Summary of methods and considerations for wide-area
outdoor remediation following contamination incidents
involving non-spore-forming agents
Purpose and Organization
This summary outlines the current progress US EPA's Homeland Security Research Program (HSRP) has made through
development of scientific products that support building capabilities for non-spore-forming biological agent incident responses.
These products outlined within this summary are meant to advance the body of science, close knowledge and capability gaps,
provide the data to underpin decision support tools, and provide scientifically sound information to support emergency response
decisions regarding sampling, decontamination, and waste management.
The products within this online summary are organized into 3 sections: Incident Characterization. Environmental Countermeasures.
and Waste Management. Each Section contains Tables with a hyperlinked list of EPA-developed scientific products that support
EPA response capabilities for contamination incidents involving non-spore-forming microorganisms, in that corresponding section's
mission space. This list of products is current as of the date published on this webpage. Summaries presented within the Tables were
generated by chatGPT (OpenAI) and refined by the authors. A final Section lists some of the remaining knowledge and capability
gaps that could be useful for prioritization of future research investment. Table 6 provides a list of the references by topic area.
Summary to be posted at - https://www.epa.gov/emergency-response-research
Introduction
On earth, microorganisms (fungi, protozoa, bacteria, viruses) vastly outnumber humans, plants, and animals (Bar-On, Phillips, &
Milo, 2018; Mushegian, 2020). Many microorganisms are beneficial, even essential, to human health, ecosystem function, food
production, global climate stability, and ocean health (Pedros-Alio, 2006; Stark, 2010). However, a subset of microorganisms is
pathogenic (disease-causing) to other organisms. Environments contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, in a manner that
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poses risk of disease to humans, may require risk mitigation measures to eliminate or reduce disease occurrence. Under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) (U.S. Congress, 1980), the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan (40 CFR 300) ("National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (40
CFR 300)," 2015) authorizes the U.S. EPA to respond to releases of biologicals into the environment, as pollutants or contaminants,
to reduce risk and adverse impacts to human health and the environment.
Since the 2001 Anthrax attacks, the U.S. has focused largely on building capabilities for response, remediation, and recovery
following a Bacillus anthracis contamination incident. B. anthracis is a spore-forming bacterium that is highly persistent in the
environment and resistant to chemical and physical inactivation. These traits make B. anthracis a formidable challenge to
environmental cleanup operations. In general, decontamination procedures that work on B. anthracis are also effective on non-spore
forming biological agents, although those approaches may be overly stringent for the situation. Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic
highlighted the potential impacts of non-spore-forming biological agents as an important class of agents to be investigated on their
own merits. While typically less stable in the environment and more susceptible to environmental countermeasures, non-spore-
forming agents can pose unique challenges and risks. Most notably, some non-spore-forming bacteria and viruses are communicable
(able to spread from person-to-person). Communicable disease agents can effectively overcome their relatively low environmental
persistence to generate long-term incidents through sustained person-to-person transmission including via contaminated surfaces and
objects. Inactivation of microorganisms within complex matrices such as carpet, soil and wood is difficult (Calfee & Wendling,
2013; Richter et al., 2022; Wyrzykowska-Ceradini et al., 2019). Such matrix effects on decontamination efficacy may override
agent-related resistance such as described in the Spaulding hierarchy (Wyrzykowska-Ceradini et al., 2019). Non-spore-forming
agents include bacteria and viruses that have caused pandemics (e.g., SARS-CoV-1, SARS-CoV-2, Influenza), Foreign Animal
Disease Outbreaks (e.g., African Swine Fever, Foot and Mouth Disease, Porcine Endemic Disease, Highly Pathogenic Avian
Influenza [HPAI]) and various unpredictable contamination incidents in the U.S. and its Territories (e.g., Burkholderiapseudomallei
in the Tulane Primate Center (US CDC, 2015), Burkholderia pseudomallei in an aromatherapy room spray marketed in the U.S.
(Gee et al., 2022; Petras et al., 2022), Monkeypox (Minhaj et al., 2022), Ebola (Yacisin et al., 2015), Newcastle Disease (USDA-
APHIS, 2021)). Some non-spore forming agents (e.g., some variants of HPAI) are zoonotic in nature, meaning that they exhibit
adverse impacts on both people and animals.
This summary outlines the current progress U.S. EPA's Homeland Security Research Program (HSRP) has made through
development of scientific products that support capabilities for non-spore-forming biological incident response. While significant
progress has been made, many gaps remain. Collectively, the products presented herein are meant to advance the body of science,
close knowledge and capability gaps, provide the data to underpin decision support tools, and provide scientifically sound
information to support emergency response decisions at the operational level regarding sampling, decontamination, and waste
management.
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Scientific Products to Support Incident Characterization
Table 1. Agent Persistence
Ref
Year
Reference
Summary
Link
1
2020
Joseph P. Wood*, William Richter,
Michelle Sunderman, Worth Calfee,
Shannon Serre, and Leroy Mickelsen.
2020. Evaluating the Environmental
Persistence and Inactivation of MS2
Bacteriophage and the Presumed
Ebola Virus Surrogate Phi6 Using
Low Concentration Hydrogen
Peroxide Vaoor. Environmental
Science and Technology, 54(6): 3581-
3590.
This article evaluates the environmental persistence and
inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage and Phi6 using low
concentration hydrogen peroxide vapor. Phi6 is an enveloped
virus, the same classification of virus as Ebola virus. The study
finds that both MS2 and Phi6 were effectively inactivated by
low concentration hydrogen peroxide vapor within a short time.
The results indicate that hydrogen peroxide vapor at low
concentrations can be an effective method for environmental
disinfection against viruses. This research has implications for
the development of strategies to mitigate the spread of viral
infections in healthcare settings and other environments where
effective disinfection is crucial.
R
2
2015
Determination of the Persistence of
Non-SDore-Forming Biological Threat
Agents in the Environment. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-15/303,
December 2015.
This report focuses on determining the persistence of non-
spore-forming biological threat agents (Yersinia pestis,
Biirkhotderia mallei, Francisella tularensis) in the
environment. The report provides insights into the
environmental behavior and longevity of these biological
agents, which can be used for assessing the risks associated
with their potential release into the environment. The report
contains information on methodologies, experimental findings,
and recommendations for further research or mitigation
strategies related to non-spore-forming biological threat agents.
