common names of the active
ingredients. Look at the following
Tempo insecticide label excerpt as an
example:
Always read the label
prior to purchasing and
using the pesticide.
Tempo 20WP
Active Ingredient:
ft-Cyfluthrin, cyano(4-fluoro-3-
phenoxyphenyl)methyl
3 -(2,2-dich I oroet hcnyl)-2,2-
dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate 20%
Inert Ingredients.
.80%
The chemical name is the complex
name that identifies the chemical com-
ponents and structure of the pesticide's
active ingredient. This name must be
listed in the ingredient statement on the
label. For example, the chemical name
of Tempo is:
6-Cyfluthrin, cyano(4-fluoro-3-
phenoxyphenyl)methyl
3 -(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-
2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate
Because chemical names or active
ingredients are usually complex, many
are given a shorter common name.
Only those common names officially
accepted by EPA may be used in the
ingredient statement on the pesticide
label. The official common name is
usually followed by the chemical name
in the list of active ingredients. The
common name for Tempo is cyfluthrin.
PESTICIDE LABELING
-------
By purchasing pesticides according to
the common or chemical names, you
are certain of getting the right active
ingredient, no matter what the brand
name or formulation. Remember, not
all pesticides with the same a.i. are
labeled for the same uses or rates.
Use Classification
Statement
Currently, EPA classifies every
pesticide product as either restricted
use or unclassified/general use. Every
product that is federally classified as a
restricted-use pesticide must have the
following statement at the top of the
front panel of the pesticide label:
RESTRICTED-USE PESTICIDE
For retail sale to and use only by
certified applicators or persons
under their direct supervision and
only for those uses covered by the
certified applicator's certification.
Pesticides labeled for restricted
use demand special attention because
there is reason to believe they could
harm humans, livestock, wildlife, or the
environment even when used according
to label directions. The restricted-use
statement indicates the specific hazard
of that pesticide. For example, a product
may be very toxic to humans and
wildlife or pose a groundwater hazard.
Persons using these products must be
certified applicators or have received
special training and have demonstrated
a certain level of competence to ensure
that they can handle these pesticides
properly.
Unclassified pesticides are often
called general-use pesticides. Typically,
they have a lower toxicity with less
potential to harm humans and the envi-
ronment than restricted-use pesticides.
Anyone can purchase and use them
without special permits or restrictions.
Type of Pesticide
The type of pesticide is usually
listed on the front panel of the pesticide
label. This short statement indicates in
general terms what the product con-
trols. Examples include:
• Insecticide for control of certain
insects on fruits, nuts, and orna-
mentals.
• Herbicide for control of woody
brush and broadleaf weeds.
• Insecticide for broad-spectrum
control of crawling, flying, and
wood-infesting insect pests on
indoor and outdoor surfaces, as
well as pests of trees, landscape
ornamentals, and residential and
commercial lawns.
Net Contents
The pesticide label must show how
much product is in the container. This
is expressed as pounds or ounces for
dry formulations or as gallons, quarts,
or pints for liquids. Liquid formulations
may also list the pounds of active ingre-
dient per gallon of product. Many labels
now also include metric units (grams,
kilograms, or liters) as part of the con-
tents information.
Name and Address of
Manufacturer
The law requires that the manu-
facturer or formulator of a pesticide
product put its name and address on the
label so you know who made or sold the
product.
Emergency Telephone
Number
Many pesticide manufacturers list
an emergency telephone number on
their product labels. These companies
will assist anyone using their products
in an emergency (e.g., poisoning, spill,
or fire).
Registration Numbers
EPA registration numbers,
required on all pesticide labels except
Section 25(b) products, indicate that the
pesticide product has been registered
and the label approved by EPA. Most
EPA registration numbers include just
two sets of numbers, which identify the
manufacturer and the specific product.
-------
Occasionally a third set of numbers
appears, which gives a distributor's
identification number on labels of dis-
tributor products.
EXAMPLES OF EPA
REGISTRATION NUMBERS
EPA Reg. No. 3120-280-1492
"3120" identifies the manufac-
turer, "280" identifies the specific
product, and "1492" identifies the
distributor.
EPA SLN No. PA-990005
"SLN" indicates special local
need, "PA" means that the
product is registered for use in
Pennsylvania, "99" means it was
registered in 1999, and "0005"
means it was the fifth special local
need product registered that year
in Pennsylvania.
cause death in very low doses.
PELIGRO, the Spanish word
for DANGER, must also appear
on the label.
DANGER—This word signals
that the product is highly toxic
by at least one route of entry.
Products with this signal word
can cause severe eye damage or
skin irritation.
Establishment Number
An EPA establishment number
(e.g., EPA Est. No. 5840-AZ-l) must
be on the pesticide label to identify the
facility that produced the product. This
is necessary in case a problem arises or
the product is found to be adulterated
(contaminated) in anyway. The "AZ" in
the example indicates the product was
manufactured in a specific facility in
Arizona.
Signal Words and Symbols
Most pesticide labels must include
a signal word. This designation indi-
cates the relative acute toxicity of the
product to humans and animals. The
signal word must appear in large letters
on the front panel of the pesticide label
along with the statement "Keep Out of
Reach of Children." The following are
signal words on pesticide labels:
• DANGER—POISON, skull and
crossbones symbol—These words
and symbol must appear on all
products that are highly toxic by
any route of entry into the body.
The word "poison" must appear
in red. These products can
Precautionary Statements
All pesticide labels contain
statements to help you decide what
precautions to take to protect yourself,
other people, or animals from pesticide
exposure. Sometimes these statements
are listed under the heading "Hazards
to Humans and Domestic Animals."
Precautionary statements may be found
in several sections of the label.
Routes of Entry Statements
Routes of entry statements indicate
which route or routes of entry into the
human body are particularly h azardous.
Because many pesticide products are
hazardous by more than one route, you
should study these statements carefully.
PESTICIDE LABELING
• WARNING—This word signals
that the product is moderately
toxic either orally, dermally, or
through inhalation or causes
moderate eye and skin irritation.
AVISO, the Spanish word for
WARNING, must also appear
on the label.
• CAUTION—This word
signals that the product
is slightly toxic either
orally, dermally, or
through inhalation
or causes slight eye
and skin irritation.
Although very low
toxicity pesticides are
not required to display a
signal word, many manufac-
turers still include a CAUTION
designation on the label of these
products.
A detailed discussion on signal
words and toxicity appears in Chapter 5,
Pesticide Hazards and First Aid.
toxicity of the product
to humans and animals.
Signal words indicate
the relative acute
-------
PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS
Hazard to Humans and Domestic Animals
WARNING/AVISO
This product may cause skin sensitization reactions in certain individuals.
Causes eye irritation. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Harmful if
swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through skin. Avoid breathing spray mist.
STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL TREATMENT
If in eyes: Flush with plenty of water. Get medical attention if irritation persists.
If on skin: Wash with plenty of soap and water. Get medical attention if
irritation persists.
If swallowed: Do not induce vomiting. Promptly drink a large quantity of milk,
egg whites, or gelatin solution. If these are not available, drink large quantities
of water. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Call a
physician or Poison Control Center immediately.
If inhaled: Move victim to fresh air.
Be familiar with first aid A DANGER signal word followed by
procedures before using «May |)e fatal if swallowed or inhaled"
the pesticide. gives you a far different warning than
DANGER followed by "Corrosive—
causes eye damage and severe skin
burns."
Routes of entry statements are not
uniform on all labels; there are many
variations. More than one precaution
may appear on a label.
Typical DANGER label statements
include:
• Fatal if swallowed.
• Poisonous if inhaled.
• Extremely hazardous by skin
contact—rapidly absorbed
through skin.
• Corrosive—causes
eye damage and severe
skin burns.
Typical
WARNING label
statements include:
• Harmful or fatal if
swallowed.
• Harmful or fatal if
absorbed through
the skin.
Follow label instructions
on the use of protective
clothing and equipment.
• Harmful or fatal if
inhaled.
• Causes skin and eye
irritation.
Typical CAUTION label state-
ments include:
• Harmful if swallowed.
• May be harmful if inhaled.
• May irritate eyes, nose, throat,
and skin.
Specific Action Statements
Specific action statements usually
follow the route of entry statements.
Specific action statements give the
precautions and PPE necessary to
help reduce exposure to the pesticide.
These statements are directly related
to the toxicity of the pesticide product
(signal word) and the routes of entry.
DANGER labels typically contain
statements such as:
• Do not breathe vapors or spray
mist.
• Do not get on skin or clothing.
• Do not get in eyes.
Typical WARNING labels often
combine specific action statements
from DANGER and CAUTION labels.
CAUTION labels generally
contain specific action statements that
are less alarming than those on the
DANGER label, indicating that the
toxicity hazard is not as great. Examples
include:
• Avoid contact with skin or
clothing.
• Avoid breathing dust, vapors, or
spray mists.
• Avoid getting in eyes.
Protective Clothing and
Equipment Statements
Pesticide labels vary in the type of
PPE information they contain. While
some labels carry no such statement at
all, other pesticide labels fully describe
appropriate personal protective
equipment. Follow all label statements
on PPE or, if absent, consider the signal
word, routes of entry statements, and
specific action statements. Read the
basic guidelines described in Chapters
5 and 6.
CHAPTER 3
-------
Other Precautionary Statements
Labels often list other precautions
that should always be followed when
handling the product. These com-
monsense, self-explanatory statements
include:
• Do not contaminate food or
feed.
• Remove and wash contaminated
clothing before reuse.
• Wash thoroughly after handling
and before eating or smoking.
• Wear clean clothes daily.
• Not for use or storage in and
around a house.
• Do not allow children or
domestic animals into the
treated area.
First Aid Statements
First aid statements (formerly
known as the Statement of Practical
Treatment) list emergency treatments
recommended in case of poisoning or
accidental exposure. Typical statements
include:
• In case of contact with skin,
wash immediately with plenty of
soap and clean water.
• In case of contact with eyes,
flush with water for 15 minutes
and get medical attention.
• In case of inhalation exposure,
remove victim from contami-
nated area and give artificial
respiration, if necessary.
• If swallowed, induce vomiting.
All DANGER labels and some
WARNING and CAUTION labels
contain a note to physicians describing
the appropriate medical procedures and
antidotes for poisoning emergencies.
Always have the label readily available
in case of an emergency.
Environmental Hazards
Pesticides can be harmful to the
environment. Look for special warning
statements on the label concerning
environmental hazards.
Special Toxicity Statements
The label will say if a particular
pesticide is especially hazardous to
wildlife. Examples include:
• This product is highly toxic to
bees.
• This product is extremely toxic
to fish and aquatic invertebrates.
• This product is toxic to birds and
other wildlife.
Special toxicity statements alert
you to the special hazards of a product.
They will help you choose the safest
product for a particular job and remind
you to take extra precautions.
General Environmental
Statements
General environmental state-
ments are reminders to follow certain
commonsense procedures to avoid
contaminating the environment. The
absence of any or all of these statements
does not mean that you do not need to
EXAMPLE OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT
Environmental Hazards
This product is toxic to aquatic invertebrates. Drift
and runoff may be hazardous to aquatic organisms in
neighboring areas. Under some conditions, this chemical
may also have a high potential for runoff into surface
water for several weeks or months after application.
Do not cultivate within 10 feet of aquatic areas so as to
allow growth of vegetative filter strip. Drift from appli-
cations of this pesticide is likely to result in damage to
sensitive aquatic invertebrates in water bodies adjacent
to treatment area.
For terrestrial uses, do not apply directly to water or to
areas where surface water is present or to intertidal areas
below the mean high-water mark, except under forest
canopy when aerially applied to control forest pests. Do
not contaminate water when disposing of equipment
washwaters and rinsate. Do not apply when weather
conditions favor drift or runoff from areas treated.
This pesticide demonstrates the properties and
characteristics associated with chemicals detected in
groundwater. The use of this chemical in areas where
soils are permeable, particularly where the water table is
shallow, may result in groundwater contamination.
PESTICIDE LABELING ^
-------
EXAMPLE OF AGRICULTURAL USE
REQUIREMENTS
Agricultural Use Requirements
Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and
with the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170.
This standard contains requirements for the protection
of agricultural workers on farms, forests, nurseries, and
greenhouses, and handlers of agricultural pesticides. It
contains requirements for training, decontamination,
notification, and emergency assistance. It also contains
specific instructions and exceptions pertaining to the
statements on this label about personal protective
equipment (PPE) and restricted-entry interval. The
requirements inthis boxonlyapplyto usesofthis product
that are covered by the Worker Protection Standard.
Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas
during the restricted-entry interval (REI) of 12 hours.
Exception: if the product is applied by drenching, the
Worker Protection Standard, under certain circum-
stances, allows workers to enter the treated area if
there will be no contact with anything that has been
treated.
PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is per-
mitted under the Worker Protection Standard and that
involves contact with anything that has been treated,
such as plants, soil, or water, includes:
• Coveralls.
• Waterproof gloves.
• Shoes plus socks.
take adequate precautions. Sometimes
these statements follow a specific
toxicity statement and provide prac-
tical steps to avoid harming wildlife.
Examples of general environmental
statements include:
• Do not apply when runoff is
likely to occur.
• Do not apply when weather con-
ditions favor drift from treated
areas.
• Do not contaminate water by
improperly disposing of rinse
water and other pesticide wastes.
• Do not apply when bees are
likely to be in the area.
• Do not apply directly to water
or to areas where surface water
is present or to intertidal areas
below the mean high water
mark.
• The use of this chemical in areas
where soils are permeable, par-
ticularly where the water table
is shallow, may result in ground-
water contamination.
Physical or Chemical
Hazards
The "Physical or Chemical
Hazards" section of the label describes
possible fire, explosion, or chemical
hazards of the product. Examples
include:
• Flammable—Do not use, pour,
spill, or store near heat or open
flame. Do not cut or weld con-
tainer.
• Corrosive—Store only in a cor-
rosion-resistant tank.
Agricultural Use
Requirements
The "Agricultural Use Require-
ments" section is found only on the
labels of agricultural products covered
by the EPA Worker Protection Standard
(WPS). The agricultural use state-
ments link the pesticide product to the
WPS regulations found in 40 CFR
Part 170. Therefore, the user must fol-
low the labeling as well as the WPS
requirements. These requirements are
intended to protect agricultural workers
and handlers on farms and in forests,
nurseries, and greenhouses through
training, decontamination, notification,
emergency assistance, personal protec-
tive equipment, and restricted-entry
intervals (REIs).
Restricted-Entry Intervals
Many pesticide labels covered by
the WPS include a statement about
a restricted-entry interval. The REI
specifies how much time must pass
between the pesticide application and
the reentry of unprotected workers into
a treated area.
^ CHAPTER 3
-------
The REI statement can be found
under the heading "Agricultural Use
Requirements." If no REI or other
restricted-entry statement appears on
the label, then all persons should wait
at least until sprays have dried or dusts
have settled before reentering a treated
area. If there are multiple REIs on a
label, look in the "Directions for Use"
section for each crop. If two or more
pesticides are mixed together, you are
required to follow the most restrictive
(longer) REI.
Nonagricultural Use
Requirements
The "Nonagricultural Use Re-
quirements" section applies to pesticide
uses that are not within the scope of the
WPS. Examples include the application
of pesticides to lawns, golf courses, or-
namental plantings, structures (except
greenhouses), aquatic areas, and rights-
of-way. Specific reentry times are not
generally listed for these uses. However,
the label often cautions people and pets
not to enter treated areas until the spray
has dried or the dust has settled.
Storage and Disposal
All pesticide labels contain instruc-
tions for the appropriate storage and
disposal of the pesticide, its rinsate,
and its container. State and local laws
may vary considerably, so specific
instructions usually are not included.
These statements typically appear in
the "Storage and Disposal" section
of the label or under headings such
as "Important," "Note," or "General
Instructions." Examples include:
• Store herbicides away from fer-
tilizers, insecticides, fungicides,
seeds, and feed items.
• Store at temperatures above 32°F
(0°C).
Directions for Use
The "Directions for Use" section
provides instructions on how to use the
product (see Figure 3.1). These instruc-
tions cover:
• The pests that the manufacturer
claims the product will control.
• The crop, animal, or site the
product is intended to protect.
• The proper mixing instructions.
• How much to use (rate) and how
often.
• How close to harvest the product
can be applied.
• Phytotoxicity (damage to plants)
and other possible injury.
• Where and when the material
should be applied.
• Plant-back, composting, grazing,
and other restrictions.
• How to minimize drift.
OTHER LABEL RESOURCES
Information Resources
Many terms used on labels
describe when and how to use pes-
ticides. Technical terms also appear
in leaflets and bulletins from local
Cooperative Extension offices, land-
grant universities, state and federal
pesticide regulatory agencies, pesticide
container.
Do not contaminate
water, food, or feed
by storage or dis-
posal.
Triple rinse container
promptly after emp-
tying.
Offer for recycling if available
or reconditioning if appropriate
or puncture and dispose of in a
sanitary landfill.
If necessary, seek sound advice to
determine the best storage and disposal
procedures for your operation and
location.
Under the federal
Worker Protection
Standard (WPS),
workers must be
notified about areas
treated with pesticides
so they may avoid
inadvertent exposures.
Nonrefillable container. Do
not reuse or refill this
PESTICIDE LABELING
-------
STATEMENT OF
PRACTICAL TREATMENT
Contact a doctor ^pftyseian}, cMrie. or hospital imme-
diately In cases or suspected polsefiing. Explain that
the victim has been exposed to gafactothlon and
describe te/her oonditon. Alter brat ad s given tafce
victim to clinic or hospital. If breathing has stopped,
start artificial respiration immediately and maintain
until doctor sees victim
If swiillowed: tf patient ts conscious ard alert. give 2
or 3 glasses of water or milk to drank, and induce vom-
iting by touching back of throat with finger. Do not
induce vomiting or give anything by mouth la an
unconscious person. Get medical attention.
If on «kin: immediately flush the skin with plenty of
wftU* wtaie amoving contaminated clothing and
shoes. Sec doctor immediately GafacfOiftron w an
orgvnopfrospftntc pCStKKte ttiot initials
chofinesrerase
If inhaled: Remove to fresh a*. It not treating grve
artificial respiration. Get medical attention.
If In eyes: HoW eyelids open and flush wrth a steady
stream ol water lor at least 15 mendj^es. Got medcal
attention.
Mote to Physician
Antidote - administer atropine di-sulfate in large
doses. TWO to Four mg. intravenously cr inlrarnuscu-
larty as soon as cyamos'5 is overcome Repeal al 5 to
tO minute intervals until signs of atropxnizatiDn
appear 2-PAM chkwide is tfso anUddtai ano may be
administered in conjunction with auojwie. DO NOT
GIVE MORPHINE OR TRANQUILIZERS.
Gaiaclothion is a strong chol neste*ase inhibitor
affecting the central ard peripheral nervous system
and producing cardiac and respratory depression At
%st sign ol pulmonary edema, the patient should be
given supplemental oxygen and treated symptomati-
caly Continued absorplon of the poison may occur
and fatal re: apses have been reported altej rtlial
irnprovemeri VERY CLOSE SUPERVISION Of THE
PATIENT IS INDICATED FOR AT LEAST 43 HOURS-
PRECAUTIONARY STATEMEMTS
HAZARDS TO HUMANS (A DOMESTIC ANIMALS)
DANGER: Fatal if absorbed through skin fjuai B swal-
lowed. and poisonous if inhaled Do not breathe
vapors or $**ay mist Do not on skin or clothing.
May be irritating to eyes and may cause mild skin
sensitization. Keep away from domestic animals.
Osconteiue use if allergic reaction occurs
Signs and symptoms of overexposure
Salivation, muscle tremors, nausea, watery eyes, diMi-
cufty breathing, vomiting, pnpoint eye purt/s. exces-
sive sweating, diarrhea blurred vision, abdominal
cramps, weakness, headache
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
(PPE)
Some materials that are chemical resistant to this
product are listed below. If you want more op tans. tal-
low the instructions lor category G on an EPA chemi-
cal resistance category selection chart.
Applicators and Other Handler* must w*ar:
Cov&rais over k^9*si8«v9 start & long pants
Qt'-crrucal'fOsistant gkjvcs such as barrier lofninato or
^tron
Gfcemoal-resistani footwear plus soefcs
Protective eyewear
Gfiemoakesistani headgear for overhead exposures
Chemical-resistant apron when cleaning equipment,
mixing, or loading
Resp»rator with either an organic vapor-removing car-
tridge w>th a prefilter approved lor pesticides
{M&HMiiOSH approval prefix TC-23C} or a canister
approved lor pes*«cides (MSHAjtJIOSH approval num-
ber TC-14G)
Discard clothing and other absorbent materials that
haw been drenched or heavily contaminated with dhis
product s cc-ncenirale Do not reuse them Follow
manufacturer s instructor tor cleaning and maintain-
ing PPE II no such instructions for washabies. use
detergent and hot water, Keep and wash PPE sepa-
rately from other laundry.
RESTRICTED USE
PESTICIDE
One to very high toxicity
to humans and binds.
F« retail sal® to and use oniy by certified
applicators or persons under their direct
supervision and only lor those uses cov-
ered by the certified applicator's certificate.
VIP NO PEST GEL
ACTIVE INGREDIENT:
galactolhion (0,0-diethyl methyl
pJrosphofolhiale) —20.9%
relaled isomers . 1.1%
INERT INGREDIENTS: ................. 78.00%
Total 100.00%
htel Contents: 5 Gallons
EPA Reg. No. f2345-10 EPA Ea 56787-CO-1
VIP Chemical Company
£527 VIP Drive
Biarspond, Ml 22315
Winn natters u$» eJosad sywew. enclosed eafcs.
Dt «i«eraR a manner that me«s die tsquirenteius
listed in the Worker Pwieefon standard {WPS1 to
Cultural pes&sides [40 CFR 170 £40(«l>|4.©)] lhc>
hainOHif PPE rtsnnrnrTwnte may iytt ruducwi Of rWct-
Fied as Specified in the WPS
User Safety Recommendations
Users should wash hands before eating, drink-
ing. chewing gum. using tobacco, or using the
toilet. Remove cSottilng immediately if pesticide
gets ins de. Then wash thoroughly and pui on
clean ctothnwj. Remove PPE immediately att«
handling inks producl. Wash the outside of the
gloves before removing.
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
This pesticide is highly toxic 10 M^iaSc flfwsnebrsles
and wildlife Bird; m ir«at
-------
manufacturers, and professional pest
management associations. Your under-
standing of these terms will help you
get the best results from pesticide appli-
cations. Refer to the glossary in this
manual. If you do not understand the
directions on a label, check with any of
the sources listed above.
World Wide Web
References on Pesticide
Labels
A pesticide label may refer you to
a website for additional use instructions
or precautions. This means that all of
the information necessary to use the
pesticide may no longer be found on the
pesticide container. This information
is binding, so it is your responsibility
as an applicator to seek and obtain it.
If the website address has changed or
is no longer available, you must contact
the manufacturer and acquire the
referenced material before making an
application.
Digital Pesticide Specimen
Labels
Many websites allow the down-
loading of sample or specimen pesticide
labels. Such sites include EPA; state,
tribe, or territory regulatory agencies;
Cooperative Extension Service; regis-
trants; publishing firms; and consulting
companies, among others. While the
information found on these sites can
be useful and may help clarify use
instructions, you are still bound by the
labeling found on and with your pes-
ticide container.
Electronic or Web-
Distributed Labeling
Regulatory agencies are con-
sidering significant changes to what
constitutes the "official" pesticide
label that an applicator must follow to
comply with federal and state use laws.
The agencies recognize that it may
be desirable and useful to provide a
legally binding label on the container
and refer applicators to an "official"
Internet site for the most up-to-date
and customizable use directions. As
a result, manufacturers are now able
to develop web-distributed labeling.
However, concerns about liability, unfa-
miliarity with a new system of labeling,
and quickly evolving technology mean
that changes may occur slowly. If you
encounter web-distributed labeling, you
must carefully follow the instructions
on and with the container as well as the
instructions obtained from an EPA-
approved website.
Mandatory and Advisory
Statements
Statements on pesticide labels may
be either mandatory or advisory. Label
statements that you must follow in order
to legally use the pesticide are manda-
tory statements. Recommendations or
best management practices that the man-
ufacturer has determined may result in
better product performance or improved
safety are advisory statements.
Mandatory Statements
Mandatory statements direct the
user to take or avoid specific actions.
The directions and precautions specify
where, when, and how a pesticide is to be
applied. Mandatory statements are gen-
erally written in imperative or directive
sentences (e.g., "Do not use..."). These
statements are meant to ensure the
proper use of a pesticide and prevent
unreasonable harm to the environment.
Examples include:
• Wear chemical-resistant gloves.
• If swallowed, call a doctor.
• Do not apply within 66 feet of
wells.
• Keep away from heat, sparks,
and open flame.
• Apply immediately after mixing.
Advisory Statements
Advisory statements provide infor-
mation on product characteristics and
how to maximize safety and efficacy.
Such statements cannot conflict with
mandatory statements, must not be false
or misleading, or otherwise violate stat-
utory or regulatory provisions. Advisory
statements are written in descriptive or
nondirective terms.
PESTICIDE LABELING £
-------
The use of words such as "should,"
"may," or "recommend" in advisory
statements is carefully screened by
EPA to clarify that such statements
do not have to be followed. However,
these words might also imply that a
prohibited practice is still permitted.
In other words, users could infer that
a particular use is permitted because
a statement "recommending" against
such a use does not have to be followed.
EPA allows the use of "should," "may,"
"recommend," or similar terms on a
case-by-case basis as long as they are
unambiguous and do not appear to cause
these kinds of problems. A preferred
advisory statement usually explains the
purpose or benefit of doing something
instead of asserting that it "should" be
done without explanation.
The following are examples of
hypothetical advisory statements:
• Latex gloves provide the best
protection.
• Opening aluminum phosphide
containers near an exhaust fan or
other ventilation helps to ensure
that the gas will be rapidly dis-
persed if the product flashes.
• If application is delayed after
preparing a tank mix, agitation
to re-mix the products ensures
proper blending.
• Treatment along one side of
interior partition walls where
there are cracks in the slab or
plumbing entry points prevents
further infestation.
• Directing the spray mixture
around the base of the cotton
plants and using leaf lifters and
shields on application equipment
will help minimize foliage
contact and plant injury.
• If an emulsifiable formulation
has been used, flushing the
sprayer with a detergent solution
at the end of the workday will
help to ensure a clean sprayer
and trouble-free operation.
Understanding the Difference
Because intermingling advisory
and mandatory language may cause
confusion and uncertainty, EPA directs
manufacturers to clearly separate
advisory and mandatory label state-
ments. Section headings must be
appropriate for the information that
follows. For example, if a heading
includes the term "recommended,"
everything in that section must be
purely advisory. If separation is not
practical, the manufacturer must
make sure it is clear that the intent of
each statement is either mandatory or
advisory.
Until the separation of advisory
and mandatory statements is fully
implemented, you will find older
products with seemingly contradictory
statements. When this occurs, consult
with your state lead regulatory agency
(or other pesticide regulatory body) for
clarification.
The label provides a wealth of
information. As explained above, failure
to follow the instructions on a pes-
ticide label can cause a serious pesticide
accident. It may also constitute a legal
violation subject to civil or criminal
prosecution. Always remember that
the label is a legal document. You are
liable for any personal injury, crop or
site damage, or pollution that occurs
through the misuse of a pesticide.
SAFETY DATA SHEETS
Safety Data Sheets (formerly called
Material Safety Data Sheets) pro-
vide more details about specific chemi-
cal and physical properties than do
pesticide labels. Pesticide manufactur-
ers are required to develop and provide
upon request an SDS for each prod-
uct. Commercial establishments are
required to keep SDSs and make them
available to workers or others who may
contact the substance, its diluted end
product, or its residues.
-------
SAFETY DATA SHEET SECTIONS
1. Identification
2. Hazard(s) identification
3. Composition/information
on ingredients
4. First aid measures
5. Firefighting measures
6. Accidental release measures
7. Handling and storage
8. Exposure controls/personal
protection
9. Physical and chemical properties
10. Stability and reactivity
11. Toxicological information
12. Ecological information
13. Disposal considerations
14. Transport information
15. Regulatory information
16. Other information
Unlike the FIFRA label, which
is designed specifically for the pes-
ticide end user (i.e., the applicator),
the SDS is a document regulated by
the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration and designed for use by
multiple professionals (e.g., manufac-
turers, transporters, medical person-
nel, and firefighters). Thus, the SDS
contains more detailed and technical
information than the label about the
pesticide's chemical and physical prop-
erties, toxicological and ecological
information, first aid procedures, and
emergency response.
You should use the SDS in conjunc-
tion with the pesticide label to provide
a better understanding of the product.
NEVER use it in place of the label!
In 2012, the naming and format-
ting of SDSs were radically changed
to adhere to international treaties. As
a result, the SDS of a pesticide product
may have a different signal word than
the label and will include pictograms
not found on the label. Section 15, the
regulatory section of the SDS, specifies
what is on the pesticide label.
Appendix D describes the elements
of an SDS.
SUMMARY
Pesticide label language is strictly
regulated by EPA in coordination
with state regulatory agencies. It pro-
vides precise information on how to use
pesticides correctly and safely It is your
responsibility as an applicator to read,
understand, and follow label directions.
Make sure the pesticide has both feder-
al and state registration for its intended
use(s).
Study all sections of a pesticide
label and know where to find the specific
directions and precautions for your pest
control situation(s). Identify both the
trade and common names of the chemi-
cal you are using, and be familiar with
the product's active ingredients. Signal
words and symbols help you recognize
how acutely toxic (i.e., dangerous) the
pesticide is to humans. Other parts of
the label explain how, when, where, and
on what target pest the pesticide may be
applied (e.g., directions for use; mixing
and loading instructions). Labels also
inform you how to respond to pesticide-
related emergencies and what precau-
tions to take to avoid harming yourself,
other persons, the environment, or
nontarget organisms (e.g., first aid state-
ments, environmental hazards, storage
and disposal, and physical or chemical
hazards). Additionally, applicators are
advised to follow best management
practices that may not be on the label,
such as leaving a buffer zone between
the treated area and sensitive sites.
Pesticide labels in combination
with Safety Data Sheets provide a
wealth of information on the hazards
associated with each pesticide. Carefully
review these documents before applying
any pesticide.
-------
^ CHAPTER 3
-------
CHAPTER 3: PESTICIDE LABELING
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your
answers
with
those in Appendix A.
1. Which group of pesticides is exempt from
registration because it poses little or no risk
to humans and the environment?
A. Restricted use.
B. Minimum risk.
C. Special local need.
2. The active ingredient in Tempo 20WP is listed
as fi-Cyfluthrin, cyano(4-fluoro-3-phenoxy-
phenyl)methyl 3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2
dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate. What does
the term "Cyfluthrin" represent?
A. The brand name.
B. The chemical name.
C. The common name.
3. Which statement about pesticide label names
and ingredients is true?
A. Both the active ingredients and inert
ingredients must be listed by chemical
name.
B. Various manufacturers use different trade
names, even though the products may
contain the same active ingredient.
C. Common names are those officially
accepted by the manufacturer.
4. What is die purpose of the signal word?
A. Indicates the product's relative acute toxicity
to humans and animals.
B. Informs the user what type of PPE to wear.
C. Tells the user what type of first aid
treatment to seek in case of exposure.
5. The routes of entry statement, "Extremely
hazardous by skin contact—rapidly absorbed
through the skin," on a label would most
likely carry which signal word?
A. DANGER.
B. WARNING.
C. CAUTION
6. "Do not breathe vapors or spray mist" is an
example of a:
A. Specific action statement.
B. Statement of practical treatment.
C. Routes of entry statement.
7. Directions for mixing and loading a pesticide
are usually found under:
A. Directions for use.
B. Environmental hazards.
C. Precautionary statements.
8. "If swallowed, call a doctor" is an example of
what kind of statement?
A. Routes of entry.
B. Advisory.
C. Mandatory.
9. Who is responsible for developing SDSs for
pesticides and providing them on request?
A. EPA.
B. OSHA.
C. The product manufacturer.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
^ CHAPTER 3
-------
Pesticide Formulations
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe what a pesticide formulation is.
• Explain why pesticides are formulated for end use.
• Distinguish between active and inert ingredients.
• State the meaning of abbreviations used for common
types of formulations (e.g., WP).
• List the factors to consider when choosing a formulation
for a specific site or situation.
• Discuss the properties of common formulations.
• Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the
formulations described in this chapter.
• Explain the roles of adjuvants.
A pesticide formulation is a com-
bination of active and inert
ingredients that forms an end-use
pesticide product. Pesticides are for-
mulated to make them safer or easier
to use. This is because many pesticide
active ingredients, in "pure" (technical
grade) form, are not suitable for appli-
cation. In their concentrated form,
some are extremely toxic, many do not
mix well with water, some are unstable,
and some are difficult (or unsafe) to
handle, transport, or store. To address
these problems, manufacturers add
inert ingredients to end-use pesticide
products. Inert ingredients have no pes-
ticidal activity, and some simply serve
as diluents or carriers. In many cases,
inert ingredients make the formulated
product safer, easier to handle and
apply, and/or more effective.
So, in addition to the active ingre-
dient intended to control the target pest,
a formulated product may consist of:
• A carrier or diluent, such as an
organic solvent of mineral clay.
• Surface-active ingredients, such
as stickers and spreaders.
• Other additives, such as sta-
bilizers, dyes, and chemicals,
which make the product safer or
enhance pesticidal activity.
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
-------
FORMULATIONS: AN OVERVIEW
^ CHAPTER 4
The active ingredients in pesticide
products come from many sources.
Some, such as azadirachtin, pyrethrum,
and rotenone, are extracted from plants.
Others are derived from microbes or
insects (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis and
insect growth regulators). Still others
have a mineral origin (e.g., copper and
sulfur). However, the vast majority
of active ingredients used today are
produced in laboratories. These syn-
thetic active ingredients may have been
designed by a chemist or discovered
through screening processes by exam-
ining chemicals generated by various
industries or found in nature.
Regardless of where they come
from or how they are produced,
pesticide active ingredients vary con-
siderably in their physical and chemical
properties. One variable is solubility.
Some dissolve in water, but many do
not. Some are soluble in oils or organic
solvents. However, many such solvents
are not available to applicators or safe to
use. A few active ingredients do not dis-
solve readily in any solvent. Solubility
and the intended use of the pesticide
are two factors that determine how an
active ingredient is formulated (i.e.,
made into an end-use product).
Liquid pesticide products are
usually one of the following:
• A solution.
• A suspension.
• An emulsion.
A solution is made by dissolving a
substance in a liquid. A true solution is
a mixture, but it cannot be separated by
filtration or other mechanical means.
Once made, a true solution will not
"settle out" and does not need shaking
or stirring (agitation) to keep the mixed
components in solution. Solutions are
transparent: they will allow light to
pass through them. (However, this may
not be obvious if one or more compo-
nents of the mixture are dark in color
and the solution is very concentrated.)
Sweetened iced tea and saltwater are
examples of solutions.
A suspension is also a liquid
mixture. However, a suspension is
formed by dispersing fine (very small),
solid particles in a liquid. These solid
particles do not dissolve in the liquid
carrier. Suspensions must be agitated to
maintain uniform particle distribution.
Otherwise, the undissolved parts of
suspension mixtures will settle (or
float to the top). Most suspensions are
cloudy or opaque: they will not allow
light to pass through them. Pesticide
products formulated as suspensions
are not water-soluble; they form more
dilute suspensions when mixed with
water to make a finished spray. Label
directions for suspension formulations
will instruct you to shake well before
measuring and mixing. The label will
further state to apply these products
only with spray equipment that has
enough agitation to keep the final
mixture evenly distributed in the spray
tank during application. A mixture of
flour and water is an example of a sus-
pension.
An emulsion is a special kind of sus-
pension: a mixture made by suspending
droplets of one liquid in another. Each
ingredient retains its unique properties
and identity. To make an emulsion, an
active ingredient is dissolved in an oil-
based solvent and then further diluted
with water. Some agitation may be
necessary to keep an emulsion from
separating. However, most emulsion
pesticide product formulations have
additives (emulsifiers or emulsifying
agents) that prevent the product from
settling. As a rule, emulsions have a
"milky" appearance. An emulsifiable
concentrate (E or EC) is an emulsion.
Homogenized milk is an example of an
emulsion.
Most dry products are made by
adhering the active ingredient to some
solid carrier, such as talc, clay, silica (the
mineral quartz), or plant residues (e.g.,
ground corncobs).
Some pesticide products are sold in
concentrate form and must be mixed or
diluted before use. Concentrates come
in both liquid and solid form. An emul-
-------
sifiable concentrate is an example of a
liquid concentrate (LC). Wettable pow-
ders (WP), soluble powders (SP), and
water-dispersible granules/dry flowables
(WDG/DF) are examples of concen-
trated materials sold in solid form.
Other formulations are sold ready-
to-use. You can apply ready-to-use
products with no further dilution or
mixing. Examples include liquids pre-
pared as end-use dilutions and aerosol
(A), dust (D), pellet (P), granule (G),
and most bait (B) formulation products.
Manufacturers package many spe-
cialized pesticides, including products
intended for residential uses by non-
occupational users, in ready-to-use
formulations.
Concentrates are often less
expensive per treatment/unit area
treated than ready-to-use formula-
tions. However, this cost savings may
be offset by other considerations. For
example, concentrates are usually more
toxic than dilute formulations of the
same active ingredient. More handling
is required to mix and load them. As a
result, concentrates present a higher
exposure risk to the user.
Abbreviations in trade or brand
names are often used to describe the
formulation (e.g., WP for wettable
powders), how the pesticide is used (e.g.,
TC for termiticide concentrate), or the
characteristics of the formulation (e.g.,
LO for a low-odor formulation). The
amount of active ingredient (a.i.) and
the kind of formulation are listed on the
product label. Numbers in a product's
trade or brand name may also indicate
the amount of active ingredient it con-
tains. For example, 80 WDG indicates
that this dry product contains 80%
by weight of active ingredient and is a
water-dispersible granule. In this case,
a 10-pound bag of product contains
8 pounds of a.i. and 2 pounds of inert
ingredient. Liquid formulations usually
state the amount of a.i. in pounds per
gallon. For example, 4F means 4 pounds
of the a.i. per gallon in a flowable for-
mulation. Some common formulation
abbreviations are listed in Table 4.1.
A single active ingredient is often
sold in several kinds of formulations.
Below is a short description of common
formulations, along with the pros and
cons of each. If more than one formu-
Table 4.1 Abbreviations for Common Formulations
A
=
Aerosol
PS
=
Pellets
AF
=
Aqueous flowable
RTU
=
Ready-to-use
B
=
Bait
S
=
Solution
C
=
Concentrate
SP
=
Soluble powder (or soluble packet;
D
=
Dust
see WSP)
DF
=
Dry flowables (see WDG)
ULV
=
Ultra-low volume
E
=
Emulsifiable concentrate
W
=
Wettable powder
EC
=
Emulsifiable concentrate
WDG
=
Water-dispersible granules (see DF)
F
=
Flowable
WP
=
Wettable powder
G
=
Granules
WS
=
Water soluble
GL
=
Gel
WSB
=
Water-soluble bag (see WSP:
L
=
Liquid
water-soluble packet)
LC
=
Liquid concentrate
WSC
=
Water-soluble concentrate
LV
=
Low volatile
WSL
=
Water-soluble liquid
M
=
Microencapsulated
WSP
=
Water-soluble powder (or water-
P
=
Pellets
soluble packet; see WSB)
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS ^
-------
lation is available for your pest control
site and situation, choose the best one
for the job. Base your decision on:
• Legal, labeled uses.
• The signal word.
• Applicator safety.
• Environmental safety.
• Pest biology.
• Site characteristics.
• Target (surface to be treated).
• Appropriate and available appli-
cation equipment.
Ask yourself these questions:
• Is the intended use listed on the
product label?
LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Most liquid formulations are diluted
with water to make a finished spray.
However, some labels direct users to mix
the product with another solvent such as
crop oil or other light oil as a carrier.
Emulsifiable Concentrates
(E or EC)
An emulsifiable concentrate for-
mulation usually contains an oil-soluble
liquid active ingredient, one or more
petroleum-based solvents, and a mix-
ing agent. The mixing agent allows the
formulation to be mixed with water
to form an emulsion. Most ECs con-
tain between 2 and 6 pounds of active
ingredient per gallon. ECs are among
the most versatile formulations. They
• Do I have the necessary appli-
cation equipment?
• Can the formulation be applied
appropriately under the condi-
tions in the application area?
• Will the formulation reach
the intended target and stay in
place long enough to control
the pest?
• Is the formulation likely to
damage the surface?
• Could I choose a less hazardous
formulation that would still be
as effective?
Cost is always a consideration, but
pesticide and pest management con-
cerns should come first.
are used against pests in agricultural,
ornamental and turf, forestry, struc-
tural, food processing, livestock, and
public health settings. ECs are adapt-
able to many types of application equip-
ment, from small, portable sprayers to
hydraulic sprayers, low-volume ground
sprayers, mist blowers, and low-volume
aircraft sprayers.
Advantages:
• Relatively easy to handle,
transport, and store.
• Easy to pour and measure.
• Little agitation required; will
not settle out or separate when
equipment is running.
• Not abrasive; does not cause
excessive equipment wear.
• Will not usually plug screens or
nozzles.
• Leave little visible residue on
treated surfaces.
Disadvantages:
• High concentration of active
ingredient(s) makes it easy to
overdose or underdose through
mixing or calibration errors.
-------
• May damage treated plants or
surfaces (petroleum-based sol-
vents or overdosing may cause
phytotoxicity).
• Easily absorbed through skin of
humans or animals.
• Splashes and spills are relatively
difficult to clean up and/or
decontaminate.
• Many have a strong odor.
• Solvents may cause equipment
"wear and tear." For example,
rubber or plastic hoses, gaskets,
pump parts, and other exposed
surfaces may deteriorate.
• May cause pitting or discolor-
ation of painted finishes or other
treated surfaces.
• Flammable; should be used and
stored away from heat or open
flame.
• May be corrosive.
Solutions (S)
Some pesticide active ingredients
dissolve readily in a liquid solvent, such
as water or a petroleum-based diluent.
When mixed, they form a solution
that does not settle out or separate.
Formulations of these pesticides usually
contain the active ingredient, solvent
(carrier or diluent), and one or more
other ingredients. Solutions are suit-
able for any type of sprayer, indoors or
outdoors. Consequently, they are reg-
istered for many sites, including struc-
tural, institutional, public health, and
household pest control; livestock and
poultry pest management; space sprays
in barns and warehouses; and treatment
of food and fiber crops, turf, and orna-
mental plants.
Ready-to-Use (RTU)
Low-Concentrate Solutions
Ready-to-use formulations require
no further dilution before application.
They consist of a small amount of
active ingredient (often 1% or less
per unit volume). Some ready-to-use
products contain petroleum-based
solvents; others are water-based. Many
RTU products are produced for pest
management professionals (who treat
structural and institutional pests) and
for nonoccupational users.
Advantages:
• Convenient; neither measuring
nor mixing is required.
• Some are packaged and sold in—
or with—an application device.
If this is the case, no loading is
required.
• Less personal exposure risk due
to reduced toxicity and handling.
Disadvantages:
• Limited availability.
• High cost per unit of active
ingredient.
The time saved and convenience of
using RTU products may outweigh the
product cost.
Concentrate Solutions
(C, LC, or WSC/WSL)
Other solutions are available as
concentrates that require dilution with
a liquid solvent before you apply them.
Often the solvent is water, but it may
also be a refined oil or petroleum-based
solvent. When diluted with the label-
specified carrier, these formulations
form true solutions.
Advantages:
• Relatively easy to handle, trans-
port, and store; easy to pour and
measure.
• No agitation necessary.
• Not abrasive; do not cause
excessive equipment wear.
• Do not plug screens or nozzles.
• Do not usually leave visible
residues on treated surfaces.
Disadvantages:
• Limited availability, especially
water-based solutions.
• Spills and splashes may be
difficult to clean up and/or
decontaminate.
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
-------
• Some are easily absorbed
through skin of humans or
animals.
The other benefits and draw-
backs of concentrated solutions vary.
They depend on the concentration of
active ingredient, solvent or diluent
used, application site, and application
equipment.
Liquid Baits
Some insecticides and rodenticides
are now formulated as liquid baits. Most
liquid insecticides are concentrated
sugar solutions. They are packaged in
ready-to-use bait stations to kill ants
and cockroaches.
As a rule, liquid rodenticide baits
are mixed with water and placed in spe-
cially designed bait stations. They are
useful in sites where sanitation is poor
because traditional food-based baits
"compete" with other food sources. As
is the case with solid baits, you must
place bait stations in safe, strategic loca-
tions while following label directions
and taking care to protect children and
nontarget organisms.
Advantages:
• Liquid ant baits are very useful
in controlling sugar-feeding
ants.
• Ants that will feed on liquid baits
carry this material to the colony.
• Liquid rodenticide baits will
often control rodents in areas
where food is abundant, but water
is scarce or lacking altogether.
A bait station used in rodent control in the closed and open positions.
Bait formulations are placed inside the tamper-resistant station.
Disadvantages:
• Not all ants, cockroaches, and
rodents will feed on liquid baits.
• You must refill or replace
liquid-containing bait stations
frequently.
For information about solid-for-
mulation baits, refer to "Baits" in the
"Dry or Solid Formulations" section.
Ultra-Low Volume
Ultra-low-volume concentrates
have almost 100% active ingredient.
They are designed to be used "as is"
or diluted with only small quantities
of specified solvents. These special-
purpose formulations are most suitable
for outdoor applications, such as in
agricultural, forestry, ornamental,
and mosquito control programs.
ULV products are applied as very fine
droplets at very low rates per unit area
(or volume).
Advantages:
• Relatively easy to handle,
transport, and store.
• Little or no agitation required.
• Not abrasive to equipment.
• Do not plug screens and nozzles.
• Leave little visible residue on
treated surfaces.
Disadvantages:
• High drift hazard due to small
droplet size.
• Specialized equipment required.
• Easily absorbed through skin of
humans or animals; high dermal
and inhalation exposure risk
(concentrated product applied as
fine droplets).
• Products and/or solvents may
cause rubber or plastic hoses,
gaskets, and pump parts and
other surfaces to deteriorate.
• Calibration and application
must be performed with special
care because ULV products are
applied in concentrated form.
