SEPA

www.epa.gov/research

Technical BRIEF

INNOVATIVE RESEARCH FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

Decontamination of Indoor Porous and Permeable Surfaces
Contaminated with Persistent Chemical Warfare Agents

VX and sulfur mustard, HD

Practical data regarding decontamination and disposal of contaminated building materials

Background

An intentional and nefarious attack or unintentional
release of a chemical warfare agent (CWA) is expected to
trigger a significant effort to clean up a contaminated
area. Such effort becomes more complex when
considering the permeability of common indoor building
materials to some CWAs. While surface decontamination
options exist for nonporous or nonpermeable materials
that are contaminated with some of the more persistent
CWAs [1-5], such as VX, HD, and FGAs, information about
applying these options to porous or permeable materials
is limited. Permeable materials include painted surfaces,
which account for 60% to 70% of exposed surfaces in
residences [6], Past EPA research has demonstrated that
CWAs such as VX and sulfur mustard (HD) can permeate
into paint and various materials [7], Studied surface
decontamination technologies consist of an oxidative or
hydrolytic active ingredient (sometimes created by
onsite mixing of two chemicals), water, and sometimes
surfactants. These types of solutions tend to remain on
the surface with minimal to no absorption into a
permeable material. This can leave
unreacted/nondegraded chemical agent remaining in or
below the permeable material, leading to the likelihood
that the unreacted chemical will eventually diffuse back
to the surface, reappearing as a surface contact hazard
and potential vapor emission source. This potential to
diffuse back to the surface has not been verified for
CWAs; however, it has likely occurred in remediation
efforts following organophosphate pesticide misuse
cases in which initial decontamination efforts are
deemed successful followed by reappearance of the
same pesticide in follow-up surface sampling.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Homeland
Security Research Program (HSRP) develops
scientific products based on research and
technology evaluations. Our products and expertise
are widely used in preventing, preparing for, and
recovering from public health and environmental
emergencies that arise from terrorist attacks or
natural disasters. Our research and products
address biological, radiological, and chemical
contaminants that could affect indoor areas,
outdoor areas, and water infrastructure. The HSRP
provides these products, technical assistance, and
expertise to support EPA's roles and responsibilities
under the National Response Framework, statutory
requirements, and Presidential Directives.

Purpose

This technical brief serves as a summary that compiles
data from recent EPA HSRP bench-scale studies [1-4, 8]
that assessed decontamination efficacies for porous and
permeable materials contaminated with VX and HD. This
summary includes decontamination studies intended to
overcome the initially observed lower efficacy results
through modifications in decontamination strategy (e.g.,
extended dwell times, double applications, etc.) or
introduction of chemicals intended to cause migration of
permeated contaminate back to the surface. The
purpose of this summary is to provide decision-makers
with practical information on potential percent of
remaining residuals after decontamination, efforts to
improve efficacy, and identification of material types
that are impractical, if not impossible, to clean to the
intended clearance level. This practical information will
inform the remediation strategy for the
decontamination of contaminated interior areas.

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Definitions and Descriptions

A recent technical summary on transport of VX and HD
[7] identified built environment materials in four
different groups based on their porosity and
permeability:

(I)	Nonporous, impermeable materials. Glass, metal,
and glazed ceramic tiles belong to this category. VX and
HD tend to remain on the surface of this type of material
and can be degraded without concerns that the chemical
agent is inaccessible to the decontaminant [1-5].

(II)	Nonporous, permeable materials. Organic materials
such as rubber, silicone, vinyl, or laminate belong to this
category. VX and HD can diffuse into these materials.

This group also includes painted or sealed materials that
can be porous. While paints and sealants are intended to
prevent water absorption, VX and HD behave differently
than water in terms of material permeability.

(III)	Porous, low permeability materials. Concrete,
limestone, and various types of unsealed wood belong to
this category. VX and HD can be absorbed quickly into
the material by filling the pores. VX and HD are not
expected to chemically adsorb into and diffuse through
the material (at the molecular level) but remain on the
interior surface of the pores.