3
2014
Environmental Persistence of
Vegetative Bacillus anthrach and
Yersinia pest is U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Washington, D C.,
EPA/600/R-14/150, July 2014.
This article investigates the environmental persistence of
vegetative Bacillus cmthracis and Yersinia pestis. The study
aims to understand how these two biological agents, which can
cause anthrax and plague respectively, behave in the
environment in their vegetative form. The article includes
information on experimental findings, methodologies, and
recommendations for further research related to the persistence
of these pathogens in the environment. The study's results have
implications for risk assessment, mitigation strategies, and
public health measures related to these bacterial agents in
environmental settings.
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2014 Persistence of Categories A and B
Select Agents in Environmental
Matrices. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, National Homeland
Security Research Center, Washington,
D C, EPA/600/R-14/074. June 2014.
This report is a literature review that summarizes the
persistence of Category A and B select agents in environmental
matrices. The authors summarize the longevity of several select
agents (Bacillus anthracis, Brucella species, Burkholderia
mallei, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Francisella tularensis,
Coxiella burnetii, Viral Encephalitis, hemorrhagic fever
viruses, and Yersiniapestis) in various environmental
conditions and matrices. The article also discusses the potential
implications of these findings for risk assessment, emergency
response planning, and public health preparedness.
2013 Wood, J.P., Choi, Y.W., Wendling,
M.Q., Rogers, J.V., and Chappie,
D.J. 2013. Environmental persistence
and inactivation of vaccinia virus on
materials. Letters in Applied
Microbiology, 57(5): 399-404.
Vaccinia virus, which is used as a surrogate for variola virus
(the causative agent of smallpox), was found to persist for
weeks to months on various materials under different
environmental conditions. The virus was most persistent at low
temperatures and low relative humidity, with minimal
reduction in viral load over a 56-day period. This information
can aid in decision-making for infection control measures, such
as the need for environmental decontamination, in the event of
a release of variola virus as a biological weapon or during a
potential outbreak of smallpox.
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2010 Persistence Testing of Brucella suis on
Outdoor Materials. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Washington, D C.,
EPA/600/R-10/026, April 2010.
The persistence of Brucella suis on various materials in
different environmental conditions was investigated. The
results showed that B. suis persisted for at least 28 days on
aluminum, glass, and soil at both low and moderate
temperatures, but only for 7 days on concrete. B. suis persisted
longer at low temperature compared to moderate temperature.
The presence of UV-A/B reduced the persistence of B. suis on
aluminum and glass to 2-7 days but had less effect on soil. B.
suis was not recovered from concrete when exposed to UV-
A/B, and testing was not conducted on wood with UV-A/B.
P*S3
2010 Wood, J.P., Choi, Y.W., Chappie, D.J.,
Rogers, J.V., and Kaye,
J.Z. 2010.Environmental Persistence of
a Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
(115M) Virus Environ. Sci. TechnoI.,
44: 7515-7520.
This study investigated the environmental persistence of a
highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1). The research
team found that the virus could remain viable in different
environmental conditions for extended periods, with survival
times ranging from several hours to several days. The
persistence of the virus was influenced by factors such as
temperature, humidity, and the type of surface it was deposited
on. The findings highlight the importance of understanding the
environmental behavior of H5N1 vims in order to develop
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effective strategies for controlling its spread and mitigating the
risk of avian influenza outbreaks.
8
2009
Freeze Dried Vaccinia Virus
Tests were conducted to investigate the persistence of vaccinia
virus, a surrogate for smallpox, on different materials under
various environmental conditions. Results showed that the
virus persisted for different durations on different materials,
with longer persistence observed under low relative humidity
conditions at both room and low temperatures.
Persistence testing and Liauid
Decontamination Technology
Evaluation. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-09/139, November 2009.
:::
o
9
2009
Highlv Pathogenic Avian Influenza
H5N1 Virus Persistence Testing and
This study investigated the persistence of H5N1 virus on
various materials, including chicken feces, galvanized metal,
glass, and soil, under different environmental conditions. The
results showed that the virus did not persist on galvanized
metal and glass for one day or longer at room temperature, but
generally persisted within chicken feces and soil for less than
two days. At low temperature, the virus persisted for at least
four days on all materials. Under low temperature, low relative
humidity (RH), and no ultraviolet (UV) exposure, the virus was
detected after 13 days on galvanized metal, glass, and soil. UV-
A/B exposure reduced the persistence of the virus, with less
than 48 hours persistence on galvanized metal and glass, but at
least 48 hours persistence on chicken feces and soil under low
temperature and low RH conditions. Further testing was not
conducted for durations longer than 13 days, but the virus
persistence may exceed 13 days, particularly on galvanized
metal and glass under low temperature, low RH, no UV
conditions.
Evaluation of Liauid Decontamination
Technologies. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-09/054, October 2009.
10
2006
Impact of Temperature and Humiditv
on the Persistence of Vaccinia Virus
and Ricin Toxin on Indoor Surfaces.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D C, EPA/600/R-08/002,
2006.
Report investigating the impact of temperature and humidity on
the persistence of Vaccinia virus and ricin toxin on indoor
surfaces. The report found that higher temperatures and lower
humidity levels generally resulted in shorter survival times for
both the virus and toxin. The findings have implications for
indoor environmental management, emergency response
planning, and biodefense strategies.
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Table 2. Viral Agent Sampling and Analysis
Ref
Year
Reference
Summary
Link
12 2021 Shah, S.R., Kane, S.R., Elsheikh, M., and
Alfaro, T.M. 2021. Development of a
rapid viability RT-PCR (RV-RT-PCR)
method to detect infectious SARS-CoV-2
from swabs. Journal ofVirological
Methods, 297: 114251."
This journal article presents the development of a rapid
viability reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
(RV-RT-PCR) method for detecting infectious SARS-CoV-
2, from swab samples. The authors describe the methodology
used to develop this rapid viability RT-PCR method, which
involves measuring the replication competence of the virus
in a cell culture system. The article highlights the advantages
of the RV-RT-PCR method, including its ability to provide
results within a shorter timeframe compared to traditional
methods, and its potential for identifying live infectious
virus. The authors also discuss the implications and potential
applications of the RV-RT-PCR method in the context of
SARS-CoV-2 surveillance, diagnosis, and infection control
measures.
