MULTI-AGENCY WATER
REUSE PROGRAMS:
Lessons for Successful
A product of the
National Water Reuse Action Plan
in association with ®WateReuse'
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Prepared for:
yvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Prepared by:
Eastern Research Group, Inc.
PG Environmental, LLC
Multi-agency Water Reuse Programs
Lessons for Successful
Collaboration
Eric Rosenblum
Felicia Marcus
Robert Raucher
Bahman Sheikh
Shannon Spurlock
In association with:
^Wate Reuse
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National Water Reuse Action Plan (WRAP)
WRAP Action 2.16: Support Local and Regional Reuse Projects by Identifying
Challenges, Opportunities, and Models for Interagency Collaboration
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs
Lessons for Successful
Collaboration
March 2022
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PREFACE
"If we configure out how to get these guys to actually work with each other, this is a no-brainer."
In 2020, the Environmental Protection Agency joined a host of other federal, state, and local agencies and
organizations to develop the Water Reuse Action Plan (WRAP). The WRAP is designed to help build the nation's
capacity to implement more projects that recycle wastewater and capture and use stormwater within the broader
context of integrated water management. As of this writing, WRAP teams are currently implementing more than
40 actions addressing priority needs identified by our partners in the area of science and technology, policy and
regulation, funding, communications, and other topical themes. Among those many important actions, none is
more critical that the need build local and regional capacity to work across organizational and jurisdictional
boundaries and missions.
As suggested by the above comment by the manager of a large wastewater utility, bringing the right people
together in the right ways is crucial to advancing water recycling and developing sustainable water systems.
Recycling proponents face many challenges and aligning the interests of multiple organizations is essential to make
these projects work. This alignment is particularly difficult in the water sector, where in 2016, a coalition of experts
determined that, "fragmentation of the water sector across geographies, jurisdictions, and technical standards is a
critical barrier that significantly impacts the quality, quantity and efficiency of water innovation" (EPA, 2016a).
While many water managers recognize the importance of collaboration, fewer understand how to overcome their
competing priorities to build regional capacity. This report is intended to help fill this gap.
WRAP Action 2.16 supports implementation of reuse projects by exploring the challenges, opportunities, and
frameworks for achieving effective interagency collaboration. Drawing upon extensive literature reviews and richly
detailed case studies of several large-scale water recycling efforts, the project team identified the key elements
required to build the cooperative engagement necessary for these projects to succeed. As explained in this report,
there are predictable legal, financial, regulatory, and organizational issues that challenge interagency
collaboration, and there are replicable strategies for surmounting these challenges. The report also profiles how
interpersonal relationships and cultural differences can either support or undermine cooperation, and how
personal vision and organizational leadership can build and maintain lasting, effective partnerships.
This report will help agencies work better together. By enabling agencies to develop a deeper understanding of
what it takes to succeed in complex interagency cooperation, we hope to improve our collective capacity to
pursue innovative recycling and integrated water management strategies across the nation. With sufficient
attention to how organizations work together, we're far more likely to build the sustainable water futures our
communities envision.
David Smith, US Environmental Protection Agency, Retired December 2021
Disclaimer:
The material presented in this document is intended solely for informational purposes and is not intended to
interpret federal statutory or regulatory requirements or to convey EPA guidance or policy. The recommendations
and possible actions described in this document do not represent binding commitments by EPA or other parties.
This document is not intended, nor can it be relied on, to create any rights enforceable by any party in litigation
with the United States. This document may be revised or updated without public notice. Mention of trade names
or commercial products in this document does not constitute an endorsement or recommendation for use.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Preface*!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface i
Table of Contents ii
Acknowledgements viii
WRAP Action 2.16 Research Team ix
Executive Summary 1
Analytical Framework 1
Case Studies 2
Words of Wisdom from Successful Practitioners 3
Introduction 5
ATale of Two Communities 5
Motives and Methods 9
How to Use This Document 9
Some Notes on Nomenclature 10
Analytical Framework 12
The Challenge of Interagency Collaboration 12
Governance Strategies and Legal Tools 15
Working with Regulations and Regulators to Make Water Reuse Projects Sing 19
Economic Factors that Challenge and Promote Collaboration 25
Management and Operational Issues 29
The Role of Leadership 32
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District 37
Overview and KeyTakeaways 37
Setting 38
Multi-Agency Collaboration for Reuse in Virginia 39
Area Insights 44
Referenced Agreements 46
Agency Contacts 46
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies 47
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
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Overview and KeyTakeaways 48
Setting 49
Sharing the River 50
Trinity River Authority 52
City of Dallas Water Utilities 52
North Texas Municipal Water District 54
Tarrant Regional Water District 55
Area Insights 56
Referenced Agreements 58
Agency Contacts 58
Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County 60
Overview and KeyTakeaways 60
Setting 61
Working Together to Survive 62
Area Insights 67
Conclusions 69
Referenced Agreements 69
Agency Contacts 69
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water 70
Overview and KeyTakeaways 71
Setting 73
One Water for Many Purposes 73
Area Insights 79
Referenced Agreements 80
Agency Contacts 80
Case Study #5: Greater Los Angeles Area 81
Overview and KeyTakeaways 82
Driven by Resilience: The LA Story 86
The Power of Two: Metropolitan and LACSD Team Up on the Regional Recycled Water Project 89
Area Insights 92
Referenced Agreements 96
Agency Contacts 96
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Table of Contents*iii
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Lessons Learned, Questions and Exercises 97
Lessons Learned 97
Questions and Exercises 99
Areas for Further Research 102
References 103
Annotated Bibliography 119
The Challenge of Interagency Collaboration 119
Governance Issues 122
Reuse and the Regulatory Framework 124
Economic Issues 126
Management Issues 129
Interpersonal Issues and Leadership 130
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Table of Contents»iv
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Figures and Tables
List of Figures
Figure 1. Reverse osmosis membranes at Orange County Water District GWRS 6
Figure 2. Location of oil refineries in the vicinity of Central San Wastewater Treatment Plant 8
Figure 3. HRSD's service area 38
Figure 4. SWIFT project implementation schedule 44
Figure 5. Trinity River Basin 48
Figure 6. Diagram of swap agreement between DWU and NTMWD 53
Figure 7. Diagram of DWU and TRWD's Integrated Pipeline Project 54
Figure 8. NTWD East Fork Water Reuse Project Wetland Education Center 55
Figure 9. Joint outreach material from TRWD and City of Dallas 56
Figure 10. Tucson and Pima County 61
Figure 11. Diagram of Tucson's Recycled Water System 64
Figure 12. Tucson/Pima County recycled water use (by sector) 65
Figure 13. Tucson's Sweetwater Wetlands 66
Figure 14. Map of Monterey County 71
Figure 15. Monterey One Water Regional Treatment Plant 72
Figure 16. Map of Monterey One Water's Pure Water Monterey project 78
Figure 17. Southern California Water Sources 83
Figure 18. Water Replenishment District of Southern California Service Area 85
Figure 19. City of Los Angeles Wastewater Treatment and Collection System 87
Figure 20. Metropolitan Water District member agencies 89
Figure 21. LA County Sanitation Districts facilities 90
Figure 22. Potential future integration of Los Angeles city and county potable reuse programs 91
Figure 23. The Meta-champions of Change and Organizational Development (OD) Typology 131
List of Tables
Table 1. Eight steps to creating utility partnerships (after Henderson and Raucher, 2019) 13
Table 2. Types of water agencies 16
Table 3. Some types of arrangements to support collaborative recycled water projects 17
Table 4. Types of Permit Requirements for Reuse (by Level of Authority) 21
Table 5. Some technical elements of recycled water system operation assigned by agreement 30
Table 6. Description of Meta-Champion Types (after Thakhathi, 2018) 34
Table 7. Nutrient credits available to HRSD partner agencies 40
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Table of Contents»v
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
Agencies and Organizations
AWWA
BOR
Cal-Am
CoT
CSIP
DPW
DWU
EPA
FWID
HRSD
JCSA
LACSD
LADWP
LASAN
M1W
MCWD
MCWRA
Metropolitan
MPWMD
MWRSA
NTMWD
OC San
OCWD
PARML
PAROC
PCRWRD
SAW PA
SNWA
SWRCB
TCEQ
TPWD
TRA
TRWD
TW
UCLA
VDEQ
VDH
WBMWD
WEF
WRD
American Water Works Association
Bureau of Reclamation
California-American Water Company
City of Tucson
Castroville Seawater Intrusion Project
Department of Public Works (City of Los Angeles)
Dallas Water Utility
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Flowing Wells Irrigation District
Hampton Roads Sanitation District
James City Services Authority
Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts
City of Los Angeles Department of Water and Power
Los Angeles Sanitation and Environment
Monterey One Water
Marina Coast Water District
Monterey County Water Resources Agency
Metropolitan Water District of Southern California
Monterey Peninsula Water Management District
Monterey Wastewater Reclamation Study for Agriculture
North Texas Municipal Water District
Orange County Sanitation
Orange County Water District
Potomac Aquifer Recharge Monitoring Laboratory
Potomac Aquifer Recharge Oversight Committee
Pima County Regional Water Reclamation District
Santa Ana Watershed Project Authority
Southern Nevada Water Authority
California State Water Resources Control Board
Texas Commission on Environmental Quality
Texas Parks and Wildlife Department
Trinity River Authority
Tarrant Regional Water District
Tucson Water
University of California at Los Angeles
Virginia Department of Environmental Quality
Virginia Department of Health
West Basin Municipal Water District
Water Environment Federation
Water Replenishment District of Southern California
Acronyms and Abbreviations °vi
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Projects
CAP
Compact
RRWP
RWS
SHARP
SRDF
SVRP
SWIFT
WIN
WIN4AII
WRAP
Definitions
AMA
BAC
CDO
DCP
DFW
DiPRRA
DPR
GM
GWMA
IGA
J PA
JWPCP
LA
MOA
MS4
MSA
MUM
NGO
NPDES
O&M
SCADA
TBL
TMDL
UIC
VAC
Units
AFY
KAFY
MGD
Central Arizona Project
Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality Compact
Regional Recycled Water Project (Metropolitan)
Reclaimed Water System (City of Tucson)
South Houghton Area Recharge Project
Salinas River Diversion Facility
Salinas Valley Reclamation Project
Sustainable Water Infrastructure for Tomorrow
Water Independence Now
Water Independence Now—For All
Water Reuse Action Plan
Active Management Area
Biologically Active Carbon
Cease and Desist Order
Drought Contingency Plan
Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex
Direct Potable Reuse Responsible Agency
Direct Potable Reuse
General Manager
Arizona Groundwater Management Act (1980)
Intergovernmental Agreement
Joint Powers Authority
Joint Water Pollution Control Plant
City of Los Angeles
Memorandum of Agreement
Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Systems
Metropolitan Statistical Area
Mutual Utility Management agreement
Non-governmental organization
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
Operation and Maintenance
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Triple Bottom Line
Total Maximum Daily Load
Underground Injection Control
Virginia Administrative Code
Acre-foot per year
Thousand acre-foot per year
Million gallons per day
Acronyms and Abbreviations°vii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project team extends its great appreciation to David Smith (EPA Region IX) for his outstanding leadership, his
support in obtaining funding, and his invaluable insights and guidance throughout the development of this report.
We also thank Aliza Furneaux and Greg Fogel at the WateReuse Association for their valuable support and
contributions. Collin Mummert at PG Environmental coordinated this work with the EPA WRAP team, Sargon
deJesus and Jenny Helmick at Eastern Research Group helped navigate contractual details and Ashley Harper (EPA)
and Stephanie Buckley (ERG) provided essential editorial review.
We are very much indebted to the many water sector professionals and visionary practitioners who shared their
experiences forging successful collaborations in their respective regions. We especially want to express our
gratitude to the following utility and consulting professionals who contributed to our case studies:
¦ Mike Markus (OCWD), Melody La Bella and Roger Bailey (Central San) and Marguerite Patil (CCWD) for
describing their experiences with water reuse in southern and northern California;
Ted Henifin (HRSD), Doug Powell (JCSA), Marcia Degen and Ryder Bunce (VDH), and Scott Kudlas (VDEQ),
for sharing the Tidewater, Virginia story;
¦ Wayne Owen, Rachel Ickert, and Nicole Rutigliano (TRWD), Denis Quails (Dallas), Glenn Clingenpeel
(TRA), R. J. Muraski (NTMWD), Louis Herrin (TCEQ), and Ellen McDonald (Plummer) for explaining how
they share the Trinity River in North Central Texas;
¦ John Kmiec and Jaimie Galayda (Tucson Water), and Kathy Chavez and Jackson Jenkins (Pima County) for
their insights into the relationship between their southern Arizona agencies;
¦ Paul Sciuto and Mike McCullough (M1W), Brent Buche (MCRWA), Dave Stoltz (MPWMD), Brian Frus
(Salinas), Oscar Antilion (City of Soledad), and Eric Tynan (CCSA) for untangling the history and future of
water reuse in Monterey; and
¦ Robb Whitaker, Stephan Tucker, Diana Gatza, and Ron Beste (WRD); Deven Upadhyay, Rupam Soni and
Bruce Chalmers (MWD); Martha Tremblay and Sharon Green (LACSD); Traci Minamide, Hubertus Cox,
and Timeyin Dafeta (LASAN); and Paul Lin and Rafael Villegas (LADWP) for unveiling their ambitious plans
to "make every drop count" in Southern California.
We also appreciate the keen insights provided by technical reviewers who critiqued various portions of our draft
report: Richard Atwater, Randy Bartlett, Lorien Fono, Ellen MacDonald, Melissa Meeker, Aileen O'Donnell, Michele
Pla, Paul Reiter, Rick Warner, and Robert Whitley.
Finally, we acknowledge (and greatly miss) the inspiration and wisdom of the late Dr. Bahman Sheikh, one of the
originators of this research effort. Dr. Sheikh was a true leader in the field of water reuse, and we hope we have
helped to carry his vision forward.
Eric Rosenblum, Felicia Marcus, Bob Raucher, and Shannon Spurlock
WRAP Action 2.16 Research Team
Acknowledgements* viii
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WRAP ACTION 2.16 RESEARCH TEAM
Eric Rosenblum
Eric Rosenblum is a consulting engineer who specializes in municipal and industrial water reuse. He previously
managed operations at the regional wastewater treatment plant serving the Silicon Valley area of northern
California, where he was also responsible for the design, construction, start-up and operation of South Bay Water
Recycling, the Bay Area's largest urban water reuse program. In addition to his work on the WRAP, Eric is co-editor
(with Cheryl Davis) of Sustainable Industrial Water Use: Perspectives, Incentives, and Tools (IWA Publishing, 2021).
Felicia Marcus
Felicia Marcus is an attorney who has served in government, non-profits, and the private sector. She is currently
the Landreth Visiting Fellow at Stanford University's Water in the West Program and a founding member of the
Water Policy Group, a network of high-level water officials assisting developing nations and serves on the board of
the WateReuse Association. Felicia previously served as Regional Administrator of U.S. EPA Region IX and as head
of the Los Angeles Department of Public Works. Most recently she was Chair of the California State Water
Resources Control Board during the worst drought in modern history.
Bob Raucher
Dr. Robert Raucher is a water sector economist with more than 40 years of experience guiding water utility
decision-making and public policy development for water supply, water reuse, water quality, stormwater, and
wastewater management. Bob's expertise in benefit-cost and triple bottom line analysis, risk management,
strategic planning and adaptive management under large uncertainty supports integrated water resource
management to achieve sustainability and maintain affordability in the face of climate change impacts. Dr.
Raucher is an active member of the professional water community, serving on numerous expert panels and
committees.
Shannon Spurlock
Shannon Spurlock is founder and principal of Ochotona Consulting. Shannon is dedicated to water and food
security and views recycled water as essential to resiliency. Previously, Shannon worked with stakeholders
throughout Colorado to adopt rules allowing agricultural applications of recycled water that went into effect in
January 2020. Shannon has a passion for organizational development, policy advancement, and stakeholder
engagement. In 2022 she joined the Pacific Institute as Senior Researcher—Public Policy and Practice Uptake.
David Smith
During his tenure as Assistant Director for Water of Region IX of the US Environmental Protection Agency, Dave
Smith managed an array of Clean Water Act Programs and helped launch the national Water Reuse Action Plan
where he took an active interest in guiding this Action Item. In December 2021, Dave retired from EPA to start
Water Innovation Services, where he focuses on innovative, integrated water management strategies at the
federal, state, and local levels.
Bahman Sheikh (In Memoriam)
Dr. Bahman Sheikh, who helped initiate this research, passed away July 28, 2020, at his home in San Francisco. A
water reuse pioneer, Bahman helped communities around the world recycle water. He led the Monterey
Wastewater Reclamation Study which demonstrated the safety of recycled water for irrigation of California's
"salad bowl" and was the first Executive Director of the Los Angeles Office of Water Reclamation, where he helped
lay the foundation for that city's strategy to reuse 100 percent of its wastewater. As an independent consultant
specializing in water reuse Bahman developed recycled water programs in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, South
America, and Australia.
WRAP Action 2.16 Research Team»ix
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Collaboration is the gateway to greatness. Recycled water can be a safe and reliable water supply, but to develop it
the agencies responsible for managing water, wastewater, and stormwater must work together. In the United
States, this type of cooperation is inhibited by the challenge of aligning missions and allocating responsibilities and
costs among separate organizations. Collaboration is also complicated by complex regulations, operational details,
and a utility's natural inclination to maintain independent control of all projects within their jurisdictions.
Recycling wastewater effluent, stormwater, and other impaired sources is an essential element of an integrated,
resilient, and sustainable water supply. However, the dominant institutional arrangements in the United States
(and most other nations) today constitute a patchwork approach to water resource management. Water utilities
and wastewater agencies created years ago in response to historical needs now operate as distinct entities, each
with its own legal mandate, service area, professional staff, management team and personality, governance and
public oversight structure, regulatory and technological challenges, and financial and economic constraints. While
these institutions were well-suited to solve last century's water problems, they are less able to address today's
challenges that require integrated water management—including water reuse.
Despite this fragmented institutional landscape, many agencies have found ways to work together to create
successful regional water reuse programs. By focusing on their common interests and forging durable working
agreements, they have joined together to create "virtual" water utilities adding recycled water to their portfolio of
supplies to complete the water cycle and achieve greater resilience for their communities. While the challenges
are great, these examples of successful partnerships around the United States offer many important lessons.
The National Water Reuse Action Plan Action Item 2.16 was initiated to support the development of multi-agency
water reuse programs by identifying "challenges, opportunities and models for interagency collaboration." This
project consists of 1) a framework for evaluating interagency relationships in the water sector (including an
annotated bibliography); 2) five case studies of multi-agency reuse projects in the United States; and 3) a summary
of "lessons learned," references, and exercises to help agencies develop more productive collaborations.
Literature relevant to multi-agency water recycling projects was analyzed from the perspective of five
characteristics: 1) governance; 2) regulation; 3) economics; 4) management; and 5) leadership. Among other
findings, this analysis revealed:
1. Despite their distinct governance structures, agencies can create joint recycled water projects when
they agree to work together to serve the public interest. Utility managers who define their
responsibilities too narrowly should broaden their understanding of the benefits of water reuse and
revise their charters, if necessary, to include water recycling. Once they agree to work together,
agencies can document their collaboration through various legal frameworks ranging from bilateral
agreements and memoranda of understanding (MOUs) to joint powers authorities (JPAs) and
consolidation into a single agency. However, the form of the agreement is less important than the trust
between the parties.
2. Regulations that limit discharge of contaminants or restrict withdrawal of surface or ground water
supplies can motivate agencies to recycle water. On the other hand, when water reuse regulations are
unclear or cumbersome, they can discourage agencies from sharing responsibility for producing and
using recycled water. Agencies that identify their regulatory responsibilities early on and consistently
communicate with regulators are more likely to be able to work together to obtain their permits. For
their part, regulators can help recycled water projects by setting clear standards, giving greater certainty
to local agencies, encouraging reuse, and helping local agencies navigate the permitting process.
Analytical Framework
Executive Summary* 1
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3. One common economic barrier to collaboration results from a failure to recognize the many benefits
offered by water reuse. At first glance the benefits of reuse appear long-term and diffuse compared with
its costs which fall immediately to a specific utility. Agencies can more readily justify these projects to
their ratepayers by clearly identifying, quantifying, and communicating the many overlooked benefits of
reuse. Advantages of reuse include the avoided cost of acquiring alternate water supplies and
constructing wastewater discharge upgrades; the value of drought-resistant supply reliability; quality of
life enhancements including aesthetic and recreational opportunities; and ecological benefits such as
wetland creation and enhancement of in-stream flows. Once they have agreed to jointly pursue reuse,
collaborating agencies must also agree on how to share costs and revenues. (For nonpotable projects,
they should also agree on who will subsidize the project in order to keep the price of recycled water
below the cost of potable supplies.) These agreements will change as regional needs evolve, and as
utilities adjust their allocation of costs to align with beneficiaries. In addition, by working together
agencies may be better able to access funding from outside sources.
4. Management and operational issues can get complicated when agencies jointly build and operate
recycled water projects. Jurisdictional boundaries often determine who owns or operates different parts
of the system, and who is responsible for capital improvements. Along with clarifying ownership and
assigning responsibility for operations and maintenance, interagency agreements should also specify
how liability is assigned. To support these arrangements, agencies must have a mutually acceptable
source of information about system performance and must ensure that staff are qualified and certified
to take on their responsibilities. These same requirements also apply to the execution of "user
agreements" with commercial, industrial, and institutional nonpotable water customers.
5. All successful collaborations require leadership by individuals and groups that understand the value of
recycled water and its importance to their communities. In many cases, leaders invest personal time and
effort to engage members of their own agency, even as they build relationships with external partners.
By understanding the conditions which foster leadership and cultivating "champions of change,"
agencies can promote these attributes and establish environments to sustain them. Nonagency actors
can also promote reuse including advocacy groups that recognize reuse as a solution to environmental
problems and professional associations that encourage agency members to explore reuse opportunities
through appropriately themed conferences and workshops.