(IV)	Porous, high permeability materials. Carpet,
upholstery, and ceiling tile belong to this category. For
these materials, a liquid CWA may fill the porous spaces
by capillary action, followed by adsorption and diffusion
into the material.

Experimental Methods

The decontamination studies followed a generic
contamination approach: Contaminating the material via
application of neat CWA droplet(s) (1 — 2 |j.L volume)
followed by a defined contact time prior to
decontamination. This contact time varied among the
studies from 30 min to three days (72 h).
Decontamination was conducted via application of the
liquid decontaminant. Earlier studies [1,2,4] used a
pipette to apply the decontaminant; later studies [3,5,7]
used a spray application. The dwell time of the
decontaminant among the individual studies varied
between 30 min and 120 min. Several studies [1,2,5,7]
extended testing by including modifications to
decontamination procedures such as longer dwell times,
repeated application of the same decontaminant, or
application of a chemical prior to decontamination

intended to cause the CWA to migrate back to the
surface. Such chemicals are marketed as "stain
removers" for painted surfaces, so the intent was to
investigate if they could serve this function of VX and
HD.

Earlier decontamination studies, that included
permeable or porous materials, determined efficacy by
measuring residual CWA on a material via extraction
[1,2]. Low efficacy (especially when compared to efficacy
for nonporous materials) could be attributed to some
absorption of the CWA into a material where it would
not come into contact with the decontaminant at the
surface. Later studies [3-5] separated residual CWA on
the surface from what permeated into a material by first
wiping the surface, followed by the extraction of the
material coupon to determine how much agent
remained inside. The transport of chemical agent in
paint and sealant layers followed by decontamination
was the subject of one study [8] which used a low
volatility agent permeation (LVAP) method. This method
allowed for measurement of residual CWA on the paint
or sealant surface via surface wipe sampling;
measurement of residual agent in the paint or sealant by
extraction of the paint or sealant layer; and
measurement of CWA that permeated through the paint
or sealant. This was accomplished by using a simulated
porous subsurface below the paint or sealant.

Prior to each of the decontamination efficacy studies,
surface wipe sampling methods and material extraction
methods were verified, as applicable, with regard to
their efficiency to sample the targeted CWA from all
materials.

Permeation Results

Each decontamination study included positive controls
(contaminated materials not exposed to the
decontaminant but otherwise handled in the same
manner as the test material) such that changes in mass
recovered after decontamination can be separated from
other fate and transport mechanisms such as
evaporation, permeation, natural degradation, etc.

These positive controls provide a first insight in the
degree to which VX and HD permeate into a material.
Figure 1 illustrates CWA permeation for some of the
materials that are discussed in more detail below. This
graph is limited to those materials for which the CWA on
the surface could be separated from the amount that
was absorbed into the material.

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Decontamination Results

The observed decontamination efficacy results are
provided per material, ordered according to the four
previously defined material groups. Table 1 (HD) and
Table 2 (VX) provide information on recoveries for tested
materials. Tables 3 and 4 contain relevant information
on the tested decontaminants and materials,
respectively. Additional details can be found in the
referenced decontamination study reports [1-4,8],

Figure 1. Percent of HD and VX permeated into various
permeable materials after specific contact times based on
positive control recoveries for decontamination studies.
ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

I.	Nonporous, impermeable materials

Results on the decontamination of nonporous,
impermeable materials are outside the scope of this
summary. Decontamination efficacies are typically the
highest for this type of materials and can be better than
99.9%. See references [1-4] for efficacy data for surfaces
such as glass, stainless steel, galvanized steel, aluminum,
and glazed ceramic tiles that are contaminated with VX
or HD.

II.	Nonporous, permeable materials

Laminate: Decontamination by chemical degradation of
VX and HD from (decorative) laminate was included in an
EPA study that evaluated household and industrial
cleaning products [1], Better than 99% efficacy was
obtained with full strength bleach for VX and HD
contaminated laminate after a 60-min dwell time. In this
study, the contact time between the CWA and the
laminate was only 30 min. This study did not
differentiate between VX or HD on the surface layer (and
accessible by surface wiping) and VX or HD that
permeated into the laminate since the whole material
coupon was extracted.