^ CHAPTER 4
-------
Invert Emulsions
Invert emulsions contain a water-
soluble pesticide dispersed in an oil car-
rier. These products require a special
kind of emulsifier that allows the pes-
ticide to be mixed with a large volume
of petroleum-based carrier, usually fuel
oil. Invert emulsions are less susceptible
to drift because oil evaporates more
slowly than water. When applied on a
hot, dry day, a water-based droplet will
become smaller as the water portion
of the droplet evaporates. Invert emul-
sion droplets do not "shrink" as rapidly
when applied in the same weather con-
ditions. This means less drift and more
pesticide on target. Invert emulsions are
thick mixtures, with the consistency of
mayonnaise. In addition, invert emul-
sions are applied as very large droplets,
which reduce drift.
The oil phase of this kind of
formulation also serves as a sticker-
spreader. This quality improves rainfast
properties and surface coverage. It also
increases absorption and/or penetra-
tion. This, in turn, reduces loss due to
runoff. Invert emulsions are relatively
uncommon. They are most often used
in weed control on rights-of-way to
reduce the chance of drift to susceptible
nontarget plants or sensitive areas.
Advantages:
• Low drift.
• Increased rate of penetration
and/or absorption.
• Increased rainfastness and
reduced runoff.
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to treat the underside of
foliage or other targets because
droplets are large and heavy.
• Limited availability.
Flowables (F or AF)
Some active ingredients are in-
soluble solids: substances that will not
dissolve in either water or oil. These
may be formulated as flowables. (Most
manufacturers use the letter "F" by the
trade name to designate that the formu-
lation is a flowable. However, some use
the letter "L," meaning that an insoluble
material is presented in "liquid" form.)
Most flowables are prepared by first
impregnating them onto a dry carrier,
such as clay. Then, the active ingredi-
ent plus carrier (or the active ingredient
alone) are ground into a fine powder.
Next, the fine powder is suspended in a
very small amount of liquid (and perhaps
other inert ingredients). The resulting
product is a thick liquid suspension.
Flowables combine many of the
characteristics of liquid emulsifi-
able concentrates and dry wettable
powders. They appear in the "Liquid
Formulations" section because the end-
use product is a thick liquid. Flowables
are often used for the same types of pest
control operations as ECs.
Advantages:
• Easy to handle and apply; low
exposure risk.
• Generally not phytotoxic.
• Seldom clog nozzles.
• Splashes are less likely than with
other liquid formulations.
Disdvantages:
• May settle; need shaking before
measuring and mixing.
• Difficult to remove all of product
from the container. Containers
may be difficult to rinse.
• Require moderate agitation.
• May be abrasive; contribute to
"wear and tear" of spray appli-
cation equipment.
• Spills may be harder to clean up.
• May leave a visible residue on
treated surfaces.
Aerosols (A)
Aerosol formulations contain one
or more active ingredients and a solvent.
Most aerosols contain a low percentage
of active ingredient. There are two
types of aerosol formulations:
'isecticide
spray .
^
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS ^
-------
• The ready-to-use type (often
sold in pressurized sealed con-
tainers that serve as application
devices).
• Those made for use in electric or
gasoline-powered aerosol gener-
ators that release the formulated
product as a smoke or fog.
Ready-to-Use Aerosols
Ready-to-use aerosol formulations
are usually small, self-contained units
that release pesticide when the nozzle
valve is triggered. An inert pressurized
gas pushes the pesticide through a fine
opening when the gas is released, cre-
ating fine droplets. These products are
effective in greenhouses, in small areas
inside buildings, or in localized outdoor
areas. Commercial models, which hold
5 to 10 pounds of pesticide, are usually
refillable.
Advantages:
• Easy to use; convenient.
• Portable.
• Easily stored.
• Convenient way to buy and apply
a small amount of pesticide.
• Retain potency for some time.
Disadvantages:
• Practical for only a few limited
or specialized uses.
• Risk of inhalation exposure.
• Hazardous if punctured, over-
heated, or used near an open
flame.
• May be difficult to direct
material released to a single
target site or pest.
Formulations for Smoke or Fog
Generators
Formulations for smoke or fog gen-
erators are not packaged and sold under
pressure. They are used in machines
that break the liquid formulation into
a fine mist or fog (aerosol). Using a
rapidly whirling disk or heated surface,
the machines produce and distribute
very fine droplets. These formulations
are used mainly for insect control in
structures such as greenhouses, barns,
and warehouses and for outdoor mos-
quito and biting fly control.
Advantages:
• Easy way to fill an entire space
with pesticide.
Disadvantages:
• Highly specialized use sites and
equipment.
• Difficult to confine to target site
or pest.
• Spills and splashes may be
difficult to clean up and/or
decontaminate.
• May require respiratory pro-
tection to prevent inhalation
exposure.
DRY OR SOLID FORMULATIONS
hejkst MTKhJjkst amdsj
kflikslusj ool bkoj ool
tejot BfTKtejiot amdsj
HTlkJlmJ 00hkslu$J ool
CHAPTER 4
There are two general types of dry
formulations. Some are ready-to-
use. Others are concentrates, which
must be mixed with water and applied
as a spray.
Dusts (D)
Most dust formulations are ready-
to-use and contain a low percentage of
active ingredient (usually 10% or less
by weight). A few dust formulations,
however, are concentrates and contain
-------
Advantages:
• Usually ready-to-use; no
mixing.
• A good alternative where
moisture from a spray
might cause damage.
• Applied with simple
application equipment.
• Effective in hard-to-reach
indoor areas.
Disadvantages:
a much higher percentage of active
ingredient. These concentrates must
be mixed with dry inert carriers before
application.
Dusts have one or more active
ingredients plus a very fine, dry inert
carrier made from talc, chalk, clay,
nut hulls, or volcanic ash. The size of
individual dust particles varies, but all
are quite small. Due to their small size,
dusts need careful handling to prevent
nontarget exposure, including drift.
They are not water-soluble. Therefore,
do not mix them with a liquid solvent.
Dusts are always used dry. They
are often used as seed treatments and
in some other agricultural operations.
Some ornamental and garden pest man-
agement products aimed at homeowners
are dust formulations. In structures,
dust formulations are useful to treat
cracks and crevices and for spot treat-
ments to control insect pests. Dusts are
also a good tool to control lice, fleas,
and other external parasites on pets and
livestock.
Special dusts known as tracking
powders are effective for insect and
rodent monitoring and control. These
products are finely ground dusts with
an adsorbed stomach poison. Insects
and rodents walk through the dust, pick
it up on their legs and bodies or feet
and fur, and ingest the poisonous dust
when grooming. Tracking powders are
effective in sites and situations where
bait acceptance is poor (for example,
where food is abundant).
NOTE: Another option is to use
a nontoxic powder.; such as talc or flour.,
to monitor and track rodent activity in
buildings.
A bulb duster used for applying dust
formulations to cracks, crevices, and
voids in buildings.
• Easily drift off target during
application.
• Residues do not adhere to treated
surfaces, including foliage, as
well as liquids do; may easily
wash off or blow away.
• May irritate eyes, nose, throat,
and skin; pose a relatively high
inhalation exposure risk to han-
dlers.
• Dampness may cause product to
clump and equipment to clog;
difficult to apply in damp or
humid environments.
• Some kinds of application
equipment and devices are hard
to calibrate.
• Difficult to get an even distri-
bution of particles.
Granules (G)
Granular formulations are similar
to dust formulations; however, granular
particles are larger and heavier. Like
dusts, they are not water-soluble. They
are ready-to-use-not intended to be
mixed with water and applied as a liquid
suspension. The coarse particles that
serve as carriers for granular formula-
tions are adsorptive substances like
clay or absorptive plant material such
as ground corncobs or walnut shells.
The active ingredient either coats the
outside of the granules or is absorbed
into them. The amount of active ingre-
dient is relatively low, usually ranging
from 1% to 15%.
Because many granular formula-
tions use carriers that absorb moisture,
humidity will affect particle size and
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
Dust formulations
are always used dry.
-------
mass. This, in turn, will affect flow
rate. Also, different "batches"
of the same formulation
may differ slightly in size
or shape and density.
For these reasons, you
must calibrate granu-
lar application devices
often.
Once applied,
granules slowly release
the adsorbed or absorbed
active ingredient. Some
require soil moisture, rain, or
watering to initiate the release of
the active ingredient. Other granules
do so as they decompose.
Granular pesticides are mostly
used to apply chemicals to the soil,
where they control weeds, nematodes,
and insects or are absorbed by plant
roots. Most granular formulations are
used to deliver systemic pesticides.
Granules are a common choice in many
sites and situations.
Aerial applicators sometimes use
granular formulations to reduce drift
or penetrate dense vegetation. Granular
formulations are also useful in aquatic
situations to control mosquito larvae
and aquatic weeds.
Granular formulations
are larger and heavier
than dust formulations.
• Application equipment is not as
convenient to calibrate as spray
equipment. Released particles
are measured by weight instead
of by volume.
• Uniform application may be dif-
ficult with some devices (e.g.,
rotary spreaders).
• Granules do not stick to foliage
or other uneven surfaces. For
this reason, contact products are
rarely formulated this way.
• May need to be incorporated
into soil or planting medium.
• May need moisture to release
the active ingredient; may not be
effective in drought conditions.
• May be hazardous to nontarget
species, especially waterfowl and
other birds. This is because birds
may feed on grain- or seed-like
granules or mistake them for
"grit" they need to grind up
their food.
Advantages:
• Ready-to-use; no mixing.
• Drift hazard is low, and particles
settle quickly.
• Bulky; low percentage of active
ingredient per unit volume.
Pellets (P or PS)
Most pellet formulations are very
similar to granular formulations in their
uses, advantages, and disadvantages.
However, in pellet formulations, all
the particles are more or less the same
weight and shape. They are produced
by combining the active ingredient
with inert materials to form a "slurry"
—a thick liquid mixture. This mixture
is then extruded under pressure. As a
result, pellets are round in cross section
and cut to a specific length. Because
pellet particles are more uniform, you
can apply them with precision. However,
in many cases, pellets are applied as spot
treatments. A few fumigants are formu-
lated as pellets and are clearly labeled
as such to avoid confusing them with
nonfumigant pellets.
Wettable Powders (WP or W)
Wettable powders are dry, finely
ground solid materials. Most include
wetting and/or dispersing agents.
Usually, they must be mixed with water
• Low applicator hazard: no spray;
little dust.
• Weight carries the
formulation through
foliage to soil or water
target.
• Applied with simple
application equipment,
such as seeders or
fertilizer spreaders.
„ , , Disadvantages:
In pellet formulations,
all particles are the same • Application equipment needs
weight and shape. frequent calibration.
CHAPTER 4
• May break down more
slowly than WPs or
ECs because of a
slow-release coating.
-------
and applied as a spray. A few products,
however, may be applied dry or as a
liquid suspension.
Wettable powders contain 5% to
95% active ingredient—usually 50%
or more. Wettable powder particles do
not dissolve in water. When mixed with
water, they form a suspension. They
will settle out quickly without constant
agitation to keep them suspended.
To prepare a spray suspension, you
must form a slurry Mix a WP with a
small amount of water, and then dilute
this slurry mixture further.
Wettable powders are effective for
most pest problems and in most types
of spray equipment where agitation is
possible. They have excellent residual
activity and do not usually harm treated
surfaces. When you apply a WP spray
suspension to a target, most of the
pesticide remains on the surface. This
is true even for porous materials, such
as concrete, plaster, and untreated
wood. In such cases, only the water
carrier penetrates the porous material.
Wettable powder particles remain on
the treated surface.
Advantages:
• Easy to store, transport, and
handle.
• Less likely than ECs and other
petroleum-based formulations
to harm treated plants, animals,
and surfaces.
• As a rule, not phytotoxic.
• Less risk of skin and eye
absorption than ECs and other
liquid formulations.
Disadvantages:
• Not easy to measure; must be
weighed.
• Not easy to mix.
• Inhalation hazard to applicator
while measuring and mixing the
concentrated powder.
• Suspended particles require good
and constant agitation (usually
mechanical) in the spray tank
and quickly settle out if agitation
ceases.
Water-Dispersible Granules
(WDG) or Dry Flowables (DF)
Water-dispersible granular formu-
lations are wettable powder formulations
compressed into dust-free, granule-
sized particles. Most come with a prod-
uct-specific measuring device, with
dry ounce (or pound) increment marks
based on product density (weight per
unit volume). Because of this and the
fact that they readily flow or pour out
of their containers, they are easier to
measure and cleaner to handle than
WPs. Like wettable powders, water-dis-
persible granules are mixed with water
and applied as a spray suspension. Once
in water, the granules break apart into
fine powder. The formulation requires
constant agitation to keep it suspended
in water. Water-dispersible granules
share the advantages and disadvantages
of wettable powders. However, WDGs
have one added benefit: reduced handler
exposure risk. This is because WDGs/
DFs are:
• Made of larger, less "dusty"
particles.
• Easier to remove from their con-
tainer and measure.
Soluble Powders (SP or WSP)
Soluble powder formulations look
like wettable powders. However, when
mixed with water, soluble powders dis-
solve readily in water and form a true
solution. After a thorough mixing, no
additional agitation is necessary. The
amount of active ingredient in soluble
Wettable powders
are dry, finely ground
formulations that look
like dusts.
Water-dispersible
granule before mixing.
Water-dispersible
granule after mixing.
Abrasive to pumps
and nozzles; cause
equipment wear.
Difficult to mix
in very hard or
very alkaline
water.
If not mixed
properly, may
clog nozzles and
screens.
Residues may be visible
on treated surfaces.
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
-------
powders ranges from 15% to 95%;
it usually is more than 50%. Soluble
powders have all the advantages of
WPs but only one of the disadvantages:
inhalation hazard during mixing. Not
many pesticides are available in this
formulation because very few active
ingredients dissolve in water.
Baits (B)
A bait formulation is an active
ingredient mixed with food or another
attractive substance. The bait either
attracts the pests or is placed where
the pests will find it. Many baits are
solid (blocks, granules, or pellets), but
some are liquids, pastes, or gels. The
amount of active ingredient in most
bait formulations is quite low, usually
less than 5%.
Baits are used inside buildings
to control ants, cockroaches, flies,
and other insects. Outdoors, they
can control vertebrate pests, such as
rodents, other mammals, and birds as
well as snails, slugs, and some insects.
Applicators must place bait stations in
safe, strategic locations while following
label directions to protect children and
nontarget organisms.
crevices.
May kill domestic animals and
nontarget wildlife.
Require careful placement and
inspection.
Pest may prefer the crop or other
food to the bait.
Dead vertebrate pests may cause
odor problems.
If baits are not removed after the
pesticide stops working, they
may serve as a food supply for
the target pest or other pests.
• May not work in situations where
pests have many other food or
water sources.
For information about liquid baits,
see "Liquid Formulations" above.
Pastes, Gels, and Other
Injectable Baits
Pastes and gel baits are mainly
used in the pest control industry for
ants and cockroaches. In fact, insecti-
cides formulated as pastes and gels are
now the primary formulations used in
cockroach control. They are designed
to be injected or placed as either a bead
or dot inside small cracks and crevices
of building elements where insects
tend to hide or travel. Two basic types
of tools are used to apply pastes and
gels: syringes and bait guns. The bait
is forced out of the tip of the device
by applying pressure to a plunger or
trigger.
Advantages:
• Odorless; no vapors.
• Low human toxicity.
• Last for long periods.
• Low applicator exposure risk.
• Hidden placements minimize
human and pet exposure.
• Very accurate in their placement
and dosage.
• Easily placed where insects shelter
for maximum effectiveness.
Disadvantages:
• Can become contaminated from
exposure to other pesticides and
cleaning products.
• When exposed to high tempera-
tures, gels can run and drip.
• May stain porous surfaces.
• Repeated applications can cause
an unsightly buildup.
Advantages:
• Ready-to-use.
• Entire area need not be covered
because pest goes to bait.
• Control pests that move in and
out of an area.
Disadvantages:
A bait gun used by the
pest control industry to * MaY be attractive to children
treat small cracks and and pets.
^ CHAPTER 4
-------
OTHER FORMULATIONS
This section describes other formula-
tions that:
• Are not easily classified as liquid
or dry/solid.
• Are formulated and/or applied as
gases.
• Have some special packaging or
delivery method.
Fumigants
Fumigants are pesticides that
deliver the active ingredient to the target
site in the form of a gas. Some active
ingredients are liquids when packaged
under high pressure but become gases
when released. Other active ingre-
dients are volatile liquids. They may
be enclosed in an ordinary container
and not packaged under pressure. Still
others are solids that release gases after
application in humid conditions or in
the presence of water or water vapor.
Fumigants are used for structural pest
control, in food- and grain-storage
facilities, and in regulatory pest control
at ports of entry and state and national
borders. In agricultural pest control,
fumigants are effective in soil, green-
houses, and commodity storage areas
(such as grain bins).
Advantages:
• Toxic to a wide range of pests.
• Can penetrate cracks, crevices,
wood, and tightly packed areas
(such as soil or grains).
• A single treatment will usually kill
most pests in the treated space.
Disadvantages:
• The target site must be enclosed
or covered to prevent the gas
from escaping.
• Nonspecific and highly toxic to
humans and all other organisms.
• High inhalation exposure risk.
• Most require the use of specialized
personal protective equipment.
• May require the use of
specialized application
equipment.
• Some have specific tem-
perature requirements.
Microencapsulated
Pesticides (M)
Microencapsulated pesticides are
dry particles or liquid droplets sur-
rounded by a coating. Coatings may
be plastic, starch, or some other mate-
rial. Microencapsulated pesticides are
mixed with water and applied as a spray.
Once applied, the pesticide is released
from the capsule. In some situations,
the encapsulation process can pro-
vide "timed" slow release of the active
ingredient. Depending on the physi-
cal properties of the coating, release
of the pesticide active ingredient may
be weather-dependent. If the release is
slower than normal (for example, due
to dry or cool weather), residues may
remain on treated plants or surfaces
longer than expected. As a result,
some microencapsulated products have
relatively long restricted-entry or pre-
harvest intervals.
Some microencapsulated pesticide
products contain highly toxic materi-
als with a coating to increase handler
safety. Others are microencapsulated
for different reasons; for example, to
reduce staining or odor or to protect
the active ingredient from photodegra-
dation. Highly toxic microencapsulated
pesticides may be very hazardous to
bees if the particles do not break down
quickly and are the same size as pollen
grains. Foraging bees may collect them
and carry them back to the hive. Later,
when the coatings break down and
release the pesticide, the colony may
be poisoned. Some microencapsulated
soil-applied products may be more
prone to leaching.
Fumigants are packaged
in liquid and solid forms.
Both turn into poisonous
gases when applied.
Advantages:
Coatings help
applicator.
protect the
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS ^
-------
• Easy to mix, handle, and apply.
• Timed release of active ingre-
dient prolongs effectiveness (i.e.,
may result in fewer applications;
application timing may be less
critical).
• Reduced volatility.
• Reduced odor.
• Less likely to stain or otherwise
damage treated surfaces.
• Reduced phytotoxicity.
Disdvantages:
• Constant agitation may be nec-
essary in spray tank (depending
on the properties of the coating).
• Risk of injuring or killing bees (if
the microencapsulated product
is toxic to them).
• Long restricted-entry or pre-
harvest intervals for highly toxic
products.
Water-Soluble Packaging
(WSB or WSP)
Advantages:
• Accurate premeasured unit doses.
• Increased handler safety; greatly
reduced exposure risk.
• Lower risk of spills.
Disadvantages:
• Package size may not match vol-
ume of prepared solution needed
and/or spray tank volume.
• May not be suitable for products
applied in pounds or gallons of
active ingredient per acre, due
to the size or number of packets
required.
• Must be kept dry—away from
water or high humidity—until
ready to use.
Impregnates
Some pesticide products consist of
a pesticide active ingredient incorpo-
rated into a solid material, usually some
kind of plastic. The pesticide evapo-
rates or is released over time, and the
vapors control nearby pests. Common
examples include:
• Livestock ear tags.
• Plastic pest strips and adhesive
tapes.
• Pet collars.
Fertilizers may also be impreg-
nated with pesticides.
Animal Systemics
Animal systemics are absorbed by,
enter the tissues of, and move within the
treated animal. Usually these pesticides
are applied externally or orally. They can
control fleas and other external blood-
feeding insects as well as worms and
other internal parasites. External appli-
cation methods include pour-on liquids,
sprays, and dusts. Oral applications
include food additives and premeasured
capsules, pastes, or liquids.
Pesticide-Fertilizer
Combinations
Many pesticide products—usually
granule and pellet formulations—are
More and more pesticide prod-
ucts are available in water-soluble bags
(WSBs). A special film packages a pre-
cise amount of wettable powder, solu-
ble powder, or gel containing the
pesticide active ingredient(s).
When added to water in a
spray tank, the bag dis-
solves and releases the
contents, which then
are suspended or dis-
solved. This packag-
ing method reduces
handler exposure
risk. It also simplifies
measuring. However,
water-soluble packaging
is just that—as a rule, it will
not dissolve in organic solvents or
undiluted ECs. As a result, mixers and
loaders must follow label instructions
when preparing a spray mixture. Store
water-soluble products in a dry place,
and do not handle them with damp or
wet gloves.
Adding water-soluble
packet to a spray tank.
CHAPTER 4
-------
combinations of fertilizers and pesti- homeowners commonly use these for
cides. Such products are convenient their lawns. Dealers or growers may
because they allow the applicator to custom mix pesticides with fertilizers to
control pests and apply nutrients at meet specific crop requirements,
the same time. Some are prepackaged:
PESTICIDE MIXTURES
Sometimes, product manufacturers
combine pesticides with other
pesticides or fertilizers for sale as
premixes (see "Pesticide-Fertilizer
Combinations" above). However, when
premixes are not available (or are not
offered in the desired combination),
you may combine products at the time
of application. Tank mixing—com-
bining two or more crop-production
products (pesticides and/or fertilizers)
and applying them at the same time—is
convenient and cost-effective. This
practice can save the time, labor, fuel,
and equipment wear involved in mul-
tiple applications. Tank mixing also
reduces soil compaction and the risk of
mechanical damage to crops or treated
areas. Situations appropriate for tank
mixing include combining fungicides
and insecticides to treat fruit trees or
field crops. Another common example
is combining herbicides to increase
the number of weed species controlled
(control spectrum). However, products
must be compatible in order to be tank-
mixed.
Federal law allows applicators to
combine pesticides unless the labeling
of one or more components of the
intended tank mix specifically prohibits
it. If no prohibitions exist, applicators
may mix:
• Pesticide with fertilizer.
• Two or more pesticides.
When pesticides are tank-mixed,
all of the dosages must be at or below
the label rate for each separate com-
ponent of the mixture.
For more information about the
causes and effects of incompatibility,
how to do a compatibility test, and how
to prepare a tank mix, see Chapter 10,
Planning the Pesticide Application.
Incompatibility is a
condition that prevents
pesticides from mixing
together properly to
form a uniform solution
or suspension.
ADJUVANTS
An adjuvant is a chemical that
can affect how a pesticide works.
Adjuvants:
• Improve the action of a pesticide.
• Change the characteristics of a
pesticide formulation or a spray
mixture (suspension or solution).
Most end-use pesticide products,
especially those that are applied to
foliage, contain adjuvants. However, in
some situations, applicators may add
them to a tank mix when making a
finished spray mixture. Many adjuvants
increase effectiveness and/or safety.
Although they enhance the action of a
pesticide or modify the properties of a
spray solution, adjuvants alone have no
pesticidal activity. Use them to custom-
ize the product or formulation for spe-
cific needs or to compensate for local
conditions.
Because adjuvants lack pesticidal
properties, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency does not register
them. As a result, there are no standards
for composition, quality, or perfor-
mance. If you have questions about an
adjuvant, contact the manufacturer.
Companies that produce these products
can provide labels, technical data sheets,
Safety Data Sheets (SDSs), supplemen-
tal labeling, and promotional literature.
Before using any adjuvant, con-
sult the pesticide product label. Some
products have very specific adjuvant
recommendations or prohibitions. If a
label instructs you to use an adjuvant,
use the type called for at the directed
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
-------
TYPES OF
ADJUVANTS
Surfactants
Wetting agents
and spreaders
Stickers
Extenders
Plant penetrants
Compatibility
agents
Buffers or pH
modifiers
Drift retardants
Defoaming
agents
Thickeners
rate. As noted, many products already
contain those adjuvants deemed neces-
sary or useful by the manufacturer or
formulator. Adding others may actually
decrease efficacy or result in unintended
—and possibly undesirable—effects.
Types of Adjuvants
There are many types of adjuvants.
Here are some that are commonly used:
• Antifoaming (defoaming) agents
—reduce foaming of spray mix-
tures that may result from using
some surfactants and/or from
vigorous agitation.
• Buffers or pH modifiers—allow
pesticides to be mixed with dilu-
ents or other pesticides of dif-
ferent acidity or alkalinity. Most
pesticide solutions or suspensions
are stable between pH 5.5 and 7.0
(slightly acidic to neutral). Water
outside this range may cause pes-
ticides to degrade—very rapidly,
in some cases. If you use a buffer,
add it to the spray tank water first
and mix well. The water must be
pH neutral or slightly acidic to
start, before adding pesticides or
other adjuvants.
• Compatibility agents—help com-
bine pesticides (or pesticides and
fertilizers) effectively; reduce or
eliminate incompatibility.
• Drift control additives (deposition
aids)—reduce drift; increase
average droplet size and/or lower
the number of "fines" (very small
droplets) produced.
• Emulsifiers—allow petroleum-
based pesticides (ECs) to mix
with water.
• Extenders—keep pesticides
active on a target for an extended
period. Some adjuvant manufac-
turers use this name for stickers.
(See "Stickers" below.)
• Invert emulsifiers—allow water-
based pesticides to mix with
petroleum carrier.
• Plant penetrants—allow the
pesticide to pass through (pen-
etrate) the outer surface to the
inside of treated foliage. Certain
plant penetrants may increase
penetration on some—but not
all—plant species.
• Safeners—reduce the toxicity
of a pesticide formulation to
the pesticide handler or to the
treated surface.
• Spreader—allow pesticide to
form a uniform coating layer
over the treated surface.
• Stickers—allow pesticide to stay
on a treated surface. Some types
of stickers increase adhesion
of solid particles to a treated
surface. This reduces the
amount of pesticide that washes
off due to rain or irrigation.
Others reduce evaporation and/
or slow photodegradation. (See
"Extenders" above.)
• Surfactant—see "Surfactants"
below.
• Thickeners—increase viscos-
ity (thickness) of spray mix-
tures. Thickeners may reduce
drift and/or slow evaporation.
(Slowing evaporation is useful
when applying systemic pesti-
cides. It increases the time dur-
ing which the active ingredient
can be absorbed by or penetrate
plant foliage.)
• Wetting agents—allow wettable
powders to mix with water.
Surfactants
Some of the most common adju-
vants are surfactants (surface active
ingredients), which alter the dispersing,
spreading, and wetting properties of
spray droplets. Examples of surfactants
are wetting agents and spreaders. These
products physically change the surface
tension of a spray droplet. In order to
perform well, some pesticide sprays
must be able to wet treated foliage
thoroughly and evenly. Surfactants that
reduce surface tension enable droplets
to spread out instead of bead up. This
results in better coverage and increases
the odds that the pest will contact the
^ CHAPTER 4
-------
pesticide. Surfactants are particularly
helpful when treating plants with waxy
or hairy leaves (see Figure 4.1).
Surfactants are classified by how
they split apart into charged atoms or
molecules, called ions.
• Anionic surfactants have a
negative charge. They are most
often used with contact pesti-
cides, which control the pest by
direct contact instead of being
absorbed systemically.
• Cationic surfactants have a posi-
tive charge. Do not use them as
"stand-alone" surfactants—often,
they are phytotoxic.
• Nonionic surfactants have no
electrical charge. They are often
used with systemic products
and help sprays penetrate plant
cuticles. They are compatible
with most pesticide products.
A pesticide can behave very dif-
ferently in the presence of an anionic,
cationic, or nonionic surfactant. For
this reason, you must follow label
directions when choosing one of these
additives. Selecting the wrong sur-
factant can reduce efficacy and damage
treated plants or surfaces.
The terms used when talking about
pesticide additives can be confusing.
People sometimes use the words "adju-
vant" and "surfactant" interchangeably.
However, an adjuvant is ANY sub-
stance added to modify properties of a
pesticide formulation or finished spray.
A surfactant is a specific kind of adju-
vant—one that affects the interaction
of a spray droplet and a treated surface.
All surfactants are adjuvants, but not all
adjuvants are surfactants. For example,
drift control additives and safeners are
not surfactants.
Choosing the Right
Adjuvant
Here are some factors to con-
sider when deciding whether to use an
adjuvant and how to choose the right
one for a particular site and situation.
Read and follow the label. Is
an adjuvant recommended? If
so, what type? Do not make
substitutions. Note that some
product labels may recommend
an adjuvant for one type of use
or site but prohibit any kind of
adjuvant for another labeled
use or site. Many end-use for-
mulated products already have
adjuvants, and adding adju-
vants "on the fly" can decrease
efficacy. Suppose, for example,
that a certain product
is formulated with a
wetting agent. If you add
another wetting agent
when you mix and load
a foliar-applied spray,
the product may not
give better spreading
and coverage. Instead,
the extra adjuvant may
increase runoff, reduce
deposition, and even
damage the target plant.
Use only those adju-
vants manufactured for
agricultural or horticul-
tural uses. Do not use
industrial products or
household detergents in
pesticide spray mixes.
no
Without surfactant
• Remember that
adjuvant is a substitute
for good application
practices.
With surfactant
Take adjuvant performance
claims "with a grain of salt."
Be skeptical of claims such
as "improves root uptake" or
"keeps spray equipment clean"
unless a reliable source can
provide research-based evidence
to support them. Only use
adjuvant products that have been
tested and found effective for
your intended use.
Test spray mixes with adjuvants
on a small area before pro-
ceeding with full-scale use.
Figure 4.1
Surfactants increase the
ability of the pesticide to
spread evenly over the
surface of a leaf or fruit
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS ^
-------
SUMMARY
The ingredients of a formulated pes-
ticide include both active and inert
components. The active ingredient con-
trols the pest. Inert ingredients include
carriers or diluents and adjuvants. The
type of formulation may be provided in
the identifying information on the front
panel of the label. (The SDS for a prod-
uct will describe the formulation and
also provide information about hazard-
ous inert ingredients.)
Learn what formulations are avail-
able for the pesticide active ingredients
you will use. To decide which formulation
is best for a specific site and situation, you
must know the properties—and be able
to evaluate the pros and cons—of various
formulation types. You must be familiar
with formulation types and active ingre-
dient properties in order to understand
the characteristics of the products you use
and apply them properly.
Most end-use pesticide products
contain adjuvants. Although adjuvants
themselves lack any direct pesticidal
activity, they are added to pesticide
formulations to improve product per-
formance. You should know when and
how to use an adjuvant.
In summary, you must consider
several factors when choosing a pes-
ticide formulation. These include
the risks and benefits associated with
the options available, the practical-
ity of using a specific formulation in
a particular site to control the target
pest, and whether the formulated
product will provide effective control.
Understanding the properties of com-
mon formulations before choosing a
pesticide will help you avoid problems
and apply your product in an effective
and efficient manner.
^ CHAPTER 4
-------
CHAPTER 4: PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your answers with those in Appendix A.
1. The name "X-Pest 5G" on a pesticide label
indicates a:
A. Granular pesticide with 5% active ingredient.
B. Granular pesticide with 5% inert ingredients.
C. Gel pesticide with 5% active ingredient.
2. Which is the pesticide formulation process by
which solid particles are dispersed in a liquid?
A. Emulsion.
B. Solution.
C. Suspension.
3. Which liquid pesticide formulation consists of
a small amount of active ingredient (often 1%
or less per unit volume)?
A. Microencapsulated (M).
B. Ready-to-use (low-concentrate) solution
(RTU).
C. Ultra-low volume (ULV).
4. Which liquid pesticide formulation may
approach 100% active ingredient?
A. Aerosol (A).
B. Emulsifiable concentrate (EC).
C. Ultra-low volume (ULV).
5. Which is a disadvantage of both EC and ULV
formulations?
A. Difficult to handle, transport, and store.
B. Require constant agitation to keep in
suspension.
C. Solvents may cause rubber or plastic hoses,
gaskets, pump parts, and other surfaces to
deteriorate.
6. Which dry/solid formulation is mixed in
water and reduces the risk of inhalation
exposure during mixing and loading?
A. Soluble powder (SP).
B. Water-dispersible granule (WDG) or dry
flowable (DF).
C. Wettable powder (WP).
7. Which type of dry/solid pesticide formulation
consists of particles that are the same weight
and shape?
A. Bait.
B. Granule.
C. Pellet.
8. Which is an advantage of microencapsulated
materials?
A. Delayed or slow release of the active
ingredient prolongs their effectiveness.
B. Their pesticidal activity is independent
of weather conditions.
C. They usually require only short restricted-
entry intervals.
9. Which type of adjuvant functions as a wetting
agent and spreader (i.e., physically altering
the surface tension of spray droplets)?
A. Buffer.
B. Extender.
C. Surfactant.
10. Which type of adjuvant increases the viscosity
of spray mixtures?
A. Sticker.
B. Extender.
C. Thickener.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
^ CHAPTER 4
-------
Pesticide Hazards and First Aid
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between types of harmful effects
(allergic, acute, chronic, and delayed) associated
with pesticide application,
• Identify common exposure routes for various
pesticides and application methods.
• Explain the hazard level classification system for
pesticides, including the corresponding signal words.
• Describe typical symptoms of pesticide exposure in humans.
• Discuss the appropriate first aid response to oral, ocular, dermal,
and inhalation exposures to pesticides.
• List other health risks (such as heat stress) that may occur during
pesticide application.
Pesticides are designed to be toxic to
living organisms so they can control
pests (e.g., plants, insects, rodents,
fungi, and bacteria). At the same time,
pesticides must be used with special care
to avoid harming nontarget organisms,
including pesticide applicators, han-
dlers, and anyone else exposed to the
product. Though many pesticides are
toxic to humans, they vary significantly
in the type and level of hazards they
present. In many cases, something that
is toxic to one species may also be toxic
to other species of organisms. This
is especially true if the organisms are
closely related. For example, insects,
rodents, and humans are all animals and
have similarities in their nervous, circu-
latory, and respiratory systems. Because
of these similarities, pesticides can
affect people as well as the target pest.
Pesticides can have both short-
term and long-term effects on humans.
The signal word on the product label
and the information contained in the
"Hazards to Humans and Domestic
Animals" section of the label indicate
the human toxicity concerns and the
precautions you should take to min-
imize your own risk. Pesticides can pose
additional physical and chemical risks
by being explosive and/or combustible.
If the product presents either a physical
or a chemical hazard, this information
is included in the "Precautionary
Statements" section. Refer also to the
Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for more infor-
mation on toxicity and precautions.
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID
-------
TOXICITY, EXPOSURE, AND HAZARD
Toxicity refers to the ability of
a pesticide to cause short-term
(acute) or long-term (chronic) injury.
"Toxicity," a measure of the pesticide's
capacity to cause injury or illness, is a
combination of its chemical properties
and concentration.
Exposure occurs when pesticides
get onto or into the body through the
skin (dermal), the lungs (inhalation), the
mouth (oral), or by eye contact (ocular).
Product formulations differ greatly in
their exposure risk. Some routine pes-
ticide-handling procedures present an
especially high likelihood of exposure.
Examples include handling opened
containers; mixing and loading concen-
trates; working around contaminated
application equipment; making spray,
mist, or dust applications; cleaning up
spills; and reentering a recently treated
area before the spray has dried or the
dust has settled.
Hazard, or risk, is the true concern
for the applicator or handler. It is
the potential or probability for harm
(injury, illness, or allergy) to occur
because of the combination of the
product's innate toxicity and the level
of human exposure. "Hazard" reflects
both the pesticide's toxicity and the
likelihood that you will be exposed to
the product in a particular situation.
As an applicator, you can reduce your
risk by choosing a less-toxic product,
by reducing exposure, or both. In situ-
ations when a different product cannot
be used, you can still reduce the hazard
(risk) by taking steps to reduce exposure.
As a result, pesticide users need to be
concerned with the hazards associated
with exposure to the chemical and not
exclusively with the toxicity of the pes-
ticide. A good equation to remember is:
Hazard = Toxicity x Exposure
The following two examples illus-
trate that risk takes into account both
toxicity and exposure:
• Gasoline is extremely toxic to
humans, especially if swallowed
or inhaled. Yet every day, mil-
lions of people fill their gas
tanks without incident. The tox-
icity is high, but gas pumps are
designed to virtually eliminate
human exposure. Therefore,
the risk associated with filling
a car's gas tank is very low. If
someone siphons gas, the risk is
much greater because exposure
is much more likely.
• Aspirin has a low toxicity to
humans. However, if someone
takes too many aspirin at one
time, he or she can become very
ill. In this case, toxicity is low
but the potential for exposure
is high, increasing the overall
hazard or risk.
Engineering controls, such as
gas pumps and childproof caps, are
often designed to reduce exposure.
Engineering controls that reduce
handler exposure are also available
for pesticide mixing and loading (see
Chapter 11, Pesticide Application
Procedures, for more information).
Examples are lock-and-load devices and
water-soluble bags containing formu-
lated product.
Often, the greatest hazard to the
applicator occurs while mixing and
loading the pesticide concentrate.
There is a significant risk of exposure
to a chemical in its most concentrated,
toxic form unless engineering controls
are used. Hazards associated with
the actual application are frequently
much lower when diluted pesticides
are handled or applied. The hazards
may still be substantial, however, in
the case of a single high exposure (such
as when an accident occurs) or when
many smaller exposures occur over an
extended period.
The best way to avoid or reduce
the risks of pesticide use is to under-
stand what you are using and how to
use it safely in a way that minimizes
^ CHAPTER 5
-------
your exposure. This means reading the
label carefully and following instruc-
tions. The user's attitude is of utmost
importance. If you assume that you
know exactly how to use a pesticide
without reading the product label or do
not bother to take the precautions indi-
cated on the label, you are more likely
to experience excess exposure. Your risk
may increase significantly.
Pesticide users have a legal and
moral obligation to protect their own
health and that of others when handling
pesticides. Besides protecting yourself,
you must be aware of other people,
wildlife, or pets that may be in or near
the treatment area and could be exposed
to the pesticide during or after appli-
cation. Taking adequate precautions
and following good safety practices will
reduce the chance of exposure from
pesticide application.
In Chapter 2 (Federal Pesticide
Laws and Regulations), you learned
that the pesticide registration process
requires manufacturers to do risk-
assessment studies. These studies
gauge the risk to applicators during and
unprotected people after application.
Using the data from these studies, the
manufacturer develops product labels
that provide instructions on mini-
mizing exposure, personal protective
equipment (PPE), engineering controls,
symptoms of overexposure, first aid,
and postapplication restricted-entry
intervals (REIs). Be sure to read and
follow all label directions.
POTENTIAL HARMFUL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES
Effects from chemicals, including
pesticides, may be classified into two
broad types: local and systemic. Local
effects are those that occur to the area
of contact with skin, eyes, or respiratory
tract. Local effects are often referred to
as contact symptoms or effects. Systemic
effects may occur once the substance
is absorbed and distributed throughout
the body. They may be acute or chronic.
Local effects (or contact symptoms)
are localized to the area that the pes-
ticide actually touches. Examples are:
• Skin irritation (dermatitis) or
injury:
> Itching, redness, rashes, blis-
ters, burns, and discoloration.
> Many herbicides and fun-
gicides cause dermatitis.
Fumigants can cause severe
blisters.
• Eye irritation or injury:
> Swelling, stinging, and
burning.
> Herbicides, fungicides, insec-
ticides, and fumigants may
cause eye irritation or injury
through contact, sometimes
resulting in irreversible
damage.
Nose, mouth, or throat
irritation or injury:
> Swelling, stinging, and
burning.
> Permanent respiratory
damage occurs less
often.
Systemic effects may occur
once a pesticide has been absorbed
and distributed throughout the
body. These effects depend on
the toxicological profile of the
chemical itself, the amount absorbed,
and the individual's ability to detoxify and
eliminate the chemical. Examples are:
• Cholinesterase inhibition or
neuropathies (damage to nerves).
• Impairment of the blood's
clotting ability.
• Some cancers.
• Reproductive problems.
• Impaired metabolism
(the body's ability to use
energy).
• Hormonal effects.
LOCAL
EFFECTS
Injury at the point of
contact, including skin
discoloration and irritation
(dermatitis) such as itching,
redness, rashes, blisters,
and burns. Also, swelling,
stinging, and burning of the
eyes, nose, mouth, or throat
are contact effects.
SYSTEMIC
EFFECTS
Poisoning effects that occur
at sites other than the entry
point into the body.
Damage to various organ
systems, such as the kidneys or
liver.
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID
-------
ALLERGIC EFFECTS/
ALLERGY
A hypersensitivity to a
specific substance, often
called the allergen.
An allergy may cause
dermatitis, blisters, hives,
and itching of the eyes.
It could also cause illness,
asthma-like symptoms or
life-threatening shock.
Often the entire body is
affected.
The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) con-
siders local and systemic effects
when deciding whether to reg-
ister a chemical. They are also
used to set label restrictions,
such as limiting the method,
timing, or rate of application;
to determine appropriate levels
of PPE; or to establish REIs
(in combination with exposure
factors).
Allergic effects are harm-
ful effects that occur in some
people in reaction to certain
substances. An allergy to
a chemical contained in a
product formulation may cause der-
matitis, blisters, hives, or more serious
problems, such as asthma or even life-
threatening shock. Pesticide allergy
symptoms are similar to other allergy
symptoms: red and/or itchy eyes,
respiratory discomfort, and asthma-
like effects. Unfortunately, there is
no way to predict which people will
develop allergies to a particular prod-
uct. Having an allergic reaction does
not predict whether someone would
also be more sensitive to other effects
of the pesticide, such as chronic or
delayed effects (see below). These types
of effects depend on different chemical
reactions within the body.
Common ways in which pesticide handlers and other workers are exposed to pesticides
Dermal exposure
• Not wearing gloves or other protective clothing.
• Not washing hands after handling pesticides, product con-
tainers, or application equipment.
• Not washing hands before using the toilet.
• Splashing or spilling pesticide on skin.
• Being exposed to spray or dust drift.
• Applying pesticides in windy weather or above your head.
• Touching treated plants, soil, or livestock.
Eye exposure
• Rubbing eyes with contaminated gloves or hands.
• Splashing pesticide in eyes.
• Handling dry formulations when not wearing eye protection.
• Applying pesticides in windy weather.
Oral exposure
• Not washing hands before eating, smoking, chewing, or
drinking.
• Splashing pesticide in mouth.
Inhalation exposure
• Handling pesticides in confined or poorly ventilated areas.
• Handling dusts or powders.
• Using an inadequate or poorly fitting respirator.
• Being exposed to spray or dust drift.
^ CHAPTER 5
-------
EXPOSURE—HOW PESTICIDES ENTER THE BODY
Pesticide exposure occurs when pes-
ticides get onto or into the body.
The four primary routes of exposure
are: skin (dermal), eyes (ocular), lungs
(inhalation), and mouth (oral).
Skin or Dermal Route
In most cases, the skin is the main
route of pesticide entry onto or into
the body. Some studies show that up to
97% of all body exposure to pesticides
during a spraying operation is by skin
contact. Dermal absorption or contact
injury may occur from airborne dust,
splashes, spills, or spray mist when
mixing, loading, applying, or disposing
of pesticides. Skin exposure may also
result from contact with pesticide
residues on treated surfaces or con-
taminated equipment during cleaning,
adjustment, or repair.
Once a pesticide contacts the
body, absorption, penetration, and
distribution throughout the body
depend on many factors. These include
the chemical properties of the pesticide
product, the area of contact and its
rate of absorption, and the body's
own detoxification and elimination
capabilities. Some products that cause
systemic injury are just as toxic when
absorbed through the skin as when they
are swallowed.
Parts of the body differ in their
ability to absorb pesticides. Warm,
moist areas, such as the groin, armpits,
head, neck, backs of the hands, and tops
of the feet, tend to absorb more than
the palms and forearms (Figure 5.1).
However, palms and forearms must
still be protected because they get the
most exposure. Cuts, abrasions, and
skin rashes can increase absorption.
Remember, the rate of absorption (i.e.,
how quickly the pesticide can get into
the body) differs depending on the area
contacted, but the rate is also a function
of time. The longer a pesticide (or any
other chemical) remains in contact, the
more will be absorbed. So, protecting
your skin is still important even if the
area of the body most likely to contact a
pesticide has a low absorption rate.
Pesticide formulations vary in how
well they penetrate skin. In general,
water-soluble liquids or powders, wet-
table powders, dusts, and granular
pesticides do not easily penetrate skin.
However, oil-based liquid formulations,
such as emulsifiable concentrates, are
readily absorbed.
Application techniques may also
affect exposure levels for applicators.
Making overhead applications, using
blower application equipment for mists
and dusts, using animal pour-ons, and
dipping livestock and pets are all appli-
cation methods that often have high
dermal exposure levels. Additionally,
contaminated hands or gloves can
transfer pesticides to other body parts.
Be sure to wash your hands and gloves
after each pesticide-handling activity.
foot 13.6%
forehead 36.3%
abdomen 18.4%
genital area 100%
palm 11.8%
Figure 5.1
Some areas of the skin
absorb more pesticide
than others.
scalp 32.1 %
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID £
-------
Eyes or Ocular Route
Eye tissues are extremely absor-
bent. Blood vessels are very close to
the surface of the eye, so pesticides
can be quickly and easily absorbed into
the bloodstream. Under certain condi-
tions when using certain pesticides,
absorption through the eyes can be
particularly hazardous. Eyes are very
sensitive to many pesticides. For their
size, they are able to absorb surprisingly
large amounts of chemical. In addition
to systemic concerns, some products
are corrosive and can cause severe eye
damage or even blindness. Significant
eye exposure may result from airborne
dusts or particles, splashes or spills, bro-
ken hoses, spray mists, or from rubbing
the eyes with contaminated hands or
clothing.
Breathing or Inhalation
Route
Protecting the lungs is especially
important when mixing, loading, or
applying pesticides, particularly in
confined areas. If inhaled in sufficient
amounts, pesticides can cause contact
damage to nose, throat, and lung tissue.
