WaterSense
at Work

Sanitary Fixtures and Equipment

3.3 Faucets



Best Management Practices for
Commercial and Institutional Facilities

4

EPA

WaterSense

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WaterSenseฎ is a voluntary partnership program sponsored by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) that seeks to protect the nation's water supply by transforming
the market for water-efficient products, services, and practices.

WaterSense at Work is a compilation of water efficiency best management practices
intended to help commercial and institutional facility owners and managers from multiple
sectors understand and better manage their water use. It provides guidance to help
establish an effective facility water management program and identify projects and
practices that can reduce facility water use.

An overview of the sections in WaterSense at Work is below. This document, covering
water efficiency for faucets, is part of Section 3: Sanitary Fixtures and Equipment. The
complete list of best management practices is available at

www.epa.gov/watersense/best-management-practices. WaterSense has also developed
worksheets to assist with water management planning and case studies that highlight
successful water efficiency efforts of building owners and facility managers throughout
the country, available atwww.epa.gov/watersense/commercial-buildings.

•	Section 1. Getting Started With Water Management

•	Section 2. Water Use Monitoring

•	Section 3. Sanitary Fixtures and Equipment

•	Section 4. Commercial Kitchen Equipment

•	Section 5. Outdoor Water Use

•	Section 6. Mechanical Systems

•	Section 7. Laboratory and Medical Equipment

•	Section 8. Onsite Alternative Water Sources

EPA 832-F-23-003
Office of Water

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
May 2023

This document is one section from WaterSense at Work: Best Management Practices for Commercial and
Institutional Facilities (EPA-832-F-23-003). Other sections can be downloaded from

www.epa.gov/watersense/hest-management-practices. Sections will be reviewed and periodically updated
to reflect new information. The work was supported under contract 68HERC20D0026 with Eastern Research
Group, Inc. (ERG).

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Sanitary Fixtures and Equipment
Faucets

Overview

Faucets can be found in restrooms, kitchens, break rooms, and service areas in
commercial and institutional buildings. Lavatory (i.e., restroom) faucets are designed for
either private or public use. Private-use faucets are generally found in homes, hotel guest
rooms, dorms, barracks, and hospital rooms. Public-use lavatory faucets are those
intended for unrestricted use by more than one individual (i.e., employees, visitors, other
building occupants) in facilities, such as public restrooms in offices, malls, schools,
restaurants, or other commercial, industrial, and institutional buildings.

When it comes to improving faucet water
efficiency in these lavatories, there are two
different ways to apply technology:
optimizing faucets and using faucet
accessories. A faucet accessory is a
component that can be added, removed, or
replaced easily and, when removed, does
not prevent the faucet from functioning
properly.1 Faucet accessories include flow
restrictors, flow regulators, aerators, and
laminar flow devices. While faucet accessories can be incorporated into new faucet
design to control the flow rate, most often, accessories are external components that
screw onto an existing faucet's end spout.

In addition to typical, hand-operated components, lavatory faucets can also be equipped
with automatic sensors to trigger the on/off mechanism when users place their hands
under and/or remove them from the fixture. Depending on use patterns before installation,
appropriately programmed automatic sensors may or may not provide additional water
savings.2 In most cases, automatic sensors open the faucet valve completely when in use,
whereas users of manually controlled faucets typically do not turn the tap fully on. Some
jurisdictions may mandate the use of automatic sensors by code in certain applications,
especially so where public health and safety is of concern. Automatic sensors can provide
health and sanitation benefits in public-use facilities, since they are a hands-free option.
However, some research suggests that automatic sensor faucets may be more likely to be
contaminated with bacteria (including Legionella, the opportunistic waterborne pathogen

1	American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Canadian Standards Association (CSA). A112.18.1/CSA
B125.1 Plumbing Supply Fittings.

2	Gauley, Bill and Koeller, John. March 2010. Sensor-Operated Plumbing Fixtures: Do They Save Water?

https://map-testing.eom/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Sensor-Operated-Fixtures-Final-Report-March-
2010.pdf.