Rubber: Rubber (wall base molding) was part of a
decontamination study which separated out VX and HD
before and after decontamination by wipe sampling the
material followed by extraction of any residual chemical
[3], The study included prolonged exposure to HD and
VX (4h and 24h, respectively) on the rubber prior to
decontamination with various technologies. HD residuals
on the surface of rubber after decontamination with full
strength bleach, 3% hydrogen peroxide, or EasyDECON
DF200 were low, with high (>90%) efficacies at the
surface. However, significant amounts of unreacted HD
were recovered when extracting the material (40-70% of
applied amount recovered). Similarly, residual VX on the
surface was low after decontamination (except for 3%
hydrogen peroxide product) leading to >95% efficacy,
but the recovered VX mass from inside the material was
about equal to the amount recovered from a nontreated
rubber coupon.

Painted/Sealed Materials. Interpretation of the
decontamination results for painted or sealed surfaces is
complex, as it requires interpretation of changes in CWA
mass at the surface, in the paint or sealant layer, and in
permeated CWA mass in the subsurface material below
the paint or sealant layer [7], This research showed that
none of the tested decontaminants (bleach, Dahlgren
Decon, and Decon7) can degrade HD and VXthat has
permeated through the paint or sealant into a porous
subsurface material. The HD mass that permeated
through the paint or sealant layer to the subsurface
material accounted for 64%-73% or 80%-85%,
respectively, of the applied HD. Similarly, for VX, 38%-
47% or 0.1%-16% of the applied amount on the paint or
sealant, respectively, was found in the porous
subsurface material below the paint or sealant layer.

Changes such as reapplication of the decontaminant
combined with a doubling of the dwell time on the

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surface or by pretreating the surface with a pre-
decontamination chemical (i.e., a stain remover) did not
make a difference in the CWA mass recovered from the
material below the paint or sealant.

Extraction of the paint and sealant layers after treatment
with bleach, Dahlgren Decon, and Decon7 showed some
positive effect in that these decontaminants degraded
VX and HD that had permeated into these layers. These
reductions varied by layer type and chemical agent.
Further, significant amounts remained in the layer (34% -
97%) with respect to positive controls and across
decontamination tests including both CWAs and all three
decontaminants. There was also some improvement
when the decontaminant was reapplied, when the dwell
time was doubled, or when a stain-remover chemical
was added. However, the broad range in measured CWA
recoveries from extracted materials made it impossible
to determine whether these improvements were
statistically significant. Results for the stain remover
applications were inconclusive and not shown in Tables 1
and 2 but can be found in the EPA report [8],

Decontamination of VX and HD that resided on the paint
and sealant surface was generally efficacious, but the
remaining amounts (4% - 76%) would still pose a hazard.
These results are limited in interpretation due to the
small amount of CWA remaining on the surface under
most of the test conditions due to the high degree of
permeation.

ABS plastic. The decontamination study that included
ABS plastic included measurement of VX and HD from
the surface after decontamination plus residual chemical
mass that was associated with the bulk material [4],
Positive controls for ABS plastic contaminated with VX
showed that at most 2% of the applied amount had
permeated into the material after one hour, which likely
is within inherent experimental error of the surface
sampling technique. By contrast for HD, the positive
controls indicated that about 40% of the total recovered
mass was found within the ABS plastic after one hour.
Table 1 (HD) and Table 2 (VX) show percent recoveries
when ABS plastic was decontaminated with EasyDECON
DF200, Dahlgren Decon, and chlorine dioxide containing
liquid.

Acrylic plastic. Acrylic plastic was part of the
decontamination study described for the ABS plastic [4],
For acrylic plastic, the amounts of VX and HD that
permeated into the material were less than 1% and

1.5%, respectively, after one hour. The reported efficacy
data are limited to the surface decontamination by the
inherent experimental error of the wipe sampling
method. Table 1 (HD) and Table 2 (VX) show percent
recoveries when acrylic plastic was decontaminated with
EasyDECON DF200, Dahlgren Decon, and chlorine
dioxide containing liquid.