Once breathed into the lungs, pesti-
cides can enter the bloodstream very
rapidly, eventually damaging other
body organs (systemic illness). Another
major concern is the aspiration (suction)
of petroleum solvents (ingredients in
emulsifiable concentrate formulations)
and other substances into the lungs
while vomiting. As the person vomits,
some of the material is aspirated into the
lungs, where it can cause severe damage.
Swallowing or Oral Route
When people work around pes-
ticides, oral exposure can occur when
liquid concentrates splash into the
mouth during mixing and loading of
pesticides or while cleaning equipment.
Never use your mouth to clear a spray
line or to begin siphoning a pesticide.
Eating, drinking, or smoking without
first washing your hands may transfer
product to your mouth.
Other people are most likely to
accidentally swallow pesticides when
chemicals are improperly stored in
the home or when transferred into an
unlabeled bottle or container normally
used for food or beverages. Rodent baits
may also pose an accidental exposure
hazard if they are not properly placed.
Unfortunately, children are the most
common victims of these mishaps.
Mark all pesticide measuring cups
and containers. Store them in a separate
area away from measuring devices used
for food and beverages so they are not
used for water, drink, or food. Never
store pesticides in beverage or other
food containers. Practice good personal
hygiene and wear proper protective
equipment. Preventing exposure is key
to the safe use of pesticides.
PRODUCT TOXICITY AND HEALTH CONCERNS
ACUTE TOXICITY
Injury or illness produced
from a single exposure.
LD50 and LC50 are
common measures of the
degree of acute toxicity.
CHRONIC TOXICITY
The ability of small
amounts of pesticide
from repeated,
prolonged exposure to
cause injury or illness.
Historically, the toxicity of
pesticides and other sub-
stances has been determined by
subjecting test animals (usually
rats, mice, rabbits, or dogs) to
various dosages of the active
ingredient and to each of its
formulated products. Toxicity,
measured for both short-term
(acute) and long-term (chronic)
exposure, is evaluated at a range
of doses: those that cause no
immediate effects, those that
cause some immediate effects,
those that cause delayed or
long-term effects, and those that
cause death. For some of the tests, the
doses are administered only once to
assess what effect(s) the pesticide may
have from a single exposure. Other
tests involve dosing the animals over
several years to simulate exposure to
small amounts throughout a lifetime.
These tests can detect many different
types of toxic effects ranging from
subtle changes, such as weight loss or
gain (which could indicate underlying
problems), to specific illnesses, to death.
Today, agencies that regulate
pesticides, prescription medications,
over-the-counter drugs, and many
other toxic substances are developing
^ CHAPTER 5
-------
tests that can identify and predict the
same toxic endpoints as the earlier
tests required. The newer methods use
mathematical models and techniques
without animal testing.
Acute Toxicity
Acute toxicity is the measure of
harm (systemic or contact) caused by
a single, one-time exposure event.
Acute effects are determined after
test animals have been exposed to a
chemical through contact with their
skin and eyes, through inhalation, or
through ingestion. The harmful effects
may be systemic or contact in nature
(or a combination of both), depending
on the product, formulation, dose, and
route of exposure. Acute effects occur
shortly after exposure, usually within
24 hours.
The following example of acute
toxicity illustrates the damaging effects
that can occur when people are exposed
to a harmful dose of alcohol:
Alcohol consumption is fairly common.
Each year, relatively few people die
from lethal alcohol toxicity due to a
single episode. Many people, however,
experience varying levels of harmful
effects after drinking too much,
including headaches, digestive dis-
orders, and disorientation. Symptoms
from drinking alcohol depend on the
dose, the exposure period, body chem-
istry, weight, diet and exercise, and
other factors.
Acute systemic toxicity is the
measure of illness or death resulting
from a change in critical body function
in a test animal. The common method
used for comparing acute toxicity is the
LD50, or lethal dose 50%. The LD50 is
the dose of a toxicant required to kill
50% of the population of test animals
under a standard set of conditions. For
comparison purposes, LD50 values of
pesticides are recorded in milligrams
of toxicant per kilogram of body weight
of the test animal (mg/kg). When
the animal is exposed to material by
feeding, the result is referred to as the
oral LD50. When the material is tested
by skin exposure, the result is called the
dermal LD50.
Another commonly used measure LD50 is the amount of
of acute toxicity is the LC50, or lethal pesticide that kills half
concentration 50%. This is the con- of the test animals.
centration of a substance in air or water
required to kill 50% of the test popu-
lation. The LC50 is generally expressed
as a ratio of the proportional amount
of pesticide to a total volume of air
or water. This is usually expressed in
parts per million or milligrams per liter
(mg/1). The LC50 is a common measure
of lethal effects of chemicals on fish
and other aquatic organisms. The
LC50 values most directly applicable
to human health are those expressing
lethal concentration of chemicals in air.
The LD50 and LC50 values are
useful in comparing the systemic tox-
icity of different active ingredients as
well as different formulations of the
same active ingredient. The lower the
LD50 value of a pesticide, the less it
takes to kill 50% of the population of
test animals and the greater the toxicity
of the chemical. Table 5.1 summarizes
the range of LD50 and LC50 values and
their relationship to the different tox-
icity levels.
LD50 and LC50 values have
limitations because they measure only
one toxic effect—death. They do not
indicate what dose may lead to other,
less serious acute systemic effects or to
other, possibly equally serious contact
or delayed systemic effects. Also, they
do not translate directly to humans
because our body systems are slightly
different from those of test animals.
Lastly, the LD50 and LC50 are measures
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID
The lower the
LD50 value of a
pesticide, the
less it takes to
kill 50% of the
population of
test animals.
Therefore, the
greater the
toxicity of the
chemical.
-------
Table 5.1 Toxicity Categories
Signal Word J0**"* LnD5Q
O C.,„ Level & Oral
& Symbol C|ass (mg/kg)
ld50
Dermal
(mg/kg)
LC50
Inhalation
(mg/l)
Contact
Injury
Concern
Toxicity Concern
DANGER—
POISON/
PELIGRO
Skull &
Crossbones
Highly toxic.
Hazard
Class I
Trace to
50
Trace to
200
Trace to
0.2
Signal word
based on
oral, dermal,
or inhalation
toxicity.
Very low dose could
kill a person (a few
drops to 1 teaspoon).
DANGER/
PELIGRO
Highly toxic.
Hazard
Class I
Corrosive—
permanent or
severe skin, eye,
or respiratory
damage.
Based on the corrosive
or irritant properties of
the product.
WARNING/
AVISO
Moderately
toxic.
Hazard
Class II
50 to 500
200 to
2,000
0.2 to 2
Moderate
skin, eye, or
respiratory
damage.
Small to medium dose
could cause death,
illness, or skin, eye, or
respiratory damage
(1 teaspoon to 1 ounce).
CAUTION
Slightly
toxic.
Hazard
Class III
500 to
5,000
2,000 to
20,000
2 to 20
Mild skin, eye,
or respiratory
irritation.
Medium to large dose
could cause death,
illness, or skin, eye, or
respiratory damage
(1 ounce to 1 pint
or 1 pound).
CAUTION or
no signal
word
Hazard
Class IV
Greater
than 5,000
Greater
than
20,000
Greater
than 20
Slight concern
for skin, eye,
or respiratory
injury.
Slight to none
(over 1 pint or
1 pound).
of a single exposure, not the potential
sequence of effects resulting from mul-
tiple exposures.
Some pesticides produce acute
toxic effects because of their corrosive
or irritant properties. These can result
in respiratory, skin, or eye irritation or
damage. Some can cause severe burns
or permanent blindness. Chemicals
with these irritant or corrosive prop-
erties require extra care and special
PPE. Fungicides, herbicides, and some
insecticides may cause contact injuries.
Manufacturers list nonlethal systemic
and contact effects in addition to the
signal word. Systemic and contact acute
toxicity concerns are indicated by the
signal word. They are further explained
in the "Precautionary Statements"
portion of the product label under the
"Hazards to Humans and Domestic
Animals" section.
EPA and the manufacturer take
into account both systemic and contact
toxicity measures in assigning the signal
word and toxicity category to a product.
These are assigned on the basis of the
greatest concern—be it oral, dermal, or
inhalation systemic effects or skin, eye,
or respiratory tract contact effects.
Signal Words and Skull and
Crossbones Symbol
The Globally Harmonized System
(GHS) for classification and labeling
of chemicals is an international system
for hazard communication. The goal
of GHS is to help ensure more consis-
tency in the classification and labeling
of all chemicals, thereby improving and
simplifying hazard communication.
This improved communication system
will alert the user to the presence of
a hazard and the need to minimize
exposure and risk. The result should be
safer transportation, handling, and use
of chemicals.
Under GHS, many substances—
including paint, oven cleaner, dish soap,
antifreeze, window cleaner, and others
-------
—could eventually bear common
signal words and pictograms. Signal
words and pictograms will identify
more types of hazards than the current
signal words on pesticide labels. For
instance, separate pictograms and/or
signal words will provide information
about chronic toxicity as well as acute
toxicity For the current status and
implementation of GHS, go to http://
www. epa. gov/oppfe ad 1 / i nternati onal/
globalharmon.htm.
There are four distinct signal words
found on pesticide labels: DANGER—
POISON, DANGER, WARNING,
and CAUTION. Signal words are based
on the acute toxicity of the product.
Depending on their acute toxicity,
pesticide products are categorized into
several hazard classes. Some very low
toxicity products (Hazard Class IV) are
not required to have a signal word.
Danger—Poison
Pesticides classified as highly toxic
(Hazard Class I) with acute oral LD50
values from a trace to 50 mg/kg must
have the signal words DANGER and
POISON (in red letters) and a skull and
crossbones symbol prominently dis-
played on the package label. The lethal
toxicity may be based on oral, dermal, or
DANGER-POISON
PELIGRO
j5^
Fatal if swallowed. May cause
blindness if swallowed. May
be fatal if inhaled or absorbed
through eyes. Causes irreversible
eye damage. Do not get in eyes,
on skin, or on clothing. Do not
breathe vapors or spray mist.
KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN
DANGER-POISON
milmiHwiilSdg(abet.firiit totixpfafn1 tot
-------
KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN
WARNING - AVISO
rw emiendi b Bttousla, basque a alguen para quo as to axpsctuu £" e"®:s'"
'y*idoog( ujy)«rstantl this label rind sornecro lowtplain i la you in detail, i
FIRST AID
OHGANOPMOSPHATE , „ ^
BjgMMjW-'foWt prompt/ a laiga quality of milk, ogg wW.ea. ui galaim so ^cton. PrJ
Hazard Class II pesticides
must have the signal
word WARNING (AVISO
in Spanish) on the label.
Warning
A pesticide product considered
moderately toxic (Hazard Class II) must
have the signal words WARNING and
AVISO (Spanish) on its label. If the
concern is due to systemic toxicity the
acute oral LD50 values range from 50
to 500 mg/kg; 1 teaspoonful to 1 ounce
(2 tablespoons) of this material could
be fatal to a 150-pound person. The
concern could also be due to contact
injury to skin, eyes, or respiratory tract.
The WARNING signal word alone
does not indicate whether the concern is
systemic, contact, or both. Consult the
precautionary statements that follow
the signal word on the label to learn
about the product's specific contact or
systemic hazard for humans.
KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN
P A11 Tl 11N ®ee ^ Pane' topdii
VftU 11U11 and precautionary statements
Hazard Class III pesticides
are required to have the
signal word CAUTION on
the label.
Caution
Pesticide products classified
as slightly toxic (Hazard Class III)
are required to have the signal word
CAUTION on the pesticide label. Acute
toxicity may be systemic or contact in
nature. If systemic, the acute oral LD50
values are between 500 and 5,000 mg/
kg. Contact effects are generally irri-
tation of eyes, skin, or respiratory tract.
Consult the precautionary statements
that follow the signal word on the label
to learn about the product's contact or
systemic hazard to humans.
Chronic Toxicity
The chronic toxicity of a pesticide
is determined by subjecting test animals
to long-term exposure to an active
ingredient. The length of exposure is
typically two years, which represents
a lifetime for these test animals. The
harmful effects that occur from small,
repeated doses over time are termed
chronic effects.
The following is an example of
chronic toxicity:
In addition to acute toxicity of alcohol,
chronic effects may also occur from
alcohol exposure over long periods.
Cirrhosis and other liver diseases,
miscarriages, cardiovascular disease,
neurological effects, and various
cancers have been shown to be asso-
ciated with long-term use of alcohol.
As with acute effects, the illnesses and
symptoms expressed in different people
depend on the dose, the frequency of
exposure, body chemistry, weight, diet
and exercise, and other factors.
The general range of suspected
chronic effects from pesticide exposure
includes genetic changes, noncancerous
or cancerous tumors, reproductive
effects, infertility, fetal toxicity, miscar-
riages, birth defects, blood disorders,
nerve disorders, and hormonal or endo-
crine-mediated diseases. Each pesticide
has its own characteristic pattern of dis-
eases and adverse effects that it might
cause. However, no single pesticide
is likely to be able to cause the entire
range of harmful effects listed here.
Remember that the tests used to char-
acterize each pesticide's potential for
harm are conducted at different doses.
This helps regulators determine levels
and conditions under which each pes-
ticide could safely be used. Minimizing
the likelihood of chronic effects is one
of the important reasons to follow all
label directions and be cautious in
handling and apply ing pesticides.
If a product causes chronic effects
in laboratory animals, the manufacturer
is required to include chronic toxicity
warning statements on the product
label. This information is also listed
on the SDS. The chronic toxicity of a
pesticide is more difficult to determine
through laboratory analysis than the
acute toxicity and cannot be expressed
by a single measure. Thus, there is no
chronic toxicity measure equivalent to
the acute toxicity LD50.
CHAPTER 5
-------
Delayed Effects
Delayed effects are illnesses or
injuries that do not appear immediately
(within 24 hours) after exposure to a
pesticide. They may be delayed for
weeks, months, or even years. Whether
you experience delayed effects depends
on the pesticide, the extent and route
of exposure(s), and how often you
were exposed. Under "Precautionary
Statements," the label states any delayed
effects that the pesticide might cause
and how to avoid exposures leading to
them. Delayed effects may be caused by
either an acute or a chronic exposure to
a pesticide.
FACTORS AFFECTING RESPONSE
Like all living organisms, humans
have built-in mechanisms to reduce
the risks of toxic substances—including
pesticides—and to eliminate them from
the body. The liver is the primary organ
that transforms toxic substances to non-
toxic or less-toxic forms.
The chemical breakdown process
performed by the liver also helps make
most of these substances more water-
soluble. They can then be eliminated
from the body in urine. The kidneys
are the most important organs in fil-
tering water-soluble pesticides and
other unwanted chemicals out of the
blood and into the urine. Unwanted
substances that cannot be made water-
soluble eventually are stored in our
bodies, primarily in fatty deposits
throughout the body and in breast milk.
Most of the pesticides in use today are
more water-soluble than those of the
past (before 1970). Most are eliminated
relatively quickly (hours to days instead
of months to years) in urine.
Some pesticides can cause changes,
called mutations, to our DNA. DNA
is the carrier of genetic information in
our bodies. This information is stored
as codes for all of the chemicals our
bodies make to help them function
properly. Some DNA mutations do not
cause any effects. Others cause serious
malfunctions and may lead to various
types of illnesses or other problems,
such as birth defects. Although our
bodies constantly monitor and repair
DNA mutations, over time our ability
to repair the DNA decreases.
Our bodies continually manu-
facture the enzymes we need to help
detoxify pesticides and other toxic
substances. However, continual or very
frequent exposures may overwhelm the
body's capacity for chemical breakdown
and elimination. Keeping your exposure
low and having periods of nonexposure
between applications of the same class
of pesticide can reduce the chance that
your body will be overwhelmed.
SYMPTOM RECOGNITION
Symptoms can be correlated with
certain groups of pesticides. For
example, borates (insecticides) tend
to irritate the skin, nose, and respi-
ratory system. Some fungicides are
irritants to the skin, eyes, and mucous
membranes of the respiratory system.
Anticoagulant-type rodenticides
affect the blood's ability to clot and
may cause bloody noses and bleeding
gums. Organophosphate and car-
bamate insecticides are cholinesterase
inhibitors. They may cause certain sys-
temic symptoms (see sidebar) that could
lead to respiratory failure and death.
Symptoms associated with synthetic
pyrethroid insecticides include nausea,
dizziness, weakness, nervousness, and
eye and skin irritation. Chlorophenoxy
herbicides, such as 2,4-D and some
related products (dicamba, MCPA, and
MCPP), are irritating to the skin and
mucous membranes. They may also
cause vomiting, headaches, diarrhea,
and confusion.
Because symptoms of pesticide
poisoning or exposure can vary widely,
medical professionals need training
Recognition and
Management of
Pesticide Poisonings
Reference material
for toxicological
symptoms.
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID
-------
Common symptoms
associated with organophospate
and carbamate insecticide
poisoning
Mild poisoning
• Fatigue
• Headache
• Dizziness
• Blurred vision
• Excessive sweating/salivation
• Nausea and vomiting
• Stomach cramps and diarrhea
Moderate poisoning
• Inability to walk
• Weakness
• Chest discomfort
• Constriction of pupils
• Mild symptoms more severe
Severe poisoning
• Unconsciousness
• Severe constriction of pupils
• Muscle twitching
• Running nose and drooling
• Breathing difficulty
• Coma and death
to recognize this variability and treat
appropriately. A manual entitled
Recognition and Management of Pesticide
Poisonings provides treatment guidelines
for medical professionals. It may be
obtained through the EPA Office of
Pesticide Programs or from the EPA
website, http://www.epa.gov/.
Cholinesterase Inhibition
Cholinesterase is an enzyme neces-
sary for proper nerve impulse transmis-
sion and nervous system function. If
the amount of this enzyme is reduced
below a critical level, nerve impulses
throughout the body can no longer
be controlled. This may cause serious
health problems, affect-
ing the ability of certain
muscles, including the
heart and breathing mus-
cles, to function properly.
Without medical atten-
tion, death may result.
Two classes of insec-
ticides, organophosphates
and carbamates, act as
cholinesterase inhibitors.
That is, they reduce the
amount of cholinesterase
available for the body's use.
Cholinesterase inhibition
can cause acute or delayed
effects. Large exposures
to organophosphate or
carbamate insecticides
can cause immediate ill-
ness. Although smaller
exposures may not cause
outward symptoms, small,
repeated exposures over
several days or weeks
may continually reduce
the body's cholinesterase
level. This may ultimately
trigger mild, moderate, or
severe symptoms of over-
exposure.
In the case of cholin-
esterase inhibition, it is not
always obvious whether
a worker is showing
symptoms from an acute
exposure or experienc-
ing delayed effects from
repeated exposures. For
example, an applicator who is exposed
to a single, large amount of an organo-
phosphate may suffer acute effects.
However, if over time the applicator is
exposed to several small amounts, cho-
linesterase levels are slightly reduced at
each exposure. Eventually, a small addi-
tional exposure may cause illness. In
this case, the illness sets in soon after an
exposure—but only following previous
repeated exposures.
Cholinesterase Monitoring
Each person has a certain baseline
level of cholinesterase enzyme that is
considered normal for him or her. The
blood cholinesterase test measures the
effect of exposure to organophosphate
and carbamate insecticides. A baseline
must be established for each person
before he or she begins working with
cholinesterase inhibitors, or during the
off-season. Always conduct baseline
testing during the time of year when
insecticides are not being used or at least
30 days from the most recent exposure.
Establishing an accurate baseline value
often requires that two tests be per-
formed at least 72 hours (but not more
than 14 days) apart.
If you regularly use organo-
phosphate or carbamate insecticides,
cholinesterase tests should be taken
periodically and results compared
with your baseline level. Also, anytime
you feel ill or have mild or moderate
poisoning symptoms, your medical
professional should conduct a blood
test to evaluate your cholinesterase
level and compare it with the base-
line level. The purpose of routine or
emergency cholinesterase monitoring
is to enable a medical professional to
recognize the occurrence of exces-
sive exposure to organophosphate and
carbamate insecticides. A significant
reduction in your body's cholinesterase
level indicates poisoning. A medical
professional normally suggests that
the affected pesticide handler avoid
further exposure until his or her cho-
linesterase level returns to normal. A
drop in cholinesterase may require you
to have no exposure to these chemicals
for a certain period—usually three to
five weeks—to allow your body time
^ CHAPTER 5
-------
to build new cholinesterase. Medical
professionals can help to establish the
frequency of this testing program,
which will depend on how often you
use cholinesterase-inhibiting pesti-
cides. Occupational and environmental
medicine specialists are most familiar
with this type of testing program. Also,
because different laboratories may use
slightly different methods, the same
laboratory should be used to collect and
test all samples from any one individual.
FIRST AID FOR PESTICIDE POISONING
Get medical advice immediately if you
or any of your fellow workers have
unusual or unexplained symptoms that
develop within 24 hours of a pesticide
exposure. Be alert for the early symp-
toms of pesticide poisoning and contact
(local) effects in yourself and others. Do
not wait until you or someone else gets
dangerously ill before calling a physi-
cian or going to a hospital. It is better
to be too cautious than to act too late.
To help the medical professional treat
you appropriately and quickly, take the
pesticide label with you. Bring either
a duplicate copy or the one attached
to the container (or, at a minimum,
the EPA registration number of the
product). To avoid contamination and
exposure, do not carry pesticides in the
passenger space of the vehicle.
The label is important because
the medical professional needs to know
the pesticide ingredients to determine
the proper course of treatment. It is a
good idea to print off extra copies of the
label from the Internet. Place one copy
in your service vehicle and one in your
office in case of a medical emergency.
Keep in mind that even symptoms
commonly associated with certain
pesticides are not always the result of
pesticide exposure. Common illnesses
(e.g., the flu, heat exhaustion or heat-
stroke, pneumonia, asthma, respiratory
or intestinal infections, and even a
hangover) can cause symptoms similar
to those of many frequently used pesti-
cides. Contact with certain plants, such
as poison oak or poison ivy, may also
produce skin effects like those resulting
from pesticide exposure. However, it
is best to take every precaution. When
symptoms appear after contact with
pesticides, always seek medical attention
immediately.
General First Aid
First aid is the initial effort to assist
a victim while medical help is on the
way. If you are alone with the victim,
make sure he or she is breathing and is
no longer being exposed to the pesticide
before you call for help. Protect yourself
from pesticide exposure before and
while giving assistance. Make sure you
wear the appropriate PPE, including a
respirator if indicated, before assisting
someone in an enclosed area. Administer
artificial respiration if the victim is not
breathing and is not vomiting.
American
Association of
Poison Control
Centers
1-800-222-1222
(Staffed 24 hours)
Animal Poison
Control Center
(APCC)
1-888-426-4435
National Pesticide
Information
Center (NPIC)
1-800-858-7378
Always bring the label
with you when seeking
medical advice for
exposure symptoms.
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID
-------
Immediate action can indeed be a
life-or-death matter in a pesticide poi-
soning. The product label is the primary
source of information. Follow the label's
specific first aid instructions carefully.
Beyond the label, call the American
Association of Poison Control Centers
(AAPCC) or a physician for additional
advice. The AAPCC's poison help
line (800-222-1222) is available 24
hours each day. First aid is only the
first response and is not a substitute
for professional medical help. It is
very important to get the victim to a
hospital, or contact 911 for emergency
response, without delay. The following
are a few key points to remember when
administering first aid during a pes-
ticide emergency:
• If oral or dermal exposure has
occurred, the first objective is
usually to rinse the exposed area
with water to dilute the pesticide
and prevent absorption.
• Always have a source of clean
water available. In an extreme
emergency, use water from a
farm pond, irrigation system, or
watering trough to rinse exposed
areas and dilute the pesticide.
• Never try to give anything by
mouth to an unconscious person.
• Do not induce vomiting unless
the label tells you to.
• If inhalation exposure has
occurred, get the victim to fresh
air immediately.
• Become familiar with the proper
techniques of artificial respi-
ration. It may be necessary if a
person's breathing has stopped
or becomes impaired.
• If first responders are likely to be
directly exposed to a pesticide,
be sure they wear appropriate
PPE.
In addition to the AAPCC, you can
call the National Pesticide Information
Center (NPIC). NPIC provides a
variety of information about pesticides
to anyone in the United States by
phone (800-858-7378 or online (search
for "National Pesticide Information
Center"). Post all emergency numbers
near telephones and in service vehicles
used by pesticide handlers.
Pets, horses, and other livestock
may also be poisoned by exposure to
pesticides. For emergency information
on treating pets or livestock harmed by
pesticide contamination or poisoning,
call the Animal Poison Control Center
(888-426-4435).
Pesticide on the Skin
Proper hygiene helps protect the
skin from pesticide exposure. Keep
an adequate water supply with you
whenever skin exposure is possible.
Other key points:
• Remove all contaminated
clothing immediately.
• Wash the affected area, including
the hair, with water and soap.
Rinse well. Showering is better
than bathing to avoid prolonged
contact with pesticide residues.
Avoid harsh scrubbing, which
could damage the skin and
enhance pesticide absorption.
• Gently dry the affected area
and wrap it in loose cloth or a
blanket, if necessary.
• If the skin has chemical burns,
cover the area loosely with a
clean, soft cloth. Do not use
ointments, greases, powders,
and other medications unless
instructed to do so by a medical
authority.
Washing your -n
hands with water f \
and soap after H
using pesticides /
prevents skin J
contamination. f]\ J 7>\
rkx J
-------
Wash and store contaminated
clothing separately from the family
laundry If clothing is contaminated
with a pesticide concentrate or if there
is concern about getting contaminated
clothing clean, it is often best to dispose
of it. Place the clothing in a plastic bag,
seal the bag, and write the name of the
pesticide on it. Take it to a household
hazardous waste collection.
Pesticide in the Eyes
Because eyes readily absorb
material, fast action is required. Other
key points:
• Hold the eyelid open and imme-
diately begin gently washing the
eye with drips of clean water. Do
not use chemicals or drugs in the
wash water unless instructed to
do so by a medical professional
or a poison control center.
• Drip the water across—not
directly into—the eye, or use an
eyewash dispenser.
• Continuously rinse the eye for
15 minutes. If only one eye is
affected, be careful not to con-
taminate the other eye.
• Flush under the eyelid with
water to remove debris.
• Cover the eye with a clean
piece of cloth and seek medical
attention immediately.
Inhaled Pesticide
The basic first aid procedure for
someone who has inhaled a pesticide is
to get him or her to fresh air. Other key
points:
• Immediately carry the victim to
fresh air (do not allow him or her
to walk).
• Do not attempt to rescue
someone who is in an enclosed,
contaminated area unless you
are wearing appropriate PPE.
• If other people are in the area,
warn them of the danger.
• Have the victim lie down and
loosen his or her clothing.
• Keep the victim warm and quiet.
Do not allow him or her to
become chilled or overheated.
• If the victim is convulsing,
protect his or her head, turn
the head to the side, and watch
that breathing continues. Do
not attempt to insert anything
into the person's mouth during
a seizure.
• Keep the person's chin up to
ensure that air passages are open
for breathing.
• If breathing stops or is irregular,
give artificial respiration.
Pesticide in the Mouth or
Swallowed
If pesticide is in someone's mouth
but has not been swallowed, rinse the
mouth with plenty of water. Then
give the victim large amounts (up to 1
quart) of milk or water to drink. If the
pesticide is swallowed, one of the most
critical first aid decisions is whether
to induce vomiting. Induce vomiting
only if the label instructs you to do
so. Several pesticides cause more harm
when vomited than if they remain in
the stomach. To provide first aid for a
swallowed pesticide, you must know the
appropriate treatment. The decision to
induce vomiting must be made quickly
and accurately—the victim's life may
depend on it.
Never induce vomiting if the victim:
• Is unconscious or having con-
vulsions.
• H as swallowed a corrosive
poison, such as a strong alkali
or acid. The material burns the
throat and mouth as severely
coming up as it did going down.
Also, it can be aspirated into the
lungs and cause more damage.
• Has swallowed an emulsifiable
concentrate or oil solution
product, which is dissolved in
petroleum solvents. Emulsifiable
concentrates and oil solutions
may be fatal if aspirated into the
lungs during vomiting.
Note: Ipecac
syrup, used as an
emetic for almost
50 years, is
no longer
recommended
for routine use
in most
poisonings.
Clinical studies
have demon-
strated no benefit
from its use.
Ipecac works too
slowly (about
20 minutes) in
inducing vomiting
and results in
only about one-
third of stomach
contents being
voided.
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID
-------
How to Induce Vomiting
(if appropriate)
Induce vomiting only as a first aid
measure until you can get the victim to a
hospital. Do not waste a lot of time trying
to induce vomiting. Follow these steps:
• Make sure the victim is kneeling
forward or lying on his or her
side to prevent vomit from
entering the lungs and causing
additional damage.
• Give the victim at least two
glasses of water to dilute the
product. Do not use carbonated
beverages.
• Put your finger or the blunt end
of a spoon at the back of the
throat. Do not use anything
sharp or pointed. Do not give
the victim saltwater.
• Collect some of the vomitus for
the doctor, who may need it for
chemical analysis.
Activated charcoal is another first
aid treatment that can be administered
when a pesticide has been swallowed.
It acts as a magnet to adsorb many
chemicals. Pharmaceutical-grade acti-
vated charcoal is available from most
drugstores. Activated charcoal prepared
for cleaning up pesticide spills may
be substituted in an emergency. Seek
the advice of a medical professional or
poison control center before admin-
istering activated charcoal. Take the
victim to a physician or hospital.
Only general first aid practices have
been discussed here. Contact a poison
control center for more help in admin-
istering first aid. If necessary, get the
victim to a medical professional or hos-
pital. Take the pesticide label with you.
Antidotes
Antidotes are available for only a
few classes of pesticides: anticoagulant-
type rodenticides and organophosphate
or carbamate insecticides. Because
antidotes can be extremely dangerous
if misused, they should be prescribed
and administered only by a qualified
medical professional. Antidotes should
never be used to prevent poisoning.
HEAT STRESS
Avoid heat stress by taking
breaks and drinking water
throughout the workday.
Heat stress occurs
when the body
cannot cope with a
certain level of heat.
Heat stress may affect
both pesticide handlers
and other workers. A
person suffering from
heat stress exhibits
symptoms that closely
resemble poisoning
symptoms of some pesti-
cides. PPE worn during
handling or early-entry
activities may increase
the risk of heat stress.
The protective qualities
of the PPE may restrict
the evaporation of sweat,
thus impeding the body's
natural cooling system.
If you are under a physi-
cian's care, consult him
or her before working
in hot or humid conditions. Vests and
headbands with special pockets for ice
packs or other heat stress prevention
devices may be worn with or beneath
PPE. These will help maintain a cool
body temperature.
Symptoms of Heat Stress
Mild forms of heat stress make
people feel ill and impair their ability to
do a good job. You may feel weak and
get tired sooner than usual. You may
also be less alert and less able to use
good judgment. Severe heat stress, also
known as heatstroke, is life-threatening.
The normal human body temperature
ranges from about 97°F to 99°F, with
an average of 98.6°F. With heatstroke,
body temperature may exceed 105°F.
Staggering, loss of consciousness,
or convulsions may result. Lack of
sweating is a common symptom of
heatstroke. Brain damage or even death
^ CHAPTER 5
-------
may occur if the heatstroke victim is
not cooled down very quickly More
than 10% of severe heat stress victims
die—including young, healthy adults.
Sometimes victims remain highly sen-
sitive to heat for months and cannot
return to the same type of work.
Heat stress symptoms include:
• Fatigue, exhaustion, or muscle
weakness.
• Dizziness and fainting.
• Clammy or hot, dry skin.
• Altered behavior: confusion,
slurred speech, quarrelsome or
irrational conduct.
• Headache, nausea, and chills.
• Severe thirst and dry mouth.
• Heavy sweating: eventually, this
can progress to a complete lack
of sweating as the body loses the
ability to control its temperature.
Act immediately to cool down if
you suspect that you may be suffering
from even mild heat stress. Drink
plenty of water and take breaks in the
shade throughout the workday. In hot
conditions, watch for symptoms of heat
stress in other workers as well.
SUMMARY
Pesticide risk can be summarized by
the equation hazard (risk) = toxicity
x exposure. "Toxicity" is the capacity of
the pesticide to cause either short-term
(acute) or long-term (chronic) injury or
illness; "exposure" is the means by which
the pesticide gets into or onto the body.
These two factors determine the likeli-
hood that harm (i.e., hazard) will come
to a person who handles pesticides.
Harmful effects of pesticides may
occur at the area of local contact or
after uptake into the body (i.e., systemic
effects). Pesticides can enter the body
by any of four routes: through the skin
(dermal), eyes (ocular), lungs (respi-
ratory), or mouth (oral). Some adverse
effects may occur within 24 hours after
a single (usually large) exposure (acute
effects). Others may occur many years
after exposure (delayed effects), typically
from small exposures over a long period
(chronic effects). Pesticide handlers can
minimize exposure—and reduce risk—
by following label directions, using the
proper application and handling proce-
dures, and wearing appropriate personal
protective equipment.
The toxicity of a pesticide product
is measured in test animals by the
LD50 and LC50 values. These values
determine the signal word that occurs
on the pesticide label. Signal words—
DANGER-POISON, DANGER,
WARNING, and CAUTION—help
the user recognize how acutely toxic
the pesticide is and what precautions
to take. Remember, however, that the
signal word only provides information
about the acute toxicity of the product.
Chronic and delayed effects are often
the result of different mechanisms and
are not related to the substance's level of
acute toxicity.
People who use pesticides routinely
should have regular medical checkups
to determine if they are experiencing
any ill effects from pesticide use.
Regular monitoring of blood cholin-
esterase levels can determine if certain
insecticides are affecting an individual
before symptoms appear.
Early recognition of pesticide
poisoning symptoms is the key to pre-
venting further injury. The label often
provides important information on
first aid procedures for the particular
pesticide product. Make sure a copy of
the label is readily available whenever
you are using pesticides. Take the label
to a medical professional if a poisoning
incident occurs.
PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID £
-------
^ CHAPTER 5
-------
fPOUTOFfl
Danger
7'pEUGR0J
Review Questions
AND POCKET GOPHttS
raif OUIOf
10F CfKNBr
IOison oi.
' poison
':rjes
CIW««ieFL
CHAPTER 5: PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AlD
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your answers with those in Appendix A.
1. The capacity of a pesticide to cause short-
term (acute) or long-term (chronic) injury is
referred to as its:
A. Toxicity.
B. Exposure.
C. Hazard.
2. Which statement about harmful effects of
pesticides is false}
A. The most common form of pesticide injury
is by inhalation.
B. Asthma-like symptoms may be caused by
allergies to pesticides.
C. Many herbicides and fungicides cause
dermatitis (skin reactions).
3. Which signal word is associated with very low
oral LD50 values?
A. DANGER-POISON,
B. WARNING.
C. CAUTION.
4. Which statement about pesticide toxicity is true?
A. A pesticide with an oral LD50 of 5 mg/kg
is more toxic than a pesticide with an LD5Q
of 250 mg/kg.
B. Manufacturers are not required to include
chronic toxicity warning statements on
product labels.
C. The signal word on the product label
indicates how likely the product is to cause
both acute and chronic toxic effects.
6. Which statement about what happens to
pesticides inside the body is true?
A. Most pesticides used today are stored in
our body fat.
B. The kidneys filter pesticides from the
blood into the urine.
C. Most chemical breakdown of toxic
substances takes place wherever the
pesticide is first absorbed.
7. Which statement about pesticide exposure
routes is true?
A. Studies show that about 97% of all body
exposure to pesticides during a spraying
operation is by inhalation.
B. Eating, drinking, or smoking without
first washing your hands after handling
pesticides is likely to transfer the product
to your mouth.
C. The palms and forearms absorb pesticides
more quickly than the scalp, ear canal, and
forehead.
8. Which statement about first aid response for
pesticide exposure to the eye is false}
A. You should hold the eye open and
immediately begin gently washing it.
B. You should drip water directly into the eye.
C. You should flush under the eyelid with
water to remove debris.
continued
5. For which class(es) of pesticides might cholin-
esterase monitoring be appropriate?
A. Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides.
B. Pyrethroids.
C. Phenoxy herbicides, such as 2,4-D.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
9. What is the first thing you should do to help
a victim of inhalation exposure?
A. Get the victim to fresh air.
B. Administer artificial respiration.
C. Have the victim lie down and loosen
clothing.
10. Which statement about heat stress is true?
A. Wearing extra PPE prevents heat stress.
B. Constricted pupils is a symptom of
heatstroke.
C. Lack of sweat is a symptom of heatstroke.
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
CHAPTER 6
Personal Protective Equipment
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify where on the label to find the minimum clothing and
personal protective equipment (PPE) required to handle a given
pesticide product.
• State the criteria to properly select skin, eye, and
respiratory protection required by the pesticide label
based upon your expected use and exposure.
• List three work practices each for correct use of gloves,
footwear, and eyewear that minimize pesticide
exposure and contamination.
• List the signs of wear and tear, damage, or other PPE
failures that may expose you to pesticides.
• Explain the importance of wearing respiratory
protection devices approved by the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health.
• Tell when to replace particulate filters and chemical cartridges or
canisters on your respirator.
• Distinguish between a fit test and a seal check for tight-fitting
respirators.
• Describe how to clean and maintain pesticide-contaminated work
clothes and PPE.
• Describe how to dispose of PPE when necessary.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
The pesticide label prescribes handling
precautions, personal protective
equipment (PPE), and other safety mea-
sures to minimize your exposure while
handling pesticides. PPE comprises the
clothing and devices you wear to protect
your body from contact with pesticides.
Wearing PPE can reduce exposure
(dermal, inhalation, ocular, or oral)
and thereby lower the chances of pes-
ticide injury illness, or poisoning. Basic
protective work clothing consists of a
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
-------
long-sleeved shirt, long pants, closed-
toed shoes, and socks. PPE, as defined
by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), includes coveralls, apron,
gloves, footwear, headgear, eyewear,
and respirators.
It is important that all pesticide
applicators and handlers understand
the protections and limitations of
PPE. Although PPE may reduce your
exposure to pesticides, it does not
necessarily eliminate it. Proper PPE
selection, use, and care are essential.
The following are some good work
practices that you should always follow
when using pesticides.
GOOD WORK PRACTICES
It is important to take basic steps to
reduce exposure when you handle
pesticides or work in pesticide-treated
areas. Remember to use common
sense—no guidelines cover all situations.
Prevent oral exposure
• Never eat, drink, chew gum,
use tobacco products, or handle
cellphones while working with
pesticides. Contaminated hands
are a source of oral exposure to
pesticides.
Prevent dermal exposure
• Wash your hands before using
the toilet—the groin area readily
absorbs pesticide.
• Wear a minimum of a long-
sleeved shirt, long pants, and
closed-toed shoes.
• Do not wipe contaminated
gloves on your clothing—the
pesticide may seep through.
Prevent ocular exposure
• Wear protective eyewear to
protect from splashes, sprays,
mists, fogs and aerosols.
Prevent inhalation exposure
• Avoid breathing in dusts, spray
droplets, or vapors.
• Wear a respirator when needed,
even if the label does not
require it.
Decontaminate yourself and your PPE
• Wash your gloves with soap and
water before you take them off.
Remove them and wash your
hands and face.
• Immediately wash off any pes-
ticide that gets directly on you.
Remove and replace damaged or
contaminated clothing or PPE.
Have spare clothing available.
At the end of the day, wash or
replace contaminated PPE.
• Shower at the end of the workday.
Wash your hair and scalp and
under your fingernails. Put on
a complete change of clothing
after you shower.
• Launder your work clothes
separately from non-work and
other clothes at the end of each
workday.
PROTECT YOURSELF FROM PESTICIDES
A pesticide label lists the minimum
PPE that an applicator, handler, and
early-entry worker must wear. Wearing
anything less is illegal and dangerous.
All pesticide handlers (e.g., applicators,
mixers and loaders, and flaggers) are
responsible for following the pesticide
label, including wearing PPE.
PPE requirements are typi-
cally listed under the "Precautionary
Statements" section of the pesticide
label. If you work in or on a farm, forest,
nursery, or greenhouse, look for addi-
tional PPE requirements listed in the
"Agricultural Use Requirements" box
on the label. Also, always check to see
-------
if state regulations are more restrictive
than label requirements. For example,
a label may allow you to wear less
PPE when engineering controls (e.g.,
enclosed cab) are used, but the state,
tribal, or territorial pesticide regulatory
agency may prohibit this practice.
Additionally, some states have more
restrictive occupational health and
safety regulations specific to pesticide
applicators or to protect commercial
sector workers, such as landscapers or
pest management professionals. When
a state, tribal, or local regulation is
more restrictive than federal pesticide
laws, it must be followed.
Under EPA's Worker Protection
Standard (WPS; 40 CFR Part 170),
agricultural employers are legally
required to provide PPE that is in good
working order. They also must train
pesticide handlers on the use proper use
and maintenance of label-required PPE.
PPE label requirements vary,
depending upon the toxicity, formu-
lation, dilution, and route of exposure
of the pesticide product and
activity. For example, a single
label may have one set of
PPE requirements for
applicators and a different
set for agricultural early-
entry workers going
into areas during the
restricted-entry interval.
Even very low hazard pes-
ticides require a long-sleeved
shirt, long pants, shoes, and
socks.
Consider all work situations
where using PPE may be hazardous.
Be careful around moving equipment
parts (such as a power takeoff unit)
that can catch apron strings. Protective
clothing can restrict evaporation of
sweat, thus impeding the body's natural
cooling system and causing heat-related
illnesses, including heat stress (see
Chapter 5, Pesticide Hazards and First
Aid, for more information).
Posted field during
the restricted-entry
interval.
EXAMPLE PPE STATEMENTS ON A LABEL
Personal Protective Equipment
All mixers, loaders, applicators, and other handlers
must wear:
• Long-sleeved shirt and long pants.
• Shoes and socks.
• Nitrile rubber, butyl rubber, barrier laminate, or
Viton® gloves.
• Protective eyewear (goggles or face shield).
• Chemical-resistant apron when mixing or loading,
cleaning up spills or equipment, or otherwise
exposed to the concentrate.
Agricultural Use Requirements
PPE required for early entry to treated areas as per-
mitted under the Worker Protection Standard and
that involves contact with anything that has been
treated (such as plants, soil, or water) includes:
• Coveralls over short-sleeved shirt and short pants.
• Nitrile rubber, butyl rubber, barrier laminate, or
Viton® gloves.
• Shoes plus socks.
• Protective eyewear.
Chemically
resistant
apron
Goggles
Respirator
Coveralls
4-Chemically
P resistant
gloves
Wide brim
hat
/Chemically
resistant
tT boots
Wearing appropriate types of personal
protective equipment (PPE) can greatly
reduce the risk of pesticide exposure.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
-------
PROTECT YOUR BODY
At a minimum wear a
long-sleeved shirt, long
pants, shoes, and socks
when working around
pesticides.
A well-designed coverall makes it
hard for pesticides to get through
to your inner clothing or skin.
CHAPTER 6
Different types of clothing, aprons,
hats, boots, and gloves are not
equally protective against all pesticides
and under all conditions. For PPE to be
protective, it must:
• Shield your skin (head, face,
neck, trunk, arms, legs, and feet)
from exposure throughout the
pesticide-handling activity
• Be durable and resist punctures
and tears during normal use.
• Be comfortable enough without
restricting your movement so
you will wear it.
To protect your skin, your nor-
mal work clothing must cover most of
your body. Depending on the product's
toxicity and use, other PPE (such as
coveralls, apron, hat, boots, and gloves)
may also be required. Protective cloth-
ing, gloves, and boots must provide a
barrier for the duration of the task when
you are exposed to a pesticide. Labels
may require waterproof gloves or boots.
Additionally, chemical-resistant gloves,
aprons, hats, boots, or suits are required
on some labels. EPA defines "chemical
resistant" as preventing any
measurable amount of mate-
rial from moving through
(breaking through) the fabric
or material. Things that can
affect the extent of break-
through are contact time,
concentration, temperature,
and the product itself. When
selected correctly, protective
clothing reduces the risk of
dermal exposure but does not
eliminate it.
Work Clothing
Your work clothes provide
a basic barrier to minimize
pesticide contact with your
skin. Always wear—at a min-
imum—a long-sleeved shirt,
long pants, closed-toed shoes,
and socks whenever you handle
pesticides or work around
pesticide residues. Select work
clothes made of tightly woven fabrics to
reduce pesticide penetration. Make sure
they are free of holes and tears. Fasten
the shirt collar completely to protect
the lower part of your neck.
Do not use these work clothes for
anything other than handling pesti-
cides. Store and launder fabric work
clothing separately from all other
clothing after each day's use. See
"Maintaining Clothing and Personal
Protective Equipment" at the end of
this chapter for details on cleaning
and disposing of pesticide-soiled work
clothes.
Good work practices—basic work clothes
• Always wear at a minimum a
long-sleeved shirt and long pants.
• Make sure work clothes are suf-
ficiently durable.
• Wash work clothes at the end
of the day, separate from other
clothing.
Coveralls
Some pesticide labels require cov-
eralls (a second layer of clothing) over
work clothes. According to regulations,
coveralls must be loose-fitting, one-
or two-piece garments that cover the
entire body except head, hands, and
feet. A coverall can be made of woven
(like cotton or twill) or nonwoven fab-
rics. It should be either easy to clean
and sturdy enough for laundering and
repeated use or disposable. Wearing
a disposable coverall reduces decon-
tamination time and lowers the risk
of contaminating yourself, your appli-
cation equipment, and your vehicle.
Disposable coveralls differ in their level
of protection. Most importantly, wear-
ing coveralls lessens the chance that
you will take pesticides home. Handle
disposable coveralls carefully so as to
not contaminate other people.
Very few pesticides require a chem-
ical-resistant coverall. If one is required,
work with your PPE supplier to find
a coverall that provides the necessary
level of protection based on the tasks
-------
you perform, the product formulation,
and exposure.
Good work practices—coveralls
• Make sure coverall is durable and
does not rip, tear, or puncture
easily.
• Wash before reuse; do not wash
with other laundry.
• Protect from excess heat (condi-
tioning, hydration, and cooling)
when wearing additional layers
of clothing.
