2022 EPA Region 1 Climate Adaptation Plan
October 2022
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Disclaimer
To the extent this document mentions or discusses statutory or regulatory authority, it does so for
informational purposes only. This document does not substitute for those statutes or regulations,
and readers should consult the statutes or regulations to learn what they require. Neither this
document, nor any part of it, is itself a rule or a regulation. Thus, it cannot change or impose
legally binding requirements on EPA, States, the public, or the regulated community. Further,
any expressed intention, suggestion or recommendation does not impose any legally binding
requirements on EPA, states, Tribes, the public, or the regulated community. Agency decision
makers remain free to exercise their discretion in choosing to implement the actions described in
this Plan. Such implementation is contingent upon availability of resources and is subject to
change.
Document Number: 901B22001
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
SEP 12 2022
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Preface
Climate change is threatening communities across the nation. Millions of Americans feel the
destructive effects of climate change each year when the power goes down, rivers and lakes
go dry, homes are destroyed by wildfires and communities are flooded by hurricanes.
Underserved communities are especially vulnerable to the climate crisis and are more likely
to experience the negative health and environmental effects of extreme weather events.
The Biden-Harris Administration is actively confronting the climate crisis while also
advancing environmental justice. As part of a whole-of-government approach, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency is strongly committed to taking the actions necessary to
protect human health and the environment and to increase the resilience of the entire nation,
even as the climate changes.
The EPA's commitment to action is reflected in its FY 2022-2024 Strategic Plan and in the
2021 Climate Adaptation Action Plan. Both documents present priority actions the agency
will take to ensure that its programs, policies and operations remain effective under future
climate conditions while we work to support states, territories, tribes and communities in
increasing their own adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change impacts.
From flooding at Superfund sites, to wildfires causing air pollution, to sea-level rise affecting
water quality and infrastructure, the EPA will boldly address climate impacts in both its
programs and the communities it serves. We recognize the importance of tribal, state and
local government partnerships in efficient, effective and equitable implementation of climate
change adaptation strategies. Our plans were informed and improved by input we received in
listening sessions we held to engage these and other partners as we developed these plans.
To ensure we are addressing the climate crisis in a comprehensive way, each of our national
program and regional offices has developed individual Climate Adaptation Implementation
Plans that outline how the EPA will attain the agencywide goals described in the broader
Climate Adaptation Action Plan. These plans describe how programs and regions will
integrate climate adaptation into their programs, partnerships and operations. They also
describe how they will help partners build their resilience and capacity to adapt, while
delivering co-benefits, including curbing greenhouse-gas emissions and other pollution, and
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promoting public health, economic growth and climate justice. Of course, the EPA has a
major role to play on emissions reductions as well, though that is not the focus of these plans.
Indeed, we must focus on both climate adaptation and mitigation to ensure our nation and
communities thrive in an era of climate change.
As part of this effort, we will empower our staff and partners by increasing awareness of how
climate change may affect our collective ability to implement effective and resilient
programs. We will also provide them with the necessary training, tools, data, information and
technical support to make informed decisions and integrate climate adaptation into our work.
The EPA will work to modernize its financial assistance programs to encourage climate-
resilient investments across the nation. We will also focus on ensuring that investments
funded by the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, the Inflation Reduction Act and other
government programs are resilient to the impacts of climate change. Finally, as our
knowledge advances and as impacts continue to develop, our response will likewise evolve.
We will work to share these developments to enhance the collective resilience of our nation.
The actions outlined in these implementation plans reflect the EPA's commitment to build
every community's capacity to anticipate, prepare for, adapt to and recover from the
increasingly destructive impacts of climate change. Together with our partners, we will work
to create a healthy and prosperous nation that is resilient to the ever-increasing impacts of
climate change — which is vital to the EPA's goal of protecting human health and the
environment and to ensuring the long-term success of our nation.
Janet G. McCabe
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Preface
Regional Administrator David Cash, EPA Region 1
Climate change represents a clear and present danger to New England, especially to its most
overburdened and vulnerable communities, and an enormous opportunity. As a regional agency dedicated
to protecting human health and the environment, we have a responsibility to act with urgency and to
accelerate our efforts to adapt to climate change and secure climate justice.
Our staff-driven, consensus-based plan, the Region 1 Climate Adaptation Plan (RCAP), represents an
updated roadmap for how we continue to prepare for, adapt to, and help recover from the effects of these
extreme changes. Our plan identifies regional climate vulnerabilities, research needs, and transformational
actions, incorporating feedback from Tribal and state partners and communities with environmental
justice concerns.
From sea level rise to heat waves to extreme weather events, climate change is already affecting our
region, threatening our air and water quality and exacerbating health concerns. These growing climate
impacts translate into real community, economic, and public health consequences across the region. And
while climate change increasingly affects us all, we know that threats posed by climate change can
disproportionately harm communities in our region already disproportionately impacted by environmental
injustices.
Additionally, as a result of the 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, the Biden-Harris Administration is
leading a once-in-a-generation opportunity to invest in our country, with particular focus on ensuring at
least 40% of the benefits of these investments benefit disadvantaged communities. The task is enormous.
It is critical that we have an "all-hands-on-deck" approach to preparing for climate change - and our plan
embraces that approach. We will continue to update our plan, as needed, to help us prioritize our work on
climate adaptation.
I look forward to working together across each division of EPA Region 1 - and across each community in
our region - to help build resilience and adapt to climate change. We stand ready to assist New England
Tribes, states, and communities, as they continue to address the threats we face together.
David Cash
Regional Administrator, EPA Region 1
August 2022
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Table of Contents
Preface 3
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 8
List of Images 8
List of Acronyms 8
Section 1. Introduction 10
I. Executive Summary 10
II. R1 Divisional Climate Workgroup 11
III. Designated Climate Leader 12
Section 2. Vulnerability Assessment 13
I. Climate Change in New England 13
A. Increases in Air Temperature 13
B. Ocean Warming 14
C. Ocean and Coastal Acidification 15
D. Changes in Precipitation 16
E. Sea Level Rise 17
F. Extreme Weather Events 18
G. Coastal Flooding 20
H. Inland Flooding 21
I. Seasonal Shift 22
J. Air Quality 22
K. Public Health 23
L. Climate Migration 24
II. Vulnerable Populations 25
A. Background and Demographics 25
B. Federally Recognized Tribes 26
C. Environmental Justice 28
III. R1 Programmatic Climate Vulnerability Assessment 29
1. Vulnerable Populations 30
2. Air Quality 31
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3. Water Quality/Quantity 33
4. Contaminated Site Cleanup and Sustainable Development 40
5. Waste Management, Pollution Prevention, and Chemical Safety 44
6. Facilities and Operations 46
7. Cross Sectional 48
Section 3. Priority Actions 51
I. Introduction 51
II. R1 Priority Actions 52
1. Vulnerable Populations 52
2. Air Quality 53
3. Water Quality/Quantity 54
4. Contaminated Site Cleanup and Sustainable Development 60
5. Waste Management, Pollution Prevention, and Chemical Safety 61
6. Facilities and Operations 62
7. Cross Sectional 62
Section 4. Climate Science Needs 67
I. Introduction 67
II. R1 Climate Science Needs 67
1. Vulnerable Populations 67
2. Air Quality 69
3. Water Quality/Quantity 70
4. Contaminated Site Cleanup and Sustainable Development 75
5. Cross Sectional 76
Section 5. Climate Training Plan 77
I. Introduction 77
II. Training Plan and Timeline 77
III. Measurements and Progress 78
Section 6. Conclusions 79
References 80
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List of Tables
Table 1. Region 1 Divisional Climate Representatives Workgroup
Table 2. Number of People Living in Rural versus Urban Areas by New England State
Table 3. New England Demographics by State
Table 4. EPA Climate Adaptation Priorities
Table 5. Schedule for EPA Program Office Training Modules Release and R1 Administration Dates
Table 6. R1 Staff Training Targets
List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of New England States and Map showing Primary Roads and Population Density
Figure 2. Timing when Northeastern States, U.S., and Global Average Temperatures Will Reach 3.6°F
(2°C) of Warming based on Percentage of 32 Climate Models
Figure 3. Schematic of the circulation in the Northwest Atlantic and Gulf of Maine
Figure 4. Rate of Change in Total Annual Precipitation in Different Parts of the United States since the
20th Century
Figure 5. Black Carbon Column Mass Density from July 21, 2021, which Demonstrates Air Circulation
Patterns Carrying Smoke from California and Canadian Wildfires to the Northeast
Figure 6. Modeled migration patterns due to sea level rise affecting counties in blue
Figure 7. Map of the 10 Federally Recognized Tribes in New England
List of Images
Image 1. August 29, 2011, Stockbridge, VT Route 107
Image 2. October 28, 2015, King Tide Flooding in Downtown Boston
Image 3. October 29, 2012, Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah) Lobsterville Road Hurricane
Sandy dune washout and road damage
Image 4. June 23, 2016, Passamaquoddy Tribe - Pleasant Point eroding embankment -Gene Francis,
WWTF Operator and Ken Grant, Indian Health Service engineer
ABC A - Analysis of Brownfield
Cleanup Alternatives
ACE - Army Corps of Engineers
AQI - Air Quality Index
ARD - Air and Radiation Division
ARP - Alternative Restoration Plan
BACT - Best Available Control
Technology
BCT - Best Conventional Pollutant
Control Technology
BIL - Bipartisan Infrastructure Law
BMP - Best Management Practices
List of Acronyms
CA - Corrective Action
CAA - Clean Air Act
CBEI - Consumption Based
Emissions Inventory
CCMP - Comprehensive
Conservation and Management
Plans
CERCLA - Comprehensive
Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act
CFR - Code of Federal Regulations
COOP - Continuity of Operations
Plan
CT - Connecticut
CT DEEP - Connecticut
Department of Energy and
Environmental Protection
CWA-Clean Water Act
CWSRF - Clean Water State
Revolving Fund
DOJ - Department of Justice
DWSRF - Drinking Water State
Revolving Fund
ECAD - Enforcement and
Compliance Assurance Division
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EGU - Electric Generating Units
EIS - Environmental Impact
Statements
EJ - Environmental Justice
EO - Executive Order
EPA - Environmental Protection
Agency
FEDCA - Federal Food, Drug and
Cosmetic Act
FEMA - Federal Emergency
Management Agency
FIKKA - Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
FRP - Facility Response Plans
FTE - Full Time Equivalent
GDC - General Duty Clause
GHGs - Greenhouse Gases
GI - Green Infrastructure
GIS - Geographic Information
System
GoM-Gulf of Maine
HABs - Harmful Algal Blooms
HASP - Health and Safety Plans
HVAC - Heating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning
ILF - In Lieu Fee
IMT - Incident Management Team
IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change
IUP - Intended Use Plans
LAER - Lowest Achievable
Emission Rate
LCBP - Lake Champlain Basin
Program
LCRD - Land, Chemicals and
Redevelopment Division
LiDAR - Light Detection and
Ranging (a remote sensing method
used to examine the surface of the
Earth)
LISS - Long Island Sound Study
LQG - Large Quantity Generator
LSASD - Laboratory Services and
Applied Science Division
LTPGs - Long-term Performance
Goals
LTS - Long Term Stewardship
LUST - Leaking Underground
Storage Tank
MA - Massachusetts
ME - Maine
MPRSA - Marine Protection,
Research, and Sanctuaries Act
MS4 - Municipal Separate Storm
System
MSD - Mission Support Division
NAAQS - National Ambient Air
Quality Standards
NARS - National Aquatic Resource
Surveys
NECIA - Northeast Climate
Impacts Assessment
NEON - National Ecological
Observatory Network
NEP - National Estuary Program
NEPA - National Environmental
Policy Act
NEWMOA - Northeast Waste
Management Officials Association
NH - New Hampshire
NJ - New Jersey
NOAA - National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
NOx - Nitrogen Oxides
NPDES - National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System
NPDWR - National Primary
Drinking Water Regulations
NPL - National Priorities List
NPM - National Program Manager
NPS - Nonpoint Source
NSR - New Source Review
NY-New York
03 - Tropospheric Ozone
OA - Ocean Acidification
OAQPS - Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
OECA - Office of Enforcement and
Compliance Assurance
OGC - Office of General Counsel
OPA - Office of Public Affairs
ORA - Office of the Regional
Administrator
ORC - Office of Regional Counsel
ORD - Office of Research and
Development
ORIA - Office of Radiation and
Indoor Air
OUST - Office of Underground
Storage Tanks
P and C - Priorities and
Commitments
P2 - Pollution Prevention
PCBs - Polychlorinated biphenyl
PM - Particulate Matter
PM2.5 - Particles less than 2.5
micrometers in diameter
POCH-Post Office and
Courthouse - EPA R1 office
PPA - Performance Partnership
Agreement
PPG - Performance Partnership
Grants
PSD - Prevention of Significant
Deterioration
R1 - Region 1
R2 - Region 2
RAINE - Resilience and
Adaptation in New England
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RARE - Regional Applied
Research Effort
RCAP - Regional Climate
Adaptation Plan
RCN - Region 1 Climate Network
RCP - Representative
Concentration Pathway
RCRA - Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act
RFA - Request for Applications
RI - Rhode Island
RMN - Regional Monitoring
Networks
RMP - Risk Management Plan
ROD - Record of Decision
RPR - Repair and Painting Rule
SDWA - Safe Drinking Water Act
SEMD - Superfund and Emergency
Management Division
SMM - Sustainable Material
Management
SNEP - Southeast New England
Program
SO2 - Sulfur dioxide
SRF - State Revolving Fund
SRR - Sustainable Resilient
Remediation
SST - Sea Surface Temperatures
TEK- Traditional Ecological
Knowledge
TMDL - Total Maximum Daily
Load
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control
Act
TSDFs - Treatment, Storage, and
Disposal Facilities
USACE - U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers
USDA - U.S. Department of
Agriculture
USEEIO - US Environmentally-
Extended Input-Output
USG - Unhealthy for Sensitive
Groups
USGS - U.S. Geological Survey
USGCRP - U.S. Global Change
Research Program
UST - Underground Storage Tanks
UVM - University of Vermont
VOC - Volatile Organic
Compounds
VT - Vermont
WD - Water Division
WPDG - Wetland Program
Development Grants
WQS - Water Quality Standards
WWTF - Wastewater Treatment
Facility
7Q10 - Seven-day, consecutive
low-flow with a ten-year return
frequency
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Sec
I. Executive Summary
Climate change and its associated impacts to air, water, and waste systems are challenging EPA's mission
to protect human health and the environment. New England has and will continue to experience a range of
impacts from climate change including increases in air and water temperature, increases in precipitation,
sea level rise (SLR), more intense weather events and flooding, and seasonal shifts. The impacts of
climate change are already affecting the lives and livelihoods of New Englanders, degrading air quality,
threatening public health, and damaging infrastructure, ecosystems, and social systems in communities
across the region.
To respond to climate impacts, President Biden's Executive Order (EO) 14008, Tackling the Climate
Crisis at Home and Abroad, required every federal agency to develop Climate Action Plans. In response,
the EPA created an agency-wide Climate Adaptation Action Plan in October 2021. This agency-wide plan
recognizes that climate change poses important challenges to EPA's ability to fulfill its mission. This plan
also included a Policy Statement on Climate Change Adaptation, which directs every program and
regional office within the EPA to update their 2014 Adaptation Plans and/or develop an Implementation
Plan to:
1. Integrate climate adaptation planning into EPA programs, policies, and rulemaking processes.
2. Consult and partner with Tribes, states, territories, local governments, environmental
justice organizations, community groups, businesses, and other federal agencies to strengthen
adaptive capacity and increase the resilience of the nation, with a particular focus on
advancing environmental justice.
3. Implement measures to protect the agency's workforce, facilities, critical infrastructure,
supply chains, and procurement processes from the risks posed by climate change.
4. Modernize EPA financial assistance programs to encourage climate-resilient investments
across the nation.
These plans describe each Office's programmatic vulnerabilities to climate impacts and propose actions
needed to adapt our programs and increase resilience in response to each vulnerability. EPA Region 1
(Rl) covers Connecticut (CT), Rhode Island (RI), Massachusetts (MA), New Hampshire (NH), Vermont
(VT), Maine (ME), and ten federally recognized Tribes. Rl released its first RCAP in 2014 and
developed an addendum to the 2014 RCAP in 2016. The 2022 RCAP builds from those previous plans.
The updated RCAP provides an overview of climate impacts in the Northeast, identifies Rl programmatic
vulnerabilities in relation to those climate impacts, provides a list of 95 Priority Actions to respond to
those programmatic vulnerabilities, and establishes regional climate science needs and a training plan. It
is important to note that this plan only covers climate change adaptation and not climate change
mitigation. Climate change adaptation is defined as taking action to prepare for and adjust to both the
current and projected impacts of climate change." Climate change mitigation refers to actions limiting the
* Adaptive capacity is the ability of a human or natural system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) by
moderating potential damages, taking advantage of opportunities, or coping with the consequences. Climate resilience can be generally defined as
the capacity of a system to maintain function in the face of stresses imposed by climate change and to adapt the system to be better prepared for
future climate impacts.
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magnitude and rate of future climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and/or advancing
nature-based solutions.
Goal 2 of the EPA-wide FY 2022-2026 EPA Strategic Plan focuses on taking action to advance
environmental justice (EJ). R1 is committed to advancing our understanding of how overburdened and
underserved communities and individuals are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts including
low-income communities, those that are linguistically isolated, communities of color, children, the
elderly, Tribes, and Indigenous people. Tribes are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change
due to the integral nature of their traditional lifeways and culture with the environment. It is also
important to understand how these impacts will be magnified in communities already facing ongoing EJ
issues. Funds appropriated to EPA under the 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) are either required
or strongly encouraged to be used to support climate resilient infrastructure or other environmental
restoration and protection programs and projects, with a focus on serving historically disadvantaged or
underserved communities. Some of that work is highlighted in the Priority Actions listed in this plan.
II. R1 Divisional Climate Workgroup
To facilitate easier operations with local and state governments, as well as with other federal agencies,
EPA created ten regional offices. Each Regional office is organized into divisions that correspond to
EPA's national program offices. The corresponding regional divisions report back to and act in response
to national office requests. EPA's regional programs assist Tribes and states in implementing programs,
providing oversight, enforcing environmental statutes, and partnering with their state and tribal
environmental office counterparts.
To identify EPA Rl's programmatic vulnerabilities to climate impacts and to develop cross-divisional
Priority Actions to respond to those vulnerabilities, as well as establish climate science needs, R1 formed
the R1 Divisional Climate Representative Workgroup. The divisional workgroup consists of two
divisional climate representatives from each of Rl's nine divisions: Air and Radiation Division (ARD),
Water Division (WD), Superfund and Emergency Management Division (SEMD), Land, Chemicals, and
Redevelopment Division (LCRD), Mission Support Division (MSD), Enforcement and Compliance
Assurance Division (ECAD), Laboratory Services and Applied Science Division (LSASD), Office of
Regional Counsel (ORC), and Office of the Regional Administrator (ORA). The divisional workgroup
was led by Emily Bolger from ARD and Charlotte Gray from ORA. ARD management support and
supervision was provided by John Rogan, Branch Manager, Cynthia Greene, Deputy Director, and Lynne
Hamjian, Director. The full R1 Divisional Climate Representative Workgroup is listed below, see
Table 1. Each divisional representative worked with staff members across their respective divisions to
ensure Rl's programs were effectively covered within each part of this plan.
R1 Division
Divisional Climate Representatives on the Workgroup
ARD
Emily Bolger, Julianne Sammut, and John Moskal
WD
Anne Leiby and Mel Cote
SEMD
Christopher Smith and Andrew Robles
LCRD
Jessica Dominguez and Liz McCarthy
MSD
Mike Ottariano and Alex Dichter
LSASD
Bob Judge*, Anne McWilliams, and Tom Faber
ECAD
Mary Dever and Christine Sansevero
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ORC
Greg Dain and Mark Stein
ORA
Emily Bender and Mikayla Rumph
Table 1. Region 1 Divisional Climate Representatives Workgroup
*Representative Retired
III. Designated Climate Leader
Each Program and Regional Office must designate a Senior Leader on climate to oversee and ensure plan
implementation and make resource decisions. R1 has designated the Deputy Director of ARD, Cynthia
Greene, as the Senior Leader on climate.
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Section 2. Vulnerability Assessment
I. Climate Change in New England
The impacts of climate change are already affecting the lives and livelihoods of New Englanders,
damaging infrastructure, ecosystems, and social systems in communities across the region. New England
is and will continue to be uniquely impacted by climate change due to its population distribution,
geography, seasons, and weather patterns. The New England region is characterized by four
distinct seasons, approximately 6,130 miles of coastline, some rocky and some with areas of subsidence,
extensive beaches, lakes and rivers, hills and mountain ranges, and a mix of both urban and rural
communities. In total, the New England region spans 71,991.8 square miles with three of the six New
England states, ME, NH, and VT, bordering Canada (Figure l).1 The most densely populated areas in
New England are on the coast, making them susceptible to sea level rise (SLR) and storm surge. The
region's high density of built environment sites and facilities, large number of historic structures, and
older housing and infrastructure compared to other regions suggest that urban centers in the Northeast are
particularly vulnerable to climate shifts and extreme weather events. New England has and will continue
to experience a range of impacts from climate change including increases in air and water temperature,
increases in precipitation, SLR, more intense weather events and flooding, and seasonal shifts. The
changing climate also has negative impacts on air quality and public health. These climate impacts will
not evenly affect populations in New England with some vulnerable populations feeling a greater burden.
These vulnerabilities will be discussed in greater detail in the sections below.
A. Increases in Air Temperature
Global average temperatures have increased by approximately 1.8°F (1°C) from 1901 to 2020. If
temperatures continue to increase at the current rate, global warming is likely to reach 2.7°F (1.5°C)
between 2030 and 2052. Observational evidence consistently points to human activities linked to
human-induced emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) as the dominant cause for current and historical
warming trends. Without significant reductions, annual average global temperatures could increase by 9°F
(5°C) or more by the end of this century compared to preindustrial temperatures. With significant
Figure 1. Map of New England States and
Map showing Primary Roads and Population Density1
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reductions in emissions, the global temperature increase could be limited to 3.6°F (2°C) or less compared
to preindustrial temperatures.2
New England appears to be warming at a faster rate than the global average. Scientists have attributed the
warming in the Northeast to changes in atmospheric circulation as well as rising temperatures in coastal
waters, such as the Gulf of Maine (GoM). Temperature data show that New England air temperature has
already warmed past the 2.7°F (1.5°C) threshold set by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) for the world. Between 1900 and 2020, New England warmed an average of 3.29°F (1.83°C). The
most notable increases have been for the coldest days in winter. Overall, between 1900 and 2020, New
England winters have warmed on average 4.86°F (2.75°C).3 Consequently, Boston, MA, and Montpelier,
VT, both experienced their warmest year on record in 2021.