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responsible for Legionnaire's Disease), compared to old-style fixtures with separate
handles for hot and cold water. This may be because the electronic faucet technology has
more surfaces for the bacteria to become trapped and grow, or it may be because of the
low flow rate of the faucets tested.3

Considerations for Legionella and Other
Pathogens

Commercial and institutional facilities,
particularly those intended for high-risk
populations (e.g., medical facilities and
senior care facilities) should take into
consideration the risk of Legionella and
other opportunistic pathogens within
building water systems, including hot water
distribution systems that provide water to
faucets and showerheads. These facilities
may want to install laminar flow devices
since they do not inject air into the water,
lowering the risk of bacterial contamination
or aerosolization of the water.

Medical facilities, senior care facilities, and
other facilities with immunocompromised
populations may want to consider facility-
specific health and safety needs before
installing water-efficient faucets or faucets
with automatic sensors. For example, these
facilities may want to install laminar flow
devices instead of faucet aerators. Faucet
aerators inject air into the water, and as the
air and water mix, there is a chance bacteria
could be released into the surrounding air
via small droplets or aerosolized particles.
Since laminar flow faucets do not inject air
into the water, there may be a lower risk of
bacterial contamination or aerosolization of
the water.

Some restrooms can also be equipped with metering or self-closing faucets. Metering
faucets, when activated by the user, dispense water for a preset amount of time before
shutting off. Self-closing faucets, operated with a spring-loaded knob or sensor,
automatically shut the water off when the user releases the knob or withdraws their
hands.

The standard flow rate of a faucet is dictated by its intended end use, as described below.
Private-Use Lavatory Faucets

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) adopted a 2.2 gallons per minute (gpm) (8.3 liters
per minute [1pm]) at 60 pounds per square inch (psi) (414 kilopascals [kPa]) maximum flow
rate standard for private-use lavatory faucets in 1998 (see 63 FR 13307; March 18, 1998).4

3	Johns Hopkins Medicine. March 31, 2011. "Latest Hands-Free Electronic Water Faucets Found to Be
Hindrance, Not Help, in Hospital Infection Control."

www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/media/releases/latest hands free electronic water faucets found to he
hindrance not help in hospital infection control.

4	The Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 1992 originally set the maximum allowable flow rate for both lavatory and
kitchen faucets at 2.5 gpm (9.5 1pm) at 80 psi (552 kPa). In 1994, ASME established a performance standard
in A112.18.1M-1994 to which all faucets were required to comply and set the maximum flow rate for lavatory
faucets at 2.2 gpm (8.3 Ipm) at 60 psi (414 kPa). In response to industry's request for conformity with a
single standard, DOE adopted a uniform standard maximum flow rate of 2.2 gpm (8.3 Ipm) at 60 psi (414
kPa) for all faucets in 1998.

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To promote and enhance the market for water-efficient, private-use lavatory faucets, the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) WaterSenseฎ program published the High-
Efficiency Lavatory Faucet Specification, which includes water-efficient, high-performing
residential lavatory faucets and faucet accessories (e.g., aerators, laminar devices).5
WaterSense labeled lavatory faucets and faucet accessories are independently certified
to use 1.5 gpm (5.7 Ipm) at 60 psi (414 kPa) or less. They are also required to have a flow
rate of at least 0.8 gpm (3.0 Ipm) at 20 psi (138 kPa). This minimum flow rate helps ensure
user satisfaction in buildings with low water pressure.

While DOE establishes the maximum allowable flow rate for faucets at the national level,
some states and municipalities have adopted regulations mandating that private-use
lavatory faucets have a flow rate of 1.5 gpm (5.7 Ipm) or less, consistent with the
WaterSense specification. A few states, including California, Hawaii, and Washington,
require private-use lavatory faucets to have a flow rate of 1.2 gpm (4.5 Ipm) or less.6 It is
important to note that, while some of these regulations establish flow rate criteria
consistent with or more stringent than the WaterSense specification, they may not require
products to be WaterSense labeled or to meet WaterSense's performance criteria.

