Integrated Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) for Mitigation of Soluble and Particulate Contaminants Objective To reduce the external dose from contamination on vehicles and urban surfaces while simultaneously decreasing the spread of contamination and treating wash-down water to ensure an adequate water supply for public consumption and continued mitigation and decontamination operations across a wide area. Other benefits Will mitigate radiological contamination from surfaces (e.g., external walls and roofs of buildings), outdoor surfaces such as roads and paved areas, and vehicles) within inhabited areas and other areas where these surfaces are present. Management option The |rreversib|e Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) describes a P system of disseminating, collecting, and processing a decontamination wash water. The wash water is an aqueous solution of salts developed for mitigation of radiological contamination and is intended for eduction into a fire hose using standard eduction equipment available to fire departments and other agencies. For small applications such as decontamination of vehicles, the salt water solution is added to an empty firefighting foam container and connected to the standard firefighting foam eductor. For larger applications, the salt water solution is prepared in a collapsible tank common to fire departments and other agencies and educted into the fire hose. The surface to be mitigated is sprayed with water from the fire hose. The wash down water is contained to enable its on-site treatment and reuse. Containing the water may be accomplished in several ways, depending on site specific goals. For example, a berm system, such as the HESCO® Portable Berm System described below, can be set up at the base of the building or on a parking lot to form a reservoir for the building and vehicle containment, respectively. The HESCO® system has desirable features which have been tested/demonstrated with regard to the ability to implement containment of radiologically contaminated water over wide areas. However, other berm/containment/collection systems may also be used, depending on site specific situations; for instance, it may be possible to utilize existing drainage/storm water storage capabilities in some situations, particularly if this drainage/storage capability is known to provide containment and has already been radiologically impacted. The water collected/contained is mixed with sorbent particulate, which are optimized for the radionuclides of interest, resulting in immobilization of the radionuclides on solid particles. The Separmatic Treatment System is then utilized to treat the water on-site for reuse during wide-area mitigation. The Separmatic system described below has desirable features which have been tested/demonstrated with regard to the ability to be utilized with respect to overall IWATERS system described. However, other treatment systems may also be used, depending on site specific situations. For any treatment system used, the ability of such system to achieve site specific goals should be verified. The data and information below and in the references has been optimized with respect to the Separmatic system. If needed to meet site-specific goals, the Separmatic or other treatment system may be preceded by one or several sequential reservoirs in which mixing between the incoming water and additional sorbent particulates can occur, which can reduce the radioactivity levels to some site-specific target. The Separmatic or other treatment system then can provide the final filtration and clarification of the waters for reuse. Because the treatment is based on physical removal of suspended and insoluble particles, the system can potentially remove all sorts of radiological particulates, whether they be purposefully formed by mixing soluble contaminants with solid adsorbents or formed directly by the radiological release mechanism (e.g., fallout from an explosion). The application of IWATERS to particles of specific sizes should be optimized but is inherently enabled by the design of the Separmatic system. Most buildings and vehicles are, by design, capable of withstanding the flow and pressure of fire hose water, but attention must be paid to the possibility of damaging property by the pressure and flow. Any possibility of breakage or damage from IWATERS operation should be considered in advance. A key aspect of IWATERS is the systematic integration of components from washing of the building to reusing the water. While it is possible to implement the process flow of IWATERS in other ways, it is important that the efficacy of such systems be considered in terms of the entire process from washing to reuse. The descriptions below are based on testing of IWATERS with radiological contaminants to provide such performance data, except as noted. Target Contaminated external walls and roofs of buildings, outdoor hard surfaces such as roads and paved areas, surfaces in semi-enclosed areas, and vehicles. Some internal floors and walls with hard surfaces covering a large area (e.g., within public buildings such as railway/subway