By 2035, and under both lower and higher GHG emissions scenarios modeled by the IPCC
[representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 and RCP 8.5il 4|. the Northeast is projected to be more
than 3.6°F (2°C) warmer on average than during the preindustrial era.1 This would be the largest increase
in the contiguous United States and would occur as much as two decades before global average
temperatures reach a similar milestone (Figure 2).5 This significant rise in air temperature is the main
driver impacting other climate indices in New England such as changes in precipitation, increases in
water temperatures, more frequent and intense extreme weather events, seasonal shifts, and increased
tropospheric ozone.1
100%
Figure 2. Timing when Northeastern States, U.S., and Global Average Temperatures Will Reach
3.6°F (2°C) of Warming based on Percentage of 32 Climate Models*5
*80% is when the average of 32 climate models will reach 3.6°F (2°C)
B. Ocean Warming
Ocean and coastal temperatures along the Northeast Continental Shelf, which extends approximately 125
miles (200 kilometers) off the New England coast, have warmed by 0.06°F (0.033°C) per year over the
period 1982-2016. This area is warming three times faster than the global average rate of 0.018°F
(0.01°C) per year.1 Through 2019, the Gulf of Maine has warmed faster than roughly 99 percent of the
world's oceans. The GoM is rapidly changing because it is located at the meeting point of two opposing
ocean currents — the Labrador Current that pulses cold water down from the Arctic, and the Gulf Stream
that carries much warmer water up from the south. The dynamics of these two currents determine whether
"Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are scenarios that include time series of emissions and concentrations of the full suite of greenhouse
gases and aerosols and chemically active gases, as well as land use/land cover. The word representative signifies that each RCP provides only one
of many possible scenarios that would lead to the specific radiative forcing characteristics. The term pathway emphasizes that not only the long-
term concentration levels are of interest, but also the trajectory taken over time to reach that outcome.
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the GoM receives cold, Arctic water or wanner water coming up from the south. As ice melts in the
Arctic, the northern North Atlantic Ocean is becoming fresher. This causes the Gulf Stream to shift its
path and allows more warm water to surge into the GoM where the Labrador Current once dominated.6
Figure 3 shows a schematic of the circulation in the Northwest Atlantic and Gulf of Maine.' While the
temperature, circulation, and other physical aspects of the GoM are changing on decadal and longer time
scales, the GoM also experiences shorter term fluctuations including marine heat waves. The GoM has
experienced record sea surface temperatures (SSTs) during the last decade. For example, during the 2012
heat wave, the SSTs were on average 1.3 °C warmer than the long-term average and on par with some
end-of-century climate projections. Observational analyses and model simulations indicate that the 2012
SST wanning event was driven primarily by the atmosphere through anomalous air-sea heat fluxes.
Relative to today's climate, marine heat waves are projected to increase in the future primarily through an
overall warming of the ocean.7
Figure 3. Schematic of the circulation in the Northwest Atlantic and Gulf of Maine (°C)
The annual mean bottom temperature field is superimposed on the shelf region. Bottom temperature is from the Bedford Institute of
Oceanography North Atlantic model. Arrows denote flow direction, with blue or red color indicating relative cold or warm temperature;
onshelf arrows are white for visibility. The dashed circular arrows south of the Tail of the Grand Banks denote subsurface warm and cold
eddies that are generated in that region. The solid red circle is a Gulf Stream ring which has a surface expression.
Increasingly, these wanner waters have brought wann-water-adapted species into the Northeast and GoM,
changing local aquatic ecosystems and fisheries. Some fishermen now travel farther to catch certain
species or target new species that are becoming more prevalent as waters warm. In the case of GoM cod,
rising temperatures have been associated with changes in recruitment, growth, and mortality. Shifts in
temperature and circulation will continue to generate more ecosystem changes. These changes have the
potential to affect economic activity and social features of fishing communities, working waterfronts,
travel and tourism, and other natural resource-dependent local economies. Proactive conservation and
management measures can support climate resilience of fished species. For example, long-standing
industry and management measures to protect female and large lobsters have supported the growth of the
GoM's Georges Bank stock as waters wanned, but the lack of these measures in southern New England
exacerbated declines in that stock as temperatures increased.1
C. Ocean and Coastal Acidification
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As carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere enters the ocean through surface water equilibration, it
dissolves to form carbonic acid. Along coastlines, other inputs can add to this acidification, including
acidic precipitation, river discharge, agricultural waste runoff, and other human materials that flow from
the land into the ocean. Together, these factors contribute to coastal acidification. Increases in nutnent
loading from increased runoff promotes algal growth, which drives up local CO2 concentrations as those
algal communities die and decay. Coastal acidification events are therefore more variable and episodic
compared to global ocean acidification. The pH level of seawaterhas decreased significantly since 1750
(oceans are approximately 30% more acidic now) and is projected to drop more dramatically by the end
of the century if CO2 concentrations continue to increase and the oceans absorb more CO2.8
The GoM waters are particularly sensitive to acidification effects due to the relatively cold and fresh
nature of the water, poorly buffered (low alkaline) riverine inputs, and strong seasonal productivity.9 Of
particular concern in New England is the threat that acidification has on shellfish populations, especially
soft-shelled clams. In more acidic waters, organisms such as shellfish and mollusks struggle to build and
maintain shells and their growth rates may slow, and some may begin to lose their sense of smell and
ability to find prey. These impacts to the species will translate to impacts to the New England economy,
as commercial fishing and shellfishing comprises a large portion of the local economy. In 2020 alone,
New England states landed over two million pounds of softshell clam, which is worth more than $23
million in sales.10
On average, U.S. precipitation has increased since
1900. While some areas in the southwestern U.S.
have become drier, the Northeast among other
areas have become wetter. Figure 4 shows the
rate of change in total annual precipitation in
different parts of the United States since the early
20th century (since 1901 for the contiguous 48
states and 1925 for Alaska).11 From 1901 to 2014,
monitoring station records in the Northeast
showed a significant 6.8% (0.6% per decade)
increase in annual total precipitation and a much
larger 41% (3.6% per decade) increase m annual
extreme precipitation.12 Under the RCP 8.5
scenario, a strong increase in precipitation
amounts, intensity, and persistence is expected to
occur in the Northeast, especially in the winter
and spring seasons. Persistence refers to the
continuation of current weather conditions.
Therefore, an increase in persistence results in an
increased likelihood of longer precipitation
events, high-temperature events, or drought.13 In
the latter half of the twentieth century, an increase in both total and extreme precipitation events is
projected in the Northeast.14
D. Changes in Precipitation
Figure 4. Rate of Change in Total Annual
Precipitation in Different Parts of the United
States since the 20th Century11
16
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Between the winters of 2001 and 2017, New England lost an average of 6.2 days in which snow was not
covering the ground, with CT losing the most, at 14.6 days. The lack of snowfall is contributing to the
region's warming, as snow reflects the sun's energy back into space, and with less snow, more sunlight is
absorbed by the ground. The reduction in seasonal snowfall and the transition to more rain events also
influence rivers and streams during spring runoff15 A decrease in average snowfall in New England will
also negatively impact the winter recreation and sports industries.1
E. S el Rise
As the oceans warm with the rise in overall global temperatures, seawater expands and causes water
levels to rise. Sea levels also rise when land-based ice, like glaciers and ice sheets, melt, adding water to
the ocean. As a result of the increase in sea levels, coastal wetlands will continue to migrate landward
causing a potential loss of total saltwater wetland area. According to NOAA's 2022 Sea Level Rise
Technical Report, multiple lines of evidence provide increased confidence, regardless of the emissions
pathway, in a narrower range of projected global, national, and regional sea level rise by 2050 than
previously reported. By 2050, the expected relative sea level (RSL) will cause tide and storm surge
heights to increase and will lead to a shift in U.S. coastal flood regimes, with major and moderate high
tide flood events occurring as frequently as moderate and minor high tide flood events occur today.
Without additional risk-reduction measures, U.S. coastal infrastructure, communities, and ecosystems will
face significant consequences.16
Along the mid-Atlantic coast (from Cape Hatteras, NC, to Cape Cod, MA), several decades of tide gauge
data through 2009 have shown that sea level rise rates were three to four times higher than the global
average rate.1 Additionally, from Cape Cod to NY, the coastline is subsiding (sinking)—largely due to
vertical land movement related to the melting of glaciers from the last ice age—which exacerbates the
impacts of sea level rise in those areas. Projections suggest that sea level rise in the Northeast will be
greater than the global average of approximately 0.12 inches (3 mm) per year. A recent federal
interagency report projects that by 2050 relative sea level rise in the northeast will be around 1.4 feet by
2050, underusing the intermediate greenhouse gas emissions scenario. By 2100 the more probable sea
level rise scenarios project a sea level rise of 2 feet and 4.5 feet (0.6 m and 1.4 m) on average in the
region.17 However, the worst-case and lowest-probability scenarios project that sea levels in the region
would rise upwards of 11 feet (3 m) on average by the end of the century.18
Changes to the coastal landscape could threaten the sustainability of communities and their livelihoods.
Historical settlement patterns and ongoing development combine to increase the regional vulnerability of
coastal communities. Saltwater intrusion from sea level rise into freshwater systems can also impact
drinking water supplies, including the alteration of groundwater systems and wastewater infrastructure.1
Natural and manmade features provide some protection from sea level rise. Infrastructure built along the
coast, such as seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments, limit landward erosion caused by sea level rise and
storm surge; jetties and groins interrupt alongshore sediment movement; and culverts and dams create
tidal restrictions that can reduce habitat suitability for fish communities. Natural features such as coastal
bluffs and dunes, while somewhat less vulnerable to these erosive forces than low lying features like
beaches and salt marshes, are still no match for these storm surge forces, as we see on Cape Cod and other
similar areas.1
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F. Extreme Weather Events
An extreme event is a time and place in which weather, climate, or environmental conditions, such as
temperature, precipitation, drought, or flooding, rank above a threshold value near the upper or lower
ends of the range of historical measurements. Climate research has yet to show that any given event was
caused solely by climate change, but research has demonstrated that climate change has made many
extreme events more likely, more intense, longer lasting, or larger in scale than they would have been
otherwise.19
Extreme Storms
The Atlantic hurricane season is from June 1 through November 30. These storms are anticipated to
become more frequent and more intense in the future. Greater amounts of precipitation will cause inland
river flooding and combined with storm surge flooding, will cause compound flood events that exacerbate
coastal flooding and erosion. Additionally in New England, Noreasters (named for the low-pressure
systems typically impacting New England and the mid-Atlantic with strong northeasterly winds blowing
from the ocean over coastal areas) typically occur between September and April, and when coupled with
the Atlantic hurricane season, the region is susceptible to major storms and compound flooding nearly
year-round.1 In August 2011, Tropical Storm Irene
dumped three to seven inches of rain throughout
Vermont over two days. Extensive flooding caused
millions of dollars of damage to infrastructure. Wells
and public water systems were submerged and
contaminated with chemicals and pathogens, degrading
safe drinking water supplies.2" Two months later in
2011, an unseasonably early October snowstorm
dumped one to two and a half feet of snow, felled trees
and resulted in significant power outages across the
New England region. Image 1, taken on August 29,
2011, displays the erosion of VT Route 107 caused by
the aftermath of Tropical Storm Irene in 2011. The cost
of rebuilding infrastructure in VT was estimated to be
up to $250M.21 In August 2020, Tropical Storm Isaias
hit CT w ith strong winds knocking out power in some areas for 9 days. Gusts of up to 61 mph resulted in
significant tree damage throughout the state.22 The stonn also produced a tornado affecting the Westport
area. It is considered the state's fourth worst weather event with damage comparable to Hurricane Sandy
in 2012.23
In March 2018, the region experienced a series of noreasters that brought strong winds, heavy snow, and
tremendous coastal flooding causing an estimated $52 million in damages.24 Due to the combination of
strong onshore winds and a slow-moving storm Boston, MA experienced its third highest water level on
record. Winter snowstorms are common in New England, however the strength, including a bomb
cyclone (a large, intense midlatitude storm that experiences pressure decreases at least 24 millibars in 24
hours 25) and a blizzard, as well as the close timing of these massive storm systems made clean up and
recovery difficult.26
Image 1. August 29, 2011, Stockbridge,
VT Route 107
Photographer: Sacha Pealer
18
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Heat Waves
Unusually hot summer days and nights have become more common across the contiguous United States
over the last few decades. A heat wave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather. Climate models
predict an increase in the frequency, severity, and length of heat waves in coming decades. Extreme heat,
whether in the form of rising long-term average temperatures or punctuated by heat waves, is a global
health threat. Northeastern cities, with their abundance of concrete and asphalt and relative lack of
vegetation, tend to have higher temperatures than surrounding regions due to the urban heat island effect.
A recent study by the Nature Conservancy showed that in 92% of the urbanized areas surveyed across the
US, low-income blocks have less tree cover than high-income blocks. The greatest difference between
low- and high-income blocks was found in urbanized areas in the Northeast of the United States, where
low-income blocks in some urbanized areas have 30% less tree cover and are 4.0°C hotter.27 The heat
island effect can be reduced by planting trees and building green roofs. During extreme heat events,
nighttime temperatures in the region's big cities are generally several degrees higher than surrounding
regions, leading to higher risk of heat-related death.1
Neighborhoods in the U.S. and Canada where poverty rates are relatively high have been found to
experience elevated temperature mortality impacts. Individuals without health insurance—a condition
which may be more common among low-income populations—have also been found to experience higher
rates of temperature mortality impacts. Studies have found higher temperature mortality rates among
many minority populations, including Black and Hispanic populations. Older individuals have higher
baseline mortality rates and are more susceptible to the negative health consequences of heat exposure, in
part due to the exacerbation of heat stress on pre-existing cardiac conditions.28
Climate-driven changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme temperatures are also expected to result
in disruptions in labor sectors where people work outdoors or in indoor environments without air
conditioning. When temperatures are high, people are at risk of experiencing health and cognitive effects
that prevent them from working at optimal levels. As a result, they may spend less time working on hot
days, or may not be able to work at all. This results in a shift in the allocation of time to labor, with
potentially significant economic implications. Workers with low-income levels may experience more
hardship associated with reduced pay from lost labor hours. A lower income may also be associated with
lack of access to insurance or healthcare, making these individuals more vulnerable to the potential health
effects of heat exposure.28
Drought
In 2016 and 2020, New York and New England experienced historic drought conditions not seen since
the 1960s. In September of 2020, the U.S. Department of Agriculture declared Aroostook County in
Maine and Hillsborough and Merrimack Counties in New Hampshire as crop disaster areas. By the
beginning of October, 166 community water systems and 5 municipalities in New Hampshire, more than
100 municipalities in Massachusetts, and several community water supplies in Connecticut, Maine, and
Rhode Island had mandatory water restrictions in place.29 The Northeast frequently experiences "flash"
droughts which are short-term intense dry periods that can follow a period of normal to above-normal
precipitation. While these flash droughts may last only 2-6 months, they can have profound impacts on a
local region, resulting in shortages in public water supplies and very low streamflow which result in
agriculture and economic impacts.1 Green infrastructure can help replenish groundwater reserves,
relieving stress on local water supplies and reducing the need to import potable water.30
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Wildfire
Multiple studies have found that climate
change has already led to an increase in
wildfire season length, wildfire
frequency, and burned areas. Climate
change threatens to increase the
frequency, extent, and severity of fires
through increased temperatures and
drought. Fires burn more land in the
western U.S. and Canada than the eastern
U.S., but parts of the Northeast may
become at greater risk to wildfires due to
increasing drought conditions.31 Wildfire
smoke from the western U.S. and Canada
can also blow hundreds of miles toward
the Northeast and cause local air quality
problems, increasing human health
impacts in the area. In the Summer of
2021 parts of the Northeast were engulfed
in a blanket of smoke earned across the
country from wildfires in the western
U.S. and Canada (Figure 5). This event impacted visibility across the region and caused several of the
New England states to issue air quality alerts during peak days.32
G. Coastal Flooding
Moderate to extreme flooding events are expected to become more frequent in most of the Northeast
during the 21st century. Coastal flood risks are exacerbated by compound flooding, defined as storm
surge and riverine flooding produce larger floodwaters at the coast that are longer in duration and more
widespread than anticipated. These impacts can be amplified by sea level increases causing an increase in
the number of flooding days across the Northeast coastal region. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) defines high-tide flooding, also known as sunny-dav flooding, as water rising
about 2 feet above the typical daily high tide34. Boston, MA, could see as many as 18 high-tide flooding
days in 2022-2023.33 The record for such flooding was set in 2017, when high tides inundated parts of the
city on 22 days, more than any other community on the east coast. On October 28, 2015, a King Tide
event occurred, flooding parts of downtown Boston's waterfront (Image 2)34. A King Tide is anon-
scientific term to describe exceptionally high tides and can be referenced as teachable moments for future
flooding impacts from climate change.34
Coastal flooding can be exasperated when storms make landfall during high tides. On January 4, 2018, a
bomb cyclone hit New England during an astronomical high tide causing significant flooding of Boston's
downtown streets and a subway station. At 15.16 feet, it was the highest tide on record surpassing the
previous high tide record set during the Blizzard of '78.35, 36
tT *
' i: ^ ^
uJ
*— ^
F
zx
Black Carbon Column Mass Density (mg/m3) A
400 \ 0 2 * 6 8 10 y s '-V
Li i
Figure 5. Black Carbon Column Mass Density from
July 21, 2021, which Demonstrates Air Circulation
Patterns Carrying Smoke from California and
Canadian Wildfires to the Northeast32
20
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Climate change, including current and future SLR, is
expected to exacerbate many long-standing inequities
that affect socially and economically marginalized
groups in the coastal zone. Devastating storms in recent
years have provided stark examples of the impacts
facing these vulnerable coastal residents, and the long-
term consequences for these communities remain
uncertain. Adaptive measures, such as seawalls, beach
nourishment, and other protective measures including
green infrastructure, have been shown to be effective in
many instances. Residents of low-lying affordable
housing in the coastal zone tend to be low-income
individuals living in old and poor-quality stmctures,
which are especially vulnerable to coastal floods. Low-
income individuals are also more likely to be adversely
affected as they have fewer financial resources to protect against and recover from flooding damage or
loss of property.28
H. Inland Flooding
As a result of a warming climate, heavy rainfall and extreme precipitation events will continue to increase
during this century leading to more inland flooding. Predicted increases in the frequency of major
hurricanes and stronger storms may also cause severe inland flooding events. Because New England was
one of the first areas of the country to be developed, much of the historical industrial development
occurred along rivers, canals, coasts, and other bodies of water for ease of hydropower and transportation.
In New England these areas have industrial facilities, historically contaminated sites, waste management
facilities, and petroleum storage facilities that are more vulnerable to flooding.1 Flooding could increase
the spread of contaminants into soils and waterways, resulting in increased risks to the health of nearby
populations, ecosystems, and wildlife—a set of phenomena well documented following Superstorni
Sandy and Tropical Storm Irene.2" Inland flooding can be managed with green infrastructure, infiltration-
based practices, floodplain management, and open space preservation to complement other measures to
lower flood risk.30
In the U.S., minorities, those with low income, people with limited English proficiency, and certain
immigrant communities are at increased risk of exposure to flooding given their higher likelihood of
living in risk-prone areas and locations with poorly maintained infrastructure. In addition, low-income
populations have been shown to be less likely to evacuate in response to warning systems. Nature-based
infrastructure projects, such as those designed to protect against flooding, often exclude socially
vulnerable groups and instead end up displacing lower income residents. Minorities may have limited
access to information and resources designed to prevent or mitigate flooding risk due to language or
cultural differences.28 The Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States: A Focus on Six
Impact Sectors found that in the Northeast, minorities are 16% more likely than non-minorities to
currently live in areas projected to have the worst flooding damages. Some evidence also indicates that
those over 65 could see increased riverine flood frequency and magnitude by 2050 because of climate
change.28
Image 2. October 28, 2015, King Tide
Flooding in Downtown Boston
Photographer: Ken Moraff
21
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I. Seasonal Shift
The seasonality of the Northeast is central to the region's sense of place and is an important driver of rural
economies. Seasonal differences in Northeast temperature have decreased in recent years as winters have
warmed three times faster than summers. By 2050, winters are projected to be milder, with fewer cold
extremes, particularly across inland and northern portions of the Northeast. This will likely result in a
shorter and less pronounced cold season with fewer frost days and a longer transition out of winter into
the growing season.37 Forests are already responding to the ongoing shift to a warmer climate resulting in
changes to the timing of leaf-out that affect plant productivity, plant-animal interactions, pollen
production, and other essential ecosystem processes. Warmer late-winter and early-spring temperatures in
the Northeast have resulted in trends toward earlier leaf-out and blooming, including changes of 1.6 and
1.2 days per decade, respectively, for lilac and honeysuckle. Warmer winters will likely contribute to
earlier insect emergence and expansion in the geographic range and population size of important tree
pests such as the hemlock woolly adelgid, emerald ash borer, and southern pine beetle. Increases in less
desired herbivore populations are also likely, with nutria (exotic South American rodents) already being a
major concern in different parts of the region. With changing seasons, there is also increased likelihood of
climate change related public health problems in the Northeast.1
Shorter, milder winters will present a variety of challenges for rural industries such as logging, maple
syrup harvesting, and the snow-related sports industry.37 The outdoor recreation industry contributes
nearly $150 billion in consumer spending to the Northeast economy and supports more than one million
jobs across the region. Additionally, agriculture, fishing, forestry, and related industries together generate
over $100 billion in economic activity annually, supporting more than half a million jobs in production
and processing region wide. Projected changes in the Northeast's seasons will continue to affect terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems, forest productivity, agricultural land use, and other resource-based industries.1
J. ility
Higher temperatures and changes in atmospheric circulation patterns can increase tropospheric ozone
levels and change the length of the ozone season, which would expose more people in the Northeast to
unhealthy levels of ozone. Additionally, more frequent, and severe wildfires and windblown dust from
areas affected by drought may also diminish air quality regionally. Climate change increases the
frequency of temperature inversions, which can trap particulate matter (PM) and thus increase PM
concentrations.38 The combination of patterns in the atmospheric deposition of sulfur, nitrogen, and
mercury with climate change has implications for the health of ecosystems, shifts of species, the
chemistry of surface waters, and the production of methylmercury and its bioaccumulation in food
webs.39 In New England, the increase in indoor moisture from increased precipitation, flooding events,
and severe storms makes the older building stock more susceptible to mold conditions. Indoor conditions
can also be affected by wildfire smoke, airborne allergens, and other particle pollution from outdoors
which can infiltrate homes and buildings. Additionally, more frequent power outages and use of portable
generators can increase the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning indoors.40
Recent studies have found that minorities, individuals with lower income, and individuals with lower
educational attainment are at increased risk of ambient air pollution exposure and health effects related to
that exposure. Neighborhoods with higher poverty rates have been found to have higher exposures to
PM2.5 and ozone. Studies have found higher exposures to PM2.5 and ozone in neighborhoods with more
racial minorities and higher incidence of childhood asthma. The EPA Social Vulnerability report found
22
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that in the Northeast, minority children are 10% more likely than non-minority children to currently live
in areas with the highest projected increases in childhood asthma diagnoses from climate-driven changes
in PM2.5. Children in low-income households are 7% more likely than those with higher income to
currently live in high-impact areas. Air pollution can also exacerbate chronic obstructive pulmonary
disorder and increase the risk of heart attack in older adults, especially those who are also diabetic or
obese.28
K. Public Health
Climate change can exacerbate existing health threats or create new public health challenges through a
variety of pathways.41 The health impacts from climate change in New England include:42
• Temperature-Related Illness: Heat-related illness and death remain significant public health
problems in the Northeast. People living in urban areas, may experience higher ambient
temperatures because of the additional heat associated with urban heat islands. Additionally, high
heat days are correlated with high concentrations of urban air pollutants, such as ground-level
ozone. The combination of heat stress and poor air quality can pose a major health risk to
sensitive groups.
• Vector-Borne Diseases: Climate change is expected to alter the geographic range, seasonal
distribution, and abundance of disease vectors, exposing more people in North America to ticks
that carry Lyme disease or other bacterial and viral agents, and to mosquitoes that transmit West
Nile, chikungunya, dengue, and Zika viruses. These diseases, specifically Lyme disease, have
been linked to climate, particularly with abundant late-spring and early-summer moisture. By
2065-2080, under the higher scenario (RCP8.5) it is projected that the period of elevated risk of
Lyme disease transmission in the Northeast will begin 0.9-2.8 weeks earlier between Maine and
Pennsylvania, compared to 1992-2007. Similarly, a recent analysis estimates that there would be
an additional 490 cases of West Nile neuroinvasive disease per year in the Northeast by 2090
under the higher scenario (RCP8.5) versus 210 additional cases per year under the lower scenario
(RCP4.5).