Looking for the WaterSense label when purchasing faucets will ensure that the product
meets both efficiency and performance criteria.

Public-Use Lavatory Faucets

The Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of
1992 addresses metering faucets
found in public restrooms and sets a
maximum water use of 0.25 gallons
per cycle (gpc) (0.95 liters per cycle
[Ipc]). Metering faucets have no
maximum flow rate that is
established by EPAct or any other
federal regulation or model
plumbing code; however, most use
similar faucet accessories (e.g.,
aerators, flow restrictors) as non-
metering faucets and therefore can
have flow rates between 0.5 and 2.5
gpm (1.9 and 9.5 Ipm).

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) A112.18.1/Canadian Standards
Association (CSA) B125.1 specifies a maximum flow rate of 0.5 gpm (1.9 Ipm) at 60 psi
(414 kPa) for non-metering public-use lavatory faucets. Although not a federal regulation,

5	U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) WaterSense program. Bathroom Faucets.

vwvw.epa.gov/watersense/bathroom-faucets.

6	Appliance Standards Awareness Project. State Standards, https://appliance-standards.org/states.

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Check Your State Standards

While DOE establishes the national maximum
flow rate criteria for different faucets, some
states have set more stringent efficiency
standards for certain products, such as
kitchen faucets. To determine what
requirements may apply in your state, look for
your state's regulations online. Refer to the
Appliance Standards Awareness Project to get
started at

the ASME/CSA standard has been
incorporated into both the International
Plumbing Code (IPC) and the Uniform
Plumbing Code (UPC), two of the major
model plumbing codes adopted in most
states and jurisdictions across the United
States. Despite code requirements, many
existing public-use faucets in the built
environment still operate at higher flow
rates, typically between 2.0 and 2.5 gpm
(7.6 and 9.5 1pm).

Kitchen and Bar Faucets

Similar to private-use lavatory faucets, DOE adopted a 2.2 gpm (8.3 1pm) at 60 psi (414
kPa) maximum flow rate standard for kitchen faucets in 1998. While DOE establishes the
maximum allowable flow rate for faucets at the national level, some states and
municipalities have adopted regulations mandating that kitchen faucets have a flow rate
of 1.8 gpm (6.8 Ipm) or less. Some of these regulations allow kitchen faucets to have a
temporary override, which allows the faucet to temporarily operate at a flow rate up to 2.2
gpm (8.3 Ipm), intended for pot filling or other volume-dependent behavior. Some
voluntary codes and standards, such as the International Association of Plumbing and
Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) Water Efficiency and Sanitation Standard for the Built
Environment (WE*Stand)7 and the ASHRAE/ICC/USGBC/IES Standard 189.1 Standard for
the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings,8
contain similar requirements.

Bar faucets (also referred to as prep faucets) are similar to kitchen faucets but are often
installed at a secondary sink location that is used for food preparation or as a workstation.
Like other faucet types, DOE requires bar faucets to have a flow rate of 2.2 gpm (8.3 Ipm)
or less at 60 psi (414 kPa). Bar faucets that meet the criteria from the WaterSense
specification for lavatory faucets (i.e., have a maximum flow rate of 1.5 gpm (5.7 Ipm) or
less at 60 psi (414 kPa) are eligible for the WaterSense label.

Service Sinks

Sinks present in some facilities have purposes other than traditional kitchen or lavatory
uses. These sinks can be found in janitorial closets, laundries, laboratories, classrooms,
theaters, gymnasiums, or other areas. There are no federal regulations limiting the flow

7	International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO). 2020. WEปStand Water Efficiency
and Sanitation Standard for the Built Environment. Chapter 4.

8	American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and International
Code Council (ICC). 2020.American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/ASHRAE/ICC/U.S. Green Building
Council (USGBC)/llluminating Engineering Society (IES) Standard 189.1-2020 Standard for the Design of
High-Performance Green Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Section 6: Water Use Efficiency.