Apron for Mixing
Some pesticide labels require you
to wear a chemical-resistant apron when
mixing or loading a pesticide, or when
cleaning application equipment. Select
aprons that cover the front of your body
from the middle of the chest to the knees.
Good work practices—apron for mixing
• Select aprons that cover the front
of your body from the middle of
the chest to the knees.
Choose a chemical-resistant apron that
extends from your neck to at least your knees.
Headgear for Overhead
Applications
If an overhead application may
result in exposure, a pesticide label may
require chemical-resistant headgear.
This headgear must protect against
sprays so that no liquid breaks through
the hat or hood. You may use either a
chemical-resistant hat with a wide brim
or a hood. Hoods attached to jackets or
suits protect your neck and back from
pesticide sprays that might otherwise
run down your back. Wash headgear
at the end of the day. When making
overhead applications, do not use
headgear made of absorbent material,
such as cotton, leather, or straw.
Good work practices—headgear for
overhead exposures
• Cotton ball caps absorb pes-
ticides. Do not wear them if
overhead exposure is a concern.
Footwear
Many pesticide labels require
you to wear shoes and socks. Make
sure the shoes have closed toes.
However, some product labels
require you to wear chemical-
resistant footwear. A heavy-duty
pair of unlined rubber boots or
shoe covers provides protection
from pesticides. Wash them inside
and out at the end of the day. Leather
and canvas absorb pesticides and can-
not be decontaminated. Regulations
allow you to substitute leather for
chemical-resistant boots only when the
chemical-resistant footwear required by
the pesticide label is not durable enough
for use in rough terrain. Do not use
these boots for other purposes.
Good work practices—footwear
• Never wear open-toed shoes or
sandals when applying pesticides.
• Wear heavy-duty rubber boots that
extend past your ankle and at least
halfway up to your knee if you will
enter or walk through treated areas
before spray has dried.
• Put your pant legs outside your
boots to prevent pesticides
from running down your legs
and becoming trapped in your
footwear.
• Do not use footwear used for apply-
ing pesticides for anything else.
• Do not wear work footwear home.
Clothes made of cotton,
leather, or canvas are not
chemically resistant, even
to dry formulations.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
-------
FOLLOW
THE LABEL
CAREFULLY
Know which
particular gloves
are required. For
most products, a
waterproof glove is
sufficient. However,
if the label requires
a specific glove
type and you wear
the wrong one, the
glove may degrade
quickly from the
solvents in the for-
mulated product.
Gloves
Pesticide handlers get by far the
most exposure from pesticides on their
hands and forearms. Research has
shown that workers mixing pesticides
received 85% of the total exposure on
their hands and 13% on their forearms
(see Figure 6.1). The same study showed
that wearing protective gloves reduced
exposure by 99%. Protective gloves are
essential to dermal protection.
Pesticide labels often require
waterproof gloves or one of the fol-
lowing glove types: nitrile rubber,
butyl rubber, neoprene rubber, bar-
rier laminate, and Viton®. Each glove
type varies significantly in how well
it protects from the different solvents
in formulated products. For this
Addled Protection from Exposure
Provided by Wearing Gloves
¦o
CD
+¦"
u
(1)
+¦>
at
Q
a>
TS
£ 3
y, g-
© B,
a.
c
3
O
50
40
30
20
10
0
~ gloves
~ no gloves
glyphosate chlorpyrifos
Pesticide Type
I bo
200
150
100
50
0
2, 4-D
Figure 6.1
Farmers who wore gloves while applying pesticides reduced their risk
of exposure {The Farm Family Exposure Study, John Acquavella).
REFERENCE CHART FOR GLOVES*
Category A Any waterproof material
Category B ONLY butyl rubber or barrier laminate
Category C Butyl rubber, nitrile, neoprene, polyvinyl
chloride, barrier laminate, or Viton®
Category D ONLY butyl rubber or barrier laminate
Category E Nitrile, neoprene, barrier laminate, or Viton®
Category F Butyl rubber, nitrile, barrier laminate,
or Viton®
Category G ONLY barrier laminate or Viton®
Category H ONLY barrier laminate or Viton®
*Two or more hours contact
reason, it is important to read each
label to determine which glove type is
appropriate. The glove type varies from
product to product, even those with
similar active ingredients.
The solvent in a pesticide for-
mulation determines the protective
glove type. Pesticide labels require
either waterproof gloves (for solid or
water-based formulations) or chemical-
resistant gloves for the various solvents
(e.g., alcohols, ketones, and petroleum
distillates) used in different formula-
tions. For liquid products with a solvent
other than water, EPA requires the label
to specify particular glove materials that
provide protection. Note that labels that
have not been recently updated may still
refer to a solvent category (A through
Ft) in the EPA Chemical Resistance
Category Selection Chart for Gloves.
Read the label carefully to make
sure you have the correct protective
glove material. Explain to your supplier
which glove types you need.
Some pesticide labels specify both
the glove material and its thickness. As
a general rule, the thicker the glove (of
the same material under identical con-
ditions), the longer the breakthrough
time. A pesticide label's specification
of glove type is generally based upon a
thickness of 14 mils, except for polyeth-
ylene and barrier laminate gloves. Use
the 14 mils thickness as a rule of thumb
when selecting glove materials that
appear on the pesticide label.
Glove durability is another impor-
tant consideration. Select a glove that
is protective, does not tear or puncture
easily, and protects you for the duration
Nitrile and butyl rubber gloves.
Edward Crow, Maryland Department of Agriculture
CHAPTER 6
-------
of the task. Discard the gloves if there
is any sign of wear or if the gloves leak.
Do not use gloves made of any
kind of absorbent material, lining, or
flocking, including leather or cloth
(exception: cloth gloves are used with
fumigants). These types of gloves absorb
pesticide and trap it closely against
your bare skin, greatly increasing skin
absorption.
Choose a glove size that fits you
comfortably. Gloves that fit well provide
increased dexterity for equipment
maintenance or calibration. Gloves
that are too tight stretch the material,
allowing pesticides to break through.
Gloves that are too large can get caught
in equipment. And gloves that are too
loose may allow pesticides to run down
the inside and be directly absorbed by
your skin.
Select gloves designed to give
you extra protection when needed for
the job, such as elbow-length gloves
when mixing and loading. Wear gloves
according to how you are applying the
pesticide. Do not use a glove beyond the
breakthrough time.
When using reusable gloves, rinse
them at each break and wash them
thoroughly at the end of the workday.
Absorbed pesticides will continue to
permeate the material if not cleaned.
Make sure your gloves are in top con-
dition. Throw out any gloves showing
wear. Check glove integrity before each
use. Rinse disposable gloves before dis-
carding them.
Good work practices—gloves
• Wear waterproof or chemical-
resistant gloves when applying
pesticides. Although pes-
ticide labels do not always
specifically require gloves,
wearing them reduces
your exposure (exception:
when handling fumigants).
Check gloves closely for
holes by filling the gloves
with clean water and gently
squeezing. Discard them if
you find any leakage.
Wear gloves whenever
you might get pesticides
or residue on your hands,
such as when cleaning
sprayer nozzles or working
around contaminated equipment
or surfaces.
Wear gloves according to the
type of arm movements you
make when handling pesticides
(see Figure 6.2).
Wash your gloves before taking
them off between tasks.
If pesticide is spilled, splashed,
or gets inside your gloves, take
them off immediately. Wash
your hands and put on a clean
pair of gloves.
Replace your gloves immediately
if they get cut, torn, or damaged.
If making several applications
during the day, change out
gloves between jobs to avoid
contaminating yourself and your
vehicle.
Figure 6.2
Wear gloves according to
how you are applying the
pesticide: (1) sleeves over
gloves for jobs where your
hands are mostly lowered,
(2) gloves outside your
sleeves with cuff folded
up 7 or 2 inches when
spraying above your head.
PROTECT YOUR EYES
Eyes readily absorb pesticides.
When a label says to wear protec-
tive eyewear, you may use goggles; a
face shield; safety glasses with shields
at the front, brow, and temple; or a
full-face respirator. Use common sense
and select eyewear that protects you
for the task at hand. Eyewear made of
impact-resistant material, such as poly-
carbonate, can protect you from flying
• Rin se and slash used gloves
before discarding.
objects, such as granular
pesticides. However, safety
glasses will not protect
your eyes from pesticide
splashes.
Products that are corrosive
to the eyes (e.g., Danger) require a
particular type of eyewear. For exam-
ple, goggles may be required when your
eyes may be exposed to liquids or par-
Tight-fitting goggles help
protect your eyes from
pesticide exposure.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
-------
ticulates during a certain application or
use. Wear tightly fitting goggles when
you are in high-exposure situations,
such as an open cab during an air-blast
application; applying mists, fogs, or
aerosols indoors; or in any other loca-
tion where you will be enveloped in a
spray, mist, or dust. Make sure goggles
are splash- and spray-proof and have an
air baffle system for airflow and no side
vents. If fogging is a problem, use anti-
fog lens treatments or purchase low-fog
goggles.
If your eyewear has a headband
that is made of pesticide-absorbent
material, change it often or use a rub-
ber strap. If possible, wear the strap
under your hat or hood to protect it
from becoming contaminated.
Protective eyewear can be worn
with a half-face respirator. If you wear
eyeglasses, you can buy an eyeglass insert
for your full-face respirator that is fitted
with your prescription. People who wear
contact lenses should consult an eye doc-
tor or their medical professional before
using pesticides or wearing respirators.
Good work practices—eyewear
• Minimum eyewear is safety
glasses with shields at the front,
brow, and temple.
• If goggles are required, have an
eyewash dispenser immediately
available.
• Consult an eye doctor if you
wear contact lenses.
PROTECT YOUR RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
When you use pesticides, you may
be exposed to toxic gases, vapors,
particulates (solids or liquids), or all of
these. A respirator is a safety device
that protects you from inhaling con-
taminated air. The pesticide label states
whether you must use a respirator and
if so, which type. The respirator type
is based on the pesticide formulation,
application method, and environment
where the application is made.
The National Institute for Occu-
pational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
certifies that respirators have been
tested according to certain standards.
The NIOSH approval of a respirator
indicates that it protects the wearer
against specified contaminants. All
respirator manufacturers issue approval
certificates with a chart of all of the
components considered part of the
approved assembly. Respirator approv-
als are manufacturer-specific: do not
interchange parts, cartridges, or filters
between different manufacturers' units.
These certificates are typically package
inserts with new respirators, cartridges,
and filters.
Find out if there are federal, state,
tribal, or territorial health and safety
regulations that stipulate proper respi-
rator selection, care, and use.
TYPES OF RESPIRATORS
Atmosphere-supplying respirators
Supplied-air respirator
Self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA)
Air-purifying respirators
Non-powered particulate respirators
Powered air-purifying respirators
(PAPR)
Chemical cartridge respirators (half
facemask and full facemask)
Gas masks with canisters
Self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA).
Supplied-air
respirator.
^ CHAPTER 6
-------
There are other respirators on the
market that are not NIOSH-approved,
such as nuisance dust masks and some
surgical masks. When a respirator is
required for working with pesticides,
wear a NIOSH-approved device that is
listed on the label.
Types of Respirators
The two classes of respirators most
often required for protection from
pesticide exposure are atmosphere-
supplying and air-purifying respirators.
Atmosphere-supplying respirators
provide clean, breathable air from an
uncontaminated source. Examples are
airline respirators and self-contained
breathing apparatus. In very specific
uses, such as using phosphide fumigants
in enclosed areas, the environment may
be immediately dangerous to life and
health. In these cases, the only kind
of atmosphere-supplying respirators
that may be used are either a pressure-
demand self-contained breathing appa-
ratus (SCBA) with a full facepiece or a
pressure-demand full facepiece air-line
respirator with an SCBA escape bottle
for emergencies.
Air-purifying respirators (APRs)
remove contaminants from the air
that you breathe. These respirators do
not supply oxygen and should never be
used in an environment that has limited
oxygen or is immediately dangerous to
life or health.
Air-purifying respirators may be
either powered or nonpowered.
• Powered air-purifying respi-
rators (PAPRs) use a blower to
pass contaminated air through
purifying elements. PAPRs are
available with a tight-fitting
facepiece or a loose-fitting hood.
• Nonpowered air-purifying respi-
rators have tight-fitting facepieces
that seal directly to your face.
There are single-use particulate-
filtering facepiece respirators
and half-masks and full facepiece
SAMPLE PESTICIDE LABEL LANGUAGE
Wear a NIOSH-approved respirator with an organic vapor
(OV) cartridge with any combination N, R, or P filter with
NIOSH approval number prefix TC-84A; or a NIOSH-approved
powered air-purifying respirator with OV cartridge and
combination HE filter with NIOSH approval number prefix
TC-23C; or a NIOSH-approved gas mask with an OV canister
with NIOSH approval number prefix TC-14G.
masks with replaceable purifying
elements. Gas masks, which use
canisters instead of cartridges,
are one type of APR.
Purifying Elements for
Air-Purifying Respirators
When selected and used appro-
priately, purifying elements for
air-purifying respirators remove spe-
cific contaminants from the air passing
through them. The pesticide label spec-
ifies which type of purifying element
is required. Elements that remove par-
ticulates (e.g., dusts or sprays) are called
filters, while vapor- and gas-removing
elements are called either chemical car-
tridges or chemical canisters.
Particulate Filters
Particulate filters remove dusts,
aerosols, or sprays suspended in the air
that you breathe. Particulate filters DO
NOT remove gases or vapors. The type
of filter required on the pesticide label
depends on whether the respirator is
powered or nonpowered.
• PAPR particulate filters are
rated "High Efficiency." When
a PAPR with a particulate filter
is required, the pesticide label
will specify this by the acronym
"HE."
• Nonpowered APR particulate
filters are NIOSH-rated for
three levels of oil degradation
resistance (N, R, and P) and
three levels of filter efficiency
(95, 99, and 100). A higher effi-
ciency rating means lower filter
leakage.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
-------
Powered air-purifying
respirator (PAPR)
with particulate filter
(TC-21C).
OV
cartridge
Particulate
filter
Half face mask chemical
cartridge and particulate
filter (TC-84A).
Gas mask with canister
(TC-14G).
> N-series filters are not oil-
resistant.
> R-series filters are oil-resistant
for up to eight hours.
> P-series filters are oil-proof.
For a nonpowered APR, the pes-
ticide label specifies an N, R, or P filter
to be used with your respirator. N-series
filters must not be used with pesticide
mixes that contain oil because the fil-
ter's efficiency may become degraded
with use and fail to protect you. If you
add an adjuvant to a tank mix, do not
use an N-series filter as the adjuvant
may either contain oil or act like an oil.
The pesticide label may also specify
the filter efficiency (95, 99, or 100)
needed. For example, if the pesticide
label specified a filter efficiency of 100
for all three oil degradation ratings,
you could select an N100, R100, or
P100 filter. The class of the filter (such
as N95) will be clearly marked on the
filter, filter package, or respirator box.
Always change particulate filters
(HE, N, R, and P) for PAPR or non-
powered APR respirators whenever they
are damaged, torn, soiled, or it becomes
too difficult to breathe. As you use a
particulate filter, pesticides load on its
surface. Use caution when handling
soiled filters. Once a particulate filter
becomes dirty, it cannot be cleaned. To
avoid spreading pesticide contamination
to you or your respirator, discard par-
ticulate filters when they become soiled.
EPA regulations require that you
replace particulate filters according to
respirator manufacturer recommenda-
tions or pesticide labeling (whichever
is more frequent). If there are no other
use directions, dispose of particulate
filters at the end of eight hours of
cumulative use.
Chemical Cartridges or Canisters
Chemical cartridges or canisters
use sorbents to remove contaminant-
specific gases and vapors. They do not
remove particulates! The most typical
chemical cartridge or canister specified
by the label for pesticide applications is
an organic vapor removing (OV) car-
tridge or canister.
Always use the type of chemical
cartridge or canister purifying element
required by the pesticide label! Keep
purifying elements sealed until ready
to use. Although it is not a require-
ment, some respirator manufacturers
stamp the expiration date of purifying
elements on the outside of the product
package. Do not use a purifying ele-
ment after the expiration date, even if it
was never opened. The service life of a
chemical cartridge or canister depends
on the type and concentration of pes-
ticide, the user's breathing rate, and
humidity.
Chemical cartridge respira-
tors, when selected appropriately, are
essentially 100% efficient until the gas
or vapor breaks through. Any taste,
smell, or irritation indicates that break-
through of the pesticide has occurred.
Cartridges should be changed immedi-
ately whenever you detect breakthrough
in the mask. And once used, an organic
vapor cartridge must be disposed of
at the end of the day. The pesticide
trapped by the sorbent in the cartridge
may desorb very easily overnight. If you
were to use the cartridge the next day,
you could breathe in the desorbed pesti-
cide vapors. Always dispose of chemical
cartridges at the end of a workday unless
the manufacturer directs otherwise.
GOOD WORKING PRACTICE
Make sure that the respirator pro-
tects you for the duration of use.
Replace cartridges if necessary.
Always dispose of chemical car-
tridges at the end of the workday
unless the manufacturer directs
otherwise and as allowed by state,
tribe, or territory regulations.
Combination Chemical Cartridge
and Particulate Filters
The pesticide label may direct you
to use both a chemical cartridge or can-
ister and a particulate filter. You have
two options:
• A chemical cartridge or canister
with a disposable N, R, or P
filter using a retaining ring.
^ CHAPTER 6
-------
NIOSH DESIGNATIONS FOR RESPIRATORS
TC-84A: Filtering facepiece respirators (N, R, or P)
APR with particulate filters (N, R, or P)
APR with combination chemical cartridge and particulate filter (N, R, or P)
TC-21C: Powered air-purifying respirator with particulate filter (HE)
TC-23C: APR with chemical cartridges
PAPR with chemical cartridges
PAPR with combination chemical cartridge and particulate filter (HE)
TC-14G: Gas mask with or without particulate filter (N, R, or P)
Tight-fitting PAPR with gas canister with or without particulate filter (HE)
TC-13F: Self-contained breathing apparatus
Supplied-air respirator with a self-contained escape bottle
TC-19C: Supplied-air respirator
• A single combination cartridge
or canister.
The combination chemical car-
tridge or canister for nonpowered
air-purifying respirators will include
N-, R-, or P-rated filters. The combi-
nation chemical cartridges for powered
air-purifying respirators will include an
HE filter.
Follow the same change-out prac-
tices listed individually for particulate
filters and chemical cartridges. For
example, if you were using a combo
chemical cartridge with a P100 filter
and detected breakthrough in your
mask, you would change out your car-
tridges immediately even though the
filter was still useable.
Identifying the
Respirator Type from
the Pesticide Label
The respiratory protection re-
quired by the pesticide label is product-
and task-specific. The pesticide label
will typically cite respiratory protec-
tion required using a NIOSH "TC"
(Testing and Certification) designation.
The NIOSH designations correspond
to the types of respirators that may
be specified by the pesticide label and
include: TC-84A, TC-21C, TC-23C,
TC-14G, TC-13F, andTC-19C.
Use Tight-Fitting
Respirators Properly
Before selecting and using any
respirator, get a medical evaluation to
make sure wearing a respirator does not
endanger your health. Next, read and
understand the manufacturer's instruc-
tions and NIOSH approval certificate
that accompany the respirator and its
components.
For full protection, conduct a
fit test before wearing a tight-fitting
particulate-filtering facepiece, half
mask, or full-face mask. When wear-
ing a tight-fitting respirator, nothing
must interfere with the seal between
the surface of the mask and your face,
including beards and stubble.
Fit Tests—Fit testing is a
method to select the right
size and type of tight-
fitting respirator for your
face. Perform a qualitative
or quantitative fit test of a
given mask type on a user's
face to select the best-fitting
respirator. It is important to
get a fit test annually and
whenever you use a different
respirator facepiece. Get fit
tested again whenever some-
thing physically changes
that could affect the fit of
In a quantitative fit test, a
particle-counting instrument is
used to measure respirator fit
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT £
-------
Positive pressure seal check
Negative pressure seal check
Be sure to perform a seal
check each time you use
your respirator.
your respirator (e.g., facial scarring,
dental work, cosmetic surgery, or a
significant change in body weight).
A respirator cannot protect you
from pesticide exposure if it does
not fit your face.
> Qualitative fit test—A
method that uses a test agent
outside the mask to check for
leakage at the seal to the face.
Kits for qualitative testing are
available and easy to use.
> Quantitative fit test—A
method that uses instrumen-
tation to numerically measure
leakage into the respirator.
• User Seal Checks for Tight-Fitting
Respirators—Perform either
positive or negative user seal
check—preferably both—every
time you put on your mask to
make sure that it is properly
seated on your face. This also
ensures that all inhalation and
exhalation valves are functioning
properly.
> Positive-pressure user seal
check—Cover the exhalation
port with the palm of your
hand and lightly exhale into
the mask. You will feel air
escaping through any gaps in
your seal. Readjust the mask
until there is no leakage.
> Negative-pressure user seal
check—Cover or seal off the
surface or hose where air is
inhaled and suck in. If your
mask is properly sealed, it
should collapse on your face
with no signs of leakage in
the facepiece or hoses. If you
cannot get a seal, readjust the
mask until there is no leakage.
If you cannot get a proper fit with
a tight-fitting respirator, you can use
a PAPR with a loose-fitting helmet or
hoodlike head covering that does not
have to form a seal on your face. PAPRs
do not need a fit test, and people with
facial hair can use them.
Always consult the pesticide
label for the appropriate respirator
and purifying elements. If you have
any questions about your respirator,
consult the manufacturer or use
online resources. Be sure to review the
manufacturer approved labels for use
limitations of the respirator. Contact
your Cooperative Extension pesticide
safety education program or your
state, tribal, territorial, or federal
safety and health agency for help in
selecting the correct respirator and
any of its component parts.
MAINTAINING CLOTHING AND
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Wash pesticide-contaminated
items separately from other
laundry.
At the end of each workday, wash
all work clothes and PPE. Some
items, such as clothes and coveralls,
can be washed using a washer and
dryer. Other items, such as gloves,
protective suits, goggles, aprons,
boots, and eyewear, require hand
washing. Wear protective gloves
when handling contaminated items.
Rinse and discard disposable items.
Dispose of any nonreusable or con-
taminated item carefully to prevent
cross-contamination or contamina-
tion of others who might handle the
discarded item. Dispose of heavily
contaminated items as household
hazardous waste.
Woven Work Clothes and
Coveralls
Launder fabric coveralls and work
clothing after each day's use. Some
commonsense guidelines for cleaning
pesticide-soiled clothing include:
1. Outdoors, shake any dry material
from cuffs and pockets and then
hang garments to air them out.
2. Wash work clothes and coveralls
worn when handling pesticides
separately from other laundry.
3. Load only a few items into the
washing machine so there is
^ CHAPTERS
-------
plenty of agitation and water for
dilution.
4. Use hot water and the highest
water level.
5. Prerinse items by using the
prewash cycle.
6. Use heavy-duty liquid detergent.
7. Run the washer on the longest
wash cycle. Use two entire
machine cycles for lightly or
moderately contaminated items.
8. Properly handle and discard
heavily contaminated clothing.
9. Line dry laundered items out-
doors if possible.
10. Run one additional empty
cycle without clothing, using
detergent and hot water, before
using the washer for your
household laundry.
If using a laundry service, notify
them the clothing may be contami-
nated with pesticides.
Never wash any garments made
of absorbent materials that have been
splashed or soaked with undiluted
pesticide or large quantities of diluted
pesticide. Remember to remove them
immediately and dispose of them
carefully.
Discard contaminated PPE in the
appropriate container.
Nonwoven Clothing
Coveralls may be either a one-day
disposable item or a reusable garment.
For reusables, make sure to check the
PPE manufacturer's use limitations and
laundering instructions. Replace these
garments regularly and at any sign of
wear. If any PPE cannot be cleaned
properly, dispose of it according to
applicable federal, state, tribal, and local
regulations. Follow manufacturers'
instructions, if any, for the service life of
reusable nonwoven garments. Pay close
attention when reusing these items, and
be ready to change them whenever you
think that the inside surface may be
contaminated.
If using disposable garments,
render them unusable and discard. If
they are heavily contaminated with
high-risk pesticides, handle them appro-
priately and take them to a household
hazardous waste facility.
Boots and Gloves
Be sure to clean boots and gloves,
even if they are worn only briefly.
Before taking your gloves off, wash
them thoroughly. Wash both the
inside and outside of boots and gloves
once removed. Inspect these items and
discard if there is any sign of wear or if
they leak. Hang or leave to dry. Gloves
are not designed to be reused over
and over again. Replace them often
to ensure protection of your hands.
Properly cared for, boots should last
multiple seasons. Sun will degrade
rubber materials quickly, so store gloves
and boots out of the sun.
Eyewear and Respirators
Most eyewear, respirator bodies,
facepieces, and helmets are designed to
be cleaned and reused. These items can
last many years if they are good quality
and are maintained according to the
manufacturer's directions.
Respirators require more main-
tenance than most PPE. When you
have finished using your respirator,
remove and properly dispose of any
expendable components, such as filters,
cartridges, or canisters. Wash the
facepiece according to the respirator
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ^
-------
Clean goggles, face shields, and respirator
bodies and facepieces in detergent and
hot water.
SUMMARY
Wearing PPE can reduce the
potential for dermal, inhalation,
ocular, and oral exposure, thereby low-
ering the chances of pesticide injury,
illness, or poisoning.
Consult the pesticide label for
the minimum PPE required by law. In
order to appropriately select and wear
Personal hygiene is
critical. Wash your hands
every time you remove
your gloves. Shower at
the end of the day.
manufacturer's directions. Take care
to clean under and around gaskets and
valves. Allow to air dry. Store cleaned
respirators, as well as replacement
purifying elements, in a clean, dry
place that is not exposed to sunlight or
extreme temperatures. Make sure that
the rubber facepiece is not distorted
when stored so that it maintains its
shape.
Do not store any protective
equipment—including respirators—
with or near pesticides or other
chemicals.
PPE, you must understand both its
protections and its limitations. Then
determine what protective equipment
you need for the pesticide task at hand.
Personal protective equipment reduces
your exposure to pesticides but does not
necessarily eliminate it. Maximize your
safety by following certain good work
practices when using pesticides.
Contact your Cooperative Exten-
sion pesticide safety education program
for assistance in the selection, use, and
maintenance of PPE for handling pes-
ticides. Check the "Agricultural Use
Requirements" box on the label and the
WPS requirements for any other state-
ments about PPE use in farms, forests,
nurseries, or greenhouses.
-------
CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your answers with those in Appendix A.
1. Which statement about PPE requirements
listed on the pesticide label is true?
A. A label may have different PPE
requirements for pesticide handlers
and early-entry workers.
B. You are not required to wear all the
PPE listed on the label.
C. Wearing the PPE listed on the label
eliminates your exposure to pesticides.
2. Which part of the product formulation deter-
mines what glove type is needed?
A. Active ingredient.
B. Surfactants.
C. Solvents.
3. If there are no manufacturer use recommen-
dations, a pesticide applicator should replace
the chemical cartridges of his or her respirator:
A. At the end of each season.
B. After one week of use.
C. At the end of each workday.
4. When oil may be present, which particulate
filter must be used?
A. N-series.
B. P-series.
C. Dust mask.
6. You should do a qualitative fit test of your
respirator:
A. Every five years.
B. Semiannually.
C. If you have a significant change in weight.
7. Every time you wear any tight-fitting respira-
tor to apply pesticides, you should first:
A. Perform seal check(s).
B. Do a qualitative fit test.
C. Put Vaseline® on the edges of the
respirator to enhance the seal.
8. Which statement about washing work clothes
soaked with a pesticide concentrate is true?
A. Use cold water and one wash cycle.
B. Wash separately from other laundry items.
C. Do not attempt to wash it—dispose of it
immediately.
9. Work clothes worn to apply pesticides should
be laundered with a suitable detergent:
A. After each day's use.
B. After they get wet with spray
C. When they have a strong odor like the
pesticide.
5. Air-purifying respirators protect applicators
from pesticide exposure by:
A. Filtering and/or absorbing the pesticide.
B. Breaking down the pesticide.
C. Neutralizing the pesticide.
REVIEW QUESTIONS ^
-------
^ CHAPTER 6
-------
Pesticides in the Environment
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe how pesticide applications can affect the environment.
• Explain how to prevent pesticide drift, runoff, and movement to
nontarget areas.
• Identify sensitive areas that could be harmed by pesticides.
• Discuss how to prevent pesticide residue accumulation
associated with mixing, loading, and equipment washing.
• State when to adjust or delay an application to minimize
environmental impact and maximize effectiveness.
Applicators and the public share effects (such as contamination of ground-
concerns about how pesticides may water or toxicity to birds or aquatic
harm the environment. Initially hazards organisms) as reasons for restriction. To
to humans were the primary reason the register new pesticides, EPA requires
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency manufacturers to submit extensive envi-
(EPA) decided to classify a pesticide as a ronmental tests. The agency also reviews
restricted-use product. Now, more and environmental effects when reevaluating
more pesticide labels list environmental existing pesticide registrations.
THE ENVIRONMENT
The environment comprises every- that pesticide affects the environment,
thing that is around us. It includes Applicators must ask three questions:
not only the natural elements that the
word "environment" usually brings to
mind but also people, the manufactured
parts of our world, and the indoor areas
in which we live and work.
The environment is air, soil, water,
plants, animals, houses, restaurants,
office buildings, factories, and all
that they contain. Anyone who uses a
pesticide—indoors or outdoors, in a
city or on a farm—must consider how
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
• Where will the pesticide go after
it leaves its container or appli-
cation equipment?
• What effects could this pesticide
have on those nontarget sites it
may reach?
• What can I do to minimize
harmful effects?
-------
PESTICIDE CHARACTERISTICS
To understand how pesticides move
in the environment, you must
first understand certain physical and
chemical characteristics of pesticides
and how they determine a pesticide's
interaction with the environment.
These characteristics are solubility,
adsorption, persistence, and volatility
Solubility
Solubility is a measure of the ability
of a pesticide to dissolve in a solvent,
usually water. Pesticides that are highly
soluble in water dissolve easily. These
products are more likely than less-
soluble pesticides to move with water in
surface runoff or through the soil.
Photodegradation
Chemical
' ¦ I ¦
degradation
-------
Pesticide Breakdown
Several processes break down pes-
ticide compounds into simpler and often
less toxic chemicals. Some pesticides
break down very rapidly—in a matter of
days or even hours. Others linger in the
environment for a year or more.
Pesticides are broken down or
degraded by the following processes
(Figure 7.1):
• Chemical degradation—the
breakdown of chemicals that do
not involve living organisms,
usually by a chemical reaction
with water.
• Microbial action—the break-
down of chemicals by soil
microorganisms, such as fungi
or bacteria.
• Photodegradation—the break-
down of chemicals in reaction to
sunlight.
Water and temperature both affect
the breakdown of pesticides. Warm,
wet conditions can increase the speed
of pesticide breakdown; cool, dry
conditions slow down the degradation
process.
Volatility
Volatility is the tendency of a pes-
ticide to turn into a gas or vapor. Some
pesticides are more volatile than others.
The chance of volatilization increases
as temperatures and wind increase.
Volatility is also more likely under
conditions of low relative humidity
because evaporation increases in drier
conditions.
HOW PESTICIDES MOVE IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Pesticides may move from the tar-
geted application site in several ways:
in air, in water, attached to soil particles,
and on or in objects (see Figure 7.2).
Movement in Air
Pesticide movement away from
the application site by wind or air cur-
rents is called drift. People who mix,
load, and apply pesticides outdoors are
usually aware of how easily pesticides
may drift offsite. Those who handle
pesticides indoors may not realize how
readily some pesticides move offsite in
the air currents created by ventilation
systems and by forced-air heating and
cooling systems. Pesticides may travel
offsite as spray droplets, vapors, dusts or
solid particles, and even on blowing soil
particles.
Movement in Water
Most pesticide movement in water
is either by surface movement off the
treated site (runoff) or by downward
movement through the soil (leaching).
Runoff and leaching may occur when:
• Too much pesticide is applied or
spilled onto a surface.
• Too much rainwater or irrigation
water moves pesticide through the
soil offsite or into groundwater.
• Highly water-soluble or per-
sistent pesticides are used.
Runoff water in an outdoor envi-
ronment may move into drainage
systems, streams, ponds, or other
surface water, where the pesticides can
travel great distances. Pesticides that
leach downward through the soil may
reach groundwater.
In an indoor environment, water
containing pesticides can flow into floor
drains and contaminate water systems.
A careless act, such as dumping a pes-
ticide or rinsate down a sink or toilet,
may contaminate an entire sewage or
water-treatment facility.
Some pesticides can leach indoors.
In a greenhouse, for example, pesticides
may leach through the soil or other
planting medium and contaminate
other greenhouse surfaces.
Look for special instructions on
the label that warn of pesticide hazards
caused by the movement of pesticides in
water. Sometimes labels require buffers
or setbacks from water and wells.
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT ^
-------
¦t-
' \T 4 ////.'i ^N /V//.'i \\ws
/V •!' /'//'//j •¦\\\\ /'//'//; 1 \\'\\\_^ ,-v
Evaporat\oniyolati/it?4i \\v^ti9i^/// |Vj \V*a)v Drift
\ '(/'// /' i ! i»\ \^pKay/ aV i//kA\\
Photo
degradation
' / / i i \ \ \$pfay/
¦\ \ .a, / i i i . i \ \ 'vA„Ay /
r '¦! >'/i/ ' ' ' ' ' 1 y\'A-/\ I
S91I sArfSajte / / J : '.A A A ,
-------
excellent options because they reduce
the amount of droplets prone to drift
during an application.
A droplet size classification system
can help describe the droplet sizes
produced by a nozzle. This standard
(S-572.1—Spray Nozzle Classification
by Droplet Size), established by the
American Society of Agricultural
and Biological Engineers, classifies
nozzles into eight categories (see
Table 7.1). Using these categories, you
can select a nozzle, orifice size, and
operating pressure that produce a label-
recommended droplet size spectrum.
Consult the label for the droplet size
specifications that may be in place for a
particular application.
Other Factors
The thickness of the liquid also
affects droplet size. As the thickness
increases, so does droplet size, thus
reducing the chance of off-target
movement. Fine spray droplets may
begin to evaporate before reaching
their target. These droplets become
very small and light and may move
offsite. Modern drift control additives
will decrease drift potential without
dramatically shifting the droplets to
a larger size. Remember, however, to
always follow the label directions about
using a spray adjuvant intended to min-
imize drift. Some drift control additives
may actually increase the drift potential
of an applied tank mix. Also be aware
that large spray droplets may reduce
coverage, resulting in less pest control.
Wind speed and direction are
the most important environmental
factors influencing spray drift. Labels
may indicate maximum and minimum
wind speeds for application. Except in
the case of temperature inversions (see
below), the early morning and evening
are often the best times to apply pesti-
cides. This is because windy conditions
are more likely to occur around midday,
when the temperature near the ground
increases. This causes hot air to rise
quickly and mix rapidly with the cooler
ASABE STANDARD S-572.13
SPRAY DROPLET SPECTRUM CATEGORIES
Table 7.1
Spray Droplet Spectrum
Categories.
Category13
Symbol
Color Codec
Extra Fine
(XF)
Purple
Very Fine
(VF)
Red
Fine
(F)
Orange
Medium
(M)
Yellow
Coarse
(C)
Blue
Very Coarse
(VC)
Green
Extra Course
(XC)
White
Ultra Coarse
(UC)
Black
a Revised 2009. This standard defines droplet spectrum categories for the classification of spray
nozzles relative to the specified reference fan nozzle. The purpose of classification is to provide
the nozzle user with droplet size information primarily to indicate off-site spray drift potential
and secondarily for application efficacy,
b Please refer to product label for specific guidelines on a droplet spectrum category required for
a given application scenario.
c Nozzle manufacturers will provide information necessary to place their nozzle types into a
droplet spectrum category based at least on orifice size and pressure. The color code is also
standard.
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT ^
-------
air above it, favoring drift. The best
time to spray is when spray droplets
move slowly upward in the absence of
windy or inversion conditions.
Low relative humidity and/or
high temperatures also can increase
the potential for spray drift. Under
these conditions, the evaporation rate
of water increases, resulting in smaller
spray droplets that drift more easily.
Avoid spraying during these times.
The height at which the pesticide is
released above the ground or target may
also affect drift. Applications that use
large droplets close to the ground often
produce little drift. Aerial spraying and
tall tree spraying, on the other hand,
are more likely to produce spray drift
because they intersect large distances
of air far from the ground. Drift from
boom sprayers can be reduced by low-
ering the boom height to within 20 to
24 inches of the target crop.
Decrease outdoor drift by:
• Spraying when the wind speed is
between 3 and 10 miles per hour.
• Spraying downwind from sen-
sitive areas, such as residential
properties, schools, crops,
waterways, or beehives.
• Using proper nozzles and pres-
sures.
• Using drift control additives (if
appropriate).
• Lowering boom height.
• Leaving an untreated border
or buffer area in the downwind
target area.
To reduce drift indoors, pest
control operators must consider the air
circulation patterns inside buildings.
Turn fans and air conditioners off and
close vents where necessary to prevent
pesticides from drifting to other parts
of the building. Use low-volatile or
nonvolatile pesticides and low-pressure
treatments to reduce indoor pesticide
drift.
Temperature Inversions
Applications made under low-wind
conditions can sometimes produce
more extensive drift than under high
winds. Drift that occurs over long dis-
tances (more than a mile) is most often
the result of applications made during
a temperature inversion (under stable
atmospheric conditions).
A temperature inversion exists
when the air at ground level is cooler
than the air above it. Under these
conditions, the air is considered stable
because there is little or no vertical air
movement. Almost all air movement
during an inversion is sideways (lateral).
This causes a high concentration of
small spray droplets to be suspended in
this layer of cool air near the ground.
These droplets can then be carried
long distances, especially if wind speeds
increase. When the spray droplets settle
out, they may still be concentrated
enough to cause damage or harm.
Inversions may occur at any time
of the day and at any height above the
ground. However, they most often
develop during the early evening hours
as the ground temperature begins to
cool and the warm air has already risen.
Figure 7.3
Dispersion of
smoke particles
under normal
and inversion
conditions.
^ CHAPTER 7
air
Warm air
Normal Condition-
Smoke rises and disperses
-------
Inversion conditions intensify during
the night and may persist until mid-
morning, when the ground has warmed
enough to start the vertical mixing of
air (i.e., the wind starts to blow). This
causes a dilution and separation of sus-
pended spray droplets. Consequently,
applications made during early evening,
night, or morning hours under seem-
ingly ideal conditions may result in
highly damaging drift that can move
long distances. This is especially true
if the humidity is high. Such movement
could occur up to one to three hours
after the application.
You can recognize these stable air
conditions (inversions) by observing the
movement of dust or smoke. If dust or
smoke rises little from its source and
tends to hang in the air, an inversion
may be present or developing (see Figure
7.3). Another way to detecting inver-
sions is to place one thermometer at
ground level and a second thermometer
high above the ground. Then compare
the difference in temperature. If the
temperature at ground level is below
that found at the elevated thermometer,
a temperature inversion exists. Do not
apply pesticides under such conditions.
Vapor Drift
Vapor drift refers to the movement
of pesticides as gaseous vapors from the
target area. Some pesticides are volatile:
they change readily from a solid or
liquid form into a gas under the right
conditions. This usually occurs in hot
weather. Pesticides that have volatilized
into a vapor or gas may drift farther and
for a longer time than they would have
as spray droplets. Only those pesticides
that are able to volatilize are susceptible
to vapor drift. As air temperatures
increase, the likelihood that these
pesticides will volatilize and drift also
increases.
Whenever possible, choose a pes-
ticide formulated as a low-volatility
product. Do not apply volatile pesti-
cides on hot days. Some products may
even volatilize several hours after appli-
cation, so beware if high temperatures
are predicted for later in the day (Figure
7.4). Many product labels advise against
applying these products when tempera-
tures are at or above 85°F. Remember
to check label precautions for product-
specific concerns about vapor drift.
Particle Drift (Dust Drift)
Particle drift refers to the
movement of solid particles from the
target area in the air during or just after
an application. These solid particles
may include pesticides formulated as
dust or soil particles to which pesti-
cides are attached. Some pesticides can
remain active on soil particles long after
they are applied. If particles are blown
off the target site, sensitive areas may be
contaminated or damaged. To prevent
particle drift from outdoor pesticide
applications from entering nearby
buildings, be sure to close all windows
and vents. Turn off all circulating fans,
forced-air heating systems, and air-
conditioning units.
For indoor pesticide applications,
reduce particle drift by turning off
fans, forced-air heating systems, and
other air-circulating equipment. Check
pesticide labels for statements related to
these concerns.
Applicator Responsibility
As an applicator, you are legally
responsible for any damages result-
ing from the off-target movement of
pesticides. Assess the vulnerability
of neighboring properties and those
areas downwind of the application site.
Evaluate weather conditions for tem-
Figure 7.4
Vapor drift of pesticides
is more likely as heat
and wind increase and
the relative humidity
decreases.
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT ^
-------
application equipment to reduce spray
drift. Consider using low-volatile for-
mulations or adding a drift control
agent or thickener to help minimize
drift. (For further discussion on equip-
ment designed to minimize drift, see
Chapter 11, Pesticide Application
Procedures.) A good drift management
program includes a combination of all
drift reducing techniques available for a
particular application.
If you apply pesticides indoors, you
are also responsible for preventing drift.
Ensure that:
• Pesticides do not move beyond
the target site.
• All people and animals are
kept out of the treatment area
according to label instructions.
Particle drift in a field.
perature inversions, wind direction,
and wind speed before making the
all-important decision about whether
to spray. You may have to adjust your
SOURCES OF WATER CONTAMINATION
Surface water or groundwater con-
tamination results from either
point-source or nonpoint-source pol-
lution (see Figure 7.5). Nonpoint-source
pollution from pesticide applications is
usually blamed for pesticide contami-
nation of the outdoor environment.
However, studies show that water
contamination may also result from
point-source pollution.
Point-source pollution comes from
a specific, identifiable location, such as:
• A pesticide spill entering a storm
sewer.
• Back-siphoning of pesticides into
water supplies.
• Contaminated surface water
entering sinkholes.
• Repeated spilling of pesticides at
mixing and loading sites.
• Careless spilling of wash water at
equipment cleanup sites.
• Improper handling of spills and
leaks at storage sites.
• Improper disposal of containers,
rinsate from containers, and
excess pesticides.
Nonpoint-source pollution comes
from a widespread area. An example
is the movement of pesticides into
streams or groundwater after broadcast
applications to large agricultural fields,
rights-of-way, or turf areas.
Pesticide Contamination
of Surface Water
Surface water is often a source of
drinking water. Therefore, pesticide
contamination of surface water (such
as ditches, streams, rivers, ponds, and
lakes) is a health concern. Pesticides that
move in runoff water or with eroded
sediment may contaminate plants and
animals located downslope and reach
sources of surface water.
Factors affecting runoff and
erosion rates include slope, vegetative
cover, soil characteristics, volume
and rate of wrater moving downslope,
temperature, and rainfall amount and
intensity. These factors influence how
much water runs off and how much
moves into the soil (infiltration). In
urban areas, runoff may occur on hard
surfaces when granules are left on side-
walks and streets.
Runoff is a potential problem for
most outdoor application sites. In areas
CHAPTER 7
-------
Non-point-source Pollution
Point-source Pollution
treated with any type of pesticide, it is
critical that runoff does not carry the
pesticide into water sources or other
vulnerable areas.
Generally, runoff risk is greatest
when heavy rains immediately follow
pesticide applications or when the
ground is saturated or frozen. Although
surface waters are most likely to be con-
taminated by runoff, groundwater may
also be affected when surface streams
connect with shallow groundwater.
Pesticide Contamination
of Groundwater
Groundwater provides 70% of
the water used for public and private
water supplies, irrigation, and industry.
Like surface water, groundwater must
be protected from contamination.
Once groundwater is contaminated,
correcting the problem is difficult or
even impossible. Groundwater is found
underground in cracks in the bedrock
and in the spaces between soil particles,
gravel, and rocks. It is the source of
water for wells and springs.
The layer of soil, sand, gravel, or
fractured bedrock in which all available
spaces are filled with water is the satu-
rated zone. The boundary between
the saturated zone and the overlying
unsaturated rock and soil is known as
the water table. The overall geologic
formation from which groundwater
can be drawn is called an aquifer (see
Figure 7.6).
Leaching
Some pesticides reach groundwater
by moving through the soil in a process
called leaching. A pesticide that leaches
into groundwater must move down
through the soil in water and resist
binding to soil particles and breaking
down into nontoxic compounds.
Pesticides that have high solubility,
low adsorption, and/or are persistent
are more likely to leach. They typically
have a label statement describing these
concerns. A pesticide that adsorbs or
binds itself strongly to soil particles will
not leach as easily. Besides the charac-
teristics of the pesticide, soil properties
and environmental conditions also
affect whether and to what extent a pes-
ticide will leach.
Soil Properties
Four soil properties affect a pes-
ticide's potential for leaching: texture
and structure, organic matter, depth to
groundwater, and geology.
Texture and Structure
Soil texture is the relative pro-
portions of sand, silt, and clay-sized
particles. Percolating water moves
faster in sandy soils. Sand also has
fewer binding sites available for the
adsorption of dissolved chemicals
than do clay or silt soils. Though
sandy soils are more prone to pes-
ticide movement, leaching may also
occur in clay or silt soils.
Figure 7.5
Non-point-source
pollution comes from a
widespread area, while
point-source pollution
comes from a specific,
identifiable location.
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
aquifer
-pesticide-—""* • * soil
-------
Figure 7.6
Where groundwater
occurs.
or
Soil structure is the shape
arrangement of soil particles. It plays
a big role in determining the size and
shape of the pores through which water
moves. Small amounts of pesticides may
also move through soil cracks, worm
holes, and root channels. These features
are called macropores.
Organic Matter
Organic matter consists of decaying
plant material. The higher the soil organic
matter content, the greater the ability of
the soil to hold both water and adsorbed
pesticides. Pesticides held in the root zone
are less likely to leach into groundwater
and may be taken up by plants.