The applicability of the lessons derived from the Analytical Framework is illustrated in the case studies:
¦ A regulatory mandate to remove nutrients from Chesapeake Bay encouraged Hampton Roads Sanitation
District (HRSD) in Eastern Virginia to reuse effluent. Federal regulators allowed HRSD, the regional
wastewater authority, to recharge 100 MGD of highly treated water into the aquifer as an alternative to
separately treating wet weather sanitary sewer overflows and stormwater runoff by municipalities
across the region, reducing the cost of regional compliance for the combined issues by $1 billion. HRSD
developed credit exchange agreements with more than a dozen local agencies and established an
oversight committee to address health concerns associated with ground water augmentation.
¦ In response to a change in state water rights governance (including wastewater discharges), agencies in
North Central Texas adopted a variety of legal structures to facilitate their collaboration, including MOUs
and bilateral and multilateral agreements. By coordinating their claims to return flows the City of Dallas,
Tarrant Regional Water District, North Texas Municipal Water District, and Trinity River Authority
collaborated to maintain local control of water allocations. They also developed individual partnerships
to reduce the total cost of their individual water reuse projects.
¦ Pima County in Southern Arizona and its largest city, Tucson, share responsibility for managing water in
this water-stressed area of the desert southwest. For economic and related reasons, Tucson supplies
water and reclaimed water, and Pima County treats wastewater for the majority of area residents.
Together they recycle effluent for landscape irrigation, environmental enhancement, and ground water
Case Studies
Executive Summary*2
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recharge. Through this collaboration Tucson Water provides their arid region with a reliable and
sustainable water supply and Pima County efficiently manages and operates their wastewater treatment
facilities. Their award-winning partnership (US Water Alliance, 2021b) has qualified their communities to
receive significant federal funding
¦ An innovative program supplying nonpotable recycled water for farmland irrigation in Central California's
Monterey Bay region added new sources of water—and new partners—to recharge the region's potable
aquifers. Monterey One Water's "Pure Water Monterey" program recycles municipal wastewater,
irrigation tailwater, agricultural washwater, and stormwater for potable reuse. The complexity of the
many economic and operational relationships was facilitated by pilot-scale work, which allowed agencies
to resolve a number of technical issues and develop a management strategy to ensure reliable operation
of the facility as a whole.
The largest water and wastewater agencies in the Los Angeles area of Southern California are building on
past successes to develop audacious new projects to respond to climate change by reusing more than
390,000 acre-feet per year (AFY) of treated effluent. Along with elected officials and the environmental
community, individuals in each of the participating agencies assumed leadership roles, facilitating
participation by other agencies beyond their own needs to get these projects going "for the common
good."
Collaborating utilities can be guided by the experience of the principals involved in these case studies. This advice
will benefit all public agencies who aim to work together to respond to the pressures of population growth,
resource depletion and climate change.
1. Necessity is the mother of collaboration. Take advantage of forcing events to move beyond old
institutional barriers and roles and into new collaborations for sustainability. Water supply reliability
problems exacerbated by climate change can serve as a driver (Arizona), as can regulatory authorities
who can motivate reuse through discharge and withdrawal limits and other water management
requirements (Virginia).
2. Turn lemons into lemonade. Many challenges also provide opportunities for creative solutions to
regional problems. For example, the imposition of stringent nutrient limits opened a pathway for an
agency to turn effluent into a regional resource by restoring an overdrawn aquifer (Virginia). In another
instance, the need to invest in water reuse to meet regulatory limits on surface water withdrawals also
had the added benefit of allowing some agencies to postpone the cost of expanding their water
treatment facilities (Central California). Agencies contemplating reuse need to engage with regulators
early and enlist their support to translate regulatory mandates into creative opportunities to reuse
water.
3. Recognize opportunities to serve "the greater good." Regional reuse projects often enhance water supply
resiliency and reliability, provide environmental benefits, and reduce overall costs. These benefits,
however, must be clearly articulated to encourage multi-agency cooperation and even then, one agency
may still need to shoulder a larger share of the costs for the benefit of all (Virginia, Southern California).
Recognize that your agency ultimately serves many of the same customers and shares a regional identity
with other cities and utilities. Think in terms of "the big picture" and embrace the responsibility of
explaining the benefits of a collaborative water reuse program.
4. Get it in writing! Long-term partnerships require written agreements with clearly defined roles,
responsibilities, and shared objectives to succeed beyond the terms of the original partners. Expect
these agreements to be revised and amended over time to reflect changed conditions and the evolving
needs of the community at large (Arizona). Ongoing communication is key to the operation of joint
facilities. When staff from multiple agencies are collectively responsible for a project, they must take
time to get to know each other and keep each other up to date on their activities.
Words of Wisdom from Successful Practitioners
Executive Summary*3
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6.
Reuse projects proceed at the speed of trust. On the other hand, legal agreements do not create mutual
trust, they only codify it. Utilities develop a level of confidence in each other that they can build upon
when they recognize cultural differences and develop a common vocabulary. Encourage informal
relationships between staff at different agencies to enhance communication. Move beyond your own
comfort zone and be willing to initiate new relationships (Texas). Once understanding and trust are
established - especially across different levels and sections of the utilities - partnerships can grow and
thrive.
Those with the most to give should give the most, and they should keep on giving. Different agencies in a
partnership will have different capacity to support reuse initiatives. This difference may be related to
agency size (e.g., a large regional utility collaborating with smaller local agencies) or stem from their
relative affluence or expertise. Agencies with greater resources and capabilities need to take on greater
responsibility for program success (Virginia). Furthermore, relationships between partner agencies
evolve over time. Managers must be prepared to re-evaluate their agreements and adjust them as
conditions and related reuse opportunities and needs change (Arizona).
"There is strength in numbers." Working together, agencies can do more than they can individually,
allowing them to create more ambitious solutions. Some utilities may be structured in a manner that
opens opportunities, e.g., access to funding otherwise unavailable to another individual utility, or
favorable financing terms based on one utility's qualifying cash flow. As a result, the partnership group
may obtain advantageous fiscal support that some individual agencies would not have otherwise
obtained. Collaboration may even provide the ability to overcome to critical technical challenges to
reusing water. Only when the Water Replenishment District arranged for the City of Los Angeles to store
recycled water in its groundwater basin could the city commit to reusing 100 percent of its wastewater
at its Hyperion Water Reclamation Plant. Collaboration is the key to greatness.
Executive Summary*4
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INTRODUCTION
Water management utilities are pushed and pulled by many forces, which differ based on the services they
provide. In many areas of the United States, there are separate utilities for producing and distributing water,
collecting and treating wastewater, and managing stormwater. Water agencies must continually supply an
abundant quantity of fresh, high-quality water to a growing population at a price affordable to everyone.
Wastewater agencies face a steady stream of sewage they must treat through a combination of carefully
engineered physical, chemical, and biological treatment systems to meet increasingly stringent standards. For their
part, flood control districts must proactively invest in stormwater management infrastructure to keep their
communities safe during "worst case" weather events while preserving the health of area waterways.
Each of these agencies has its own directors and managers, its own infrastructure and operators, its own
regulatory requirements, and its own budget to carry out its own particular responsibility within its separate
jurisdiction. While that arrangement once suited the task, over the past few decades it has become increasingly
evident that water management challenges can no longer be addressed separately. A multitude of new
pressures—climate change, population growth, aging infrastructure, and environmental regulations combined
with political opposition to rate hikes—now drive utilities to enter strategic partnerships to carry out their
missions.
For example, as warmer winters have reduced summer river flows many water agencies now look to wastewater
utilities to supplement their supplies with recycled water. Water conservation efforts that preserve those supplies
also reduce the volume (but not the strength) of sewage in ways that impact both the conveyance and treatment
of wastewater. As stormwater management agencies cope with unprecedented amounts of rainfall, water supply
managers must weigh the need to fill reservoirs for future use against the benefit of emptying them to make room
for heavy rains. These problems force water utilities to cooperate and collaborate in unfamiliar ways, while at the
same time they make it harder for them by stimulating their natural inclination to maintain tight control of the
projects within their jurisdictions.
This report is designed to help utilities, regulators, and others think differently—and more productively—about
interagency collaboration in order to increase their capacity to recycle water. Water recycling in particular requires
utilities to go beyond their historical missions and to consider their roles and responsibilities in a different light. As
a way of illustrating the complexities involved, we begin with an examination of two California communities with
two very different opportunities to reuse water.
As a way of illustrating the complexities involved, we begin with an examination of how two California
communities—one south, one north—responded to two different opportunities to reuse water.
Orange County: There's no place like home
Orange County, California's Groundwater Replenishment System (GWRS)—the world's largest potable reuse
project—demonstrates the tremendous potential that can be achieved when agencies collaborate. Jointly funded
by Orange County Sanitation District (OC San) and Orange County Water District's (OCWD), the project can
produce up to 100 MGD (112,000 AFY) of potable water by treating effluent from OC San's treatment plant. The
effluent is processed by microfiltration, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet light, and hydrogen peroxide disinfection
A Tale of Two Communities
Introduction *5
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before it is injected into the local aquifer, where it forms a barrier against seawater intrusion and supplies water to
OCWD's 19 retail customers.
MM
Figure 1. Reverse osmosis membranes at Orange County Water District GWRS (Credit: OCWD)
Located just south of Los Angeles, Orange County's development followed a pattern common in California
history. This coastal plain bisected by the Santa Ana River was originally inhabited by Native Americans and
colonized by Spanish missionaries. It was subsequently drained and farmed by settlers who irrigated their crops
with a combination of river flows and ground water. By the beginning of the 20th century, however, local water
supplies proved insufficient for both farms and cities, and civic leaders began making plans to import water. After
the City of Los Angeles tapped the Owens River through an ambitious 215-mile aqueduct that skirted the Eastern
Sierras (1913), the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (Metropolitan) strung an even longer
pipeline to fetch Colorado River water from Lake Mead behind Hoover Dam (1941). In the meantime, Orange
County residents who were concerned about their shrinking aquifer formed OCWD "for the purpose of managing
the groundwater basin and managing, replenishing, regulating, and protecting the groundwater supplies."
OCWD acquired surface water rights to replenish their aquifer and wholesaled the ground water to area
municipalities. When surface water was insufficient to fill the aquifer, they bought water from other agencies,
including Metropoli tan. At the other end of the pipe, the Orange County Joint Outfall Sewer (JOS) conveyed
Orange County's sewage a half-mile out into the Pacific Ocean (the current outfall is 5 miles long) but it would take
local communities another 30 years to form the County Sanitation District of Orange County, later renamed
Orange County Sanitation District (OC San). Then, in the mid-1960s, the need for more water brought the two
agencies together.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Introduction-6
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The future of the two agencies began to intersect when increased demand from a growing post-war population
depleted the aquifer to the point that it was vulnerable to seawater intrusion. OCWD determined they could
create a barrier by treating OC San's effluent and injecting it into the aquifer. They purchased land next to the OC
San plant for a pilot plant to explore the feasibility of water reuse. Dubbed "Water Factory 21," the plant was
originally designed to produce a blend of desalinated seawater and disinfected wastewater (1975) but was later
modified to treat wastewater alone through reverse osmosis (1977). After OC San began treating wastewater to
secondary standards (1978), OCWD supplied up to 7,000 acre-feet per year of recycled water for irrigation through
its Green Acres Project (1991). In a reciprocal arrangement, OCWD began analyzing OC San's wastewater samples
for regulatory compliance at the water laboratory it built to support Water Factory 21, furthering their
collaboration.
The promise of their robust collaboration was fulfilled in 2001 when OCWD and OC San agreed to jointly fund the
design and construction of a project to treat over half of OC San's flow to drinking water standards for potable
reuse through ground water injection and direct recharge. By participating in the Groundwater Replenishment
System (GWRS), OC San saved $190 million— the estimated cost of building an additional outfall. GWRS continues
to expand and is on track to treat all of OC San's reusable flow by 2023, bringing the program's capacity to 130
MGD (148,000 AFY). Asked about the key to the success of their program, OCWD General Manager Mike Markus
cited the longstanding relationship between the two agencies and the OC San's Board of Directors strong
commitment to water recycling (Markus, 2021).
Contra Costa County, California: A long and winding road
Just a few hundred miles north of Orange County's ground water basin, Contra Costa County draws its water from
the tidally influenced freshwater delta formed by the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers as they flow out to sea
(CCWD, 2017). The farms and factories that developed at the turn of the last century suffered greatly when
periodic droughts and upstream diversions reduced this freshwater flow, bringing salt water from San Francisco
Bay upriver and making the water too brackish to use. During the 1920s, at the peak of a 13-year drought, farmers
were forced to stop irrigating and factories had to bring in water by tank car.
In 1933 local citizens created the Contra Costa Water District (CCWD) to provide a reliable source of water less
susceptible to incursion from salty seawater. They proposed building a canal to bring fresh water to the
community from fifty miles inland, and in 1937 the Contra Costa Canal was included as a part of the massive
federal Central Valley Project. It began delivering water in 1940, just in time to serve the post-war population
boom. The federal water slaked the thirst of the newcomers, but their wastewater soon exceeded the capacity of
area septic systems, necessitating the formation in 1946 of the Central Contra Costa Sanitary District (Central San)
to collect and treat wastewater discharged into nearby Suisun Bay.
The service area boundaries of CCWD and Central San are not identical, but they overlap, and include two large oil
refineries located less than 5 miles from Central San's wastewater treatment plant. (The refineries treat and
discharge their own wastewater but together receive up to 20 MGD of raw water from CCWD.) In the late 1960s,
when it appeared that new more stringent rules would limit the discharge of nutrients to the bay from wastewater
treatment plants, Central San and CCWD developed a plan to convey recycled water to serve recycled water to the
refineries in place of Delta water. CCWD even agreed to invest an additional $6 million in an ion exchange process
to soften the water before delivery to the refineries. The project was stalled by construction delays, however, and
in the intervening months state regulators removed the nutrient removal requirement from Central San's
discharge permit.
Introduction *7
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Figure 2. Location of oil refineries in the vicinity of Central San Wastewater Treatment Plant (Source:
Central Contra Costa Sanitary District, 2021)
Without a regulatory driver, Centra! San sought to renegotiate the deal with CCWD that had been the basis for
both parties moving forward with the project. The wastewater agency had previously agreed to assume nearly all
of the $180/AF cost of producing the recycled water. Once the only value of recycled water reuse appeared to be
for its use as an alternative water supply, Central San managers asked CCWD to share costs more equally, but here
the project was stymied by two additional complexities.
The first challenge was economic. Just as Central San no longer needed recycled water to meet their permit
requirements, CCWD maintained that they already had reliable, adequate, and less costly supplies to serve their
customers, and they did not need to incorporate recycled water to offset existing uses. Furthermore, they had
already invested significantly in pipelines, reservoirs, and water treatment plants to enhance the quality and
reliability of their supplies for their entire service area. If the refineries began buying recycled water from Central
San, CCWD would have reduced revenues from which to repay the bonds for past improvements.
The second problem, rooted in geography, wasjust as thorny. Central San discharges its treated wastewater into
Suisun Bay, just upstream of the Carquinez Strait, a narrow inlet through which fresh water from the Delta flows
on its way into San Francisco Bay. Over time, state authorities recognized the need to maintain Delta outflows to
protect water quality for Bay and Delta water users, including fresh, brackish, and saltwater ecosystems. During
dry periods, when the state limited the amount of water that CCWD could diverted from the Delta for municipal
use, the 20 MGD of recycled water Central San supplied to the refineries would result in a net water supply benefit
by reducing demand on water from upstream reservoirs and making more water available to maintain freshwater
flows, in wetter years, however, when Delta flows were ample, the recycled water would not add to the water
supply, further reducing CCWD's incentive to pursue the project.
Failing to resolve this impasse, the two agencies agreed that Central San would extend a pipeline to supply
recycled water to a few large landscape irrigation customers near their wastewater treatment plant, satisfying the
concerns of the EPA and the California Water Resources Control Board that provided grant funding for the project
and required some evidence of Central San's use of the grant-funded facilities.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Introduction
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Despite these challenges, CCWD and Central San have continued to develop strategies to use recycled water, and
new leadership at both agencies—unhampered by the memory of prior disputes—now see the opportunity to
reuse water in a more positive light. As climate change and changing regulations have resulted in more challenges
to the management of Delta water supplies, wider regional partnerships are being developed to enhance water
supply reliability in the face of droughts and other emergencies. Central San and CCWD are now working with a
third agency to engineer an arrangement that would allow Delta water freed up through use of recycled water by
the refineries to be wheeled to the South Bay. As Roger Bailey, current general manager of Central San recently
described their relationship with CCWD, "We recognize their concerns, and their desire to keep their customers
whole by avoiding duplication of service with recycled water. So if they don't need this supply, perhaps we can
work together to get it to people who do. Because sooner or later we're all going to need this water"(Bailey,
Reflecting on the divergent histories of these two California counties, it is apparent that many factors influenced
their approach to water reuse, including their hydrology, agency history, regulatory environment, and the price of
water. What lessons can we draw from their experience? What combination of physical circumstances,
environmental drivers, economic conditions, and management styles supported their ability to collaborate on
reuse projects? And what can other agencies do to work more effectively together to recycle water?
While some answers may seem obvious these questions are far from simple. This report represents an attempt to
answer them by analyzing the factors that influence interagency collaboration. The study includes an analytical
framework based on a review of the literature and interviews with other water professionals; in-depth discussions
with managers involved in the case studies profiled; and the insights that team members have gleaned from their
experience managing, operating, and regulating water utilities that recycle water. As explained in the analytical
framework section, the investigation focuses on five aspects of interagency relations:
¦ their legal structure and management (governance)
¦ the laws and rules under which agencies function (regulation)
¦ their funding sources and fiscal constraints (economics)
¦ the challenge of meeting their day-to-day responsibilities (management)
¦ their organizational culture and interpersonal styles (leadership)
We hope the experiences of the organizations and individuals profiled in this report will help other managers build
the relationships needed to implement water reuse programs. Looking beyond reuse, we expect this advice to be
useful in solving other problems as agencies race to find new strategies and solutions in the face of population
growth, resource depletion, and climate change in the coming decades.
This document has been prepared to be accessible in several different ways:
Those interested in learning about a particular aspect of interagency collaboration or who wish to gain a
broader understanding of the topic from the literature are invited to read the Analytical Framework as a
prologue to the regional profiles. Summaries and comments about selected references cited in the
Framework are also included in an Annotated Bibliography.
The five case studies provide examples of how agencies in different regions, facing diverse challenges,
worked together to reuse water to solve shared problems. While it is instructive to compare the
different regions in detail, a quick scan of the "Overview and Key Takeaways" section will allow the
reader to spot issues of particular relevance. Insets provide basic information about each agency's
purpose, budget, and involvement in water reuse.
2021).
Motives and Methods
How to Use This Document
Introduction *9
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¦ A collection of "lessons learned" follows the case studies, organized according to the five aspects of
collaboration proposed in the Analytical Framework. The final section also includes exercises for agencies
to facilitate a thoughtful and mutually beneficial collaboration.
Some Notes on Nomenclature
Agency/utility
The primary sponsors of reuse projects are usually the utilities responsible for managing wastewater and
stormwater suitable for recycling, and the water utilities that supply recycled water to their communities. They are
joined in this effort by a number of other institutions, including federal and state authorities that set criteria for
water quality and regulate wastewater and stormwater discharge as well as numerous other bodies that have a
say in permitting the construction of recycled water facilities. The term "water agency" is often used in this report
interchangeably with the word "utility," and should be understood to mean an organization charged with
managing public water, wastewater, or stormwater. By contrast, the unmodified term "agency" can equally refer
to regulators or others.
Coordinate/cooperate/collaborate
The intentional act of working together is defined in this report primarily through these verbs: coordinate,
cooperate, and collaborate. While we have used these terms to describe various levels of interagency assistance,
they are not exactly interchangeable as noted by New Zealand government policy advisors Rodney Scott and Ross
Boyd (2020):
There is a general sense in the literature that, when compared to cooperation or coordination,
collaboration involves greater 'depth of interaction, integration, commitment, and
complexity'...collaboration is distinguished in part because it involves integration over a longer period, with
cooperation and coordination being perhaps early developmental stages... Collaboration is distinguished by
the actions that are performed together; collaboration involves shared working, rather than merely shared
information or shared planning... [it] involves shared responsibility for a common goal, with other forms of
interagency working involving cooperating or coordinating...overlap while maintaining separate
responsibilities.." (Emphasis added)
With this distinction in mind, it is useful to observe how the relationships between the agencies profiled in in this
report evolved, and the extent to which they were ultimately able to commit their individual resources towards
the development of water reuse.
Water recycling and reclamation; indirect and direct nonpotable and potable
reuse
The terminology applied to techniques for reusing treated wastewater and the types of water produced is evolving
as rapidly as the industry itself. As a result, the literature—including this report—reflects both regional and
historical preference. While we have attempted to describe the practice of water reuse in a consistent manner,
some terms are used interchangeably.
1. Water recycling, water reclamation, and water reuse. In industrial settings, "water reuse" often refers to
the reuse of wastewater without intervening treatment, as distinct from "water recycling" which refers
to wastewater which must be treated before further use (Rosenblum, et al., 2021). Within the municipal
arena, however, all water reused is presumed to have required and received additional treatment
appropriate to its use. In this context, the terms water recycling and water reuse are considered to be
synonymous. Similarly, reclaimed water and recycled water both describe water treated to a higher
quality suitable for its end use.
2. Direct nonpotable and indirect potable reuse. As used by many Texas water agencies, these terms
distinguish between types of nonpotable and potable reuse. Irrigation, industrial cooling, toilet flushing
and other nonpotable applications of treated effluent are termed "direct reuse" while treatment and
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Introduction* 10
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distribution for potable purposes of surface water which includes a significant fraction of treatment
plant effluent they term "indirect reuse." By contrast, in California and some other states, intentionally
blending treatment plant effluent with surface water supplies upstream of a potable water treatment
facility is considered "raw water augmentation" and is a form of direct potable reuse (see below). In
those states, conventional treatment of surface water with an indeterminate amount of treatment plant
effluent has been termed "incidental," "unplanned," or "de facto" reuse.1 Within the context of this
report, the term indirect reuse" is used as it is by the agencies whose partnerships are described, which
in Texas refers generally to the discharge of return flows from wastewater treatment plants into drinking
water reservoirs and their subsequent treatment and distribution for potable purposes. Elsewhere,
however, the term indirect reuse is applied only to planned reuse projects.