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rate of these faucets, but their flow rate should be carefully considered with the intended
end use, expected performance, and water efficiency in mind.

Faucet Accessories

Faucet accessories (aerators) are available in a variety of flow rates (between 0.35 and 2.2
gpm or between 1.3 and 8.3 Ipm) and spray type/pattern (e.g., aerated, laminar stream,
rain spray, spray stream). When choosing a spray type/pattern, it's important to consider
the application, as well as whether it is for public for private use.

Standard aerators inject air into the water stream, producing a larger, whiter stream of
water that is soft to the touch. They are typically used in residential homes and
apartments. Spray aerators are typically used in public restrooms and offer a miniature
shower pattern to provide full coverage during hand washing. Rain spray aerators provide
a larger, softer stream and wider spray coverage. Finally, laminar flow devices provide a
crystal-clear stream of water that is most useful for high-flow applications or healthcare
facilities. Figure 1 includes representative spray patterns for each type of accessory.

Figure 1. Faucet Accessory Spray Patterns9

Standard aerator	Spray aerator

Rain spray aerator	Laminar flow device

Each aerator costs from $5 to $10, so they are an inexpensive way to achieve significant
savings. When selecting aerators with flow rates below 0.5 gpm (1,9 Ipm), consider testing

9 Images of faucet accessory spray patterns courtesy of Neoperl, Inc.

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the aerator on fixtures first to ensure there is no splash back that will provide a negative
experience for the user.

Operation, Maintenance, and User Education

For optimum faucet efficiency, test the system's water pressure to make sure that it is
between 20 and 80 psi (138 and 552 kPa). This level ensures the faucet delivers the
expected flow and performance. In addition, consider the following:

•	Periodically inspect faucets to ensure
aerators or other flow restrictors remain
installed and properly functioning at the
intended flow rate. An easy way to
confirm the flow rate of a faucet is to
use a timer and collect water in a flow
bag, measuring cup, or container of
known volume.

•	Periodically inspect faucet aerators for
scale buildup to ensure flow is not being
restricted. Clean or replace the aerator
or other spout end device, if necessary.

•	If installed, check and adjust automatic
sensors to ensure they are operating
properly to avoid faucets running longer
than necessary.

•	Post materials in restrooms and
kitchens to ensure user awareness of
the facility's water efficiency goals.

Remind users to turn off the tap when
they are done and to consider turning it
off during sanitation activities when it is
not being used (i.e., when brushing teeth or washing dishes).

•	Post signage and train users to report continuously running, leaking, or otherwise
malfunctioning faucets to the appropriate personnel,

•	Equip maintenance staff with the appropriate training and tools to maintain faucet
aerators. Some faucet accessories require specialized keys to remove them to
prevent tampering.

Removing an aerator for inspection

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Retrofit and Replacement Options

If retrofitting, replacing, or installing new faucet fixtures or accessories, consider the
following:

•	In public restrooms, install lavatory faucet fixtures, aerators, or laminar flow
devices that flow at 0.5 gpm (1.9 Ipm) (with or without the self-closing feature) or
metering faucets that use a faucet accessory (e.g., aerator, flow restrictor) that
limits the flow rate to no more than 0.5 gpm (1.9 Ipm), regardless of the gallon per
cycle setting.

•	In private restrooms, select WaterSense
labeled lavatory faucets and accessories
(aerators or laminar flow devices), which
have flow rates or 1.5 gpm (5.7 Ipm) or
less at 60 psi (414 kPa) and no less than
0.8 gpm (3.0 Ipm) at 20 psi (138 kPa).10

•	In kitchens, install faucet fixtures,
aerators, or laminar flow devices that flow
between 1.5 and 1.8 gpm (5.7 and 6.8
Ipm). Where feasible, consider installing
temporary shut-off or foot-operated
valves for kitchen faucets. These valves
stop water flow during intermittent
activities, such as scrubbing or
dishwashing. The water can be
reactivated at the previous temperature
without the need to remix hot and cold
water.