• Extreme Events: More frequent and/or more intense extreme events, including drought,
wildfires, heavy rainfall, floods, storms, and storm surge, are expected to adversely affect the
health of the New England population. These events can exacerbate underlying medical
conditions, increase stress, and lead to adverse mental health. Further, extreme weather and
climate events can disrupt critical public health, healthcare, and related systems in ways that can
adversely affect health long after the event.
• Water-Related Illness: Increasing water temperatures associated with climate change are
projected to alter the seasonality of growth and the geographic range of harmful algae and coastal
pathogens, and runoff from more frequent and intense rainfall is projected to increasingly
compromise recreational waters and sources of drinking water through increased introductions of
pathogens and toxic algal blooms.
• Food Safety, Nutrition, and Distribution: Climate change, including rising temperatures and
changes in weather extremes, is projected to adversely affect food security by altering exposures
to certain pathogens and toxins. In the Northeast, there will be increasing prevalence of shell
disease in lobsters, and vibrio (a marine bacteria) and other pathogens in oysters associated with
warming sea temperatures.
• Unhealthy Indoor Air: Changes in ambient humidity and more frequent heavy rainfalls and
floods can increase moisture in buildings, leading to higher mold concentrations, dust mites,
23
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bacteria, and other biological contaminants indoors. Damp indoor conditions and mold are both
known to be associated with respiratory illnesses, including asthma symptoms and wheezing.
Indoor air pollutants can cause immediate effects, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat,
headaches, dizziness, fatigue, and aggravated or worsened asthma symptoms among asthmatics.
Long-term effects may include respiratory diseases, heart disease, and cancer.
• Mental Health and Well-Being: Mental health consequences, ranging from minimal stress and
distress symptoms to clinical disorders, such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress, and
suicidality, can result from exposures to short-lived or prolonged climate- or weather-related
events and their health consequences. These mental health impacts can interact with other health,
social, and environmental stressors to diminish an individual's well-being. The concerns over the
impacts of climate causing psychological effects are a growing concern among mental health
experts.
While the health impacts listed above can affect anyone in the New England region, there are certain
populations who are more vulnerable. Within public health, the term "susceptibility" often refers to
factors related to physical predisposition (e.g., age), and "vulnerability" often refers to external factors
(e.g., occupational exposure).43 People that are more susceptible to the health effects of climate change
are children, the elderly, and people with underlying health conditions. People who are more vulnerable to
climate change include low-income communities, communities of color, Indigenous communities, the
elderly, people without access to air conditioning, those living in older homes, the socially isolated, those
who work outdoors, and those living in overburdened and vulnerable communities.44
L. Climate Migration
Climate migrants are people who
leave their homes because of
climate stressors. Climate
stressors, such as wildfires,
extreme storms, heavy flooding,
and sea level rise, put pressure on
people to leave their homes and
livelihoods behind. 45 In New
England, coastal and riverine
communities are the most likely
to be impacted. As sea levels rise
or rivers experience extreme
flooding and erosion, certain
communities will become
unhabitable and force
communities to migrate away. For
coastal impacts, Figure 6 shows
U.S. counties that would be
impacted by six feet of sea level rise - shaded in blue. Inland counties are shaded in red according to how
many migrants they would receive from coastal areas.46 In New England climate refugees would be
leaving the coast and heading farther inland, to counties in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts.
Figure 6. Modeled migration patterns due to sea level
rise affecting counties in blue 47
24
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Other ways that climate change is causing migration relates to loss of jobs. Between 1996 to 2017 there
was a 16% decline in fishing jobs in New England. This loss of jobs has been attributed largely to climate
change affecting fishing stocks.47 With a loss of economic opportunity, community members have had to
migrate to other areas that provide more opportunities.
The 2014 Pioneer Valley Climate Adaptation Plan found that while sea level rise is not a direct concern
for flooding in the Pioneer Valley, a region in Western MA about 100 miles inland, the region's economy
and social systems are linked to coastal cities in other regions, especially Boston and New York City.48
Therefore, severe weather impacts in these and other coastal areas will likely have secondary effects in
the Pioneer Valley that could be a recipient of coastal migrants. Their plan stated that "storm surges and
flooding, such as those seen during Superstorm Sandy in late October 2012, as well as other storms along
the Atlantic coast have required mass evacuations. In the future, it is possible that an even larger mass
evacuation in those areas would create demand for emergency sheltering in our region."
In fact, that is what happened in 2019. After Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico displaced Puerto Ricans
migrated to the City of Holyoke in Massachusetts.49 Even though the Pioneer Valley Adaptation Plan had
anticipated this type of secondary effect, an assessment by the City of Holyoke determined that the city
did not have the capability to respond to an influx of migrants driven by a climate change event and that it
lacks the necessary financial resources to respond to the needs of a large influx of migrants who may
arrive as a result of a climate-driven event.49
II. Vulnerable Populations
Certain individuals and communities—such as low-income communities, communities of color, federally
recognized Tribes and indigenous peoples, children, the elderly, persons with underlying medical
conditions and disabilities, those with limited access to information, those with language barriers—can be
especially vulnerable to the impacts of a changing climate. As climate change exacerbates existing
pollution problems and environmental stressors, overburdened and underserved communities and
individuals are particularly vulnerable to these impacts. Also, certain geographic locations and
communities are particularly vulnerable, such as those located in low-lying coastal areas or living in
isolated or segregated areas. EPA's September 2021 analysis, Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in
the United States: A Focus on Six Impact Sectors, shows that the most severe harms from climate change
fall disproportionately upon vulnerable populations, defined in the report based on income, educational
attainment, race and ethnicity, and age. The report demonstrates how vulnerable populations are least able
to prepare for, and recover from heat waves, poor air quality, flooding, and other impacts.28
A. Background and Demographics
New England has a population of over 14.8 million people across six states, with a large portion of the
population located along the coastline that spans approximately 6,130 miles. The population
density is nearly 235 people per square mile on average, which is significantly higher than the national
population average of 79.56 people per square mile.50 Rural and urban areas have distinct vulnerabilities,
impacts, and adaptative responses to climate change. The urbanized parts of the Northeast are dependent
on the neighboring rural areas' natural and recreational services, while the rural communities are
dependent on the economic vitality and wealth-generating capacity of the region's major cities.1 The three
southern states of CT, RI, and MA are more densely populated and urbanized than the northern states
with the most populated urban areas being situated along the eastern coastline. The three northern states,
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NH, VT, and ME, have a much lower population density. ME and VT are considered among the most
rural states in the country. Table 2 shows the number of people within each state that live in urban versus
rural areas in New England.51
State
Urban
Rural
Total
Connecticut
3,420,758
185,186
3,605,944
Rhode Island
1,097,379
0*
1,097,379
Massachusetts
6,924,033
105,884
7,029,917
New Hampshire
868,002
509,527
1,377,529
Vermont
225,562
417,515
643,077
Maine
815,078
547,281
1,362,359
Table 2. Number of People Living in Rural versus Urban Areas by New England State.51
Compared to a decade ago New England is more populated, older, and, in most places, more
multicultural. Each state has varying demographics, shown in Table 3. 52
State
% Under
the Age of
18
% Over
the Age
of 65
% People
of Color
(POC)
% Language
spoken at home
other than English
Median
Income
% Living in
Poverty
Connecticut
20.4
17.7
34.1
22.3
$78,444
9.7
Rhode Island
19.3
17.7
28.6
22.4
$67,167
10.6
Massachusetts
19.6
17.0
28.9
23.8
$81,215
9.4
Vermont
18.3
20.0
7.4
8.0
$76,768
7.0
New Hampshire
18.8
18.7
10.2.
8
$76,768
7.0
Maine
18.5
21.2
7.0
6.1
$57,981
10.6
Table 3. New England Demographics by State52
B. Federally Recognized Tribes
EPA values its unique government-to-government relationship with federally recognized Tribes in
planning and decision-making. This trust responsibility has been established over time and is further
expressed in the .1.984 EPA Policy for the Administration of Environmental Programs on Indian
Reservations. 20.1.1 Policy on Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribes, and the January 2021
presidential memorandum entitled Tribal Consultation and Strengthening Nation-to-Nation Relationship.
These policies recognize and support the sovereign decision-making authority of Tribal governments.
Under the Constitution, treaties with Tribes are part of the supreme law of the land, establishing unique
sets of rights, benefits, and conditions for the treaty-making Tribes who were forced to cede millions of
acres of their homelands to the United States, in return for recognition of property rights in land and
resources as well as federal protections. Tribal treaty rights have the same legal force and effect as federal
statutes, and they should be integrated into and given the fullest consideration throughout EPA's
collective work. Reserved rights are the rights Tribes retain that were not expressly granted to the United
* The terms "rural" and "urban" here refer to data for nonmetro and metro areas, a county-level classification defined by the Office of
Management and Budget. We use the February 2013 version of nonmetro and metro areas, unless otherwise noted, because it reflects
conditions at the beginning of the decade. (USDA State Fact Sheets,
https://data.ers.usda.gov/reports.aspx?StateFIPS=44&StateName=Rhode%20lsland&ID=17854)
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States by Tribes in treaties. Treaty and reserved rights, including but not limited to the rights to hunt, fish,
and gather, may be found both on and off-reservation lands.
In September 2021, EPA joined 16 other federal agencies in signing a Memorandum of Understanding
(MOU) that committed those parties to identifying and protecting Tribal treaty rights early in the
decision-making and regulatory processes. Accordingly, EPA will consider and protect treaty and
reserved rights in developing and implementing climate adaptation plans through strengthened
consultation, additional staff training and annual reporting requirements. The EPA-wide FY 2022-2026
EPA Strategic Plan outlines cooperation and collaboration priorities with Tribes on climate change in
Goal 1: Tackle the Climate Crisis. Goal 1 broadly entails cutting pollution that causes climate change and
increasing the adaptive capacity of Tribes, states, territories, and communities. A key objective of this
goal is to deliver targeted assistance to
increase the resilience of Tribes, states,
territories, and communities to the
impacts of climate change (Objective
1.2). Specifically, through consultation
and partnership, the Agency will assist
federally recognized Tribes to take action
to anticipate, prepare for, adapt to, or
recover from the impacts of climate
change.
There are 10 federally recognized Tribes
in New England (Figure 7). The total
population of tribal members from these
federally recognized Tribes is
approximately 18,500 members. The
total acreage of tribal land holdings in
New England is approximately 265,700
acres, and is comprised of a combination
of reservation, trust, and fee lands.
Compared with other Tribes throughout
the nation, the Tribes in New England,
while relatively smaller in both
population and land holdings, are faced
with a host of environmental, public
health, and tribal sovereignty-related
challenges. Additionally, climate change
may disproportionately impact these
Tribal communities compared to non-
tribal communities.
Tribes are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to the integral nature of the
environment within their traditional lifeways and culture. There is a strong need for Tribes to develop
adaptation strategies that promote sustainability and reduce the impact of climate change. Observed and
future impacts from climate change threaten indigenous communities' access to traditional foods, such as
fish, game, wild, and cultivated crops. These resources have provided sustenance as well as cultural,
Figure 7. Map of the 10 Federally Recognized Tribes
in New England
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economic, medicinal, and community
health for generations. To help adapt
to the climate change impacts
affecting Tribal food sovereignty, the
Tribes and the New England Federal
Partners, a group of 17 federal
agencies working on environmental
issues in the region, held a Tribal
Climate Summit on April 13, 2022.
Discussions from the Summit will
inform future collaborations between
the Tribes and the federal
government to promote adaptation.
Beyond food resources, climate
change impacts threaten sites,
practices, and relationships with cultural, spiritual, or ceremonial importance that are foundational to
Tribal cultural heritage, identity, and physical and mental health. For example, Image 3 shows road
damage and dune washout brought on by Hurricane Sandy in 2012, on Lobsterville Road within the
Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah) Tribal lands. Image 4, taken in 2016, shows the eroding
embankment at Passamaquoddy
Tribe's Pleasant Point Wastewater
Treatment Facility (WWTF) from
sea level rise and flooding impacts.
Traditional Ecological Knowledge
(TEK) is the accumulated
knowledge Tribes have about their
environment. To ensure TEK is
properly accounted for within the
RCAP implementation process, R1
will work with the ten New
England Tribes in an informal
engagement process to review the
background section on federally
recognized Tribes, and the Tribal
programmatic vulnerability,
Priority Actions, and Regional
Science Needs. Based on the
engagement process, additional edits will be made to account for any TEK information gaps. Rl is
committed to assisting Tribes in responding and adapting to climate change impacts.
C. Environmental Justice
Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race,
color, national origin, or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of
environmental laws, regulations, and policies. The EPA-wide FY 2022-2026 EPA Strategic Plan
Image 3. October 29, 2012, Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head
(Aquinnah) Lobsterville Road Hurricane Sandy dune washout
and road damage
Photographer: Bret Stearns
Image 4. June 23, 2016, Passamaquoddy Tribe - Pleasant
Point eroding embankment - Gene Francis, WWTF
Operator and Ken Grant, Indian Health Service engineer
Photographer: Michael Stover
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prioritizes consideration of climate change and environmental justice in Goal 1: Tackle the Climate Crisis
and Goal 2: Take Decisive Action to Advance EJ and Civil Rights. A key objective of Goal 1 is to deliver
targeted assistance to increase the resilience of Tribes, states, territories, and communities to the impacts
of climate change (Objectiv e 1.2). Specifically, the Agency will assist states, territories, local
governments, and communities with environmental justice concerns to take action to anticipate, prepare
for, adapt to, or recover from the impacts of climate change. EPA's EJ program will be focused on taking
decisive action to advance EJ, including building capacity and climate resilience and maximizing benefits
to overburdened communities. EPA plans to increase support for community-led action by increasing
investments and benefits directly to communities with environmental justice concerns and by integrating
equity throughout Agency programs. Rl's EJ Program is committed to supporting and assisting
vulnerable populations and communities with environmental justice concerns in responding and adapting
to climate impacts.
III. R1 Programmatic Climate Vulnerability Assessment
Climate change puts EPA's ability to implement its programs, created to protect human health and the
environment, at risk. This section contains a preliminary assessment of EPA Rl's programmatic
vulnerabilities that identify how potential climate change impacts in New England (see Climate Change in
New England) can potentially impact Rl's programmatic work. The vulnerabilities were identified by the
R1 Divisional Climate Workgroup, where each divisional representative worked with staff across their
respective divisions to identify programmatic vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities are broken down into
seven programmatic areas, listed in blue throughout this plan, that cover EPA Rl's programs: 1.
Vulnerable Populations, 2. Air Quality, 3. Water Quality/Quantity, 4. Contaminated Site Cleanup
and Sustainable Development, 5. Chemical Safety, Waste Management, and Pollution Prevention,
6. Facilities and Operations, and 3ss Sectional. Under each programmatic area, vulnerabilities are
numbered in red (ex. 2. Air Quality 2.1, 2.2, ..., 2.5). The 1. Vulnerable Populations section identifies
overarching vulnerabilities for Tribal communities and those living in communities with EJ concerns that
have amplifying effects within each programmatic area following that section.
Under each programmatic vulnerability, R1 actions needed to address that vulnerability are described
under five different categories, Regulatory, Enforcement, Monitoring/Lab Analysis,
Financial/Technical Assistance, and Facilities/Operations. Regulatory refers to actions R1 would take
to set or apply EPA standards and regulations in non-enforcement contexts. Enforcement refers to actions
R1 would take in response to noncompliance to enforce EPA standards and regulations. Monitoring/Lab
Analysis are actions R1 would take to study the environmental issue through Rl's laboratory analysis or
increased monitoring capabilities done in partnership with states. Financial/Technical Assistance are
actions R1 would take, consistent with federal law, to provide funding in the form of grants and
cooperative agreements and/or support in the form of technical assistance to businesses, non-profit
organizations, and Tribal, state, and local governments for a wide range of projects, from building or
upgrading water pollution control and drinking water infrastructure, scientific studies, and community
cleanups. Most grant funds are awarded to state agencies and municipal governments to help EPA
implement programs to meet the goals of federal laws. Facilities/Operations are actions R1 would take to
ensure Rl's facilities are maintained and resilient. This is done in coordination with the building owner
and the General Services Administration (GSA). There is an additional section under each vulnerability,
Barriers to Address, that describes any barriers that could prevent R1 from addressing the vulnerability.
Resource, funding, and other restrictions as well as limits to our current knowledge can be overarching
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barriers to addressing vulnerabilities in Rl's programs. As our understanding of climate science evolves
and our resources change, this assessment will be updated periodically to reflect those changes.
1. Vulnerable Populations
Climate change presents a great environmental challenge for everyone in New England, but especially
those who live, work, and learn in overburdened and vulnerable communities. Tribal communities and
those living in communities with EJ concerns have been historically underserved and may be
overburdened by disproportionate impacts of climate change. R1 has identified and assessed specific
vulnerabilities that these communities face in sections 1.1 - 1.2, listed below, so that the region can
ensure these communities' unique challenges will be taken into consideration when making decisions and
will have equal opportunities to thrive. These overarching vulnerabilities have amplifying effects within
each programmatic area following these sections. The amplifying effects vary, from each area, based on
the type of climate impacts, locations, and populations that are most vulnerable.
1.1 Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change will threaten the ability of R1 to
serve and protect the 10 federally recognized Tribes within New England.
Regulatory: Disproportionate environmental risks/impacts from climate change on Tribal communities
should be considered when either EPA directly implements permitting and regulatory programmatic
functions in Tribal communities or when regulatory and permitting actions, in surrounding areas, may
affect a Tribal community. The EPA Policy on Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribes, the
Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Interagency Coordination and Collaboration for the Protection
of Tribal Treaty and Reserved Rights, as well as Region I.'s Tribal Consultation Policy Implementation
Guidance Document are useful resources to assist programs in the process of Tribal consultation. Rl's
programs should also consult the Lg| s Development document, developed by EPA's Office of
General Counsel, which provides an overview of several discretionary legal authorities that EPA may
consider using to more fully ensure that its programs, policies, and activities fully protect human health
and the environment in Tribal communities.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: As the Tribes' natural resources are impacted by climate change, there will be
an increased need for EPA to assist Tribes in monitoring changes in the environment and performing
chemical and biological analyses. These changes include, but are not limited to, invasive species, changes
in habitat, thermal impacts, and harmful algal blooms (HABs). EPA should also take into consideration
TEK, the accumulated knowledge Tribes have about their environment, to ensure TEK is properly
accounted for within EPA's programs. TEK can provide baseline data for evaluating change in the
environment.
Enforcement. Consistent with EPA's trust responsibility to Tribes, Tribal concerns regarding impacts to
Tribal lands and natural resources as a result of violations of environmental statutes, permits, or
compliance requirements should be addressed in Rl's compliance and enforcement work.
Financial/Technical Assistance: R1 provides annual funding to Tribes through Clean Water Act (CWA)
106 and 319, Clean Air Act (CAA) 103 and 105, and Brownfields programs, as well as the General
Assistance Program. EPA also provides opportunities for Tribes to compete for other grant funding when
appropriated. With increased climate-related environmental risks to Tribal communities, there may be an
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increased need for funding to address these climate impacts. Where appropriate, R1 will integrate and
review climate adaptation criteria in assistance agreement programs to ensure climate resilience.
Barriers to Address: Many of the Tribes lack the resources to competitively apply for funding to
adequately address climate threats. EPA should take into consideration Tribes' administrative burden in
applying for and managing grants, and where possible, provide funding from sources that can be included
in performance partnership grants to ease the administrative burden.
1.2 Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change will disproportionally affect
communities with environmental justice concerns.
Regulatory: When considering the impacts of climate change, disproportionate impacts to communities
with EJ concerns should be considered during permitting and regulatory programmatic work. R1
programs should consult the Legal Tools Development document, developed by EPA's Office of General
Counsel, which provides an overview of several discretionary legal authorities that EPA may consider
using to more fully ensure that its programs, policies, and activities fully protect human health and the
environment in communities with EJ concerns.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: When allocating monitoring and lab resources, communities with EJ concerns
should be considered, especially where baseline data is limited or incomplete. EPA should also consider
involving impacted communities, when appropriate, in our research through tools like citizen science and
participatory research.
Enforcement: When addressing increased violations of environmental laws in Rl's compliance and
enforcement work, communities with EJ concerns should be considered.
Financial/Technical Assistance: EPA offers EJ grant opportunities to Tribal, state, local, and
community-based organizations to address environmental and public health issues. With increased
environmental risks to communities with EJ concerns, there may be an increased resource need for EJ
grant programs.
Barriers to Address: Many community-based, non-profit organizations lack the resources to
competitively apply for funding to adequately address climate threats. EPA should take into consideration
the administrative burden for these organizations in applying for and managing grants, and where
possible, provide funding from sources that may present fewer administrative burdens. There are many
barriers to effectively reaching communities with EJ concerns, including language or cultural barriers.
Increased R1 employee capacity is needed to better reach these communities as environmental concerns
grow from climate change.
2. Air Quality
The CAA sets health-based air quality standards that EPA and the states implement. Climate change
makes it more difficult to attain air quality standards and protect the quality of the air we breathe,
especially in overburdened and vulnerable populations. Minorities, individuals with lower income, and
individuals with lower educational attainment are at increased risk of ambient air pollution exposure and
health effects related to that exposure (See Air Quality').28 These changes are forcing EPA and the states
to adapt and update air quality programs to meet requirements in an environment that is being altered by
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climate change. As a result of climate change related air quality issues, R1 has identified specific
vulnerabilities related to Rl's ability to meet these requirements, 2.1-2.5, listed below.
2.1 An increase in average temperatures will increase electricity demand and create a higher
number of high electricity demand days. As a result, tropospheric ozone (03) levels may increase,
which threatens attainment of CAA National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
Regulatory: An increase in high ozone days will require R1 and states to send out more Air Quality Index
(AQI) notifications and Ozone Alerts. If ozone levels increase such that the NAAQS are not being met,
R1 will work with the states to develop control and attainment plans so that air quality does not exceed
the ozone standards. Increases in ozone nonattainment areas will also require the Air Permitting Program
to ensure Best Available Control Technology (BACT) or Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (LAER) for
projects triggering major New Source Review (NSR), conduct air quality analyses to ensure no new or
major sources violate NAAQS or Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) increments, and review
state programs where permit programs are delegated.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: If ozone levels increase or elevated levels become more widespread,
additional air monitors may need to be deployed throughout the region for CAA stationary and mobile
source compliance. If so, air monitoring Annual Network Plans will need to be revised. In addition,
higher electrical demand may require additional source emission testing and regional coordination of test
protocols.
Financial/Technical Assistance: More air quality impacts will create a need for more air quality grant
funding to be awarded to state and tribal air programs through CAA 103 and 105 grants.
Barriers to Address: Additional resources for more monitoring equipment may be needed. There is also
additional transboundary pollution coming into the region from upwind states that are regulated outside of
New England.
2.2 An increase in windblown/fugitive PM from drought and wildfires may increase PM
concentrations, which threatens the attainment of CAA NAAQS.
Regulatory: An increase in particulate matter concentration and high concentration days will require
more AQI notifications to be sent out. If PM concentrations increase such that the NAAQS are not being
met, the region may have to review particulate matter attainment plans submitted by R1 states.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: If PM levels increase or elevated levels become more widespread, additional
air monitors may need to be deployed throughout the region for CAA stationary and mobile source
compliance. If so, air monitoring Annual Network Plans will need to be revised.
Financial/Technical Assistance: More air quality impacts will create a need for more air quality grant
funding to be awarded to state and tribal air programs through CAA Section 103 and 105 grants.