3. Direct and indirect potable reuse. Nomenclature developed and promulgated in California now avoids
describing potable reuse with either the "indirect" or "direct" modifier. Instead, potable water reuse is
described in terms of the way in which recycled water is added to the potable supplies: in an aquifer
("ground water augmentation"); in a reservoir ("reservoir augmentation"); ahead of a water treatment
plant ("raw water augmentation"); or into the potable water distribution system ("treated water
augmentation"). Nevertheless, many states continue to use "indirect potable reuse" to refer to the first
two methods (ground water and reservoir augmentation) and "direct potable reuse" to refer to the
second two methods (raw water and treated water augmentation), noting that indirect potable reuse
includes an environmental buffer of some kind while direct potable reuse does not.
A note on units
Not only are water and wastewater agencies organized to accomplish distinctly different missions, but they also
measure and manage their efforts differently. Where water agencies are concerned about meeting demand for
water during critical dry years, wastewater utilities gear up to treat wastewater during periods of peak flow. Even
the units of measurement are not the same, as water is often measured in cubic feet (CF) or units of one hundred
cubic feet (CCF), whereas wastewater is measured in millions of gallons (MG) or millions of gallons per day (MGD).
These discrepancies are even more pronounced on a regional basis, as many western water agencies measure
their supply in terms of acre-feet (AF) or acre-feet per year (AFY), one acre-foot being the volume of water
required to cover one acre of area to a depth of one foot, or 43,560 cubic feet.
For the sake of clarity, within this report wastewater volume and flows are provided in terms of millions of gallons
(MG or MGD), and water supplies are presented in the units used by the utilities described in their respective case
studies (generally AF or AFY). Recycled water projects may be described in either unit, depending upon whether
the focus is on production of the water or its distribution and use by the community. For convenience, the
following approximations may be used:
1 AF = 0.33 MG
1,000 AFY = 0.9 MGD
1 The National Research Council's Committee on the Assessment of Water Reuse as an Approach to Meeting
Future Water Supply Needs defined "de facto reuse" as "a drinking water supply that contains a significant
fraction of wastewater effluent, typically from upstream wastewater discharges, although the water supply has
not been permitted as a water reuse project." (NRC, 2012, p. 3) The Committee cited the reuse of return flows in
the Trinity River Basin (see Case Study #2: North Central Texas) as an example of an effluent-dominated surface
water system where de facto potable water reuse occurs.
1 MG
1 MGD
3.1 AF
1120 AFY
Introduction
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ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
The Challenge of Interagency Collaboration
Key Takeaways
• While water-related challenges today require integrated solutions, U.S. water supply, wastewater treatment,
and flood control services have historically been accomplished by separate utilities organized to fulfill those
separate missions. Cooperation between agencies is influenced by their individual governance and
management structures, as well as the regulatory and economic environments in which they operate.
• Successful collaboration between utilities requires mutual sensitivity to their distinct motivations and
responsibilities, and leadership to see beyond the traditional limits of their organizations.
While water-related challenges today require integrated solutions, US water supply, wastewater treatment, and
flood control services have historically been accomplished by separate utilities organized to fulfill those separate
missions. Fragmentation of utility operations, each one focused on an isolated part of the urban water cycle,
challenges the development of integrated water management (Mukheibir et al., 2015) (WERF Exploratory Team,
2011). Even in communities where water and wastewater services are provided by a single entity, different
departments may compete to achieve their individual goals. This competition has prompted some to define water
management as a "wicked problem" for which no single objectively optimum solution can be found (Dentoni, et al.,
2018). Nonetheless, "separate but connected" agencies can work together to adopt a "One Water" approach,
operating as a single virtual utility (Paulsen, et al., 2017) (US Water Alliance, 2021a).
The roots of fragmentation
How did this fragmented approach to managing water develop, and how does it impact the ability of agencies to
reuse water?
Fragmentation of water management has deep historic roots. Iraqi qanats and Roman aqueducts brought water to
ancient farms and cities, and communal wells have been part of the urban landscape for centuries. Wastewater
treatment was not common until the 20th century when the effects of pollution became too intense to ignore
(Sedlak, 2014). In short, our current mosaic of water agencies reflects the piecemeal development of a water
infrastructure constructed to serve our urban centers as our population and economies have grown. These
institutions were created to satisfy the water needs of communities at a specific time and place, and as such they
were shaped by the environmental, social, and political circumstances in which they emerged (Sehring, 2005). In a
nutshell, the insitutional challenge of water reuse results from the fact that community water needs evolve more
quickly than the agencies themselves.
On the other hand, there is nothing immutable about the way agencies manage water today. History has shown
that people regularly create new institutions in response to changing conditions (Blomquist, 1992). In California,
for example, land reclamation districts formed in the 19th century to drain land for agriculture were followed by
irrigation districts created to water the reclaimed farmland. As the state became more urban,municipal water
districts were formed to provide drinking water to growing communities (Henley, 1957). Following this trajectory,
as communities realize the cost-effectiveness of integrated water management, one can expect that agencies will
work more closely together, or else they will be forced to reorganize to allow for the implementation of more
holistic solutions.
The challenge of collaboration
Despite the organizational challenges to the development of cross-jurisdictional projects, there are many examples
of agencies both large and small, working together to reuse water (Gallet, 2019) (Howe, 2019) (LADPW, 2020)
(SAWPA, 2020). As the case studies in this report demonstrate, there are several factors that contribute to
successful collaborations.
Analytical Framework* 12
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Public policy experts distinguish between different types of intergovernmental teamwork that vary depending
upon what motivates agencies to work together. While "coordination" may describe sharing information in order
to better align the outcome of their activities, agencies "cooperate" when they work together on a joint project,
sharing staff and resources as well. By contrast, "collaboration" involves integration over a longer period of time
and shared responsibility for a common goal (Scott & Boyd, 2020).
Raucher et al. (2008) identified several barriers to cooperation between utilities collaborating on joint water
supply projects. These barriers include loss of autonomy; differences in service population; geography; and
confliciting regulations and management goals. Henderson and Raucher (2019) identified eight steps to overcome
those barriers (Table 1).
Table 1. Eight steps to creating utility partnerships (after Henderson and Raucher, 2019)
Step
Activity
Step 1.
Identify the people and organizations needed to create a successful partnership.
Step 2.
Identify partnership objectives, values, and drivers.
Step 3.
Explore options for utility partnerships.
Step 4.
Review common legal structures for partnerships.
Step 5.
Identify potential benefits ("The Business Case").
Step 6.
Review potential partnership issues and concerns.
Step 7.
Think conceptually about legal provisions to include in a contract.
Step 8.
Communicate about partnerships to build support.
Following these steps involves addressing challenges in at least five distinct areas: 1) governance and legal
requirements; 2) regulatory issues; 3) economic factors; 4) management considerations; and 5) leadership and
interpersonal dynamics.
Despite the growing popularity of the "One Water" concept, water agency governance is commonly constrained
by the original mission, structure, and culture of the utility. If a water agency was created to provide ratepayers
with clean, low-cost water, it may be reluctant to participate in expensive "used water" projects. Similarly, a
wastewater agency may determine that it is legally unable to invest in a reuse project whose primary purpose is
water supply. By focusing on their common goals, however, utilities can often justify their participation in a water
reuse project. Collaboration between agencies can be formally codified through appropriate legal agreements
(Step 4 in Table 1), but it takes foresight, vision, leadership, and determination to overcome these structural and
cultural barriers.
Collaboration between agencies can also be complicated by the need to comply with the many regulations related
to production, transmission, and use of recycled water (NRC, 2012). Regulatory limits may constrain a treatment
plant from discharging membrane treatment concentrate into the receiving water; other regulations may prohibit
customers from accidentally allowing recycled water to run off into the storm sewer. Conversely, limits on effluent
quality or quantity may create a driver for reuse. To complicate matters further, recycled water regulations may be
promulgated in different codes (e.g., drinking water, wastewater) using different terminology. Since permit
compliance has legal and political consequences, assigning responsibility for compliance may be even more
divisive than allocating costs.
Economic issues must be handled carefully so the full array of benefits is recognized, and no party bears an unfair
share of the cost. The unit cost of recycled water is almost always higher than the rates charged for its use
(especially for nonpotable applications), so a cross subsidy from another water service is often required (Cristiano &
Henderson, 2009) (AWWA, 2019) (Raucher, et al., 2019)). On the other hand, the risk of natural disaster, regulation,
or climate change disrupting supply may make it prudent to spend more now to assure the availability of water
later. A detailed benefit-cost analysis, including non-market benefits may be needed to justify the project and help
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework* 13
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align cost recovery with the beneficiaries (De Souza, et ai., 2011) (Raucher, et al., 2019). By identifying the benefits
of reuse to the community as a whole, agencies may find other opportunities to collaborate as well (Diringer, et
al., 2019). Likewise, opportunities to access favorable financing for reuse projects may be enhanced through water
agency collaborations and partnerships.
A host of management issues confront agencies working together to design, build, start up and run a water reuse
system. Along with the usual technical matters pertaining to design, specification, and construction, joint projects
may involve questions related to ownership, real estate, and infrastructure. Operation and maintenance
responsibilities must also be assigned, and expectations specified for key parameters including water quality and
pressure, flow rate (peak daily and annual), and temperature as well as response to pipe breaks, partially treat ed
water, and other non-optimal situations (Rosenblum, 2016).
In virtually all cases, both individual and organizational leadership is needed to implement a recycled water
project. Although interpersonal and cultural issues can interfere with cooperation, a perceptive "project
champion" can inspire others to keep the project on track and build trust across agencies. Directors, managers,
and agency staff can advance leadership by identifying, setting, and incentivizing shared, common goals rooted in
the larger context of sustainable water use (Scott & Boyd, 2020). They can also encourage others to adopt this
perspective by ensuring that each agency is aware of the other's issues (Rosenblum & Anderson, 2009).
By working together to recycle water, agencies can create multiple benefits that contribute to economic,
environmental, and community livability. However, they face a variety of legal, regulatory, economic, technical,
and leadership challenges. The following sections discuss these factors in detail and describe the strategies
agencies can employ to align governance with mission, work cooperatively with regulators, make economic
decisions based on long-term goals, assign tasks to the most capable parties, and encourage both individual and
organizational leadership.
Analytical Framework* 14
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Governance Strategies and Legal Tools
Key Takeaways
• Water utilities were created to solve problems in a specific time and place, but their problems evolve faster
than their governance structures.
• While agency boundaries can create barriers to cooperation, they can also function as points of connection,
presenting opportunities to increase resilience.
• Water, wastewater, and stormwater agencies work together best when they each recognize how their goals
intersect and how water reuse supports their missions.
• Legal structures from agreements to joint authorities can be used to formalize agency partnerships.
This section explores tools and strategies to overcome the barriers to collaboration arising from the legal
structures that govern how agencies operate. These structures can narrow a government agency's vision and
sense of mission, and interfere with productive cooperation. Some utility managers openly declare that their
mission is limited to providing basic water services reliably at as low a cost as possible. To them, investing time and
resources in pursuit of objectives outside the bounds of their narrowly defined mission is not good business. Other
managers recognize the role they play in promoting the greater good, and actively pursue an agenda that includes
social and environmental objectives. In some cases they lead this effort; other times they simply reflect the
"green" values held by their communities. In a report for the Global Water Partnership, Rogers and Hall (2003)
concluded that institutions responsible for all aspects of water use should be structured and operated to support
integrated water resource management, and a number of institutional frameworks have been proposed for
reforming the governance of water agencies to achieve that goal (Grafton, et al., 2019).
Challenges to interagency cooperation are not unique to the water industry, and many agencies in various sectors
have found ways to work across jurisdictional boundaries. Law enforcement agencies commony cooperate across
jurisdictional boundaries (Tannian, 2017) and "mutual aid" agreements allow fire departments to share personnel
and equipment. In California, federal, state, and local fire supression agencies regularly update a detailed plan to
coordinate their efforts to respond to wildfires in the state (CWFCG, 2017), and the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) has published templates for mutual aid agreements to allow states and
municipalities to collaborate effectively in case of emergency (FEMA, 2017).
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) defines interagency collaboration as "anyjoint activity by two or
more organizations that is intended to produce more public value than could be produced when the organizations
act alone" (GAO, 2005). They cited eight steps to "enhance and sustain" interagency collaboration, all of which are
applicable to facilitating water reuse:
1. Define and articulate a commonoutcome.
2. Establish mutually reinforcing or jointstrategies.
3. Identify and address needs by leveraging resources.
4. Agree on roles and responsibilities.
5. Establish compatible policies, procedures, and other means to operate across agency boundaries.
6. Develop mechanisms to monitor, evaluate, and report on results.
7. Reinforce agency accountability for collaborative efforts through agency plans and reports.
8. Reinforce individual accountability for collaborative efforts through performance management systems.
Rather than a formula, Quick and Feldman (2014) propose a "stance of inquiry" towards boundaries that allow
managers to see them as "porous" and the source of potential points of connection. Based on their research in a
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework* 15
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variety of municipal settings they contend that "An orientation to boundaries in collaboration as junctures enables
efficient resilience by supporting an ongoing capacity to adapt to emerging circumstances."
Types of governance structures
Responsibility for providing safe and reliable water is normally assigned to local city and county governments,
general or special purpose districts, or private companies subject to public regulation (Beutler, 2008). According to
Green (2007), in California (as in many states) there are five different types of water agencies: 1) water suppliers;
2) ground water management agencies; 3) wastewater management agencies; 4) stormwater management
agencies; and 5) water quality agencies. Green pointedly adds that, "Nothing in the law requires them to talk to
one another or to plan in an integrated way." The features of these agency types are described further in Table 2.
Even when they are housed as departments within city and county governments, the thousands of agencies that
provide drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater services in the United States are often operated with their
own mission-specific goals in mind. When enshrined in an agency's enabling legislation, this single-mindedness can
present a barrier to the development of recycled water projects, which may require them to share responsibilities
with another entity. As an independent utility, a water agency tasked with distributing clean, safe water will most
often look to expand its current supply of fresh water before considering the reuse of treated effluent, especially
when those freshwater supplies are available at a low cost. Similarly, a wastewater agency facing discharge limits
will invest in additional treatment before entering into a complicated agreement with a water agency to use its
nutrient-rich effluent for irrigation, unless the latter is more cost-effective.
Table 2. Types of water agencies
Type of
Organization
Governance
Jurisdiction
Features
City or county
government
Publicly elected council
or board, district or at-
large
City or county limits
Departments may be supervised by
appointed city or county manager or elected
mayor or county executive
Special
district
Publicly elected or
appointed board
Set by legislation;
varies with purpose
District boundaries may overlap other
political jurisdictions
Private water
company
Board of directors
elected by shareholders
Service area franchise
May be publicly held and subject to other
rules of coprorate governance
Joint powers
authority
Publicly elected or
appointed board
Boundaries agreed to
by joint authorities
Board may consist of representatives of
particpating public agencies
Within the water sector, agencies have used a number of legal strategies to enable them to collaborate. These
strategies range from informal agreements and simple memoranda of understanding to bilateral or multi-party
agreements. More formal arrangements may include the formation of joint powers authorities or even
consolidation of existing agencies into a new legal entity capable of carrying out all the existing responsibilities of
the individual authorities in a more integrated and efficient manner. Some of these approaches are described
further in Table 3. Each has advantages and limitations, as further illustrated in the discussion of the case studies.
Aside from these legal strategies, agencies can work together to advance water reuse by forming "ad hoc"
cooperative associations. In the San Francisco Bay Area, local water agencies joined together to create Bay Area
Regional Reliability (BARR), a regional partnership through which they investigated alternatives to enhance their
collective water reliability (Brown and Caldwell, 2017). They can also cooperate through their mutual involvement
in professional associations as in Washington State where water and wastewater agencies in the Puget Sound area
coordinate reuse activities through meetings with the Pacific Northwest Clean Water Association, a section of the
national Water Environment Federation, and the Pacific Northwest Section of the national WateReuse Association.
Less formally, the consortia of national universities funded by the National Science Foundation operating under
the rubric ReNUWIt ("Renewing the National Urban Water Infrastructure") created a series of seminars designed
to bring area water advocates and professionals in the San Francisco Bay Area together to consider the potential
for collaboration on water reuse projects (Harris-Lovett, et al., 2019).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework* 16
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Table 3. Some types of arrangements to support collaborative recycled water projects
Informal
agreement
• Easy to implement.
• May arise spontaneously from
professional associations.
• Adaptable to changing
circumstances.
• No formal legal review or approval required.
• No enforcement authority.
• No formal identification of responsibilities;
may be inappropriate for complex projects.
• May not be transparent and may not survive
changes in key personnel.
Memorandum of
Understanding
• Easy to implement.
• Spells out reasons for collaboration
and respective expectations.
• Allows some specificity of actions,
including permission to provide
service across boundaries.
• Transparent to public.
• May require formal approval.
• Limited enforceability.
• Responsibilities may not be adequately
specified for complex projects.
Bilateral
Agreement
• Identifies actions required by both
parties.
• Includes terms and conditions
enforceable through specified
remedies including venue.
• Transparent to public.
• Time lag between inception and execution.
• Requires legal review, formal approval.
• Once executed, may not be easily adapted to
changing conditions.
• Only binding on two parties.
Multi-party
Agreement
• Identifies actions required by all
parties.
• Includes terms and condition
enforceable through specified
remedies including venue.
• Transparent to public.
• Multi-party terms require legal review after
any unilateral change.
• Requires formal approval by all parties.
• Once executed, may not be easily adapted to
changing conditions.
Contractual
Services
• Allows one party to provide services
required for reuse with terms of
payment by other party or parties.
• Identifies actions required by all
parties.
• Includes terms and conditions
enforceable through specified
remedies including venue in which
future disputes might be settled.
• Transparent to public.
• Does not include provisions for reciprocal
participation.
• Must include appropriate provisions for
holding service provider accountable for
meeting specified performance goals.
• Requires formal approval by all parties.
• Once executed, may not be easily adapted to
changing conditions.
Joint Powers
Authority
• Provides maximum flexibility for
collaborative action while allowing
participants to retain their prior
agency affiliations.
• Allows new agency to respond to
changing conditions on behalf of
signatories within limits of authority.
• New agency has authority to collect
fees and borrow funds Transparent
to public.
• More time consuming than simple
agreements or contracts for services.
• May require legislative approval in addition to
approval by boards of participating agencies.
• Once created, authority is not readily
dissolved.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: , _ , _
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Analytical Framework 17
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Type of
Partnership
Some Advantages
Some Limitations
Consolidation
• New agency takes on all duties of
participating agencies, including
reuse program.
• Allows new agency to respond to
changing conditions on behalf of
signatories within limits of authority.
• New agency has authority to collect
fees and borrow funds.
• Transparent to public.
• Most time consuming.
• May require legislative approval in addition to
approval by boards of participating agencies.
• Requires careful accounting of all liabilities of
existing entities prior to consolidation.
Consolidation or collaboration?
When two agencies serve different populations (i.e., when their service areas are not identical) it is difficult to
determine how a joint water recycling project benefits their respective ratepayers. For this and other reasons,
some suggest that the best solution is the formation of a single agency with jurisdictional boundaries
commensurate to the watershed in which it operates. Florida regulators, for example, divide their state into five
water management districts (SFWMD, 2020). In southern California, multiple agencies created the Santa Ana
Watershed Protection Authority to provide integrated water management (SAWPA, 2020) after decades of
lawsuits and legal decisions apportioning ground water rights and responsibilities. As an alternative to
consolidation, California has encouraged interagency cooperation through legislation like the 2002 Regional Water
Management Planning Act (SB 1672), the 2014 Storm Water Management Planning Act (SB 985), and the landmark
2014 Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA) which requires coordinated local management of all
medium- and high-risk ground water basins.
Creating agencies with watershed boundaries may bring in a different set of problems however. For one thing,
people living in different communities within a common watershed may have very different interests not readily
reconciled by a single agency. Water problems do not impact everyone within the watershed equally, and a single
large watershed-based agency may well give decision-making authority to upstream water users insulated from
the influence of downstream problems like seawater intrusion (Blomquist & Schlager, 1999). Some problems
extend beyond the boundary of a given watershed, prompting some to use the term "problemshed" to define the
population struggling with the same issues (Cohen & Davidson, 2011). From a philosophical perspective, Franco-
Torres et al. (2020) also recommends a more decentralized governance structure involving "partnerships between
diverse actors through interactions to find synergies and negotiate conflicting interests" which include both formal
relationships and "informal (shadow) networks."
The "One Water" approach endorsed by the American Water Works Association (AWWA), the Water Enviornment
Federation (WEF), the WateReuse Association, the US Water Alliance, and other national water organizations
supports integrated water management while leaving existing agency jurisdictions intact. The key to this approach
is joint planning which includes "collaboration among multiple departments and agencies, each with separate
missions [to establish] an overarching vision and...broadly define what your team intends to accomplish" (Paulsen,
et al., 2017). As an example, the City of Pittsburgh Water and Sewerage Agency and the 83 municipality members
of ALCOSAN, Allegheny County's regional wastewater facility () are currently working together to address a range
of water-related issues, including flooding and pollution from combined sewer overflows (Howe, 2019). In this
example, it is worth noting that stormwater and flood control agencies take center stage in leading their
respective communities towards sustainable water management.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework* 18
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Working with Regulations and Regulators to Make Water
Reuse Projects Sing
Key Takeaways
• It is important to understand the regulatory landscape specific to a project within a jurisdiction rather than to
rely on general assumptions or lore. Mapping out regulations and regulatory strategies early on in planning a
project enables proactive engagement with regulators to enlist them as partners.
• Successful projects engage with regulators early on—during the development of regulations so the adopted
rules are consistent with their practices, and during the development of their projects to assure that they
comply with applicable regulations and to avoid surprises.
• Regulations can drive, enable, or stymie projects. Regulators can do a lot to help make them enablers of good
projects rather than hindrances.
There are a host of regulatory issues to be considered in developing a water reuse project and multiple ways to
approach them. Concern about regulations (which carry both economic and legal consequences) can impede
collaboration and delay the development of recycled water projects. On the other hand, water use and
wastewater discharge regulations collectively define the challenge of water management in a way that has led to a
recognition of the benefits of reuse as a means of making more sustainable use of water resources. This section
examines how approaching regulations thoughtfully is an essential element of interagency cooperation, and how
agencies and regulators together can use the regulatory structure to create successful recycled water projects.