•	Medical facilities, senior care facilities, and other facilities with
immunocompromised populations should consider facility-specific health and
safety needs before installing high-efficiency faucets or faucets with automatic
sensors. For example, medical facilities may want to install faucets with laminar
flow devices instead of faucet aerators; since laminar flow faucets do not inject air
into the water, there is a lower risk of bacterial contamination.11 Consult the local
health code for specific requirements.

•	For service sinks, install faucets or faucet accessories that flow at a rate as low as
possible without inhibiting the use of the sink (i.e., if the sink's function is volume-

10	Use WaterSense's product search tool at www.epa.gov/watersense/product-search to help identify
WaterSense labeled models.

11	U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Federal
Energy Management Program (FEMP). Best Management Practice #7: Faucets and Showerheads.
www.energy.gov/eere/femp/best-management-practice-7-faucets-and-showerheads.

Look for WaterSense
Labeled Faucets

look for

When replacing old,
inefficient faucets or
purchasing new faucets,
look for the WaterSense
label. A product with the
label uses at least 20
percent less water than
standard models and is independently
certified for performance. Looking for
the label is a simple way to quickly
identify faucets that save water and
perform well. Facilities can also use
WaterSense's Product Search Tool to
find labeled faucets. Go to
www.epa.gov/watersense/product-
search to get started.

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dependent, do not reduce faucet flow rate to the point that it has to be used
significantly longer to fill water containers).

Savings Potential

Water savings for both private- and public-use lavatory faucets can be achieved by
retrofitting existing faucets with aerators or replacing existing faucets. The same amount
of water savings can be expected for a retrofit or replacement; however, retrofitting
existing faucets with aerators will yield the shortest payback period due to minimal
equipment costs.

To estimate facility-specific water savings and payback, use the following information:
Current Water Use

To estimate the current water use of an existing faucet, identify the following information
and use Equation 1 on the next page:

•	Flow rate of the existing faucet: Private- and public-use lavatory faucets installed in
1996 or later generally have flow rates of 2.2 gpm (8.3 Ipm) or less. Public- and
private-use lavatory faucets installed between 1994 and 1996 generally have flow
rates of 2.5 gpm (9.5 Ipm) or less. Some public-use lavatory faucets installed in
more recent years may flow at 0.5 gpm (1.9 Ipm). Faucet flow rate is typically
inscribed directly on the fixture or aerator itself.

•	Average daily use time: Public-use faucets are typically used between 15 and 30
seconds per use for general handwashing and used three or four times per
occupant per day. EPA estimates the average private-use lavatory faucet use is
approximately 3 minutes per person per day. Kitchen faucets in residential settings
are used approximately 7 minutes per person per day;12 however, use of kitchen
faucets may vary significantly in commercial and institutional settings.

•	Number of building occupants.

•	Days of facility operation per year.

12 Based on information from EPA's WaterSense program. February 2021. WaterSense Technical Evaluation
Process for Approving Home Certification Methods, Version 1.0. www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2021-
02/rtocuments/watersense final technical evaluation process for home certification vl.Q.pdf: and Water
Research Foundation (WRF). 2016. Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2. Table 6.10.

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Equation 1. Water Use of Faucet (gallons or liters per year)

= Faucet Flow Rate x Daily Use Time x Number of Building Occupants

x Days of Facility Operation

Where:

•	Faucet Flow Rate: Gallons or liters per minute

•	Daily Use Time: Minutes per person per day

•	Number of Building Occupants: Persons

•	Days of Facility Operation: Days per year

Water Use After Retrofit or Replacement

To estimate the water use after retrofitting or replacing an existing faucet with a water-
efficient model or aerator, use Equation 1, substituting the flow rate of the retrofit or
replacement. WaterSense labeled aerators installed in private-use settings use no more
than 1.5 gpm (5.7 Ipm). Public-use lavatory faucets can be retrofitted with 0.5 gpm (1.9
Ipm) aerators.