III.	Porous, low permeability materials

Plywood. CWAs may absorb into bare plywood, resulting
in lower decontamination efficacy for full strength and
10% diluted bleach for VX [1] and HD [1,2], compared to
nonporous materials (glass, galvanized metal) under
otherwise identical conditions. Since the whole material
coupon was extracted, these studies did not address the
possible partitioning between VX or HD that remained
on the surface (after 30 min contact time) and VX or HD
that permeated into the plywood material as the
material coupon was extracted. Components of the
plywood (e.g., cellulose) probably also created a material
demand (i.e., a loss in active ingredient concentration
due to interactions with the material) for oxidant in the
bleach decontamination solution, leading to lower
efficacy. In addition, plywood contains glues and other
substances that may have their own adsorptive
properties, and these may vary among manufacturers.
The plywood studied was pine or fir, common in many
applications; other species are possible.

IV.	Porous, high permeability materials

Carpet. Decontamination efficacy for VX and HD
contaminated industrial nylon carpet with full strength
bleach was found to be considerably high (77% and 73%
for VX and HD, respectively) [1], with >99% for
galvanized metal (both CWAs) for reference. One
explanation may be the short (30 min) contact time
between VX or HD and carpet prior to decontamination,
during which diffusion of the CWA into the material at
the molecular level is limited. Also, permeation of HD
and VX into the nylon fibers may be low. Actual cleanup
responses are likely to occur days after a CWA release.
This study did not address the possible partitioning
between VX or HD that remained on the surface (and
possibly accessible by surface wiping) and VX or HD that
permeated into the carpet since the whole carpet
coupon was extracted.

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Table 1. Summary of Surfaces, Test Parameters, and Percent Recoveries for HD Decontamination Studies.







Contact



HD percent recovered on surface and



Surface

Subsurface Material

Function

Time
(h)

Decontaminant, Dwell Time

in other layers of material (as
applicable)

Ref.

1. Nonporous, impermeable materials

Not included in this summary

II. Nonporous, permeable materials

Laminate

Miscellaneous; none
included in testing;
sheet only

Workspace surfaces,

0.5

Full strength bleach, 1 h

<1% (whole material extraction)

1

flooring, furniture

10% diluted bleach, 1 h

69% (whole material extraction)









Full strength bleach, 1 h

0.013% (surface); 39% (in material)



Rubber

Bulk

Wall base molding

4

3% Hydrogen Peroxide, 1 h

7% (surface); 71% (in material)

3









EasyDECON DF200, 1 h

10% (surface); 52% (in material)











Full strength bleach, 1 h

18% (surface); 34% (layer)



Paint-Semi-Gloss
Enamel

Solid Phase
Extraction (SPE) disk
(surrogate for
porous material)

To protect and/or
color materials (which
can be porous or
nonporous)



Full strength bleach, 2 h
(double application)

11% (surface); 10% (layer)



24

Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

18% (surface); 97% (layer)

8



Decon7,1 h

36% (surface); 75% (layer)







Decon7, 2 h (double
application)

11% (surface); 17% (layer)











Full strength bleach, 1 h

0% (surface; below LOQ); 100% (layer)





SPE disk (surrogate
for porous material)

To protect materials



Full strength bleach, 2 h
(double application)

0% (surface; below LOQ); 52% (layer)



Sealant - Polyurethane

(which can be porous
or nonporous)

24

Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

0% (surface; below LOQ); ND (layer)

8









Decon7,1 h

ND (surface); ND(layer)











Decon7, 2 h (double
application)

ND (surface); 72% (layer)











EasyDECON DF200, 1 h

56% (surface); 99% (in material)







Electronic cases, 3D
printing material



Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

60% (surface); 65% (in material)



ABS Plastic

Bulk

1

Electrochemically generated
aqueous chlorine dioxide
(eCI02), 1 h

35% (surface); ND (in material)

4

Acrylic Plastic

Bulk

Protective covers,

1

EasyDECON DF200, 1 h

79% (surface); <1% (in material)

4

Liquid Crystal Display

Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

46% (surface); <1% (in material)

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Contact HD percent recovered on surface and
Surface Subsurface Material Function Time Decontaminant, Dwell Time in other layers of material (as Ref.