Journal of
Virological
Met hods
Scientific Products to Support Environmental Countermeasures
Table 3. Bacterial Agent Decontamination
Ref
Year
Reference
Summary
Link
13
2022
W.R. Richter, M.M. Sunderman, M.L.
Fulton, Z. Willenberg, S. Serre, L.
Oudejans, J. Wood, and M.W. Calfee*.
2022. Decontamination Efficacv of
Common Liauid Disinfectants Asainst
This study investigated the efficacy of common liquid
disinfectants against non-spore-forming biological agents in
soil matrices. Efficacy was evaluated three different
disinfectants (dilute bleach, Virkon-S or Klozur One), on soil
samples (clay, loam, or sand) contaminated with non-spore-
forming biological agents (Yersinia pestis, Venezuelan
Equine Encephalitis Virus, Burkholderia pseudomallei). The
results showed that the effectiveness of the disinfectants
varied depending on the type of disinfectant, concentration,
exposure time, and soil moisture level. Overall, Quaternary
Ammonium Compounds and chlorine-based disinfectants
were more effective in reducing the presence of non-spore-
forming biological agents in soil matrices compared to
hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants. Higher concentrations
Applied 1
Microbiology 1
Non-Snore-Formins Biological Agents
in Soil Matrices. Journal of Applied
Microbiology, 133(6):3659-3668.
i
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and longer exposure times generally resulted in greater
decontamination efficacy.
Hypochlorite and peroxygen based disinfectants used in soils
containing higher organic content (loam or clay) may require
extended contact times or re-application of liquid
disinfectant, in as little as 15 min of application, to achieve a
6-log reduction. Soil moisture levels also influenced the
efficacy, with higher moisture levels generally providing
better results.
14
2019
W.R. Richter, M.M. Sunderman, M.Q.S.
Wendling, Shannon Serre, Leroy
Mickelsen, Rich Rupert, Joseph Wood,
Young Choi, Zach Willenberg, and M.W.
Calfee*. 2019. Evaluation of Altered
Environmental Conditions as a
Decontamination Approach for Non-
Spore-Forming Biological Agents.
Journal of Applied Microbiology, 128(4):
1050-1059.
This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of altered
environmental conditions as a decontamination approach for
non-spore-forming biological agents (Burkholderia
pseiidomctllei and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus).
The research team conducted experiments to investigate the
effects of various environmental conditions, including
temperature and relative humidity, on the survival and
decontamination of non-spore-forming biological agents. The
results showed that altering environmental conditions, such as
increasing temperature or relative humidity, can effectively
reduce the survival of non-spore-forming biological agents.
Greater than six log reduction was accomplished in as little as
6 h by elevating temperature to approximately 60°C.
However, the efficacy of decontamination varied depending
on the specific biological agent and environmental condition.
15
2015
M. Worth Calfee and Morgan Wendling.
2015. Inactivation of Burkholderia
pseudomallei on Environmental
Surfaces using Spray-Applied, Common
Liquid Disinfectants. Letters in Applied
Microbiology, 61(5): 418-422.
This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of common liquid
disinfectants in inactivating Burkholderia pseudomallei on
environmental surfaces. Experiments were conducted using
spray-applied common liquid disinfectants to evaluate their
effectiveness against B. pseudomallei. The results showed
that certain common liquid disinfectants (citric acid (1%),
pH-adjusted bleach, ethanol (70%), quaternary ammonium,
and Pine Sol) were effective in inactivating B. pseudomallei
on non-porous (glass, aluminum) and porous (wood,
concrete, carpet) environmental surfaces. Tests were
conducted at both an ambient temperature (c. 20°C) and a
lower temperature (c. 12°C) condition. Nonporous materials
(glass and aluminium) were more easily decontaminated than
porous materials (wood, concrete and carpet). Citric acid
(1%) demonstrated poor efficacy in all test conditions. Bleach
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(pH-adjusted), ethanol (70%), quaternary ammonium and
PineSol®, demonstrated high (>6 log 10 reduction) efficacies
on glass and aluminium at both temperatures, but achieved
varying results for wood, carpet and concrete. Temperature
had minimal effect on decontamination efficacy during these
tests.
16 2013 M. Worth Calfee* and Morgan Wendling.
2013. Inactivation of Vegetative
Bacterial Threat Agents on
Environmental Surfaces. Science of the
Total Environment, 44: 387-396.
The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of
several liquid decontaminants, when used to inactivate
vegetative biological agents on environmental surfaces.
Aluminum, carpet, concrete, glass, and wood coupons were
inoculated with 1 / 10s CFU of Burkholderia mallei,
Francisella tularensis. Vibrio cholerae, or Yersinia pestis.
Using spray-based application methods, decontamination was
then attempted with pH-adjusted bleach, 1% citric acid, 70%
ethanol, quaternary ammonia, or Pine-Sol®). Results indicated
that decontamination efficacy varied significantly by
decontaminant and organism. Materials such as wood are
difficult to decontaminate, even when using sporicides. The
data presented here will help responders develop efficacious
remediation strategies following a large-scale contamination
incident.
Science of the
Total Environment
17 2012 Rashid, M. H., T. Revazishvili, T. Dean,
A. Butani, K. Verratti, K. A. Bishop-Lilly,
S. Sozhamannan, A. Sulakvelidze, and C.
Raj anna. 2012. A Yersinia pestis-
specific. lytic phage preparation
significantly reduces viable Y. pestis on
various hard surfaces experimentally
contaminated with the bacterium.
Bacteriophage, 2(3): 168-177.
Five Y. pestis bacteriophages obtained from various sources
were characterized to determine their biological properties,
including their taxonomic classification, host range and
genomic diversity. The five phages were combined to yield a
"phage cocktail" (tentatively designated "YPP-100") capable
of lysing the 59 Y. pestis strains in our collection. YPP-100
was examined for its ability to decontaminate three different
hard surfaces (glass, gypsum board and stainless steel)
experimentally contaminated with a mixture of three
genetically diverse Y. pestis strains C092, KIM and 1670G.