Barriers to Address: The Exceptional Events Rule limits Rl's ability to mitigate PM pollution coming
from outside of the region due to extreme weather events, such as wildfires. The amount of available air
monitors is limited and will require more funding.
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2.3 Potential changes in atmospheric patterns and the uncertainty surrounding air quality modeling
limits EPA's ability to adequately predict, model, measure, and thus communicate future air
quality trends, which threatens all Air Quality Planning activities and the CAA NAAQS.
Regulatory: To improve future air quality modeling, there is a need for EPA to work with states to ensure
modeling inputs are appropriate and up to date for future modeling exercises used to make decisions on
effective and efficient ways to implement the NAAQS and improve air quality.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: If pollution levels increase, or elevated levels become more widespread, or
dispersed into new areas, additional air monitors may need to be deployed throughout Rl. If so, air
monitoring Annual Network Plans will need to be revised.
Barriers to Address: The uncertainty related to future air quality impacts will remain until research and
data can further Rl's understanding.
2.4 An increase in extreme storm events and flooding will create more potential for an accidental
release of an extremely hazardous substance to occur at a stationary source, which could impact the
facility's chemical accident prevention program under Section 112(r) of the CAA - Accidental
Release Prevention/Risk Management Plan (RMP) Rule.
Enforcement: To account for extreme storm event and flooding impacts, RMPs and chemical accident
prevention programs may need to be revised and monitored then reviewed by Rl. EPA HQ may choose to
revise the RMP regulations to clarify that risks posed by climate change be anticipated and addressed.
Barriers to Address: There are resource constraints in addressing RMP and the General Duty Clause
(GDC) compliance and a potential need for training on industry standards that address these risks.
2.5 Increased precipitation, flooding, and extreme events can lead to increases in mold, dust mites,
bacteria, and other biological contaminants indoors. Prolonged power outages from these events
could increase the use of backup generators and wood stoves, which lead to increases in carbon
monoxide and indoor particulate matter.
Financial/Technical Assistance: With increased impacts on indoor air quality, state and Tribal air
programs will need more technical assistance and funding to address these needs.
Barriers to Address. Resources are needed to address this.
3. Water Quality/Quantity
Climate change is already challenging the ability of Rl's Water Division programs to restore and protect
the integrity of New England's waters, including the multifaceted environmental, social, and economic
benefits they confer to communities. Certain communities and populations are uniquely and
disproportionally vulnerable to climate change impacts due to a variety of factors, including higher
pollution burdens, greater exposure to environmental contaminants, lack of financial resources, limited
access to quality health care, and other issues. Communities of color, low-income communities, children,
persons with disabilities, the elderly, Tribes, and indigenous people often face unequal and often greater
risks from climate change. These populations generally have fewer resources to prepare for or cope with
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climate-related events - including those that impact the quality and quantity of their water resources - and
are expected to experience greater hardships from climate change in the future.
Under the CWA, EPA, the states, and authorized Tribes are tasked with setting water quality standards
(WQS) and controlling pollution through wastewater discharge permits and nonpoint source management
to achieve the goal of attaining "water quality [that] provides for the protection and propagation of fish,
shellfish, and wildlife and provides for recreation in and on the water."53 Under the Safe Drinking Water
Act (SDWA), EPA promulgates national primary drinking water regulations applicable to public water
systems to protect human health from contaminants. Under the Marine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), EPA works with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to regulate,
including setting standards governing, the transportation of material for the purpose of dumping it in
ocean waters. Through the CWA, MPRSA, and SWDA, EPA Tribal, and state water programs protect and
restore healthy aquatic ecosystems and safe drinking water supplies. But achieving water management
goals has become more challenging and complex as climate change shifts hydrological patterns outside of
historic norms. R1 programs are already confronting a variety of climate impacts, including warmer air
and water temperatures, increased frequency of extreme weather events affecting water infrastructure
operations and dredging needs, groundwater rise that may impact the performance and longevity of some
water infrastructure, saltwater intrusion that places greater demands on drinking water treatment facilities
to meet drinking water standards, and increased pollutant loading to waterbodies from changing
precipitation patterns that hinder the attainment of water quality goals. The quantity and diversity of these
impacts underscores the importance of climate adaptation to the water program's mission to protect,
maintain, and restore the integrity of Rl's waters, so that drinking water remains safe and aquatic
ecosystems continue to function in as natural a manner as possible and provide their vital services. R1
staff have identified specific vulnerabilities to respond to Rl's ability to meet these requirements, 3.1-
3.11, listed below.
3.1 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, ocean and coastal
acidification, and sea level rise will create changing hydrologic conditions and other stressors that
threaten the ability to effectively determine attainment of WQS.
Regulatory: Water temperature and the amount and circulation of water in a waterbody are important
variables in both establishing and determining attainment ofWQS. Extreme precipitation causes erosion
and accelerates the delivery of sediment and other pollutants from the landscape, which also makes it
more difficult to meet WQS. An increase in nonattainment ofWQS will likely result in R1 encouraging
states to conduct triennial WQS revisions on a more regular basis (ideally every three years as required by
the CWA) to address changing conditions more effectively. It could also result in states including more
water quality impairments (waterbody/pollutant combinations) in their biennial CWA Section 303(d)
lists, which would increase the need for total maximum daily loads (TMDLs). Also, the designated uses
for some waterbodies, and their associated criteria, may need to be removed or changed based on
changing conditions (e.g., intermittent streams may be dry for longer periods of time in summer and no
longer support certain aquatic life forms, warmer water may not assimilate nutrients as effectively), and
hydrological changes may trigger a need for new "jurisdictional" determinations (e.g., deciding whether
an intermittent stream is a "water of the U.S." regulated under the CWA), and all of these actions may
trigger controversy and litigation.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Changing conditions will require more frequent monitoring in more locations
to measure the impact on the affected waterbodies. The states are responsible for monitoring water quality
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to determine attainment status and will need to invest more resources to address this need, but it also will
require R1 to invest more resources to support state monitoring programs.
Financial/Technical Assistance: More water quality impacts will create a need for more resources to
support state water monitoring programs through CWA Section 106 grants.
Barriers to Address: Barriers include: (1) uncertainty over scale and rate of localized change, and (2)
resource constraints affecting the availability of adequate staffing and monitoring tools.
3.2 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, ocean and coastal
acidification, and sea level rise will create changing hydrologic conditions and other stressors that
may prevent attainment of existing TMDLs and Alternative Restoration Plans (ARPs) developed
for impaired waters designated on state CWA Section 303(d) (impaired waters) lists. It also may be
more difficult to identify the cause of the impairment that a new TMDL or ARP is developed to
address.
Regulatory: Changing conditions and additional stressors will make it more difficult to determine the
cause(s) of a particular waterbody impairment. TMDLs may need to be revised in the future if monitoring
shows that nonattainment of TMDL targets is leading to unmet designated uses. Changing conditions will
also likely lead to more controversy over water quality-based permit limits and TMDLs which, in turn,
could lead to inaction or more litigation.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: State monitoring programs may request additional support from R1 to help
determine whether implementation of TMDLs and ARPs is leading to WQS attainment, and to determine
the causes of any waterbody impairment in the face of changing conditions and increased stressors.
Financial/Technical Assistance: More water quality impacts will create a need for more resources to
support state water quality planning programs through CWA Section 106 grants.
Barriers to Address: There is remaining uncertainty over the scale and rate of changes in waterbodies
subject to a TMDL or ARP, and over which waterbodies require development of such a plan.
Additionally, inadequate staffing and other resource constraints affect state water planning programs.
3.3 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, ocean and coastal
acidification, and sea level rise will create changing hydrologic conditions and other stressors that
may force permittees to confront different risks based upon factors (such as facility location and
type of industry or municipal system) which should be reflected in additional National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit conditions, as would be consistent with the CWA.
Regulatory: Changing conditions and additional stressors will likely raise new and potentially
challenging issues for assessing water quality, for state specification of WQS, for EPA and/or state
determination of WQ-based permit limits, and for establishing a variety of other types of permit
conditions and limits that may be associated with addressing changing local climatic conditions. For
example, new flow requirements to prevent erosion and sedimentation, and new thermal discharge limits
may be needed. Additionally, new permit limits for nutrient discharges may be needed to prevent
violations of dissolved oxygen standards.
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Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Changing conditions may require additional resources to support expanded
monitoring for the permittees, states, and R1. Monitoring and analyses will be needed to assess both
conditions in the receiving waters and the quality of pollutant discharges.
Enforcement: Changing climate conditions may cause greater non-compliance in the NPDES permit
program which may also require R1 to work with states to ensure an effective enforcement response. For
example, increased precipitation due to climate change could increase the number and volume of
combined sewer overflows which contain stormwater and untreated sewage. As another example,
situations could arise and need to be assessed where permittees might try to routinely use "by-pass" and
"upset" permit conditions to justify ongoing changes to facility operations. Increases in temperature and
extreme heat could lead to some large power plants requesting enforcement "forbearance" if rising water
temperatures during heat waves threaten their ability to generate peak-level power while also meeting
their permits' temperature limits.
Barriers to Address: Barriers to addressing climate impacts in the NPDES program include uncertainty
about how localized impacts may affect municipal, industrial, and stormwater permittees, and how the
corresponding permits can best address the risks raised by those changing conditions.
3.4 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, ocean and coastal
acidification, and sea level rise will create changing hydrologic conditions and other stressors that
will make it more challenging to effectively manage stormwater runoff from urban areas and
industries covered under NPDES stormwater permits.
Regulatory: These changing climate conditions may require the development and implementation of
stormwater best management practices (BMPs) that can provide necessary pollutant removal levels in the
face of these changing conditions. Recreating natural hydrology will require the broader application of
green infrastructure.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: More challenging stormwater runoff management issues will require more R1
resources to support an increased demand for state and regional water quality monitoring.
Financial/Technical Assistance: States receive CWA Section 106 grants to support their NPDES
programs, which usually are insufficient to cover all expenses and require supplemental state funding.
Stormwater infrastructure is eligible for Clean Water State Revolving Funds (SRF), but often does not
rank as highly on state Intended Use Plans (IUPs) as more traditional wastewater infrastructure projects.
Barriers to Address: There are resource constraints on funding to implement permit requirements for
BMPs and other control technologies. Additional data is needed including the potential risk of a rise in
groundwater for certain utilities.
3.5 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, ocean and coastal
acidification, and sea level rise will create changing hydrologic conditions and other stressors that
will make it more challenging to effectively manage stormwater runoff from urban areas not
covered under NPDES stormwater permits, suburban and rural communities, and agricultural and
forested lands covered by state and local nonpoint source (NPS) management programs.
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Regulatory: These conditions will require the development and implementation of BMPs for various land
uses that can provide necessary pollutant removal levels in the face of these changing conditions. EPA
will work with state NPS programs to incorporate climate change considerations, including promoting
green infrastructure, into updated and approved Nonpoint Source Management Program Plans required
under CWA Section 319.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: More challenging management of NPS runoff will require more R1 resources
to support an increased demand for state and regional water quality monitoring.
Financial/Technical Assistance: More challenging management of NPS runoff will create an increased
need for state and tribal CWA Section 319 grant funding. Structural storm water BMPs may need to be
sized and located differently, and cost more, to account for extreme precipitation, drought, rising
groundwater table, and sea level rise. For example, road drainage design has traditionally been based on
100-year storms, but the frequency of that size storm is increasing.
Barriers to Address: Funding restrictions; additional baseline data, including the potential rise in
groundwater, is needed to understand effectiveness and applicability of nature-based solutions.
3.6 Increased demand for septic system replacement as more systems fail due to increased
precipitation, sea level rise, and rising groundwater tables. The impact of nutrient loading to
waterbodies from septic systems may also be exacerbated by rising water temperatures.
Regulatory: Neither EPA nor states have generally required NPDES permits for discharges from septic
systems, and in the select instances where NPDES permits have been required for discharges from a point
source that reach jurisdictional surface waters via groundwater, they have been based on site-specific
factors. However, if climate change causes increased septic system failures and those failures adversely
affect surface waters, it may lead to increased public controversy and litigation over how those problems
should be addressed.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Hydrologic changes that affect septic system performance may require
additional resources to support expanded monitoring in the receiving waters for the municipalities, states,
and Rl.
Financial/Technical Assistance: More nutrient loading to waterbodies from septic systems will create an
increased need for state and tribal CWA Section 319 grant funding. These grants could potentially be
sought to address increased demand for septic system replacements as systems that are not rated or
designed to handle increased precipitation and rising groundwater tables could fail and need replacement.
Structural and non-structural BMPs for septic system design should be updated to identify changes in
septic design or siting for areas prone to sea level rise, flooding, and/or rising groundwater levels.
Infrastructure investment could also be used to support development of septic systems capable of
functioning well under changed hydrologic conditions while also reducing nutrients to address additional
NPS concerns.
Barriers to Address: Funding restrictions; resource limitations may affect the pace with which Rl is able
to address septic system issues. There is also a need to better understand the effectiveness of
innovative/alternative (I/A) wastewater systems in reducing nutrient loading and contaminants of
emerging concern.
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3.7 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, and sea level rise
could create changes in wetland characteristics and shifting and/or disappearing wetland habitats
that will increase the importance of avoiding or minimizing wetland losses and effectively
mitigating unavoidable losses. There will be a greater need for blue carbon reserves (tidal wetlands
and sea grasses), ocean and coastal acidification refuges, and living shorelines as mitigation sites.
Regulatory: Shifting and disappearing wetland habitats may require that more climate considerations be
brought to bear during the review of 404 permits and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
documents to assure avoidance, minimization, and mitigation of impacts. R1 may also need to consider in
its analyses the long-term climate-related implications of alternatives and whether they will achieve
compliance within the 404(b)(1) guidelines. Jurisdictional determinations will become more complex due
to landscape and watershed changes, including shifting and disappearing wetland habitats. There may also
be a greater need for, and an expected increase in applications for resilience projects (e.g., beach
nourishment, coastal shoreline erosion prevention and response, sea wall construction, dam removal, and
flood mitigation projects) to provide mitigation of wetland impacts when avoidance or minimization of
such impacts is not feasible.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Climate change impacts may require increased monitoring to determine
wetland condition or blue carbon reserves. Monitoring may be needed to document the effectiveness of
mitigation efforts. The monitoring may be done by states, Rl, or others.
Enforcement: EPA will account for changing hydrologic conditions when evaluating whether wetlands
may fall under federal jurisdiction and may be subject to EPA enforcement.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Increased funding through Wetland Program Development Grants
(WPDG) may be needed to fund investigation and better understanding of the effects of climate change
on wetlands and aquatic ecosystems. To the extent possible, priority could be considered for in-lieu fee
(mitigation bank) projects that protect eelgrass and other blue carbon reserves.
Barriers to Address: Funding constraints; WPDG competitions give projects that address climate
vulnerabilities a higher ranking, but Rl does not require applicants to address climate impacts. There is
remaining uncertainty surrounding changes to wetland characteristics and marsh migration (lack of
pathway, segmented ecosystems).
3.8 An increase in extreme precipitation and more frequent extreme storm events that cause more
erosion and sedimentation may result in more frequent dredging projects that require ocean
disposal or alternative placement methods. There also will be an increased demand to beneficially
use dredged material to protect shorelines, beaches, dunes, and marshes from sea level rise.
Regulatory: There will be an increased demand to dredge earlier in the spring due to shorter winters and
earlier snowmelts, potentially conflicting with fish migration. There will also be an increased demand to
beneficially use dredged material for nourishing eroding beaches, coastal wetlands, and other shoreline
areas. All of this may necessitate more EPA reviews pursuant to the MPRSA and CWA, which can pose
difficult regulatory issues, and sometimes result in litigation, particularly arising out of decisions about
where to dispose of, or use, the dredged material.
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Permitting: There may be an increased need for emergency dredging permits to remove shoals formed by
more extreme storms.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: More dredging will require more monitoring and analysis of dredged material
to characterize contaminant levels in the material and assess disposal and beneficial use options.
Barriers to Address: R1 is not responsible for sediment analyses, relying on the USACE and private
permittees to collect and analyze sediment to determine suitability for ocean disposal or beneficial use.
Staffing constraints may make it difficult to keep up with the demand for reviewing the results of these
analyses to support suitability determinations.
3.9 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, ocean and coastal
acidification, and sea level rise will create changing conditions that will make it harder to attain
goals to restore and protect ecosystems in Geographic Programs, such as the National Estuary
Programs (NEPs) (including the Long Island Sound Study [LISS]), Lake Champlain Basin
Program (LCBP), and Southeast New England Program (SNEP).
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Changing ecological conditions due to climate change will create an increased
demand for monitoring by the geographic program, state, and/or R1.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Climate change impacts will create an increased demand on the
geographic programs to provide funding to monitor and assess environmental conditions in their
watersheds, and to develop and implement adaptation and resilience measures. This will place a greater
burden on program and fiscal support staff and external partners in terms of grants administration,
collaboration with partners, building consensus on priorities among competing needs, data support,
monitoring, reporting on ecosystem changes, identification of innovative solutions, and providing
technical assistance to state, regional, and local organizations/agencies.
Barriers to Address: There are funding restrictions, and not all geographic programs have conducted
climate vulnerability assessments or developed adaptation strategies to guide implementation.
3.10 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, ocean and coastal
acidification, and sea level rise will create changing conditions that threaten attainment of National
Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR) under the SDWA.
Regulatory: The threat of increased nonattainment of national health-based standards for drinking water
under the SDWA will create a need for EPA to work with state drinking water programs and water
utilities to identify potential impacts of climate change on their systems, including how to prepare for,
respond to, and recover from extreme storms, flooding, harmful algal blooms, and saltwater intrusion.
These impacts could raise questions about the safety of surface water systems relying on watershed
protection and disinfection methods to provide safe drinking water.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Increased nonattainment of NPDWR could necessitate additional monitoring
and lab analysis to confirm such nonattainment, to determine the effectiveness of existing treatment, and
to assess the causes of the nonattainment and ways to resolve it.
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Enforcement: Increased nonattainment of NPDWR could necessitate additional federal and/or state
enforcement actions to ensure the protection of public health.
Barriers to Address: There is remaining uncertainty over the scale and rate of changes in drinking
waterbodies and resource constraints for additional monitoring and analysis needs.
3.11 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, ocean and coastal
acidification, flooding, and sea level rise may increase the likelihood of damage to drinking water,
wastewater, and stormwater infrastructure resulting in an inability to effectively collect and treat
wastewater and stormwater and protect and treat drinking water supplies. Warmer and more
sediment-laden waters may foster algal and pathogen growth and decrease the capacity of surface
water supplies.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Extreme events and damaged or failing water infrastructure may require
additional monitoring and analyses by municipalities, states and/or R1 to assess human health and
environmental impacts.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Impacts to drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater infrastructure
will create a bigger resource need for the Drinking Water and Clean Water State Revolving Funds
(CWSRF and DWSRF) capitalized with EPA grants and administered by the states. There will be
increased demand for the SRF program to fund resilience projects that consider climate impacts to
construct municipal wastewater facilities, control nonpoint source pollution, build decentralized
wastewater treatment systems, implement green infrastructure projects, protect estuaries, and fund other
water quality projects.
Barriers to Address: Funding restrictions.
4. Contaminated Site Cleanup and Sustainable Development
Accidents, spills, leaks, and past improper disposal and handling of hazardous materials and wastes have
resulted in tens of thousands of sites across the country that have contaminated land, water (groundwater
and surface water), and air (indoor and outdoor). EPA and its state and territorial partners have developed
a variety of cleanup programs to assess and clean up these contaminated sites. Cleanups may be done by
EPA, other federal agencies, states or municipalities, or the company or party responsible for the
contamination. Climate-related risks, especially flooding in the Northeast, pose a threat to hazardous and
toxic sites and nearby communities. Vulnerable populations within these communities are projected to
experience a disproportionate amount of exposure to the negative impacts of these climate-related risks.
In particular, the Brownfields Program is designed to provide grants and technical assistance to projects
that affect vulnerable populations in low-income and disadvantaged communities. R1 staff have identified
specific vulnerabilities climate change poses to cleanup programs so that these risks can be managed, 4.1-
4.5, listed below.
4.1 Increases in air and water temperature, precipitation, flooding, and periods of drought may
result in altered fate and transport pathways and exposure assumptions, impaired aquatic habitats,
dispersal of contaminants, damage to remediation related structures, and ultimately ineffective
remedies at Removal and Remedial sites. At coastal sites, saltwater impacts made more likely by
sea level rise may cause corrosion of remediation equipment and impair restoration efforts.
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Increased frequency of extreme weather events is likely to require more frequent and robust
emergency response actions at contaminated sites. These impacts threaten the work performed
pursuant to CERCLA.
Regulatory: Removal and remedial (i.e., Superfund) sites determined to be significantly impacted by the
risks described above may require an evaluation to determine steps that can be taken to mitigate the risks.
At remedial and removal sites where remedies have not yet been selected, the assessment of remedial
alternatives needs to consider the risks described above in order to choose remedies that are protective of
human health and the environment. As part of this process, consideration of climate impacts will be
required in drafting decision documents for remedial and removal sites, to ensure selected remedies are
protective against climate impacts. At remedial sites where remedies have already been selected,
consideration of climate impacts will be conducted as part of the CERCLA 5-Year Review process. In
response to extreme weather events, R1 emergency response to Superfund sites may be increasingly
required to ensure the protection of public and environmental health.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: As a result of climate impacts, Superfund sites may require additional
sampling and analyses of soil, sediment, groundwater, and air. The need for installation of microwells and
vapor intrusion evaluations may increase with the rise in water table elevations.
Enforcement: Legal support will be required to negotiate enforcement documents that address climate
change impacts to CERCLA remedies. At sites with existing remedies, legal support may be required in
evaluating the ability to compel responsible parties to take actions which mitigate climate risks. At federal
facility sites, R1 may need to negotiate/enforce compliance within the terms of federal facility agreements
with federal parties to address climate change impacts. In response to extreme weather events, R1 may
need to determine emergency enforcement actions that can take place at the federal level to mitigate
immediate and substantial endangerment to human health and the environment and ensure emergency
planning compliance.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Designing or modifying remedies to be protective of climate impacts
will come with significant costs. The source of the funding depends on who is paying for the cleanup.
Additional federal funding will be needed to design and build more robust remedies, or to modify existing
remedies where changes are determined to be necessary for EPA-lead sites. At federal facilities, EPA will
need to work with federal parties to identify additional funding needs required to address climate impacts
for the facilities to receive adequate federal appropriations to address the identified impacts.
Barriers to Address: There are cost and engineering challenges in implementing remedies that consider
climate impacts. For example, remedies that provide increased mitigation of flood risk are likely to be far
more expensive than those that do not consider flooding (e.g., shipping waste off-site as opposed to
capping waste in place on-site). There are also remaining uncertainties over rate and scale of localized
impacts at Superfund sites. Programmatic and legal barriers also need to be identified and addressed, such
as the additional program resources needed to modify existing remedies and legal resources needed to
negotiate or renegotiate settlement agreements to incorporate measures to address climate change. R1
needs to work closely with the Department of Justice, and in many cases the states, to make such changes.
4.2 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more
frequent/intense extreme storm events may result in hazardous waste release, compromised
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protective controls, and possible introduction of new exposure pathways at RCRA Corrective
Action (CA) facilities.
Regulatory: Hazardous waste releases, compromised protective controls, and possible introduction of
new exposure pathways may create a need for R1 to work with states to review facilities with vulnerable
long-term remedies and to focus long term stewardship (LTS) resources on those sites with potential
climate change vulnerabilities. In these efforts, legal review may also be needed when considering climate
change impacts on the protectiveness of existing remedies. In response to extreme weather events, R1
emergency response to RCRA CA facilities may be needed to ensure the protection of public health and
the environment.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Changing conditions may require additional resources to support expanded
monitoring for the CA facilities. R1 monitoring and analyses may be needed to investigate potential risks
as a result of a release.