Depth to Groundwater
Areas with a shallow water table
have a greater chance for ground-
water contamination because less soil
is available to act as a filter. There are
fewer opportunities for pesticide deg-
radation or adsorption. When using
pesticides in areas where the ground-
water is close to the surface, choose a
product with a low leaching potential.
clay soil (small pores)
Table 7.2 Soil Properties
TEXTURE
(affects movement
of water particles)
ORGANIC CONTENT
(measures volume of
water and soil's ability
to adsorb pesticides)
PERMEABILITY
(measures speed of
water's downward
movement)
coarse
(sand)
low organic content=
faster water flow and
little adsorption of
pesticides
V
high
permeability
7 (fast flow)
smooth
(clay, silt)
high organic content=
higher water retention
and greater adsorption
of pesticides
1
V
low
permeability
r (slow flow)
OSU Pesticides and Groundwater Contamination
^ CHAPTER 7
-------
Take extra precautions during mixing,
application, and cleanup.
Geology
The permeability of the geologic
layers lying between the surface of the
soil and the groundwater is also an
important factor. Highly permeable
materials (such as gravel deposits)
allow water and dissolved pesticides to
move freely downward to groundwater.
Layers of clay, which are much less
permeable, can inhibit and slow the
downward movement of water.
PREVENTING SURFACE WATER AND
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
To help prevent surface water and
groundwater contamination, EPA
requires all pesticide products labeled
for outdoor uses to include the fol-
lowing environmental hazard statement
on the label:
"Do not apply directly to water,
or to areas where surface water is
present, or to intertidal areas below the
mean high water mark. Do not con-
taminate water supplies when cleaning
equipment or disposing of equipment
wash waters"
Pesticides that could contaminate
groundwater must bear groundwater
warning statements on their labels.
When such statements appear on
product labels, choose pesticides appro-
priate for use in sandy soils or where
extra precautions are needed to reduce
the risk of water contamination.
You can minimize the risk of point-
or nonpoint-source contamination by
following best management practices
(BMPs). BMPs are effective, com-
monsense procedures that emphasize
proper mixing, loading, application, and
disposal of pesticides. Following BMPs
reduces the chance that pesticides will
harm the environment.
Use Integrated Pest
Management Principles
Apply pesticides only when and
where necessary, and only in amounts
adequate to control pests. Use non-
chemical control methods whenever
possible. When using pesticides:
• Determine the type of pest, the
density of the pest population,
and the proper control method.
• If a pesticide is necessary, choose
the least toxic product that will
do the job.
• Calibrate pesticide application
equipment regularly.
• Use spot treatments or band
applications, if possible, to
reduce pesticide use.
Identify Vulnerable Areas
The presence of sandy soil, sink-
holes, wells, streams, ponds, and shallow
groundwater increases the chance of
groundwater contamination. Never
dispose of empty pesticide containers
in sinkholes, or dump or rinse sprayers
into or near sinkholes (see Chapter 10,
Planning the Pesticide Application).
Also take care to avoid contaminating
drainage ditches and other potential
sources of runoff to streams and
waterways. Never clean tanks or inten-
tionally discharge water from a tank of
any vehicle into a street, along a road, or
into a storm drain.
Do Not Mix and Load
Near Water
Mix and load as far as possible (at
least 50 feet) from wells, lakes, streams,
rivers, and storm drains. When pos-
sible, do so at the application site.
Consider using a sealed permanent or
portable mixing and loading pad to
prevent seepage into soil.
Keep Pesticides Away
from Wells
Do not store or mix pesticides
around wells. Poorly constructed or
improperly capped or abandoned wells
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT ^
-------
may allow surface water containing pes-
ticides and other contaminants direct
entry into groundwater. Note that wells
are sometimes located in or near treated
fields and other application sites.
pesticides and slow runoff water. This
allows more runoff water to infiltrate
the soil. Leaving untreated grass strips
next to streams, ponds, and other
sensitive areas can trap much of the pes-
ticide running off of treated areas.
Time Pesticide
Applications According
to the Weather Forecast
Pesticides are most susceptible to
runoff from heavy rains or irrigation
during the first several hours after
application. Do not apply to saturated or
frozen ground. To avoid overspraying
an area and causing drift, check the
pesticide label for application precau-
tions or restrictions during windy
conditions. Wind speed, temperature,
and humidity all affect the off-target
movement of pesticides.
Select Products Wisely
Whenever possible, use pesticides
that are less likely to leach. Read labels
for such warnings.
Handle Pesticides Safely
Follow these guidelines to prevent
surface water or groundwater contami-
nation:
• Immediately contain and control
pesticide spills.
• Check application equipment
regularly for leaks or damage.
• Mix and load pesticides away
from water sources.
• After the pesticide application is
complete, follow label directions
for proper equipment cleanup
and container disposal.
• After applying granular pesti-
cides, sweep or blow any granules
from sidewalks, driveways, or
patios onto the treatment area.
Whenever possible, clean sprayers
at the application site at a safe distance
from wells, ponds, streams, and storm
drains. Spray the rinsate on the treated
area or on another site listed on the pes-
ticide label, or use in the next tank mix.
Be sure not to exceed label rates.
Maintain an air gap
between the discharge
end of the water supply
line and the spray tank
to prevent backflow of
pesticides.
Use an anti-backflow
device (check valve) to
prevent back-siphoning.
Avoid Back-siphoning
Back-siphoning is the reverse flow
of liquids into a fill hose. It sucks tank
contents (including pesticides) back into
the water supply. Back-siphoning starts
with a reduction in water
pressure and can draw
very large quantities of
pesticide directly into
the water source. This
happens when the end
of the water hose is
allowed to extend below
the surface of the spray
mixture when filling a
spray tank. The simplest
way to prevent backflow
is to maintain an air gap
between the discharge end of the water
supply line and the pesticide solution
in the spray tank. An air gap prevents
contamination of the hose and keeps
pesticides from back-siphoning into the
water source if a drop or loss of water
pressure occurs. Keep the air gap at
least twice the diameter of the
discharge pipe. Another method
to prevent back-siphoning is to
use a backflow prevention device
or check valve (see Chapter 10).
Improve Land Use
and Application
Methods
Terraces and conservation
tillage practices can reduce
water runoff and soil erosion.
Ideally, growers should leave as
much plant residue as possible on
the soil surface to lessen erosion.
Where conservation tillage is
not possible, decrease runoff
potential by incorporating a low
concentration of the pesticide into the
soil. In ornamental plantings, consider
using mulches to reduce water runoff
and soil erosion.
Grass buffer strips are very
effective in reducing pesticide runoff
because they trap sediment containing
CHAPTER 7
-------
To avoid harming the environment,
you must be aware of sensitive areas,
nontarget plants and animals (especially
endangered species), and damaging
effects on habitat.
Sensitive Areas
In addition to water sources, sen-
sitive areas include sites where living
things could easily be injured by a pes-
ticide. Outdoor sensitive areas include:
• School grounds, playgrounds,
and recreational areas.
• Habitats of endangered species.
• Apiaries (honey bee sites),
wildlife refuges, and parks.
• Areas where domestic animals
and livestock are kept.
• Ornamental plantings, public
gardens, and sensitive food or
feed crops.
Indoor sensitive areas include
places where:
• People live, work, shop, or are
cared for (such as hospitals and
daycare centers).
• Food or feed is processed, pre-
pared, stored, or served.
precautions to avoid treating
the sensitive area. Leaving an
untreated buffer zone around a
sensitive area is a practical way to
avoid contaminating it.
In still other instances, the sen-
sitive area may be near a site used for
mixing and loading, storage, disposal,
or equipment washing. Be very careful
to avoid contaminating the sensitive
area. Check the label for statements
that alert you to special restrictions
around sensitive areas.
Sensitive area—
apiary.
Sensitive area—
wildlife habitat.
Pesticide Effects on
Nontarget Organisms
Pesticides may affect non-
target organisms directly, causing
immediate injury. Or they may
produce long-term consequences
through environmental pollution.
Pesticides may build up in the bodies
of animals or in the soil. For example,
if you use the same mixing and loading
site or equipment cleaning site over a
long period, pesticides are likely to
accumulate in the soil. When this
occurs, plants and animals that
come into contact with the soil
may be harmed. The following
sections discuss the effects of pes-
ticides on nontarget plants; bees
and other beneficial insects; and
fish, wildlife, and livestock.
• Domestic or confined animals
live, eat, or are otherwise cared
for.
• Ornamental or other sensitive
plants are grown or maintained
(such as in malls and buildings).
Sometimes pesticides must be
deliberately applied to a sensitive area
to control a regulated pest (such as mos-
quito abatement or gypsy moth forest
treatments). Only well-trained appli-
cators should perform these applications.
At other times, the sensitive
area may be part of a larger target
site. Whenever possible, take special
Nontarget Plants
Nearly all pesticides can cause
plant injury (phytotoxicity) due to
chemical exposure, particularly if
applied at too high a rate, at the
wrong time, or under unfavorable
environmental conditions.
Phytotoxicity can occur on any
part of a plant—roots, stems,
leaves, flowers, or fruits. Most
phytotoxic injury is due to herbi-
cides. Although damage to crops
or other nearby plants is primarily
caused by drift, it may sometimes be a
consequence of surface runoff and root
uptake.
Sensitive area—
playground.
Avoid pesticide effects
on non-target plants.
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT ^
-------
Bee hazard icon on labels
indicate use restrictions.
Bees and Other Beneficial Insects
Besides making honey and
beeswax, bees pollinate many fruit,
nut, seed, vegetable, and field crops.
You must be aware of bee activity when
planning pesticide applications. There
has been increasing concern about the
decline of bee colonies and the role
pesticides may play. Preventing bee loss
is the joint responsibility of the appli-
cator, the grower, and the beekeeper.
Bees may travel as far as 3 miles from
their hive to find blooming flowers.
Before applying pesticides labeled as
toxic to bees, notify beekeepers in the
area so they can protect or move their
bee colonies. Some states have laws
requiring notification and registries for
beekeepers.
Bees and other insect pollinators
may be exposed to pesticides through
different routes, including:
1. Direct contact during foliar
applications.
2. Contact with residues on plant
surfaces after applications.
3. Drift from the application into
the hive entrance.
• Pay careful attention to pesticide
labels. For each application site,
look for the bee hazard icon in
the "Directions for Use" section
for specific use restrictions and
instructions to protect bees and
other pollinators.
• Do not apply insecticides to
crops in bloom.
• Apply insecticides in the evening
or at night when bees are not
foraging. (Early morning appli-
cation may protect honey bees,
but wild bees forage at or before
dawn.)
• Do not apply insecticides when
weeds or other plants around the
treatment site are in bloom.
• Do not allow the pesticide to
drift onto attractive habitat,
natural areas, or beehives.
• Choose the least hazardous
insecticide, formulation, and
application method.
Pesticides can harm other ben-
eficial insects in addition to bees. These
beneficials may be valuable allies in
keeping pest populations below dam-
aging levels. A pesticide application
often harms the beneficial insect popu-
lation as much as the target pest. So do
not spray when beneficial insects are in
the target area unless it is unavoidable.
Alternatively, choose a product that
does not harm beneficials.
Fish, Wildlife, and Livestock
Pesticides can harm all kinds of
animals. Most injuries occur from the
direct effects of acute poisoning. Fish
kills often result from water pollution
by a pesticide. Insecticides are the most
likely cause, especially when small
ponds or streams are under conditions
of low water flow or volume.
Bird kills resulting from pesticide
exposure may happen in a number
of ways. Birds may: ingest pesticide
granules, baits, or treated seeds; be
exposed directly to sprays; consume
treated crops or drink contaminated
water; or feed on pesticide-contami-
nated insects and other prey. Granular
or pelleted formulations are a par-
ticular concern because birds and other
animals often mistake them for food.
Liquid formulations may be safer when
birds and other wildlife are in or near
the treated area. Remove pet dishes
from spray areas. Place baits properly so
4. Ingestion of residues in nectar,
pollen, or guttation water (dew)
when the pesticide is applied
as a seed treatment, soil or tree
injection, or foliar application.
Insecticides are generally
toxic to bees, but some are more
hazardous than others. Herbicides
are unlikely to harm bees directly.
Fungicides do not appear to affect adult
Avoid spraying when bees bees but may affect larval development.
are actively foraging. Tank mixing insecticides and fungicides
may create a mixture that is more toxic
to bees than either product used alone.
Minimize bee kills from insec-
ticide poisoning by following a few
basic principles:
CHAPTER 7
-------
they are inaccessible to pets, birds, and
other wildlife.
Animals may also be harmed when
they eat plants or animals carrying
pesticide residues. Predatory birds or
mammals feeding on animals killed
by pesticides are a special concern.
Pesticide residues remaining on or
in the bodies of the dead animal may
harm predators. This is called sec-
ondary poisoning. Check the pesticide
label for statements about secondary
poisoning.
The less obvious effects resulting
from long-term exposure to pesticides
are a major concern. For example, certain
pesticides have been banned because of
fish and bird kills and the reproductive
failures of several bird species.
The most important source of
livestock pesticide poisoning has been
through contaminated feed, forage, and
drinking water. Contamination often
occurs as a result of improper or care-
less transportation, storage, handling,
application, or disposal of pesticides.
PROTECTING ENDANGERED SPECIES
Certain plants and animals have
been identified as endangered or
threatened species. Be very careful not
to harm these populations. Because
all living things are part of a complex,
delicately balanced network, removing
a single species may set off a chain
reaction that affects many other species.
The full significance of extinction is
not always readily apparent, and the
long-term effects are often difficult to
predict.
An endangered species is one on
the brink of extinction throughout
all or a significant part of its range.
A threatened species is one likely to
Protecting Endangered
Specks
Interim Measures
HaT&N] County u<;r9iAnn
| m'a-m m i ki w i s
£ J\££^ J
!»'/>• . > t"1 Kjr
_ llvn . <41. .i m Jr. .I--.
I L k wd t* I In n. k a
, P. It tw- u *¦*•. 4 .i
{--+-J
M » > **j'< • 1 (,*>* •
¦ Jim ,• - J j-
J. sj> L 1 . .1
kVr ihtlrl*!*.!^! »n4r
;v."' * * i -u,"1" /r'k.- y. TK,,h-»'ri
ASg . r-l-;;:. .™ - v*
-I Ml J J* MK IMtf ¦ LK
» i *1 4,B"w*k f i r *•
. ¦*¦+.**¦ n-rf v.*
k-^-kr-"
- . - *_*»~ k '¦ T '-" »¦
r»ki IS' hLwwVtib fw. k w- I ¦ 1'iA.kff ¦ a la
ii/ .r- A tvi , i * , .fc ,¦ wi > k
41 A k. J JWI I ,r . Mi f Hi
: bin.
Consulting a county bulletin is necessary
for pesticides that might adversely affect
endangered species.
become endangered. The
reasons for a species' decline
are usually complex, and
thus recovery is difficult.
A major problem for most
wildlife is the destruction
of habitat, usually the result
of industrial, agricultural,
residential, or recreational
development.
Each state is respon-
sible for implementing the
federal Endangered Species
Protection Program in
cooperation with EPA to
protect endangered and
threatened species from the
harmful effects of pesticides.
Under this program, pesticide products
that might harm an endangered spe-
cies carry a label statement instructing
applicators to consult a county bulletin
to determine if they must take any
special precautionary measures when
using the product. EPA develops these
bulletins, which identify precautionary
measures required in each county where
one or more pesticides could affect
an endangered or threatened species.
Precautionary measures may include
buffer strips, reduced application rates,
and timing restrictions. Or an applica-
tor might be prohibited from using the
pesticide within the identified habitat
altogether. Check with your state, tribe,
or territory department of agriculture;
local Extension Service; or the EPA
website (www.epa.gov) to find out the
status of available county bulletins.
1 A
Pesticides can be harmful
to all kinds of animals.
PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
-------
SUMMARY
An important part of using pesti-
cides legally and responsibly is
considering where the pesticide may
end up once it leaves the container
and whether it might harm or damage
nontarget sites, plants, or animals. By
applying pesticides at the right time,
in the right place, and with the proper
application technique, you can greatly
reduce—or even prevent—drift, runoff,
and leaching.
Endangered
species need to
be protected
from pesticides.
Pesticides that enter groundwater
and surface water are hazardous to
aquatic organisms, plants, and wildlife.
Therefore, you should implement best
management practices to prevent runoff
and leaching of pesticides.
Sensitive areas include places such
as schools, playgrounds, endangered
species' habitats, and ornamental
plantings. Nontarget organisms include
plants, bees and other beneficial insects,
fish, wildlife, and livestock. Because
of the greater risk of injury to people,
plants, and animals, you must know
when and how to properly apply pesti-
cides in or near such areas.
Always check the label for state-
ments on endangered and threatened
species. You may need to consult a
county bulletin that details the proce-
dures for protecting them. It is your
responsibility not only to follow label
directions but also to use the best man-
agement practices that present the least
risk to the environment while achieving
effective pest control.
^ CHAPTER?
-------
CHAPTER 7: PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Write the answers to the following questions, and tl
1. Which property of a pesticide would make it
more likely to move in surface water runoff?
A. High solubility.
B. High adsorption.
C. High volatility.
2. Which statement about movement of pesti-
cides from the application site is true?
A. Drift is seldom an issue with indoor
applications.
B. Runoff and erosion are sources of surface
water contamination by pesticides.
C. Leaching is the main way that pesticides
move great distances.
3. Which is an example of nonpoint-source
contamination of groundwater?
A. Back-siphoning of pesticide spills at a
wellhead.
B. Leaching from a pesticide mixing area.
C. Pesticides that dissolve and leach through
soil after it rains.
4. Under which conditions are pesticides more
likely to leach through soil?
A. Heavy clay soil, high in organic matter.
B. Sandy soil, high in organic matter.
C. Sandy soil, low in organic matter.
i check your answers with those in Appendix A.
5. Which best management practice will help
prevent contamination of surface water and
groundwater by pesticides?
A. Using pesticides that are highly water-
soluble.
B. Following IPM principles.
C. Selecting persistent pesticides.
6. Which two factors are most important in
avoiding vapor drift?
A. Droplet size and wind speed.
B. Air stability and temperature.
C. Temperature and pesticide volatility.
7. Which statement about sensitive areas is true?
A. Do not spray a larger target site if it
contains a sensitive area.
B. Pesticide labels may list special precautions
around sensitive areas.
C. Endangered species' habitats are not
considered sensitive areas.
8. Which statement about protecting bees from
pesticide injury is truer
A. Use foliar applications when possible.
B. Spray crops when they are in bloom.
C. Apply insecticides in the evening or at
night.
REVIEW QUESTIONS ^
-------
^ CHAPTER 7
-------
CHAPTER 8
Transportation, Storage,
and Security
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• State what precautions to take before transporting
pesticides.
• Summarize what the label says about legally disposing
of unwanted pesticides.
• List the steps to take to restrict access to pesticides.
• Explain how to create a safe and secure storage area.
• Describe how to properly store pesticides.
• Discuss how to reduce the amounts stored by controlling
A
l"
I API
I
inventory.
Explain how to maintain the integrity of pesticide containers.
f—% >
DANGER >
pELlGRO 1
pesticide pesticwrs
„ ""Swass?r® /
f
This chapter discusses safety and
security issues that may arise
when pesticides are moved or stored.
Serious accidents involving pesticides
are more likely to occur while they
are in transit. Securing pesticides in a
TRANSPORTATION
vehicle or in storage is a critical step to
prevent vandalism or theft of product.
You can reduce pesticide transport
and storage problems by being aware
of conditions that lead to increased
security risks.
Every pesticide applicator should
understand the hazards of trans-
porting pesticides and the procedures
for minimizing those risks.
Pesticides are moved by manufac-
turers to distributors, from retailers
to end users, and from storage sites to
job sites. Transportation-related acci-
dents can happen at any point in the
distribution chain from the manufac-
turer to the job site. Your first line of
defense is recognizing how to prevent
these transportation mishaps. When
accidents occur, the timing of your
response could determine the size of
the spill.
TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND SECURITY
-------
Secure pesticides while Transport Vehicle
transporting them even
for short distances. Transport vehicles should be in
good mechanical condition. Make sure
brakes, tires, and steering are in proper
working order. Repair all fluid leaks
before putting a truck on the road or
leaving the job site. Regularly inspect
application equipment to be transported
and used. Inspect hoses under pressure
for wear and cracks and hose clamps
for rust. Always carry supplies and
replacement parts to make emergency
repairs if a leak should develop while
going to and from the job site.
Never carry liquid pesticides in the
passenger area because spilled chem-
icals may cause harmful fumes that can
be inhaled. A pesticide spilled in the cab
is difficult to remove and may lead to
long-term inhalation exposure.
It is best to keep pesticide con-
tainers in the original shipping box.
Depending on the material, many of
these boxes meet the U.S. Department
of Transportation (DOT) packaging
standards to give added protection to
the contents. Try to carry a minimum
CT)
<
O
c
-------
Other Safety Precautions
Always carry product labels and
Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) when trans-
porting pesticides on highways. The
SDS contains critical information for
the driver and emergency responders
after a pesticide spill. It lists steps to
safely deal with the spill, including
the persona] protective equipment
(PPE) to use, whether the spill carries
an inhalation or explosion risk, decon-
tamination procedures, and emergency
telephone numbers. Have the labels and
SDSs well organized and alphabetically
arranged by product name to allow
quick access in the event of a spill.
Always carry a spill kit with the
items you will need to handle a spill
during transport. (The contents of a spill
kit are discussed in Chapter 9.) Inspect
containers to ensure they have legible
and attached labels, tight closures,
and pesticide-free outside surfaces.
Secure application equipment (such as
hand sprayers, backpack sprayers, and
spreaders) during transport.
Protect pesticides from extreme
temperature and moisture during
transit. Depending on the pesticide,
either extremely low or extremely high
temperatures can alter the stability of
certain pesticide formulations.
Pesticides stored incorrectly with feed,
seed, and fertilizers increase the risk of
contaminating non-pesticide products.
Vehicle Placards
DOT requires diamond-shaped
signs called placards to be placed on
vehicles that transport certain types
and quantities of hazardous materials.
Most distributors will give you any
required placards to place on your
transportation vehicle. Hazardous
materials include some pesticides; fer-
tilizers such as anhydrous ammonia or
ammonium nitrate; and fuels such as
gasoline, diesel, and propane. Placards
provide emergency responders with the
information necessary to quickly assess
an accident situation.
If you ship or transport materials
in quantities that require placards,
you must develop and implement a
transportation security plan. Vehicles
must be placarded when transporting
pesticides:
• Bearing a DOT poison label.
Always secure the load
and carry in the truck a
spill kit that includes a
broom and shovel.
Examples of placards placed on vehicles that
transport certain types of hazardous materials.
TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND SECURITY
-------
• In containers larger than 119
gallons.
• In quantities greater than 1,000
pounds.
The security plan must include
measures to prevent unauthorized
access, a security check of employees
who pick up and transport placarded
hazardous materials, and the intended
route of travel. For further details on
the transportation security plan, contact
the Hazardous Materials Information
Center.
STORAGE OF PESTICIDES IN BUILDINGS
teristics when selecting a storage site
to prevent contamination of surface
water or groundwater. Do not locate
the storage facility near a stream likely
to flood or where runoff water flows
toward the facility. If flooding is likely,
consider building dikes around the
storage facility. Work with local zoning
and building code professionals to
determine how best to protect the envi-
ronment if high water were to enter the
storage facility.
Consider storing pesticides on a
raised pallet or on shelves to prevent
high water from damaging pesticide
containers or flowing water from
moving them offsite.
Water or excess moisture may
damage pesticide containers and their
contents and cause:
• Metal containers to rust.
• Paper and cardboard containers
to split or crumble.
Although existing buildings are often
used for pesticide storage, it is best
to have a separate storage facility for
pesticides, fertilizers and other similar
products. Storing pesticides separately
gives emergency response crews
more options in dealing with fires
and spills. Keeping equipment,
employees, and records away from
pesticides is always recommended
where possible.
A well-designed pesticide
storage site:
• Limits access.
Maintain a well designed,
secure pesticide storage
facility with highly visible
warning signs. Keep it well
ventilated and located
where water damage is
not likely to occur.
• Permits better inventory control.
• Protects people from exposure.
• Reduces the chance of environ-
mental contamination.
• Prevents damage to pesticides
from temperature extremes and
excess moisture.
• Safeguards pesticides from theft,
vandalism, and unauthorized use.
• Allows fire departments to know
the location of products.
• Pesticide labeling to peel, smear,
or otherwise become unreadable.
• Dry pesticides to clump, degrade,
or dissolve.
• Slow-release products to release
their active ingredients.
Control the Temperature
Choose a well-ventilated room
where temperatures are controlled.
Exhaust fans directed to the outside
of the building reduce the buildup of
noxious vapors from many of the sol-
vents used in pesticide formulations.
Ventilating the pesticide storage room
into an adjoining room does little to
solve the problem. Pesticide labeling
often gives temperature limits for
storing a product.
Secure the Site
Whether the designated storage
area is a cabinet, an entire room, or
a separate building, keep it locked
when not in use. Post warning
signs on doors and windows to
alert others that pesticides are
stored inside. Pesticide security is
covered in detail later in this chapter.
Prevent Water Damage
Pesticide storage facilities should
not be located in a flood zone. Carefully
consider soil and land surface charac-
Do not store pesticides
in locations that can
become damp or wet.
CHAPTER 8
-------
Consider installing an exhaust fan
on a timer to automatically turn on at
a certain temperature. If the exhaust
fan is not on a timer, turn on the fan
switch before entering the storage
room. Wait a few minutes to allow any
vapors to clear.
Provide Adequate Lighting
Be sure the pesticide storage
facility is well-lighted. Pesticide han-
dlers entering the building must be able
to read the product labels and determine
whether containers are leaking.
Use Nonporous Materials
Use cement or other impervious
materials for flooring to retain the spilled
material on the surface. Such surfaces
are easy to clean and decontaminate in
the event of a release. A floor that slopes
into a sump helps collect and contain the
spill. Consider using shelving and pallets
made of nonabsorbent materials, such as
plastic or metal, for the same reasons as
impervious floors.
Be sure the floor of the pesticide
containment site is made of non-porous
materials such as sealed cement. A
recessed floor helps control spills or
leaking pesticides.
Maintain the Storage Site
Store only pesticide containers,
pesticide equipment, and a spill cleanup
kit at the storage site. Keep food, drink,
tobacco, feed, medication, medical or
veterinary supplies, seed (treated and
untreated), clothing, and PPE (other
than that necessary for emergency
response) out of the storage location.
Keep Labels Legible
Store pesticide containers with the
labels in plain sight. Costly errors may
result if the wrong pesticide is chosen.
Be sure labels are always legible. If the
label is destroyed or damaged, imme-
diately mark the container with some
basic labeling information, such as the
trade name, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) registration
number, signal word, and use clas-
sification. Go online to find a product
replacement label or get a new label
from the manufacturer.
Store Pesticide
Containers Safely
Store pesticides in their original
containers or, if allowed by state law, in
a properly labeled service container.
Never use any other container to
store a product. Besides being
illegal, serious injury may result
when using food containers, such
as milk jugs or soft drink bottles.
Children will associate the shape,
size, and color of the container with
its usual contents. Never use a pesticide
product from an unmarked or unlabeled
container unless you are certain what
it is. Guessing wrong can cause serious
damage at the application site.
Keep pesticide containers securely
closed when not in use. Just like bagged
fertilizer, dry pesticide formulations can
clump together under high humidity.
Consider placing partially used bags of
wettable and soluble pow-
ders, dry flowables, dusts,
and granules in a plastic
trash bag or tub with a
cover to reduce clumping.
PI ace drums and
bags on plastic pallets.
Store other pesticides on
metal shelving, placing
the heaviest containers
on lower shelves. Do not
allow containers to extend
beyond the edge of the
shelving—they could be
knocked off or torn open.
Place bulk and mini-
bulk tanks on a reinforced concrete
pad. Diking around bulk tanks keeps
leaking pesticides inside a contained
area. Make the area inside a dike large
enough to contain the volume of the
liquid in the tank plus at least an addi-
Do not store pesticides
in food containers.
Store pesticides on
metal shelving, with the
heaviest containers and
liquids stored on the
lower shelves. Never
extend beyond the
edge of the shelving.
TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND SECURITY J
-------
Follow These Safety Tips
For best results:
• Have duplicate copies of pes-
ticide labels and SDSs available
in case of an emergency.
• Wear appropriate protective
clothing when handling pes-
ticide containers.
tional 10%. Keep valves and pumps as
well as transfer hoses within the diked
area when not in use.
Contact your state, tribe, or ter-
ritory pesticide regulatory agency for
guidance on what constitutes bulk
pesticides and to learn specific rules for
building containment structures.
Place damaged pesticide
containers in secondary
containment.
Look for Damage
Regularly inspect pesticide
containers to detect problems
the outset. If you find a
damaged container, put
on appropriate PPE
and place it into a
larger container, such
as a 5-gallon bucket.
Clean up spilled
pesticide and place
any contaminated
materials in the bucket.
' possible, use the pes-
ticide immediately on a site
1 at a rate allowed by the
label or dispose of it according to
label directions.
Note Shelf Life of
Mark each
container with its
purchase date.
Pesticides
Keep an inventory of all pesticides
in storage, marking each container or
box with the year it was purchased. In
this way, you can use the oldest product
first. Remember to use it as it was meant
to be used: a replacement product may
have different label directions and uses.
If you have questions about the shelf
life of a product, contact the dealer or
manufacturer.
Avoid storing large quantities of
pesticides for long periods. Buy only as
much as you need for the season.
• Label items such as mea-
suring utensils and protective
equipment to prevent their use
for other purposes.
• Have absorbent materials readily
available to soak up leaks in the
storage room. Keep a shovel,
broom, and heavy-duty plastic
bags on hand to remove the con-
taminated absorbent material.
• Check the SDS for materials that
will deactivate a contaminated
surface. When in doubt, contact
the pesticide manufacturer for a
recommendation.
Have readily accessible clean
water for decontamination, an eyewash
station, personal protective equipment,
a fire extinguisher rated for chemical
fires, first aid equipment, and emer-
gency telephone numbers. Additionally,
keep plenty of soap, water, and paper
towels available near the storage facility.
Isolate Unwanted or
Waste Products
Do not accumulate outdated or
unwanted pesticide products. Not only
will you lose money by not using the
product, but you may have to pay a
disposal service. If you use the product
up according to the label, you will avoid
both problems.
Sometimes EPA will cancel a
product registration. When this occurs,
EPA usually either allows the continued
use of the product until it has cleared
the distribution chain or issues a federal
notice prohibiting use after a specific
date. If you keep such products after
that date, you may have to dispose of
them as hazardous waste. Be sure to
follow label directions for disposal of
any excess or leftover product.
CHAPTER 8
-------
PESTICIDE SITE SECURITY
If you are holding pesticides or
emptied pesticide containers for dis-
posal or recycling, keep them in a special
section of the storage area. See Chapter
10 (Planning the Pesticide Application)
for information on pesticide container
rinsing procedures.
Some states sponsor pesticide dis-
posal programs that collect unwanted
pesticides from growers and applicators
free or at reduced cost. Contact your
state, tribe, or territory pesticide
regulatory agency to see if a program is
available in your area.
Have a designated
area for properly
rinsed containers.
Minimizing risks for the safety of
employees, customers, and com-
munities should always be a top priority
when it comes to storing pesticides.
Every pesticide storage facility should
examine its security efforts and plan for
worst-case scenarios.
Routinely review your security
measures to determine whether all risks
have been accounted for in the plan.
Without effective security procedures,
you may be vulnerable to both internal
(employee theft) and external (ter-
rorism, theft, and vandalism) threats.
This puts both employees and the com-
munity at risk.
Benefits of Security
Efforts
By developing a strong and
workable security plan, managers,
employees, and emergency responders
can reduce the likelihood of theft or
other mishaps. In addition, effective
security avoids costly losses. An incident
of any magnitude can seriously disrupt
operations and result in lawsuits, costly
remediation actions, employee fear and
uncertainty, and damage to the com-
pany's reputation.
A well-planned security program
can:
• Safeguard employees and the
community.
• Maintain the integrity of opera-
tions.
• Reduce insurance costs.
• Prevent theft.
• Reduce vandalism arid sabotage.
• Protect confidential business
information.
• Improve relationships with local
authorities and community
leaders.
Risk Assessment
Pesticide storage facilities.
Vehicles.
Application equipment.
The first step in developing a
security program is to conduct a risk
assessment of your business or
farm's vulnerabilities. Make a
list of assets that need pro
tecting, possible threats,
and steps that can be
taken to protect them.
Any place that
stores or transports
pesticides shares similar
assets, which are broadly
defined as people, infor-
mation, and property.
"People" includes employees,
visitors, customers, contrac
tors, and neighbors. "Information"
includes business, proprietary, and
employee material deemed confidential.
"Property" may include:
Be sure to guard against
unauthorized entry.
TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND SECURITY J
-------
mm
ro
U)
0
1 HI
I ill)
CL
• Bulk storage tanks.
• Mixing and loading sites.
• All utilities, such as telephone,
water, gas, and electric.
Outside lights on a pesticide
storage building help prevent
theft and vandalism.
Employee Training and
Security Awareness
Train employees to be vigilant in
detecting security threats. Employees
are familiar with what occurs in and
around a pesticide storage facility or at
the job site. They can provide an early
warning when something seems out of
place or someone is acting suspiciously.
At a minimum, instruct all employees
on pesticide inventory control, secu-
rity of storage facilities and application
equipment, and emergency prepared-
ness and response.
Evaluating Pesticide
Security
Fundamental security tasks
include:
Secure buildings, manufac-
turing facilities, storage areas,
and surrounding property—
Prevent the unauthorized entry of
persons into areas used to manu-
facture or store pesticides. Elements
of an effective security plan may
range from log sheets, identification
badges, fencing, lighting, and locks
to detection systems, cameras, and
trained guards.
Lock backpack sprayers
securely onto the
transport vehicle.
Secure pesticide ap-
plication equipment
and vehicles—Keep
unauthorized people away
from equipment used for
storing, mixing, loading,
transferring, transporting,
and applying pesticides.
Secure and disable equip-
ment in the field to prevent
misuse. For example, do
not leave keys in the igni-
tion, and lock doors and
cabinets. Reclaim keys
from employees when they
terminate employment.
^ CHAPTERS
Protect confidential information—
As safety and security systems become
more reliant on computers and other
technology, it is important to secure
them from hackers and intruders. Such
efforts include contingency planning
for power disruptions, adherence to
password and backup procedures, and
other measures to ensure that only
authorized personnel have access.
Develop procedures and policies
that support security needs—
Recommended practices include effec-
tive hiring and labor policies, inven-
tory management, and planning for
emergencies. Hiring and labor policies
should include employee training, back-
ground checks, and workplace violence
prevention. Inventory management is
necessary to keep track of pesticides
stored at the facility. Planning for
emergency response is critical. It helps
to ensure that managers and employees
know how to respond in the unlikely
event of pesticide release, bomb threat,
or terrorist activity.
Coordinate with authorities in a
timely manner—If you believe a
security breach or suspicious activity
has occurred, contact local authorities
immediately. In addition to alerting
the police department, call the local
emergency planning commission, fire
departments, and other emergency
response agencies. The Federal Bureau
of Investigation (FBI) cautions that any
suspicious activity related to the use,
training, or acquisition of pesticides
should be immediately reported to
management and local authorities.
Steps to Prevent
Security Problems
To minimize risks:
• Adopt security measures to
deter tampering with chemicals,
equipment, or the facility itself.
• Include local authorities (e.g.,
police and firefighters) in devel-
oping the security plan.
• Keep an accurate inventory of all
chemicals.
-------
• Keep chemical storage areas
locked when not in use.
• Update your emergency response
plan and practice the procedures.
• Post telephone numbers of law
enforcement and emergency
response agencies in a prominent
location.
• Be cautious of unknown persons
who want to pay cash for large
quantities of pesticides.
• Ask employees to report any
unusual incidents or requests.
• Restrict access of nonemploy-
ees to your pesticide storage
facilities.
SUMMARY
It is essential to establish safety and
security practices for moving pesti-
cides on the highways and at storage and
job sites. Because spills and accidents are
more likely to occur while transporting
or applying pesticides, drivers and
pesticide applicators must be trained
to respond quickly to a spill. Pesticide
labels and SDSs for the pesticide carried
in the vehicle can provide important
information in the event of a spill.
Attention to pesticide site secu-
rity and managing pesticides should
be a top priority. Develop security
and emergency management plans
for every pesticide-handling and
storage facility to safeguard employ-
ees and the community. Design secu-
rity plans to reduce the risk of theft,
vandalism, and deliberate misuse of
pesticides by those wanting to harm
others. Train employees in security
and emergency response procedures
and to coordinate efforts with local
police, emergency response person-
nel, and the FBI.
TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND SECURITY ^
-------
^ CHAPTER 8
-------
CHAPTER 8: TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE,
and Security
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your answers with those in Appendix A.
1. Which statement about transporting pesti-
cides is true?
A. Carry pesticides in the passenger
compartment to prevent unauthorized
access.
B. Enclosed and lockable cargo boxes
offer the greatest protection.
C. The operator (driver) is not held
responsible if a pesticide spill or
accident occurs.
2. Which statement about pesticide storage
facilities is true?
A. A ventilation system may reduce noxious
vapors by venting air into an adjoining
area.
B. Carefully consider the terrain when
selecting a storage site.
C. The floor should remain as bare soil to
absorb any spilled material.
3. What is the first thing to do if a pesticide
container is leaking?
A. Put on personal protective equipment.
B. Transfer contents into another container.
C. Clean up any spilled material.
4. Which recommended practice will minimize
pesticide storage problems?
A. Purchase quantities based on previous
usage.
B. Purchase more than you need to ensure
availability of the product.
C. Store metal pesticide containers on the
higher shelves to prevent rusting.
5. What is the first step a business should take
to develop an effective pesticide security
program?
A. Coordinate planned actions with
authorities.
B. Conduct a risk assessment of business
vulnerabilities.
C. Train employees on security measures.
6. Which of the following is considered a good
security practice?
A. Instruct employees on pesticide
inventory control.
B. Allow employees access to inventory.
C. Back up confidential data daily and
keep it at the facility.
REVIEW QUESTIONS ^
-------
^ CHAPTER 8
-------
Emergency or Incident Response
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss how pesticide releases from spills and fires can
endanger humans and the environment.
• Explain how to execute an emergency response plan.
• State how to dispose of contaminated materials resulting
from a spill cleanup.
• Discuss how to implement cleanup procedures to lessen
the environmental impact from a spill.
• List the items to include for emergency response
equipment (e.g., spill cleanup kit, first aid kit,
and personal protective equipment).
Although pesticide accidents and
emergencies are rare, they do
occur. Pesticides spilled on the ground
or burning in a fire can contaminate
water, soil, and air; damage plants;
injure livestock, wildlife, or pets; and
endanger the health of the applicator
and emergency responders. Pesticide
spills and fires may lead to financial
loss due to cleanup, liability claims,
and fines assessed by government
agencies. Do all that you can to prevent
accidents, but be prepared in case of
emergency
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING
Like a pesticide site security plan, a
carefully thought-out emergency
response plan (i.e., a contingency plan)
can help to prevent an emergency
situation from becoming a catastrophe.
An emergency response plan helps
protect employees and the community
minimizes environmental damage, and
reduces liability if an accident happens.
Emergencies can take many forms:
tornado or high winds, flood, fire, or a
highway accident. How you and emer-
gency personnel respond determines
whether the problem is quickly and
safely resolved.
Follow these guidelines when
developing an emergency response
plan:
Do you know
what to do
in a pesticide
emergency?
EMERGENCY OR INCIDENT RESPONSE
-------
• Designate an emergency coordi-
nator as the "go-to" person. This
person must have authority
to make important deci-
sions during an emer-
gency including coor-
dinating with local first
responders, such as fire,
police, and paramedics.
The emergency coordi-
nator is the person who
will make the necessary
calls and fill out reports to
government agencies.
• Post in the office, shop, and truck
a list of names and telephone
numbers of response agencies
that may require notification.
Be prepared for
emergency situations.
• Prepare a/an:
> Fill-in form or an outline of
critical information to con-
vey to emergency personnel.
Keep it with your calling
list. Be sure to include the
following:
Emergency Response
Agency Contacts
• Persons/agencies required to
be notified by local, state, arid
federal requirements.
• Local emergency planning com-
mittees.
• Police and fire units.
• Paramedics and area hospitals.
• Appropriate chemical manufac-
turers and dealers.
• Containment and hazardous
waste cleanup contractors.
• Your attorney, to protect your
rights and the rights of others.
O Name of the person
reporting the incident.
O Precise location of the
incident.
O General description of
what happened.
O The exact name, quantity,
and classification of pes-
ticides involved.
O The extent of injuries.
O Whether pesticides have
entered surface water.
> Facility map that shows
a layout of all chemi-
cal storage buildings and
bulk storage tanks; access
roads; main shutoffs for
electricity, water, and gas;
perimeter fencing or gates;
fuel storage tanks; the
location of fire alarms, fire
extinguishers and other
fire fighting equipment, and
protective clothing; and
drainage ditches, wells, and
surface flow of water.
> Area map that shows your
facility in relation to the
surrounding area. Provide
emergency response agen-
cies with an updated copy
of the facility map and area
map whenever changes are
made (see Figure 9. 1).
• Keep:
> A product inventory of
chemicals stored at the
facility. Let your emergency
response plan reflect peak
seasonal storage of pesti-
cides, fertilizers, and fuel.
> Copies of pesticide labels
and Safety Data Sheets
(SDSs) away from the
storage area.
• Maintain in good working order
the emergency equipment and
supplies needed to respond to
fires and spills.
• Train all employees how to
execute the response plan each
year.
Do you know where your
emergency equipment is?
CHAPTER 9
-------
KEY TO FACILITIES
(?) Stream
(5) Oxidizer
(t) Tank
(bt) Bulk Tank
(yd) Yard Drain
-X- Wire Fence
A, Flammable (FL)
(5) Drain
Vehicle Access
(a) Absorbent
^ Material
(W) Well
^Propane
Is;
\
\
- -UNJ-~(sV--rs>--(s>-
The backbone of any emergency
response plan is a description of the
sequence of actions to take in a crisis.
Prepare step-by-step procedures on
how to respond to various emergencies:
fires, spills, ammonia leaks, tornadoes,
hurricanes, and transportation acci-
dents, among others. Specify in writing
every activity from sounding the alarm
to interacting with local emer-
gency response agencies. Once
internal emergency procedures
have been established, ask your local
response agencies (e.g, fire, police,
and emergency planning committee)
if they have anything to add to your
plan. Offer them a copy of your plan
for their files.
Figure 9.1
Include a facility
map as part of
the emergency
response plan.
Develop a written
emergency response
plan.
Pesticide products vary significantly
in their flam inability. However, any
pesticide product involved in a fire is
dangerous to responders working at the
scene because of smoke and fumes. Even
after the fire has been extinguished,
pesticide residue in the debris, soil, and
runoff may be dangerous.
Install fire detection systems such as this
sprinkler system with a sensor.
Precautions to
Reduce Fire Hazards
Chapter 8 (Transportation, Storage,
and Security) discussed where to locate
a pesticide storage facility and the
proper design and components of a
secure facility. Follow these guidelines
to help you prepare for—and respond
to—a fire in the storage area:
• Store combustible pesticides
away from heating sources.
• Install a fire-detection system.
• Train employees to use a fire
extinguisher.
Prompt action is essential when a
fire occurs. Coordinate all details on
managing a fire with local emergency
response officials. Take the following
actions:
Post signs that indicate
pesticides are stored in
the facility.
SPRINKLER FIRE
EMERGENCY OR INCIDENT RESPONSE J
-------
Control the Spill
Act immediately to control
the spilled product. Always put on
the appropriate personal protective
equipment (PPE) before responding to
a spill. Place small, leaking containers
into larger ones. If a larger container
(such as a drum) is leaking, try to plug
the leak. Then, transfer the contents to
another container. To stop leaks from
Wear appropriate PPE when cleaning up
a spill.
• Make sure employees evacuating
the premises go to a desig-
nated rendezvous point where
everyone can be accounted for.
• Notify the fire department.
• Provide emergency response
teams with SDSs, labels, the
emergency plan, and a site map.
• Follow the instructions given by
the onsite incident commander.
• Establish a security perimeter to
discourage onlookers.
• Contain contaminated runoff
water and leaking pesticide
onsite by building berms.
Have a fire extinguisher approved
for chemical fires readily available.
A National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) warning on
a storage box for fumigants.
The strikeover on the letter W
in the white diamond alerts
firefighters not to use water
to put out a fire.
• Consult with emergency
responders to decide whether to
allow the fire to burn out.
• Call your insurance agent.
Make all regulatory phone calls
required by state and federal
agencies.
The Three Cs
Control
Contain
Clean up the spill
Clean up all spills
immediately.
A spill is an accidental release of any
amount of pesticide, small or large.
Spills on public highways, such as when
a tank on a truck overturns, usually
have major consequences. Failure
to respond quickly and appro-
priately to such mishaps
could seriously endanger
public health and envi-
ronmental quality.
In the event of
any pesticide spill,
remember the three
C's: CONTROL the
spill, CONTAIN it, and
CLEAN it up.
Cleanup and salvage
operations after a fire
must be done under
expert supervision after
everything has cooled.
CHAPTER 9
-------
pressurized systems (such as sprayers),
turn off the pump. Never leave the site
unattended.
Contain the Spill
Do all you can to keep the spill from
spreading or getting worse. Prevent the
material from entering surface water.
Using a shovel, you can quickly berm
off an area to keep the spilled pesticide
out of drains and waterways. A spill
that is contained on the surface is much
easier to clean than one that has entered
a body of water.
Take action to prevent spills from
spreading. In this case, an absorbent
spill tube is used to contain the spill.
If the spilled pesticide does con-
taminate a stream, pond, or other
waterway, immediately contact the
state, tribe, or territory regulatory
agencies responsible for streams and
fisheries and for pesticides. Do not
delay notifying the authorities. They
need time to alert downstream users
who draw surface water for drinking,
prevent accidental poisoning of live-
stock, evacuate people using the water
for recreational purposes (such as
swimming and fishing), and avoid con-
tamination of irrigated crops. Call the
manufacturer's emergency number on
the SDS to find out what steps you or
the emergency response coordinator
should take to lessen the dangers of
water contamination.
Call 911 to report the spill and
be ready to respond to the authorities
arriving at the scene. Be sure to have
the product label and SDS available for
emergency responders. After the spill
has been contained, follow your emer-
gency plan. In some cases, the applicator
will call the emergency responder, who
will then call the proper authorities.