stations) may also be amenable to IWATERS, particularly given the flexibility of its wash water collection system. Because the primary purpose of IWATERS is to mitigate dose to response workers and ------- Integrated Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) for Mitigation of Soluble and Particulate Contaminants populations, it may be beneficial to apply IWATERS to entrance and exit paths to critical infrastructure (e.g., major roads, highways, and mass transportation systems) and community facilities such as hospitals and other buildings that may be frequented by large numbers of people. Targeted radionuclides Long-lived radionuclides. Short-lived radionuclides only if implemented quickly. Because the treatment is based largely on physical removal of particles, the system can potentially remove various radiological particulates, whether they be purposefully formed by mixing soluble contaminants with solid adsorbents or formed directly by the radiological release mechanism (e.g., fallout from an explosion). Scale of application Any size. Equipment utilized is commercially available, and vendors can size the equipment to the required planned application. Time of application Maximum mitigation benefit if applied soon after deposition. For mobile radionuclides like Cs-137, optimal application time is largely related to weather conditions (e.g., rain), along with the ability of the impacted surface to bind cesium ion. For particulate contamination, optimal time of application is related to the timing of movement of particulates to inaccessible locations (e.g., surface cracks) by natural occurrences (e.g., weather) and man-made activities (e.g., foot and vehicle traffic and inappropriate decontamination and mitigation activities). Constraints Legal constraints Liabilities for possible damage to property. Ownership and access to property. Disposal of reused water when no longer needed after mitigation operations are completed. Use on listed and other historical buildings. Environmental constraints Severe cold weather (snow and ice may cause problems), although the salt solution inherently freezes at a lower temperature than tap water. Surfaces should be amenable to allow attachment of collection systems, either directly or with such materials as glues, sealants, and mechanical fasteners. Effectiveness Reduction in Varies with radionuclide, contamination deposition conditions, surface type, and weathering contamination on the conditions. Less weathering, particularly rainfall and high winds, may result in higher reductions, surface Porous surfaces may tend to have lower reduction than hard nonporous surfaces, but under selected conditions, laboratory experiments with Cs-137 summarized below suggest the following range of removals from various surfaces. Because different specimens of the same surface type may show variability in reduction, these values may be viewed as representing a range of expected performance, not the optimized performance for any specific location. A particular application may be selectively optimized if time and resources permit during a mitigation operation, e.g., for a particular key facility. The terms "fixed" and "loose" refer to how the coupons in the laboratory experiments were prepared. "Fixed" applies to conditions for which the nature of deposition, aging, weathering, or other processes may have caused the contaminant to have become chemically or physically associated with the surface to a degree that hinders its removal. "Loose" applies to conditions for which the resulting chemical or physical associations between the contaminant and surface are not necessarily expected to hinder contaminant removal as significantly as "fixed" contamination. In general, "fixed" contamination was applied in the laboratory as a liquid solution, whereas "loose" contamination was applied as a dry powder. Consult key references and contacts for more information, including updates to the table below. Cement concrete: 40-70 % of fixed contaminant, >70 % for loose contamination. Asphalt concrete (aged, exposed aggregate): 10-50 % of fixed contamination; >80 % for loose contamination. Asphalt concrete (non-aged, oily surface); not known. Experiments showed that cesium has little association with asphalt binder (Distribution coefficient D«0.01), so cesium is expected to be removed with high efficiency from fresh asphalt concrete surfaces. Limestone: 20-60 % fixed contamination Brick: 20-40 % fixed contamination Painted Metal: >90 %, fixed Glass: >90 %, fixed Painted wood: 30 % of fixed contamination, semi-gloss paint Vinyl siding: >90 % of fixed contamination Asphalt composite shingles; 50 % of fixed contamination Reduction in surface External gamma and beta dose rates from mitigated surfaces will be reduced by a factor similar dose rates to the reduction in contamination for surfaces. Reduction in external doses received will depend ------- Integrated Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) for Mitigation of Soluble and Particulate Contaminants on the surfaces in the area and the time spent by individuals close to these surfaces Reduction in Resuspended activity in air