Enforcement: In response to extreme weather events, R1 may need to work with states to determine
emergency enforcement action that can take place at the federal and/or state level to mitigate imminent
and substantial endangerment to human health and the environment and ensure emergency planning
compliance.
Financial/Technical Assistance: There will be an increased resource need for RCRA CA LTS resources
in conjunction with state programs and partners to address climate impacts at vulnerable RCRA CA
facilities.
Barriers to Address: Funding restrictions are a constraint. There are remaining uncertainties over the rate
and scale of localized impacts at RCRA CA facilities.
4.3 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more
frequent/intense extreme storm events may result in potential release from, erosion of cover/caps
over, and/or compromised control and leak detection systems at underground storage tanks
(USTs). This may result in increased action under CERCLA response and the Leaking
Underground Storage Tank (LUST) programs.
Regulatory: Potential release from, erosion of cover/caps over, and compromised control and leak
detection systems at USTs may require Rl's UST and Superfund emergency response programs to work
with states to respond to petroleum spills and leaks from USTs. R1 may also need to work with states to
ensure all regulated USTs are inspected every three years to ensure proper control and leak detection
systems are in place.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: As a result of increased climate impacts, USTs may require additional
sampling and analysis. R1 and state resources may be needed to support increased monitoring and
analyses needs.
Financial/Technical Assistance: To address potential increases in petroleum releases from regulated
USTs, there could be an increased demand on the LUST Trust Fund. Under the LUST program, R1 may
also need to increase outreach to states and Tribes on the Office of Underground Storage Tanks (OUSTTs
Flood Guide.
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Barriers to Address: There are remaining uncertainties over the rate and scale of localized impacts at
USTs and the resources needed to address these impacts.
4.4 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more
frequent/intense extreme storm events may result in the potential release of un-remediated
contaminants, compromised engineered controls, or impacted design of site reuse and remedial
alternatives at Brownfield sites. This creates a bigger resource need for the Brownfields program.
Regulatory: Potential release of un-remediated contaminants or compromised engineered controls at
Brownfield sites may require Rl's Brownfields and Superfund Emergency Response programs to work
with states to prevent or mitigate releases. To the extent climate impacts result in the releases or threats of
release of contamination significant enough that a CERCLA action is taken at a site, sites may be
disqualified from receiving Brownfield funding.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: As a result of increased climate impacts, Brownfield sites may require
additional sampling and analysis. R1 and state resources may be required to support increased monitoring
and analyses needs.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Potential release of un-remediated contaminants, compromised
engineered controls, or impacted design of site reuse and remedial alternatives at Brownfield sites may
create a bigger demand and higher costs for Brownfield grants. Rl's Brownfields program may also need
to increase outreach to Tribes, states, grantees, and contractors on best practices and tools for remediation
and redevelopment resiliency, such as EPA's Climate Smart Brownfields Manual and the Sustainable and
Resilient Remediation (SRR) guidelines.
Barriers to Address: There are remaining uncertainties over the rate and scale of localized impacts at
Brownfield sites and the resources needed to address those impacts.
4.5 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more
frequent/intense extreme storm events may result in potential release of Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) regulated materials, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) contaminated storm debris, and
increased releases and demand on disposal sites which threatens TSCA.
Regulatory: Climate change impacts may become a more frequent factor in TSCA risk-based
determinations in assessing whether cleanup and disposal actions will not present an unreasonable risk of
injury to health or the environment. Extreme weather events (e.g., high winds, heavy precipitation events)
may damage community infrastructure (e.g., schools and childcare facilities) and residential homes. As a
result, there may be an increased risk of exposure to PCBs if buildings are renovated or demolished as
part of the recovery efforts. Potential climate impacts at PCB disposal sites may create a need for R1 to
increase familiarity, both internally and with state partners, of sustainable and resilient remediation
guidance as it applies to PCB cleanups. R1 may also need to assist states in authorizing potential repairs
of pre-1978 flood damaged residential properties and child occupied facilities under emergency
provisions of EPA's Lead Renovation, Repair and Painting Rule (RRP).
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Monitoring/Lab Analysis: As a result of increased climate impacts, PCB disposal sites may require
additional sampling and analysis. R1 and state resources may be required to support increased monitoring
and analyses needs.
Enforcement: There may be increased need to issue "debris letters" that address the regulatory status of
PCB contaminated storm debris if requested as part of an enforcement consultation after an extreme
weather event. TSCA enforcement actions may need to address potential climate impacts to proposed
PCB cleanup and disposal plans and existing settlement agreements may need to be modified or
renegotiated.
Barriers to Address: There are remaining uncertainties over the rate and scale of localized impacts at
PCB disposal sites and the resources needed to address those impacts.
5. Waste Management, Pollution Prevention, and Chemical Safety
Beyond cleaning up hazardous waste sites, EPA's programs set forth a framework for the management of
non-hazardous solid wastes, sustainable materials, pollution prevention, and chemical safety. The RCRA
federal Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) are focused on waste minimization and
phasing out land disposal of hazardous waste as well as corrective action (CA) for releases. By examining
how materials are used throughout their life cycle, a Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) approach
seeks to: use materials in the most productive way with an emphasis on using less; reduce toxic chemicals
and environmental impacts throughout the material life cycle; and assure sufficient resources are available
to meet today's needs and those of the future. Pollution prevention (P2) is any practice that reduces,
eliminates, or prevents pollution at its source. Reducing the amount of pollution produced means less
waste to control, treat, or dispose.
Pesticides are regulated under the broad authority granted in two major statutes, the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). These
laws have been amended by the Food Quality Protection Act and the Pesticide Registration Improvement
Act. While these programs are varied in function, they are collectively impacted by increases in air and
water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more frequent and/or extreme storm events. It
is anticipated that these impacts will be largely geographical in nature which indicates that any possible
susceptible population within such locales could be impacted and should be considered vulnerable. To
address potential climate change impacts, R1 has identified programmatic vulnerabilities, 5.1-5.3, listed
below.
5.1 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more
frequent/intense extreme storm events may result in hazardous waste release, damaged equipment,
and effects on emergency evacuation routes at treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs),
which impacts all sites that require RCRA permits.
Regulatory: A TSDF not only must comply with the standards of 40 CFR Part 264/265, but an owner or
operator also needs to obtain a permit in Part 270 (or operate under interim status) to engage in hazardous
waste management. Hazardous waste release, damaged equipment, and effects on emergency evacuation
routes at TSDFs may create a need for R1 to review state TSDF RCRA permits for facilities that are
vulnerable to climate impacts. Specifically, R1 may need to assist states in addressing any permitted
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facility located within the 100-year floodplain (40 CFR Part 264.18(b) for floodplains) and encourage
states to use the most up-to-date mapping tool to identify floodplains.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Changing conditions may require additional leak detection and repair
monitoring at compromised RCRA TSD facilities. R1 and state resources may be required to support
increased monitoring and analyses needs.
Enforcement: In response to extreme weather events, R1 may need to work with states to determine
emergency enforcement action that can take place at the federal and/or state level to mitigate imminent
and substantial endangerment to human health and the environment and to ensure emergency planning
compliance. R1 may also have to work with permit writers to update the permit requirements for TSDFs
located in floodplains to reflect these facilities' obligations concerning flood preparedness and prevention.
For TSDFs with flood preparedness obligations, R1 and R1 states will have additional responsibilities
associated with ensuring compliance with these permit parameters.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Long term planning resources for climate change impacts on
closure/post-closure of TSD facilities, under 40 CFR Part 264/265, should be included in the financial
assurance section of permits.
Barriers to Address: National guidance for addressing climate change in permits could be beneficial, and
there is remaining uncertainty over rate and scale of localized impacts at TSD facilities.
5.2 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more
frequent/intense extreme storm events may result in damage to the built environment, increases in
waste/debris, disruption of supply chains and transportation, and exacerbated pollution which may
create a resource need for the SMM and P2 programs.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Damage to the built environment, increases in waste/debris, and
disruption of supply chains and transportation could all impact Rl's SMM program. R1 may need to
provide technical assistance and outreach as well as resources to assist states in waste system
vulnerability decisions, and to improve public awareness of the links between waste (particularly food
waste) and climate change. P2 grant may need to be used to support states and state technical assistance
programs to develop and adopt source reduction practices to respond to climate impacts.
Barriers to Address: There is limited program capacity in the SMM and P2 programs in Rl, without
climate considerations, and there is remaining uncertainty surrounding the scale of localized pollution
impacts in the Northeast and the funding needed to address those impacts.
5.3 An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, sea level rise, and more
frequent/intense extreme storm events may result in the alteration of ecosystems which could
change the timing, area, and extent of pests and diseases. This may lead to increased pesticide usage
which may lead to more non-compliance with the FIFRA and FFDCA. Increased application of
pesticides will likely also result in more chemicals present in soil and water and increased risks of
release from runoff and extreme weather events.
Regulatory: A potential increase in pesticide usage and application may require Rl to work more often
with State Lead Agency (SLA) pesticide programs to address a greater risk of non-compliance. A greater
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risk of non-compliance may require R1 to conduct more outreach and training, as well as increase partner
engagement and coordination with state programs.
Financial/Technical Assistance: A potential increase in pesticide usage may create a resource need for
the Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program Grants to be awarded to states to mitigate the potential
negative effects of increased pesticide application.
Barriers to Address: The extent of climate change impacts on pesticide usage are largely unknown.
6. Facilities and Operations
The R1 building footprint consists of three facilities, one regional office where the majority of Rl's 500+
staff work, one regional laboratory where laboratory and field staff work, and one emergency response
warehouse containing equipment to quickly respond to environmental emergencies. All three spaces are
leased and therefore subject to relocation. The regional office, McCormack POCH at 5 Post Office Square
in Boston, MA is a high-rise with 24 stories and is used primarily as an office building. EPA has space on
the ground floor, floors 1-2, floors 4-7, and floor 15. Climate change impacts can cause disruptions to
facility access and damage to vehicles and equipment. During drought and high temperatures, there may
be an increased need to reduce water usage and increase the temperature range in buildings to conserve
natural resources. These factors can have a negative impact on operations and can affect the ability of R1
staff to carry out the mission of the Agency. This is especially true for those employees and contractors
who are required to perform essential duties at our Region 1 facilities and have pre-existing health
conditions exacerbated by higher and lower temperatures. Staff have identified specific vulnerabilities to
respond to Rl's ability to meet these requirements, 6.1-6.7, listed below.
6.1 Increased precipitation, flooding, and frequency and intensity of extreme storm events may
threaten all things stored on the ground floor and below, such as the mail room, storage areas,
security systems, and emergency response trucks and equipment, at McCormack POCH building in
Boston, MA. This could lead to increased indoor dampness and humidity and increases in mold,
dust mites, bacteria, and other biological contaminants. During an extreme storm event the
building may become inaccessible and lose power which impacts all programs that need access to
and have items stored at POCH.
Facilities/Operations: R1 may need to develop a plan to move equipment and vehicles from the ground
level of POCH before and in response to flooding or an extreme event. R1 should consider moving
storage and equipment (emergency response trucks and equipment, mail room, storage areas, security
system) susceptible to water damage off the ground floor. During or after flooding events, in-person
operations of all programs conducted at POCH may be impacted.
Barriers to Address: Regardless of precautions taken, future flooding events still would affect access to
POCH and possibly damage building systems. There are also limited storage areas in POCH available
above the ground floor. In responding to potential climate impacts through building retrofits, there are
historical and operational restrictions in approving retrofits since POCH is a leased space and all
adjustments must be coordinated between GSA and the building owner.
6.2 Increased precipitation, flooding, and frequency and intensity of extreme storm events may
threaten all things stored at Rl's single-floored, lab facility in North Chelmsford, MA. This could
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lead to increased indoor dampness and humidity and increases in mold, dust mites, bacteria, and
other biological contaminants. During an extreme storm event the building may become
inaccessible and lose power which impacts all programs conducted at the lab.
Facilities/Operations: R1 may need to develop a plan to move and cover lab equipment before and in
response to flooding or an extreme event. During or after flooding events, in-person operations of all R1
lab programs conducted at the North Chelmsford lab facility may be impacted.
Barriers to Address: Regardless of precautions taken, future flooding events still would affect access to
the lab facility and possibly damage building systems. In responding to potential climate impacts through
building retrofits, there are operational restrictions in approving retrofits since the lab facility is a leased
space, and all adjustments must be coordinated between GSA and the building owner.
6.3 Increased precipitation, flooding, and frequency and intensity of extreme storm events may
threaten all things stored at Rl's Emergency Response Warehouse in Woburn, MA. This could lead
to increased indoor dampness and humidity and increases in mold, dust mites, bacteria, and other
biological contaminants. During an extreme storm event the building may become inaccessible and
lose power which impacts the ability of the Emergency Response program to adequately respond to
a situation such as an oil spill or release of hazardous chemicals.
Facilities/Operations: R1 may need to develop a plan to move equipment off the floor of Rl's
Emergency Response Warehouse in Woburn before and in response to flooding or an extreme event. This
could impact SEMD's Emergency Response program that stores equipment in this warehouse, as well as
the MSD managed closed circuit television security system.
Barriers to Address: Regardless of precautions taken, future flooding events still would affect access to
Rl's Emergency Response Warehouse and possibly damage building systems. In responding to potential
climate impacts through building retrofits, there are operational restrictions in approving retrofits since
the warehouse is a leased space, and all adjustments must be coordinated between GSA and the building
owner.
6.4 Increased precipitation, flooding, and frequency and intensity of extreme storm events may lead
to increased damage to Rl's Government-Owned Vehicle (GOV) fleet. GOVs are currently parked
on the 7th floor of a parking garage nearby POCH so immediate threats only exist to GOVs stored
on the ground floor of POCH and the lab.
Facilities/Operations: R1 may need to develop plans to move equipment and vehicles from the ground
floor of POCH and the lab to/from the 7th floor parking garage before and in response to flooding or an
extreme event. This may impact access and usage of GOVs for all programmatic work that requires use of
a GOV.
Barriers to Address: EPA doesn't own enough parking spaces for the full GOV fleet, so the safety of the
GOV fleet is always dependent on private garage availability.
6.5 Increased number of days over 90°F (32.2°C) and 100°F (37.8°C), including more periods of
consecutive days over these temperatures, will stress heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
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(HVAC) systems in occupied facilities. When those days happen in succession, HVAC systems work
harder for longer periods and will consume more energy doing so.
Facilities/Operations: R1 may need to work with GSA and building owners to ensure HVAC systems are
being maintained in accordance with proper schedules, develop internal communication to R1 staff
regarding efforts made to reduce energy consumption, and ensure federal mandates to reduce energy
consumption and energy resilience are in accordance with building operations. During extreme heat days,
all in-person operations needed for R1 programs may be impacted and all staff should be advised and
properly accommodated.
Barriers to Address: HVAC system upgrades must be done in coordination with GSA and building
owners.
6.6 High winds from extreme storm events may cause damage to building facades and windows,
limit the use of outside storage at the lab, and increase the possibility of power outages at all
facilities (POCH, R1 Lab, Emergency Response Warehouse).
Facilities/Operations: During extreme weather events with high wind impacts, R1 may need to develop
plans to move equipment at all facilities to secure areas and discuss window ratings. All in-person
operations will be affected during a high-wind event.
Barriers to Address: Retrofitting older buildings with new windows or building more secure wind proof
storage at the lab is costly and time consuming. All building retrofits must be done in coordination with
GSA and building owners.
6.7 Drought could lead to water usage limitations at all facilities (POCH, R1 Lab, Emergency
Response Warehouse).
Facilities/Operations: During times of drought, R1 may need to develop plans and test building systems
on limiting water usage.
Barriers to Address: All building retrofits must be done in coordination between GSA and building
owners.
7. Cross Sectional
Certain EPA programs are cross sectional in that they touch on multiple programmatic areas. Considering
the vulnerabilities above, there will be an overall increase in environmental risks/impacts from climate
change that have amplifying effects when considering vulnerable populations. An increase in overall
environmental risks will impact the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process, Rl's capacity to
communicate to communities, and the scope of cross-media grant programs. Since climate, vulnerable
populations, and EJ are cross sectional in nature, these topics should be considered within all of EPA's
programs. The NEPA program is already committed to providing coordination and input to lead agencies
on EJ concerns. When communicating climate risks and programmatic vulnerabilities to communities,
focus is needed to communicate the disproportionate risks that vulnerable populations will be
experiencing. The cross-media grant programs also require additional attention and focus on vulnerable
populations. Rl's Healthy Communities Grant Program already has vulnerable populations built into the
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request for application (RFA) and targets resources to benefit communities at risk (areas needing to create
community resilience, environmental justice areas of potential concern, sensitive populations [e.g.,
children, elderly, Tribes, urban and rural residents, and others at increased risk]). R1 staff have identified
the cross-sectional climate vulnerabilities to highlight areas that affect multiple programs and divisions,
7.1-7.4, listed below.
7.1 Increased environmental risks/impacts brought on by increases in flooding, extreme
precipitation, the frequency and intensity of storm events, sea level rise, extreme heat, and high
temperature days, and by the associated air and water quality vulnerabilities from these threats
(see above) will need to be addressed during environmental reviews under the NEPA process.
Regulatory: Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change may require Rl's NEPA
program to address climate impacts/adaptation recommendations in NEPA pre-project coordination,
scoping comments, and draft and final Environmental Review comments. There may also be a need for
R1 to coordinate with the lead agency for the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) to ensure the EIS
reflects climate change considerations consistent with EPA's policies and court rulings.
Barriers to Address: EPA only has an advisory role in the NEPA process and therefore can only make
recommendations to, as opposed to mandating requirements for, the lead federal agency throughout the
Environmental Review process.
7.2 Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change will create a need for increased
community awareness and communication on climate change within each R1 program.
Regulatory: Communication and outreach strategies should be considered in permitting and regulatory
decisions made as a result of climate change impacts. R1 programs should consult with the Office of
Public Affairs (OPA) on outreach strategy, communication, inter-governmental relations, and community
coordination.
Monitoring/Lab Analysis: Increased monitoring and lab work from climate impacts should be included in
OPA's outreach strategy for increased transparency.
Enforcement: Rl's enforcement response to increased noncompliance associated with climate impacts
may require increased outreach and communication coordination with OPA.
Financial/Technical Assistance: Increased need to address climate impacts within grant opportunities
may require increased outreach and communication coordination with OPA.
Barriers to Address: There are funding and resource restrictions with increased communication and
coordination needs from OPA.
7.3 Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change will negatively impact human
health of New England communities which will create a bigger resource need for State
Performance Partnership Grants (PPG) to fund activities in Performance Partnership Agreements
(PPA) in support of 19 environmental programs.
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Financial/Grants: More environmental risks/impacts from climate change will create a need to
reevaluate future PPA/PPG Priorities and Commitments (P and C) state program requirements to include
more on climate change adaptation.
Barriers to Address Vulnerability. Additional resources may be needed to address these impacts.
7.4 Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change will negatively impact human
health of New England communities which will create a bigger resource need for Region l's
Healthy Communities Grant Program to fund projects under seven statutes.
Financial/Technical Assistance: More environmental risks/impacts from climate change will create a
need for more Healthy Community grant funding to be awarded for community resilience and adaptation
projects.
Barriers to Address Vulnerability. There are funding restrictions and/or inconsistent financial resources.
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<11 " III Tl II0I1S
I. Introduction
As part of Rl's response to EPA's Climate Adaptation Action Plan, staff created Priority Actions on
climate adaptation to address the agency-wide priorities identified in the Action Plan and respond to
programmatic vulnerabilities (R1 Programmatic Climate Vulnerability Assessment). The agency-wide
priorities on climate adaptation are detailed in Table 4 and were created in accordance with the EPA-wide
FY 2022-2026 EPA Strategic Plan. Rl's Priority Actions were identified by Rl's Divisional Climate
Representatives Workgroup, where each divisional representative worked with staff across their
respective divisions to identify Priority Actions within the 2022-2026 timeframe. The vulnerabilities are
broken down into seven programmatic areas, listed in blue throughout this plan, that cover EPA Rl's
programs: 1. Vulnerable Populations, 2. Air Quality, 3. Water Quality/Quantity, 4. Contaminated
Site Cleanup and Sustainable Development, 5. Chemical Safety, Waste Management, and Pollution
Prevention, 6. Facilities and Operations, and 7. Cross Sectional. If the Priority Action addresses a
programmatic vulnerability, then the vulnerability is linked as a red superscript after the Priority Action
statement (x#). Certain actions are labeled as "Aspirational" meaning additional resources and/or
leadership outside of R1 are needed for the action to be achievable and therefore do not have associated
metrics.
1.
Integrate climate adaptation into EPA programs, policies, rulemaking processes, and
enforcement activities.
2.
Consult and partner with Tribes, states, territories, local governments, EJ organizations,
community groups, businesses, and other federal agencies to strengthen adaptive capacity
and increase the resilience of the nation, with a particular focus on advancing EJ.
3.
Implement measures to protect the agency's workforce, facilities, critical infrastructure,
supply chains, and procurement processes from the risks posed by climate change.
4.
Measure and evaluate performance.
5.
Identify and address climate adaptation science needs.
Table 4. EPA Climate Adaptation Priorities
APPENDIX A contains a table of all the Priority Actions and includes additional information on the
corresponding Priority Action Number (#), Lead Division, Performance Metric, Fiscal Year (FY)
Timeline, Agency Wide Priority (Table 4), Vulnerability Number (#), Co-benefits of the Action, and
Resource Availability. The Performance Metric was created to evaluate the action's progress over the FY
timeframe. Beyond the performance metric, internal FY 22 and 23 targets were created to track progress
for all actions except those labeled as "Aspirational." Co-benefits refers to any added benefits from the
action in the areas of mitigation of greenhouse gases and other pollution, public heath, economic growth
and job creation, national security, and environmental justice. Resource Availability demonstrates if
resources are available or partially available to address the action or if resources are needed. Many other
potential actions were identified during the development of the plan that will be addressed if the necessary
authorities and/or resources are attained in the upcoming months and years. Certain R1 divisions will be
developing internal climate work plans that address additional actions not included in this plan. As
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resource availability and knowledge on climate impacts in New England and its impacts on EPA
programs evolves, the Priority Actions will be updated periodically to account for those changes.
In addition to quarterly tracking on progress for trackable Priority Actions, R1 will be tracking two Long-
Term Performance Goals (LTPGs) on climate adaptation identified in the EPA-wide FY 2022-2026 EPA
Strategic Plan:
• By September 30, 2026, assist at least 400 federally recognized Tribes to take action to anticipate,
prepare for, adapt to, or recover from the impacts of climate change.
• By September 30, 2026, assist at least 450 states, territories, local governments, and communities,
especially communities that are underserved and disproportionally at risk from climate change, to
take action to anticipate, prepare for, adapt to, or recover from the impacts of climate change.
In coordination with National Program Managers (NPMs) and Program Offices, R1 identified relevant
programs that fall under these LTPGs and created internal FY 22 and 23 targets to track quarterly
progress in meeting these goals. These goals ensure that R1 will provide targeted assistance to Tribes and
indigenous peoples, states, territories, local governments, communities, and businesses to transform their
environmental programs, strengthen their adaptive capacity, and increase the resilience of the nation, with
a particular focus on advancing environmental justice.