(h) applicable)





(LCD) screens,
furniture



eCI02,1 h

38% (surface); <1% (in material)



III. Porous, low adsorption materials

Fir Plywood

Bulk

Supporting wood
flooring under e.g.,
carpet

0.5

Full strength bleach, 0.5 h

24% (whole material extraction)

1

Full strength bleach, 1.0 h

34% (whole material extraction)

10% Diluted bleach, 0.5 h

ND (whole material extraction)

10% Diluted bleach, 1.0 h

ND (whole material extraction)





Pine Plywood

Bulk

Supporting wood
flooring under e.g.,
carpet

0.5

Full strength bleach, 0.5 h

24% (whole material extraction)



10% Diluted bleach, 0.5 h

ND (whole material extraction)

2

10% Diluted bleach, 1.0 h

88% (whole material extraction)



3% Hydrogen Peroxide, 0.5 h

70% (whole material extraction)



IV. Porous, high adsorption materials

Carpet

Not considered

Flooring material

0.5

Full strength bleach, 0.5 h

23% (whole material extraction)

1

Full strength bleach, 1.0 h

3% (whole material extraction)

10% Diluted bleach, 0.5 h

82% (whole material extraction)

10% Diluted bleach, 1.0 h

79% (whole material extraction)

ND: No significant difference between recoveries from test coupon and positive control
LOQ: Limit of Quantification

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Table 2. Summary of Surfaces, Test Parameters, and Percent Recoveries for VX Decontamination Studies.







Contact



VX percent recovered on surface



Surface

Subsurface

Function

Time

Decontaminant, Dwell Time

and in other layers of material (as

Ref.

Material

(h)

applicable) post decon (vs positive
control)

1. Nonporous, impermeable materials

Not included in this summary

II. Nonporous, permeable materials

Laminate

Miscellaneous

Workspace surfaces,

0.5

Full strength bleach

<1% (whole material extraction)

1

flooring, furniture

10% Diluted bleach

77% (whole material extraction)





Escalator handrail,
wall base molding



Full strength bleach, 1 h

4.5% (surface); 105% (in material)



Rubber

Bulk

24

3% Hydrogen Peroxide, 1 h

83% (surface); 102% (in material)

3







EasyDECON DF200, 1 h

7% (surface); 108% (in material)











Full strength bleach, 1 h

ND (surface); 79% (layer)





SPE disk

To protect and/or
color materials (which
can be porous or
nonporous)



Full strength bleach, 2 h
(double application)

17% (surface); 62% (layer)



Paint - Semi-Gloss Enamel

(surrogate for

24

Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

50% (surface); 79% (layer)

8



porous material)



Dahlgren Decon, 2 h (double
application)

20%(surface); 77% (layer)











Decon7,1 h

76% (surface); 66% (layer)











Full strength bleach, 1 h

4% (surface); 51% (layer)





SPE disk

To protect materials



Full strength bleach, 2 h
(double application)

0.01% (surface); 57% (layer)



Sealant - Polyurethane

(surrogate for

(which can be porous

24

Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

3% (surface); 89% (layer)

8



porous material)

or nonporous)



Dahlgren Decon, 2 h (double
application)

1% (surface); 76% (layer)











Decon7,1 h

ND (surface); 70% (layer)







Electronic cases, 3D
printing material



EasyDECON DF200, 1 h

16% (surface); ND (in material)



ABS Plastic

Bulk

1

Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

0.7% (surface); 6% (in material)

4







eCI02,1 h

94% (surface); ND (in material)







Protective covers,
LCD screens, furniture



EasyDECON DF200, 1 h

1.4% (surface); <1% (in material)



Acrylic Plastic

Bulk

1

Dahlgren Decon, 1 h

1.0% (surface); <1% (in material)

4







eCI02,1 h

70% (surface); <1% (in material)



III. Porous, low adsorption materials

Fir Plywood

Bulk



0.5

Full strength bleach, 1 h

42% (whole material extraction)

1

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Contact



VX percent recovered on surface



Surface

Subsurface

Function

Time

Decontaminant, Dwell Time

and in other layers of material (as

Ref.