following mitigation will be reduced along with the amount of resuspension contaminant. Additional reduction may result because a portion of the contaminant not removed may be immobilized physically or chemically during the process. Method used - volume of water, application pattern during washing, and amount of salt and other additives. Laboratory tests included soaking the contaminated sample surface in wash water for up to one hour or utilizing a constant flow of water for five minutes or less (a maximum flow rate of 20 mL/min/cm2 or 200 L/min/m2 of surface for up to five minutes). Results showed that longer exposure to wash water improved decontamination. Some surfaces such as porous surfaces, e.g., concrete, brick, and asphalt with exposed aggregate will require larger concentrations of salts in the wash solution. However, for surfaces like glass or painted vehicle metal, little or no salt may be required, although the use of salt may be desirable due to non- uniformity and non-exclusive presence of such surfaces. Consistent application over the contaminated area (i.e., operator skill) may achieve a more consistent result. In wide area application, multiple operators may be involved; similar training should be provided to all operators to minimize potential inter-operator variability. Perhaps the most simple variable to control is application time and spray pattern. Care in application: care needed to wash contamination from surfaces and not just move the contamination around; lower part of walls should be cleaned very carefully as this is the surface that will provide the greatest dose to an individual in the vicinity of the building; special care is needed to clean roof gutters and drain pipes. Places on horizontal surfaces where water tends to pool should be hosed carefully to avoid accumulation. Rainfall or moisture increases the penetration of contamination into the surface, though studies show that the increased penetration is less on asphalt than on brick or limestone. Therefore, a delay in cleaning some surfaces may not be as significant as for other surfaces. Social The IWATERS system is designed to reduce impact on the municipal water supply and, hence, (community community function. The community may experience some temporary disruption in public services population) during deployment and operation, mainly because of logistical factors such areas being inaccessible factors during mitigation. Feasibility Equipment See IWATERS reference for equipment required. A key aspect of IWATERS is the systematic integration of components from washing of the building to reusing the water. The IWATERS systematically combines these components and is backed by data (presented in the references) collected using concentrations of radionuclides that might be encountered in actual deployment. While it is possible to implement the process flow of IWATERS in other ways or with other equipment, it is important that the efficacy of such systems be verified in terms of the entire process from washing to reuse and be appropriate for site specific goals. The descriptions in this datasheet are based on testing of IWATERS with radiological contaminants to provide such performance data, except as noted. Equipment and supplies are described in the table below. See Reference 3 for more details. llcill Supplier Notes Barrier materials (Concertainers® or Jackbox®) HESCO® Single or dual compartment containers with a choice of impermeable or permeable membranes in each compartment. The permeable membranes may be filled with adsorbents for radiological contaminants and hence desirable in some situations. Brine tanks Local Any container in which salt and surfactant can be mixed Water/slurry storage tanks Local and regional Portable bladder tanks and collapsible tanks may be needed to contain spent clay slurry or concentrated wash water until filtration or final processing. Earth and stone fill Local For weight in the barriers and constructing ingress/egress ramps Eductor, nozzles, and hoses Darley Company with C&S Supply Company Threading should match local fire equipment. A 6 % orifice plate is recommended to supply sufficient salt for effective decontamination. Slurry/sewage pumps and hoses Local Pumps designed to handle flowable solids. Hoses sufficiently robust to handle slurry pumping. Fire engine Local Some cities might provide engines and firefighters, although agencies other than the local fire department may be involved, depending on the location and situation. Front-loader, dump truck Local Local companies or agencies can supply equipment and operators to fill the barriers and remove material. Salt Local Potassium chloride is used as a water softener salt. Ammonium salts are available in ton quantities. Shovels, tarps, tape, tack strips Local Shovels to assist filling of barrier materials. Tarps, tape, and tack strips help divert water from walls into the berm reservoir. Technical factors influencing effectiveness ------- Integrated Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) for Mitigation of Soluble and Particulate Contaminants Utilities and infrastructure Consumables Safety precautions Waste