II. R1 Priority Actions
1. Vulnerable Populations
Tribal
Due to greater reliance on their natural resources for sustenance, cultural identity and lifeways, Tribes
will be disproportionally at risk from climate change impacts. These impacts include threats to tribal food
sovereignty in the form of freshwater and marine aquatic organisms, agricultural food sources, wild game,
and forest food sources. Invasive species migration as a result of climate change threatens native plant
and animal species upon which the Tribes depend. With the majority of New England Tribes being
located on riverine and/or coastal areas, flooding, erosion, sea level rise and storm surge pose significant
threats to tribal housing and infrastructure. Priority Actions 1-5 were created to assist the Tribes with
resources, tools, and partnerships to address these climate threats. Climate discussions will be informed
by and reflect local TEK, including oral stories and traditions, where appropriate and when shared by the
Tribes. The region will discuss with the Tribes how TEK can be integrated into regional activities.
1. The Tribal program will continue to work with the Passamaquoddy Tribe - Pleasant Point and
the US Army Corps of Engineers as well as other federal partners to continue to protect
Passamaquoddy Pleasant Point facilities on the coast through supporting the protection of
shoreline with an extension of a recently completed revetment.11'3 3
2. The Tribal program will continue to work with the Passamaquoddy Tribe - Pleasant Point and
federal partners to assist the Tribe in seeking funding to address sea level rise by constructing a
barrier wall around or relocating the wastewater treatment plant.11'3'3
3. The Tribal program will continue to work with US and Canadian federal agencies to assist the
Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians with fish passage and habitat restoration improvements of the
Wolastoq/St. John River watershed through continued collaboration with international partners.11
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4. The Tribal program will work with University of Maine - Orono to assist New England's
federally recognized Tribes in creating a GIS-based Tribal Climate Story Map that identifies the
climate risks and resilience activities that Tribes will be undertaking in 2022-2023.11
5. The Tribal program will work with the New England Federal partners and the New England
Tribes to coordinate and facilitate a Tribal Climate Summit in April 2022 to identify climate
vulnerabilities and potential funding and technical assistance resources to help the Tribes address
their vulnerabilities.11
Environmental Justice
Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change will disproportionally affect communities
with EJ concerns. EJ and equity are at the heart of EPA's work to tackle climate change, protect air and
water, and keep the places children learn and play safe from environmental hazard and/or harm. Rl's EJ
program will be focused on taking decisive action to advance EJ, including building capacity and climate
resilience, and maximizing benefits to overburdened and underserved communities. Priority Action 6 was
created to build EJ considerations into all R1 actions on climate.
6. The EJ program will provide support to the various program offices for their Priority Actions,
including research, analysis and outreach needed to help implement the program offices' Priority
Actions in communities with EJ concerns. The EJ Program will work with OPA to provide
support on community coordination and communication, including overall communication
strategy for outreach and gathering input as needed for Priority Actions involving communities
with EJ concerns.12
2. Air Quality
Climate change makes it more difficult to attain air quality standards and protect the quality of the air we
breathe, especially in overburdened and vulnerable populations. For New England, the top air quality
climate adaptation concerns are potential increases in tropospheric ozone (03) and particulate matter
(PM), uncertainty surrounding changes in atmospheric patterns, greater potential for accidental release of
regulated toxic or flammable substances at CAA Section 112(r) facilities, and potential indoor air quality
impacts. R1 remains committed to working with the New England States' Air Offices to meet NAAQS
standards, expand air and community monitoring networks where needed, revise and update stationary
source facilities' RMPs, and administer funding for Regional Indoor Environments grants. Priority
Actions 7-15 were created to address the top climate adaptation concerns for air quality. Priority Action
13 is aspirational, and dependent on New England State Air Office partnership and OAQPS support.
Priority Action 14 is aspirational because it is difficult to predict the number and type of facilities that
will be most affected by climate change impacts and predict the number of enforcement actions that will
take place from increased climate impacts. Priority Action 15 is aspirational and requires funding
increases from the Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (ORIA).
7. The Air Quality Planning branch will work with the Office of Public Affairs (OPA) to send out
air quality alerts/air awareness notices that include energy conservation guidance and ENERGY
STAR residential resources.21
8. The Air Permitting branch will ensure the Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate (LAER) and
offsets on projects triggering major Nonattainment New Source Review (NNSR).21
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9. The Air Permitting branch will review state programs where permits programs are delegated or
EPA-approved to ensure they meet CAA requirements for ozone and ozone precursors.21
10. On the subset of air quality alerts/air awareness notices that reference wildfires, the Air Quality
Planning branch will work with OPA to send out notices that include information on wildfire
linkages to climate change, if appropriate.2 2
11. The Air Monitoring program will review and approve revised state monitoring plans. Depending
on the initial review, the next steps will be to work to either increase the available funding, and/or
identify cost saving measures and partner with R1 states to expand the ambient air monitoring
network, as needed.21'2 2'2 3
12. The Indoor Air program will work with OPA to send out social media posts during extreme
weather events in New England that include messaging on proper use of backup generators and
wood stoves to advise on indoor air impacts. The program will also provide technical assistance
on mold after extreme events.2 5
13. Aspirational: The Air Quality Planning branch will work with OAQPS to encourage state air
offices to incorporate clean energy strategies into State Implementation Plans (SIPs) and
distribute a clean energy resource sheet for states to provide to facilities.21
14. Aspirational: The Air Enforcement program will devote compliance monitoring and
enforcement resources to help reduce the pollutants that contribute to climate change and hazards
from the effects of climate change. The program will focus on facilities vulnerable to climate
change impacts by conducting inspections and, in any enforcement actions, using all available
authorities, injunctive relief, and mitigation tools.21'22'2 4
15. Aspirational: The Indoor Air program will work with ORIA to incorporate the addition of
climate change impacts on indoor air in RFA for Indoor Air Grants. Once RFA has been revised,
changes in RFA interest should be assessed and increases in funding for regional Indoor Air
discretionary funding should be considered to account for any additional needs25
3. Water Quality/Quantity
Climate change impacts such as warmer air and water temperatures, increased precipitation, extreme
storms, drought, ocean and coastal acidification, and sea level rise are already creating conditions and
additional stressors that will make it more difficult to meet the goals of the CWA, SDWA, and the
MPRSA. The R1 Water Division (WD) will leverage its statutory authorities and financial assistance
programs, utilize the most current science, and promote climate adaptation strategies to make New
England, and all its residents, more resilient to the impacts of climate change. The WD's Priority Actions
are broadly grouped and aligned with the National Water Program to achieve three key goals:
• Improve the Climate Resilience of America's Water Infrastructure
• Protect America's Waters from a Changing Climate
• Advance the Adaptive Capacity and Climate Knowledge of All Water Community Partners.
The following actions are organized by water program area following the statutory constructs of the
CWA, MPRSA, and SDWA.
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WQS, 303(d) Lists, and TMDLs
Climate change impacts will create changing conditions, such as changes in hydrology, and additional
stressors that threaten the attainment of WQS, TMDLs, and ARPs that states develop for waterbodies
listed as impaired on state CWA Section 303(d) lists. The development of numeric water quality criteria
for WQS relies on data on the effect of different concentrations of a pollutant on aquatic life or human
health, as well as the duration of the exposure to that pollutant, and on other variables such as
temperature, salinity, and hardness that are subject to changes from a warming climate. The CWA
requires states to review their WQS every three years and revise them if appropriate, which provides
regular opportunities to determine whether the impacts of climate change necessitate a change in their
WQS. Priority Actions 16-21 are intended to address this vulnerability. Priority Actions 20 and 21 are
aspirational and depend heavily on buy-in from the states as well as significant additional staff and
financial resources.
16. The Water Monitoring program will continue to develop regional lab cyanobacteria capability
for toxin analyses and identification and support the regional cyanobacteria collaborative.31
17. The Water Monitoring program will prioritize projects with the states, WD, and the Office of
Research and Development (ORD) that address climate change impacts for the regional lab's
monitoring and analytical support and will add parameters, when possible, that can measure
climate change impacts.31
18. The Water Monitoring program will maintain and increase monitoring resources for the
Regional Monitoring Network (RMN), advocate for continued National EPA support for RMN,
and continue to support National Aquatic Resource Surveys (NARS)31
19. The TMDL program will encourage states to consider and address climate impacts in new
TMDLs, ARPs, and Protection Plans and increase technical assistance to state and local partners
with stormwater, wastewater, and nonpoint source (NPS) management actions needed to achieve
TMDL and ARP targets.31
20. Aspirational: The WQS and Water Monitoring programs will work with states to conduct
water quality monitoring more frequently and in more locations to determine whether designated
uses are attained and to document changes in climate conditions to inform WQS revisions and, if
necessary, "Use Attainability Analyses" (UAAs)31
21. Aspirational: The TMDL program will encourage states to update TMDLs that are over 10 years
old which did not account for warming water temperatures, more extreme high and low
streamflow conditions, or other climate impacts32
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
The NPDES program is impacted by increases in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation,
drought, ocean and coastal acidification, and sea level rise. These changing conditions may cause
permittees to confront different risks based upon factors, such as facility location and type of industry or
municipal system, which should be reflected in additional NPDES permit conditions and permit limits, as
allowable under the CWA. Understanding which risks permittees throughout New England face will be
critical to understanding how permit limits and conditions could be modified to address these localized
climate risks. R1 is committed to working with its state NPDES partners on these issues if resources are
available at the federal and state level. Increases in precipitation may also lead to more frequent
discharges of untreated sewage from municipal collection systems, and more stormwater discharges. In
response, some Long-Term Control Plans and Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plans may need to be
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updated to account for increased precipitation. To address these issues, Priority Actions 22-28 were
created with Priority Actions 22 and 24 as the highest priority. Priority Actions 25-28 are aspirational.
Priority Actions 25 and 26 will require partnership and leadership from Office of Regional Counsel
(ORC), Office of General Counsel (OGC), and Office of Water (OW). Priority Action 27 will require
action by the Office of Water (OW). Priority Action 28 may require Department of Justice (DO J) and
Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA) buy-in and investment.
22. The NPDES program will work with the Geographic Information System (GIS) program to
develop a GIS Mapping tool that: 1) incorporates existing NPDES maps and FEMA maps,
NOAA "major events" and other non-EPA federal tools that permit writers can link to in order to
better understand local climatic conditions for a particular permit; and 2) which will allow permit
writers to identify, rank, and periodically evaluate (using a ranking system) all NPDES permittees
by high, medium, and low risk for changing climate conditions (such as storm surge and
increased precipitation) in order to include, as appropriate, additional permit conditions and
limits.33
23. The NPDES program will develop a list of best management practices (BMPs) and associated
permit language for the purpose of addressing changing conditions due to climate within NPDES
permits, such as, for example, those BMPs related to retrofits to address flooding.3-3
24. The NPDES program will promote the use of Green Infrastructure (GI) through the development
of tools (such as the Opti-Tool) that demonstrate to communities the benefits of GI and that allow
the region to track the implementation of GI and its associated environmental benefits.3 4
25. Aspirational: The NPDES program will work with the ORC, OGC, and OW to consider the
potential for developing permit conditions that would require certain high-risk permittees to
conduct a climate change risk/vulnerability assessment3 3
26. Aspirational: The NPDES program will encourage OW to update the Permit Writers' Manual to
incorporate climate considerations.3 3
27. Aspirational: The NPDES program will work with ORC to consider the potential for developing
MS4/stormwater permit conditions that would require reductions in impervious cover (not just
pollutant controls) in order to reduce storm water flows.3'4
28. Aspirational: The Water Compliance and Enforcement program will devote compliance
monitoring and enforcement resources in response to extreme weather events and use available
authorities, injunctive relief, and mitigation tools to address the impacts of climate change as
appropriate. Focus will be put on facilities in the most vulnerable areas3 3
Nonpoint Source (NPS) Management
Climate change impacts will create changing hydrologic conditions and additional stressors that will
make it more challenging to effectively manage NPS pollution. Because of its diffuse nature, NPS
pollution is more difficult to regulate than point sources like wastewater and stormwater discharges, and
its severity is heavily influenced by variables including air and water temperature, the timing and intensity
of precipitation, and land use management practices. Rl's NPS Program worked closely with the New
England states to update their NPS Program Plans to incorporate climate change considerations in FY 19-
20, but most of these plans could be improved based on more current scientific data and technical
knowledge. Priority Actions 29-31 were created to address this vulnerability. Priority Actions 30-31 are
aspirational and depend heavily on buy-in from the states as well as significant additional staff and
financial resources.
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29. The NPS program will work with states to strengthen climate change considerations in their
Nonpoint Source Management Program Plans when they're updated in FY24-25 as required
under CWA Section 319.3-5
30. Aspirational: The NPS program will support development of enhanced nitrogen-reducing
innovative/alternative (I/A) septic systems and their use as upgrades or replacements in areas
where centralized sewer systems are not feasible and nutrient impairment is an issue.3 6
31. Aspirational: The NPS program will identify changes in septic system design or siting for areas
prone to sea level rise, flooding, and/or rising groundwater levels and review state septic system
regulations to determine whether they need to incorporate updated design and siting standards.3 6
Wetlands
Warming air and water temperatures, extreme precipitation, drought, and sea level rise will create
changes in wetland characteristics that in turn will cause shifting and/or disappearing wetland habitats.
These changes will increase the importance of avoiding or minimizing wetland losses and effectively
mitigating unavoidable losses. Changes in the timing and intensity of precipitation, and sea level rise will
affect the hydrological conditions that determine the regulatory jurisdiction of the wetland as well as their
resiliency to other stressors. Rl's Wetlands Program already includes and will continue to include
consideration of climate change as an important criterion in selecting projects for funding through the
Wetlands Program Development Grants. R1 is also encouraging state In-Lieu Fee (mitigation bank)
programs to expand the range of potential mitigation sites to coastal wetlands and eelgrass meadows (blue
carbon). Priority Actions 32-35 were created to address this vulnerability with Priority Actions 32 and 33
as the highest priority. Priority Actions 34-35 are aspirational and depend heavily on buy-in from other
federal and state agencies as well as additional staff and financial resources.
32. The Wetlands program will create internal best practices on climate resilience for permitting
proposed coastal resilience projects (e.g., beach nourishment, coastal shoreline erosion, sea wall
construction, dam removal, and flood mitigation projects) through the CWA Section 404
regulatory review process.3'7
33. The Wetlands and Ocean and Coastal programs will complete the Regional Blue Carbon
Inventory to measure carbon sequestration capacity of existing tidal wetlands and seagrasses.3'7
34. Aspirational: The Wetlands program will encourage the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE) and states to use the best available scientific information on changes to wetlands
ecosystems when making jurisdictional determinations.3'7
35. Aspirational: The Wetlands program will work with the USACE and the states to encourage the
In-Lieu Fee programs to adopt climate adaptation priorities into the program instrument, requests
for proposals, and/or competitive project scoring and recommend that In-Lieu Fee programs
revise the individual Service Area priorities to include climate adaptation and resilient resource
needs.3'7
Dredged Material Management
An increase in extreme precipitation and more frequent extreme storm events that cause more erosion and
sedimentation may result in more frequent dredging projects that require ocean disposal or alternative
methods of handling the dredged material. There also will be an increased demand to beneficially use
dredged material to protect shorelines, beaches, dunes, and marshes from sea level rise. R1 works closely
with the USACE and coastal states to regulate dredging projects and the disposition of dredged material
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under CWA Section 404 and the MPRSA. Priority Action 36, which has been under discussion with the
USACE and state agencies for over a decade, is intended to help address this vulnerability.
36. The Dredged Material Management program will work with the USACE and coastal states to
encourage more beneficial use of dredged material by developing a tracking system to track
beneficial use.3 8
Geographic Programs
EPA's National Estuary Program (NEP) includes six programs or partnerships administered by the R1
WD (the Long Island Sound Study [LISS], Narraganset Bay Estuary Program, Buzzards Bay National
Estuary Program, Massachusetts Bays National Estuary Partnership, Piscataqua Region Estuaries
Partnership, and Casco Bay Estuary Partnership). The LISS, which is jointly administered with R2, also
receives additional funding through a separate CWA designation as a "Geographic Program," as does the
Lake Champlain Basin Program (LCBP) (also co-administered with R2) and the Southeast New England
Program (SNEP). These Geographic Programs and the Urban Waters Federal Partnership (UWFP)/Mystic
River Watershed Initiative are place-based partnership programs intended to facilitate and accelerate the
attainment of CWA goals in a more efficient, transparent manner in highly impacted, priority watersheds.
These programs provide collaborative convening, coordination, funding, technical assistance, and access
to other CWA programs and resources to state agencies, other federal agencies, and nongovernmental
organizations to support implementation of the NEPs' Comprehensive Conservation and Management
Plans (CCMPs) and other management or strategic plans. These plans typically set short- and long-term
goals for water quality and habitat restoration in their respective watersheds, develop annual workplans
with actions to help meet those goals, and track progress with both programmatic outputs and
environmental outcomes. Most of the geographic programs have conducted vulnerability assessments of
both their watersheds and their plans, which have informed the development of climate resilient programs
and projects. Priority Actions 37-44 were created to address this vulnerability with Priority Action 38 as
the highest priority. Priority Actions 42-44 are aspirational and depend heavily on buy-in from the states
and many other partners, as well as significant additional staff and financial resources. For Priority Action
43, the Lake Champlain TMDL implementation timeframe is more than 20 years, and annual milestones
have not yet been determined. Where appropriate, these priority actions will consider the impacts and
needs of affected Tribes and communities with environmental justice concerns.
37. The NEP managers will work with the six NEPs to complete their programmatic vulnerability
assessments and integrate climate-resilient goals and actions into their Comprehensive
Conservation and Management Plans.3 9
38. The NEPs, the LCBP, and the SNEP will utilize their Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL)
appropriations, as appropriate, to accelerate implementation of climate resilient actions described
in their CCMPs or other management plans and strategies.3 9
39. The LISS will support implementation of the Long Island Sound Sustainable and Resilient
Communities initiative by providing financial and technical assistance to coastal communities in
Connecticut and New York to develop local resilience plans.3 9
40. The SNEP will work with program partners to develop a stormwater practice flow duration curve
through a SNEP applied research project that considers the latest climate projections and enables
municipalities to site and design stormwater BMPs to restore hydrologic balance in watersheds.3 9
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41. The LCBP will develop a mass balance model for Missisquoi Bay using alternative land use and
climate scenarios to estimate future phosphorus loadings and develop a public-facing toolkit that
allows comparison of effectiveness of BMPs.39
42. Aspirational: The SNEP will work with program partners to develop a municipal stormwater
bylaw/ordinance model and conduct demonstration projects and training for municipalities and
consultants on how to use next generation storm water flow duration curves at a watershed or site
scale to address water quality, flooding, drought, and the projected impacts of climate change.3 9
43. Aspirational: The LCBP will work with the state of Vermont and other program partners to
reduce phosphorus loading in Lake Champlain to achieve the 2016 phosphorus TMDL, which
took climate impacts into consideration during its development.32'3 9
44. Aspirational: The LISS, SNEP, and LCBP will collaborate and communicate with technical
assistance programs (SNEP Network, LISS Sustainable and Resilient Communities initiative,
University of Vermont Sea grant) to determine how Region 1 can best support climate resilience
efforts.39
Drinking Water Quality
Changing conditions from climate change impacts may threaten attainment of NPDWR under the SDWA.
Warmer water temperatures and increased precipitation may increase the prevalence of both pathogens
and harmful algal blooms in surface water supplies. Prolonged drought, sedimentation of drinking water
reservoirs, and saltwater intrusion all may reduce the availability and quality of both surface and
groundwater drinking water supplies. More extreme storms and increased precipitation will cause erosion
and sedimentation that could both reduce the capacity of surface water reservoirs and the quality of
drinking water due to turbidity. The Drinking Water Program has been providing technical assistance and
training workshops on climate resilience for water utilities and small systems for almost a decade, and
Priority Action 45, which is a divisional high priority, was created to continue this important work.
45. The Drinking Water program will conduct outreach through training workshops and exercises
with states and water sector utilities on the impacts of climate change on their systems, including
how to prepare for, respond to, and recover from climate impacts.310
Clean Water and Drinking Water Revolving State Fund (SRF)
Climate change impacts may increase the likelihood of damage to drinking water, wastewater, and
stormwater infrastructure resulting in an inability to effectively collect and treat wastewater and
stormwater and protect drinking water supplies. More extreme storms, increased precipitation and
flooding, and sea level rise threaten water infrastructure and its operation on the coast and rivers, where
many of these facilities are located. Increased precipitation and population growth are already
overwhelming aging and often undersized wastewater and stormwater pipes and treatment facilities, and
sea level rise will soon inundate some combined sewer overflow discharges on the coast. The EPA Clean
Water and Drinking Water SRF Programs make annual grants to the New England states to capitalize
their revolving loan programs, with which states provide below-market rate loans to municipalities and
other eligible entities to fund new and upgraded water infrastructure. During the annual SRF program
review with each state, R1 has already begun to discuss the importance of investing in resilient water
infrastructure, and Priority Action 46, which is a divisional high priority, was created to build on that
work.
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46. The SRF program will engage in discussions with state SRF programs to consider, where
possible, the utilization of SRF funding, including BIL appropriations, to prioritize resiliency
infrastructure projects on Drinking Water and Clean Water SRF Intended Use Plans (IUPs)
during the annual SRF reviews.311
4. Contaminated Site Cleanup and Sustainable Development
Superfund Sites
The Superfund program is responsible for cleaning up some of the nation's most contaminated land and
responding to environmental emergencies, oil spills, and natural disasters. The expected impacts of
climate change pose risks to the contaminated sites managed under Superfund. Increases in air and water
temperature, precipitation, flooding, and periods of drought may result in altered fate and transport
pathways and exposure assumptions, dispersal of contaminants, and ultimately ineffective remedies. R1
Project Managers work to mitigate these risks at cleanup sites, identifying areas of risk (flooding,
extreme-weather events, etc.), and employing practices which help to ensure these events will not result in
damage to sites. To address the top climate adaptation concerns for Superfund, Priority Actions 47-53
were created. Priority Action 53 is aspirational and dependent on resource availability.
47. The Superfund program will incorporate flood/storm risk into the remedy decision making
process and Five-Year Review process such that future floods/storms are less likely to impact
selected remedies.41
48. The Superfund program will incorporate climate risk language into standard document templates
(e.g., Proposed Plans, Records of Decision, Five-Year Reviews, Action Memorandums).41
49. The Superfund program will employ practices that minimize resource use, waste generation,
energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions at NPL Sites.41
50. The Superfund program will evaluate impacts of increases in air and water temperature, drought,
and increasingly common periods of low flow on new and existing site remedies.41
51. The Superfund program will continue coordination among program offices to plan for
emergency response actions in response to extreme weather events.41
52. The Superfund program will assess current regional resources to determine if resource levels and
existing plans would be sufficient to adequately respond to an extreme event, such as a wildfire,
hurricane, or large storm.41
53. Aspirational: The Superfund program will evaluate and prioritize the steps that would be
required to ensure flooding would not inundate/disperse uncontrolled contamination (may involve
evaluation of remedy changes) at non-federal facility National Priorities List (NPL) sites with
significant and/or increasing flooding risk and will work with federal agencies through the
Federal Facility Agreement process at federal facility NPL sites to address flooding threats.41
Other Remedial Programs
In addition to Superfund, site cleanups are also funded or overseen by other programs, including RCRA
Corrective Action (CA), TSCA, Underground Storage Tank (UST), and Brownfields programs. Like for
all remedial work, climate change poses risks to the effectiveness of remedies and resiliency of site reuse.
Increases in air and water temperature, precipitation, flooding, and periods of drought could potentially
affect fate and transport pathways and exposure assumptions, dispersal of contaminants, and the integrity
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of engineered controls. To ensure cleanups remain protective of human health and the environment,
remedies and site redevelopments must be designed to mitigate these impacts. To address the top
vulnerabilities, Priority Actions 54-60 and 79-82 ( >ss Sectional) were created. Funds from the
Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) may enable more opportunities for the Brownfields program to assist
with resilient remedial design and site reuse in the region under Priority Actions 58-59. Priority Action 60
is aspirational and dependent on resource availability.