Material

(h)

applicable) post decon (vs positive
control)





Supporting wood













flooring under e.g.,



10% Diluted bleach, 1 h

29% (whole material extraction)







carpet









IV. Porous, high adsorption materials









Full strength bleach, 0.5 h

24% (whole material extraction)



Carpet

Not considered

Flooring material

0.5

Full strength bleach, 1.0 h

23% (whole material extraction)

1









10% Diluted bleach, 1.0 h

47% (whole material extraction)



ND: Not determined as amount recovered from test coupon exceeded amount recovered from positive control
Table 3. Decontamination Technologies Supporting Information	Table 4. Material Supporting Information

Study

Decontaminant

Information

references





1,2

Full strength
bleach

Household Bleach (sodium hypochlorite, 5.25%)

1,2

10% Diluted
bleach

10-fold diluted Household Bleach

2,3

3% Hydrogen
Peroxide

3% Hydrogen Peroxide

3

Full strength
bleach

Bleach (sodium hypochlorite, 7.3%)

3,4

EasyDECON

EasyDECON DF200 (Intelagard), n-Alkyl(C12-C16)



DF200

N, N-dimethyl N-benzylammonium chloride,
8.0% hydrogen peroxide, diacetin; active
ingredient is activated hydrogen peroxide

4,8

Dahlgren Decon

Dahlgren Decon (First Line Technology), water &
surfactant, sodium hydroxide, peracetyl borate;
active ingredient is peroxyacetic acid

4

eCI02

eCI02 solution (TDS Research, Inc.)

8

Full strength
bleach

Bleach (sodium hypochlorite, 6%)

7

Decon7

Decon7 (Decon7 Systems), surfactants/inorganic
salts (Part 1), hydrogen peroxide (Part 2), and
diacetin (Part 3); active ingredient is activated
hydrogen peroxide

Study

Material

Information

reference





1

Laminate

Decorative laminate (phenolic), Pionite, matte
finish

1

Carpet

Industrial grade carpet Shaw Industries Inc.; Style
#M7832 (Nylon)

1

Fir Plywood

Fir plywood flooring (bare)

2

Pine Plywood

Pine plywood flooring (bare)

3

Rubber

ROPPE Pinnacle rubber black wall cove base

4

ABS Plastic

Common thermoplastic

4

Acrylic Plastic

Acrylic, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA),
Plexiglas

8

Paint

Behr Premium plus low odor, paint and primer in

one. Semi-gloss enamel, 100% acrylic

8

Sealant

Rust-Oleum 6711 system waterborne oil-modified

polyurethane floor coating

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Impact of CWA Transport into Permeable
Materials on Decontamination Efficacy

The observed transport of the CWAs VX and HD into
permeable materials impacts the ability to
decontaminate these materials.

I.	Nonporous, impermeable materials

VX and HD will remain on the nonporous or
impermeable surface. These types of surfaces can be
relatively straightforward to clean/decontaminate.
These materials are expected to remain in place and
would not enter the waste stream.

II.	Nonporous, permeable materials

The observed transfer of CWAs into this group of
materials is agent and material specific as illustrated in
Figure 1 for different plastics, rubbers, paints, and
sealants. Full decontamination of these materials is
expected to be complex considering the limited ability
of water-based decontaminants to react with CWAs in
the material layer(s). Tested modifications to
decontamination approaches such as the use of a stain
remover [7] did not improve overall efficacy. For
materials such as rubber, ABS, acrylic, or laminate,
residual CWA after decontamination may diffuse back
to the surface from which it could volatilize and
become an airborne and contact hazard. Currently,
effective decontamination of these types of materials
remains near impossible. In many cases, these
materials may become part of the waste stream.