Separation system Separmatic Systems Separamatic Systems combined their units with the LAKOS filter from Mullarkey and Associates, Inc., to handle high slurry content. Other design options exist to replace LAKOS filters. Surfactant Regional Also known as sodium dodecyl sulfate and sodium lauryl sulfate. Vermiculite Specialty Vermiculite Corp. Item # VCX 205 was tested for cesium-137 in the laboratory. Performance for one other vermiculite was similar. Waste disposal (solid and liquid) Depends on level of radioactivity Contact hazardous/radioactive waste authorities IWATERS may be deployed in several ways, some of which are pictured and videoed in the references. Other techniques developed for applications that are designed to flow large volumes of water for mitigating or decontaminating surfaces may also be appropriate. For example, the salt solution could be deployed within automated or manual car wash facilities, with the runoff being diverted to the on-site water treatment system. Roads for transport of equipment and waste. Water and power supplies. See above table. The table lists several options for consumables, particularly the salt. Different salts may be available in different areas with varying market prices. Consumables generally can be drop-shipped in the United States for rapid delivery. Surfactant SDS is supplied regionally in the U.S. It is not known if other common surfactants may be substituted because they have not been tested in the IWATERS system. Vermiculite "re-charge" may be necessary inside the berms and separation systems. Vermiculite is supplied primarily from one mine in the U.S. However, expended vermiculite is commonly used to control water spills and in insulation but has not been tested for efficacy in the IWATERS system. Skills Consistent application over the contaminated area (i.e., operator skill) may achieve a more consistent result. Brief training is needed to properly select, construct, connect, and fill runoff water collection/containment system, e.g., HESCO® barrier units, and minimize leakage of wash waters from the collection/containment reservoir. Additional skills include priming and pumping operations to move fluids from such reservoirs to the mixing tanks or holding reservoirs of the on-site Separmatic treatment system. Personal protective equipment (PPE) as required by site-specific health and safety plans. Based on type of buildings, vehicles, surfaces, etc., treated. Good practices in operating equipment, including fire hose water pumps and water treatment systems. Amount At the end of the mitigation operation, the reused water will need to be disposed of according to local regulations. The on-site water treatment system or its treatment train can be customized (as described in the "Management option description") if needed to meet local regulations. Radiologically impacted sorbents and fill materials for the berm will need to be disposed in accordance with local regulations. Type Solids and water Doses Averted dose Follows contaminant removal and type of surfaces decontaminated. (See effectiveness of contaminant removal section above.) However, total averted dose may depend strongly on the presence of persistent background activity from areas from which contamination has not been removed, which may be the case following a large area release event. For instance, in Fukushima, contaminated forested areas surrounding decontaminated areas were thought to contribute to total external dose. Factors influencing Consistency in effective implementation of option over a large area averted dose Qare jn app|jcatj0n: care needed to wash contamination from surfaces and not just move the contamination around; Places on horizontal surfaces where water tends to pool should be hosed carefully to avoid accumulation (e.g., roof gutters, drain pipes). Additional doses Relevant exposure pathways for workers are: external exposure from radionuclides in the environment and contaminated equipment. ------- Integrated Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) for Mitigation of Soluble and Particulate Contaminants • external exposure to tanks or berms containing the concentrated radionuclides on the sorbent materials (e.g., the clay within the HESCO® berm may increase in dose significantly during operations as will the mixing tank in the Separmatic System and waste tank holding the spent clay slurry discharged from the Separmatic System filter tank). • inhalation of radioactive material resuspended from the ground and other surfaces (may be enhanced over normal levels). • inhalation of dust and water spray generated. • inadvertent ingestion of dust from workers' hands. Contributions from some pathways will not be significant, and doses from these pathways can be controlled by using proper PPE or good work and housekeeping practices. Exposure routes from transport and disposal of waste are not included. No illustrative doses are provided as they will be very specific to the type of contamination, environmental conditions, the tasks undertaken by an individual, controls placed on working, the use of PPE, etc. Intervention costs Operator time Work rate: Work rate is