54. The RCRA Corrective Action (RCRA CA) program will focus long-term stewardship (LTS)
resources on incorporating climate vulnerability in further development of the LTS program
and/or performing LTS inspections on vulnerable sites.4 2
55. The RCRA CA program will make flood and storm risk information available to consider during
the remedy decision making process or other appropriate phases of a project to assist regulators
and responsible parties in making decisions that minimize or eliminate flood and storm risk
impacts on selected remedies at RCRA sites.42
56. The Underground Storage Tank (UST) program will, after an extreme storm event occurs,
provide outreach to states and Tribes to address a potential release of contaminants from USTs
because of flooding/severe storm impacts.43
57. The UST program will ensure that Tribes and states are aware of OUST's flood guide during
annual meetings.43
58. The Brownfields program will work with state and tribal partners to help grantees identify
vulnerabilities through site eligibility review and cleanup planning and will provide information
to grantees with identified vulnerabilities on how to prioritize sites and design resilient
remediation and site reuse.43
59. The Brownfields program will increase consideration of climate vulnerabilities in Analysis of
Brownfield Cleanup Alternatives (ABCA) in complying with current Office of Brownfields and
Land Revitalization (OBLR) policy.44
60. Aspirational: The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Enforcement programs will conduct
additional outreach to targeted audiences on flood damaged residential properties and child
occupied facilities under emergency provisions of the Renovation, Repair and Painting Program
(RRP) and responses to emergency work needed for exemption, and record keeping.45
5. Waste Management, Pollution Prevention, and Chemical Safety
Hazardous Material Operations and Sustainable Materials Management (SMM)
Climate impacts may result in hazardous waste release, damaged equipment, and effects on emergency
evacuation routes at TSDFs which impacts all sites that require RCRA Permits. Damage to the built
environment, increases in waste/debris, disruption of supply chains and transportation, and exacerbated
pollution may also impact Rl's SMM and Pollution Prevention (P2) programs. To address these
vulnerabilities, Priority Actions 61-63 and 80-82 ( >ss Sectional) were created.
61. The RCRA Waste Management will encourage state permit writers to use publicly available
mapping tools to identify floodplains during RCRA permit renewals.51
62. The SMM program will hold outreach events to improve public awareness on the links between
waste (particularly food waste) and climate change to encourage lower impact practices in the
regional food system.5 2
63. The SMM program will work with states to help develop a regional understanding of EPA's US
Environmentally-Extended Input-Output (USEEIO) models, and Consumption Based Emissions
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Inventory (CBEI) that can help better define consumption-related GHG emissions associated
with individual state activities in the Northeast.5 2
6. Facilities and Operations
The Customer Service and Facilities Branch and Information Services Branch are the primary branches
within the Mission Support Division (MSD) responsible for addressing Priority Actions related to
facilities and operations. The top vulnerabilities are the effects of increased precipitation, flooding, and
extreme weather events on facilities and how Rl's operations are affected as a result. Prior to FY22,
general information was added to the Regional Continuity of Operations (COOP) Plan to address
recovery strategies. To further address these vulnerabilities, Priority Actions 64-68 were created.
64. The Facilities program will develop/codify storm event pre-deployment strategies for
government-owned vehicles and equipment stored in the garage and ground floor of the
McCormack building, the New England Regional Laboratory, the contracted parking garage for
the government-owned vehicle fleet, and the Emergency Response Warehouse in Rl's Continuity
of Operations Plan (COOP).61'62'63,6A'6 6
65. The Facilities program will work with EPA OMS and GSA to develop and encourage strategies
for greater temperature resilience of employees, including solutions for those who may be
differently impacted by higher summer building temperatures.6 5
66. The Information Technology (IT) program will work with EPA OMS/EI to test resilience of
telework information technology resources and capacity during periods of high demand and over
extended lengths of time.66
67. The Facilities and IT programs will ensure current plans are up to date for building/IT/security
systems continuity if building damage occurs or power is lost at the McCormack building, the
laboratory, and the warehouse.6 6
68. The Facilities program will work with EPA OMS and GSA to develop and encourage strategies
for limiting water use during times of drought.6'7
7. Cross Sectional
Climate Mapping for Hazardous Waste Sites
Hazardous sites, such as RCRA CA sites, hazardous waste generators, and National Priorities List (NPL)
sites, are at risk from the impacts from climate change. In response to these impacts and EPA Rl's 2014
Regional Climate Adaptation Plan, R1 formed a Climate Mapping team to develop an internal pilot
project, the NPL Climate Vulnerability Assessment Mapping tool. This tool was released in 2020 and
utilized a GIS analysis that overlays and risk-ranks site boundaries with climatic and environmental
justice concerns, considering facility/site size and proximity to other sites. Specifically, this tool considers
demographic indicators, flooding, sea level rise, temperature, precipitation, and storm surge, with a focus
on populations who may be more disproportionally impacted. The GIS methodology was then applied in
two subsequent versions for RCRA CA, and RCRA TSDFs and LQG sites. Future iterations will look to
integrate new and updated datasets from our Tribal, federal, and state partners as appropriate. With
expanded use across programs, the team (in coordination with HQ and EPA program experts) will
consider ways to standardize the mapping resources, guidance, and use of data sources. The Climate
Mapping team created Priority Actions 69-78 to expand on prior efforts to create Version 2 of the climate
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vulnerability assessment methodology and mapping tool for hazardous waste sites and create a replicable,
and shareable GIS model. Priority Actions 75-78 are aspirational. 75 will require regional program staff
from the TSCA-PCB, UST, Brownfields, and RCRA CA programs to work with the GIS program or
national GIS office to reach mapping goals. 76 requires regional program interest and support to
champion this assessment in other programs. 77-78 will require national office support to make the tool
public.
69. The Climate Mapping team will review data and update the methodology for the climate
vulnerability assessment of hazardous waste sites for Version 2 of the mapping tool and will then
create a GIS model that can be applied to other programs.12'4143
70. The Climate Mapping team will improve the screening ability of the GIS tool to determine
potentially vulnerable hazardous waste sites and other sites of concern for emergency response
and preparedness during extreme weather events.12'41'42'51
71. The Climate Mapping team will train internal Superfund, RCRA CA, and RCRA
Enforcement program staff, as well as other program staff who may leverage results from this
GIS model, on Version 2 of the climate vulnerability mapping tool.12'41'42'51
72. The Superfund program will work with the Climate Mapping team to utilize Version 2 of the
climate vulnerability mapping tool to evaluate Removal/Remedial Superfund Sites for climate
related risks.12'41
73. The RCRA CA program will work with the Climate Mapping team to utilize Version 2 of the
climate vulnerability mapping tool to evaluate RCRA CA Sites for climate-related risks.12'42
74. The RCRA Enforcement program will work with the Climate Mapping team to utilize Version
2 of the climate vulnerability mapping tool to evaluate RCRA facilities for climate-related risks.
In the enforcement work, R1 will use all available authorities, injunctive relief, and mitigation
tools to address the impacts of climate change as appropriate on facilities in the most vulnerable
12 5 1
areas.'
75. Aspirational: LCRD will work with the Climate Mapping team to evaluate flood risk/extreme
weather event impact for TSCA-PCB, UST, Brownfields, and RCRA CA sites using tools such
as the Version 2 of the climate vulnerability mapping tool and other relevant mapping resources
and tools.12'4345
76. Aspirational: The Climate Mapping team will apply the climate vulnerability assessment model
to other R1 programs.
77. Aspirational: The Climate Mapping team will share Version 2 with the public.12'41'42'51
78. Aspirational: The Climate Mapping team will train external partners on Version 2.1'2'41'42'51
Internal and Partner Capacity Building for Land, Chemicals and Redevelopment Programs
LCRD is responsible for the goals, objectives, and priorities for a broad range of EPA programs including
RCRA Waste Management, RCRA CA, UST/LUST, Brownfields, Pesticides, TSCA-PCB, SMM, and P2
programs. LCRD programs are collectively impacted by increases in air and water temperature, extreme
precipitation, and sea level rise, and more frequent/intense extreme storm events. To address these
vulnerabilities across the board through internal and partner capacity building, Priority Actions 79-83
were created. Priority Action 83 is aspirational and contingent upon staff time, resources, and availability
of ORD support.
79. The LUST, Brownfields, TSCA-PCB, and RCRA CA programs will increase staff familiarity
with climate adaptation informed remediation best practices, such as Sustainable Resilient
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Remediation (SRR), to help staff in remedial programs become comfortable referencing and
sharing one of the latest tools to maximize the efficiency and resiliency of remedial actions.42"45
80. LCRD will consolidate resources potentially useful for LCRD program decision-making into a
central location.4-2 4-5'515-3
81. LCRD will have regular communication with state and tribal partners on climate issues, tools,
and data.4-2"4-5'5-1"5-3
82. LCRD will host internal informational sessions on climate vulnerabilities and tools.42"4-5'51"5-3
83. Aspirational: The LUST, Brownfields, TSCA-PCB, and RCRA CA programs will work with
ORD to help pilot and identify site vulnerability indicators and tools for states, grantees,
responsible parties, and project managers to apply,4-2 4-5'5-15-3
Federal Partnerships
As climate change brings increased environmental impacts, federal agency partnerships are needed to
combine resources and more effectively tackle these impacts. The New England Federal Partners (NEFP)
is a group of 17 federal agencies formed to work together on some of these complex environmental
issues, such as coastal and ocean planning, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and resiliency
planning. The group was officially recognized as a partnership by all participating agencies through a
Statement of Common Purpose in 2010, which established a framework for communication, cooperation,
coordination, and collaboration. To date, NEFP has worked together to collaborate on inter-agency
regional issues such as drought, flooding, tribal infrastructure and relations, stormwater infrastructure,
nature-based solutions, emergency planning, and government climate assessments such as the National
Climate Assessment (NCA). In FY22, NEFP will be focusing on coordinating on infrastructure efforts
(including those funded under the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law) and climate information services.
Priority Action 84 was created to account for those efforts.
84. ARD and WD will coordinate and facilitate New England Federal Partners (NEFP) meetings to
bring together federal partners on climate change issues.
NEPA
The R1 Environmental Review Program works with other federal agencies to help them analyze and
address the environmental impacts of their actions under NEPA. Increases in flooding, extreme storm
events, sea level rise, extreme heat, and high temperature days and associated air and water quality
vulnerabilities from these threats should be addressed within the environmental reviews process under
NEPA. In past NEPA reviews, R1 has routinely provided comments and suggestions to lead federal
agencies on climate adaptation and mitigation measures to address climate impacts. To expand on this
work, Priority Action 85 was created.
85. The NEPA program will work with lead federal agencies to help them address climate change,
climate impacts, climate adaptation and mitigation during the NEPA process, as appropriate. This
coordination could occur during pre-project coordination, NEPA scoping, or review of
administrative drafts of Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) and draft and final
Environmental Assessment (EA)/EISs.71
Communication and Outreach Support
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Rl's Office of Public Affairs (OPA) provides communication and outreach support to the other R1
divisions. Increased environmental risks/impacts from climate change will create a need for increased
community awareness and communication on climate change in all of Rl's programs. Priority Action 86
was created to support communication and outreach needs as they relate to other Priority Actions.
86. OPA will provide communication and outreach support, including press strategy as well as
congressional, state, and local government coordination on Priority Actions, as requested.72
Grants and Program Support
R1 's Grants and Program Support Branch provides grants oversight, project management and
programmatic support to the Air and Radiation and Water Divisions. Increased environmental
risks/impacts from climate change will create a resource need for Rl's Grants and Program Support
Branch to address increased impacts. Prior to 2022, climate change considerations were incorporated into
Performance Partnership Agreements (PPA) with MassDEP, MEDEP, MassDEP, NHDES, and VTDEC,
all 6 New England State's Priorities and Commitments (P&C) Lists, the regionally designed Healthy
Communities Grants Program, and multipurpose grants. Priority Action 87-88 were created to support
increased climate adaptation and resilience considerations within Rl's PPAs, State P&C Lists,
multipurpose grants, and Healthy Communities grants.
87. The Grants and Programs Support program will continue to incorporate and/or expand on
climate change adaptation into PPAs, multipurpose grants, and P&C Lists.73
88. The Grants and Programs Support program will expand the focus on climate change resilience
in the annual Healthy Communities Request for Applications (RFA).7 4
R1 will take steps to ensure the outcomes of infrastructure investments using Infrastructure Investment
and Jobs Act (IIJA, or Bipartisan Infrastructure Law [BIL]) funds are resilient to the impacts of climate
change. R1 will explore opportunities to integrate climate change considerations into its financial
assistance programs in order to expand support for projects that increase climate resilience while
delivering co-benefits for public health, the mitigation of greenhouse gases, and the reduction of other
pollution. R1 will also provide technical assistance to recipients of BIL funds to help them make climate
smart infrastructure investments.
Legal Support
The Office of Regional Counsel (ORC) is a service organization that provides a wide variety of legal
services to the other R1 divisional offices. To ensure consistency in providing these legal services, ORC
often consults and coordinates with attorneys from EPA's Office of General Counsel (OGC) and EPA's
Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance (OECA), as well as with attorneys from other parts of
the federal government, such as the Department of Justice (DOJ). In the context of carrying out Rl's
Priority Actions, Priority Action 89 was created to identify ORC's intent to provide various types of legal
support, including support with regard to potential supplemental environmental projects related to climate
adaptation efforts, to other divisions within R1 to advance our collective efforts to address the effects of
climate change.
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89. ORC will provide legal support to the various program offices for their Priority Actions,
including legal work needed to help implement the program offices' Priority Actions. ORC may
need to coordinate or consult with EPA's OGC and/or OECA on some questions.
Lab Support
The Lab Services and Applied Sciences Division (LSASD) works with other R1 divisional offices to
provide field and analytical support. With climate change impacts, additional resources may be required
for specific programs and to respond to extreme events. Priority Action 90 was created in response to this
need.
90. LSASD will prioritize developing sufficient monitoring and analytical resources (FTE and
equipment) for divisional programs to address climate change impacts and will coordinate with
all divisions on resource needs.
Resilience and Adaptation in New England (RAINE)
There is a growing need for New England communities to take action to adapt to the impacts of climate
change. In 2012, R1 developed the Resilience and Adaptation in New England (RAINE) database to
create a mechanism for communities to share what they are doing and to assist each other in planning and
adapting to climate change. The RAINE database is a searchable collection of state, regional, and
community-level adaptation and resilience plans, reports, and webpages in New England. Each document
is tagged with relevant search criteria and highlights the progressive adaptation and resilience actions
New England communities are taking to respond to climate change. The RAINE team updates the
database with new tagged documents on a biannual basis. As of January 2022, the RAINE database
contains documents for 381 New England communities. Priority Actions 91-95 were created to outline
the platform updates that the RAINE team will perform to increase the functionality of the tool, document
collection volume, and outreach efforts. The platform update will feature a GIS version of the RAINE
database.
91. The RAINE team will create Version 2 of RAINE (RAINE 2.0) and update the website
("www.epa.gov/RAINE).
92. The RAINE team will update the RAINE Database with new climate plans and products and
update the website to reflect changes on a biannual basis.
93. The RAINE team will add relevant climate layers for use on RAINE 2.0 as available.
94. The RAINE team will train internal staff on RAINE 2.0.
95. The RAINE team will train external partners on RAINE 2.0.
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Sec Is
I. Introduction
Implementing effective strategies to adapt to the changing climate requires that decisions be grounded in
the best available science on climate change risks, impacts, vulnerabilities, and adaptive management
practices. Throughout EPA, there is a growing need for up-to-date information on existing data sets,
models, and tools relevant to climate change adaptation. EPA's Office of Research and Development
(ORD) will coordinate with the program and regional offices to identify and address priority research
needs for the entire agency. This will support the integration of adaptation planning into the agency's
activities. As part of the EPA-wide Climate Adaptation Plan process, all regional and program offices
must identify their own science needs related to climate change adaptation.
The Divisional Climate Workgroup Representatives identified science needs across all divisions and
media programs using guidance from ORD's Climate Workshop, where initial feedback on climate
science research needs was solicited from the regions. The science needs are broken into the following
programmatic areas: 1. Vulnerable Populations, 2. Air Quality, 3. Water Quality/Quantity, 4.
Contaminated Site Cleanup and Sustainable Developmei ass-Sectional. Each climate science
need is specific to New England, and addresses how R1 anticipates using the research, the form of
research needed, and when the research is needed by. If the science need addresses or is associated with a
programmatic vulnerability (See R1 Programmatic Climate Vulnerability Assessment) then the
vulnerability is linked as a red superscript after the primary science need or question (x#). An additional
section, R1 Actions to Address, was included if any prior work, regional collaborative research projects
with ORD, and/or Priority Action(s) were conducted or created in relation to the science need.
II. R1 Climate Science Needs
1. Vulnerable Populations
1. How is climate change impacting New England Tribes' food sovereignty and security?
What methods can R1 use to protect and restore food security and promote the Tribes'
resilience?11
Since the colonial era, the societal, economic, and industrial development of the US has left behind a
legacy of impacts that have disproportionately affected tribal communities and disrupted traditional
cultural hunting and fishing practices. Observed and future impacts from climate change threaten
indigenous communities' access to traditional foods such as fish, game, and wild and cultivated crops,
such as herring, moose, deer, fiddleheads, blueberries, and cranberries. These resources have provided
sustenance as well as cultural, economic, medicinal, and community health for generations. If climate
change threatens traditional Tribal wild foods, the Tribes may need to develop farmed cultivated foods to
supplement their cultural and dietary needs. Informed by Tribal traditional ecological knowledge,
research is needed in the form of data to provide more information to the Tribes on climate change
impacts on food sovereignty and security as well as more information on the best restoration methods to
protect tribal nations in New England. This research is needed immediately.
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2. What are the localized climate impacts and adaptation solutions for the Passamaquoddy
Tribe - Pleasant Point's housing and Wastewater Treatment Plant in Pleasant Point,
Maine?11
Over the past decade, high-intensity storms have eroded the shoreline near Passamaquoddy Tribe -
Pleasant Point, eroding the shoreline at a rate of approximately one foot each year. Tribal housing, as well
as the wastewater treatment plant are being impacted. Future severe storms and flooding could further
compromise Tribal housing and the treatment plant, cause saltwater to enter the plant, or discharge
untreated sewage from the plant, triggering water contamination. Any significant down-time of the
treatment plant would threaten the health and safety of Tribal members and require extensive temporary
housing. The Tribe is currently seeking funding to address the vulnerability of the wastewater facility to
storm surge and sea level rise. The form of research needed is site engineering and accompanying
geotechnical analysis to design the proposed alternative, a barrier wall surrounding the wastewater
treatment facility, to mitigate the impacts of climate change. The research is needed immediately.
R1 Actions to Address: With R1 and other federal partners' help, the Tribe received over $3 million in
commitments of federal funding. R1 has assisted the Tribe with project management expertise, technical
assistance, and facilitation of regular progress meetings. As of August 2021, the most vulnerable segment
of the shoreline has been protected with the construction of the first phase of a shoreline revetment
solution and planning for the next phase of shoreline revetment has begun. The Tribe has completed an
EPA-funded vulnerability study of its wastewater treatment facility and related infrastructure, which
incorporated EPA's guidance in evaluating facility elevations and vulnerable assets. Priority Actions 1-2
were created in response to this need.
3. How is the Atlantic salmon population distribution changing and how will it affect food
security of the Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians/St. John River watershed in Northern
Maine? What restoration efforts can be done to mitigate the decline of Atlantic salmon
species?11
Atlantic salmon has historically been the keystone species to the Maliseet people who reside in the
Meduxnekeag River watershed, a tributary of the St. John River upon which the Houlton Band of
Maliseet Indians rely for sustenance. However, Atlantic salmon have been absent in the Tribe's watershed
for many years since the construction of the Mactaquac Dam in Frederickton, New Brunswick. While not
currently listed as an endangered species, the Outer Bay of Fundy species of Atlantic salmon, once
plentiful in the St. John River watershed, has declined rapidly due to a host of factors including habitat
loss and fish passage obstructions. A changing environment contributes to the decline, as water
temperatures rise, sediment loads from storms increase and water quality declines. Restoration of the St.
John River, or "Wolastoq" in the Maliseet language, including the Atlantic salmon population, is the
primary goal of the Tribe in order to restore food sovereignty and reverse the injustice caused by dams
and other causes of aquatic species' decline. One area of research that is currently underway is a genomics
study to determine strains of Atlantic salmon populations within specific tributaries in the watershed.
Additional research is needed to obtain data on watershed vulnerabilities and barriers to fish passage, and
to develop mobile environmental DNA (eDNA) technology to detect invasive species and confirm
presence/absence of species. The research is needed immediately.
R1 Actions to Address: In collaboration with ORD on the FY20 RARE project, Development of a
Cloud-Based Population Diversity Database of Atlantic Salmon DNA, R1 has begun working with the
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Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians and U.S. and Canadian federal agency partners on the restoration of
salmon to the St. John River "Wolastoq" International Watershed. The project aims to restore the species
by mitigating climate impacts within their native habitat. Priority Action 3 was created in response to
this need.
4. How does climate change impact communities with environmental justice concerns?12
"Climate justice" is a term that acknowledges climate change can have differing disproportionate social,
economic, public health, and other adverse impacts on underserved, historically marginalized, and
overburdened populations. Communities with majority populations of people of color, indigenous, or
low-income residents may experience a multiplier of adverse health impacts from climate change
associated with higher exposures to environmental hazards, such as cardiovascular disease, asthma, and
preterm and/or low birth weight. To assist communities with environmental justice concerns in Rl, there
is a need to better understand how climate change multiplies the adverse health impacts in these
communities. Research on localized/regional modeling or GIS mapping to demonstrate regional
multiplying effects or more data to inform public health risks from climate change is needed. This
research, which should build on existing state and local vulnerability assessments, can be used to inform
all programmatic work and resource allocation in Rl. The research is needed immediately.
2. Air Quality
5. How does climate change impact atmospheric patterns and regional air quality?212 3
Tropospheric ozone levels in southeast CT have stayed consistently high in recent years even as ozone
levels have continued to decrease in other areas of CT and New England. Additional research is needed to
determine if there a climate component to this ongoing air quality issue that current air quality forecasting
models do not adequately account for. The research could be used for regulatory action implementation,
air quality planning, air permitting, air monitoring planning, public engagement, and providing
information and guidance to other decision-makers. Additional research is also in the form of data
collection through increased area of air quality monitoring systems and updated air quality models. The
research is needed immediately to inform ongoing regional and national efforts to bring southeast CT into
attainment with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for ozone.
6. What are the co-benefits and interconnections of reducing energy, greenhouse gases, and
air pollution impacts?2123
Reducing energy use is an important way to decrease emissions of greenhouse gases, criteria, and toxic
air pollutants. The U.S. Energy Information Administration data indicates that in 2019 nearly 80% of total
energy demand was met by combusting fossil fuels. Reducing energy demand and increasing the
percentage of energy supplied by non-emitting resources such as wind and solar power will reduce
emissions of each of these pollutant types. This is recognized by the following quote taken from EPA's
ENERGY STAR website:
In 2019 alone, ENERGY STAR and its partners helped Americans save nearly 500 billion kilowatt-hours of
electricity and avoid $39 billion in energy costs. These savings resulted in associated emission reductions
of nearly 390 million metric tons of greenhouse gases, roughly equivalent to 5% of U.S. total greenhouse
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gas emissions. These savings also led to reductions of220,000 short tons of sulfur dioxide, 220,000 short
tons of nitrogen oxides, and 27,000 short tons offine particulate matter (PM2.5).