III.	Porous, low adsorption materials

Based on the limited number of materials that were
tested (only two species of plywood), it is expected
that significant amounts of VX or HD would remain
after decontamination with full strength bleach or 10-
fold diluted bleach. Absorption of these CWAs into
porous materials is highly likely. Degradation through
interactions with the material should not be excluded
either, especially for materials known to be reactive in
nature, such as cellulose. Applied decontaminants may
not be able to reach deep into pores. Currently,
decontamination of these materials is difficult. In many
cases, they may become part of the waste stream.

IV.	Porous, high adsorption materials

Decontamination studies for this group of materials
have been limited. The impact on decontamination is

expected to be like those for the porous, low
adsorption materials described under (III).

Limitations of Decontamination Studies

•	All decontamination studies were conducted with
representative, new and clean surfaces and
materials. Soiling, degradation, hardening, cracking
or other deteriorations by wear and tear over time
would impact the transport and permeation as well
as the decontamination of contaminated materials.

•	Other materials with similar names to the ones
studied here can be expected to behave differently
than described in this summary. This is based on the
large number of materials used historically and
currently marketed compared to the limited
numbers of these products investigated in these
studies. This also applies to decontamination
products such as household bleach.

•	While some, unstudied materials may be resistant to
VX and HD permeation, at an actual contaminated
site, it may be impossible to determine what the
composition of all contaminated materials may be.
This will profoundly influence the role of
decontamination in overall site remediation and
disposition.

•	Some of the decontamination studies [1,3] included
decontaminants that were less efficacious than
bleach on nonporous materials and were not
included in this summary.

Contact Information
Technical Contacts

Lukas Oudejans, oudejans.lukas(5)epa.gov

General Feedback/Questions Contact

CESER(a)epa.gov

Disclaimer: This document is for informational
purposes only. It was subject to administrative review
but does not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Any mention
of or reference to commercial products, processes, or
services by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not imply an endorsement by the U.S.
Government or the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and shall not be used for advertising or
product endorsement purposes. EPA does not endorse
any commercial products, services, or enterprises.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Research and Development EPA/600/S-23/198 | September2023


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References

1.	U.S. EPA. Evaluation of Household or Industrial Cleaning Products for Remediation of Chemical Agents. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-11/055, 2011.

2.	Stone, H, D See, A Smiley, A Ellingson, J Schimmoeller, and L Oudejans. Surface decontamination for blister agents
Lewisite, sulfur mustard and agent yellow, a Lewisite and sulfur mustard mixture. J Hazard. Mater., 314: 59-66, 2016.

3.	Oudejans, Land S. Chattopadhyay. Remediation Options for Porous Materials Contaminated with Persistent
Chemical Warfare Agents VX and HD. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/660/R-17/348,
2017.

4.	Oudejans, L, D See. Efficacy and Compatibility of Decontamination Options for Sensitive Equipment-Related
Materials Contaminated with Persistent Chemical Warfare Agents. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-19/075, 2019.

5.	Oudejans, L, M Magnuson, J Sherrieb, R Fitzpatrick, and K Rindfusz. Decontamination Options for Sensitive
Equipment-related Materials Contaminated with a Fourth Generation Agent (FGA). U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-22/164, 2022.

6.	Manuja, A, J Ritchie, K Buch, Y Wu, CMA. Eichler, JC Little and LC Marr. Total surface area in indoor environments.
Environ. Sci.: Processes & Impacts, 21: 1384-1392, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9EM00157C.

7.	U.S. EPA. Transport of Persistent Chemical Warfare Agents HD and VX into Porous Materials and Permeable Layers:
Practical data for remediation of contaminated building materials. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/S-21/155, 2021.

8.	U.S. EPA. Decontamination Options for Surface Layers Containing Permeated Chemical Warfare Agents HD and VX
and Pesticides Malathion and Fipronil. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-22/037,
2022.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Research and Development EPA/600/S-23/198 | September2023


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