Regulations as drivers to reuse
Regulations can frequently be a driver shaping the vision of a recycled water project. For example, nutrient
discharge requirements can be set so low that it may be cheaper for a wastewater agency to recycle water for
irrigation than to further reduce ammonia and nitrogen concentrations. Alternatively, limits on withdrawal of
ground water or surface water can drive interest in reuse as a reliable source of water for ground water recharge,
or as a means of leaving water in streams for environmental purposes. Recycled water regulations can also enable
water reuse projects when they provide uniform standards that give a level of certainty to the permitting process.
As described below, strategically and collaboratively developed regulations can inspire agencies to envision bigger
projects. This was the case in California where statewide indirect and direct potable reuse regulations encouraged
agencies to set more ambitious goals than those achievable with non-potable use (Marcus, et al., 2020)
(Metropolitan, 2015). Regulations based on watershed-wide permits can even encourage local agencies to
reimagine their roles as integrated water resource managers.
On the other hand, regulations can at times be a source of frustration, surprise, and delay. A recent survey
indicated that, "eight out of ten clean water agency managers said regulatory inflexibility is 'very important' or
"'the most important' factor that needs to change to create more innovation in the sector" (NACWA, 2013). State
recycled water standards vary, and as state agencies become more supportive of recycled water some are
considering a new suite of standards.2 Wastewater agencies that are used to thinking only in terms of
environmental water quality are often surprised to encounter water rights rules they consider overly conservative
or complex. Utilities solely familiar with conventional drinking water treatment rules who are unexpectedly
confronted by residual discharge limits may be discouraged by increased costs and delay.
2 In addition to Texas' historic projects in Big Springs and Wichita Falls, California, Colorado, Florida, and Arizona,
are working on direct potable reuse (DPR) regulations. California and others have implemented state level
standards for other indirect uses such as groundwater augmentation and reservoir augmentation in recent years
and interest is growing in many states across the nation. (Clayton, 2021)
Analytical Framework* 19
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Misunderstandings about regulations like water rights and residuals discharge can distract agencies from thinking
creatively about reuse projects. Furthermore, since the rules regulating water supply and wastewater agencies
differ substantially in form, language, and substance, they can also be a source of friction between potential
partners. Water reuse project managers can help themselves in the face of these regulatory challenges in three
ways: they can work together to influence the rules that govern their projects; they can make sure they
understand the rules; and they can carefully monitor project performance to ensure they comply with all pertinent
regulations.
Successful project managers engage early to influence standards at the state and local level to assure that the
rules that are ultimately adopted are implementable and not overly burdensome in achieving their desired
objectives. (Ulibarri, et al., 2017). Interagency partners should decide early how they will share responsibility for
involvement in policymaking and must devote the staff time and budget needed to engage effectively. To save
time in the long run they should understand the steps of the process, develop a road map, and establish working
relationships with regulators. A clear understanding of the nature of regulation and the role of regulators can help
reuse proponents successfully navigate the regulatory process.
For their part, regulators and regulatory agencies can also do much to help or hinder recycled water projects. Just
as water reuse agencies need to assess and coordinate their approach to regulations and engage with regulators
as early as possible when envisioning the project, regulators need to see themselves as partners who are helping
local agencies achieve the water resilience they seek within the regulatory process. While this may be a departure
from a more traditional "hands off" approach, it is an essential element in the successful creation of recycled
water projects.
What follows is a more detailed discussion of the nature of the complex regulatory framework water reuse
projects must address, tips for reuse agencies to navigate (and even influence) the regulatory space, and
suggestions for regulators to make the process more conducive for reuse projects and thereby help to create more
resilient communities (Marcus, et al., 2020).
Assessing the regulatory environment and deciding how the team will manage it
Regulations relevant to water reuse projects cross a wide range of jurisdictions and disciplines. Rules are
promulgated at the federal, state, and local levels, and cover all aspects of water management including water
rights; environmental review of construction projects; protection of public health and the environment through
standards and discharge requirements; and compliance with plumbing and building codes. Table 4 below presents
some examples of the types of rules and regulations that agencies should consider as they plan and pursue
recycled water projects. Local agencies may also have rules for facility construction with specific requirements for
the types of recycled water use permitted in their jurisdictions.
The regulatory landscape is changing rapidly as interest in recycled water grows throughout the nation. Moreover,
rules regarding recycled water use vary from state to state. The wide range of recycled water rules are reflected in
the National Research Council's compendium of these regulations (NRC, 2012) and in the EPA's "2012 Guidelines
for Water Reuse" which includes suggestions for how to develop a statewide regulatory framework for water
reuse (EPA, 2012). In 2021 the WateReuse Association published an online summary of current state regulations
that is both timely and instructive (WateReuse, 2021). In addition, under the Water Reuse Action Plan (WRAP) EPA
is currently implementing Action 2.1, "Compile Existing State Policies and Approaches to Water Reuse," that will
result in an up-to-date listing of state reuse regulatory programs and policies. These references give a good
overview of the rules, but for any given project, the project proponents must do a site-specific assessment.3
3 The WRAP also includes an action (Action 3.1) to compile existing specifications of fit-for-purpose treatment
appropriate for different sources of water and end-use applications. In addition to streamlining the design of
Analytical Framework*20
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In view of the extent of regulation and the number of permits required, agencies contemplating a reuse project
should discuss the process together as early as possible. When envisioning a project, a wide variety of questions
should be asked, including (but not limited to) the following:
¦ What is the regulatory environment in general terms, and where are the opportunities for collaboration,
synergy, and success?
¦ Who will engage with state and local regulators for siting, development of recycled water and residual
quality standards, and other purposes? How will this responsibility be divided?
¦ Who will take the lead in getting each of the necessary permits?
¦ How will the permitting process be tracked at various stages of project development?
¦ Who will pay for the permitting process, or how will the costs be shared?
¦ Who will be responsible for communicating with stakeholders, regulators, the public, government
officials, the business community?
¦ Who will be responsible for compliance with these rules, or how will that responsibility be shared?
¦ How will compliance be monitored, who will be responsible or how will responsibility be shared?
¦ How will emergencies or unexpected occurrences be handled?4
Table 4. Types of Permit Requirements for Reuse (by Level of Authority)
Authority
Type of
Requirement
Notes
Federal
and/or
State
Recycled water use
and residual
discharge permits;
water quality
standards for surface
and ground water.
• Federal National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permit issued to agency responsible for treatment and reuse.
• Usually delegated to a state permitting authority.
• Includes monitoring and reporting requirements waste discharge
requirements, or other state level discharge requirements.
• Underground injection control (UIC) permits regulate ground water
injection.
State
Water rights permits
or rules on inter-
basin transfers
• Required where recycled water use may impact availability of water to
other users or the environment upon which they have come to rely or
which is protected by law, regulation, or legal agreement (e.g.,
reduction of downstream flow).
State
Recycled water
quality regulation
• Depends on type of use:
o Direct potable = raw water or treated water augmentation,
o Indirect potable=ground water or reservoir augmentation,
o Nonpotable reuse (irrigation, indoor plumbing for toilet flushing,
etc.).
• Depending upon state organizational structure, permits may be in a
single agency or may be spread between water quality/environmental
regulators and drinking water regulators.
treatment facilities, these specifications may also promote regulations that acknowledge best practices and
facilitate broader implementation of reuse projects.
4 "In a world where 'resilience' and the need to rebound from the unexpected is becoming more apparent,
planning in advance for the unpredicted occurrence is prudent." (Brown &Trussell, 2018)
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: , _ , _
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Analytical Framework 21
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Authority
Type of
Requirement
Notes
Federal
and/or
State
Reuse treatment
discharge regulation
• Restrictions on concentration of brines and other treatment residuals
of recycled water treatment vary depending on location of discharge
and relevant water body classifications (e.g., impairment for specific
constituents).
State
Recycled water use
regulation
• Includes site specific requirements by application, e.g., cooling (use of
drift eliminators); irrigation (restrictions on overspray); indoor use
(signage, backflow prevention and cross-connection testing).
Local
Recycled water use
• State permits may require local agencies to issue permits for individual
uses, including monitoring and reporting requirements.
• Local environmental health agencies may set their own requirements.
Local
Land Use and
Construction permits
• Required for the construction of infrastructure for recycled water
treatment, distribution, and use.
• Multiple permits may be required for facilities and pipelines spanning
different jurisdictions.
Local and
State
Environmental
assessment
• Evaluation of environmental impacts may be required by local agencies
for construction of facilities and/or use of recycled water depending on
the scale of the project and types of permits needed. (Local entity
serves as lead agency.)
As noted in the case studies, each set of partners may go about the permitting process differently. For example,
one may take the lead on permitting the entire project, or the partners may divide responsibilities according to
their relationships with the regulators. The important thing is to have the conversations early and coordinate
consistently along the way.
Engaging the regulators
Agencies can work together even before the permits are issued by influencing the regulations that govern their
project. Successful project proponents engage when the regulators are considering standards at the front end of
the project. In some cases, the proponents can drive the setting of uniform regulations at a statewide level that
can give clear targets to plan projects around. Others prefer to work with local permit writers on a case-by-case
basis. Rather than designing the project in a vacuum or trying to change regulations to facilitate a specific project
under construction, the best advice is to engage with regulators when the project is conceptual and ask the best
way to comply with applicable regulations in the most streamlined way possible. Whether engaging in the
policymaking or just seeking to comply with rules and regulations, interagency reuse partners need to decide early
on how they will allocate responsibility and costs related to regulation, and they need to dedicate time and staffing
to these important issues. They must also work together to ensure that their project complies with all regulations
and that their monitoring program demonstrates compliance, as early work in this area can decrease transaction
costs and uncertainty. Working with regulators to navigate this thicket of rules early in the process can help avoid
unnecessary delays and heartburn (Ulibarri, et al., 2017) (Cantor, et al., 2021).
The most effective project proponents understand the regulatory environment and engage creatively with
regulators to achieve greater good for their communities. A well-known example at the watershed scale is the
Santa Ana Watershed Project Authority (SAWPA), a joint powers agency dedicated to focus "on a broad range of
water resource issues including water supply reliability, water quality improvement, recycled water, wastewater
treatment, groundwater management, brine disposal, and integrated regional planning" (SAWPA, 2020). SAWPA
was originally formed in 1968 when the water and wastewater agencies came together with regulators and
stakeholders across the entire watershed to collectively optimize recycled water production and residuals
discharge, stormwater capture, ground water recharge, and other beneficial uses of water. Most notably,
regulators were engaged as partners in ongoing efforts to optimize water resource management across the
watershed (Cantu, 2015) (Blomquist & Schlager, 1999). In addition to regulators, stakeholders were also engaged
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework*22
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early on creating the vision, developing projects, and assuring progress, which minimized objections to projects by
the time they reached regulatory permitting decision points (Cantu, 2015).
Other agencies have intentionally set up special oversight boards that include regulators as key stakeholders early
in a project's development. For example, as described further in the case studies, Hampton Roads Sanitation
District encouraged the Virginia legislature to pass legislation establishing the Potomac Aquifer Recharge Oversight
Committee (PAROC) to oversee their innovative ground water recharge program. PAROC includes regulators
responsible for permitting the project (EPA and the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality) and individuals
with no official regulatory responsibility whose opinions and guidance ensured public acceptance of the project
(Virginia Department of Health) (State of Virginia, 2021). The City of Los Angeles has included regional, state, and
federal regulators on the Technical Advisory Group of their "100% Reuse" Hyperion 2035 project, including EPA,
the California State Water Resources Control Board (both Drinking Water and Water Quality Divisions), and the Los
Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board. Additional examples of proactive inclusion of regulators by project
sponsors are provided elsewhere in this report including both the Arizona and Texas case studies whose water
agency participants came together to discuss with regulators how best to meet regulations while achieving a
variety of local needs.
Local agencies with sufficient resources can engage in the development of regulations they know will apply to their
projects down the road. For example, Denver Water provided resources to support the Colorado Department of
Public Health to facilitate the setting of standards for the use of reclaimed water for indoor toilet flushing (Marcus,
et al, 2020). The City of San Diego, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, and an assortment of
other cities and agencies are actively engaged in a very public process to update and expand California's
regulations for potable reuse. Independently and through WateReuse California and other associations, agencies
participated in the numerous public hearings in which a panel of experts help produce new regulations for ground
water and reservoir augmentation (sometimes referred to as "indirect potable reuse"). They are currently engaged
on developing standards for raw water or treated water augmentation (direct potable reuse); the new rules are
due to be finalized in 2023 (Metropolitan, 2019). Robust stakeholder engagement, coupled with the use of expert
panels, can produce regulations that are both protective of public health and workable for the utilities that
implementthem. It can also build public confidence in the regulatory framework and help build supportfor
innovative projects.
What regulators can do to help
State
State regulators are most directly involved in setting standards for recycled water and are frequently the
permitting authority on residuals discharge. As a result, they can help expand recycled water projects by 1) setting
standards proactively and with current technologies and local needs in mind; 2) encouraging reuse; and 3) helping
local reuse agencies navigate the complicated permitting process and clarifying treatment and discharge goals.
They can streamline permitting or set statewide standards (e.g., general permits or state policies) to give local
reuse agencies greater certainty in planning over the long term.
As noted in the Southern California case study, local agencies may be reluctant to invest in large projects when
they are subject to the rulings of individual permit writers in multiple agencies with an uncertain time frame or
framework for decision-making (Marcus, et al., 2020) (Metropolitan, 2015).5 Setting such explicit targets in a public
process can also help with gaining public acceptance and confidence that recycled water is safe. State backing can
also create what has been termed a "policy scaffolding" that can support policy and program efforts at a more
local scale, in much the same way that international policies can lend support to innovative national policies, or
national policies can lend support to state policies (Slatyer, 2019). As they embark upon a significant investment in
5 Some project proponents may prefer to work with their local regulator on a case-by-case basis.
Analytical Framework*23
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innovative water reuse, local agencies can use the fact that the state has "blessed" their particular type of reuse to
bolster their outreach to the community.
State regulators can explicitly create incentives for recycling and other kinds of integrated water management
practices by simplifying regulatory processes or providing communities grants and low-interest loans specifically
for water recycling projects. For example, during its 2012-2016 drought California provided $1.5 billion in grants
and loans for water recycling projects. State agencies can even expressly encourage recycling as part of permit
conditions or enforcement proceedings (Hampton Roads, San Diego). Fortunately, some progress has been made
in creating permit coordination processes to streamline the regulatory process for project requiring multiple
regulatory approvals (Ulibarri, et al., 2017); (SBRA, 2020). In short, through their actions in implementing
requirements, incentives, or enforcement settlements—not to mention funding—state regulators have
considerable ability to encourage more reuse.
Federal
Although states usually play the leading role in permitting, there are things beyond funding that the federal
government can do to facilitate partnerships and support interagency cooperation.6 Federal agencies can help
promote local and regional interagency collaboration in water management and water recycling by creating an
"enabling policy environment" and improving communications and cohesion at the federal level (Meridian
Institute, 2018). Currently, many federal agencies have major roles in guiding, regulating, managing, and funding
water projects, including the Environmental Protection Agency, the Departments of Agriculture, U.S Army Corps of
Engineers, Energy, Interior (Bureau of Reclamation and Fish and Wildlife Service), and Commerce (National Marine
Fisheries Service). Historically, most of these water management program efforts have been poorly
coordinated. As a result, federal agency messaging about the importance of integrated water management and
water recycling has been inconsistent. At an operational level, few agencies have aligned their funding, technical
assistance, and regulatory programs to communicate consistent priorities in ways that better support local pursuit
of integrated water management strategies and projects.
However, recent improvements in federal agency collaboration in water management planning may help. In 2020,
EPA issued the first national Water Reuse Action Plan (WRAP), a product of intensive interagency efforts to align
and clarify federal agency roles in integrated water management and water recycling (EPA, 2020). EPA has actively
used its unique convening power to bring together local water agencies, n on-govern mental organizations (NGO),
academics, state regulators and regulatory associations, and others involved in water reuse in a collective effort to
advance water reuse at a period of time when water recycling is gaining national acceptance and interest. As part
of this plan, federal agencies are cooperating to create more consistent messaging about the importance of water
recycling and integrated water management. Agencies are also working together to improve coordination of
project funding, research and technology development, regulatory oversight, and technical assistance programs.
The recently passed national Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act includes substantial resources for water
recycling and for creating a Federal Interagency Working Group on Water Reuse, both of which would provide
extremely helpful federal support.
6 Federal agencies have provided states with millions of dollars in state-administered grants and loans through
sources such as EPA's State Revolving Loan Program. More recently the Water Infrastructure Finance and
Innovation Act (WIFIA) has supported significant low-cost financing for large-scale water reuse, including Orange
County's Groundwater Replenishment System.
Analytical Framework*24
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Economic Factors that Challenge and Promote Collaboration
Key Takeaways
• Clearly articulate all the important benefits to be enjoyed by your communities, the environment, regional
businesses, and your utilities
• Consider a "beneficiaries pay" approach for allocating reuse costs across utilities, and across utility
customers—but be open to allocating in ways that recognize a broad array of benefits to the shared set of
ratepayers.
This section reviews some of the many economic considerations that emerge when agencies collaborate to recycle
water, and outlines some strategies for identifying benefits, allocating costs, and navigating the financial issues
associated with collaboration.
Evaluating the benefits of water recycling
Successful water reuse projects provide a wide array of benefits to local communities. These benefits often include
significant financial, social, and environmental values, as reflected in a Triple Bottom Line (TBL) perspective. Typical
TBL benefits include (but are not limited to) the following (Raucher, et al., 2006) (De Souza, et al., 2011):
1. Avoided costs (cost savings) from eliminating or postponing the need to enlarge local potable water
supply portfolios and treatment facilities; reducing reliance on expensive, unreliable imported supplies;
or avoiding the cost of expanding and upgrading the wastewater management system to meet stringent
effluent discharge limits.
2. Improved resilience and reliability in the face of droughts, floods, and other climate change impacts by
tapping a local water supply less vulnerable to variations in rainfall and snowpack.
3. Ecological benefits from enhanced instream flows and created wetlands and greenspace, offering
valuable aesthetic, public health, recreational, and other "nonmarket" values to the community.
4. Increased economic vitality from providing local businesses with a reliable and sustainable water supply
for commercial, institutional, and industrial uses.
While many of these benefits are difficult to monetize and they are spread across multiple utilities, business
sectors, and households, they nonetheless provide considerable "nonmarket value" to the utilities and the
communities they serve. Added together, these diverse and valuable TBL benefits often justify the expense of a
reuse program.
Unfortunately, these broader benefits (e.g., avoided costs and nonmarket benefits) are not recognized in any
individual utility's accounting systems. Furthermore, the cost of reuse is rarely recovered through reuse rates,
which is one reason why the California Public Utility Commission (the state's regulator for investor-owned utilities)
allows utilities to spread recycled water projects costs among all ratepayers ("cross-subsidies"). In so doing they
apply a "beneficiaries pay" approach, acknowledging community benefits received by those who did not directly
use recycled water (CPUC, 2014).
A related challenge is the fact that even when the benefits of a water reuse program accrue to a specific utility,
they are not recorded on its accounting ledger. For example, avoided costs—such as those that result from
postponing the expansion of a potable water supply system or the upgrade of a regional wastewater system—may
well outweigh the costs of the reuse program. However, since those avoided costs have not yet been incurred,
they do not show up on the utilities' accounting books, which only record the costs of building and operating the
reuse program. Those same ledgers will also indicate that the project expenses incurred are not fully recovered
though the revenues generated from reuse sales (AWWA, 2019) (Carpenter, et al., 2008). As a result, ecosystem
and recreational benefits from reuse programs that support wetlands or instream flows, or that enhance reliability
and resilience of the regional water supply, also are omitted from the utilities' standard cost accounting.
Analytical Framework*25
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As a result, individual utilities may find it hard to recognize the benefits generated for their agency, and have
difficulty justifying to their customers the costs of the reuse program (Raucher, et al., 2006) (De Souza, et al., 2011)
(Raucher, et al., 2019). For this reason, it is important to distinguish between the financial value of a water reuse
project (i.e., cash flow of revenues compared to costs) and its economic value (i.e., whether accumulated benefits
outweigh costs). While the financial consideration (cash flow) of a reuse project can impact the agency's balance
sheet, its economic value includes the unaccounted benefits to the utility (avoided costs, reliability, and risk
management), to society (aesthetic, recreation, public health, and resiliency values), and to the environment
(habitat creation or restoration).
Decisionmakers can often appreciate the benefits of recycled water more clearly when water reuse is framed in
terms of risk and risk mitigation (Chesnutt, 2021). By considering how development of a locally controlled, reliable,
and resilient water supply might mitigate the risk of future water shortages under different scenarios it may be
possible to calculate an economic, social, and environmental value upon which water and land managers, and
communities and individuals can base their decisions (Rees, 2002).
The challenge for local water sector agencies, then, is to recognize these various benefits and their beneficiaries,
and apply that knowledge in a collaborative effort to fairly allocate costs and any associated cross-subsidies to
their respective accounts and customers. Fortunately, more and more agencies are beginning to recognize that
there is a legitimate economic basis for applying a location-specific "beneficiaries pay" approach to developing and
adopting cross subsidies from potable water and/or sewer service customers (AWWA, 2019)((CPUC, 2014)
(Raucher, et al., 2019).
Cost recovery and recycled water rates
The issue of cost recovery—"Who pays?" and the question of who bears which share of the cost—is another
economic consideration that may challenge the ability of water agencies to work together (Watson, et al., 2016)
(Raucher, et al., 2019) (AWWA, 2019)The challenges revolve around:
1. How costs are allocated and billed by the different agencies, even when both serve the same customers;
2. The fact that water reuse typically requires a cross subsidy from potable water and/or wastewater
programs to recover its costs (because reuse generally is more expensive than the existing, long-
standing potable water supply portfolio, even though reuse often is cost-effective relative to other
options to secure new water supplies);
3. Which entities (and whose customers) bear the expense of subsidizing reuse rates;
4. Which entity pays for periodic system renewals, upgrades, or expansions; and
5. How those periodic investments to renew, upgrade or expand the system align (or fail to align) with the
These points of contention may change as the community's needs change and the value of the reclaimed water
program evolves. For example, a reuse program may originate as a practical solution to a wastewater management
challenge and, as such, may primarily be managed (and paid for) by the regional wastewater utility and its
ratepayers. Meanwhile, the distribution of the reclaimed water may be placed under the jurisdiction of water
suppliers so that the wastewater agency winds up bearing the bulk of the cost, while the water supply utility
collects — and ideally shares — the revenue from the sale of the reclaimed water.