Five minutes of exposure to YPP-100 preparations containing
phage concentrations of ca. 109, 10s and 107 PFU/mL
completely eliminated all viable Y. pestis cells from all three
surfaces, but a few viable cells were recovered from the
stainless steel coupons treated with YPP-100 diluted to
contain ca. 106 PFU/mL. However, even that highly diluted
preparation significantly (p = < 0.05) reduced Y. pestis levels
by > 99.97%. Y. pestis phages may be useful for
Bacteriophage
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decontaminating various hard surfaces naturally- or
intentionally-contaminated with Y. pestis.
Table 4. Viral Agent Decontamination
Year
Reference
Summary
Link
18
2023
Ratliff, K. M., L. Oudejans, J. Archer, W.
Calfee, J. U. Gilberry, D. A. Hook, W. E.
Schoppman, R. W. Yaga, L. Brooks, and
S. Rvan. 2023 Large-scale evaluation
of microorganism inactivation bv
bipolar ionization and nhotocatalvtic
devices. Building and Env. 227: 109804.
This article describes a consistent testing approach in an
operational-scale test chamber with a mock HVAC system to
evaluate the efficacy of bipolar ionization and photocatah tic
devices against the non-enveloped bacteriophage MS2 in the
air and on surfaces. Results showed statistically significant
differences between technology tests and control tests after 1
hour, with reductions of up to 0.88 logs;: for bipolar ionization
tests and 1.8 login for photocatalytic device tests. It should be
noted that elevated ozone concentrations were observed during
photocatalytic device testing, and no significant differences
were found in MS2 deposition or inactivation on surfaces
between control and technology tests. Hie authors emphasize
the need for standardized, large-scale testing approaches with
time-matched control conditions to contextualize laboratory
efficacy results, translate them to real-world conditions, and
facilitate technology comparisons.
IjrH In -- 9
19
2023
W.R. Richter, M.M. Sunderman, D.J.
Schaeufele, Z. Willenberg, K. Ratliff, W.
Calfee, and L. Oudejans. 2023.
Evaluation of Steam Heat as a
Decontamination AoDroach for SARS-
CoV-2 when Annlied to Common
Transit Related Materials. Journal of
Applied Microbiology? 134(3).
This article evaluates the efficacy of steam heat as a
decontamination approach for SARS-CoV-2 on common
transit-related materials. The study finds that steam heat at a
temperature of 70°C for 5 minutes significantly reduces the
viability of SARS-CoV-2 on various materials commonly
found in transit settings. The decontamination efficacy of
steam heat is dependent on the type of material, with greater
reduction observed on non-porous materials compared to
porous materials. The findings suggest that steam heat could be
a potentially effective decontamination approach for transit-
related materials to mitigate the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in
transit settings.
JOURNAL OF
APPLIED
MICROBIOLOGY
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20
2023
Sarah W. Nelson, Rachael L. Hardison,
Rebecca Limmer, Joel Marx, Brian M.
Taylor, Ryan R. James, Michael J.
Stewart, Sang Don D. Lee, Michael
Worth Calfee, Shawn P. Ryan, and
Megan W. Howard. 2023. Efficacv of
Detergent-Based Cleaning and Wiping
against SARS-CoV-2 on High Touch
Surfaces. Letters in Applied
Microbiology 76(3).
The efficacy of various cleaning methods against SARS-CoV-
2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, was evaluated on
surfaces contaminated with either 5% soil load (SARS-soil) or
simulated saliva (SARS-SS). Hard water dampened wiping
(DW) of surfaces resulted in a reduction of 1.77-3.91 log at TO
(immediately after contamination) or 0.93-2.41 log at T2 (2
hours after drying). Incorporating surface pre-wetting by
spraying with a detergent solution (D + DW) or hard water (W
+ DW) just prior to dampened wiping did not consistently
increase efficacy against infectious SARS-CoV-2, with the
effect being nuanced depending on surface type, viral matrix,
and time. Cleaning efficacy on porous surfaces, such as seat
fabric, was found to be low, while DW was the only method
that consistently resulted in >3-log reduction of hydrated virus
on stainless steeland ABS plastic. These results suggest that
wiping with a hard water dampened wipe can effectively
reduce infectious SARS-CoV-2 on hard non-porous surfaces,
while pre-wetting surfaces with surfactants did not
significantly increase efficacy in the conditions tested. The
efficacy of cleaning methods was found to be influenced by
surface material, presence or absence of pre-wetting, and time
post-contamination.
\
21
2022
Mikelonis, A., J. Archer, B.
Wyrzykowska, E. Morris, J. Sawyer, T.
Chamberlain, A. Abdel-Hady, M.
Monge, and A. Touati. 2022.
Determining Viral Disinfection
This article explores the effectiveness of hot water laundering
in disinfecting viruses (Phi6). The study uses a standardized
testing approach to evaluate the efficacy of hot water
laundering against viruses. The experiment involves
contaminating fabrics with viruses, subjecting them to hot
water laundering at various temperatures, and measuring the
reduction in viral load. The results indicate that hot water
laundering at higher temperatures (> 60°C) is effective in
reducing viral load on fabrics, with greater reduction observed
at higher temperatures and longer washing durations. The study
highlights the importance of laundering practices, such as using
hot water, to effectively disinfect fabrics and reduce the risk of
viral transmission.
lew
Efficacv of Hot Water Laundering.
JoVE, 184: e64164.
22
2022
Rachael L. Hardison, Sarah W. Nelson,
Rebecca Limmer, Joel Marx, Brian M.
Taylor, Ryan R. James, Michael J.
Stewart, Sang Don D. Lee, Michael
This study evaluated the effectiveness of chemical disinfectants
against SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, on
high-touch surface materials. The authors tested various
disinfectants on different surface materials, including stainless
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Worth Calfee, Shawn P. Ryan, and
Meaan W. Howard. 2022. Efficacy of
Chemical Disinfectants Against SARS-
steel, vinyl, painted wood, and glass. The results showed that
some disinfectants were more effective than others in
inactivating SARS-CoV-2 on different surface materials. The
findings suggest that the choice of disinfectant and surface
material may impact the efficacy of disinfection against SARS-
CoV-2 on high-touch surfaces, highlighting the need for
careful selection of appropriate disinfectants for specific
surface materials in different settings.
Applied
Microbiology
CoV-2 on Hish-Touch Surface
Materials. Journal of Applied
Microbiology, 134(1), January 2023.