R1 considers energy demand reductions as an important method by which the NY-NJ-CT ozone
nonattainment area can progress towards achieving the 2008 and 2015 ozone standards, as these states
have adopted most of the known, conventional techniques for reducing ozone precursor emissions.
Transitioning the motor vehicle fleet away from energy intensive combustion engines and towards
electric vehicles is likely to be a key technique for this nonattainment area to meet the ozone standard.
More analysis is needed to support the co-benefits of reducing GHGs and criteria pollutants and
understanding the impacts of electrification on emissions and air quality. Given that the NY-NJ-CT ozone
nonattainment area did not achieve the 2008 ozone standard by the August 2021 target date, and
consequently will be "bumped up" from a "moderate" to "serious" nonattainment year with a new
attainment date goal of August 2024, the research is needed immediately.
R1 Actions to Address: Through a Fiscal Year (FY) 2022 Regional Applied Research Effort (RARE)
project, R1 collaborated with ORD and the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental
Protection (CT DEEP) to create a pilot project on Improving State-Level Multi-Pollutant Planning in
Connecticut with Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) Long-term Interactive Multi-Pollutant
Scenario Evaluator (GLIMPSE). The pilot project is intended to support CT's ozone attainment planning
efforts through a holistic systems analysis of the state's clean energy and climate policies, and multi-
pollutant environmental impacts to enhance the GLIMPSE modeling tool's development in achieving
state and regional analytical needs for air quality planning, as well as demonstrating the benefits of clean
energy strategy integration into criteria pollutant planning.
3. Water Quality/Quantity
7. How will increases in temperature and changes in streamflow conditions affect assumptions
used for developing water quality standards and effluent limits for discharge permits (e.g.,
7Q10, rate of nutrient uptake, algal bloom intensity)?313 3
The development of numeric water quality criteria relies on data collected on the effect of different
concentrations of a pollutant on aquatic life or human health, the duration of the exposure to that
pollutant, and on other variables such as temperature, salinity, and hardness that are subject to changes
from a warming climate. Many assumptions are based on previously collected data. New information and
models are needed to forecast current and future conditions. The research is needed immediately.
8. How will changes in temperature and precipitation patterns affect nutrient dynamics that
contribute to the formation of harmful algal blooms (HABs)?3133
Changes in temperature and precipitation impact nutrient cycling and contribute to increased occurrences
of harmful algal blooms (HABs). HABs are a significant and growing issue throughout Rl, and one that
State Agencies and municipalities are struggling to solve. Once a bloom is detected, municipalities are
often unable to afford taking the next step in testing to determine the presence of a cyanotoxin or the
repeat testing to detect when a HAB has abated. The result is likely an undercount of HABs throughout
the region. In addition to increasing municipalities' capacity to monitor and respond to HABs, Rl could
incorporate health data into a regional monitoring approach. The health effects of HAB exposure in
humans can vary, but most symptoms present in mild to moderate severity consistent with general illness.
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R1 needs include data collection, supported by laboratory and field analyses, on the growth rates and
temperature interactions of blue green algae, especially in ponds, lakes, and impoundments. Modeling of
future bloom conditions is also needed for planning and adaptation. The creation of a (statistically valid)
regional remote sensing approach to quantify yearly blooms on a regional level would allow for a more
systemic monitoring approach. This research could be used to support regulatory development, regulatory
action, public engagement, and the provision of information and guidance to other decision makers. In
addition to HABs detection and abatement, the development of a public engagement strategy is a critical
component to safeguarding public health and ensuring people stay out of impacted waterbodies.
Assessments performed within the Southeast New England Program (SNEP) boundary have demonstrated
that public warnings (e.g., signage) have had mixed results, and that there doesn't appear to be consistent
public messaging. Therefore, there is an additional need to better understand which types of public
outreach are most successful and how current outreach methods can be improved. The research is needed
immediately.
9. How will changes in ocean and coastal acidification affect fish, plants, and other aquatic
life? Shell-forming crustaceans like clams and oysters are especially vulnerable.313 3
Increased atmospheric CO2 absorbed by the open ocean, causes an increase in ocean CO2 which
ultimately decreases seawater pH (a measurement of acidity), known as ocean and coastal acidification
(OCA). Nutrient enrichment of coastal waters exacerbates the decrease in pH and carbonate
saturation. Because of colder waters, nutrient enrichment, and a valuable shellfish economy, New
England is especially vulnerable to the impacts of OCA. One of the goals of EPA's OCA research
program is to assess the ecological vulnerability to OCA and ultimately to support states that plan to
develop water quality criteria for assessing OCA impacts. To accomplish this goal, there is a need to
better understand the drivers of the coastal carbonate system, quantify localized risk of future OCA, and
conduct laboratory or field experiments to determine the impact of ocean and coastal acidification on
sensitive and commercially important species. Addressing these needs will require a greater investment in
monitoring with both continuous, autonomous sensors and boat or shore-based sampling, as well as
ecosystem and carbonate system modeling to extricate the factors, such as nutrient enrichment,
respiration, atmospheric exchange, and temperature increases. The meta-analysis and literature review is
needed immediately. The development of state OCA criteria is a long-term enterprise and could take
between five to ten years.
R1 Actions to Address: R1 has worked with ORD on several OCA research projects over the past ten
years, including the "Impacts of Coastal Ocean Acidification on the ecological health of shellfish in
southern New England: ORD-R1 Research to support climate change adaptation" project which was
funded by ORD's Regional/State/Tribal Innovation Program (RSTIP). As a result, a more detailed
research plan was developed.
10. What changes will be required to the design, sizing, construction, and siting of structural
stormwater BMPs to account for projected climate change impacts in watersheds (extreme
precipitation and increased intensity of storms, drought, rising groundwater, higher air and
water temperatures, and sea level rise)?3 5
Considering climate impacts, addressing the structural BMPs for the control of stormwater discharges is
critical to the continued success of stormwater and nonpoint source management programs. BMPs
designed to remediate water quality impacts in the Northeast may be insufficient to maintain water quality
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under conditions associated with climate change. EPA and its partners need better tools and a better
understanding of the relevant watershed characteristics that affect the health of a water body, how those
characteristics can be affected by climate change, where existing BMPs are sited, and to what extent such
systems can mitigate projected climate change impacts in the watershed. In addition, guidance is needed
to inform future stormwater implementation projects including the identification of requisite adjustments
to BMP design, sizing, or siting to ensure continued effectiveness of pollution control and hydrologic
function. There is an immediate need to characterize new proprietary stormwater systems so that
additional stormwater performance curves can be developed. Performance curves provide estimations of
pollutant load reductions for structural stormwater control measures (i.e., BMP). Performance curves for
proprietary systems will need to account for variations in regional geologic and climatic conditions, and
account for water quality as a function of external nutrient loading versus internal nutrient recycling.
Development and dissemination of such performance curves will assist municipal practitioners in
managing nutrient pollution to offset the impact of nutrients on waterbodies. To this end, basic and/or
applied research efforts would be used by EPA, grantees, and municipalities to support and facilitate
watershed restoration planning and implementation. Such research that more specifically factors in
climate change into stormwater planning and implementation is needed in the next five years.
R1 Actions to Address: R1 is currently in the process of piloting the development of stormwater
performance curves to aid municipalities in determining which stormwater BMPs are most appropriate to
address climate change projections.
11. Are changes required to the design, sizing, construction, and siting of standard and
Innovative/Alternative (I/A) septic systems to ensure their continued effectiveness in areas
subject to extreme precipitation, drought, rising groundwater, higher air and water
temperatures, and sea level rise?3 6
The use of septic systems is commonplace throughout R1. While many of these systems are being phased
out by municipal sewering, this transition can take decades to implement and is not feasible in many
places, such as Cape Cod, a large peninsula extending into the Atlantic Ocean off Massachusetts.
Traditional septic designs do not account for nitrogen reduction. As a result, old systems can leak and
become a source of nutrient pollution that impacts local embayments. For example, on Cape Cod 78% of
the controllable nitrogen pollution sourcing can be tied to leaky septic systems. It's critical that EPA and
its partners obtain a better understanding of where these systems are located, as well as how these systems
might be impacted by the worsening effects of climate change. Research would be used by EPA, states,
and local health and planning departments to plan the siting of new and upgraded septic systems to limit
their impacts on regional nutrient pollution and ensure that these systems remain effective in areas
where sewering is either not possible or not anticipated to occur within the next several years. This
research should consider the potential impacts on septic systems in areas prone to sea level rise, flooding,
and/or rising groundwater levels. There is also a need for a review of the New England state septic system
regulations to determine whether updated septic design and siting standards should be incorporated, such
as the transition to Innovative/Alternative septic systems to address nutrient pollution. The research is
needed in the next five years.
12. How will warmer temperatures and related climate impacts affect the carbon sequestration
capacity of salt marshes and submerged aquatic vegetation (eelgrass)?3 7
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"Blue Carbon" refers to carbon stored in coastal mangrove, marsh, and seagrass ecosystems, which are all
highly sensitive and vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. A New England and Peconic Bay, NY,
inventory of the carbon sequestration capacity of salt marshes and eelgrass beds has been completed, but
the existing data only quantify carbon stocks to a depth of 30 cm, which significantly underestimates the
resource. The research is needed to assess carbon stocks from deeper cores (down to refusal/bedrock) and
measure environmental variables that impact seagrass survival. The research is needed immediately.
R1 Actions to Address: R1 has completed an inventory of the carbon sequestration capacity of salt
marshes and eelgrass beds in New England and Peconic Bay, NY, through multiple ORD RARE projects
and other regional funds. The final report recommends expanding the analysis to assess carbon stocks
from deeper cores (down to refusal/bedrock). Rl, in cooperation with ORD and R2, plan to continue to
measure environmental variables that impact seagrass survival, which carries implications for the
ecosystem services provided by these habitats. This work will build on multiple RARE projects
examining carbon sequestration in eelgrass meadows throughout New England. Project findings are
captured in the Blue Carbon Baseline Assessment for New England and NY available here. Priority
Action 33 was created in response to this need.
13. Does eelgrass have the capacity to absorb greenhouse gases (GHGs)?3 7
In addition to its ability to sequester carbon, emerging research suggests that eelgrass might have the
capacity to directly absorb GHGs such as nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and methane. The GHGs, nitrous
oxide and methane, are substantially more potent than carbon dioxide at trapping heat in the atmosphere.
Rl's goal is to gain a better understanding of the fluxes of these gases through an eelgrass meadow. If
additional investigation demonstrates that eelgrass meadows are absorbing significant quantities of these
more potent GHGs, it will dramatically increase their importance as buffers to climate change. The
research is needed immediately and will build on related research described in Research Need 8.
Rl Actions to Address: Rl will submit this research proposal for FY22 Regional-ORD Applied
Research (ROAR) funding to expand on previous efforts.
14. How will warmer temperatures and associated changes in hydrology affect the viability of
wetlands? What are the socioeconomic impacts from wetland changes and the benefits of
their remediation and protection?3 7
An increase in air and water temperature, extreme precipitation, drought, and sea level rise may lead to
changes in wetland characteristics (i.e., soil dynamics, soil chemistry, hydrology, salinity levels,
vegetation resilience and retreat, sedimentation and nutrient loading, and increases of new and existing
invasive species) and in shifting and/or degrading wetland habitats. Research is needed to determine how
these climate impacts will change wetland characteristics to help guide future jurisdictional
determinations, the types of mitigation sought to offset unavoidable wetland losses, and restoration
priorities and practices. A literature review could be conducted to determine the extent of these research
gaps and to inform future Wetland Program Development Grant (WPDG) funding priorities. There is also
a need to quantify and communicate the socioeconomic impacts of various types of environmental
degradation on wetlands as well as the benefits of their restoration and/or protection. Potential end
products could include the creation of municipal-level fact sheets that convey the total risk/benefit of
habitat degradation/restoration or the creation of educational videos to be used across the regions. The
research and communication support are needed within one to three years.
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15. How can EPA better incorporate climate change projections to improve its tracking of
hypoxic conditions and their impacts?3 9
In ocean and freshwater environments, the term "hypoxia" refers to low or depleted oxygen in a water
body. Hypoxia is often associated with the overgrowth of certain species of algae, which can lead to
oxygen depletion when they die, sink to the bottom, and decompose.54 With a potential positive
correlation between climate change effects and the prevalence of hypoxic conditions, EPA needs to
increase its monitoring and modeling capabilities for hypoxic conditions throughout Rl. This will help to
determine where these hypoxic events occur and to track their frequency in given areas and model their
future occurrence considering regional climate projections. By tracking the extent of hypoxia using rapid
and reliable calculations and presentation of hypoxic area and volume, EPA can obtain a more accurate
view of hypoxia levels and can use this data to inform BMPs and identify areas of concern. It is important
to correctly model the dissolved oxygen response to nitrogen and carbon loading. The research is needed
in the next five years.
16. How can EPA incorporate climate change modeling to prevent unnecessary beach closures
through the improvement of bacterial monitoring and reporting of marine and freshwater
beaches?39
To prevent unnecessary beach closures, there must be more optimization and implementation of rapid
bacterial detection. Current efforts on using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) monitoring
techniques, a technique that uses DNA measurement, have not been successful and there is not a clear
alternative. There is also a major lag in beach monitoring and data availability. If possible, EPA should
identify beach monitoring approaches with quicker turnaround times to improve the effectiveness of
beach monitoring in the region and/or create more effective regional models (such as an improved Virtual
Beach model) to better inform beach monitoring efforts and issue preemptive closures by incorporating
climate change data into new or improved models. Additionally, while EPA has a standardized beach
monitoring approach supported by the EPA Beach Program, this approach is limited only to marine
beaches. EPA should work to address and establish a standard monitoring approach and program for
freshwater beaches. Standardizing a pathogen monitoring program for more marine and freshwater
beaches and using microbial source tracking to identify bacterial sources would also be useful. Current
Beach Program funds are limited to monitoring and cannot be applied to source tracking initiatives or
other related uses. Providing new sources of funding or expanding the allowable uses of current funding,
particularly to determine pollution source(s), should be considered. The research and additional efforts are
needed in the next five years.
17. How will sea level rise and coastal flooding impact drinking water infrastructure in coastal
communities? How can EPA identify vulnerable infrastructure and assist affected
communities, especially Tribes and communities with environmental justice concerns?12'
3.11
Climate change will impact the quality and quantity of fresh water supplies available for drinking water.
New England is especially vulnerable to sea level rise, which in certain areas may cause salt-water
intrusion in groundwater tables, and combined with more extreme storms, may flood drinking water
infrastructure. Data synthesis utilizing existing datasets and a literature review should be undertaken to
determine current knowledge gaps pertaining to the impacts of sea level rise on drinking water
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infrastructure and vulnerable communities, particularly in areas with environmental justice concerns. The
outcome of this research would take the form of training workshops and exercises with states and water
sector utilities on preparation, response, and recovery from the impacts of climate change on their water
systems. The research is needed immediately.
18. Where are existing unregulated impoundments located throughout the region? Which
impoundments will be impacted by the worsening effects of climate change?
Impoundments are artificially constructed bodies of water confined within an enclosure, such as a
reservoir. R1 needs to better understand the existence of unregulated impoundments throughout New
England and develop better practices, tools, and data to provide more effective technical and financial
assistance at the state, tribal, and local levels. Unregulated impoundments are not maintained and can
threaten local infrastructure if/when they fail. The likelihood of their failure is increased by the worsening
effects of climate change, especially increased precipitation, and extreme storms. Therefore, it is critical
for EPA and partners to gain a better understanding of the risks through creating an inventory of
unregulated impoundments to include their location, condition, age, and downstream/upstream risks of
failure so that EPA can better communicate the risks of these unregulated impoundments to private
landowners, especially rural residents, where these impoundments are more likely to exist. Additionally,
the inventory should include demographic information of the local area to assess potential environmental
justice concerns. The research is needed in the next five years.
4. Contaminated Site Cleanup and Sustainable Development
19. What are the localized climate impacts on hazardous waste sites in Rl?4145
Flooding and other climate impacts may result in dispersal of contaminants, physical damage to
remediation-related structures, and degradation of surface and groundwaters at hazardous waste sites. A
more localized (e.g., certain regions, or rivers/waterbodies) analysis of climate impacts, specifically
flooding, is needed for remedial decision making and emergency response actions. The data is needed in
the form of software or modeling tools such as geographic information systems (GIS). The research is
needed in the next one to three years.
Rl Actions to Address: Rl developed an internal pilot project, the National Priorities List (NPL)
Climate Vulnerability Assessment Mapping tool and two subsequent versions for RCRA Corrective
Action, RCRA TSDF and LQG sites. Priority Actions 69-78 (Climate Mapping for Hazardous Waste
Sites) were created in response to this need.
20. To what degree are the frequency and intensity of extreme storms increasing in Rl and how
will it affect emergency response actions?414 5
As the climate continues to change and severe weather patterns become more frequent, emergency
responders and site remediation personnel need to understand the degree of impacts extreme weather will
have on both emergency response and removal/remediation actions. This research will be used to aid in
planning emergency response actions and developing new strategies for removal and response actions.
The data are needed in the form of software or modeling tools such as GIS. The research is needed in the
next one to three years.
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R1 Actions to Address: Priority Action 70 (Climate Mapping for Hazardous Waste Sites) was created
in response to this need.
5. Cross Sectional
21. How will groundwater level rise affect permit requirements, infrastructure, especially EPA-
funded drinking water and wastewater infrastructure and underground storage tanks, as
well as our cleanup remedies? 3-3-3-6'41-4-5'51-5-3
Climate change will affect the quantity and quality of groundwater through increased risks of drought,
changes in precipitation and temperature, decreases in snowmelt, and rising sea levels. Groundwater in
coastal regions of the US is particularly at risk due to a combination of changes in precipitation,
withdrawal rates, and sea level rise.55 The potential future impact and risks of groundwater changes must
be understood to ensure climate-smart investment of federal funding and the accurate evaluation of
stormwater BMPs. These data would also assist in evaluating the risks posed to regulated underground
storage tanks and cleanup remedies. Data is needed to better estimate the risk of groundwater change in
Region 1. The research is needed immediately.
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Sec n
I. Introduction
Consistent with the EPA-wide FY 2022-2026 EPA Strategic Plan. Goal 1: Tackle the Climate Crisis, R1
will provide training to enhance staff, management, and partner awareness and knowledge of relevant
climate change data and information, impacts, and climate adaptation approaches. Training for staff will be
focused on raising awareness, enhancing knowledge, and increasing understanding on how climate change
is likely to impact EPA's mission and programmatic work.
II. Training Plan and Timeline
In accordance with the EPA-wide FY 2022-2026 EPA Strategic Plan. EPA program offices will develop,
update, and expand existing climate adaptation training modules to prioritize two primary goals: (1) to
increase awareness about the importance of climate adaptation and encourage all EPA staff and partners
to consider the changing climate in the normal course of business; and (2) to introduce specific methods
and tools for integrating climate adaptation into decision-making processes. Several program offices are
scheduled to release a climate adaptation training module in FY22-23. The tentative schedule for program
office module release is shown in Table 5 along with tentative R1 administration dates, and staff targeted
for each training module. However, all trainings will be open to interested R1 staff. Based on the module
development schedule, R1 will administer and promote programmatic trainings via the Region 1 Climate
Network (RCN). The RCN hosts bi-monthly meetings that feature one main speaker on a timely climate
topic, both internal and external to Rl, and climate updates from staff working across the region which
will provide additional training and increased knowledge for EPA Rl employees. After the release of
OP's training module, Climate Adaptation 101, an outline of the full training schedule will be provided at
an RCN meeting. The meetings are open to all Rl employees.
Climate Adaptation Training Module
by Lead Office
Tentative Date
Modules will be
Available
Tentative Rl
Administration
Dates
Targeted Rl
Staff to be
Trained
Office of Policy (OP) Climate
Adaptation 101
Summer 2022
Fall 2022, Fall
2023, Fall 2024
Rl
Regulation Writers
End of 2022
Spring 2023,
Spring 2024
Appropriate Rl
Staff
Office of Water (OW)
End of 2022
Spring 2023,
Spring 2024
WD and LSASD
Office of Land and Emergency
Management (OLEM)
End of 2022
Spring 2023,
Spring 2024
LCRD, SEMD,
and LSASD
Office of Air and Radiation (OAR)
End of 2023
Spring 2024
ARD and
LSASD
Office of Chemical Safety and
Pollution Prevention (OCSPP)
End of 2023
Spring 2024
LCRD and
LSASD
Office of Enforcement and
Compliance Assurance (OECA)
End of 2023
Spring 2024
ECAD and
LSASD
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Office of Mission Support (OMS)
End of 2023
Spring 2024
MSD and
LSASD
Office of Homeland Security (OHS)
End of 2023
Summer 2024
R1
Office of International and Tribal
Affairs (OITA)
End of 2023
Summer 2024
R1
Office of Research and Development
(ORD)
End of 2023
Summer 2024
R1
Table 5. Schedule for EPA Program Office Training Modules Release and R1 Administration Dates
III. Measurements and Progress
Training of R1 staff and progress will be measured through tracking the percentage of R1 or
divisional staff, as defined in Table 5, who were trained on an annual basis for each training module
for FY 22-24. The staff training targets for FY 22-24 are listed in Table 6. The percentages are
additive, building on the prior year's targets with consideration of new hires and retired staff. The
training schedule and targets will be updated as training modules become available by program
offices. Taking Climate Adaptation 101 will be made a mandatory training for all new hires and be
added into their Individual Development Plan (IDP).
Climate Adaptation Training by
Lead Office
FY 22 (% of
Staff Trained)
FY 23 (% of Staff
Trained)
FY 24 (% of Staff
Trained)
Office of Policy (OP) Climate
Adaptation 101
100% of R1
100% of R1
100% of R1
Regulation Writers
0%
50% of R1
80% of R1
Office of Water (OW)
0%
50% of WD and
Relevant LSASD Staff
80% of WD and
Relevant LSASD Staff
Office of Land and Emergency
Management (OLEM)
0%
50% of LCRD,
SEMD, and Relevant
LSASD Staff
80% of LCRD, SEMD,
and Relevant LSASD
Staff
Office of Air and Radiation (OAR)
0%
0%
50% of ARD and
Relevant LSASD Staff
Office of Chemical Safety and
Pollution Prevention (OCSPP)
0%
0%
25% of LCRD and
Relevant LSASD Staff
Office of Enforcement and
Compliance Assurance (OECA)
0%
0%
50% of ECAD and
Relevant LSASD Staff
Office of Mission Support (OMS)
0%
0%
50% of MSD and
Relevant LSASD Staff
Office of Homeland Security
(OHS)
0%
0%
25% of R1
Office of International and Tribal
Affairs (OITA)
0%
0%
25% of R1
Office of Research and
Development (ORD)
0%
0%
25% of R1
Table 6. R1 Staff Training Targets
78
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Sec usions
Climate change is and will continue to have significant impacts on the health and well-being of
Americans and the environment, with the greatest impacts falling disproportionately on historically
underserved and overburdened communities. This Adaptation Plan identifies key programmatic
vulnerabilities and the Priority Actions that will be taken to address those vulnerabilities over time. As the
work called for in this Adaptation Plan is conducted, where resources are available and the communities
and demographic groups most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change are identified, priority will be
given to those areas. Region 1 will share information and coordinate with EPA Regional and Program
Offices to leverage and enhance climate change and environmental justice activities that are already
taking place. Additionally, EPA will strive to be transparent in our actions concerning this plan by
providing updates on our accomplishments. As knowledge on climate change impacts evolves, the Region
1 Climate Adaptation Plan, programmatic vulnerabilities, and Priority Actions will be reviewed and
updated annually.
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MKTS
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