Clean up the Spill
The last step at the spill site is to
clean up the spilled product. Sweep up
any absorbent materials and other con-
taminated items and place them in a
drum. If the spill occurred on concrete
or asphalt, you will have to neutralize
the surface. Follow the instructions on
the SDS or contact the manufacturer,
whose number is listed on the data sheet.
The state, tribe, or territory regu-
latory agency involved with pesticide
spills will tell you what to do when the
spill occurs on soil. For example, they
may require that the top 2 to 3 inches of
For emergency
response
information call:
CHEMTREC
1-800-424-9300
National Fire Protection Association
A hazardous rating system used to assist emergency
response personnel is the NFPA Hazard Identification
System. This system uses a diamond-shaped warning
symbol. The top, left and right boxes refer to flamma-
bility, health, and instability hazards, respectively, and
each contains a number from 0 to 4. The bottom box
is used for special hazards; the most common of these
is a warning against the use of water. See the diagram
below.
Health Hazard - Blue Section
4 Severe hazard
3 Serious hazard
2 Moderate hazard
1 Slight hazard
0 Mini ma I hazard
Flammability Hazard - Red Section
4 Flammable gases, volatile liquids,
pyrophoric materials
3 Ignites at ambient temperatures
2 Ignites when moderately heated
1 Must be preheated to burn
0 Will not burn
Special Hazard - White Section
OX Oxidizer
W- Avoid use of water
Instability - Red Section
4 Capable of detonation or explosive
decomposition at ambient temperatures
3 Capable of detonation or explosive
decomposition with strong initiating source
2 Violent chemical change possible at elevated
temperature and pressure
1 Normally stable, but becomes unstable if heated
0 Normally stable
EMERGENCY OR INCIDENT RESPONSE ^
-------
SUMMARY
Use an absorbent material
to help clean up a spill.
soil be excavated, removed, and replaced
with clean soil.
Keep records of your
activities and conversa-
tions with regulatory
authorities, emergency
responders, news media,
and the public when deal-
ing with a pesticide spill.
Photographs help docu-
ment any related damage
as well as steps you have
taken to clean up the
spilled product.
Prevent Spills
A key to reducing the likelihood
of any spill is to properly maintain your
application equipment and transport
vehicles. Leaks and drips from cracked
hoses or loose hose clamps clearly
indicate problems. Defensive driving
techniques and refraining from cell-
phone use while driving are two
important habits that can prevent vehicle
accidents that might result in a spill.
Keep a spill cleanup kit in each
pesticide transport vehicle and at the
site where pesticides are mixed, loaded,
and stored. Store your spill kit items in
a plastic container and keep them clean
and in working order.
Include the following items in a
spill response kit:
• Telephone numbers for emer-
gency assistance.
• PPE designed for use with pesti-
cides.
• Absorbent materials, such as spill
pillows, absorbent clay, and cat
litter.
• A shovel, broom, and dustpan.
• Heavy-duty detergent.
Keep emergency supplies and a
shovel on hand.
Prepare for a pesticide emer-
gency. Make sure the plan in-
cludes designating an emergency
response coordinator, maintain-
ing a list of emergency response
agencies, preparing a map of the
facility, and keeping a product
inventory. Be sure all employees
at the facility are familiar with
the emergency response plan and
know what to do in a crisis. Take
precautions to reduce the chance
of pesticide fires. The best way to
manage pesticide spills is to pre-
vent them from happening. It is
your responsibility as a pesticide
applicator to do everything pos-
sible to avoid spills and adhere to
a few basic guidelines when han-
dling spills and leaks. Accidents
happen. Be prepared so that they
will not become catastrophes.
^ CHAPTER 9
-------
CHAPTER 9: EMERGENCY OR INCIDENT RESPONSE
Write the answers to the following questions, and tl
1. Which statement about emergency response
planning is true?
A. The main reason to have an emergency
response plan is to reduce economic losses.
B. The first person to contact in an
emergency is an attorney
C. It is important to make a detailed report
of what took place before, during, and
after the incident.
2. What is the backbone of any emergency
response plan?
A. Outlining the sequence of actions to take
in a crisis.
B. Knowing where labels and SDSs are kept.
C. Having a designated emergency responder.
3. In addition to an emergency response plan,
which of the following will further reduce the
risk of a pesticide fire?
A. Store pesticides close to a heat source to
prevent freezing.
B. Keep a fire-detection system in the
storage area.
C. Post the storage area with a warning sign.
i check your answers with those in Appendix A.
4. Which is a recommended action to take in the
event of a pesticide fire?
A. Construct berms to contain contaminated
runoff water.
B. Enter the storage facility and remove as
much pesticide as possible.
C. Try to extinguish the fire before calling
911.
5. Which is an appropriate action to take in the
event of a pesticide spill?
A. Take a "time out" to read your emergency
response plan.
B. Call 911 only if the spill has a chance of
entering surface water.
C. Put on the appropriate PPE before
responding to the spill.
REVIEW QUESTIONS ^
-------
^ CHAPTER 9
-------
Planning the
Application
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain how to select appropriate pesticides and additives
(if needed).
Follow all label instructions and other legal restrictions
pertaining to a pesticide application.
Determine whether two or more pesticides may be tank-mixed.
Follow the label for safe mixing and loading.
Describe how to prevent pesticide contamination of water sources
during mixing, loading, and cleaning.
List what personal protective equipment to wear during mixing,
loading, and cleaning.
Explain how to open pesticide containers and transfer the
contents safely.
Measure pesticides accurately using proper utensils and devices.
Discuss how to rinse and dispose of pesticide containers properly.
State some basic procedures that ensure the correct application
of pesticides.
Describe how to clean and properly store application
equipment after use.
Explain the basics of professionalism for pesticide applicators.
Planning is essential before beginning
a pesticide application. To help plan,
you should know how to:
• Select the right pesticide for the job.
• Review the label.
• Test for pesticide compatibility
before mixing.
• Choose what personal protective
equipment to wear.
• Transfer pesticides safely.
• Clean up after an application.
Careful planning and consideration
of all details is the hallmark of profes-
sionalism.
PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION
Pesticide
-------
SELECTING THE PESTICIDE
Choosing the right pesticide for your
particular situation is critical to
determine whether the pesticide can be
used safely under the application condi-
tions. You also need to determine
how much product is required for
the area you are treating.
Before purchasing or
applying the pesticide, read
the label to determine:
• The safety measures to
follow.
• Where you can legally use it (i.e.,
target sites).
Always read the label
before applying the
pesticide.
• When to apply it (considering
factors such as the life cycle of
the pest, weather conditions,
preharvest and/or grazing
interval, and the rotational or
replanting interval).
REVIEWING THE PESTICIDE
As you learned in Chapter 3 (Pesticide
Labeling), it is important to review
the label carefully and to apply the pes-
ticide as directed on the product label.
The "Directions for Use" section lists
the various crops, animals, or sites on
which you may legally use the pesticide.
• How to apply it (e.g., selecting
and setting up equipment; fol-
lowing label directions).
• If there are any special use
restrictions (e.g., restricted-
entry intervals or prohibitions
against certain types of appli-
cation methods or equipment).
• Whether there are other restric-
tions (e.g., environmental
conditions, setbacks or buffers,
and drift warnings).
Some labels require you to
add an adjuvant (or additive) to the
spray mixture to improve mixing or
application, or to enhance pesticidal
performance. See Chapter 4 (Pesticide
Formulations) for a more detailed dis-
cussion of spray adjuvants.
LABEL
Under this subheading, the label lists
the target pests, application rates, spray
quality (droplet size) specifications, and
general application methods. You should
also consult the label on sprayer cleanout
as well as proper storage and disposal of
the pesticide and empty containers.
DETERMINING PESTICIDE COMPATIBILITY
As discussed in Chapter 4, tank
mixing two or more pesticides saves
time and labor. In some cases, however,
it can impair the effectiveness of one or
more of the products. For this reason,
you should determine the compatibility
of your products before mixing them.
Pesticides are compatible when
they can be mixed and applied in
combination without reducing the
effectiveness or changing the physical
and chemical properties of the mixture.
When problems develop from mixing
two or more products together, the
chemicals are incompatible. There
are two main types of incompatibility:
physical and chemical.
Physical incompatibility is the
failure of pesticide products to stay
uniformly mixed in the spray tank.
Physical incompatibility may result in
a putty or paste formation, a separation
into layers, or a mixture that looks
like cottage cheese (precipitates). This
mixture may clog screens and nozzles
and will not control target pests.
Physical incompatibility may be
caused by:
• Improper mixing procedures.
CHAPTER 10
-------
Inadequate agitation.
Lack of stable emulsifiers in
some emulsifiable concentrates.
Mixing with liquid fertilizers.
Mixing pesticides with hard
water (a pH greater than 7).
Physical incompatibility results in an
unsprayable mixture, in this case,
excessive foaming.
Chemical incompatibility occurs
when mixing certain pesticides in the
spray tank alters the activity of one
or more of them. In other words, a
chemical reaction takes place and pro-
duces new substances. Clues indicating
chemical incompatibility may include
heat, a color change, the formation of
a gas or a precipitate, the appearance
of surface scum or foam, or the for-
mation of gel or "sludge." The resulting
mixture is different from the products
applied separately. There are two types
of chemical incompatibility. In the
first type, the pesticidal activity of at
least one of the components is reduced
when two or more products are mixed.
In the second type, the activity of two
or more products applied together
may be greater than if each pesticide
were applied separately. This added
effectiveness may weaken the selective
nature of the individual products and
damage target plants.
Some pesticide product labels list
pesticides (and other chemicals) known
to be compatible with that formulation.
Many have very helpful tank-mixing
instructions. If you cannot find infor-
mation about tank mixing on one or
more products you wish to combine,
do a "jar test" (see below) with
a small amount of the mixture
before you mix a large quantity.
Remember, it is illegal
to mix pesticides with other
products (e.g., other pesticides,
adjuvants, or carriers) when
such mixtures are expressly
prohibited on the label. Also, if
a tank mix contains a pesticide
that has a higher toxicity level
(e.g., DANGER) than the other
pesticides (e.g., WARNING or
CAUTION), treat the entire
mixture according to the more
restrictive signal word (e.g., as a
DANGER pesticide). You must
use the required safety equip-
ment and follow all other label
requirements found on the label
with the greatest restrictions.
Conducting a
Compatibility Test
To conduct a jar (compatibility)
test, use a small glass or plastic con-
tainer. Mix proportionate amounts of
all the carrier and products you intend
to combine in the spray tank. Start
by filling the jar one-fifth to one-half
full with the carrier (water or liquid
fertilizer). Then add proportionate
amounts of each product, one at a time,
in the order suggested under "Making
Tank Mixes" (below). Shake the jar
thoroughly after each product is added.
Allow the mixture to stand for 10 to 15
minutes. If flakes, sludge, gel, precipi-
tates, or other solids form; the products
Clumping
and separation
INCOMPATIBLE
Smooth,
uniform mixture
COMPATIBLE
In this case of chemical
incompatibility, mixing
pesticides reduced their
effectiveness, allowing
weeds to grow along
with the corn.
A jar test indicates whether two or more
pesticides can be safely mixed.
PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION
-------
separate into layers; or heat is given
off, the products cannot be safely tank-
mixed. Adding compatibility agents
may improve the mixing of the ingre-
dients. Certain kits can help you test
for compatibility. There are also online
sources as well as smartphone apps to
help you determine the proper mixing
order for various tank mix components.
Making Tank Mixes
To minimize compatibility pro-
blems with tank mixes, follow correct
mixing procedures (see inset). Add and
thoroughly mix the products, one at
a time, beginning with those hardest
to mix.
To ensure thorough mixing of dry
formulations before adding them to the
mixture, make a preslurry—mix the
products with a little water to form a
paste before adding them to the tank
mix. To be certain you have a uniform
spray mixture at all times, keep the
mixture agitated during the entire
application until the tank is empty.
Tank Mixing Order
1. Fill tank one-fifth to one-half full with carrier (e.g., water or
liquid fertilizer). Start agitation.
2. Add compatibility agent (if needed).
3. Add suspension products: first, dry formulations—wettable
powders (WP), dry flowables (DF), water-dispersible granules
(WDG) (as a preslurry, if necessary), then liquids—flowables (F),
liquids (L), microencapsulated (ME).
4. Add solution products—solutions (S), soluble powders (SP).
5. Add surfactants or other adjuvants (if needed).
6. Last, add emulsion products—emulsifiable concentrates (EC).
FOLLOWING SAFE MIXING AND LOADING PRACTICES
People who mix and load concen-
trated pesticides have an especially
high risk of accidental exposure and
poisoning. Observe the following pre-
cautions to reduce the risks involved
with this part of the job.
Locate the pesticide mixing and loading
site outdoors or in a well ventilated area.
CHAPTER 10
Observe all precautions when mixing and
loading pesticides.
Select an Appropriate
Mixing and Loading Area
Locate the pesticide mixing and
loading area in a well-ventilated (if
indoors), well-lighted place away from
people, animals, food, and other items
that might be contaminated.
-------
Protect Water Sources
Ensure that no tank mixture can
back-siphon into a water source. When
filling a mix tank using a water pipe
or hose, place the pipe or hose end
well above the surface of the pesticide
mixture, leaving a distinct air gap
between the two. If water is pumped
directly from the source into a mix
tank, use a check valve, anti-siphoning
device, or backflow preventer to prevent
back-siphoning if the pump fails. The
backflow preventer has a mechanism
that automatically closes if a drop or
loss of water pressure occurs. Check
valves are crucial for chemigation and
similar systems where pesticides are
injected into irrigation water.
Mix pesticides in areas where any
spills, leaks, and overflows cannot flow
toward a drain or into water sources. If
using a permanent mixing and loading
site, use a containment pad (see Chapter
11, Pesticide Application Procedures).
When possible, mix and load the pes-
ticides at the application site. Be careful
Use a backflow device when water is
pumped directly from the source.
Leave a distinct air gap between the hose
and the surface of the pesticide mixture to
prevent back-siphoning.
not to use the same site repeatedly, and
do not contaminate any water sources.
Use Personal Protective
Equipment
Be sure to wear appropriate per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE) when
handling pesticide containers, even
before opening them. Pesticide han-
dlers must wear all of the PPE that the
pesticide labeling requires. This may
include:
• Body protection—Wear a
bib-top apron made of butyl,
nitrile, or foil-laminate material
in case you get splashed while
mixing and loading or come in
direct contact with contami-
nated equipment. The style that
includes built-in gloves and
sleeves is especially protective.
• Face protection—Wear a face
shield to keep splashes and dusts
off your face, nose, and mouth
while pouring liquid pesticides
or adding dry pesticides to a
liquid.
• Respiratory protection—Wear
the appropriate respirator when
handling pesticides. Choose one
with the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) code given on the pes-
ticide product label.
• Eye protection—Wear
shielded safety glasses,
goggles, or a face shield
to protect your eyes.
Open Containers
Carefully
Do not tear open paper
or cardboard containers. Use
a sharp knife or scissors. This
reduces the danger of spilling
and makes bags easier to close
after use. Clean the knife or
scissors afterward, and do not
use them for other purposes. To
prevent spills, close containers
after each use even if you plan to
mix more of the same pesticide.
PLANNING IKE PESTICIDE APPLICATION Klffg
Use a sharp knife to
open pesticide bags and
wear appropriate PPE.
-------
Measure Accurately
When transferring wettable powders,
dusts, or other dry formulations, avoid
inhalation of dusts.
Transfer Pesticides
Carefully
After measuring or weighing the
correct amount of pesticide, carefully
add it to the partially filled spray tank.
When pouring, keep the container and
pesticide below face level. If there is a
breeze outdoors or strong air current
indoors, stand so the pesticide cannot
blow back on you. Rinse the measuring
container thoroughly and pour the
rinsate into the spray tank. Use caution
while rinsing to prevent splashing.
Never leave the spray tank unattended
while it is being filled.
When transferring wettable
powders, dusts, or other dry formula-
tions, avoid spillage and inhalation
of dusts.
OF PESTICIDE CONTAINERS
ing, loading, or application site—return
them to a secured storage area until
they can be recycled or disposed of
properly Clearly mark and safely store
them. Follow the label directions on
what to do with an empty container.
If a pesticide label says it is a
"refillable" container, it will have
instructions to return the container to
the pesticide dealer or manufacturer for
refilling. Never tamper with a container
designed to be returned and refilled. If
it is a "nonrefillable" container, the label
will tell you whether you can recycle,
recondition, or dispose of the container
and the manner of disposal. Never reuse
pesticide containers. If recycling is an
Accurately measure
pesticides.
Liquids and some granular pesti-
cides are measured by volume; dusts,
powders, and most dry formulations are
measured by weight. Pesticide labels use
the English system of measurement (i.e.,
fluid ounces, pints, quarts, and gallons
for liquids; pounds and ounces for dry
materials). Use an assortment of glass or
plastic measuring utensils, from
1 cup to 1 gallon, to accu-
rately measure liquids.
Some pesticides react
with metal—espe-
cially aluminum
and iron—so avoid
using metal mea-
suring utensils.
Use an accurate
scale and a set of
measuring cups and
spoons to measure
and weigh dry pesti-
cides. Mark each pesticide
measuring item clearly to avoid
using it for other purposes. To prevent
accidental poisonings, paint handles
with brightly colored waterproof paint
or attach waterproof warning labels.
After each use, clean and wash utensils
before storing them to prevent contam-
inating future mixtures. When you are
not using them, keep all measuring and
weighing equipment and utensils locked
in the pesticide storage area.
Follow the container-han-
dling instructions on the
pesticide label. The instructions
will tell you how to clean and
dispose of an empty container.
Not all containers must be tri-
ple-rinsed or pressure-rinsed.
If rinsing is required, follow
the directions on the label and
rinse immediately after empty-
ing the container. Otherwise,
residues may become difficult
to remove if allowed to dry. If
possible, add the rinsate to the
next application.
Do not leave pesticide
containers unattended at a mix-
Triple-rinse containers.
CHAPTER 10
-------
rinse as follows: Empty
the remaining contents into
application equipment or a
mix tank. Fill the container
one-quarter full with water.
Replace and tighten closures.
Tip container on its side and
roll it back and forth, making
at least one complete revo-
lution, for 30 seconds. Stand
the container on its end and
tip it back and forth several
times. Turn the container over
onto its other end and tip it
back and forth several times.
Empty the rinsate into appli-
cation equipment or a mix
tank or store rinsate for later
use or disposal. Repeat this
procedure two more times.
For bags or liners:
Completely empty bag or
liner by shaking and tapping sides A pesticide container
and bottom to loosen clinging par- recycling center.
tides. Empty residue into application
equipment or a mix tank or store for
later use or disposal.
To pressure rinse containers:
Empty the remaining contents into
application equipment or a mix tank
(drain for 10 seconds after the flow
begins to drip). Hold container upside
down over application equipment or
a mix tank or collect rinsate for later
use or disposal. Insert pressure-rinsing
nozzle in the side of the container and
rinse at about 40 pounds per square
inch for at least 30 seconds. Drain for
10 seconds after the flow begins to drip.
Pressure rinsing directs high-pressure water
into the container.
option, check with your state, tribe, or
territory pesticide regulatory agency or
the Ag Container Recycling Council
(www.acrecycle.org or 877-952-2272)
to locate a pesticide container recycling
program.
Container Rinsing
Procedures
For small containers 5 gallons
or less, triple rinse as follows: Empty
the remaining contents into application
equipment or a mix tank (drain for 10
seconds after the flow begins to drip).
Fill the container one quarter full with
water and recap. Shake for 10 seconds.
Pour rinsate into application equipment
or a mix tank or store rinsate for later
use or disposal. Drain for 10 seconds
after the flow begins to drip. Repeat
this procedure two more times.
For containers too large to
shake (i.e., with capacities more
than 5 gallons or 50 pounds), triple
APPLYING PESTICIDES CORRECTLY
Applicators have many important
responsibilities when applying pes-
ticides: protecting themselves, others,
and the environment and making sure
the pesticide is applied correctly. This
means using proper PPE and following
correct application procedures.
Personal Protective
Equipment
By law, applicators must wear the
PPE and other clothing the pesticide
labeling requires. Consider using addi-
tional protection for some types of
pesticide application tasks.
Hand- Carried and Backpack
Applications
Exposure is quite likely when
applying pesticides using hand-held
equipment or dust shakers. Dripping or
partially clogged nozzles, leaky hoses,
and loose equipment connections are
other potential sources of exposure.
Many applications performed
on foot cause the applicator to walk
PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION
-------
Wear appropriate
protective PPE whenever
you must walk into
the path of a pesticide
application.
into the path of the pesticide being
applied. Whenever possible, apply
pesticides so you are backing out of
the treated area. If you must walk
into the path of the pesticide,
consider wearing shin-high or
knee-high rubber boots (or other
protective footwear) with spray-
resistant or waterproof pants. Wear
appropriate protective clothing and
equipment when entering treated areas
to fix clogged nozzles or other malfunc-
tioning equipment parts.
High-Exposure Applications
Certain types of pesticide applica-
tions are especially risky because they
may expose the applicator to large
amounts of pesticide. These include:
• Mist blower or air-blast sprayers.
• Aerosol and fog generators.
• High-pressure sprayers and
power dusters.
• Equipment that directs applica-
tions overhead, such as to tree
canopies or roof eaves.
In high-pressure spray applications, consider
wearing more PPE than the label has listed.
Pesticide exposure is likely when-
ever you are working in these situations.
For high-exposure applications, use
appropriate gloves, protective coveralls
with a hood, footwear with sealed cuffs,
and a full-face respirator or half-face
respirator with sealed goggles.
Pesticides are sometimes applied
in enclosed spaces, such as warehouses,
factories, restaurants, and homes; rail-
cars; ship and truck cargo areas; silos,
elevators, and other grain storage areas;
and greenhouses. This increases the
risk of inhalation and dermal expo-
sure. Wear an approved respirator and
additional protective clothing, even if
you would not need them for the same
application outdoors.
Application Procedures
To ensure that pesticides are being
applied properly, follow these basic
procedures:
1. Before applying a pesticide, clear
all people and pets from the area.
Remove toys and pet dishes from
the application area and cover gar-
den furniture, swimming pools,
and birdbaths. Even for narrowly
directed pesticide applications
(such as crack-and-crevice treat-
ments), keep people and animals
out of the immediate area during
the application. Check the pesti-
cide label to find out when it is safe
to return to the application area. If
the label does not include specific
restricted-entry statements, keep
people and nontarget animals out
of the treated area until the spray
has dried or the dust has settled.
2. Ensure that the pesticide is reach-
ing the target surface or area. Be
sure to remove granules from side-
walks and other nontarget areas.
3. Apply the pesticide evenly and in
the correct amounts. Do not allow
liquid pesticides to form puddles
or dry pesticides to pile up in the
application area. Be especially
careful in places where you turn
or pause your equipment. You may
have to shut off your equipment
in these areas. After applying the
^ CHAPTER 10
-------
pesticide to the first part of the tar-
get site, check to be sure the right
amount of pesticide has been used.
4. Ensure that the pesticide main-
tains a uniform mix or appearance
during the application. Several
pesticide formulations mixed with
liquid require agitation to remain
in suspension. Granules and dusts
should appear dry and not form
clumps on the target site.
5. Check hoses, valves, nozzles, hop-
pers, and other equipment parts
often during the application.
6. Turn spray equipment off
when you pause for any reason.
Agitation must be maintained if
the spray mix is a suspension of
particles (such as wettable pow-
ders, flowables, or dry flowable
formulations). Whenever you stop
an application, depressurize spray
tanks. Turn off the main pressure
valve on the tank and release the
pressure remaining at the nozzles.
7. Check the label for any postap-
plication requirements, such as
incorporating the pesticide into
the soil.
After mixing, loading, or applying
a pesticide, clean the pesticide
equipment and yourself thoroughly
While the facts are still fresh in your
mind, record all information about the
application to comply with pesticide
recordkeeping laws.
Do not leave equipment containing
pesticides at the mixing and loading
or application sites. Avoid washing
equipment repeatedly in the same
location unless you use a containment
pad or tray.
Instruct everyone who cleans
pesticide-contaminated equipment on
proper safety procedures. Equipment
cleaning presents as great a risk of
pesticide exposure as do many other
pesticide-handling tasks. When clean-
ing pesticide-contaminated equipment,
wear the same PPE that the labeling
requires for making applications, plus
a chemical-resistant apron or other
appropriate protective equipment.
Consider wearing eye protection even if
not required by the label.
Rinsates
• Pesticide in the rinsate is labeled
for use on the target site where
the new mixture will be applied.
• Amount of pesticide in the
rinsate plus the amount of
pesticide product in the new
mixture does not exceed the
label rate for the target site.
Ririsates from
equipment that has
been cleaned contain
pesticides and can
harm people and the
environment. Do not
allow rinsates to flow into
water systems, including sink
or floor drains, storm sewers, wells,
streams, lakes, or rivers. If possible,
rinse your equipment at the application
site. Also, collect and apply rinsates to
labeled sites at or below label rates.
Equipment rinsate may also be
used as a diluent for future pesticide
mixtures provided the:
Be sure to wear
appropriate PPE when
cleaning application
equipment.
Cleaning Procedures
After the equipment is empty, clean
both inside and outside thoroughly,
including nozzles or hopper openings.
Certain pesticides (e.g., petroleum-based
products) use a carrier that may require
special cleaning agents or high water
pressure to get the equipment clean.
• Rinsate is used to dilute a
mixture containing the same or
a compatible pesticide.
Collect rinsate and apply
to a labeled site at or
below labeled rates.
PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION J
-------
Rinsate may not be added to a pes-
ticide mixture if it:
• Contains strong cleaning agents
(such as bleach or ammonia) that
might harm the plant, animal,
or surface to which the pesticide
will be applied.
• Would alter the pesticide
mixture and make it unusable;
for example, if the pesticides are
physically or chemically incom-
patible.
If rinsates cannot be used, dispose
of them according to the label as you
would waste pesticides.
Drains Containment pad
X / ,
sump
A mixing and washing pad may require a
sump that can be pumped out to collect
rinsate after each use.
Equipment Cleanup
Clean your equipment thoroughly
after each use or when changing chem-
icals. Pesticide residues can corrode
metal, plug hoses, or damage pumps
and valves unless removed immediately
after use. Sometimes residues react
with pesticides used later, reducing the
effectiveness of the pesticides. Special
tank-cleaning nozzles are available to
clean the interior walls of spray tanks.
For all application scenarios,
make sure the entire spray system is
cleaned, not just the tank. This is espe-
cially true for commercial row-crop
boom sprayers. Besides the spray tank,
problem spots for pesticide contami-
nation include the eductor (sometimes
called an inductor); plumbing, which
includes valves and hoses; filters and
screens; boom segments; nozzle bodies;
and nozzles and screens. When pos-
sible, thoroughly rinse equipment with
^ CHAPTER 10
a strong water-detergent solution (8
to 16 ounces of detergent in 30 to 40
gallons of water). Allow the water-
detergent solution to circulate through
the system for several minutes. Remove
the nozzles and screens, then flush the
sprayer system twice with clean water.
Some pesticide labels may require
triple rinsing to rid the spray system of
any possible pesticide contamination.
Regardless of how the spray system is
cleaned, make sure all visible deposits
are removed.
Sloppy cleanup practices are one
of the main causes of equipment failure
or malfunction. Pesticides allowed to
dry in the application equipment tend
to clump and stick and cannot be easily
removed. These deposits may even-
tually dissolve into the spray solution.
Thus, improper cleanout may lead
to contamination of tank mixes and
damage to susceptible crops.
Several commercial compounds
will aid in tank cleaning. These can neu-
tralize and remove pesticide residues,
remove mineral deposits and rust, and
leave a protective film on tank walls to
help prevent corrosion.
When preparing to store your
sprayer, add 1 to 5 gallons of light-
weight oil (depending on the size of the
tank) before the final flushing. As water
is pumped from the sprayer, the oil
leaves a protective coating on the inside
of the tank, pump, and plumbing. To
prevent corrosion, remove nozzle tips
and screens and store them in a can of
light oil, such as diesel fuel or kerosene.
In addition, add a small amount of oil
and rotate the pump four or five revolu-
tions by hand to coat interior surfaces
completely.
It may be necessary to winterize the
spray system to prevent damage from
freezing temperatures. Be sure to either
drain all water from the spray system or
replace the water in the pump and other
critical parts with an antifreeze material
(RV antifreeze is commonly used).
After thoroughly cleaning and
draining the equipment, store it in a
dry, clean building. Replace worn-out,
deteriorated, or broken parts. If you
store the sprayer outside, remove the
hoses, wipe them clean of oil, and store
-------
them inside where they will not become
damaged. When using trailer sprayers,
you may want to put blocks under the
frame or axle to reduce tire pressure
during storage.
As with any pesticide-related
procedure, remove contaminated
clothes and take a shower immediately
PROFESSIONALISM
able services. These services include:
• Producing a safe and plentiful
food and fiber supply.
• Protecting public health from
vector-borne diseases.
• Creating value for property
owners through their landscapes
and structures.
• Protecting land and water eco-
systems from invasive species.
• Enhancing the public's quality
of life through parks and other
recreation venues.
• Creating safe roadways and
other rights-of-way.
So far, this manual has provided
you with information on how to safely,
properly, and effectively manage pests
and use application equipment. Another
consideration is your professionalism as
a pesticide applicator.
What you do and how well you
handle yourself while on the job will
leave an impression on others. These
expectations of conduct and your
actions in specific situations create your
professional image, best summed up as
"professionalism."
What Is Professionalism?
Merriam-Webster defines profes-
sionalism as "the skill, good judgment,
and polite behavior that is expected from a
person who is trained to do a job well.'" The
heart of professionalism for a pesticide
applicator is exercising good judgment
when there are no clear-cut right or
• Study this manual to help you
acquire the basic knowledge
needed to educate your cus-
tomers and others who are
concerned about pesticides.
• Educate others about the work
you do.
• Know how to minimize risks to
yourself, coworkers, the public,
and the environment.
• Learn how to communicate the
benefits and risks of pesticide use
with your customers, coworkers,
and the public.
The impression you make on others
depends on your ability to answer ques-
tions from customers, neighbors, and
others about the work you do.
Demonstrate Professional
Ethical Standards
A professional demonstrates
ethical behavior in all aspects of his
or her work. This means not taking
shortcuts that may harm your cus-
tomers, the public, or the environment.
Offer honest and knowledgeable advice,
keeping in mind the best interests of
after cleaning equipment. Waiting
until the end of the day to clean up
may allow additional absorption
of the pesticide through the skin.
See Chapter 6 (Personal Protective
Equipment) for detailed information
on how to clean pesticide-contami-
nated clothing.
wrong options. Professionalism
includes fair treatment of customers,
respect for others, and being an asset
to your community.
While regulatory compliance is
necessary, you as an applicator or a
supervisor will need the expertise and
good judgment to make decisions on
issues affecting security, safety, health,
or the environment not addressed by
regulations or the pesticide label. You
should:
Take a shower
immediately after
using pesticides.
PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION ^
-------
others. Integrated pest management is
also part of your professional training
because it helps you make sound pest
management decisions, apply pesticides
only when needed, and protect sensitive
sites from harm.
Communicate with
Customers, Neighbors,
and the Public
Being a professional involves
knowing the correct terminology when
discussing your work and communi-
cating with others. When speaking
with the public, it is better to use
simple, direct language than to use
technical jargon. Be proactive and reach
out to neighbors, customers, and others
who may have concerns about a nearby
sensitive site where you are applying
pesticides. Inform others that you are
a professionally certified and trained
pesticide applicator. Explain what that
means because many people will not
know. Be familiar with your company
or organization policy for talking to
customers, neighbors, or the media.
Keep accurate records of all your
pesticide applications. Good records
provide the facts of what you did and
demonstrate your care in the work
you do. If there is a complaint or
iegal action following an application,
having good records may be your most
valuable defense. Having no or insuf-
ficient records makes you vulnerable
to baseless accusations and additional
scrutiny.
In a nutshell, being an effective
pesticide applicator is more than just
the skills and knowledge needed to
conduct an application. It also requires
good judgment, polite behavior, and a
professional demeanor.
SUMMARY
Applying pesticides correctly requires
careful planning, especially when
making tank mixes. Pesticide labels do
not always specify whether products can
be tank-mixed. Therefore, applicators
must know how to conduct a compat-
ibility test to determine which products
can be safely mixed.
Safe mixing and loading practices
include selecting an appropriate mix-
ing and loading area, protecting water
sources, and using appropriate PPE.
Rinsable containers must be triple- or
pressure-rinsed, properly disposed of, or
recycled. Empty nonrinsable containers
as completely as possible before dispos-
ing of, recycling, or refilling them.
When applying pesticides, protect
yourself and the environment by wear-
ing appropriate PPE and removing all
people and pets (nontarget organisms)
from the area to be treated.
After mixing, loading, and applying
pesticides, be sure to clean equipment
and yourself properly. If possible, reuse
application equipment rinsates as a
diluent in a spray mixture containing
the same or a compatible pesticide.
Apply the rinsates to a labeled site at or
below the label rate.
-------
L
Review Questions
CHAPTER 10: PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your answers with those in Appendix A.
1. Determining when to apply a pesticide includes
considering the:
A. Life cycle of the pest and weather
conditions.
B. Percent active ingredient.
C. Need for additives or adjuvants.
2. The "Directions for Use" section of a pesti-
cide label indicates the:
A. Various crops or areas on which the
pesticide may be legally used.
B. Disposal of pesticide waste.
C. Environmental, physical, and chemical
hazards.
3. When two or more pesticides mixed together
form a putty or paste, separate into layers, or
look like cottage cheese, it is an example of:
A. Limited agitation.
B. Chemical incompatibility.
C. Physical incompatibility.
4. After filling a tank one-fifth to one-half full
with carrier, what is the usual order for tank
mixing the remaining products?
A. Add suspension products, add emulsion
products, add solution products, add
surfactants (if needed), add compatibility
agent (if needed).
B. Add compatibility agent (if needed), add
suspension products, add solution products,
add surfactants (if needed), add emulsion
products.
C. Add surfactants (if needed), add suspension
products, add emulsion products, add
solution products, add compatibility agent
(if needed).
5. Which statement about the proper technique
for opening pesticide containers is true?
A. Put on the appropriate PPE after the
containers have been opened.
B. Use a sharp knife or scissors to open paper
or cardboard containers.
C. Leave the container open until you have
finished mixing pesticides for the day.
6. Which statement about measuring and/or
transferring pesticides is true?
A. Metal measuring utensils are recommended
over plastic.
B. Most dusts, powders, and dry formulations
are measured by volume.
C. After adding the pesticide to the partially
filled spray tank, rinse the measuring
container and pour the rinse solution into
the tank.
7. Which statement about cleaning and disposing
of pesticide containers is true?
A. Do not puncture rinsed pesticide
containers.
B. Pesticide containers that cannot be
recycled or returned to the manufacturer
should be reused.
C. Containers must be disposed of in
accordance with label directions and
current regulations.
continued ^
REVIEW QUESTIONS ^
-------
8. Which statement about triple-rinsing and
pressure-rinsing pesticide containers is true?
A. Triple rinsing is a more effective method
than pressure rinsing.
B. All containers must be either triple-rinsed
or pressure-rinsed.
C. Rinsate from triple rinsing or pressure
rinsing may be stored for later use.
9. Which statement about pesticide rinsates is
true?
A. Rinsates may be applied to labeled target
sites at or below labeled rates.
B. Rinsates containing strong cleaning agents
may be reused in pesticide mixtures.
C. The amount of pesticide in the rinsate plus
the amount of pesticide product in the new
mixture may exceed the label rate for the
target site.
10. Which statement about pesticide equipment
cleanup is false}
A. Sprayers should be thoroughly rinsed
with a water-detergent solution for several
minutes.
B. When getting ready to store your sprayer,
add some lightweight oil to the tank before
the final flushing.
C. Leftover pesticide residue in the spray tank
is permitted when changing products.
^ REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
Pesticide Application Procedure
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Name several different application procedures
and types of equipment.
• Discuss appropriate safety systems (e.g., closed mixing
and loading, enclosed cab, and pesticide containment).
• Identify the factors (e.g., nozzles, volumes, pressures,
and speeds) that affect calibration.
• Explain the importance of calibrating application equipment.
• Show how to calculate the size of the application area.
• Indicate how to determine the pesticide application rate.
• Demonstrate how to determine the amount of pesticide
concentrate and diluent to use.
• Explain how to choose appropriate drift reduction
practices.
Today's pest management practices
require modern equipment to apply
a variety of pesticides. Pesticides may be
applied as sprays, dusts, granules, gases
(vapors), fogs, baits, rubs, or dips. The
vast array of application equipment must
be matched to the pesticide as well as to
the size and type of the job. To make an
effective, safe, and efficient application,
read the label first. In addition, you
must properly select, operate, calibrate,
and maintain your equipment.
APPLICATION METHODS
The pesticide application method you
choose depends on the nature and
habits of the target pest, characteristics
of the target site, properties of the
pesticide, suitability of the application
equipment, and cost and efficiency of
alternative methods. Your choice is
often predetermined by one or more of
these factors. The following are some
common application methods:
PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES
-------
• Crack-and-crevice application
—placing small amounts of pes-
ticide into cracks and crevices in
buildings, such as along base-
boards and in cabinets.
• Directed-spray application—
specifically targeting pests to
minimize pesticide contact with
nontarget plants and animals.
• Foliar application—directing
pesticide to the leafy portions of
a plant.
• Rope-wick or wiper treat-
ments—releasing pesticides onto
a device that is wiped onto weeds
taller than the crop, or wiped
selectively onto individual weeds
in an ornamental planting bed.
• Soil application—placing pes-
ticide directly on or in the soil
instead of on a growing plant.
• Soil incorporation—using tillage,
rainfall, or irrigation equipment
to move pesticide into the soil.
• Soil injection—applying a pes-
ticide under pressure beneath
the soil surface.
• Space treatment—applying a
pesticide in an enclosed area.
• Spot treatment—applying a
pesticide to small, distinct areas.
• Tree injection—applying pesti-
cides under the bark of trees.
Broadcast application
Crack and crevice application Foliar application
• Band application—applying a
pesticide in parallel strips or
bands, such as between or over
rows of crops.
• Basal application—directing
herbicides to the lower portions
of brush or small trees.
• Broadcast application—uni-
formly applying a pesticide to an
entire area or field.
Closed systems...
• Increase handler safety.
• Reduce the need for
some personal protective
equipment.
• Decrease the occurrence
of spills.
• Provide a more accurate
measurement of
pesticide concentrate,
which reduces overdosing
or underdosing.
SAFETY SYSTEMS
Closed mixing and loading systems,
enclosed application systems
(e.g., enclosed cabs), and pesticide
containment systems are excellent
investments if you use large quanti-
ties of pesticides or the kind that is
very hazardous to humans or to the
environment.
Closed Mixing and
Loading Systems
Closed mixing and loading
systems are designed to prevent
pesticides from contacting handlers
or other persons during mixing and
loading. Sometimes the label of pes-
ticides with a high risk of causing
human health effects may require the
use of a closed mixing and loading
system.
There are two primary types of
closed mixing and loading systems.
One type uses mechanical devices to
deliver the pesticide from the con-
tainer to the equipment. The other
type uses water-soluble packaging.
CHAPTER 11
-------
Water-Soluble Packaging
Water-soluble bags are a simple
type of closed mixing and loading
system. The premeasured pesticide is
contained inside a water-soluble bag
or packet. The pesticide bag is placed
unopened into the water or fertilizer in
the mixing tank. Few manufacturers,
however, provide water-soluble bags for
small-volume applications. There must
be ample time during mixing to allow
for the bags to dissolve.
Enclosed Cabs
Pesticide Containment
Systems
If you often use the same location
to mix and load pesticides or clean
equipment, you may have to install a
pesticide containment pad. Check U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and
state, tribe, or territory regulations to
determine when a containment pad is
required. Keep spray tanks contain-
ing pesticides on a pad. These pads are
A closed loading system.
Mechanical Systems
Mechanical systems often consist
of a series of interconnected equipment
parts that allow for the safe removal
of a pesticide concentrate from its
original container, either by gravity or
by suction. These systems minimize
exposure when rinsing the empty con-
tainer and transferring the pesticide and
rinsate to the application equipment.
Mechanical systems are often
custom-made with components from
several commercial sources. These
systems are available for containers as
small as 2.5 gallons. Because pesticide
container openings vary in shape and
size, no single closed system can be used
with all containers.
A mechanical loading system is
often used with minibulk containers.
These containers range in volume from
40 to 330 gallons and are adapted to
closed systems. Typically, pump-and-
drive units deliver the product. A meter
allows accurate measuring from the
minibulk tank to the sprayer. Minibulks
usually must be returned to the dealer
for refilling. This process eliminates
the need to triple rinse or pressure rinse
multiple small containers and reduces
the volume of used plastic containers.
tank.
An enclosed cab (such as a tractor
cab, cockpit, or truck/vehicle cab) sur-
rounds the occupant(s) and may prevent
pesticide exposure as long as the doors,
hatches, and windows are kept closed
at all times during the application.
Enclosed cabs are considered a
supplement to personal pro-
tective equipment (PPE)
—not a replacement for
it. So, you must wear all
PPE specified on the
label while working
inside the enclosed cab.
However, the labeling
of some agricultural
use pesticides may allow
exceptions to the label-
specified PPE requirements
for applicators in enclosed cabs.
Check with your state, tribe, or ter-
ritory pesticide regulatory agency for
any other requirements regarding PPE
and enclosed cabs. Remember, outside
surfaces of the application equipment
and cab are contaminated. Be sure to
wear appropriate PPE when getting in
and out of the cab or performing rou-
tine equipment maintenance.
Enclosed cabs
are considered a
supplement to PPE,
not a replacement
for it.
PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES ^
-------
APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
/A backpack sprayer is a type of hydraulic
sprayer.
manual backpack and hand-held
compressed-air sprayers. In all cases,
pressure from either a pump or com-
pressed gas or air is used to atomize the
spray mix at the nozzle.
Manual sprayers are designed for
spot treatments and for areas unsuitable
The application equipment or device
must be able to apply the pesticide
to the intended target at the proper rate.
The label specifies the legal application
rate and may suggest the appropriate
equipment for use with the product.
Application equipment may range from
an aerosol can to hand equipment to
power equipment, including aircraft.
The equipment may be carried, towed,
or self-propelled.
Use a permanently installed con-
tainment pad to mix, ioad, and clean
equipment and in areas where large
quantities of pesticides are handled
or stored. Generally, the containment
pad must be made of impermeable
material. It should be concave or have
curbs, berms, or walls high enough
to hold the largest amount of spill,
leak, or equipment wash water likely
to occur at the site. It also must be
equipped with a system to remove and
recover spilled, leaked, or released
material by either an automatic sump
system or a manually operated pump.
Smaller, portable pads and lightweight
trays made of heavy-duty plastic may
be used when mixing and loading at
the application site. Again, check reg-
ulations for containment pad design
requirements.
designed to contain spills, leaks, over-
flows, and wastewater for reuse by the
applicator or disposal by a commercial
waste management contractor. They
make it easier to clean up spills and help
prevent environmental contamination.
A mixing and loading pad.
Sprayers
The most common type of pes-
ticide application equipment is
the sprayer: nearly 90% of all
pesticides are formulated for
spraying. A hydraulic (liq-
uid) sprayer uses water
or other liquid car-
rier for the pesticide.
However, in the case
of ultra-low-volume
spraying, the pesti-
cide is either applied
directly as formulated or
with dramatically reduced
carrier volumes. Hydraulic
sprayers range from large agri-
cultural sprayers with multiple-nozzle
booms and power sprayers to small
,4 hydraulic sprayer
with a spray boom.
^ CHAPTER 11
-------
for larger units. They are relatively
inexpensive, simple to operate, maneu-
verable, and easy to clean and store.
Adjustable spray guns are often used
with these units, but some models have
the option for a spray boom.
The air-blast (or mist) sprayer uses
both water and air as carriers. Spray
droplets are formed by the nozzles
and delivered to the target by an air-
stream. Air-blast sprayers are typically
used for disease and insect control on
fruit trees, vineyards, vegetables, and
Christmas trees.
An air blast sprayer uses both water and
air as carriers.
Sprayer Components
Because sprayers use water or other
liquids to dilute and carry a pesticide, a
tank is necessary to contain the spray
mix. Choose a tank made of or coated
with a material that does not corrode
and can be easily cleaned. Corrosion
and dirt clog screens and nozzles and
increase wear on the equipment. Large
Extended Range Flat-Fan
Flooding Flat-Fan (front)
Turbo Flat-Fan (front) Air Induction Flat-Fan
Off-Center Flat-Fan Wide Angle Full-Cone
Turbo Flood Flat-Fan Hollow Cone (Disc-Core) Hollow Cone (One Piece)
Twin Orifice Flat-Fan
tanks require an opening in the bottom
to aid in cleaning and draining. A
large top opening is useful for
filling, cleaning, and inspecting
the tank. The opening must
have a watertight cover to pre-
vent spillage. A tank agitation
system/device is useful for
most sprayable formulations,
especially for wettable powders
or dry flowables. Constant mix-
ing of a pesticide and liquid carrier
produces a uniform spray mixture
(suspension or solution), resulting in an
even application of the chemical.
Sprayers use a pump to produce
the flow of spray material to the nozzles
and for agitation. The pump parts
must resist corrosion and be abrasion-
resistant, especially when wettable
powders or other abrasive formulations
are used. Never operate a sprayer pump
at speeds or pressures above those rec-
ommended by the manufacturer. You
may damage the pump if it is operated
dry or with a restricted flow at the inlet
or outlet. Pumps depend on the spray
liquid for lubrication and to prevent
overheating.
Nozzles control the amount of
material applied, droplet formation
and size (coverage and drift), and the
distribution and pattern of the droplets.
A nozzle's spray pattern is made up of
a wide variety of spray droplet sizes.
Nozzles are classified based on the
spray pattern they produce (see Figure
11.1). The size of the nozzle opening
Ground sprayer.
Rotating turret nozzle
body with five nozzle
positions. The position
pointing down is the
active nozzle.
Figure 11.1
Nozzle Spray Patterns
PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES ^
-------
Figure 11.2
A device to measure
nozzle flow.
A rotary spreader.
A drop spreader.