Over time, as recycled water becomes more established as a water supply, it may be necessary to revisit this
original arrangement. This situation occurred in the Silicon Valley area of northern California (Raucher, et al., 2019)
as well as in the Melbourne, Australia metropolitan area (Watson, et al., 2016). It contrasts markedly with
programs where reuse is driven by water supply and the water supply agency carries the bulk of the costs of
upgrading the treatment process, as in the City of Los Angeles' expansion plans (Garcettti, 2019). In some cases,
water recycling costs may be split from the outset between water and wastewater agencies, as in the
primary mission of the agency paying the tab.
Analytical Framework*26
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Metropolitan Water District of California and LA County Sanitation Districts (MWD/LACSD, 2020), described further
in the case studies.
Another economic challenge to collaboration is the need to subsidize the recycled water project when recycled
water rates do not cover even project operating costs, let alone the cost of amortizing capital expenses. Although
new water reuse systems are relatively expensive, rates charged for nonpotable water are typically held below
potable rates to incentivize customers to transition to recycled water (Atwater et al., 1998) (AWWA 2008),
(AWWA, 2017). Revenues collected from these artificially low nonpotable rates are routinely less than the cost of
service, so the responsible agency must subsidize those rates with funds from other sources (AWWA, 2019). This
results in a fiscal loss on the accounting ledger, with reuse revenues collected being less than the cost borne by the
utilities. An inter-agency fiscal challenge then arises from the discounted reuse rates, with regard to whose
customers pay for the subsidy covering the revenue shortfall (e.g., who will pay a portion of nonpotable reuse
costs through higher potable and/or wastewater bills).
The issue of who receives the benefits and who pays is a key topic for many communities. For example, as
explored in more detail in the case studies, the reclaimed water system in the Tucson, Arizona region has provided
a wide range of benefits to diverse communities in Pima County. These benefits include offsetting potable
demands to avoid the cost of securing new potable supplies in a very arid, water-limited region, alleviating a
severe regional ground water depletion and subsidence problem, facilitating area economic growth by providing a
local, reliable, climate-independent water supply, and enhancing local ecosystems by creating wetlands and
maintaining instream flows that provide recreational, aesthetic, and environmental benefits. Given the diverse and
geographically dispersed array of benefits, the subsidy provided to nonpotable reuse customers can justifiably be
spread across a wide array of benefiting communities and customers (Diringer, et al., 2019).
A related challenge may arise as a reuse program matures and reinvestment is necessary to maintain (or upgrade
or expand) the system. For example, if a community's needs evolve over time and indicate that recycled water
should transition from nonpotable to potable uses, then a significant investment will likely be required. However, if
the program is principally managed by the wastewater agency, then that utility may be reluctant to invest in what
is essentially a water supply upgrade (given that the wastewater problem that initiated the program has been long
solved and water supply is not part of their mission). This has emerged as an issue in northern California, where
South Bay Water Recycling originally distributed recycled water from the San Jose/Santa Clara Regional
Wastewater Facility primarily in order to reduce effluent flows. Now that the regional wholesale water agency
(Valley Water) recognizes the importance of reuse as a critical element of a reliable water supply portfolio, it has
assumed the cost of enhancing treatment to produce additional recycled water for ground water augmentation
(Raucher, et al., 2019).
Financing: Accessing External Funding Sources as a Collaborative
There are plusses and minuses for collaboration when it comes to financing reuse projects.
On the plus side, multiple water agencies working cooperatively may be better positioned to secure favorable
financing and/or access to state or federal grants and subsidized loan programs. Multi-agency involvement can be
a good sign that there is strong local stakeholder coordination and that the project is a high priority for the
region. In some programs, state bond language may specifically identify collaboration as a priority, and the
program will award points in its selection or prioritization process for projects that demonstrate this type of
partnership. In other funding programs, multi-agency applicants do not receive priority points, but projects that
provide multiple environmental benefits do receive extra points in the selection or prioritization process.
For example, the state of California has deployed a well-funded Integrated Regional Water Management funding
program providing more than one billion dollars in support of regional water programs to encourage agencies to
work together to propose the most cost-effective projects, including reuse. This is in addition to the State
Revolving Funds that are specifically for clean water, drinking water, and recycled water projects and other state
supplied grant funding to help promote such projects which are recognized as a "social good." Also, in a
collaboration, one utility may be able to access a funding source for which its partner agencies may not be eligible.
Analytical Framework*27
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External funding sources may require collaboration as a condition of receiving financial support. In the Arizona
case study provided in this report, when both the City of Tucson and Pima County applied for Clean Water Grant
funding to upgrade their wastewater treatment facilities, the federal grant was contingent upon their agreeing to
consolidate their wastewater treatment assets. In response, Pima County assumed responsibility for the regional
wastewater management authority, leaving water supply under the City of Tucson's jurisdiction. This helped forge
the on-going partnership between the City and County utilities for the region's successful water reuse program.
However, the ability to successfully apply for financing support programs may be complicated by enlarging the
number of utilities for which internal reviews and related Board approvals are required. For example, large
collaborative projects often use a Joint Powers Authority (JPA) agreement. Each JPA agreement is unique and
complex, and this often makes it a challenge to secure a loan due to the complexities of the members sharing the
responsibility for the security. In most cases, working with JPA applicants prolongs the application process and
requires negotiating tailored funding agreement terms. There may also be time-consuming impacts where the
partnering entities wish to secure projects against multiple, separate enterprise revenue streams. Usually, entities
proposing this type of security are fairly sophisticated, and have likely already promised their separate enterprise
revenues in a way that potentially conflicts with financial security requirements or expectations (C. Stevens,
personal communication, CA Water Boards, Jan 2021).
It is also common for external funding sources to impose additional fiscal and operational requirements on grant
recipients. These additional requirements may include securing long-term customer commitments, incentivizing
high levels of capacity use (e.g., avoiding large seasonal fluctuations in demand), balancing peak season demands
with off-season excess production, and other conditions that entail additional costs. There are numerous
strategies to help address these economics-related challenges, and these in turn require collaborative strategies
across utility entities (Atwater et al., 1998) (Hanson, et al., 2017) (De Souza, et al., 2011) (AWWA, 2019) (Raucher,
etal., 2019).
To enhance and help streamline financing opportunities for multi-agency reuse projects, agencies should focus on
clearly articulating their roles and responsibilities and the mechanisms for formally establishing them. This might
include agreements that establish:
¦ Access to and/or ownership of facilities.
¦ Sharing of capital costs and long-term O&M needs, which can equal or exceed initial costs.
¦ Provision of recycled or diverted water for purposes of the project.
(These and other terms and conditions found in interagency agreements are articulated further in this Analytical
Framework under "Management.")
Another potential streamlining approach is having a lead agency with rate-setting authority willing to accept the
financial obligation (not a JPA) and an unencumbered revenue stream (i.e., no existing debt or issues associated
with pledging funds to a project that will potentially benefit an unrelated enterprise). If a lead agency can pledge
net revenues and support the full loan, it would streamline credit review and underwriting. The lead agency could
still share costs with other agencies, but that could be worked out separately. However, this may be challenging
since the lead agency has to take on additional responsibility and risk (Stevens, 2021).
Conclusions: Recognize all applicable reuse benefits, and align costs with beneficiaries
Ultimately, all economic challenges to recycled water projects may be more readily overcome with a broad
recognition that reuse provides a variety of important and valuable TBL benefits to the community, and that cost
recovery and related strategies can be supported by a "beneficiaries pay" perspective. Successful multi-utility
collaboration for a robust" One Water" program can be achieved if all the relevant agencies are willing and able to:
1. Recognize the full TBL benefits of reuse, including but not limited to key avoided costs for the water
supply and wastewater agencies, as well as nonmarket and nonrevenue-generating values to the
community;
Analytical Framework*28
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2. Accept the proportional share of reuse costs aligned with the extent to which their agency and
customers benefit, recognizing the extent to which they share the same customer base; and
3. Allocate funds and resources in support of the reuse program in proportion to the benefits received,
including less easily quantifiable community benefits (De Souza, et al., 2011) (Raucher, et al., 2019).
Management and Operational Issues
Key Takeaways
• Assign roles and responsibilities for reuse projects based on agency expertise and resources.
• Develop a comprehensive list of project requirements, including acceptable recycled water pressure, flow,
and quality and response to "out-of-compliance" conditions.
• Accurate, verifiable information builds confidence between partner agencies.
• Joint reuse projects can help utility operators develop new skills and advance their careers.
This section identifies some of the management and operational challenges that arise when agencies work
together to create and implement water reuse facilities. As they coordinate their efforts to design, build, operate,
and maintain a recycled water facility, utilities must carefully consider their roles and responsibilities so that each
agency can perform its part without detracting from its existing duties. These responsibilities encompass not only
technical issues pertaining to system performance, but also personnel issues and utility management.
Ownership
One of the first issues that arises when agencies begin to plan a water reuse project is determining which entity
will own which part of the proposed infrastructure. While assignment of most operational tasks can be negotiated
by agreement, the facility owner usually bears responsibility for compliance with regulatory requirements, so this
decision has economic and legal ramifications. For this reason, some agencies choose to divide ownership of the
recycled water facility to clearly indicate responsibility for operation of various reuse system components (e.g.,
recycled water treatment, advanced treatment, transmission, and distribution).
When agencies are separated by a jurisdictional boundary, each agency may own, operate, and maintain the
portion of the recycled water system in its respective service area. For example, ownership of a pipeline conveying
recycled water from one agency's service area to another may change at the jurisdictional boundary; an isolation
valve may even be installed at the boundary so that the recycled water flow can be metered for billing purposes.
Alternatively, the agency with a proprietary interest in the program may retain ownership of all the infrastructure
and contract with the other agency to provide routine operation and maintenance, including emergency repairs if
they are equipped to provide such services.
When a regional wastewater authority provides nonpotable recycled water to customers who receive potable
water from a separate water agency, the wastewater agency may choose to function as the water wholesaler,
selling water to the water agency who in turn sells it to their retail customers. In that case, the recycled water
provider may assume ownership and accept responsibility for any or all of the distribution system up to the
customer meter, which the water agency installs to bill the end user. This arrangement has the added advantage
of allowing water retailers to retain their customers, especially in states where utilities are protected by laws
shielding them from service duplication. On the other hand, when regulated investor-owned utilities are allowed
to pass the cost of their recycled water investments to all ratepayers ("cross-subsidy"), they may prefer to build,
own, and operate the recycled water distribution infrastructure within their service areas (Rosenblum, 1999).
When several agencies are involved in a project together, they may assign ownership and the corresponding
operation and maintenance responsibilities through a cooperative agreement. The cooperative agreement
enumerates the duties each agency will perform in each of their service areas according to the skill, ability, and
preference of the participants. If the interjurisdictional issues are sufficiently complex, they may even form a JPA,
in which case the new agency may take formal ownership of the project and coordinate all operation and
maintenance tasks. In one nonpotable recycled water project developed by two northern California agencies, the
Analytical Framework*29
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Dublin San Ramon Services District (DSRSD) agreed to supply recycled water from its treatment plant to customers
of the adjacent East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD) service area. In 1995 the two agencies formed the
DSRSD-EBMUD Recycled Water Authority (DERWA), which owns and operates the recycled water system under
the direction of a general manager appointed by the DERWA board which is comprised of directors from the two
agencies (DSRSD and EBMUD, 1995). The flexibility of this arrangement was further demonstrated in 2014 when
the City of Pleasanton agreed to add its effluent to the DERWA recycled water supply (DERWA, 2021).
Regulatory compliance
As noted above, the owner of the recycled water project will generally assume formal responsibility for obtaining
permits for the water reuse program and ensuring compliance with regulations as described in the previous
section. Some regulations, however, hold specific agencies accountable regardless of their role in managing the
recycled water system. For example, NPDES permits may be interpreted in such a way that wastewater agencies
retain responsibility for their effluent even after it is distributed by another agency as recycled water. When a
leaky pipeline or other accidental release of recycled water amounts to a violation of discharge permit conditions,
the wastewater discharger may wish to exercise more control over the operation and maintenance of the recycled
water distribution system. Likewise, where brine from membrane treatment of recycled water is discharged to a
treatment plant's outfall, the permitted discharger must ensure that the increased concentration of regulated
constituents remain within permit limits.
Water agencies, too, may be required to retain responsibility in certain circumstances. Where potable recycled
water rules prescribe enhanced source control measures in addition to specific treatment methods water supply
agencies designated as the owners of the recycled water project may need to be more involved in oversight of
wastewater treatment processes. The authority and responsibilities of the regulating agency may even be
described in statutes that require agencies responsible for reuse to perform certain monitoring and reporting
functions (SWRCB, 2016). In California, for example, proposed regulations for raw water augmentation include the
designation of a "Direct Potable Reuse Responsible Agency (DiPRRA— a single water supply agency that holds
responsibility for all aspects of the program. The determination of how these responsibilities will be carried out,
however, will likely be negotiated between the regulatory agency and the permitee (SWRCB, 2021).
Operation and maintenance
The various tasks required to operate and maintain the recycled water system must be identified and delegated in
sufficient detail so that all parties understand their roles and responsibilities and no duties are left unassigned.
Given the range of operation and maintenance issues involved, agencies should document their respective
responsibilities in a manner that spells out their collective expectations. The documentation can be as simple as a
memorandum of understanding or as sophisticated as a multilateral contract, but the agencies must discuss the
issues in advance and agree on which agency will take responsibility for which aspects of the program. Table 5
identifies several technical elements of water reuse system operation that may be assigned by agreement,
including responsibility for permitting, water metering and billing, recycled water treatment and distribution,
water quality and pressure, customer relations and public outreach. Regardless of which agency is responsible for
the technical elements of the program, all partners have a role in representing the water reuse project to their
ratepayers and the community as a whole. Coordinated messaging is key to effective communication, which in
turn is essential to the project's success
Table 5. Some technical elements of recycled water system operation assigned by agreement
Category
Purpose
Example Terms
System
Infrastructure
Describe condition,
location, and
ownership of system
assets
• Location of mains, laterals, and turnouts
• Ownership of treatment and distribution facilities
• Distribution of grants and revenues (if jointly owned)
• Responsibility for asset management and capital replacement
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework*30
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Category
Purpose
Example Terms
Regulatory
compliance and
risk
management
Assign responsibility
for compliance with
regulations and liability
for future events
• Permit authority for distribution of recycled water
• Responsibility for monitoring and reporting water quality of produced
water and residuals
• Responsibility for illegal discharges
• Permitting, inspection and monitoring
• Mutual indemnification
• Limitations on liability ("hold harmless")
Financial terms
Establish methods for
determining agreed
upon allocation of
capital and operating
expenses
• Wholesale and retail water rates and escalators (e.g., CPI, % of potable
rate)
• Cross subsidies from other water services
• Measurement and verification of water deliveries
• Other fees and charges (e.g., maintenance, training, billing, retrofits)
• Invoicing and payment terms (e.g., "take or pay")
General system
operation and
maintenance
Assign responsibility
for system operation
and maintenance,
including response to
failure
• Responsibility for recycled water treatment, including system
disinfection as required
• Responsibility for water system pressure, repair of leaks and breaks and
restoration of service
• Notification of deviations in water quality or pressure
• Supply of alternative water source during system shutdown
Specific water
quantity and
quality
parameters
Define amount and
quality of recycled
water provided
• Annual, maximum daily, and peak hourly flow rates
• Maximum and minimum system pressure
• Treatment methods required
• Recycled water quality including pathogens, chemicals and "emerging
contaminants of concern"
Customer
Relations
Assign responsibility
for safe use of recycled
water
• Onsite supervisor training in regulations and safe handling and use of
recycled water
• Documentation of customer use
Public Outreach
Represent reuse
program issues to
policy makers and
public
• Responsibility for communicating to the public about project
development, construction impacts, and system operation. All partners
should consistently represent the necessity and safety of water reuse to
the community.
Along with the various tasks required for normal system operation, agencies should also consider what remedies
are required as conditions vary from the ideal. These conditions can range from pipe breaks to treatment plant
failures, and while they need not be specified in every detail, the possibility of nonoptimal situations should be
addressed, at least in concept. For example:
¦ Who is responsible for fixing pipe breaks in any of the jurisdictional areas, and how long do they have to
respond?
¦ If recycled water provided for nonpotable use is not adequately disinfected and fails to meet regulatory
standards, does the plant divert the flow from the system?
¦ If the system remains non-operational for a period of time to the extent that customers must be re-
connected to more expensive potable water, who covers the differential in cost?
Raising these issues early in the development phase of the project allows all parties to think through their
individual responsibilities and may even provide an opportunity to engineer solutions to improve the system. All
issues are subject to negotiation and prior agreement, and some might even be relegated to "future consideration
and agreement," acknowledging that the agencies intend to return to the topic at a later date. Certain
responsibilities, however, are generally more appropriate for either water or wastewater agencies. Potable reuse
programs in particular are more successfully represented by water agencies that already supply the public drinking
water, rather than wastewater agencies that must continually overcome the stigma of their association with
sewage.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework*31
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While nonpotable water reuse programs may be managed entirely by the wastewater agency that produces
recycled water, the utility may need to execute agreements with individual customers using recycled water. These
customer agreements can rival interagency agreements both in scope and detail, especially when the wastewater
utility serves recycled water to large industrial customers that help fund the cost of building treatment or
distribution facilities, or when the companies have special water quality requirements (Rosenblum, 2021) (Sheikh,
2017).
Performance Measures and Information Management
Eventually, the collaborating agencies will need to establish performance measures to guide their responsibilities.
While many of the activities identified in Table 5 can be characterized in common terms (e.g., hours to perform
emergency repairs, pressure at the point of delivery in pounds per square inch), in some cases water and
wastewater agencies should be prepared to discuss and agree upon the units of measurement they use to
describe their operations. For example, water utilities routinely measure water volume on an annual basis in terms
of "acre feet per year," and distinguish between volumes of water available in "wet" and "dry" years. Wastewater
agencies, on the other hand, measure performance in terms of millions of gallons of wastewater treated per day
(MGD) and average MGD per year. Although they distinguish between wet and dry weather, they use those terms
to refer to individual storm events rather than annual precipitation totals. These customs of measurement have
been compared to distinct languages ("Hydronics" and Sewerian"), and while all units are convertible from one to
the other, agencies must take the time to establish a common nomenclature (Rosenblum, 1998).
Along with agreeing on units of measurement, the collaborating parties must agree on a system of
instrumentation and record-keeping that produces a mutually acceptable source of information. While some
agencies may prefer to keep their operational information private, they must overcome their reluctance for the
sake of the partnership (Martz, et al., 2017). As noted by Mukheibir, et al. (2015) transparent data acquisition and
management involving data sources from different programs facilitates integration of water resources
management, including water reuse.
Operator training and certification
When water and wastewater agencies collaborate to reuse water, their ability to combine staff and divide
responsibilities for operation and maintenance may be constrained by state certification requirements for water
and wastewater treatment operators. As the skills and abilities required for water and wastewater treatment
converge, some states have addressed this issue by developing a new certification for "recycled water operator,"
especially for recycled water designated for potable use (CUWA, 2016). These certification exams cover knowledge
of membrane treatment, advanced oxidation, and other processes not generally addressed in existing state water
and wastewater operator certification exams (Mackey, 2019). While many systems can be operated without this
special certification, it points to the need to address institutional issues as previously separate organizations are
drawn together under the umbrella of "One Water" management.
The Role of Leadership
Key Takeaways
• Climate change and population growth contribute to a future of "permanent Whitewater" requiring
collaborative strategies that build resilience.
• Managers who can identify future challenges and understand the "economy of scope" lead people out of their
silos by showing how reuse supports their multiple missions.
• Interpersonal relationships matter. Cultivate both formal and informal approaches to enhancing
communication between agency staff: it is just as important to go to lunch as to schedule a meeting.
This section presents information about the ways in which leadership—both personal and organizational—is the
bedrock on which recycled water projects stand. By deciding to accept the risks and accrue the benefits of using
previously impaired water supplies, utilities acknowledge that the world in which they operate has fundamentally
Analytical Framework*32
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changed. As such, the skills needed to move individuals and organizations in new directions have become central
to the enterprise of water reuse.
Throughout history, cities, regions, and countries have joined together to achieve goals that they would otherwise
be unable to meet on their own. They have pooled their collective assets for the purpose of overcoming their
collective challenges. Daley (2008) emphasizes the role of leaders in building trust between organizations, such
that if leadership falters, then collaborative partnerships will not last. Partners must be able to trust each other in
order to accomplish change, whether the goals are as comprehensive as the United Nations' Sustainable
Development Goals or as focused as a single project. The need for trust between organizations and the
importance of leaders is also a key element of interagency collaboration for water reuse.
The contemporary idea of leadership reflects a worldview that is organic and where leaders are responsive to the
social context (Franco-Torres, et al., 2020). With climate change accelerating and natural disasters on the rise, it is
increasingly important that the water sector enact collaborative strategies that build resilience in the face of an
unpredictable future of rapid change—what some scholars have termed "permanent Whitewater" (Wolf, 2010).
Many water agencies are already familiar with this type of planning environment, routinely considering the
potential of both water-rich and water-scarce futures. Water reuse in particular offers cooperating agencies the
flexibility to deal with these extreme conditions by providing a locally controlled, drought-resistant, and
sustainable water source (Meyer, 2017).
In each of the case studies in this report, as in all successful recycled water projects, there are individual
champions who shared the vision and led the challenging work necessary to implement it. Personal relationships
often preceded these interagency partnerships. Sometimes they were formed during the course of the project; in
all cases the leader's interpersonal skills maintained the pace and momentum of the project. This is not surprising
as the biggest challenge in environmental public policy is often not the law, the engineering, or the science. It's not
even the challenge of complexity in ecosystem management, but 'egosystem' management: how the people in the
room listen to each other and work together (Ehisen, 2015).
There are many reasons why a leader might decide to take on a complex, collaborative project like water reuse.
They may be pressed by regulatory requirements or encouraged by a growing environmental ethos in the
community, or they may simply see the need to increase their water resilience. In all cases, leaders step forward
when they are convinced that a project, however complicated or difficult, will pay off in important ways to
enhance their community's future. This vision persuades them to invest personal time and effort to convince
members of their own agency to look outside their silos and to persuade other agencies to work outside their
comfort zone (Tett, 2016).