'EEB9H
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24
2022
R.L., Hardison, S.W. Nelson, D. Barriga,
N. Feliciano-Ruiz, J.M. Ghere, G.A.
Fenton, D.J. Lindstrom, R.R. James, M.J.
Stewart, S. Lee, M.W. Calfee*, S.P.
Ryan, and M.W. Howard. 2022.
Evaluation of Surface Disinfection
Methods to Inactivate the Beta
Coronavirus Murine Hepatitis Virus.
Journal of Occupational and
Environmental Hygiene 19(8), 455-468.
This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of various
surface disinfection methods against the beta coronavirus
murine hepatitis virus (MHV). The authors tested different
disinfection methods on MHV-contaminated surfaces,
including quaternary ammonium compounds, bleach, and
hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants. The results showed that
some disinfection methods were effective in inactivating MHV,
while others were less effective. The findings suggest that the
choice of disinfection method may impact the efficacy of
inactivating MHV on surfaces.
Occupational
Environmental
Hygiene esbbqb^m
25
2021
Mariela Monge, Ahmed Abdel-Hady, L.
Denise Aslett, M. Worth Calfee*,
Blakeley Ficenec, Katherine Ratliff,
Shawn Ryan, Lukas Oudejans, and
Abderrahmane Touati. 2021.
Inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage on
coDDer film deDloved in hish touch
areas of a public transport svstem.
Letters in Applied Microbiology, 74(3):
405-410.
This study focuses on investigating the effectiveness of copper
film inactivating MS2 bacteriophage, a common surrogate for
SARS-CoV-2, on high touch areas in a public transport system.
The researchers found that copper film was highly effective in
inactivating MS2 bacteriophage within a short time period. The
study suggests that deploying copper film in high touch areas
of public transport systems may be a promising strategy for
reducing the spread of viral pathogens, including SARS-CoV-
2.
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26
2021
K. Ratliff, L. Oudejans, W. Calfee, D.
Aslett, A. Abdel-Hady, and Mariela
Monae. 2021. Evaluating Impact of
Ultraviolet-C Exposure Conditions on
This study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of different
ultraviolet-C (UV-C) exposure conditions against MS2
bacteriophage. The researchers assessed various parameters
such as UV-C dosage, exposure time, and distance to
determine their impact on efficacy against MS2. The study
found that higher UV-C dosages, longer exposure times, and
closer distances resulted in greater efficacy against MS2. The
findings of the study may help optimize UV-C disinfection
protocols for controlling viral pathogens in various settings.
Letters in
Applied
Microbiology
Efficacv asainst MS2. Letters in Applied
Microbiology, 75(4): 933-942.
m
-------
27
2021
R.L. Hardison, S.P. Ryan, R.A. Limmer,
M. Crouse, S.W. Nelson, D. Barriga,
J.M. Ghere, M.J. Stewart, S.D. Lee, B.M.
Taylor, R.R. James, M.W. Calfee*, and
M.W. Howard. 2021. Residual
Antimicrobial Coating Efficacv
Against SARS-CoV-2. Journal of
Applied Microbiology, 132(4): 3375-
3386.
This study focuses on evaluating the residual efficacy of
antimicrobial coatings against SARS-CoV-2. The researchers
investigated the effectiveness of various antimicrobial coatings
against SARS-CoV-2 on different surfaces. The study found
that some antimicrobial coatings exhibited residual efficacy
against SARS-CoV-2, with the duration of effectiveness
varying depending on the coating and surface type. For
instance, on stainless steel surfaces, certain antimicrobial
coatings demonstrated residual efficacy for up to 7 days, while
on plastic surfaces, the efficacy persisted for up to 5 days.
However, the duration of efficacy was found to be shorter on
surfaces with higher levels of physical abrasion, such as
painted wood and carpet, with efficacy ranging from 1 to 3
days. The findings of the study may have implications for the
development of effective strategies for controlling SARS-CoV-
2 transmission in various environments.
9HH
'-EEB9H
28
2021
Wood, J.P., Magnuson, M., Touati, A.,
Gilberry, J., Sawyer, J., Chamberlain, T.,
McDonald, S. and Hook, D. 2021.
Evaluation of electrostatic sdravers
The study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of
electrostatic sprayers and foggers for the application of
disinfectants during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The
researchers conducted experiments to assess the efficiency of
these application methods in achieving uniform coverage and
effective disinfection. The study found that electrostatic
sprayers and foggers were effective in achieving consistent
coverage of disinfectants on various surfaces. However, the
effectiveness of these methods was influenced by factors such
as spray distance, nozzle type, and surface material.
Additionally, the researchers observed that the type of
disinfectant used in conjunction with the electrostatic sprayers
and foggers also impacted the efficacy of disinfection. Some
disinfectants showed better efficacy in reducing the viability of
SARS-CoV-2 when applied using electrostatic sprayers or
foggers compared to others.
and foggers for the aDDlication of
disinfectants in the era of SARS-CoV-
2. PLoS One, 16: e0257434.
29
2021
M. Worth Calfee*, Shawn P. Ryan,
Ahmed Abdel-Hady, Mariela Monge,
Denise Aslett, Abderrahmane Touati,
Michael Stewart, Susan Lawrence, and
Kristen Willis. 2021. Virucidal Efficacv
of Antimicrobial Surface Coatings
against the Enveloped Bacteriophage
This study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of
antimicrobial surface coatings against the enveloped
bacteriophage <56, which is used as a surrogate for enveloped
viruses such as SARS-CoV-2. The researchers conducted
experiments to assess the virucidal efficacy of different
antimicrobial coatings on surfaces commonly found in public
spaces. The study found that certain antimicrobial coatings
-------
<1>6 Journal of Applied Microbiology,
132(3), 1813-1824.
demonstrated significant virucidal efficacy against
-------
understanding the potential use of hydrogen peroxide vapor as
a disinfection method using accessible items and equipment,
and it provides valuable information for practitioners and
decision-makers considering this approach for their specific
disinfection needs.
32
2019
Barbara Wyrzykowska-Ceradini, M.
Worth Calfee*, Abderrahmane Touati,
Joseph Wood, R. Leroy Mickelsen, Lori
Miller, Michelle Colby, Christina Slone,
Nicole Griffin Gatchalian, Snigdha
Gayatri Pongur, and Denise Aslett. 2019.