based on factors such as site specific goals, types of surfaces to be washed, and initial contaminant levels. Thus, work rate may be optimized by effective pre-planning and the utilization of contaminant spread models. In general, the surfaces for which higher "Reduction in contamination on the surface" are given in the "Effectiveness" section above may be washed faster. For example, painted metal surfaces (e.g., vehicles) may be rinsed in a matter of minutes—perhaps as quickly as the surfaces can be completely covered with spray. For other surfaces like concrete, rates of 40-80 m2/h (approximately a three-story building), may be desirable; the resulting water demand is met by the IWATERS' water reuse capability. Depending on the PPE used, individuals may need to work restricted shifts. It is assumed that a set-up team will proceed with the team using the IWATERs, and the set-up team is not included in this estimate. A significant degree of planning and time is required to set up the water capture (berm) system to maximize collection of wash waters and minimize leakage. Current methods for flood control permit the deployment of several miles per day of barrier. Team size (people per wash team) One or two (1 -2) per fire truck; two (2) per fire hose to disseminate the wash waters. Three (3) operators for the filter systems. One (1) to monitor berm perimeter for runoff. Factors influencing costs Weather. Size of areas to be treated. Topography of area when treating roads and paved areas. Type of equipment used. Access. Use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Side effects Environmental impact Community population impact The IWATERS is designed to be a systematic integration of components from washing of the building to reusing the water. This scheme minimizes the amount of waste water that must be disposed of or that would enter the environment if not collected as part of the IWATERS system. In the absence of IWATERS or a related system, runoff onto other surfaces results in a transfer of contamination, which may require subsequent cleanup, generating more waste. Disposal of waste water to drains may have an environmental impact and should be performed only in accordance with local regulations and in consultation with local wastewater authorities. Consideration of wastewater utility acceptance of such wastewater, including impact on activated sludge processes, is discussed in reference 2. IWATERS will clean the applied areas; implementation along with supporting data may give the public reassurance that not only has the area been cleaned, the radiological contamination has been mitigated. Repair work on some walls and roofs resulting from water pressure may be required. Practical experience ------- Integrated Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) for Mitigation of Soluble and Particulate Contaminants Washing with water and with additives has been used in a number of historical incidents. • Treatment of walls and roofs has been tested on a realistic scale in the Former Soviet Union and Europe after the Chernobyl accident. • Small-scale tests on the treatment of roads and paved areas have been conducted in Denmark and the USA under varying conditions. • Washing was used following the incident in Goiania. • Washing was used in Japan following the Fukushima accident to clean roofs and outer walls; eaves, roof gutters, storm water catch basins and street gutters (after removing deposited material); parking lots, roads and other paved surfaces (in combination with washing and surface removal). • Washing techniques were demonstrated at the US Environmental Protection Agency and US Department of Homeland Security Technology Demonstration of 'Wide-Area Urban Radiological Contaminant Mitigation and Clean-up: Toolbox of Technologies" June 22-25, 2015. Water collection and the use of adsorbents in treating radiologically impacted waste water have also been studied and implemented in a number of applications. • HESCO® is a worldwide provider of protective barrier solutions and has deployed hundreds of miles of both blast/ballistic and flood protection over the last 20 years. HESCO® has standing orders to provide protective barrier solutions to both the US Military (Defense Logistics Agency) and the US Army Corps of Engineers. The protective barriers are available in a variety of designs and materials suitable for IWATERS application under various site-specific conditions. • Separmatic Systems filter skid systems and systems supplied by other vendors have been used extensively to provide emergency supplies of potable water at rates > 100,000 gallons (400,000 liters) per day. • Clay minerals and modifications thereof have been used extensively for radioactive waste water cleanup. Most applications with natural clays involve their use in underground reactive barrier materials for in situ groundwater treatment. Clays are typically modified to increase the overall mesh size so that they may be used in an ion exchange column format. • Japan has extensive experience in capturing and decontaminating salty waters (e.g., seawater) containing radioactive cesium for reactor decommissioning. Their