Not only the director or agency head can be the leader of an innovative project. As demonstrated in the case
studies, managers at various levels in different jurisdictions have taken on the role of leader and facilitated the
implementation of successful projects. In some cases, it may actually be preferable for that role to be filled by an
individual more involved in the day-to-day operation of the utility. In some cases, leadership comes from outside
the organization—an elected official, community advocate, or other stakeholder—or the role can even be
assumed by a consultant or contractor. Agency management has to be open to developing such leaders, however,
and allowing them to flourish.
To bring these collaborations to fruition, agencies must develop the skills to work together—to identify their
common interests, to set collective goals (Scott & Boyd, 2020), to share risks (ANCR, 2020), and to allocate
responsibilities. They must also be able to acknowledge the importance of the individuals who are at the very
epicenter of this systems-level change and who mobilize stakeholders and their organizational peers around a
compelling vision (Burn, et al., 2012). These individuals—at every level-are the champions of organizational
change and development; their vision promotes the use of recycled water as a new sustainable water supply.
Types of champions
What are some of the drivers that motivate these champions of change? Thakhathi (2018) describes ten distinct
types, or "meta-champions." As he explains, all champions are ultimately agents of organizational change,
Analytical Framework*33
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although motivated by different drivers. Of note, the "Innovation Champion" has been extensively studied and
numerous individual and organizational traits have been credited to innovative leaders that enable them to
envision and take action (Reibenspiess, et al., 2018). Remarkably, each meta-champion directly relates to a distinct
role in and/or function of water reuse and recycling. Examples are shown in Table 6 below.
Table 6. Description of Meta-Champion Types (after Thakhathi, 2018)
Meta-Champion Type
Relevance to Water Reuse
Collaboration Champions
Facilitate collaboration within their utilities and between complementary and
regional utilities to advance the collective conversation.
Human Rights Champions
Advance equality and understand that treated wastewater is a reliable source of
water that can be safely used to offset growing water scarcity (UNESCO, 2017).
Innovation Champions
Foster innovations such as new and novel technologies that treat wastewater and
extract valuable resources (e.g., phosphorus) from wastewater.
Product Champions
See the value in bringing a new water supply/resource to market to augment
supplies in water scarce areas.
Project Champions
Initiate and/or implement collaborative reuse projects which help communities
have a reliable water supply and minimize their nutrient discharge.
Service Champions
Drive improvements in the adoption of reuse through sharing research and timely
communication that increases public acceptance.
Strategic Champions
Guide utilities toward a collaborative and integrated water management approach
that emphasizes incorporation or expansion or water recycling.
Sustainability Champions
Advocate policies and programs that yield TBL benefits and recognize the valuable
contribution of recycled water in that equation.
Technology Champions
Share information across digital platforms so that water utilities can collaborate to
use their water supply as efficiently as possible and minimize waste.
Venture Champions
Back innovative strategies and support the scalability of these strategies to expand
water reuse.
Notwithstanding the importance of the leader in affecting change, it is important that the leader considers
"understanding, building, and sustaining culture" as part of their role (Warrick, 2017). In order to promote
interagency collaboration to expand reuse, champions must consistently create an organizational culture that
thrives during rapidly changing times. As Warrick (2017) states:
An abundance of research makes it clear that building strong cultures can play a significant role in the
success of organizations and that, conversely, neglecting cultures can have many costs to organizations
and their employees, customers, and stakeholders.
Cultivating champions is directly linked to the health of the organizations (in this case water utilities) and their
ability to collaborate across service areas. As defined by Warrick, a high-performance culture, is characterized by
teamwork, collaboration, and involvement. Collaboration must be internalized and externalized through processes
and agreements. By collaborating, water utilities are able to maximize their assets and minimize their risks. The
Alliance for National & Community Resilience's (ANCR) tool, Community Resilience Benchmarks: Water
Benchmarks suggests how communities and regions can collaboratively assess their resiliency (through 19
benchmarks) for drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater:
ANCR encourages communities to view water management as an integrated process across systems (e.g., a
"one-water" approach). Service providers should collaborate and share results with other water systems to
identify common vulnerabilities, investigate potential solutions and assure that they are planning based on
the same scenarios. This collaboration should also extend regionally to help ensure that water resource
planning considers water for the environment, and that there are adequate environmental flows to sustain
the area's ecology. The benchmark is intended to facilitate a community/municipal government-driven
assessment in collaboration with the owner(s) of the system, be they public/municipal, private/investor-
owned, or another model. (ANCR, 2020)
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Analytical Framework*34
-------
Though tailored to drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater, specific recommendations for each water
resource include:
¦ Identify and document risks.
¦ Develop and document responses/solutions.
¦ Collaborate with others that share risks or can enable solutions.
The ANCR tool directs water agencies and utilities to work together to identify common opportunities and risks, as
well as collectively identifying synergistic solutions. The purpose of this recommendation is to ensure resiliency in
a community's water supply and protect community health.
The importance of adopting a community-wide perspective sensitive to long-term risks was affirmed by several of
the utility managers profiled in this report. In fact, many of them framed the question in the same words: "Each of
us had our own individual responsibilities, but we asked, 'Is this the best use we can make of this water, that we all
know will be precious in years to come?" (McCullough, 2021). Sometimes leadership consists simply in asking the
right question and stating the obvious truth.
Leadership from other quarters
Along with the champions of water reuse in participating agencies, individuals in supporting institutions can also
provide leadership. For example, as noted in the section on regulation above, federal agencies continue to provide
millions of dollars in state-administered grants and loans for water reuse projects while EPA developed the Water
Reuse Action Plan specifically to increase the nation's capacity to recycle water. In a recent report, the Meridian
Institute (2018) identified several ways government can provide leadership by creating an enabling "policy
environment" that promotes local interagency collaboration through several discrete actions:
¦ Create and disseminate clear policy statements supporting the implementation of integrated water
management strategies at the local and regional levels and discouraging retention of stove-piped water
management approaches.
¦ Prioritize funding of recycling and other multi-benefit water projects that are the outgrowth of local and
regional scale integrated, interagency collaborations.
¦ Improve coordination among federal funding agencies to better enable local agencies to assemble
funding needed for integrated water management projects and make it easier for agencies to partner in
applying for funding.
¦ Build capacity of federal and state regulatory agencies to issue permits that accommodate and
incentivize water recycling and integrated water management approaches.
¦ Prioritize funding for research on institutional challenges to implementation of water reuse projects.
¦ Compile and share examples of effective interagency collaboration across different water enterprises to
pursue integrated water management, highlighting the organizational and legal mechanisms used to
achieve project collaboration.
¦ Compile and share examples of accommodating state regulatory and funding frameworks that enable
and incentivize implementation of collaborative interagency approaches to water management.
Alongside federal agencies, water sector associations like the WateReuse Association, Water Environment
Federation, American Water Works Association, U.S. Water Alliance, and many others provide leadership in
breaking down barriers for water reuse and recycling projects by convening experts for peer-to-peer learning,
developing communication and outreach materials, advocating for integrated funding, collaborating with federal
agencies and state regulators, and identifying market and research needs. For example, WateReuse convened the
Water Environment Federation, National Association of Clean Water Agencies, Association of Metropolitan Water
Agencies, American Water Works Association, and Water Research Foundation to develop comments in
partnership to help inform the content and implementation of the U.S. EPA collaborative National Water Reuse
Action Plan (WRAP). The associations' leadership helped raise the voice of utilities and the water community
throughout the creation of the effort. Integrated planning takes many shapes across the country and associations
Analytical Framework*35
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can bring together diverse experiences so that communities may learn from each other and so that support,
federal or otherwise, can be better adapted to unique needs.
As a case in point, the WateReuse Association works to disseminate knowledge developed by the National Water
Reuse Action Plan (WRAP) to its member water reuse utilities and practitioners, and serves as a convening voice
for discussion of evolving water reuse needs. Outside of the WRAP, WateReuse provides the means for multiple
agencies to work through state-specific sections that tackle specific integrated planning needs. For example, the
Florida WateReuse Section works with the Potable Reuse Commission, a consensus driven partnership that
developed a framework for potable reuse in Florida. In addition, WateReuse provides tools to educate the broader
public, regulators, and local policy makers about reuse like the recent white paper on "Investing in Water Reuse
for Climate Change Mitigation, Adaption, and Economic Resiliency" (WateReuse, 2020a) and "Water Reuse 101
Fact-Sheet" (WateReuse, 2020b). WateReuse also advocates for national water reuse funding priorities
throughout the year and develops resources such as the State Policy and Regulations (WateReuse, 2021) map to
assist communities navigating interagency cooperation throughout the reuse regulatory processes.
By understanding the conditions that foster leadership and cultivate "champions of change," agencies can
promote these attributes and establish environments to sustain them. Within water utilities, there are extensive
opportunities to take these lessons and use them to expand interagency collaborations and promote water reuse
and recycling. When utilities create the conditions for champions to thrive, they can collectively plan for an
unscripted future and create a sustainable water infrastructure that protects public health and the environment.
Analytical Framework*36
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CASE STUDY #1: EASTERN VIRGINIA AND HAMPTON
ROADS SANITATION DISTRICT
Timeline
1940 Hampton Roads Sanitation District (HRSD) established to provide regional wastewater service and
protect Tidewater oyster beds after 10 years local debate.
1940-2000 HRSD service area adds communities (e.g., Williamsburg, James City County, York County); service
population increases from 300,000 to 1.5 million.
2000 Chesapeake 2000 Agreement binds five states (New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, West
Virginia, and Virginia) and the District of Columbia to a 10-year plan with specific goals to protect
habitat, manage fisheries, enhance pollution prevention, and reduce nutrient and sediment
discharges to Chesapeake Bay.
2008 Virginia initiates credit trading program to support regional solutions to pollutant loading reduction
efforts.
2010 EPA issues Total Mass Discharge Limits (TMDL) for Chesapeake Bay putting Chesapeake Bay
dischargers on a "pollution diet" limiting nutrients and sediments from wastewater treatment plants
and municipal storm sewer systems.
2016 HRSD investigates feasibility of groundwater augmentation program by piloting alternative recycled
water treatment trains and a test injection well.
2017 HRSD constructs Sustainable Water Initiative for Tomorrow (SWIFT) Research Center to
demonstrate feasibility of groundwater augmentation program with fully operational 1 MGD
recharge facility.
2021 HRSD awards a design-build contract for construction of first full scale (17 MGD) facility in Newport
News with estimated completion in early 2026.
Overview and Key Takeaways
A 2010 EPA Consent Decree required HRSD to improve wet weather capacity of the region's separate sanitary
sewer system to reduce the public health and environmental impact of occasional sanitary sewer overflows. A
similar mandate from EPA (part of the Chesapeake Bay Total Maximum Daily Load limits) required local
communities to remove nutrients in their stormwater flows at a combined cost to the region in excess of $2.5
billion. As an alternative, HRSD developed its "Sustainable Water Initiative for Tomorrow" (SWIFT) program to
divert 100 MGD of wastewater effluent from Chesapeake Bay by treating it to drinking water standards and storing
it in the local aquifer for reuse.
According to the revised Consent Decree (2017), SWIFT will 1) eliminate up to 90 percent of HRSD's direct
discharges of nutrients to the Chesapeake Bay; (2) offset costly nutrient and sediment reduction requirements
allocated to municipal separate storm sewers systems (MS4s) operated by localities in the Hampton Roads region;
(3) mitigate local land subsidence; (4) mitigate recurrent flooding in the Tidewater area; and (5) increase resilience
in the face of climate change (US et al. v HRSD Consent Decree (4th Amd.), 2017).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , ^ ... . . ... ^ _ . _ _ _ ^ ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #1: Eastern V,r§,n,a and HamPton Roads Sanitation District 17
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By implementing SWiFT at a cost of about $1.5 billion, HRSD will be able to meet the objectives of both its own
Sanitary Sewer Overflow (SSO) improvement target and the Tidewater region's MS4 nutrient reduction goals at a
region-wide cost savings of over $1 billion compared to the original estimated cost.
Key lessons learned include:
Regional thinking. HRSD's status as a regional program enabled staff to see beyond mitigating their own
nutrient loading limits to appreciate SWIFT's potential to help local communities meet their MS4
nutrient reduction requirements, as well as address important regional ground water and water supply
challenges from overdraft and seawater intrusion.
Engage regulators. HRSD funded a position within the
Virginia Department of Health (VDH) so they could
participate in the SWiFT planning process and oversee
operations from a public health perspective. They also
created the Potomac Aquifer Recharge Oversight
Committee (PAROC) to ensure that both regulators and
the public could have confidence in this innovative
project.
Calculate overall benefits. By raising their sewer rates to
pay for the work required by the EPA Consent Decree,
HRSD was able to fund SWIFT, providing greater
environmental benefits and reducing the overall cost of
nutrient removal to the entire region. HRSD effectively
communicated this benefit to ratepayers who
understood that HRSD's investment allowed cities to
avoid raising their stormwater rates, and that collectively
these fees were "two separate pockets in the same pair
of pants."
Innovative technology. To control the long-term costs
and minimize the climate impact of advanced treatment,
HRSD engineering staff invested in research and
evaluated several alternatives before selecting
biologically active carbon (BAC) treatment over reverse
osmosis) for removal of organics.
Individual leadership. Agency managers at the regional
and state levels initiated the SWIFT program and supported its progress, including Ted Henifin (HRSD
General Manager) and Scott Kudlas (Director, Office of Water Supply, Virginia Department of
Environmental Quality). According to Ted, "Whoever has the most to give, gives the most. And keeps on
giving."
Setting
The Chesapeake Bay dominates the geography of the Tidewater area. Located where the African and North
American tectonic plates first met to raise the Blue Ridge and Appalachian mountain chains, the bay itself was
formed 35 million years ago when a 2-miie wide meteor crashed into the ocean. This uniquely formed bay has
become one of the most widely studied and highly regulated water bodies in the world. The Tidewater area of
eastern Virginia fringes the southern reaches of Chesapeake Bay. Home to the first English settlement in North
America (Jamestown, 1607), the area is naturally abundant in seafood, especially oysters, which have been
cultivated there since the rnid-lSth Century. The region averages over 40 inches (90 cm) of rain per year, and
while communities draw most of their water from local rivers, many close to the coast pump water from the
Potomac Aquifer at a depth of between 200 and 500 feet (Harsh, 1980).
1 James River
3 Nansemond
3b Boot Harbor
4. Virginia Initiative Plant
Figure 3. HRSD's service area (Nylen,
2019)
Map shows the locations of wastewater
treatment plants planned to have SWIFT
facilities (1-5); conveyance of service flows to a
nearby plant with a SWIFT facility (3b); and
conveyance of secondary treated effluent to a
nearby SWIFT facility (4b).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District«B8
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The largest estuary in the United States, Chesapeake Bay's decline prompted Congress to authorize a study which
identified excess nutrient pollution as the main source of the Bay's degradation. In 1983, the EPA invited Virginia
and Maryland into the Chesapeake Bay Agreement, a compact acknowledging the need for a cooperative
approach to restore and protect the bay. Later joined by the state of Pennsylvania and the District of Columbia,
the Chesapeake Bay Agreement set numeric limits to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus entering the bay by 40
percent by 2000 (Chesapeake Bay Program, 2021). Land conservation and forest restoration efforts helped
improve bay water quality, but nutrient pollution from agriculture and urban areas continued unabated, so in 2010
EPA established the Chesapeake Bay Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL). These mass loading limits required
jurisdictions to reduce discharges of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment by 20 to 25 percent (EPA, 2015), forcing
HRSD and the communities in its service area to eliminate their sanitary overflow and storm sewer discharges into
Chesapeake Bay and the James and Elizabeth Rivers.
In fact, curbing Chesapeake Bay pollution was the reason HRSD was
created. At the turn of the last century, few communities treated
their wastewater, discharging sewage directly into nearby rivers and
streams. As a result, by 1925 the Chesapeake Bay was so polluted
that the Virginia Department of Health was forced to condemn
60,000 acres of Hampton Roads oyster beds. Five years later, the
Virginia General Assembly created the Hampton Roads Sanitation
Disposal Commission, which recommended creating HRSD to plan
"the elimination of pollution in Hampton Roads." In 1938, however,
local voters rejected the new taxing authority, and did not agree to its
formation until three years later. Demonstrating the challenge of
interagency collaboration, one community (Portsmouth) "opted out"
of regional treatment for another 30 years (Lillis, 2015).
In the twenty years following the end of World War II, HRSD
constructed its first three primary treatment plants (Army Base, Boat
Harbor, and Lamberts Point), and its first secondary plant (James
River), followed by five more between 1969 and 1983 (Chesapeake-
Elizabeth, Williamsburg, York River, Atlantic, and Nansemond). In
addition to these nine major treatment facilities, HRSD now also
operates and maintains seven smaller plants, all of which are
connected to over 500 miles of sewer lines with a combined capacity
to collect and treat about 250 MGD. They currently treat 150 MGD
and service nearly 500,000 accounts (Nylen, 2019).
Multi-Agency Collaboration for Reuse in Virginia
Mass discharge limits stimulate new strategies
HRSD currently provides wastewater collection and treatment services to 18 cities and counties in the Tidewater
region, treating an average of 150 MGD (HRSD, 2019). More accurately, HRSD provides wastewater collection and
treatment services to the residents of 18 cities and counties, not the political jurisdictions in which they reside
(HRSD, 2020a). This distinction is important, because—as an independent political subdivision of the
Commonwealth of Virginia, governed by a state-appointed board of directors—HRSD can embrace a regional
perspective and focus on protecting the bay undistracted by many of the issues faced by general purpose
governments (e.g., housing, public safety, social services, etc.).
Hampton Roads Sanitation District
Regional wastewater treatment
agency (150 mgd avg)
Nine major treatment facilities
located in throughout region;
seven smaller plants
Eight-member commission
appointed by Governor
Service Area: 18 communities, 1.8
million population (2021)
Annual O&M budget (2021-22):
$332 million
Capital budget: $235 million
(2021-22); $2.92 billion (2021-
2030)
Water reuse: 110 kafy (planned)
as groundwater injection
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District*39
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The 2010 EPA nutrient discharge limits forced HRSD to ramp up its program of repairing and replacing its 50-year-
old sanitary sewer system to eliminate unplanned overflows due to rainfall. At the same time, EPA required the
cities and counties in the Tidewater region to reduce runoff into area creeks and streams from MS4s. HRSD
developed a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with local communities, taking responsibility to improve the
sewer system (HRSD, 2014b), while the cities and counties evaluated strategies to reduce pollution from
stormwater. Altogether, compliance with the new limits was estimated to cost the region's ratepayers upwards of
$3 billion, inspiring HRSD to look for an alternative strategy.
Table 7. Nutrient credits available to HRSD partner agencies
Credits Available for Use by the Eleven Cities (all units shown in pounds)
HRSD Bay TMDL
Allocations
HRSD Post Swift Loads
(2030)
Credits Available for Use by the
Eleven Cities
Nitrogen
James River Basin
3,400,000
500,000
2,900,000
York River Basin
275,927
25,000
250,927
Phosphorus
James River Basin
300,009
50,000
250,009
York River Basin
18,395
2,000
16,395
Sediment
James River Basin
14,000,000
700,000
13,300,000
York River Basin
1,400,00
98,000
1,302,000
Reference: (Lang & Kane, 2017 )
HRSD's previous efforts to reuse treated effluent had received little support from cities and counties in water-rich
eastern Virginia. However, the ability of local communities to apply HRSD nutrient removal credits to their own
MS4 nutrient reduction goals increased the appeal of water reuse. According to HRSD General Manager Edward
(Ted) Henifin:
HRSD learned a lot from earlier, unsuccessful efforts to develop non-potable reuse projects (landscape
irrigation and industrial supply). Local water supply agencies had no interest in promoting the supply of
nonpotable water for irrigation or industrial use, as it would reduce demand for their water services.
Providing city stormwater programs with free nutrient discharge credits got them more interested. (Henifin,
2020)
A nutrient credit trading policy in place since 2008 allowed them to sell nutrient credits through the Virginia
Nutrient Credit Exchange Association, a market-based trading program designed to achieve nutrient reduction
goals for the Chesapeake Bay "to facilitate compliance with annual waste load allocations" (HRSD, 2008). By
upgrading their treatment, HRSD had already significantly reduced the nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment
concentration in their effluent more than required, allowing them to allocate "surplus" reductions to other
agencies according to the terms and conditions specified by the Virginia Administrative Code (VAC, 2017). In
relatively short order, HRSD signed Water Quality Credit Agreements (Table 7) with many local communities
(HRSD, 2020b) (Mayer, 2017).
Ground Water Augmentation Adds to the Value of Reuse
Around the time EPA issued its Chesapeake Bay TMDLs, the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (VDEQ)
began re-evaluating its historic ground water trends. Evidence of over-pumping— land subsidence and falling
ground water levels—was reflected in a new ground water model prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS).
Results of the new model suggested that the state needed to reduce its permitted withdrawals by as much as 50
percent to avoid further damage. The matter was brought to the attention of the permitees, including James City
County, the largest public agency in Virginia entirely dependent on ground water. Their ground water levels had
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District*40
-------
dropped by as much as 80 feet since 1980 (USGS, 2021), and they stood to lose half of their existing annual water
supply to regulatory cutbacks.
HRSD had a long-standing relationship with James City Services
Authority (JCSA), the environmental utility for James City County.
In addition to providing wastewater treatment services, HRSD
also processed their billings. They knew that JCSA had to make
improvements to its MS4 program at significant expense, and
they also understood how JCSA's low water rates would balloon
if they had to substitute surface water for their newly limited
ground water supplies (Powell, 2021). In 2015, HRSD General
Manager Henifin and VDEQ Office of Water Supply Director Scott
Kudlas met at an Environment Virginia meeting to discuss an idea
that could solve several problems simultaneously. Unlike other
potential water sources, HRSD's new recycled water supply was
free of ownership claims from upstream jurisdictions. By treating
HRSD effluent to potable standards and storing the treated
water in the Potomac Aquifer, HRSD could not only reduce
nutrient discharges to the Chesapeake Bay, but they could also
help alleviate the state's ground water shortage and halt the
subsidence of coastal lands threatened by climate change.