The Use of Bacteriophage MS2 for the
Development and Application of a
Virucide Decontamination Test
Method for Porous and Heavilv Soiled
Surfaces. Journal of Applied
Microbiology, 127(5): 1315-1326.
This article discusses the use of bacteriophage MS2, anon-
pathogenic virus, as a surrogate for testing the efficacy of
virucide decontamination methods on porous and heavily
soiled surfaces. The authors describe the development and
application of a test method using MS2 to evaluate the
effectiveness of virucides in decontaminating surfaces that are
challenging to clean, such as porous or heavily soiled surfaces.
The authors present results of their experiments demonstrating
the efficacy of various virucides (pH-adjusted bleach (pAB)
and 2% citric acid) against MS2 on different surfaces (treated
wood and concrete). In disinfectant testing, two spray
applications of pAB were effective against MS2 (>4-log
reduction) on all operational-scale materials. Two percent citric
acid had limited effectiveness, with a >4-log reduction
observed on a selected subset of grimed concrete samples. The
article concludes with recommendations for the use of the MS2
test method for evaluating virucide efficacy on challenging
surfaces, and its potential applications in the development and
testing of decontamination strategies for porous and heavily
soiled surfaces.
JOURNAL OF
APPLIED
MICROBIOLOGY
33
2016
Effectiveness of Sprav-Based
Decontamination Methods for Spores
and Viruses on Heavilv Soiled
Surfaces. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-16/162, 2016.
This report investigates the efficacy of spray-based
decontamination methods on heavily soiled surfaces
contaminated with spores (Bacillus globigii) and viruses
(MS2). The report provides insights into the effectiveness of
different spray-based decontamination methods for reducing
spores and viruses on heavily soiled surfaces, offering valuable
information for decision-makers in environmental protection
and public health. The report also highlighted that the level of
soil on the surfaces had an impact on the efficacy of the
decontamination methods. Heavily soiled surfaces required
more thorough cleaning prior to applying the spray-based
decontamination methods to achieve optimal results.
i
-------
34 2013 Wood, J.P, Choi, Y.W., Wendling, M.Q.,
Rogers, J.V., and Chappie, D.J. 2013.
Environmental persistence and
inactivation of vaccinia virus on
materials Letters in Applied
Microbiology, 57(5): 399-404.
This study investigated the environmental persistence and
inactivation of vaccinia vims on different materials. Hie study
showed that vaccinia virus could persist on various surfaces,
including metal, plastic, and cloth, for up to 60 days. The virus
was inactivated more rapidly on cloth compared to metal and
plastic surfaces. The study concluded that the persistence and
inactivation of vaccinia virus on materials could van
depending on the surface type.
35 2009 Freeze Dried Vaccinia Virus
Persistence testing and Liquid
Decontamination Technology
Evaluation. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-09/139, November 2009.
The study evaluated the efficacy of decontamination methods
against freeze-dried Vaccinia vims, a surrogate for smallpox
vims. Two liquid decontamination technologies were tested,
including, 1% citric acid and hospital grade quaternary
ammonium salt (732 ppm) disinfectant. The evaluation was
conducted at room and low temperatures with a 30-min liquid
decontaminant contact time; galvanized metal and industrial
carpet were the test materials. Neither 1% citric acid nor 732
ppm quaternary ammonium salt reduced the vaccinia vims to
non-detectable levels. For 1% citric acid, mean log reductions
in vaccinia vims PFUs on galvanized metal were 3.2 at both
the room and low temperatures; on industrial carpet, log
reductions were 2.6 at room temperature and 2.5 at low
temperature. When 732 ppm quaternary ammonium salt was
used, mean log reductions in vaccinia vims PFUs on
galvanized metal were 1.5 at both the room and low
temperature conditions; on industrial carpet the log reductions
were less than 1.0.
36 2009 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
H5N1 Virus Persistence Testing and
Evaluation of Liquid Decontamination
Technologies. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-09/054. October 2009.
This study evaluated the efficacy four liquid decontamination
technologies, using a 10-min contact time, against Highly
Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 vims: 1% citric acid, pH-
amended bleach (pAB), a hospital-grade 732 parts per million
(ppm) quaternary ammonium disinfectant, and 8% sodium
carbonate (Na2C03). Test surfaces included galvanized metal
and soil. Only pAB was completely effective at inactivating
the H5N1 vims (i.e., H5N1 virus was not detected), and this
inactivation only occurred on galvanized metal (at both room
and low temperatures). On soil, pAB resulted in mean H5N1
vims log reductions in TCID50 of 2.7 at room temperature and
2.9 at low temperature. The mean PI5N1 vims log reductions in
TCID50 associated with 1% citric acid ranged from 1.5 (with
-------
soil at room temperature) to 2.1 (with galvanized metal at low
temperature). The mean H5N1 virus log reductions in TCID50
associated with 732 ppm quaternary ammonium and 8%
Na2C03 were less than 1.0.
37
2006
Impact of Temperature and Humidity
on the Persistence of Vaccinia Virus
and Ricin Toxin on Indoor Surfaces.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-08/002,
2006.
Report investigating the impact of temperature and humidity on
the persistence of Vaccinia virus and ricin toxin on indoor
surfaces. The report found that higher temperatures and lower
humidity levels generally resulted in shorter survival times for
both the virus and toxin. The findings have implications for
indoor environmental management, emergency response
planning, and biodefense strategies.
iujtocj'atjftujtMLifmtiuq
Scientific Products to Support Waste Management
Table 5. Waste Management
Ref
Year
Reference
Summary
Link
38
2023
Feasibilitv Studv Report: Management
of Swine Lasoons Following African
Swine Fever Outbreak. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-22/209,
2023.
This report, by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),
evaluates options for managing waste lagoons at swine
operations to prevent the spread of African Swine Fever Virus
(ASFv) in the event of an outbreak in the United States. The
report is based on an extensive review of available literature and
input from subject matter experts. The potential effectiveness,
technical feasibility, environmental and health concerns, and
cost considerations of various lagoon management options are
evaluated. The report highlights that there is limited scientific
information available on ASFv persistence in swine waste
lagoons, and onsite monitoring would be required to ascertain
the effectiveness of lagoon management options. The report also
identifies long-term storage, chemical disinfection, and thermal
treatment as the most commonly recommended methods for
inactivation of ASFv in liquid manure, but further research is
needed to reduce uncertainties associated with these options.