Water Savings

To calculate water savings that can be achieved from retrofitting or replacing an existing
faucet, identify the following information and use Equation 2 below:

•	Current water use as calculated using Equation 1.

•	Water use after retrofit or replacement as calculated using Equation 1.

Equation 2. Water Savings From Faucet Retrofit or Replacement (gallons or liters per

year)

= Current Water Use of Faucet - Water Use of Faucet After Retrofit or

Replacement

Where:

•	Current Water Use of Faucet: Gallons or liters per year

•	Water Use of Faucet After Retrofit or Replacement: Gallons or
liters per year

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Energy Savings

Because faucets typically use hot

water, a reduction in water use

will also result in energy savings.

The energy required to heat water

can be dependent on: the fuel

used for water heating (e.g.,

electricity, natural gas); the

efficiency of the water heater;

and water heater temperature set

points. Since this information is

not always readily available,

energy savings that can be

achieved from retrofitting or

replacing an existing faucet can

be estimated using the water

savings calculated using Equation 2 and the

Faucet using hot water
ptions presented in Equation 3 below:

Equation 3. Energy Savings From Faucet Retrofit or Replacement (kWh of electricity

or Mcf of natural gas per year)

= Water Savings (gallons or liters) x Average Percent of Faucet Water That Is
Hot x (Energy per Gallon or Liter Heated 4- Water Heater Efficiency)

Where:

•	Water Savings: gallons per year (or liters per year)

•	Average Percent of Faucet Water That Is Hot: 60.7%

•	Energy per Gallon or Liter Heated [assuming 75ฐF (24ฐC) water
temperature increase]:

o 0.183 kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity per gallon

(0.048 kWh per liter); or
o 0.0006 thousand cubic feet (Mcf) of natural gas per
gallon (0.00016 Mcf per liter)

•	Water Heater Efficiency (unless otherwise known by the
facility):

o 1.0 for an electric hot water heater; or
o 0.75 for a natural gas hot water heater

More detailed information to assist in calculating energy savings that result from saving
water can be found on WaterSense's data and information web page at

www.epa.gov/watersense/data-and-information-used-watersense.

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Payback

To calculate the simple payback from the water and energy savings associated with a
lavatory faucet retrofit or replacement, consider the equipment and installation cost of
the retrofit or replacement faucet or aerator, the water and energy savings as calculated
respectively using Equation 2 and Equation 3, and the facility-specific cost of water,
wastewater, and water heating fuel (e.g., electricity, natural gas). Aerators typically cost
$5 to $10 and require no installation cost.

Additional Resources

Alliance for Water Efficiency. Faucet Fixtures.

www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org/resources/topic/faucet-fixtures.

EPA's WaterSense program. Bathroom Faucets, www.epa.gov/watersense/bathroom-
faucets.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources et al. May 2009. Water
Efficiency Manual for Commercial, Industrial and Institutional Facilities. Pages 36-37.
www.deq.nc.gov/watereducation/water-efficiency-business-2/download.

Texas Water Development Board. May 2018. Best Management Practices for Commercial
and Institutional Water Users. www.twdb.texas.gov/conservation/BMPs/CI/index.asp.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Federal
Energy Management Program. Best Management Practice #7: Faucets and Showerheads.
www.energy.gov/eere/femp/best-management-practice-7-faucets-and-showerheads.

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Disclaimer

This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government.
While this document is believed to contain correct information, neither the United States
Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or
implied, or assumes any legal responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any
information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not
infringe privately owned rights. EPA hereby disclaims any liability for damages arising from the use
of the document, including, without limitation, direct, indirect, or consequential damages
including personal injury, property loss, loss of revenue, loss of profit, loss of opportunity, or other
loss. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by its trade name,
trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute nor imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government nor any agency thereof. The views
and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United
States Government nor any agency thereof.

v>EPA

United States Environmental Protection Agency
(4204M)

EPA 832-F-23-003
May 2023
www.epa.gov/watersense
(866) WTR-SENS (987-7367)


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