According to Kudlas, "HRSD was working on the [EPA] Consent
Order while at the same time we were cutting these people back. I asked [Ted Henifin] if he had ever considered
groundwater injection, and he said, That's what I wanted to talk with you about.'" (Kudlas, 2021)
The following year, in September 2016, HRSD launched its SWIFT program. Instead of discharging it into
Chesapeake Bay, HRSD would further treat the majority of its effluent (up to 100 MGD) and inject it into the
Potomac Aquifer, reducing nutrient discharges and at the same
time augmenting the regional ground water supply (HRSD,
2021b).
James City Service Authority (JCSA)
Independent water and sewer
collection service for James City
County (pop. 76,000)
James City County Board of
Supervisors acts as governing board
of JCSA
5 MGD brackish groundwater
treatment plant, 416 miles of water
main, 360 miles of sewer mains
Wastewater treatment provided by
HRSD.
Annual O&M budget: $23 million
Capital budget: $27 million
While the concept was simple, the implementation was complex.
Numerous questions remained: How best to produce recycled
water that would meet drinking water standards and match
existing ground water quality? How much recycled water would
it take to restore the aquifer, and how much would be available
for reuse? In 2017, HRSD developed a research program to
compare alternative treatment methods (reverse osmosis and
biologically active carbon [BAC]) and drilled two test wells near
the York and Nansemond plants. They settled on BAC treatment,
and by May 2019, pilot facilities at the SWIFT Research Center
had recharged 100 million gallons into the Potomac Aquifer.
A New Regulatory Structure
Virginia Department of Health (VDH)
State Agency responsible for serving
35 Local Health Districts
Employees (2008): 3,192 (VA DHRM,
2018)
Deputy Commissioners for:
Community Health, Population
Health, Public Health and
Preparedness, which includes the
Office of Drinking Water and Office
of Environmental Health Services
[OEHS])
"The mission of the OEHS is to protect
public health by preventing the
transmission of disease through food,
milk, shellfish, water and sewage and to
work in partnership with other agencies
to protect the environment."
As HRSD confirmed the technical feasibility of the SWIFT
solution, the issue of public acceptance remained. Although
some residents questioned the safety of ground water injection,
state health officials were not technically involved in approving
the process. EPA had delegated responsibility for regulating
wastewater discharge to VDEQ but retained jurisdiction over
ground water injection through its Underground Injection Control (UIC) program. According to Virginia
Department of Health (VDH) Environmental Technical Services Manager Marcia Degen, this left the agency
responsible for drinking water protection out of the regulatory loop:
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , ^ ... . . ... ^ _ . _ _ _ ^ ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #1: Eastern V,r§,n,a and HamPton Roads Sanitation District 11
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Like most health departments, VDH has a mission to protect the health and promote the well-being of all
people in Virginia. When we first learned about this project, we were of course concerned about its
potential impact on public health, especially on the large number of public and private drinking water wells
in the area. So while we knew we did not have direct regulatory authority over the project, we still felt that
we had a duty to do what we could to protect public health. But how? (Henifin, et al., 2021)
The solution devised by HRSD was to create a new regulatory structure to oversee the safety of the SWIFT ground
water injection program that specifically included VDH and others whose involvement would merit the public
trust. As Henifin (2021) explained,
We knew that technically we could make SWIFT work, but we were very concerned about the public
acceptance of recharging a confined aquifer with water that is tens of thousands of years old with water
sourced from wastewater. We knew we needed the support - or at least acceptance - of so many elected,
appointed, and respected leaders from across all spectrums.
In February 2019, the Virginia Assembly established the Potomac Aquifer Recharge Oversight Committee (PAROC),
"responsible for ensuring that the SWIFT Project, including its effect on the Potomac Aquifer, is monitored
independently." (COV 62.1 Ch. 26, 2019). The committee included representations from VDH and VDEQ, the
Hampton Roads Planning and Development Commission, James City Service Authority, and a practicing physician
from within the HRSD service area. In addition, the legislation established an independent Potomac Aquifer
Recharge Monitoring Laboratory (PARML) to "Monitor the impact of the SWIFT Project on the Potomac Aquifer by
reviewing and synthesizing relevant water quality data." The laboratory is managed as a joint program of two
Virginia universities (Virginia Tech and Old Dominion), and PARML's co-directors are appointed to the committee
along with the director of the Occoquan Watershed Monitoring Laboratory, a similar Virginia institution that for
fifty years has provided oversight to the indirect potable reuse program operated by the Upper Occoquan Services
Authority (9VAC25-410-10, 2020) (Virginia Tech, 2021). Representatives from Region 3 EPA and USGS Water
Science Center are also included as non-voting members.
PAROC has broad authority over the SWIFT program, and is
specifically charged with asking the state water board to order
HRSD to stop injecting should they find "an imminent danger to
the environment, a public water supply, or public health, welfare,
or safety..." In addition to funding both the committee (PAROC)
and the laboratory (PARML), HRSD also funds a position within
VDH that provides technical communication between the SWIFT
Project and VDH managers.
The value of this close coordination was demonstrated early on
when the program had to resolve a question of nomenclature.
HRSD had previously dubbed the advanced treatment effluent
"finished water," indicating that it was suitable for ground water
injection. Virginia's drinking water code, on the other hand,
defined "finished water" as potable water, and the rules did not allow direct reuse of recycled water. With the
help of VDH representatives, the water produced by SWIFT's facilities that meets regulatory parameters for
drinking water was re-branded "SWIFT Water."
Moving Together Into the Future
HRSD staff are shepherding SWIFT through the design phase. The program involves the coordinated construction
of advanced treatment and recharge facilities at five of HRSD's seven largest plants (James River, Nansemond,
Virginia Initiative Plant, York River, and Williamsburg) with effluent from two others (Boat Harbor and Army Base)
piped to the new treatment facilities. HRSD has invested significantly in research and development of advanced
wastewater treatment methods, and improvements will include an innovative "de-ammonification" approach to
reducing nitrogen piloted at the York and Nansemond plants (Bott, 2014); construction of a new SWIFT treatment
train including removal of organic material with both biologically active carbon (BAC) and granular activated
^ ^ VDH Office of Drinking Water
staff was initially uncomfortable
about injecting treated wastewater
into the aquifer. It helped to
describe how [SWIFT] was the
solution to multiple problems, and
that everybody was going to get
something."
Scott Kudlas, VDEQ
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District»42
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carbon (GAC); and disinfection with ozone, chlorine, and ultraviolet light (Hazen and Sawyer, 2021). Design of the
Advanced Nutrient Reduction Improvements and SWIFT Facility at the James River Treatment Plant began in 2020,
with construction scheduled to start in 2022. The James River SWIFT facility is slated to begin recharging the local
aquifer in 2026.
As aggressive as this schedule is, it may not be fast enough to ensure James City Services Authority's ground water
supply. While to date their previous ground water allocation allowed withdrawals up to 8.4 MGD, their current
permit (which expires in 2027) reduced that to 6.4 MGD, with further cuts likely down to 4 MGD. By comparison,
they currently deliver over 5 MGD of treated ground water to James City County customers (JCSA, 2021). JCSA is
making "good faith efforts" to identify alternative surface water supplies, if needed, but according to General
Manager Doug Powell, "We need DEQto give us some flexibility." (Powell, 2021)
For their part, DEQ is supportive of SWIFT, and appears willing to accommodate the existing construction schedule
to allow JCSA to make use of the new recycled water supply. They also look to expand HRSD's approach to aquifer
restoration in the wake of recent state legislation authorizing ground water banking, as recommended by the
Eastern Virginia Groundwater Management Advisory Committee (EVGMAC, 2017). As DEQ's Scott Kudlas (2021)
observed,
It was a decade from the first lightbulb to SWIFT. It takes work to accommodate other people's interests
and not just your own. There are so many additional benefits to being seen as someone who can
accommodate other people's interests and not just your own. You can't communicate effectively unless you
can see other people as humans and have empathy and put yourself in other people's shoes. That's an
obligation of the leader: to look at things from other people's perspectives.
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District*43
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Area Insights
Data Date: June 30, 2020
B3E
Pro^am Management of SWIFT Fi_i Scae ImplemefTtatiorc
GN016320
James River Aaanced NuCnent
08/19 |
James Ffcver SWIFT Facility
Note:
Yor* RiverANRI 4/24
Phase 2 is not
defined at this time
Pre-planning
I PER
Design
Procurement
Construction MTP- SC Construction SC - FC
NTF » Notes to Proceed; EC • 3ufcslanHai Complete; FC » Frsl Cemfrieaon
Icloseout
Figure 4. SWIFT project implementation schedule. Source: (HRSD, 2021a)
Governance
A regional entity is uniquely suited to address regional problems. As an independent rate-setting
authority under the purview of a state-appointed commission, HRSD was not only able to identify a
solution benefitting the whole community, but they were also able to implement that vision by
spreading the cost across all sewer ratepayers. This perspective contrasts sharply with that of individual
local jurisdictions, whose focus on low rates may put more ambitious projects out of reach, even when
(as with SWIFT) they offer long-term savings.
Not all agencies join, and those that do take time to decide. Prior to development of SWIFT, HRSD
offered to accept responsibility for designing, building, and funding improvements to the region's
sewage collection system (and raising rates, as needed) in compliance with the original EPA Consent
Decree, and all 14 local jurisdictions agreed to support this approach (HRSD, 2014a). This set the stage
for further collaboration on the SWIFT program, but Implementation still required individual agreements
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District*44
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with each jurisdiction to allocate nutrient reduction credits through the state trading program. Looking
back to the decade of negotiation originally required to form HRSD—and the additional thirty years
needed for the City of Portsmouth to join the regional entity—it is worth observing that even the best
solutions may need to gain traction with limited support before all local agencies can recognize the
benefit to their individual jurisdictions.
¦ Each level of government has a role to play in crafting regional solutions. Throughout its history, HRSD's
success has been nurtured by leadership at the state level. It was the state that first recognized the need
for regional wastewater treatment to protect the remaining oyster beds, and a half century later the
Commonwealth of Virginia became one of the first signatories to the original (1983) Chesapeake Bay
Agreement (Chesapeake Bay Program, 2021). These actions have proved pivotal to HRSD's ability to
design and implement pollution control and ground water augmentation programs that benefit the
regional environment. At the other end of the spectrum, local communities best reflect the sensitivity of
their constituents, and have helped to clarify the concerns of ratepayers, whose support is ultimately
needed for projects to succeed.
Regulations
¦ Engage regulators early to craft mutually beneficial solutions. Regulators play a key role in assessing and
articulating environmental needs, and the Virginia regulatory agencies identified a suite of challenges
including ground water overdraft, nutrient loading into Chesapeake Bay, and underground injection
water quality. VDEQin particular played a pivotal part, regulating water quality discharged into the
Chesapeake Bay and managing the groundwater basin from which many jurisdictions (including JCSA)
draw their water. From the outset, the project proponents included all interested regulators in
developing solutions, even when (like VDH) when they lacked formal regulatory authority. The benefit of
this inclusive approach was revealed when JCSA needed VDEQs permission to continue to pump from
the Potomac aquifer while waiting for SWIFT water to become available.
Economics
* Projects (like water reuse) that address multiple problems benefit from "economy of scope." Although
cheaper water supplies may be available, and less stringent wastewater treatment may be mandated,
when water supply and wastewater treatment needs are considered together, water reuse often
emerges as the most cost-effective solution. The benefits from this "economy of scope" should
encourage agencies to "pool their problems" in order to pool their resources.
¦ When calculating benefits and costs, remember that residents pay fees and taxes to overlapping
jurisdictions. HRSD began raising rates in 2010 to fund the significant investment required to meet the
EPA Consent Decree to reduce sewer overflows. By agreeing to meet wet weather goals for the region
while keeping lower local sewer system investments, HRSD set the stage for SWIFT. This regional
perspective opened the door to regional savings through lower local stormwater costs due to
reallocation of HRSD funds to SWIFT.
Management
¦ Research investments pay long-term dividends. Prior to designing their Advanced Nutrient Reduction
Improvements and SWIFTTreatment Facilities, HRSD invested in extended studies of ammonia and
nitrogen removal and advanced treatment and disinfection of filtered wastewater. Their support of basic
research into the anamox process for reducing nutrients in wastewater led to an approach projected to
reduce energy requirements by as much as 45 percent over conventional nitrification/denitrification.
Similarly, by comparing biologically active carbon and reverse osmosis in pilot tests, they were able to
select the alternative that not only saved energy but also produced a product water more similar to
native ground water.
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District*45
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Leadership
¦ "Those that have the most to give, give the most." Smaller local agencies may be understandably
defensive in dealing with large regional entities ("the 800-pound gorilla"). Larger agencies are often in a
much better position not only to identify the most beneficial solutions, but also to arrange for financing
to implement them. This is especially appropriate where local ratepayers also contribute to the regional
program. By justifying expenditures as the "least cost alternative" for the community as a whole and
accepting responsibility for funding most or all of the program, regional jurisdictions can "kickstart"
solutions much earlier than if they needed to allocate costs separately to each local authority.
Memorandum of Agreement between HRSD and 13 Other Hampton Roads localities for the development,
financing, and implementation of the RWWMP
https://www.hrsd.com/sites/default/files/assets/Documents/pdfs/EPA/MOA/MOA SignedFinal.pdf
Hampton Roads Water Quality Agreement for Chesapeake Bay Restoration (e.g., Fort Monroe)
https://www.hrsd.com/sites/default/files/assets/Documents/pdfs/Commission Minutes/2020/10-27-
2020 FinalCommissionMinutes.pdf
Ted Henifin, General Manager, Hampton Roads Sanitation District, EHenifinPhrsd.com
Doug Powell, General Manager, James City Service Authority, Doug.PoweliPiamescitvcountyva.gov
Ryder Bunce, Technical Services Engineer, Virginia Department of Health, ryder.buncePvdh.virginia.gov
Referenced Agreements
Agency Contacts
Case Study #1: Eastern Virginia and Hampton Roads Sanitation District»46
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CASE STUDY #2: NORTH CENTRAL TEXAS WATER
AGENCIES
Timeline
1840-1950
1950-1975
1975-1995
1995-2009
2010-Present
The City of Dallas (Dallas) is founded on the east bank of the Trinity River (1841) and chartered in
1856. Dallas Water Utilities (DWU) founded (1881).
The City of Fort Worth is founded on the west bank of the Trinity River (1849).
Torrential rains cause massive flooding, breaching 17 Trinity River levees and killing 10 people in
Fort Worth (1922). Tarrant Regional Water District (TRWD) (formed as Tarrant County Water
Improvement District Number One) tasked with flood mitigation (1924). Raw water supply was
added toTRWD's responsibilities (1926).
Drought of record lasts seven years with catastrophic consequences. This drought ultimately
galvanizes Texas into adopting scientific water planning (1950-1957).
North Texas Municipal Water District (NTMWD) formed to address diminishing ground water
supplies (1951).
Trinity River Authority (TRA) formed to promote navigation, manage water quality, treat
wastewater, and curb pollution in the Trinity River (1955).
TRA, Dallas, Fort Worth, and NTMWD sign the Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality Compact
(Compact) to address water quality issues and develop collaborative approaches to meeting state
regulatory requirements (1975).
Record heat wave brings more than two months of 100 °F temperatures to North Central Texas
(1980) (Myatt, 2020).
TRA signs agreement with Dallas County Water Utilities Reclamation District (DCWRD) for a large-
scale nonpotable urban reuse program in Las Colinas (1984).
City of Dallas promotes formation of Upper Trinity Regional Water District (UTRWD) in Denton
County, adding to the number of utilities sharing the river (1989).
TRWD implements the George W. Shannon Wetlands Water Reuse Project (1992), an innovative
constructed wetland (first of its kind in the U.S.) to remove sediment and nutrients from the
Trinity River upstream of the Richland-Chambers reservoir.
The Texas Legislature enacts Senate Bill 1 of the 75th Texas Legislature (SB 1) to establish "a
comprehensive statewide water planning process" (1997).
Building on SB 1, Senate Bill 2 of the 77th Texas Legislature (SB 2) empowers Groundwater
Conservation Districts to mandate water conservation and drought management measures
(2001).
DWU and TRWD sign the Interlocal Cooperation Contract (ICC), creating a partnership to jointly
fund and participate in the Integrated Pipeline Project (IPL) (2007).
NTMWD completes the 1,840-acre East Fork Water Reuse Project, providing up to 91 MGD of
recycled water treated by the largest constructed wetland in the U.S. (2009).
Dallas, Fort Worth, NTMWD, and TRA again renew and revise the 1975 Compact (2011).
In 2018, TRWD began moving water through the completed Phase 1 IPL pipeline system, capable
of conveying up to 220 MGD (2019). TRWD can pump water from both Richland-Chambers and
Cedar Creek Reservoirs into the IPL system (2020).
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies°47
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Overview and Key Takeaways
This is the story of how four independent, regional water agencies have learned to collaborate and scale water
reuse to secure a sustainable water supply for nine million people. In an arid land that is whipsawed by
catastrophic floods and pernicious drought (USEPA, 2016b), they have joined together to create a "water secure"
future for approximately 40 percent of Texas' population.
At the heart of the matter is the Trinity River and its
ability to support continued growth and development in Trinity River Basin
North Central Texas. The area is home to the Dallas-Fort
Worth Metroplex (DFW), the fourth largest metroplex in
the United States, which increased its population by 20
percent In the last decade (North Texas Commission,
2019). After decades of discharging undertreated
wastewater into the Trinity River, Dallas, Fort Worth, and
surrounding communities recognized the need to
enhance treatment to improve water quality. Today the
same effluent-dominated river is a vital source of drinking
water (which is considered indirect potable water reuse),
and Dallas Water Utilities (DWU), North Texas Municipal
Water District (NTMWD), Tarrant Regional Water District
(TRWD), and the Trinity River Authority all work together
to maintain the health of the river and coordinate its
allocation.
In documenting collaboration among the four agencies,
we observed the following factors that supported regional
expansion of water reuse efforts:
An environment that fostered interagency collaboration.
A shared reliance on the Trinity River creates
opportunities for agencies to collaborate to provide
water for their growing region in the face of increasingly
extreme weather events. This recognition of the value of
a finite, shared water source presents itself in the way Figure 5. Trinity River Basin (TRA, 2016).
regulations, legislation, and planning activities are
designed and implemented through multi-party agreements such as the Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality
Compact (Compact), and joint projects, including the North Texas Integrated Pipeline Project, the East Fork
Water Reuse Project, and the Swap Agreement between Dallas and NTMWD.
Keep planning at the local, regional level. When local agencies share a commitment to keeping decisions about
water supply on a local or regional level, they are wi.ling to make compromises to reach consensus to avoid
mandates from state or federal authorities. This process can lead to a shared vision of sustainable water use for
those who live, work, and play in their communities.
Evaluate projects with an eye toward multi-beneficial outcomes. The best opportunities are ones that satisfy
multiple needs: they consider cost savings as well as the possibility of solving multiple challenges. For example, a
project may address the need for a reliable water supply while at the same time creating an environment that
enriches the community in which It is located.
Implementing large-scale water reuse projects requires strong, cross-agency relationships. Trust, perseverance,
and aligned interests are required to move beyond a local mindset and scale to a level that impacts the region.
Because agencies may operate under different cultural norms, both formal and informal engagement create
conditions that engender trust and respect among peers.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , .. ^ . _ ... ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agenaes.48
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Change is constant. Planning for a water secure future means
anticipating constantly fluctuating conditions and ensuring that
one's approach is geared toward taking advantage of economies of
scale and scope. This requires a mindset that recognizes that
greater opportunities exist when a regional, solution-oriented
perspective is employed. The "Big Five" (TRA, TRWD, Dallas,
NTMWD, and Houston) recently agreed to jointly fund a study to
understand how to optimize water supply throughout the basin in
view of climate change and other future considerations.
Setting
The water agencies studied in North Central Texas are situated
within the watershed of the Trinity River, on which about half of all
Texans rely. It is 550 miles long, with an average flow of 5.7 million
acre-feet per year. The Trinity River Basin, encompassing nearly
18,000 square miles, is one of 16 recognized basins across the state
of Texas, the third largest by average flow, and the largest
watershed area entirely within Texas (TWDB, 2021a) (TWDB,
2021b).
City of Dallas Water Utilities (DWU)
Founded in 1881 as department
within the City of Dallas.
An enterprise fund within the City
of Dallas overseen by Dallas mayor
and city council.
Surface water from six reservoirs
provides the water supply for
about 2.5 million people in Dallas
and 27 nearby communities.
Annual O&M budget: About $726
million (City of Dallas, 2020b).
Water reuse: Two wastewater
treatment plants, capacity 280
MGD.
The Trinity River is a unifying factor in North Central Texas, and their dependence on the river helps agencies
recognize the benefit of a collaborative approach to ensure the viability of this resource and region. The Trinity
River sustains the Dallas-Fort Worth-Arlington region, the fourth largest metroplex and the largest inland
metroplex in the United States. It covers 12 counties—over 9,000 square miles—and is home to over 7.5 million
Texans, with more coming every day (VisitDallas, 2021). As recently as 2018, DFW was the fastest growing region
in the United States, adding more than 1.2 million residents over the last decade and growing by 20 percent since
2010 (Macon, 2021).
The infrastructure required to support this growing population must also be able to respond to extreme weather
events, which will be compounded by the effects of climate change. The seven-year drought of record in the 1950s
is still seared into the consciousness of these utilities (TSALC, 2021), as is the 1980 heat wave that established both
the state's highest recorded temperature (113 °F) and the longest streak (42 consecutive days) of at least 100 °F
(Myatt, 2020). Ominously, these records have all been
rivaled in the last decade, with 2011 being the hottest and
driest year on record, while 2015 was the wettest year on
record. It is in this environment that the agencies have
learned to work together to provide for their individual
constituencies.
Tarrant Regional Water District (TRWD)
Founded in 1924 for flood control
management in response to the
catastrophic 1922 flood.
The City of Dallas was founded on the main stem of the
Trinity River in 1841 and chartered in 1856, less than a
decade after its neighbor, Fort Worth, settled on the river's
west fork about 30 miles away. For many years the
communities maintained a friendly rivalry, even after
Dallas became the largest city in Texas and a center of
banking and commerce, eclipsing its neighbor to the west.