1 Biiil
39
2021
Lemieux, P., Boe, T., Tschursin, A.,
Denison, M. K., Davis, K., and Swensen,
D. 2021. Computational simulation of
This study focuses on using computational simulations to model
the incineration of chemically- and biologically-contaminated
wastes. The report presents detailed findings on the impact of
-------
incineration of chemically and
biologically contaminated wastes.
Journal of the Air & Waste Management
Association, 71(4): 462-476.
various parameters, such as waste composition, combustion
temperature, and residence time, on the efficiency of
incineration and the potential for emissions of pollutants. The
results of the study can be used to inform waste management
strategies, including the design and operation of incineration
facilities, to effectively handle contaminated wastes while
minimizing environmental impacts.
Air & Waste
Management
Association
40 2021 Lemieux, P., S. Serre, J. Wood, W.
Calfee, J. Thurman, P. Burnette, L.
Miller, R. Miknis, S. Malladi, G. Flory,
and M. Mayes. Biosecuritv Testing of
Horizontal Grinders. Presented at The
Seventh International Symposium on
Animal Mortality Management, Virtual
Meeting, NC, May 18 - 19, 2021.
This report presents the findings of a study conducted by a team
of researchers at The Seventh International Symposium on
Animal Mortality Management in 2021. The study focuses on
evaluating the biosecurity of horizontal grinders used in animal
mortality management operations. The report provides detailed
results on the effectiveness of biosecurity measures in place
during the operation of horizontal grinders, including the
potential for cross-contamination with pathogens. The findings
can be used to inform biosecurity protocols and best practices
for the use of horizontal grinders in animal mortality
management to mitigate the potential spread of pathogens.
41 2021 Lemieux, P., W. Calfee, J. Wood, V.
Boddu, S. Serre, A. Tschursin, J.
Thurman, P. Burnette, L. Miller, R.
Miknis, and M. Mayes. Assessment of
Biosecuritv of Using Horizontal
Grinders to Enhance Composting to
Improve Preparedness for African
Swine Fever Virus. 2021 EPA
International Decontamination Research
and Development Conference, NC,
November 01 - 05, 2021.
This report presents the findings of a study at the EPA
International Decontamination Research and Development
Conference in 2021. The study focuses on assessing the
biosecurity of using horizontal grinders to enhance composting
as a preparedness measure for African Swine Fever (ASF) virus.
The report provides detailed results on the potential risks
associated with using horizontal grinders in composting
operations, including the potential for spreading ASF virus
particles. The findings can be used to inform biosecurity
protocols and guidelines for the use of horizontal grinders in
composting operations to mitigate the potential spread of ASF
virus and other pathogens.
42 2018 Viral Persistence in Landfill Leachate.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-18/077,
2018.
This report presents the findings of a study conducted on viral
persistence in landfill leachate. The study focuses on assessing
the potential for viruses to persist and survive in leachate
generated from landfills. The report provides detailed results on
the persistence of viruses in landfill leachate under various
conditions, including temperature, pH, and treatment processes.
The findings can be used to inform decision-making and
guidelines for the management and treatment of landfill leachate
to mitigate potential risks associated with viral contamination.
-------
43 2018 Exposure Assessment of Livestock
Carcass Management Options During
a Foreign Animal Disease Outbreak.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-18/074,
August 2018.
This report presents the findings of a study on the exposure
assessment of livestock carcass management options during a
foreign animal disease outbreak. The study focuses on
evaluating the potential exposure risks to humans and the
environment associated with different carcass management
options during disease outbreaks in livestock. The report
provides detailed results on the potential for exposure to
hazardous substances, pathogens, and other contaminants during
carcass disposal methods such as burial, composting, and
incineration. The findings can be used to inform decision-
making and regulatory guidelines for the safe and effective
management of livestock carcasses during disease outbreaks.
44 2016 Evaluation of Persistence of Viruses in
Landfill Leachate. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-16/368, 2016.
This report presents the findings of a study on the evaluation of
the persistence of viruses in landfill leachate. The study focuses
on assessing the potential for viruses to persist and survive in
leachate generated from landfills. The report provides detailed
results on the persistence of viruses in landfill leachate under
various conditions, including temperature, pH, and treatment
processes. The findings can be used to inform decision-making
and guidelines for the management and treatment of landfill
leachate to mitigate potential risks associated with viral
contamination.
45 2016 Feasibility of Selected Infectious
Carcass Pretreatment Technologies.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-15/301,
2016.
This report presents the findings of a study on the feasibility of
selected infectious carcass pretreatment technologies. The study
focuses on evaluating the effectiveness and feasibility of
different methods for pretreating infectious animal carcasses
prior to disposal. The report provides detailed results on the
technical, economic, and environmental aspects of the selected
pretreatment technologies, including their potential for reducing
pathogens, operational requirements, and costs. The findings
can be used to inform decision-making and regulatory
guidelines for the proper pretreatment of infectious animal
carcasses.
46 2016 Progress Report: Transportable
Gasifier for On-Farm Disposal of
Animal Mortalities. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-16/059, 2016.
This report provides a progress report on the development of a
transportable gasifier for on-farm disposal of animal mortalities.
The report summarizes the advancements made in the design
and implementation of a gasifier system for converting animal
mortalities into energy on-farm. It provides detailed findings on
the technical aspects of the gasifier, including its performance,
-------
emissions, and safety measures. The report also highlights the
potential benefits of using gasification as a disposal method for
animal mortalities, including reduced environmental impacts
and increased on-farm sustainability. The findings can be used
to inform further research and development efforts in the field
of animal mortality disposal and renewable energy generation.
w
47
2016
Identification and Screening of Carcass
This technical brief summarizes a study on the identification and
screening of carcass pretreatment alternatives. The study
focuses on evaluating different methods for pretreating animal
carcasses prior to disposal. The report provides detailed findings
on various pretreatment alternatives, including their
effectiveness in reducing pathogens, environmental impacts, and
feasibility for implementation. The results can be used to inform
decision-making and regulatory guidelines for the proper
pretreatment of animal carcasses.
Pretreatment Alternatives. U.S.
laiiwrpsaH
Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Research and Development,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/F-16/111,
2016.