Granular Applicators
Granular applicators are available
for either band or broadcast application.
They may be operated as separate
units. However, they are often
attached to other equipment
(such as planters or cultivating
equipment) to combine two
or more operations. Granular
applicators usually operate
by gravity feed and have an
adjustable opening to regulate
the flow.
Band applicators use hoses
or tubes with deflectors on the bot-
tom. Broadcast applicators use a system
of tubes and deflectors or a spinner to
(orifice) affects the droplet size and
flow rate. A nozzle that primarily pro-
duces larger droplets is most likely to
minimize off-target drift. A nozzle
that mainly produces smaller droplets
will maximize surface coverage of the
target. See Chapter 7 (Pesticides in
the Environment) for a more detailed
discussion of droplet size classification.
Choose nozzles based on the target
pest, type of application, coverage
desired, and drift potential.
Nozzles are available in various
materials: brass, aluminum, plastic,
stainless steel, hardened stainless steel,
and ceramic. Select the nozzle material
best suited for the pesticide formu-
lation. Never use brass or aluminum
tips to apply abrasive materials (such
as wettable powders and dry flowables)
because they wear too fast. Since
wear destroys the proper working of a
nozzle, replace worn nozzles. To reduce
wear, use nozzle tips made of a hard,
wear-resistant material, such as plastic,
hardened stainless steel, or ceramic.
Also, be sure you have the correct
nozzle screen size for each nozzle.
Flow meters and other devices
measure nozzle flow rate and the
uniformity of flow from nozzles
along a boom. Figure 11.2 is
a device that measures flow
over time. It can be used to
check nozzles for output and is
also useful during calibration,
particularly when sprayers are
set up with multiple nozzles.
spread the granules. The application
rate is affected by ground speed; granule
size, shape, and density; field terrain; and
even relative humidity and air tempera-
ture. When multiple band applicators
are used, each individual unit must be
calibrated with the specific material to
be applied to ensure accurate application.
Rotary and drop spreaders are two
common types of granular applicators.
Rotary spreaders distribute the granules
to the front and sides of the spreader,
usually by means of a spinning disk or
fan. In a drop spreader, an adjustable
sliding gate opens holes in the bottom of
the hopper. Granules flow out by gravity
feed. Drop spreaders are superior to
rotary spreaders when more precise
placement of the pesticide is desired.
Other Application
Equipment
Additional types of application
equipment include:
• Rubs, walk-through sprayers,
and dipping vats to control pests
on animals.
• Bait dispensers to control
rodents, insects, and predators.
• Foggers for indoor pest control
and for some outdoor insect
control.
• Chemigation systems for green-
houses and field crops.
• Dusters for small-scale disease
and insect control.
Rubs are used for applying pesticides
to livestock.
CHAPTER 11
-------
EQUIPMENT CALIBRATION
Calibration is the process of mea-
suring and adjusting the amount
of pesticide your equipment applies or
delivers to a specific area. The purpose
of calibration is to ensure that your
equipment is applying the correct
amount of material uniformly over a
given area.
Equipment is made to be adjustable.
Charts or tables assist the operator in
adjusting the settings. These recom-
mended settings, however, are only
approximate and may not be appro-
priate for all situations. Therefore,
your equipment must be calibrated
periodically. How often depends on the
type of equipment and the frequency of
use. The application rate of a sprayer is
affected by travel speed, nozzle size, and
sprayer pressure. Even with the wide-
spread use of electronics to monitor
and control the pesticide application, a
thorough sprayer calibration procedure
is essential to avoid misapplication.
Equipment can be calibrated by
making a trial run on some premea-
sured area and measuring the output.
For example, using a hand-held sprayer,
spray a premeasured test area with water
using the same pressure and techniques
(i.e., travel speed and equipment) you
would use when applying the pesticide.
After spraying the test area, determine
how much water was used. This volume
can then be used to calculate the
amount of water and pesticide needed
to cover the intended application area.
When calibrating a boom sprayer,
there are three variables that affect the
amount of spray material applied per
area of measurement (i.e., gallons per
acre or gallons per 1,000 square feet):
1. Nozzle flow rate.
2. Ground speed of the sprayer.
3. Width sprayed per nozzle.
To calibrate and operate a sprayer
properly, it is important to understand
how each of these variables affects
sprayer output. The nozzle flow rate
varies according to the size of the
orifice, the nozzle pressure, and the
density of the spray liquid. The spray
application rate varies inversely with
the ground speed. Doubling the ground
speed of the sprayer reduces the gallons
of spray applied per acre by one-half.
Likewise, doubling the effective width
sprayed per nozzle decreases the applied
amount by one-half.
The time invested in calibrating
your equipment is time well-spent.
Accurate calibration to determine the
application volume under your oper-
ating conditions is important for cost,
efficiency, and safety. Without properly
calibrating the sprayer to deliver the
correct application volume, you will
not be able to apply the pesticide at the
proper rate to control the pest.
Your category-specific manual will
explain in detail how to calibrate your
application equipment.
Calibrating a backpack sprayer.
Why Calibrate?
The purpose of calibration is to ensure that
your equipment is applying the correct amount
of pesticide material uniformly over a given
area. Too little pesticide may fail to control the
target pest. Too much pesticide is illegal and can
result in damage to the treated plant, animal, or
surface; can produce illegal residues on treated
crops and animals; and can cause adverse effects
to the environment and non-target organisms.
PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES
-------
CALCULATING AREA
For precise application, you need to know the size of the area to be treated. The
following examples show how to determine the size of rectangular, triangular,
and circular areas.
Rectangular Areas
You want to apply a pesticide to an area that measures 1,320 feet by 120 feet.
What is the area in square feet and in acres?
LENGTH
1,320 ft.
O o
Area = length x width
Area in square feet (sq. ft.)
1,320 ft. x 120 ft. = 158,400 sq. ft.
Area in acres (A) = 158,400 sq,ft = 3.6 A
43,560 sq.ft./A
Note: 1 acre (A) = 43,560 sq. ft.
11
LZ
-------
CALCULATING THE APPLICATION RATE
Use the volume from your calibration
test area to determine the amount
of pesticide product and total spray
mixture needed for your application
area. First, convert your calibrated rate
to one based on the area units found on
the label. For example, assume that when
you calibrated the sprayer, it delivered 2
gallons of water over a 250-square-foot
test area. Your application area mea-
sures 1,000 square feet (i.e., four times
the test area). Therefore, you need to
use 8 gallons of spray mixture to cover
1,000 square feet (multi-
plying 2 gallons of water
by 4).
Check the pesticide
label to determine the
amount of pesticide to
add to the spray mixture.
For example, if the label
recommends adding 4
ounces of a liquid pes-
ticide product to give a
desired finished spray
mixture of 1 gallon, you
Calculating the Application Rate
You determined from a calibration test that your boom sprayer delivered 10
gallons of water over a one-quarter (0.25) acre test area. You need to apply a
pesticide product to a 10-acre field (43,560 square feet = 1 acre). The pesticide
label recommends that 4 ounces of liquid product be added to give a desired
finished spray mixture of 1 gallon (there are 128 fluid ounces = 1 gallon).
How much spray volume and how much product are needed?
Step 1. How much spray mixture is needed for the 10-acre application
area? Always use information from the calibration test. In this
example, 10 gallons of water was used over a 0.25-acre cali-
bration test area.
10 gallons ^ Y gallons
0.25 acre 10 acres
Cross multiplication:
Y = PQ gallons x 10 acres) _ ^qq ga||ons Qf Spray mixture needed
0.25 acre
Step. 2. How much pesticide product is needed to make up 400 gallons
of spray mixture? Use the label rate of 4 oz. product per 1 gal.
spray.
400 gallons spray mixture x 4 ounces of liquid pesticide product
per gallon = 1,600 ounces of product needed
Step 3. How many gallons of product are needed?
Remember, 128 ounces = 1 gallon.
1,600 ounces of product _
- = 12.5 gallons of product
128 ounces/gallon
Final result: To treat 10 acres, you need a total final spray mix of 400 gallons
that includes 12.5 gallons of the concentrated product.
Calculate the application
rate and measure the
amount of pesticide
needed.
PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES ^
-------
would add 4 ounces of product to 124
ounces of water (1 gallon equals 128
fluid ounces). If you needed to apply
8 gallons of spray mixture to cover
1,000 square feet, then you must add
32 ounces (8 times 4 Ounces) of pes-
ticide product to 7.75 gallons of water.
If the tank capacity of the sprayer is 4
gallons, you need to fill up the tank
twice, using 16 fluid ounces of product
each time.
Labels vary in how they recommend
pesticide application rates. Some
examples include ounces of product per
1,000 square feet, pints/quarts/gallons
per 100 gallons, pounds of product per
acre, or percent product in the tank. Be
sure you understand how to calculate the
correct amount of pesticide product and
diluent needed before making the final
mixture See Appendix C, Conversions
and Calculations, for more information.
TECHNIQUES TO MINIMIZE DRIFT
A wind meter is useful
for determining when
to spray.
Application techniques and equip-
ment greatly influence the amount
of spray drift that occurs. Off-target
movement is affected by the type of
nozzle, nozzle orifice size, sprayer pres-
sure, and the height or distance of the
nozzles from the target. It is important
to review the pesticide label for specific
information on drift reduction tech-
niques or requirements. You must also
check weather conditions (such as air
stability, wind direction, and speed) at
the time and place of the application
and follow all weather-related restric-
tions on the label.
Of the many nozzle types
available for applying pesticides,
several are specifically designed to
reduce drift. Select nozzles to give
the largest droplet size that provides
adequate coverage at the intended appli-
cation volume and pressure.
In addition to the size of the nozzle
orifice, some new nozzle designs help
reduce drift by incorporating air into
the spray to form an air-fluid mix.
These air-induction nozzles, known
as venturi nozzles, form a larger spray
droplet, produce fewer fine particles,
and provide energy to help transport the
droplets to the target. These nozzles,
however, require higher spray pressures
(40 to 100 pounds per square inch) to
be effective. Even at these higher pres-
sures, venturi nozzles still dramatically
reduce the likelihood of drift.
Operating pressure also affects the
droplet size and output volume of the
sprayer. Doubling the pressure does not
double the flow rate. To double the flow
rate, you must increase the pressure
four times. Pressure cannot be used
to make major changes in application
rate, but it can be used to correct minor
changes due to nozzle wear. To obtain a
uniform spray pattern and to minimize
drift, keep the operating pressure
within the recommended range for each
nozzle tip. Exceeding the recommended
pressure range often results in more
drift potential. To maintain a proper
spray pattern, adjust nozzles according
to the manufacturer's recommendations
on nozzle spacing and spray angle.
Applications made with an elec-
tronic rate controller are subject to
pressure changes as the operating
speed varies. Even though the purpose
of the rate controller is to help make
A demonstration of a method to determine
the uniformity of a nozzle spray pattern.
CHAPTER 11
-------
application volumes more uniform as
sprayer speed changes, major adjust-
ments in speed can affect pressure.
For example, doubling the speed will
result in a fourfold pressure increase
in an attempt to maintain the correct
volume. The increased pressure without
changing nozzle orifice size will dra-
matically increase the potential for
drift. Likewise, reduced speed can lower
the pressure, which may affect coverage
and, ultimately, pattern quality.
Spray height, or distance from
the target site, is also an important
factor in reducing drift. The closer the
boom or spray nozzle is to the ground
or target site, the less chance for drift.
However, watch for pattern uniformity.
Table 11.1. Recommended Techniques to Reduce Drift
Recommended Technique Explanation
Follow label directions for reducing
drift.
Read the label and reference the nozzle manufacturer's guide
to determine which nozzle and pressure combinations are
needed.
Select a nozzle to increase droplet size.
Large droplets are less prone to drift. Use the largest droplets
that provide necessary coverage.
Increase nozzle size resulting in higher
application volumes.
Larger capacity nozzles can reduce the amount of spray
deposited off-target.
Consider using new technologies.
Certain nozzles (e.g., air-induction and venturi nozzles) may
help reduce drift.
Lower boom height.
The higher the boom height is above the target, the greater
the potential for drift. Lowering the boom height a few
inches can reduce off-target drift.
Maintain appropriate travel speed.
High travel speeds may result in an unstable boom, high
boom positions and increased drift potential.
Keep nozzle close to the target.
When using hand-held equipment, keeping the nozzle close
reduces the potential for drift.
Avoid high application ground speeds
or major speed changes across the field.
Speed changes may result in pressure adjustments, causing
droplet size variability. Sudden increases in speed may create
high pressure that results in more drift potential.
Avoid applications during times of high
wind speeds.
More of the spray volume moves off-target as wind increases.
Wind currents can drastically affect spray droplet deposition.
Do not spray in the presence of a
temperature inversion.
Temperature inversions prevent the dissipation of spray
particles.
Consider using buffer zones/no-spray
zones near sensitive areas.
Leave a buffer zone/no-spray zone if sensitive areas are
downwind.
Use a drift-control additive when
needed.
Drift-control additives increase the average droplet size
produced by the nozzles. These additives must not become
your only drift reducing technique. They do not make up for
poor spraying practices.
PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES ^
-------
To maintain uniformity, most nozzle
types require some amount of overlap.
Maintaining a 1:1 ratio of boom height
above the target to the nozzle spacing
on the boom will satisfy most overlap
requirements. For air-blast sprayers,
reduce drift by minimizing spraying
over the canopy top. Use the minimum
airspeed that will still give good pen-
etration into the canopy, and consider
the use of tower sprayers.
Another way to minimize drift
is to use drift control additives. Tests
indicate that the use of some additives
reduces downwind drift deposits by
50% to 80%. Drift control additives
are a specific type of chemical adjuvant.
They must be mixed and applied
according to label directions to be
SUMMARY
effective. Research, however, has shown
that some products intended to reduce
drift in fact increase drift potential. This
research also shows that although some
of these additives dramatically increase
droplet size, they may also reduce
coverage and lessen the overall effec-
tiveness of the pesticide. Thoroughly
evaluate drift control additives before
using them. Using approved application
techniques and adopting new tech-
nologies designed to reduce spray drift
can improve the performance of spray
mixes, benefit the environment, and be
more cost-effective. Any one practice
used alone may not sufficiently reduce
drift. Therefore, incorporate as many
drift-reduction techniques as practical
into your spray program (Table 11.1).
To choose the most suitable pesticide
application method, you must con-
sider factors such as the target site,
target pest, and which pesticide formu-
lation you intend to use.
Further, you must wear all PPE
specified on the label for a specific task
and, when required, use closed mixing
and loading systems, enclosed cabs, and
pesticide containment systems. Even if
not required, using these safety systems
will help protect humans and the envi-
ronment from exposure to pesticides.
Your application equipment must
be able to deliver the correct amount
of pesticide to the intended target.
The most common type of application
equipment used in pest management
is the hydraulic sprayer. Regardless of
what type of sprayer you use, you must
understand its parts and how they work.
This includes how to adjust nozzles,
spray volume, and pressure to reduce
off-target drift. Spraying under the
right weather conditions using proper
application procedures can help reduce
drift.
Before making an application, be
sure your equipment is properly cali-
brated and know how to use the label
information to calculate the correct
amount of pesticide.
-------
CHAPTER 11: PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES
Write the answers to the following questions, and then check your answers with those in Appendix A.
1. Which application method involves uniformly
applying a pesticide to an entire area or field?
A. Broadcast.
B. Band.
C. Directed spray.
2. Which type of pesticide application would you
use to control cockroaches inside buildings?
A. Basal.
B. Band.
C. Crack and crevice.
3. Which statement about containment pads is
true?
A. Pads make spill cleanup more difficult.
B. Pads should be made of permeable materials.
C. Pads should be used where large quantities
of pesticides are handled or mixed.
4. Which statement about sprayer nozzles is true?
A. A nozzle that mainly produces fine droplets
is likely to minimize off-target drift.
B. Coarse-sized droplets provide maximum
coverage of the target.
C. Nozzles control the amount of material
applied and type of pattern created.
5. Which statement about granular applicators
is true?
A. Ground speed has no effect on the
application rate.
B. In a rotary spreader, lighter granules are
thrown farther than heavier ones.
C. Drop spreaders are superior to rotary
spreaders when more precise placement of
the pesticide is desired.
6. Which technique would help minimize off-
target drift?
A. Spraying during a temperature inversion.
B. Using the largest droplets practical to
provide necessary coverage.
C. Increasing the height of the nozzles above
the target.
7. You are applying a pesticide to a triangular
area that has a base of 60 feet and a height of
30 feet. How many square feet is the area?
A. 450.
B. 900.
C. 1,800.
8. You are applying a pesticide to a circular area
with a 20-foot diameter. How many square
feet is the area?
A. 128.
B. 314.
C. 400.
9. You have calibrated your equipment to spray
50 gallons per acre. You need to spray 1 acre.
The label calls for 3 pounds of formulation
per 100 gallons of water. How many pounds
of formulation should you add to the tank to
make 50 gallons of finished spray?
A. 1.5.
B. 3.
C. 6.
REVIEW QUESTIONS ^
-------
^ CHAPTER 11
-------
APPENDIX A
Answers to Review Questions
CHAPTER 1 PEST MANAGEMENT
1. B. 2. B. 3. A. 4. A. 5. A.
6. A. 7. A. 8. A. 9. B. 10. B.
CHAPTER 2 FEDERAL PESTICIDE LAWS AND REGULATIONS
1. B. 2. A. 3. B. 4. C. 5. C.
6. B. 7. A.
CHAPTER 3 PESTICIDE LABELING
1. B. 2. C. 3. B. 4. A. 5. A.
6. A. 7. A. 8. C. 9. C.
CHAPTER 4 PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
1. A. 2. C. 3. B. 4. C. 5. C.
6. B. 7. C. 8. A. 9. C. 10. C.
CHAPTER 5 PESTICIDE HAZARDS AND FIRST AID
1. A. 2. A. 3. A. 4. A. 5. A.
6. B. 7. B. 8. B. 9. A. 10. C.
CHAPTER 6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
1. A. 2. C. 3. C. 4. B. 5. A.
6. C. 7. A. 8. C. 9. A.
CHAPTER 7 PESTICIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
1. A. 2. B. 3. C. 4. C. 5. B.
6. C. 7. B. 8. C.
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS
-------
CHAPTER 8 TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND
SECURITY
1. B. 2. B. 3. A. 4. C. 5. B.
6. A.
CHAPTER 9 EMERGENCY OR INCIDENT RESPONSE
1. C. 2. A. 3. B. 4. A. 5. C.
CHAPTER 10 PLANNING THE PESTICIDE APPLICATION
1. A. 2. A. 3. C. 4. B. 5. B.
6. C. 7. C. 8. C. 9. A. 10. C.
CHAPTER 11 PESTICIDE APPLICATION PROCEDURES
1. A. 2. C. 3. C. 4. C. 5. C.
6. B. 7. B. 8. B. 9. A.
^ APPENDIX A
-------
APPENDIX B
Glossary
ABIOTIC FACTORS Related to nonliving elements,
such as air pollutants, wind, water, and temperature.
ABSORPTION The movement of a chemical
into plants, animals (including humans),
microorganisms, or soil.
ACARICIDE A pesticide used to control mites and
ticks. A miticide is a type of acaricide.
ACIDIC Having a pH less than 7.
ACTION THRESHOLD A predetermined level of pest
infestation or damage at which some type of pest
management action must be taken.
ACTIVATED CHARCOAL A finely ground charcoal
that adsorbs chemicals.
ACTIVATOR An adjuvant added to a pesticide to
increase its toxicity.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT The chemical or chemicals in
a product responsible for pesticidal activity.
ACUTE EFFECTS Illnesses or injuries that occur shortly
(within 24 hours) after exposure to a pesticide.
ACUTE EXPOSURE An exposure to a single dose of
pesticide.
ACUTE TOXICITY An injury or illness produced
from a single pesticide exposure. LD50 and LC50
are common indicators of the degree of acute
toxicity.
ADJUVANT (ADDITIVE) A substance added to a
pesticide to improve its effectiveness or safety.
Examples include penetrants, sticker-spreaders,
and wetting agents.
ADSORPTION The process whereby chemicals are
held or bound to a surface by physical or chemical
attraction. Clay and high-organic soils tend to
adsorb pesticides.
ADULTERATED PESTICIDE A pest control product
that does not conform to the specified standard or
quality documented on its label or labeling.
ADVISORY STATEMENTS Manufacturer recommen-
dations or best management practices for optimal
use of a pesticide product. Pesticide handlers are
not legally required to follow advisory statements.
AEROSOL A chemical stored in a container under
pressure. An extremely fine mist is produced when
the material, dissolved in a liquid, is released into
the air.
AGITATION SYSTEM A device that stirs or mixes a
pesticide product in a sprayer.
AIR-BLAST SPRAYER A type of pesticide application
equipment that uses a large volume of air moving
at high speed to break up and disperse spray
droplets from the nozzles.
AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR (APR) A safety device
that uses filters or sorbents to remove hazardous
substances, including pesticides, from the air.
ALGAE Relatively simple plants that are
photosynthetic and contain chlorophyll.
ALGAECIDE (ALGICIDE) A pesticide used to kill or
inhibit algae.
ALKALINE Having a pH greater than 7 (also called
basic).
ALLERGIC EFFECTS/ALLERGY A hypersensitivity to
a specific substance, often called the allergen.
An allergy may cause dermatitis, blisters, or
hives. It could also cause illness, asthma, or
life-threatening shock. Often the entire body is
affected. Pesticide allergy symptoms are similar to
other allergy symptoms—reddening and itching
of the eyes, respiratory discomfort, and asthma-
like symptoms.
GLOSSARY
-------
ANIMAL SYSTEMICS Pesticide products that are
absorbed by, enter the tissues of, and move within
the treated animal.
ANNUAL A plant that completes its life cycle in
one year.
ANTAGONISM The reduction of pesticide activity
when two or more different pesticides are mixed
together.
ANTIBIOTIC Chemical produced by a microorganism
that is toxic to other microorganisms. Examples
include streptomycin and penicillin.
ANTICOAGULANT A chemical that prevents normal
blood clotting; the active ingredient in some
rodenticides.
ANTIDOTE A practical treatment used to counteract
the effects of pesticide poisoning or some other
poison in the body.
ANTI-SIPHONING DEVICE A hose attachment
designed to prevent backflow of a pesticide mix
from the spray tank into a water source.
APPLICATION RATE The amount of pesticide that is
applied to a known area, such as an acre or 1,000
square feet or linear feet.
AQUIFER A geologic formation from which
groundwater may be drawn. An aquifer can be a
layer of sand, gravel, or other soil materials or a
section of bedrock with fractures through which
water can flow.
ARACHNID A wingless arthropod with two body
regions and four pairs of jointed legs. Spiders,
ticks, and mites are arachnids.
ARTHROPOD An invertebrate animal characterized
by a jointed body and limbs and usually a hard
body covering that is molted at intervals. Insects,
mites, and crayfish are arthropods.
ATMOSPHERE-SUPPLYING RESPIRATOR A safety
device that provides a supply of breathable air from
a clean, independent outside source. Examples
include SCBA and supplied-air respirators.
ATROPINE (ATROPINE SULFATE) An antidote used to
treat organophosphate and carbamate poisoning.
ATTRACTANT A substance or device used to lure
insects or other pests to a trap or poison bait.
AVICIDE A chemical used to kill or repel birds.
BACK-SIPHONING The movement of a liquid
pesticide mixture from a spray tank through the
filling hose into the water source.
BACTERIA (singular: BACTERIUM) Microscopic
organisms, some of which can produce diseases in
plants and animals.
BACTERICIDE A chemical used to control bacteria.
BAIT A food or other substance used to attract a
pest to a pesticide or a trap.
BAND APPLICATION A pesticide or other material
applied in or beside a crop row instead of over the
entire field.
BASAL APPLICATION An herbicide applied to plant
stems or trunks at or just above the ground line.
BENEFICIAL An insect that is useful or helpful to
humans. Examples include pollinators, parasites,
and pest predators.
BIENNIAL A plant that completes its life cycle in
two years.
BIOACCUMULATION The ability of organisms to
accumulate or store chemicals in their tissues.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Pest management using
predators, parasites, and disease-causing organisms.
It may be naturally occurring or introduced.
BIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION The breakdown of
chemicals due to the activity of living organisms,
especially bacteria and fungi in the soil.
BIOMAGNIFICATION The process whereby some
organisms accumulate chemical residues in higher
concentrations than those found in the organisms
they consume.
BIOPESTICIDE A pest control product derived from
naturally occurring materials.
BOOM A pesticide application device attached
to a truck, tractor, aircraft, or other vehicle (or
held by hand) to which multiple spray nozzles are
attached.
BOTANICAL PESTICIDE A pest control product
produced from naturally occurring chemicals in
plants. Examples include nicotine, pyrethrum,
and rotenone.
BRAND NAME The registered or trade name,
number, or designation given to a specific
pesticide product or device by the manufacturer
or formulator.
BREAKTHROUGH The penetration of pesticide
through PPE, such as a liquid through gloves or a
gas through a respirator. If this happens, the PPE
is no longer protective.
^ APPENDIX B
-------
BROADCAST APPLICATION A pesticide or other
material uniformly applied over an entire field or area.
BROADLEAVES (DICOTS) Plants with broad,
rounded, or flattened leaves with netted veins.
Examples include dandelions and roses. Different
from grasses, sedges, rushes, and onions
(monocots), which have narrow, bladelike leaves
with parallel veins.
BROAD-SPECTRUM PESTICIDE A pest control
product that is effective against a wide range of pests.
BUFFERS Adjuvants used to slow chemical
degradation of some pesticides by lowering the pH
of alkaline water and maintaining the pH within a
narrow range, even with the addition of acidic or
alkaline materials.
CALIBRATE/CALIBRATION To properly adjust
equipment; to determine the correct amount of
material to be applied to the target area.
CARBAMATES A group of pesticides commonly
used to control insects, mites, fungi, and weeds.
N-methyl carbamate insecticides, miticides, and
nematicides are cholinesterase inhibitors.
CARCINOGEN A substance or agent able to produce
malignant tumors (cancer).
CARRIER An inert liquid, solid, or gas added to an
active ingredient to make a pesticide formulation.
A carrier is also the material, usually water or
oil, used to dilute the formulated product for
application.
CAUSAL ORGANISM The pathogen that produces a
given disease.
CAUTION The signal word associated with pesticide
products classified as slightly toxic. These pesticides
have an oral LD50 greater than 500mg/kg and a
dermal LD50 greater than 2,000mg/kg.
CERTIFIED APPLICATOR A person qualified to apply or
supervise the application of restricted-use pesticides.
CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE/CHEMICAL CANISTER For
air-purifying respirators, the type of purifying
element that removes specific gases or vapors by
absorbing or adsorbing them.
CHEMICAL DEGRADATION The breakdown of
chemicals that do not involve living organisms,
usually by a chemical reaction with water.
CHEMICAL NAME The technical term for the active
ingredient(s) found in the formulated product.
This complex name is derived from the chemical
structure of the active ingredient.
CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY What occurs when
mixing certain pesticides in a spray tank alters the
activity of one or more of them.
CHEMICAL-RESISTANT PPE When specified by
the pesticide label, a legal definition that the
PPE "shall be made of material that allows no
measurable movement of the pesticide being used
through the material during use" [U.S. EPA. 40
CFR 170.240 Personal protective equipment],
CHEMIGATION The application of pesticides or
fertilizers to a target site in irrigation water.
Also known as injector systems when used in
greenhouses.
CHEMOSTERILANT A chemical used to sterilize
insects or pest vertebrates without altering mating
habits or life expectancy.
CHEMTREC The Chemical Transportation Emergency
Center. It supports a toll-free number (800-424-9300)
that provides 24-hour information for chemical
emergencies, such as a spill, leak, fire, or accident.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON (ORGANOCHLORINE)
A pesticide containing chlorine, carbon, and
hydrogen. Many are persistent in the environment.
Examples include chlordane, DDT, and
methoxychlor.
CHLOROSIS The yellowing of a plant's normally
green tissue.
CHOLINESTERASE A chemical catalyst (enzyme)
found in humans and many other animals
that regulates the activity of nerve impulses
by deactivating the chemical neurotransmitter
acetylcholine.
CHRONIC TOXICITY The ability of small amounts
of pesticide from repeated, prolonged exposure to
cause injury.
COMMERCIAL APPLICATOR A certified applicator
who uses or supervises the use of pesticides for
purposes other than those covered under a private
applicator certification.
COMMON NAME A name given to a pesticide
active ingredient by a recognized committee on
pesticide nomenclature. Although many pesticides
are known by a number of trade or brand names,
each active ingredient has only one recognized
common name. For example, the common name
for Sevin insecticide is carbaryl.
COMPATIBILITY AGENT An adjuvant used to
enhance the mixing of two or more pesticide
products and/or fertilizers.
GLOSSARY ^
-------
COMPATIBLE A mixture of two or more chemicals
that does not reduce the effectiveness or
characteristics of any individual chemical.
CONCENTRATE See PESTICIDE CONCENTRATE.
CONCENTRATION The amount of active ingredient
in a given volume or weight of formulated product.
CONTACT (LOCAL) EFFECTS Injury at the point
of contact, including skin discoloration and
irritation (dermatitis), such as itching, redness,
rashes, blisters, and burns. Swelling; stinging; and
burning of the eyes, nose, mouth, or throat are all
contact effects.
CONTACT PESTICIDE Any pest control product that
affects pest organisms upon contact. These may be
insecticides, miticides, fungicides, or herbicides.
CONTAINMENT PAD An impermeable mat used
for mixing and loading pesticides and cleaning
equipment that is designed to catch spills, leaks,
overflows, and wash water for reuse or disposal.
CONTAMINATION The presence of an unwanted
substance in or on a plant, animal, soil, water, air,
or structure.
CORROSIVE POISON A substance containing a
strong acid or base that will severely burn the skin,
mouth, stomach, or respiratory tract.
CRACK-AND-CREVICE APPLICATION Small amounts
of pesticide placed into cracks and crevices in
buildings (such as along baseboards and in cabinets).
CROSS-CONTAMINATION The accidental mixing
of one pesticide with another, usually in an
improperly cleaned sprayer or in storage because
of the airborne movement of a volatile pesticide.
CROSS-RESISTANCE When a pest population that is
already resistant to one pesticide becomes resistant
to a related chemical with a similar mode of action.
CURATIVE PESTICIDE A pest control product that
can inhibit or kill a disease-causing organism after
it is established in the plant or animal.
DANGER The signal word associated with pesticide
products classified as highly toxic by at least one
route of entry.
DANGER—POISON The signal word associated
with pesticide products classified as highly toxic,
corrosive, or highly irritating to skin and eyes.
DAYS TO HARVEST (PREHARVEST INTERVAL) The
minimum number of days permitted by law
between the last pesticide application and the
harvest date of the crop.
APPENDIX B
DAYS TO SLAUGHTER (PRESLAUGHTER INTERVAL)
The minimum number of days permitted by law
between the last pesticide application and the date
the food animal is slaughtered.
DECONTAMINATE To remove or degrade a chemical
residue from the skin or a surface.
DEFOAMING AGENT An adjuvant used to reduce
the foaming of a spray mixture due to agitation.
DEFOLIANT A chemical that initiates the premature
drop of leaves, often as an aid in harvesting a crop.
DEGRADATION The process by which a chemical
compound is broken down into simpler compounds
by the action of microorganisms, water, air,
sunlight, or other agents. Degradation products
are usually—but not always—less toxic than the
original compound.
DELAYED EFFECTS Illnesses or injuries that do
not appear immediately (within 24 hours) after
exposure to a pesticide. The effects may be
delayed for weeks, months, or even years.
DEPOSIT The presence of a pesticide on a treated
surface after application.
DERMAL Pertaining to the skin.
DERMAL LD50 The amount of a pesticide that can
kill 50% of a population of test animals when
absorbed through the skin.
DERMAL TOXICITY The ability of a pesticide to
injure a human or animal when absorbed through
the skin.
DERMATITIS The inflammation, itching, irritation,
or occurrence of a rash after exposure to a
chemical.
DESICCANT A chemical that promotes drying or loss
of moisture from leaves or other plant parts. Also,
a chemical that removes water from arthropods
or destroys the waxy covering that protects these
organisms from water loss.
DETOXIFY To render a pesticide active ingredient
or other poisonous chemical harmless.
DIAGNOSIS The positive identification of a problem
and its cause.
DILUENT Any inert liquid, solid, or gaseous material
that is combined with a pesticide active ingredient
during the manufacturing process. Also, the water,
petroleum product, or other liquid in which the
formulated product is mixed before application.
-------
DIRECTED APPLICATION A pesticide precisely
applied to a specific area or site. Examples include
a basal application to woody plants or a crack-and-
crevice treatment in a building.
DISINFECTANT (ANTIMICROBIAL) A chemical
or other agent that kills or inactivates disease-
producing microorganisms in animals, seeds,
or other plant parts. Also commonly refers
to chemicals used to clean or surface-sterilize
inanimate objects.
DISPERSING AGENT An adjuvant that facilitates the
mixing and suspension of a pesticide formulation
in water.
DORMANT SPRAY A pesticide application made in
late winter or early spring before plants resume
active growth.
DOSE/DOSAGE The quantity of pesticide applied
to a given site or target.
DRIFT The airborne movement of a pesticide spray,
dust, particle, or vapor beyond the target area.
DRIFT CONTROL ADDITIVE An adjuvant added to a
spray mixture to reduce drift.
DROP SPREADER A common type of granular
applicator with an adjustable sliding gate that
opens holes in the bottom of the hopper. Granules
flow out by gravity feed.
DRY FLOWABLE A granular pesticide formulation
that forms a suspension when added to water.
DUST A finely ground, dry pesticide formulation
containing a small amount of active ingredient and
a large amount of inert carrier or diluent, such as
clay or talc.
ECONOMIC INJURY LEVEL (EIL) The pest population
density (number of pests per unit area) that causes
losses equal to the cost of control measures.
ECONOMIC THRESHOLD (ET) The pest population
density (number of pests per unit area) at which
control measures are needed to prevent the pest
from causing economic injury.
EDUCTOR Also referred to as an inductor or a jet
pump, it is a device that enables small pumps to
circulate large volumes of tank solution. When
pumping is used for solution agitation, the use of
an eductor will circulate 4 to 5 gallons of solution
in the tank for every 1 gallon that is pumped.
They also are used to add the pesticide into the
tank for automated field mixing.
EMERGENCY EXEMPTION A Section 18 exemption
that allows the sale and use of a registered pesticide
product for a specific nonregistered purpose
during a specified period if no feasible alternative
is available.
EMULSIFIABLE CONCENTRATE (EC) A pesticide
formulation produced by mixing an active
ingredient and an emulsifying agent in a suitable
petroleum solvent. When combined with water, a
milky emulsion is usually formed.
EMULSIFYING AGENT (EMULSIFIER) A chemical
that aids in the suspension of one liquid in another
that normally would not mix together.
EMULSION A mixture of two liquids that are not
soluble in each other. One is suspended as very
small droplets in the other with the aid of an
emulsifying agent. An example is emulsifiable
concentrate in water.
ENCAPSULATED PESTICIDE A formulation with the
active ingredient enclosed in capsules of polyvinyl
or other synthetic materials, mainly used for slow
release and to prolong the effectiveness of the
materials. May also refer to a method of disposal
of pesticides and pesticide containers by sealing
them in a sturdy, waterproof container to prevent
leakage.
ENCLOSED CAB Tractor cab, cockpit, or truck/
vehicle cab that surrounds the occupant(s). It may
help to prevent exposure to pesticides as long as all
doors, hatches, and windows remain closed during
the pesticide application.
ENDANGERED SPECIES Organisms (plants or
animals) whose population has been reduced to
near extinction.
ENVIRONMENT All the features that surround and
affect an organism or group of organisms.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) The
federal agency responsible for implementing
pesticide rules and regulations and registering
pesticides.
EPA ESTABLISHMENT NUMBER A number assigned
to each pesticide production facility by EPA. The
number indicates the plant at which the pesticide
product was produced and must appear on all
labels of that product.
EPA REGISTRATION NUMBER A number assigned
to a pesticide product by EPA when the product is
registered by the manufacturer or the designated
agent. The number must appear on all labels for a
particular product.
GLOSSARY ^
-------
ERADICANT A chemical or other agent (e.g., steam
or heat) used to eliminate an established pest from
a plant, animal, or specific site (e.g., soil, water, or
buildings).
ERADICATION A pest management strategy that
attempts to eliminate all members of a pest
population from a defined area.
EXPOSURE Unwanted contact with pesticides or
pesticide residues by people, other organisms, or
the environment.
FACEPIECE (TIGHT-FITTING) A respirator that forms
a complete seal with the face. Examples include
particulate-filtering facepieces, half masks, and
full facepiece masks.
FEDERAL INSECTICIDE, FUNGICIDE, AND RODENTICIDE
ACT (FIFRA) A federal law dealing with pesticide
regulations and use.
FILTER (HEPA) High-efficiency particulate air filter.
A high-efficiency filter is used in powered air-
purifying respirators. The P100 cartridge used in
nonpowered APRs is equivalent to a HEPA filter.
FILTER (PARTICULATE) For nonpowered air-purifying
respirators, a purifying element that removes
aerosols (solid or liquid particulates) from the
air. Particulate filters are rated N, R, or P for
oil degradation and 95, 99, or 100 for filtering
efficiency.
FILTER EFFICIENCY For air-purifying respirators, the
collective efficiency of a filter to resist penetration
by particulates. Nonpowered APR filters are tested
and rated at 95%, 99%, and 99.7% efficiency. The
higher the number, the more efficient the filter.
Powered APR filters are tested and rated as "high
efficiency" (HE).
FILTERING FACEPIECE RESPIRATOR A type of
nonpowered APR in which a particulate filter
is an integral part of the facepiece (or the entire
facepiece is composed of the filtering medium).
FIT TEST (QUALITATIVE) A method to assess whether
a particular size and brand of respirator adequately
fits an individual's face using a test agent. If the
person can detect inside the mask an agent that is
outside the mask, there is leakage at the seal and
the mask does not fit properly.
FIT TEST (QUANTITATIVE) A method to assess
whether a particular size and brand of respirator
adequately fits an individual's face using
instrumentation to numerically measure leakage
into the respirator.
APPENDIX B
FLAMMABLE Capable of being easily ignited.
FLOWABLE A pesticide formulation in which a very
finely ground solid particle, composed of both
active and inert ingredients, is suspended in a
liquid carrier. These formulations are mixed with
water before spraying.
FOAMING AGENT An adjuvant designed to reduce
pesticide drift by producing thick foam.
FOG TREATMENT The application of a pesticide as
a fine mist or fog.
FOLIAR APPLICATION A pesticide applied to the
leaves of plants.
FOOD CHAIN A sequence of species within an
ecological community. Each member serves as
a food source for the species next higher in the
chain.
FORMULATION A pesticide product as purchased,
containing a mixture of one or more active
ingredients, carriers (inert ingredients), and other
additives diluted for safety and ease of application.
FUMIGANT A pesticide that forms gases or vapors
toxic to plants, animals, and microorganisms.
FUNGI (singular: FUNGUS) Nonchlorophyll-bearing
plants that live as saprophytes or parasites. Some
infect and cause diseases in plants, animals, and
humans or destroy wood and fiber products.
Others are beneficial, such as decomposers and
human food sources. Examples include rusts,
mildews, molds, and smuts.
FUNGICIDE A chemical used to control fungi.
FUNGISTATIC AGENT A chemical that inhibits the
germination of fungal spores or the growth of
mycelium but does not kill the fungus.
GENERAL-USE PESTICIDE A pest control product
that can be purchased and used by the public.
GERMINATION The sprouting of a seed or the
production of a germ tube (mycelium) from a
fungus spore.
GPA Gallons per acre.
GPM Gallons per minute.
GRANULE A dry pesticide formulation. The active
ingredient is either mixed with or coated onto an
inert carrier to form a small, ready-to-use, low-
concentrate particle that is not normally a drift
hazard. Pellets differ from granules only in their
precise uniformity, larger size, and shape.
-------
GROUNDWATER Water located in aquifers beneath
the soil surface from which well water is obtained
or surface springs are formed.
GROWTH REGULATOR A chemical that alters the
growth processes of a plant or animal.
HABITAT A place where plants or animals live, feed,
and reproduce.
HARVEST AID CHEMICAL A chemical material
applied to a plant before harvest to reduce the
amount of plant foliage.
HAZARD The likelihood that injury or death will
occur from a given level and duration of exposure
to a toxic chemical.
HEAT STRESS Overheating of the body that, if
severe, may be life-threatening.
HERBACEOUS PLANTS Plants that do not develop
woody tissues.
HERBICIDE A pesticide used to control weeds.
HIGH-EFFICIENCY FILTER See FILTER (HEPA).
HOST A plant or animal on or in which a pest lives
and feeds.
HOST RESISTANCE The ability of a host plant or
animal to resist attack by pests or to be able to
tolerate the damage caused by pests. (Also called
PEST RESISTANCE.)
HYDRAULIC SPRAYER Atype ofpesticide application
equipment that uses water under pressure to
deliver the pesticide to the target site.
HYDROLYSIS Breakdown of a chemical in the
presence of water.
ILLEGAL RESIDUE A quantity of pesticide remaining
on or in the crop/animal at harvest/slaughter that
is either above the set tolerance or may not be used
on the crop/animal.
IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO LIFE OR HEALTH
(IDLH) Used to describe an atmosphere that
poses an immediate threat to life, would cause
irreversible adverse health effects, or would impair
an individual's ability to escape from a dangerous
atmosphere. Environments that have less than
19.5% oxygen by volume are considered IDLH by
OSHA.
IMPREGNATES Pet collars, livestock ear tags,
adhesive tapes, plastic pest strips, and other
products with pesticides incorporated into them.
These pesticides slowly emit vapors over time and
provide control of nearby pests.
INCOMPATIBLE Two or more materials that cannot
be mixed or used together.
INERT INGREDIENTS Inactive materials in a pesticide
formulation without pesticidal activity. Some inert
ingredients, however, may be toxic or hazardous to
humans.
INGREDIENT STATEMENT The portion of the label
on a pesticide container that gives the name and
amount of each active ingredient and the total
amount of inert ingredients in the formulation.
INHALATION TOXICITY The ability of a pesticide
to harm humans or animals when breathed in
through the nose and mouth into the lungs.
INOCULUM That part of a pathogen that can cause
disease in a host.
INORGANIC PESTICIDES Pest control products of
mineral origin that do not contain carbon.
INSECT GROWTH REGULATOR (IGR) A type
of insecticide that controls certain insects by
disrupting their normal growth process from
immature to adult.
INSECTICIDE A pesticide used to control or prevent
damage caused by insects and related arthropods.
INSECTS Arthropods characterized by a body
composed of three segments and three pairs of
legs.
INSOLUBLE A chemical that does not dissolve in a
liquid. For example, a wettable powder does not
dissolve in water but instead forms a suspension.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) The
use of all suitable pest control methods to keep
pest populations below the economic injury
level. Methods include cultural practices; use of
biological, physical, and genetic control agents;
and the selective use of pesticides.
INVERT EMULSION A mixture in which water
droplets are suspended in an oil instead of oil
droplets being suspended in water.
INVERTEBRATE A class of animals that lack
backbones. Examples include insects, spiders,
nematodes, snails, and slugs.
KEY PEST An organism that may cause major
damage on a regular basis unless it is controlled.
LABEL All the printed material attached to or
part of a pesticide container. The label is a legal
document.
GLOSSARY
-------
LABELING The pesticide product label and all
supplemental pesticide information. Labeling
complements the label information but may not
necessarily be attached to or part of the container.
LARVAE (singular: LARVA) Immature forms of
insects that undergo complete metamorphosis:
developmental stages are egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
LARVICIDE A pesticide used to kill insect larvae.
Commonly used to control mosquito and black
fly larvae.
LC50 The concentration of a pesticide, usually in
air or water, that can kill 50% of a population of
test animals. LC50 is usually expressed in parts
per million (ppm). The lower the LC50 value, the
more acutely toxic the chemical.
LD50 The dose or amount of a pesticide that can
kill 50% of a population of test animals when eaten
or absorbed through the skin. LD50 is expressed
in milligrams of chemical per kilogram of body
weight (mg/kg) of the test animal. The lower the
LD50 value, the more acutely toxic the chemical.
LEACHING The movement through soil of a
pesticide or other chemical that is dissolved in
water.
LETHAL CONCENTRATION See LC50.
LETHAL DOSE See LD50.
LIFE CYCLE The series of stages that an organism
passes through during its life. Many pest species,
both plants and animals, pass through several
life stages during which their susceptibility to or
tolerance of pesticides varies greatly.
LOCAL EFFECTS See CONTACT (LOCAL) EFFECTS.
MANDATORY STATEMENTS Label directions that
a pesticide handler must follow to legally use the
pesticide.
METABOLITE In pesticides, a compound derived
from changes in the active ingredient through
chemical, biological, or physical reactions. The
metabolite may be simpler or more complex and
may or may not be more poisonous than the
original chemical.
METAMORPHOSIS A change in the shape, size, and/or
form of animals as they develop from eggs to adults.
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION Breakdown of a
chemical by microorganisms.
MICROBIAL PESTICIDE (BIORATIONAL) Bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms used to
control pests.
APPENDIX B
MICROENCAPSULATED PESTICIDE A formulation in
which the pesticide active ingredient is encased in
plastic capsules. When the capsules start to break
down after application, the pesticide is slowly
released.
MICROORGANISM An organism that is so small it
cannot be seen without the aid of a microscope.
MINIBULK A container that ranges in volume from
40 to 600 gallons and is adapted to closed systems.
A minibulk container can be returned to the dealer
for refilling.
MINIMUM-RISK PESTICIDES Products that pose a
minimal risk to humans and the environment and
thus are exempt from federal registration.
MISCIBLE LIQUIDS Two or more fluids that can
be mixed and will remain mixed under most
conditions. Water and ethyl alcohol are miscible;
water and oil are not.
MITE A small arthropod similar to an insect but
with eight legs, two body parts, and no antennae.
MITICIDE A pesticide used to control mites.
MODE OF ACTION The way in which a pesticide
affects the target plant, animal, or microorganism.
MOLLUSCICIDE A chemical used to control snails
and slugs.
MOLTING In invertebrates (such as insects, spiders,
and mites), the process of shedding the outer
body covering or exoskeleton. Molting allows the
animal to grow larger.