skid-mounted filtration system was custom-designed in several months and contains a series of engineered ion exchange columns. More than 100 million gallons have been processed over the past four years. The IWATERS systematically combines these components and is backed by data (presented in the references) collected using concentrations of radionuclides that might be encountered in actual deployment. While it is possible to implement the process flow of IWATERS in other ways and with other equipment, it is important that the efficacy of such systems be verified in terms of the entire process from washing to reuse and be appropriate for site specific goals. Key References 1. Public Health England, "UK Recovery Handbooks for Radiation Incidents 2015. Inhabited Areas Handbook. Version 4." https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/svstem/uploads/attachment data/file/432742/PHE- CjRCErOlgJphabjtMjgiig^ IdiMbmOOlSMf accessed March 2, 2016. 2. Water Environmental Research Foundation and US Environmental Protection Agency (2013), "Report on the Workshop on Radionuclides in Wastewater Infrastructure Resulting from Emergency Situations", EPA 600/R-13/159 http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si public file download.cfm?p download id=515069 accessed Jan 2016 3. US Environmental Protection Agency (2013) "Irreversible Wash Aid Additive System for Cesium Mitigation: Demonstration and Lessons Learned" [includes IWATERS design and implementation details]. Contact magnuson.matthewfijepa.gov 4. Michael Kaminski, Carol Mertz, Nadia Kivenas, Matthew Magnuson (2015) "Irreversible Wash Aid Additive for Cesium Mitigation: Selection and/or Modification of COTS Field Portable Waste Water Systems," Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL/NE-15/13 [includes IWATERS design and implementation details]. Contact kaminskifijanl.gov 5. Michael Kaminski (2015) "Irreversible Wash Aid Additive for Cesium Mitigation: Small Scale- Demonstration and Lessons Learned," Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL/NE-15/12 [includes IWATERS design and implementation details]. Contact kaminskifijanl.gov 6. Michael Kaminski (2015) "Irreversible Wash Aid Additive for Cesium Mitigation: WARRP ------- Integrated Wash-Aid, Treatment, and Emergency Reuse System (IWATERS) for Mitigation of Soluble and Particulate Contaminants Demonstration," Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL/NE-15/15 [includes IWATERS design and implementation details]. Contact kaminskifijanl.gov 7. Michael D. Kaminski, Carol Mertz, Nadia Kivenas, Matthew Magnuson, Emily Snyder, Sang Don Lee (2015) "Developing a Method of Infrastructure Mitigation via a Cesium-137 Wash Aid," Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL/NE-15/16. Contact kaminskifijanl.gov 8. US Environmental Protection Agency (2016) "Technical Report for the Demonstration of Radiological Decontamination and Mitigation Technologies for Building Structures and Vehicles".http:/www.epa.gov/hsresearch. available March 2016 9. Michael D. Kaminski, Sang Don Lee, Matthew Magnuson (2016) "Wide-area decontamination in an urban environment after radiological dispersion: A review and perspectives." Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2016 Volume 305, 15 March 2016, Pages 67-86. 10. US Environmental Protection Agency (2014) Fate and Transport of Cesium RDD Contamination - Implications for Cleanup Operations. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-14/250. http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si public file download.cfm?p download id =523167 accessed Dec 2015 11. Mark S. Denton, Joshua L. Mertz, Wlliam D. Bostick, "Fukushima Nuclear Crisis Recovery: A Modular Water Treatment System Deployed in Seven Weeks," - Paper 12489, WM 2012 Conference, February 26-March 1, 2012 Phoenix, AZ. 12. Michael D. Kaminski, Carol Mertz, Luis Ortega,Nadia Kivenas (2016) "Sorption of Radionuclides to Building Materials and its Removal Using Simple Wash Solutions" Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2016, 3 February 2016 13. TEPCO, "Contaminated Water Treatment" http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/decommision/planaction/alps/index-e.html accessed Jan 2016 14. Contact for additional specific information: magnuson.matthewfijepa.gov or Igg^aQgdor^gBgLagy. See also moMmj^mm^imesearch keyword: radiological Version 1. Prepared by Matthew Magnuson, Sang Don Lee, and Michael Kaminski Document history This datasheet is formatted to resemble the datasheets in Reference 1, also the source and disclaimer of much of the content in this datasheet that is not specifically related to the IWATERS system. This work was supported by the United States Department of Homeland Security/Science and Technology Directorate in collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/ National Homeland Security Research Center through an interagency agreement. It has been subjected to an administrative review but does not necessarily reflect the views of either Agency. Mention of trade names, products, or services does not convey official EPA approval, endorsement, or recommendation. ------- |