:Q[
48
2015
Identification and Screening of
Infectious Carcass Pretreatment
Alternatives. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agencv, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/600/R-15/053. 2015.
This report presents the results of a study on the identification
and screening of infectious carcass pretreatment alternatives.
The study focuses on evaluating different methods for
pretreating infectious animal carcasses prior to disposal. The
report provides detailed findings on various pretreatment
alternatives, including their effectiveness in reducing pathogens,
environmental impacts, and feasibility for implementation. The
results can be used to inform decision-making and regulatory
guidelines for the proper pretreatment of infectious animal
carcasses.
,A *
49
2013
Combustion of Contaminated Animal
Carcasses in a Pilot-scale Air Curtain
Burner. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC.. EPA/600/R-
13/109,2013.
This report presents findings from a pilot-scale study on the
combustion of contaminated animal carcasses using an air
curtain burner. The study focuses on evaluating the
effectiveness of this disposal method for contaminated animal
carcasses. The report provides detailed results on the
combustion process, emissions, and residue characteristics,
including recommendations for operational parameters and air
pollution controls. The findings can be used to inform decision-
making and guidelines for the proper disposal of contaminated
animal carcasses using air curtain burners.
SHff
50
2013
Field Studv on Cleaning a Rendering
Plant Following a Foreign Animal
Disease (FAD) Outbreak. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency,
This report documents a field study on cleaning a rendering
plant after a Foreign Animal Disease (FAD) outbreak. The study
focuses on the challenges and best practices for cleaning a
rendering plant contaminated with FAD. The report provides
-------
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-13/145,
2013.
detailed findings on the methods and techniques used for
cleaning and decontamination, including equipment, protocols,
and monitoring procedures. The report serves as a valuable
resource for understanding the complexities of cleaning and
decontaminating a rendering plant following an FAD outbreak
and can be used to inform future preparedness and response
efforts.
51 2012 Report on the 2011 Workshop on
Chemical-Biological-Radiological
Disposal in Landfills. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., EPA/600/R-11/218,
2012.
The 2011 Workshop on Chemical-Biological-Radiological
Disposal in Landfills was held by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency in Washington, D.C. and this report
summarizes the proceedings. The workshop focused on the
challenges and best practices related to the disposal of chemical,
biological, and radiological wastes in landfills. The report
provides an overview of the discussions, presentations, and
recommendations made by experts in the field, highlighting the
need for improved waste characterization, monitoring, and
regulatory guidance to ensure safe disposal practices. The report
serves as a valuable resource for understanding the issues and
potential solutions associated with chemical-biological-
radiological waste disposal in landfills.
59V* -•
—wl". _
Table 6. References by Topic
Topic
Reference#
Persistence
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
Sampling and Analysis
12
Decontamination
13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,
43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51
Waste Management
38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51
Bacteria
2,3,4,6,13,14,15,16,17,39,50
Virus
1,4,5,7,8,9,10,12,14,18,19,20,21,22,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,
42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51
MS2
1,25,26,28,30,31,32,33,42,44
Phi6
1,21,29,30,31,42,44
Murine Hepatitis Virus
24
-------
Vaccinia
5,8,10,34,35,37
Smallpox
5,8,10,34,35,37
Ebola
1,30
Foot and Mouth Disease Virus
33,40,43,44,45
African Swine Fever Virus
38,40,41,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
9,36,45,46,47,48,49,50,51
SARS Coronavirus
12,18,19,20,21,22,24,25,26,27,28,29
Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus
44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus
13,14
Viral Encephalitis
4
Viral Hemorrhagic Fever
4
Zika Virus
42
Francisella tulctrensis
2,4,16
Burkholderia mallei
2,4,16
Burkholderia pseiidomctllei
4,13,14,15
Yersinia Pestis
2,3,4,13,16,17
Bacillus anthracis
3,4,33,50
Brucella spp.
4,6
Coxiella burnetii
4
Vibrio Cholera
16
Remaining Capability and Knowledge Gaps
Agent Persistence
Persistence of non-spore-forming microorganisms is relatively low compared to spore-forming agents. However, some
environmental matrices and conditions can significantly extend the persistence of non-spore-formers. Additionally, some agents
cause communicable disease, which helps them overcome relatively short persistency in the environment, in causing long-duration
incidents or outbreaks. Understanding agent persistence, and factors that enhance or reduce persistence are valuable for prescribing
risk reduction approaches. More work is needed in this area to understand and predict future biological incidents, outbreaks, and
pandemics.
-------
Sampling and Analysis
Rapid, readily available, low-cost environmental sample collection and sample analysis approaches are critical for large incident
remediation, when response decisions rely on a full understanding of the types and extent of contamination involved. Much of the
existing sample collection data was generated for Bacillus anthracis spores, which have high stability in collection media. A greater
understanding is needed for non-spore-forming agent collection efficiency, sample storage stability, optimal sample processing
methods, and rapid yet robust analytical methods. Work is needed to improve these methods to allow more rapid data generation
and increase the speed and fidelity of decision making.
Decontamination and Disinfection
Decontamination of indoor and outdoor environments is difficult. High complexity, sensitive equipment, and high organic burdens
often make decontaminant selection and application problematic and can reduce treatment effectiveness. Effective risk reduction
measures must overcome these challenges. More work is needed to develop decontamination technologies, methods, and strategies
for complex environments.
Waste Management
Effective and efficient waste management approaches are necessary for successful remediation. Waste generation begins with the
first entry, and the management of incident waste poses significant cost and logistical challenges. Animal disease incidents can
generate significant quantities of infectious carcass waste. Transport of wastes for off-site disposal may be warranted or required for
particular incidents. Waste categorization also impacts logistics and costs. All aspects of waste management have the potential to be
improved through innovation, research, and development. Safety of waste management workers while handling, transporting,
treating, and disposing of waste must be maintained. Transportation of wastes that are designated as DOT Category A infectious
agents can cause significant operational, logistical, and political challenges; waste management complications could be significantly
reduced if on-site treatment could be done, allowing the waste to be categorized as conventional solid waste.
Disclaimer
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), through its Office of Research and Development (ORD), directed this work. This
summary has been reviewed and approved for public release in accordance with the policies of the EPA. Mention of trade names or
commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use of a specific product. The contents are the sole
responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of EPA or the United States Government.
-------
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