MUTAGEN A substance or agent able to cause
genetic changes in living cells.
MYCELIUM The mass of filaments that forms the
body of a fungus.
MYCOPLASMA A microorganism possessing many
virus- and bacteria-like properties. Some cause
plant diseases.
NARROW-SPECTRUM PESTICIDE A pest control
product that is effective against only one or a
few species of pests. Usually associated with
insecticides and fungicides.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
AND HEALTH (NIOSH) A federal agency that
conducts research on health and safety concerns,
tests and certifies respirators, and trains
occupational safety and health professionals.
NATURAL ENEMIES The predators, parasites, and
pathogens that attack and often kill other organisms.
-------
NECROSIS The death of plant or animal tissues that
causes the formation of discolored, sunken, and
dead (necrotic) areas.
NEMATICIDE A pesticide used to control nematodes.
NEMATODES Microscopic, colorless, wormlike
animals that live as saprophytes or parasites. Many
cause diseases of plants or animals.
NEUROTOXIN A substance or agent able to cause
disorders of the nervous system.
NO OBSERVABLE EFFECT LEVEL (NOEL) The
maximum dose or exposure level of a pesticide that
produces no observable toxic effect on test animals.
NONPERSISTENT PESTICIDE A pest control product
that does not remain active in the environment
more than one growing season.
NONPOINT-SOURCE POLLUTION Contamination
that comes from a widespread area. An example
is the movement of pesticides into streams or
groundwater following a broadcast application to
an agricultural field, large turf area, or right-of-way.
NONSELECTIVE PESTICIDE A pest control product
that is toxic to a wide range of plants or animals
without regard to species. For example, a
nonselective herbicide can kill or damage all plants
it contacts.
NONTARGET ORGANISMS Plants or animals within
or near a pesticide-treated area that are not the
intended targets of the application.
NOXIOUS WEED A plant defined by law as being
particularly troublesome, undesirable, and difficult
to control.
NOZZLES Atomizing devices that produce droplets
that form the spray pattern.
NUISANCE DUST Dust that is relatively harmless to
the lungs. It does not produce significant organic
disease or toxic effects when exposures are kept at
reasonable levels.
NYMPH The developmental state of insects with
gradual metamorphosis that hatch from the egg.
Nymphs become adults.
OCCASIONAL PEST An organism that causes
intermittent damage as a result of changing
environmental conditions or fluctuations in
populations of natural enemies.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
ADMINISTRATION (OSHA) A federal agency that
issues and enforces regulations for workplace
health and safety.
OCULAR Pertaining to the eyes.
ONCOGEN A substance or agent able to induce
tumors (not necessarily cancerous) in living tissues.
ORAL LD50 The dose of a pesticide that can kill 50%
of a population of test animals when eaten.
ORAL TOXICITY The ability of a pesticide to injure
a human or animal when taken by mouth.
ORGANOPHOSPHATES A large group of pesticides
that contain the element phosphorus. Most
are nonpersistent insecticides, miticides, and
nematicides. Many are highly toxic. Examples
include malathion, parathion, diazinon, and
chlorpyrifos.
ORIFICE A precisely sized opening in a spray nozzle.
OVICIDE A material that destroys eggs.
OXIDIZER A highly reactive chemical that is
potentially explosive and a fire hazard under
certain conditions.
PARASITE A plant, animal, or microorganism living
in, on, or with another living organism from
which it obtains all or part of its food.
PARTICLE DRIFT The airborne movement of
particles such as pesticide dusts and pesticide-
contaminated soil from the application site.
PARTICULATE A particle of solid or liquid matter.
PARTICULATE FILTER See FILTER (PARTICULATE).
PARTICULATE MATTER A suspension of fine solid or
liquid particles in air, such as dust, fog, fume, mist,
smoke, or sprays. Particulate matter suspended in
air is commonly known as an aerosol.
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB) A way of expressing
amounts of chemicals in or on food, plants,
animals, water, soil, or air. One part per billion
equals 1 pound in 500,000 tons.
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM) See PARTS PER BILLION.
One part per million equals 1 pound in 500 tons.
PATHOGEN A disease-causing organism.
PELLET A pesticide formulation consisting of
dry active and inert ingredients pressed into a
uniformly sized and shaped ready-to-use material.
Pellets are larger than granules.
PENETRANT An adjuvant added to a spray mixture
to enhance the absorption of a pesticide.
PERCOLATION The downward movement of water
through soil.
GLOSSARY
-------
PERENNIAL A plant that lives for more than two
years.
PERMEABILITY The ease with which water and
dissolved pesticides can flow through porous
materials, such as soil, gravel, or sand.
PERSISTENCE The amount of time that a pesticide
remains active to control pests.
PERSISTENT PESTICIDE A pesticide chemical (or its
metabolites) that remains active in the environment
more than one growing season. Some compounds
can accumulate in animal and plant tissues or
remain in the soil for years.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE) When
specified on a pesticide label, PPE is legally
defined as "devices and apparel that are worn to
protect the body from contact with pesticides
or pesticide residues, including, but not limited
to, coveralls, chemical-resistant suits, chemical-
resistant gloves, chemical-resistant footwear,
respiratory protection devices, chemical-resistant
aprons, chemical-resistant headgear, and protective
eyewear" [U.S. EPA. 40 CFR 170.240 Personal
protective equipment],
PEST An undesirable organism (e.g., insect,
bacterium, fungus, nematode, weed, virus, or
rodent) that injures or harms humans, desirable
plants or animals, manufactured products, or
natural products.
PESTICIDE Any substance or mixture of substances
intended to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate any
pest. Also, any substance or mixture of substances
intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or
desiccant.
PESTICIDE CONCENTRATE A pesticide formulation
before it is diluted.
PESTICIDE CONTAINMENT PAD See CONTAINMENT
PAD.
PESTICIDE HANDLER A person who works directly
with pesticides, such as during mixing, loading,
transporting, cleaning, storing, disposing, and
applying, or who repairs pesticide application
equipment.
PESTICIDE LABEL See LABEL.
PESTICIDE RESISTANCE The ability of an insect,
fungus, weed, rodent, or other pest to tolerate a
pesticide that once controlled it.
PH A measure of acidity and alkalinity; acid below
pH7, basic or alkaline above pH7.
PHEROMONE A substance emitted by an animal
to influence the behavior of other animals of the
same species. Some are synthetically produced for
use in insect traps.
PHOTODEGRADATION Breakdown of a chemical by
sunlight.
PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITY The failure ofpesticide
products to stay uniformly mixed in a spray tank.
PHYTOTOXICITY Chemical injury to plants.
PISCICIDE A chemical used to control pest fish.
PLACARDS Diamond-shaped warning signs placed
on all vehicles that transport certain types and
quantities of hazardous materials, as required by
the U.S. Department of Transportation.
PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR (PGR) A pesticide
used to regulate or alter the normal growth of
plants or the development of their parts.
POINT OF RUNOFF When a spray starts to run or
drip from the leaves and stems of plants, or the
hair or feathers of animals.
POINT-SOURCE POLLUTION The contamination of
water and soil from a specific, identifiable place or
location, such as a spill site or a permanent mixing,
loading, and cleaning site.
POISON CONTROL CENTER An agency (generally
a hospital) that provides current information on
proper first aid techniques and antidotes for
poisoning emergencies.
POSTEMERGENCE HERBICIDE A pesticide that
is applied after the weed or crop plants have
appeared through the soil. Usually used to specify
the timing of herbicide applications.
POWERED AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR (PAPR) A
safety device that uses a blower to force
contaminants through purifying elements.
PRECIPITATE A solid substance that forms in a
liquid and settles to the bottom of a container; a
material that no longer remains in suspension.
PREDACIDE A pesticide used to control predaceous
animals, usually mammals.
PREDATOR An animal that attacks, kills, and feeds
on other animals. Examples include bears, wolves,
coyotes, hawks, owls, snakes, fish, spiders, and
many insects and mites.
PREEMERGENCE HERBICIDE A pesticide that is
applied before the weed or crop plants have
appeared through the soil. Usually used to specify
the timing of herbicide applications.
^ APPENDIX B
-------
PREHARVEST INTERVAL See DAYS TO HARVEST.
PREMIX A pesticide product formulated by the
manufacturer with more than one active ingredient.
PREPLANT PESTICIDE A pest control product applied
before planting a crop.
PRESLAUGHTER INTERVAL See DAYS TO SLAUGHTER.
PRESSURE RINSE The process of decontaminating
an empty pesticide container with water by using a
special high-pressure nozzle to rinse the container.
PRIVATE APPLICATOR A certified applicator who
uses or supervises the use of restricted-use
pesticides to produce an agricultural commodity
on his or her own land, leased land, or rented land
or on the lands of his or her employer.
PROPELLANT The inert ingredient in self-
pressurized products that forces the active
ingredient from the container.
PROTECTANT A pesticide applied to a plant or
animal before infection or attack by a pest to
prevent infection or injury by the pest.
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT See PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT (PPE).
PUMP A device that moves liquid pesticide through
hoses and out of the spraying system.
PU PA A developmental stage of insects that undergo
complete metamorphosis that occurs between the
larva and the adult.
PYRETHROID A synthetic insecticide that mimics
pyrethrin, a naturally occurring pesticide derived
from certain species of chrysanthemum flowers.
QUARANTINE A regulatory method to prevent
the introduction and dissemination of plant and
animal pests into new areas. Involves inspections,
treatments, and destruction of contaminated
plants and animals or their parts.
RATE OF APPLICATION The amount of pesticide
applied to a plant, animal, unit area, or surface. It
is usually expressed as per acre or per 1,000 square
feet, linear feet, or cubic feet.
READY-TO-USE (RTU) Low-concentrate formulations
that require no further dilution before application.
REGISTERED PESTICIDES Pest control products that
have been approved by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency for the uses listed on the label.
REPELLENT A compound that keeps insects, rodents,
birds, or other pests away from plants, domestic
animals, buildings, or other treated areas.
REGISTRATION REVIEW An EPA program that
periodically reevaluates pesticides to ensure that
products currently sold are safe to use.
REREGISTRATION An EPA program to review older
pesticides (registered before November 1984)
to ensure that they meet current scientific and
regulatory standards.
RESIDUAL PESTICIDE A pest control product that
remains effective on a treated surface or area for
an extended period following application.
RESIDUE The pesticide active ingredient or its
breakdown product(s) that remain in or on the
target site or in the environment after treatment.
Pesticide residues may be on treated crops, feed
products, or livestock that are moved from the
treatment site.
RESISTANT A characteristic of some organisms that
are uninjured or unaffected by a certain dosage
of pesticide chemical used to successfully control
other populations of the same organism. Also,
plants and/or animals that are unaffected by a pest
species.
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT
(RCRA) The federal law regulating the transport,
storage, treatment, and disposal of hazardous
wastes.
RESPIRATOR A safety device that covers at least
the mouth and nose and that protects the wearer
from inhaling hazardous substances, including
pesticides.
RESTRICTED-ENTRY INTERVAL (REI) The amount of
time that must elapse between treatment of a crop
and the time when a person can reenter and handle
the crop without wearing protective clothing and
equipment or receiving early-entry training. (Also
called REENTRY INTERVAL.)
RESTRICTED-USE PESTICIDE A pest control product
that can be purchased only by certified pesticide
applicators and used only by certified applicators
or persons under their direct supervision. Not
available for use by the public because of high
toxicities and/or environmental hazards.
RINSATE A liquid obtained from rinsing pesticide
containers and application equipment.
RODENTICIDE A chemical used to control rodents.
ROPE-WICK (WIPER) TREATMENT A pesticide that
is released onto a device that is wiped onto weeds
taller than the crop, or wiped selectively onto
individual weeds.
GLOSSARY
-------
ROTARY SPREADER A common type of granular
applicator that distributes granules to the front
and sides of the spreader, usually by means of a
spinning disk or fan.
RUNOFF The movement of water and associated
materials on the soil surface.
SAFENER An adjuvant used to reduce the phytotoxic
effects of a pesticide.
SAFETY DATA SHEET (SDS) An information sheet
available from the manufacturer that provides
details on chemical properties, toxicity, first aid,
hazards, personal protective equipment, and
emergency procedures to be followed in the event
of a spill, leak, fire, or transportation crisis.
Formerly known as Material Safety Data Sheet.
SAPROPHYTE An organism that obtains its food
from dead or decaying organic matter.
SATURATED ZONE The layer of soil, sand, gravel, or
fractured bedrock in which all available spaces are
filled with water.
SECONDARY PEST An organism that may become a
serious problem when a key pest or natural enemy
is controlled or eliminated.
SECONDARY POISONING Harmful effects to a
predatory bird or mammal that feeds on an animal
killed by a pesticide.
SECTION 3 REGISTRATION A standard federal (EPA)
registration. Most pesticides are registered this way
and contain an official EPA registration number.
SEED PROTECTANT A pesticide applied to seeds
before planting to protect them from insects,
fungi, and other soil pests.
SELECTIVE PESTICIDE A pest control product that
is toxic to some pests but has little or no effect
on other, similar species. Examples include some
fungicides that control only powdery mildews and
no other fungi.
SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS (SCBA) A
type of atmosphere-supplying respirator where the
user carries a supply of breathable air. A pressure-
demand SCBA is required when the environment
is immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH).
SERVICE CONTAINER A receptacle designed to hold
concentrate or diluted pesticide mixtures; not the
original pesticide container.
SHELF LIFE The maximum amount of time that a
pesticide concentrate can remain in storage before
losing some of its effectiveness.
SIGNAL WORDS Terms that must appear on every
pesticide label to denote the relative acute toxicity
of the product. The signal words are DANGER—
POISON used with a skull and crossbones symbol
for potentially lethal products, DANGER for
severe skin and eye damage, WARNING for
moderately toxic, and CAUTION for slightly
toxic compounds.
SILVICIDE An herbicide used to destroy brush and
trees.
SITE The crop, animal, structure, commodity, or
area where a pesticide is applied.
SITE OF ACTION The biochemical site/process
within the pest with which the pesticide interacts
and disrupts functions.
SLURRY A thick suspension of a pesticide made
from a wettable powder and water.
SOIL APPLICATION A pesticide applied directly on
or in the soil instead of on a growing plant.
SOIL DRENCH To soak or wet the ground surface
with a pesticide. Large volumes of the pesticide
mixture are usually needed to saturate the soil to
any depth.
SOIL INCORPORATION The movement of a pesticide
into soil by either mechanical means or irrigation.
SOIL INJECTION The placement of a pesticide below
the surface of the soil. This is a common application
method for fumigants and termiticides.
SOIL RESIDUAL PESTICIDE A chemical or agent that
prevents the growth of all organisms present in
the soil; a nonselective pesticide. Soil persistence
may be temporary or permanent, depending on
the chemical.
SOLUBILITY The ability of a chemical such as a
pesticide to dissolve in a solvent, usually water.
SOLUBLE POWDER A finely ground dry pesticide
formulation that will dissolve in water or some
other liquid carrier.
SOLUTION A mixture of one or more substances
in another substance (usually a liquid) in which
all the ingredients are completely dissolved. An
example is sugar in water.
SOLVENT A liquid such as water, oil, or alcohol that
will dissolve another substance (solid, liquid, or
gas) to form a solution.
SPACE SPRAY A pesticide applied as a fine spray or
mist to a confined area.
^ APPENDIX B
-------
SPACE TREATMENT See SPACE SPRAY.
SPECIAL LOCAL NEED (SLN) REGISTRATION A
Section 24(c) registration allows states to expand
or limit the uses of certain registered pesticides
within their jurisdictions.
SPORE The reproductive unit of a fungus. A spore
is analogous to a plant seed.
SPOT TREATMENT An application to a small,
localized area where pests are found.
SPRAY DEPOSIT The amount of pesticide chemical
that remains on a sprayed surface after the droplets
have dried.
SPRAY DRIFT The off-target movement of a
pesticide during a liquid application.
SPREADER An adjuvant used to enhance the spread
of a pesticide over a treated surface, thus improving
the coverage.
STABILITY The ability of a chemical such as a
pesticide to resist breaking down into metabolites.
A highly stable pesticide can be stored for long
periods without loss of activity.
STATE LEAD AGENCY (SLA) The agency within a
state or territory designated by EPA as having the
authority to carry out the provisions of FIFRA.
STERILANT A pesticide that prevents pests from
reproducing.
STICKER An adjuvantused to improve the adherence
of spray droplets to a plant, animal, or other
treated surface.
STOMACH POISON A pesticide that must be eaten
by an animal to be effective (does not kill on
contact).
STRUCTURAL PESTS Organisms that attack and
destroy buildings and other structures, clothing,
stored food, and manufactured or processed goods.
Examples include termites, cockroaches, clothes
moths, rats, and dry-rot fungi.
SUMMER ANNUAL Plant that germinates in the
spring or summer and completes its life cycle
within one year.
SUPPLEMENTAL LABELING EPA-approved written,
printed, or graphic material supplied by the
pesticide manufacturer that provides additional
product information not present on the container
label. The additional information may include new
application sites andrates, safety guidelines, Worker
Protection Standard and PPE requirements, and
endangered species advisories.
SUPPLIED-AIR (AIRLINE) RESPIRATOR A type of
atmosphere-supplying respirator with a facepiece
that delivers air through an air hose connected to
a compressor, blower, or compressed-air tank. The
air supply is not designed to be carried by the user.
SURFACTANT An inert ingredient that improves the
spreading, dispersing, and/or wetting properties of
a pesticide mixture.
SUSCEPTIBLE The degree to which a plant, animal,
or site is affected by a pest. Also refers to pest
populations that can be controlled by pesticides.
SUSPENSION A pesticide mixture consisting of fine
particles dispersed or floating in a liquid, usually
water or oil. Examples include wettable powders or
flowables in water.
SWATH The width of the area covered by one
sweep of an airplane, ground sprayer, spreader, or
duster.
SYMPTOM Any detectable change in an organism
resulting from the activities of a pathogen or other
pest. Also, an indication of pesticide poisoning in
humans and other animals.
SYNERGISM The effect of two or more pesticides
applied together that is greater than the sum of
the individual pesticides applied separately. Here
is an example: say Pesticide X kills 40% of an
insect population and Pesticide Y kills 20%. When
applied together, X and Y kill 95%.
SYSTEMIC EFFECTS Poisoning effects that occur at
sites other than the entry point into the body.
SYSTEMIC PESTICIDE A chemical that is absorbed
and translocated within a plant or animal.
TANK A part of a sprayer that holds the finished
spray mix.
TANK MIX A mixture of two or more crop-
production products in a spray tank.
TARGET The plants, animals, structures, areas, or
pests to which the control method is directed.
TECHNICAL MATERIAL The pesticide active
ingredient in pure form as it is manufactured by
a chemical company. It is usually combined with
inert ingredients or additives in formulations
such as wettable powders, dusts, emulsifiable
concentrates, or granules.
GLOSSARY ^
-------
TEMPERATURE INVERSION A weather-related
event that occurs when cool air is trapped near
the surface under a layer of warm air. Under
these conditions very little vertical mixing of air
occurs. Small spray droplets or vapors may remain
suspended in the cool air layer for long periods and
move with any airflow. Damage from spray drift
often occurs under such conditions.
TERATOGEN A substance or agent able to produce
abnormalities or defects in living human or animal
embryos and fetuses. These defects are not usually
inheritable.
TERMITICIDE An insecticide used to control
termites.
THICKENER A drift control adjuvant, such as
cellulose or gel, used to promote the formation of
a greater proportion of large droplets in a spray
mixture.
THREATENED SPECIES Organisms (plants or
animals) likely to become endangered.
TIGHT-FITTING FACEPIECE See FACEPIECE (TIGHT-
FITTING).
TOLERANCE The maximum amount of a pesticide
residue that may legally remain on or in food
or feed commodities at harvest or slaughter.
Established by EPA for each crop and every
pesticide used on a specific crop.
TOLERANT A characteristic of organisms (including
pests) that are able to withstand a certain degree
of stress, such as weather, pesticides, or attack by
a pest.
TOXIC Poisonous to living organisms.
TOXICANT A poisonous substance, such as the
active ingredient in a pesticide formulation.
TOXICITY The degree or extent to which a chemical
or substance is poisonous.
TOXICOLOGY The study of the effects of toxic
substances on living organisms.
TOXIN A naturally occurring poison produced by
plants, animals, or microorganisms. Examples
include the poison produced by the black widow
spider, the venom produced by snakes, and the
botulism toxin.
TRADE NAME A brand name that is registered as a
trademark by the manufacturer.
TRANSLOCATION The movement of materials
within a plant or animal from the site of entry. A
systemic pesticide is translocated.
TRANSPORTATION SECURITY PLAN A plan required
of all operations that transport pesticides in
containers that are larger than 119 gallons or in
quantities greater than 1,000 pounds. The U.S.
Department of Transportation requires the plan
to include protection against unauthorized access,
a security check for employees that pick up and
transport placarded hazardous materials, and a
security plan for the intended travel route. Vehicles
that transport pesticides in these quantities must
be placarded.
TREE INJECTION The placement of a pesticide under
the bark of trees.
TRIPLE RINSE The process of decontaminating an
empty pesticide container by partially filling it
with water, replacing the lid, shaking the container,
and then pouring the rinsate into the spray tank.
This process is performed three times.
ULTRA-LOW VOLUME (ULV) Sprays that are applied
at 0.5 gallon or less per acre, often as an undiluted
formulation.
UNCLASSIFIED-USE PESTICIDES Pest control
products that are often referred to as general-use
pesticides. They can be bought and used by the
public without special permits or restrictions.
USER SEAL CHECK For tight-fitting respirators, a
check performed by the wearer to ensure that the
mask has been put on correctly and adjusted to fit
properly. This check is necessary each time these
respirators are worn.
VAPOR DRIFT The movement of chemical vapors
from the application site. Like pesticide spray
drift, vapor drift can injure nontarget plants or
animals.
VAPOR PRESSURE The property that causes a
chemical to evaporate. The higher the vapor
pressure, the more volatile the chemical—and the
more easily it will evaporate.
VECTOR An animal (e.g., insect, nematode, or mite)
or plant (e.g., dodder) that can carry and transmit
a pathogen from one host to another.
VERTEBRATE An animal characterized by a segmented
backbone or spinal column.
VIRUS Ultramicroscopic parasite. Viruses can
multiply only in living tissues and cause many
animal and plant diseases.
VOLATILITY/VOLATILE The degree to which a
substance changes from a liquid or solid state to a
gas at ordinary temperatures when exposed to air.
^ APPENDIX B
-------
WARNING The signal word associated with
pesticide products classified as moderately toxic.
These pesticides have an oral LD50 between 50
and 500mg/kg or a dermal LD50 between 200 and
2,000mg/kg.
WATER-DISPERSIBLE GRANULE A dry, granular
formulation that breaks apart and disperses to
form a suspension when added to water.
WATER-SOLUBLE BAG See WATER-SOLUBLE PACKET/
PACKAGING.
WATER-SOLUBLE CONCENTRATE A liquid pesticide
formulation that dissolves in water to form a true
solution.
WATER-SOLUBLE PACKET/PACKAGING Wettable
powder or soluble powder formulation packaged
in a special type of plastic bag that dissolves and
releases its contents when placed in water.
WATER TABLE The boundary between the overlying
unsaturated rock or soil and the saturated zone.
WATERPROOF As specified by the pesticide product
label, PPE that is "made of material that allows no
measurable movement ofwater or aqueous solutions
through the material during use" [U.S. EPA. 40
CFR 170.240 Personal protective equipment],
WEED A plant growing where it is not wanted or
where it is in direct conflict with the well-being of
humans and their activities.
WETTABLE POWDER A dry pesticide formulation in
powder form that forms a suspension when added
to water.
WETTING AGENT An adjuvant used to reduce the
surface tension between a liquid and the contact
surface for more thorough coverage.
WINTER ANNUAL Plant that germinates in the fall
or winter and completes its life cycle within one
year.
WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD (WPS) A federal
regulation that is meant to reduce the risk of
pesticide poisoning and injuries among agricultural
workers and handlers. The WPS requires
agricultural employers to provide protections to
workers and handlers, including but not limited
to safety training, posting of application sites, and
decontamination supplies.
-------
^ APPENDIX B
-------
Effective application of pesticides
depends on many factors. One of
the more important is to correctly cal-
culate the amount of material needed.
Unless you have the right amount of
pesticide in your tank mix, even a cor-
rectly calibrated sprayer can apply the
wrong rate.
Manufacturers provide application
rate instructions on every pesticide
label. Due to the variety of ways in which
Conversion Factors
these recommendations are stated (such
as pounds of active ingredient [a.i.] per
acre, pounds of formulation per 100
gallons of spray, or ounces of a.i. per
1,000 square feet), it is often necessary
to adapt the recommendations to dif-
ferent areas and volumes, or even other
units. Sometimes the amount of active
ingredient must be converted to the
amount of actual product. This process
can be very confusing.
To use this conversion table, multiply the number in the left-hand column by the conversion factor in
the center column. This converts your original number to the units in the right-hand column.
Examples:
1.0 gallon equals how many ounces? 2.5 gallons equals how many ounces?
1.0 gallon x 128 = 128 fluid ounces 2.5 gallons x 128 = 320 fluid ounces
Multiply
By
To get
Multiply
By
To get
Acres
43,560
Square feet
Gallons
128
Ounces (liquid)
Acres
4,840
Square yards
Gallons
8
Pints (liquid)
Acres
0.405
Fieetares
Gallons
4
Quarts (liquid)
Bushels
64
Pints
Gallons, FLO
8.345
Pounds of water
Bushels
32
Quarts
Grams
0.001
Kilograms
Cubic feet
1,728
Cubic inches
Grams
1,000
Milligrams
Cubic feet
0.037
Cubic yards
Grams
0.035
Ounces
Cubic feet
7.481
Gallons
Grams per liter
1,000
Parts per million
Cubic feet
59.84
Pints (liquid)
Flectares
2.47
Acres
Cubic feet
29.92
Quarts (liquid)
Inches
2.54
Centimeters
Cups
8
Ounces (liquid)
Kilograms
1,000
Grams
Cups
16
Tablespoons
Kilograms
2.205
Pounds
Feet
30.48
Centimeters
Kilometers
3,281
Feet
Feet
12
Inches
Kilometers
0.621
Miles
Feet
0.305
Meters
Liters
0.264
Gallons
Feet
1/3 or 0.333
Yards
Liters
2.113
Pints (liquid)
Gallons
3.785
Liters
Liters
1.057
Quarts (liquid)
CONVERSIONS & CALCULATIONS
-------
Multiply
By
To get
Multiply
By
To get
Meters
100
Centimeters
Pints (liquid)
0.5
Quarts (liquid)
Meters
3.281
Feet
Pounds
453.592
Grams
Meters
39.37
Inches
Pounds
16
Ounces
Meters
0.001
Kilometers
Pounds
0.0005
Tons
Meters
1,000
Millimeters
Quarts
2
Pints
Meters
1.094
Yards
Quarts
0.25
Gallons
Miles
5,280
Feet
Quarts
0.946
Liters
Miles
1,760
Yards
Quarts (liquid)
32
Ounces (liquid)
Miles per hour
88
Feet per minute
Quarts (liquid)
2
Pints (liquid)
Miles per hour
1.467
Feet per second
Rods
16.5
Feet
Miles per minute
88
Feet per second
Square miles
640
Acres
Miles per minute
60
Miles per hour
Square yards
9
Square feet
Ounces (dry)
28.35
Grams
Square yards
1,296
Square inches
Ounces (dry)
0.063
Pounds
Tablespoons
3
Teaspoons
Ounces (liquid)
0.063
Pints (liquid)
Temperature
Ounces (liquid)
0.031
Quarts (liquid)
(°C)+ 17.98
1.8
Temperature °F
Parts per million
0.001
Grams per liter
Temperature
Pecks
16
Pints (dry)
(°F) - 32
0.555
Temperature °C
Pecks
8
Quarts (dry)
Tons
907.185
Kilograms
Pints
0.125
Gallons
Tons
2,000
Pounds
Pints
0.473
Liters
Yards
3
Feet
Pints
2
Cups
Yards
36
Inches
Pints (liquid)
16
Ounces (liquid)
Yards
0.914
Meters
PESTICIDE CALCULATIONS
Formulations such as wettable and soluble powders,
emulsifiable concentrates, and flowables are sold
as concentrates and must be diluted in the spray
tank with an appropriate carrier. Water is the most
common carrier, but kerosene, oil, and other liquids
are sometimes used. Below are examples of how to
properly calculate how much pesticide should be
added to a spray tank.
Mixing Soluble and Wettable Powders
Pounds per 100 gallons: Directions for wettable or soluble
powders may be given in pounds of pesticide formulation per
100 gallons of carrier. You must know the capacity in gallons of
your spray tank (or the number of gallons you will be adding to
your spray tank if the job requires only a partial tank load).
Then use the following formula:
Gallons in tank X pounds per 100 gallons recommended
100 gallons
= pounds needed in tank
Example:
Your spray tank holds 500 gallons. The label calls for 2 pounds
of formulation per 100 gallons of water. How many pounds of
formulation should you add to the tank?
500 gallons X pounds per 100 gallons (2)
100 gallons
= pounds needed in tank (10)
500X2 - 100 = 10
You should add 10 pounds to the tank.
APPENDIX C
Example:
You need to spray only 1 acre, and your equipment is calibrated
to spray 60 gallons per acre. The label calls for 2 pounds of
formulation per 100 gallons of water. How many pounds of
formulation should you add to the tank to make 60 gallons of
finished spray?
Gallons in tank (60) X pounds per 100 gallons (2)
100 gallons
= pounds needed in tank (1.2, or 19.2 ounces)
60X2 - 100 = 1.2
Number of pounds to add is 1.2, or 19.2 ounces.
Pounds per acre: The label may list the recommended dosage
as pounds per acre. If the job requires a full tank, you must
know how many gallons your equipment applies per acre and
spray tank capacity. Use these formulas:
-------
Gallons in tank
gallons applied per acre
= acres sprayed per tankful
Acres sprayed per tank X pounds formulation per acre
= pounds of formulation needed in tank
Example:
Your sprayer applies 15 gallons per acre and your tank holds
400 gallons. The label rate is 3 pounds of formulation per acre.
Gallons in tank (400) . . . ,,
—n 77T7 = acres sprayed per tankful (26.7)
gallons per acre (15) r 1 r
400 h- 15 = 26.7
Acres sprayed per tankful (26.7) X pounds formulation per acre (3)
= pounds formulation needed in tank (80.1)
26.7X 3 = 80.1
Add 80 pounds of pesticide formulation to the tank
If the job requires less than a full tank, you must know how
many acres you wish to treat and how many gallons your
sprayer is pumping per acre. You must figure both the number
of gallons needed in the tank and the pounds of formulation to
add. Use these formulas:
Gallons per acre X acres to be treated =
gallons needed in tank
Acres to be treated X pounds formulation per acre
= pounds of formulation needed in tank
Example:
You wish to spray 3.5 acres, and your equipment is applying 15
gallons per acre. The label rate is 3 pounds per acre.
Gallons per acre (15) X acres to be treated (3.5)
= gallons needed in tank (52.5)
15X3.5 = 52.5
Acres to be treated (3.5) X pounds of formulation per acre (3)
= pounds of formulation needed in tank (10.5)
3.5 X 3 = 10.5
If the recommended dosage is given as pounds of active
ingredient per acre, you must first convert that figure to pounds
of formulation per acre. Use the following formula:
Pounds ofa.i. per acre X 100 _ pounds of formulation |)er acre
percent of a.i. in formulation
Then follow the formulas listed above under "pounds per acre"
to find the pounds of formulation to add to your tank
Example:
You wish to apply 2 pounds of active ingredient per acre. Your
formulation is 80% WP.
Pounds of a.i. per acre (2) X 100
percent a.i. in formulation (80)
= pounds of formulation per acre (2.5)
Mixing Liquid Formulations
Rates for liquid formulations (e.g., EC and F) are often listed as
pints, quarts, or gallons per 100 gallons or per acre. Make these
calculations as you did in the formulas above for pounds per
100 gallons or pounds per acre, but substitute the appropriate
liquid measure for "pounds."
Example:
The label rate is 2 pints of pesticide formulation per 100 gallons
of water. Your spray tank holds 300 gallons.
Gallons in tank (300) X pints per 100 gallons (2)
100 gallons
= pints of formulation needed in tank (6)
300 X 2 + 100 = 6
Example:
Your sprayer applies 22 gallons per acre, and your tank holds 400
gallons. The label rate is 1.5 quarts per acre.
Gallons in tank (400) X quarts per acre (1.5)
gallons per acre (22)
= quarts needed in tank (27.3)
400 X 1.5 + 22 = 27.3
If the recommendation for a liquid formulation is listed as
pounds of active ingredient per acre, you must first convert that
figure to gallons of formulation to apply per acre. The label
of a liquid formulation always tells how many pounds of active
ingredient are in 1 gallon of the concentrated formulation (e.g.,
4 EC has 4 pounds of active ingredient per gallon; 6 EC con-
tains 6 pounds of a.i. per gallon). Use the following formula:
Pounds of a.i. needed
per ;
pounds of a.i. per gallon of formulation
= gallons of formulation per acre
Example:
The recommendation is for 1 pound of active ingredient per acre.
You purchased an 8 EC, which contains 8 pounds of active ingre-
dient per gallon. Your tank holds 500 gallons and is calibrated to
apply 2 5 gallons per acre.
Pounds a.i. needed per acre (1) _ gallons per acre
pounds of a.i. per gallon (8) (1/8, or 1 pint)
1 + 8 = 0.125 (1/8)
Gallons in tank (500) ^ £ i nm
— 1 = acres per tankful (20)
gallons per acre (25)
500 + 25 = 20
Acres per tankful (20) X gallons per acre (1/8 or 0.125)
= gallons to add to tank (2.5)
20X0.125 = 2.5
2 X 100 + 80 = 2.5
CONVERSIONS & CALCULATIONS ^
-------
Square Feet vs. Acre Mixing
The label rate is sometimes given in pounds, pints, quarts,
or gallons per 1,000 square feet. If you have calibrated your
equipment in terms of 1,000 square feet, you must adjust the
formulas above from an acre to 1,000 square feet. The following
formulas may be used with either liquid or dry formulations:
Gallons per tank
gallons applied per 1,000 square feet by equipment
= number of 1,000-square-foot sections per tankful
Number of 1,000-square-foot sections sprayed per tankfal X pints,
quarts, gallons, or pounds of formulation needed per 1,000 square
feet = amount of formulation to add to tank.
However, if you have calculated the target area in acres, you
must convert the 1,000-square-foot rate to a rate per acre as
follows:
43.560 square feet per acre _ 43 5
1,000 square feet
Pints, quarts, gallons, or pounds per 1,000 square feet X 43.5 =
pints, quarts, gallons, or pounds of formulation to apply per acre.
To convert from the rate per acre to a rate per 1,000 square feet
(or 100 square feet):
Pints, quarts, gallons, or pounds
of formulation recommended per acre
43.5 (435 for 100 square feet)
= pints, quarts, gallons, or pounds of formulation
per 1,000 square feet (or 100 square feet)
From Penn State Pesticide Education Manual, third edition
The section on conversion tables was adapted from the Pocket Pesticide Calibration Guide,
compiled by Frank Boys and Frank Murphey, University of Delaware.
The section on pesticide calculations was adapted from Applying Pesticides Correctly:
A Guide for Private and Commercial Applicators, North Carolina State University.
^ APPENDIX C
-------
APPENDIX D
Safety Data Sheets
The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA)'s Hazard
Communication Standard (HCS)
requires chemical manufacturers,
distributors, and importers to provide
Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) for each haz-
ardous chemical to communicate infor-
mation on these hazards. (Safety Data
Sheets were formerly known as Material
Safety Data Sheets.) As of June 1, 2015,
the new SDSs must be in a uniform
format and include section numbers,
headings, and associated information
to help users find the information they
need about a specific chemical.
A brief description of all 16 sections
of the SDS, along with their contents, is
presented below. OSHA itself will not
enforce Sections 12 to 15 because they
concern matters handled by other agen-
cies. For example, Section 15 details
what is found on the pesticide label
enforced by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. The SDS may have
a different signal word than the pesti-
cide label, and it will include pictograms
not found on the label.
For more details about SDSs, go
to: https://www.osha.gov/Publications/
OSHA3514.html
Section 1: Identification
This section includes product identifier; manufacturer or distributor name,
address, and phone number; emergency phone number; recommended
use; and restrictions on use.
Section 2: Hazard(s) Identification
This section includes all hazards regarding the chemical and required
label elements.
Section 3: Composition/Information on Ingredients
This section includes information on chemical ingredients and trade
secret claims.
Section 4: First Aid Measures
This section includes important symptoms, acute and delayed effects,
and required treatment.
Section 5: Firefighting Measures
This section lists suitable extinguishing techniques, equipment, and
chemical hazards from fire.
SAFETY DATA SHEETS
-------
Section 6: Accidental Release Measures
This section lists emergency procedures, protective equipment, and
proper methods of containment and cleanup.
Section 7: Handling and Storage
This section lists precautions for safe handling and storage, including
incompatible products.
Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
This section lists OSHA's permissible exposure limits, threshold limit values,
appropriate engineering controls, and personal protective equipment.
Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties
This section lists the product's physical and chemical characteristics.
Section 10: Stability and Reactivity
This section lists the product's chemical stability and the possibility
of hazardous reactions.
Section 11: Toxicological Information
This section includes routes of exposure, related symptoms, acute
and chronic effects, and numerical measures of toxicity.
Section 12: Ecological Information
This section provides information to evaluate the environmental impact
of the chemical(s) if it were released outside the target area.
Section 13: Disposal Considerations
This section provides guidance on proper disposal practices,
recycling or reclamation of the chemical(s) or its container,
and safe handling practices.
Section 14: Transport Information
This section provides guidance on classification information for shipping
and transporting hazardous chemical(s) by road, air, rail, or sea.
Section 15: Regulatory Information
This section identifies the safety, health, and environmental regulations
specific for the product that are not indicated elsewhere on the SDS.
Section 16: Other Information
This section indicates when the SDS was prepared or when the last
known revision was made.
-------
APPENDIX E
V
Selected Pesticide References
Applying Pesticides Correctly—A Guide for Private and Commercial Applicators. 1991.
Sally A. McDonald. The Ohio State University and Information Impact.
Buying and Wearing Protective Clothing for Applying Pesticides. Revised 1990. Wanda
W. Olson, Sherri A. Gahring, and Dean Herzfeld. HE-FO-3877-C. Minnesota
Extension Service, University of Minnesota.
Category E: Turf & Ornamentals Pesticide Safety Education Manual. 2014. Carolyn
Dindorf. Pesticide Safety and Environmental Education, University of
Minnesota Extension Service.
Field Comparisons for Drift-Reducing/Deposition-Aid Tank Mixes. 2003. R. Wolf,
D. Gardisser, and C. Minihan. Paper No. AA03-002. Presented at the Joint
ASAE/NA A A Technical Meeting, Reno, Nevada.
How to Read a Material Safety Data Sheet. 1999. Amy E. Brown. Pesticide Information
Leaflet No. 29. University of Maryland Extension.
Illinois Pesticide Applicator Training Manual, General Standards. 1995. PL. Nixon,
C.D. Anderson, N.R. Pataky, R.E. Wolf, R.J. Ferree, and L.E. Bode. Special
Publication 39. University of Illinois Cooperative Extension Service, in coop-
eration with the Illinois Natural History Survey.
Illinois Pesticide Applicator Training Manual, Private Applicator. 1999. B.E. Paulsrud,
PL. Nixon, R.E. Wolf, R.J. Ferree, and M. Wiesbrook. Special Publication
39-7. University of Illinois Cooperative Extension Service.
Iowa Core Manual: A Study Guide for Commercial Pesticide Applicators and Handlers.
Revised 1999. Publication IC-445. Chapter 8: Pesticides in the Environment.
Pest Management and the Environment Program, Iowa State University
Extension (Ames).
Low-Pressure Sprayers. L.E. Bode and B.J. Butler. Circular 1192. College of
Agriculture Cooperative Extension Service, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
Maryland Pesticide Applicator Training Series—Core Manual. Revised 1999. W.M.
Curtis and A.E. Brown. University of Maryland Extension.
Merriam- Webster Dictionary. Online: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
professionalism
Occupational Exposure to Pesticides. 1974. Howard I. Maibach and Robert
Feldman. Report to the Federal Working Group on Pest Management from
the Task Group on Occupational Exposure to Pesticides (pp. 122-127).
Washington, D.C.
SELECTED PESTICIDE REFERENCES
-------
Pesticide Applicator Core Training Manual: Certification, Recertification and, Registered
Technician Training. Revised 2002. J. Stachecki-Johanningsmeier and C.J.
Randall. Bulletin E-2195. Michigan State University Extension.
Pesticide Applicator Update: How to Interpret the New NIOSH Approval Codes for
Respirators. June 1999. T.W. Dean. Publication SM-64. Pesticide Information
Office. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.
Pesticide Best Management Practices (BMPs). 1996. MDA Pesticide Information Sheet
No. 16. Pesticide Regulation Section, Maryland Department of Agriculture.
Pesticide Education Manual: A Guide to Safe Use and Handling (3rd ed.). 1996. Winand
K. Hock. College of Agricultural Sciences, the Pennsylvania State University.
Pesticide Laws and Regulations. 1991. Edward F. Vitzhum and Larry D. Schulze.
NebGuide G79-479. Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Pesticide Percutaneous Absorption and Decontamination. 2001. Ronald C. Wester and
Howard I. Maibach. Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology. Volume 1, Principles
(pp. 905-912). Robert I. Krieger, Ed. Academic Press.
Pesticides and Formulation Technology. 1994. Andrew Martin, Fred Whitford, Tom
Jordan, and Arlene Blessing. PPP-31. Purdue Pesticide Programs, Purdue
University Cooperative Extension Service.
Private Pesticide Applicator Study Guide. Revised 1997. Julie Todd. PAT 1. Chapter 8:
Pesticides in the Environment. Iowa State University Extension (Ames).
Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings (5th ed.). 1999. J.R. Reigart and
J.R. Roberts. U.S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs.
Record Keeping Requirements for Private and Commercial Applicators. Revised 2001.
Amy E. Brown. Pesticide Information Leaflet No. 14. University of Maryland
Extension.
Respirator Protection When Using Pesticides. 2002. Patricia Hastings and George
Hamilton. Rutgers Cooperative Extension.
(The) Safe and Effective Use of Pesticides (2nd ed.). 1999. Patrick O'Connor-Marer.
Agriculture and Natural Resources Publ. 3324. University of California
Statewide Integrated Pest Management Project.
Section 25(b) Pesticides: Minimum Risk? 2001. Amy E. Brown. Pesticide Information
Leaflet No. 37. University of Maryland Extension.
Training Manual for the Private Pesticide Applicator (4th ed.). 1998. Dan Wixted,
Roger Flashinski, Chris Boerboom, and John Wedberg. Pesticide Applicator
Training, University of Wisconsin-Extension.
Washington Pesticide Laws and Safety. 2003. Carol Ramsay and Carrie Foss.
Washington State University.
When Clients Have Questions: A Guide for Professional Pesticide Applicators. 2013.
Frederick M. Fishel. Pesticide Information Office. Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Online: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/
pil61
-------
APPENDIX F
V
Pesticide-Related Resources
RELEVANT WEBSITES
Ag Container Recycling Council
http://www.acrecycle.org
American Association of Pesticide
Safety Educators
http://aapse.org
Association of American Pesticide
Control Officials
http://aapco.org
Association of Structural Pest Control
Regulatory Officials
http://aspcro.org
Chemtrec (24-hour HAZMAT
Communications Center)
http://www.chemtrec.org
Earth 911 (environmental
information, including local
community data)
http://www.earth91 l.org
extension
http://extension.org
National Association of State
Departments of Agriculture
http://www.nasda.org
National Association of State
Departments of Agriculture
Research Foundation
http://foundation.nasda.org
National Pesticide Information Center
http://npic.orst.edu
Natural Resources Conservation
Service
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov
Pesticide Environmental
Stewardship
http://pesticidestewardship.org
Poison Control Centers
(State and Regional)
http://npic.orst.edu/poison.htm
Regional IPM Centers
http://www.ipmcenters.org
U.S. Centers for Disease Control
http://www.cdc.gov
U.S. Department of Agriculture
http://www.usda.gov
U.S. Department of
Transportation, Pipeline and
Hazardous Materials Safety
http://hazmat.dot.gov
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
http://www.epa.gov/
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Pesticide Programs
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides
To search for regional offices, go
to http://www.epa.gov or search
online by typing in the agency
name and pesticide program.
PESTICIDE-RELATED RESOURCES
-------
EPA REGIONAL PESTICIDE PROGRAM OFFICES
Region 1 (serves Connecticut, Maine,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
Rhode Island, and Vermont)
1 Congress Street
Suite 1100
Boston, MA 02114-2023
Tel. (617) 918-1111
Region 2 (serves New Jersey,
New York, Puerto Rico, and the
U.S. Virgin Islands)
290 Broadway
New York, NY 10007-1866
Tel. (212) 637-3000
Region 3 (serves Delaware, Maryland,
Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia,
and the District of Columbia)
1650 Arch Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2029
Tel. (215)814-5000
Region 4 (serves Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi,
North Carolina, South Carolina,
and Tennessee)
61 Forsyth Street, SW
Atlanta, GA 30303-8960
Tel. (404) 562-9900
Region 5 (serves Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and
Wisconsin)
77 West Jackson Boulevard
Chicago, II 60604-3507
Tel. (312) 353-2000
Region 6 (serves Arkansas, Louisiana,
New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas)
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas, TX 75202-2733
Tel. (214) 665-6444
Region 7 (serves Kansas, Missouri,
Nebraska, and Iowa)
901 N. 5th Street
Kansas City, KS 66101
Tel. (913) 551-7003
Region 8 (serves Colorado, Montana,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
and Wyoming)
999 18th St., Suite 300
Denver, CO 80202-2466
Tel. (303) 312-6312
Region 9 (serves Arizona, California,
Hawaii, Nevada, and the territories
of Guam and American Samoa)
75 Hawthorne St.
San Francisco, CA 94105
Tel. (415) 947-8021
Region 10 (serves Alaska, Idaho,
Oregon, and Washington)
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle, WA 98101
Tel. (206) 553-1200
APPENDIX F
-------
KEEP OUT £.
NO EWTftE ¦
------- |