The separate streams allowed the two cities to manage
their water supplies separately, creating agencies as
needed to serve their cities' needs. Dallas assembled its
Water Utilities Department in 1881. Fort Worth also
supplied water to its residents, and (eventually) both cities
treated their wastewater. In 1922, a major flood prompted
formation of an agency that could provide flood control.
Overseen by a board of five publicly elected
directors.
Provides raw water to over 30 wholesale
customers, including Arlington, Fort Worth,
and the Trinity River Authority, serving over
2 million people in an 11-county service
area.
Annual O&M budget: $152 million (TRWD,
2021a).
Water reuse: Secured water reuse permits
at Richland-Chambers and Cedar Creek
constructed wetlands totaling more than
180,000 AFY (TRWD, 2014).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , ^ , _ ... ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water A§enc,es 19
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The Tarrant Regional Water District (TRWD), formerly Tarrant County Water Improvement District Number One,
was established in 1924 to build reservoirs to tame the river. In 1926, providing raw water supply to communities
in eight north central Texas counties was added to TRWD's mission.
For nearly a century, Dallas and Fort Worth continued to withdraw water from their respective tributaries of the
Trinity River, allowing the major waterway to convey their wastewater downstream. By the 1950s, however, the
Trinity River was recognized to be in a "state of disrepute" (Browning, 2006). No words were minced in a 1925
Texas State Health Department report: "A stench from its inky surface putrescent with the oxidizing processes to
which the shadows of overarching trees add Stygian blackness and the suggestion of some mythological river of
death ... A thing of beauty is thus transformed into one of hideous danger" (Wheedbee, et al., 1925).
Dallas, Fort Worth, and the other towns along the Trinity were not insensitive to the pollution and had taken some
small steps to address the problem on a voluntary basis. In 1955, the Texas Legislature established the Trinity River
Authority (TRA) "to promote conservation, reclamation, protection and development of the natural resources of
the river basin for the benefit of the public" (TRA, 2021b). The creation of the TRA opened the door to better,
more comprehensive planning. In 1958, Congress and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers approved the Trinity River
Watershed Master Plan, which included construction of the Central Regional Wastewater System. Located in west
Dallas and the first regional wastewater facility of its kind, the system has now expanded to treat an average of
162 MGD and a daily maximum flow of 335 MGD (MWH, 2021).
The TRA continues to play a key part in regional planning as it relates to the Trinity River Basin. The TRA
administers the Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality Compact (Compact) and is a signatory along with Dallas, Fort
Worth, and the North Texas Municipal Water District. Created in 1975, this Compact brings together four regional
utilities who each collect and treat wastewater for their customers. The Compact's responsibility is to facilitate
"cooperative monitoring, studies and related activities by its members, and shall be primarily interested in water
quality, wastewater collection and treatment, discharge and reuse of reclaimed water, and related regulatory
matters in the lower West Fork, lower East Fork, and main stem of the Trinity River" (TRA, 2011). For any action to
be undertaken, unanimous consent from all members must be achieved. The Compact, along with the federal
Clean Water Act, are credited with the steady improvement of water quality in the Trinity River (TRA, 2021d).
As the region continued to expand, other utilities were formed to address its growing water and wastewater
management needs. In 1951, during the building boom that followed WWII, the North Texas Municipal Water
District (NTMWD) was created to serve water to 10 growing suburbs northeast of Dallas and Fort Worth. In 1972,
they expanded their mission to also provide wastewater treatment services. In 1975, NTMWD became signatory to
the Compact.
Sharing the River
North Texas Municipal Water District
(NTMWD)
TRA continues to play a significant part in maintaining water
quality in the Trinity River Basin by coordinating studies to
help meet in-stream water quality standards, and by
participating in planning efforts with the other water supply
agencies in the region. TRA completed its first master plan
in 1958, and subsequent updates have confirmed the
importance of coordinating municipal wastewater
discharges and withdrawals to protect water quality and
ensure adequate supplies (TRA, 2016). In 1997, the Texas
Legislature modified the state's water planning process
through the passage of SB 1. This bill divided the state into
16 distinct planning areas and provided funding to support
the mandate to develop regional water plans. TRA currently
facilitates the Region C Water Planning Group, which is
responsible for developing a regional water management
plan for this part of North Central Texas. The Region C plan
Founded in 1951 to address diminishing
ground water supplies.
13 member cities with about 1.8 million
people.
Overseen by 25-member appointed board
of directors.
Annual O&M budget: $570 million
(NTMWD, 2021b).
Water reuse: Collaborative reuse is
institutionalized in their strategic plan
through "Stewardship and Partnership
Strategies" (NTMWD, 2019).
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies*50
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is then incorporated into the State Water Plan, prepared every five years, which provides a framework for
statewide water management.
SB 1 also stipulated that the state would allocate rights to all flows returned to the river. Water suppliers would
have to petition the state for a water right permit to reuse wastewater treatment plant effluent. The new law also
required water utilities to formally request permits to reuse their discharged wastewater effluent flows. The
importance of these return flows today is emphasized in the 2021 Trinity River Basin Master Plan, which projects
that reclaimed water—which currently accounts for over 300,000 AFY of Trinity River flow—will increase to over
400,000 AFY by 2070 (TRA, 2021c). The fact that summer flows of the effluent-dominated river may be comprised
of nearly 90 percent treated wastewater highlights the need for utilities to coordinate their claims on return flows
(USEPA, 1974).
AsTRA notes in its 2021 Master Plan, "Population growth and economic activity in the Trinity Basin has
necessitated extensive development of water supplies to get through the dry periods" (TRA, 2021c). In response,
the primary Trinity River water agencies agreed to allocate their return flows amongst themselves to retain local
control of their regional supply. Practices of note include the following:
¦ Agree in advance on allocations. Each of the four water agencies highlighted in this case study maintain
bilateral and multilateral agreements with their utility agency partners across North Central Texas, and
some also hold agreements with the City of Houston, in South Central Texas. These agreements are
multi-beneficial and offer outcomes that benefit local customers as well as the regional effort to secure
clean, reliable water supplies.
¦ Protest each other's permit applications to ensure equitable treatment and a seat at the table. When
agencies file to obtain permits to reuse return flows, their peers sometimes amicably protest their
permits. Why? By protesting, each agency is assured a seat at the regulatory table when allocations for
reuse are determined. As it relates to regulatory requirements, the process of collectively protesting
with agency peers ensures that any regulatory requirements are shared by all agencies and that no one
agency will bear disproportionate responsibility.
¦ Honoring handshake agreements. The four main agencies discharging water into the Trinity River Basin
have made a "handshake agreement" whereby they have agreed to limit their withdrawal of return
flows. As they all take water from multiple sources, the utilities calculate the percentage of their
discharges that originated asTrinity River water and have agreed (with and without contracts) to leave
30 percent in the river to maintain and improve in-stream conditions. While these flows are not diverted
from the river for use, the utilities still retain ownership of their rights to use them, and they are not
counted towards meeting environmental requirements (Owen, 2020).
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies*51
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Trinity River Authority
Trinity River Authority of Texas (TRA)
Founded in 1955 byTexas Legislature
(HB20) to establish a master plan for
basin-wide development, and to serve as a
local sponsor for federal water projects
(TRA, 2021b).
Overseen by a 25-member board of
directors, appointed by the governor, who
represent 17 counties.
Annual O&M budget: $367 million (TRA,
2021c).
Water reuse: Supports "the use of highly
treated wastewater for beneficial
purposes, including both direct and
indirect potable and nonpotable
applications" (TRA, 2021d).
Originally created to protect Trinity River water quality by
treating wastewater prior to discharge, TRA currently
functions as both a water and wastewater utility,
managing wastewater treatment plants and distributing
water from the river. TRA also administers the Trinity
River Basin Master Plan, which is collectively updated
every five years by area agencies. TRA's dedication to
interagency collaboration is demonstrated through the
regional agreements in which they participate, including
buying raw water from TRWD and operating Lake
Livingston, the second largest lake located wholly within
the state of Texas, which provides a sustainable water
supply to the City of Houston. TRA optimizes partnerships
that contribute to a water secure future for the DFW
Metroplex.
Beginning in the early 1980s, TRA began to intentionally
reuse water (distinct from its earlier de facto reuse) for
landscape irrigation and other nonpotable purposes as a
less costly alternative to meet the needs of a growing
population (Clingenpeel, 2020). While this type of reuse was feasible with some new planned communities,
providing separate infrastructure for nonpotable water proved to be an expensive proposition. On the other hand,
water from upstream effluent discharges recycled by conventional water treatment was more cost-effective and
was generally viewed as part of the total water supply. As a result, when TRA compared the cost of increasing
withdrawals of effluent flows returned to the Trinity River against the higher cost of extending a pipeline eastward
to the Sabine River or building a new reservoir for east Texas water, recycling return flows proved to be the most
economical alternative.
TRA currently administers the Upper Trinity River Water Quality Compact that ensures each of the signatory
agencies uphold the Doctrine of Equal Treatment, in which all parties equally benefit and/or share the risk when
actions are decided by unanimous consent. TRA plays a similar role in coordinating activities among the water
agencies profiled in this case study (plus the City of Houston) that rely on Trinity River for their water supplies.
These agencies, collectively known as "the Big Five," have agreed (both formally and informally) to allocate only 70
percent of their return flows for reuse, allowing the other 30 percent to flow downstream to maintain levels in
Lake Livingston, Houston's drinking water reservoir (Clingenpeel, 2020).
To help NTMWD keep pace with population growth, in April 2016 TRA entered into an agreement to sell rights to
56,000 AFY of return flows to the District, increasing the reliability of its water supply. The 50-year agreement
gives NTMWD the option to extend for an additional 50 years, enhancing the stability of the region and increasing
water security (NTMWD, 2016).
For almost two centuries, people have flocked to the east bank of the Trinity River to settle in the City of Dallas.
This rapidly growing metropolis faces the challenge of ensuring that its supply of natural resources meets the
demands of a growing population. Dallas Water Utilities (DWU) has gone to great lengths to ensure that its
populace will have a reliable supply of clean water. This is apparent in the diligence and regional approach
required to secure a sustainable water supply. With partnerships that are regional in purview, DWU must balance
how to best serve its customers, while at the same time seeking win-win solutions that benefit the DFW
Metroplex. Such partnerships can activate strategies that are efficient and economical in their pursuit of securing a
reliable water supply.
City of Dallas Water Utilities
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies*52
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DWU is different from the other major water providers in that they provide both retail and wholesale water and
wastewater service. Additionally, they are the only major water provider in the DFW Metroplex governed by a
mayor and city council. This model of governance has supported the
achievement of two major milestones, which have regionally scaled water
reuse efforts:
1. A partnership with North Texas Municipal Water District to
"swap" and withdraw an equal amount of effluent.
2. A partnership with Tarrant Regional Water District to plan,
design, construct, and operate the Integrated Pipeline Project
(I PL).
The Swap Agreement in particular highlights a principle that is emphasized
in the 2021 Trinity River Basin Master Plan (TWDB, 2021b): "Wastewater
treatment plants are focal points for planning reuse systems." This tenet is
actualized in the Swap Agreement.
The Swap Agreement refers to the arrangement between the City of Dallas
and NTMWD to exchange their return flows in order to reuse them more
efficiently. Both agencies had planned to reuse the return flows from their
own treatment plants: 1) DWU, by moving water from its Southside
Wastewater Treatment Plant to Lake Ray Hubbard and moving water from
its Central Wastewater Treatment plant to Lewisvilie Lake; and 2) NTMWD,
by sending water from its own wastewater treatment plants that discharge
into both Lewi svi lie Lake and Lake Ray Hubbard to its constructed wetlands project on the east fork of the Trinity
River. After joint consideration of their collective infrastructure costs and operational requirements, they
determined that they could accomplish their goals more efficiently and economically by exchanging their water
supplies.
During the Regional Water Planning Process (mandated by SB 1), Dallas and NTMWD recognized the similar timing
of the two projects and developed the Swap Agreement to provide a common solution. Key provisions include the
following (Quails, 2021):
1. DWU and NTMWD will swap an equal amount of flow from their respective treatment plants. In
exchange for flow discharged by NTWMD's plants into Lake Lewi svi lie and Lake Ray Hubbard, which it
will direct to its water treatment plants, DWU will send water from its Central and Southside Plants to
NTMWD's East Fork Wetland's Project for their natural treatment and reuse.
2. Return flows will be provided at no cost to each party.
3. Each agency agrees to accept the return flows "as is," produced as required by their respective NPDES
permits, and each will be responsible for maintaining and making any changes to their respective
discharge permits.
4. DWU will construct, operate, and maintain facilities required to pump flows from its treatment plants to
NTWMD's East Fork Wetlands Project. In the interim, prior to the operation of these facilities, DWU will
release NTMWD's return flow through Lake Ray Hubbard to the wetland.
5. Either party can terminate the contract with a five-year written notice.
Before the execution of the Swap Agreement in 2008, Dallas delayed implementation of the Main Stem Pump
Station because effective water conservation reduced the need for additional water. The agreement remained in
effect, however, and NTMWD constructed the pump station facilities. The agencies are currently amending the
contract to reflect the new implementation schedule and revise Dallas' costs and share in the pump station
capacity.
Lake 1 ^
La von \ ( ,
Lake Ray S jh *|
Hubbard V Jm j
}<
° /
Central WWTpV \ /V
NTMWD
Constructe
d Wetlands
-/_1
Southside WWTP^ J i
Main Stem
/Diversion
Pump
Station
Figure 6. Diagram of swap agreement
between DWU and NTMWD (Quails,
2021).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , ^ , _ ... ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water A§enc,es ,3
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In another example of interagency collaboration, Dallas partnered with TRWD on the construction and operation
of the Integrated Pipeline Project (IPL). Dallas approached TRWD in 2006 with an idea for how to collaboratively
access a reliable water supply for their combined base of 4.1 million customers. Both utilities needed to secure
supplies for future growth, and the IPL provided a workable strategy for each; this shared approach streamlined
the effort and saved each utility billions of dollars. As TRWD's former planning director, Wayne Owen, put it, "Why
bulid two pipelines instead of one?" (Owen, 2020). Economists "forecast ratepayer savings of $500 million in
capital expenses and $1 billion in projected energy and other operational costs over the pipeline's expected 100-
year life cycle" (Graves, 2019).
Subsequently, this project launched in 2007 with a price tag of $2.3 billion. The pipeline, which is 108 inches in
diameter and spans 154 miles, will connect three drinking water reservoirs to the DFW Metroplex. When
complete, "maximum delivery capacity of untreated water will more than double to 350 million gallons a day
(MGD): 200 MGD to Tarrant and 10 other counties, and 150 MGD to Dallas and Denton counties" (Graves, 2019).
During contract negotiations, Dallas and TRWD agreed that TRWD would design, finance, and own the pipeline.
Multi-beneficial facets of this project include:
Dallas will connect to Lake Palestine.
TRWD will receive an additional connection to Richland-Chambers and Cedar Creek reservoirs that will
enable them to access their whole, allowable capacity, including the reuse portion.
Dallas' involvement in this project was not driven by reuse, but by the ability to access a reservoir to which they
had water rights since the 1970s and connect it to the City (Quails, 2021). Nevertheless, their collaboration in the
IPL was bolstered by their history of coordinating their use of return flows to the Trinity River as an efficient form
of Indirect potable reuse.
North Texas Municipal Water District
The East Fork Water Reuse Project, also known as the East Fork Raw Water Supply Project, began operating in
2009 and is an indirect reuse project that includes 1,840 acres of wetlands, the John Bunker Sands Wetland
Center, and is designed to deliver an average of 91 MGD (NTMWD, 2021a). This project diverts water from the
east fork of the Trinity River, uses the wetlands to polish the water, and then sends the finished water to Lake
Lavon for storage and blending before being diverted, treated to drinking water standards, and finally distributed
to North Central Texas residents.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies A
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I his strategy will help meet the goals set forth by the 2022 Texas State Water Plan, "About 58,000 acre-feet per
year in indirect reuse strategies is recommended in 2020, and 739,000 acre-feet per year is recommended in
2070" (TWDB, 2021c).
As noted earlier, in addition to the East Fork Water Reuse Project, NTMWD also contributed to the reliability of
regional water supplies through their Swap Agreement with the City of Dallas. As a testament to the strength of
regional partnerships, as described earlier NTMWD and Dallas plan to amend the agreement to reflect current
practices that differed from those originally envisioned. After the original agreement was reached, for various
reasons it was decided that NTWD and not Dallas should build and operate the Main Stem Pump Station.
Amending the contract to fit the practices of both agencies will require both parties to deliberate on the financial
share for each party and consider the capacity of each agency in this project.
NTMWD is also responsible for the creation of the largest constructed wetland in the United States, the East Fork
Water Reuse Project. The Texas Water Resources Institute notes that "if location and planning for a project like
this permit, a constructed wetland is a cost-effective alternative to building a new reservoir or extending the life of
current reservoirs. Wetlands delay the need to construct additional water supply projects, have a smaller footprint
than reservoirs and can be implemented in a fraction of the time. These projects are critical for maintaining a
sustainable water supply for the growing population of North Texas" (Richardson, 2019).
Figure 8. NTWD East Fork Water Reuse Project Wetland Education Center.
(Source: NTWD/Credit: John Defillipo.)
Tarrant Regional Water District
In 1922, on the heels of the 1908 "flood of record," another devastating flood hit Fort Worth, killing 10 people and
causing millions of dollars in damage. It also laid the foundation for the creation of Tarrant Regional Water District
(TRWD, originally Tarrant County Water Improvement District Number One), whose original purpose was to
mitigate floods. Two years after its inception, raw water supply was added to TRWD's mission. Today, TRWD, of
the four water providers discussed, is the only provider that provides raw water but does not provide treatment.
They access more than 80 percent of their water from two east Texas lakes (Richland-Chambers and Cedar Creek
Reservoirs) and extend their reach in the region through four main customers: the Trinity River Authority and the
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , .. ^ . _ ... ^ __
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agences-SS
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cities of Arlington, Fort Worth, and Mansfield. I hrough these relationships, TRWD interacts with 30 municipal
suppliers who treat and supply water to over 70 cities in 11 counties, reaching just over 2 million people.
This population is expected to double by 2060, leading TRWD to develop strategies to increase its current water
supply and ensure that it is reliable well into the
future. Partnerships that have bolstered this goal
include those with the City of Dallas and the Texas
Parks and Wildlife Department, as discussed
below.
Since 2007, TRWD and Dallas have collaborated
on outreach and education efforts in the form of a
regional advertising campaign to raise awareness
about water conservation and promote behaviors
that protect this limited resource. This is an
efficient and cost-effective means of reaching a
broader audience and ensuring that both agencies
remain on message about the region's water
resources. In 2019, NTMWD joined TRWD and
Dallas in the regional water conservation
campaign (TRWD, 2019).
As noted above, TRWD and Dallas have also
fostered an innovative partnership which will
result in the construction of the approximately
150-mile Integrated Pipeline Project (IPL.). The result D~llas Source: (Texan By Nature,'2020).
of a bilateral agreement, the IPL was launched in
2007 with the goal of conveying stored water in three separate reservoirs (TRWD's Cedar Creek and Richland-
Chambers Reservoir and Dallas' Lake Palestine) to provide a secure water supply to the DFW Metroplex. During
contract negotiations, it was agreed that Dallas would transfer full control of the design, financing, and operations
of the pipeline to TRWD. Though the IPL is owned and operated by TRWD, the project cost of $2.3 billion is shared
between the agencies, it will save both agencies a total of $500 million and increase their transmission capacity by
350 MGD. With 81 miles of pipe in the ground, in 2019 the IPL reached a significant milestone when it gained the
ability to convey 220 MGD to the DFW Metroplex with significant cost savings (TRWD,, 2020).
Regional partnerships can encompass more than water utilities, and other parties often participate in regional
projects that promote and scale water reuse. To establish the George W. Shannon Wetlands Water Reuse Project,
TRWD formed a partnership with the Texas Parks & Wildlife Department (TPWD). TRWD funded construction of
the wetlands as a water supply project to meet growing water demands in its service area (TRWD, 2021b). An
average of 95 MGD of effluent-dominated flow from the Trinity River can be diverted to the wetland system for
treatment, where it is naturally filtered before being pumped into Richland-Chambers Reservoir then westward
through a 60-mile pipeline to TRWD wholesale customers who then treat it to potable standards (Texan by Nature,
2018). TPWD donated 13,000 acres for joint use by TRWD and TPWD,, designating the surrounding property for
recreational public use.
Area Insights
Governance
When a regional resource, such as the Trinity River, is vital to sustaining a region, local leaders may self-
organize and create governing bodies that represent stakeholders across the region. This was the case
with the formation of the Trinity Improvement Association, the citizen's group that first urged creation
of TRA (TRA, 2021e). Such visible leadership serves as a unifying voice allowing the resource (i.e., the
Trinity River) to be viewed regionally rather than in terms of its local impact. This in turn fosters buy-in
The Journey of Your Water—From Faucet to Wetland
Treated wastewater discharged
into Trinity River
Water is diverted from Tnnity
River to sedimentation basins
before traveling through
wetland cells
As water travels through
the wetland cells, sunlight
and aquatic plants remove
as much as 95% of the
sediment loads and 50-60%
of the phosphorus and
nitrogen loads
Richland Chambers Reservoir
RCWMA property
RCWMA boundary | | Wetland Cell RCWMA Entrance —Road
FiQure 9. Joint outreach material from TRWD arid Citv of
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , .. ^ . _ ... ^ _.
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Asences.56
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from other stakeholders across the region who are more willing to share the rewards and risks inherent
in cooperatively managing a vital asset.
The interdependence of relying on the Trinity River leads to complementary agencies. Each agency in
these case studies operates in a manner that reflects their needs, as well as those of regional
counterparts. Agreements, both formal and informal, are crafted to leverage the assets that each agency
brings to the table (e.g., sharing costs so that water supplies may be enhanced regionally) while also
saving money by accessing reservoirs closer to the utility's service area.
Regulations
The development and passage of Senate Bill 1 (SB 1) (1997) and Senate Bill 2 (SB 2) (2001) instituted a
statewide, "bottom-up" comprehensive water planning process. The law directed stakeholders in each
of Texas' 16 Regional Water Planning Areas to form Regional Water Planning Groups (RWPGs) to develop
regional water plans. Each Regional Water Planning Group includes representation from 12 interest
groups: public, counties, municipalities, industries, agricultural, economic, small business, electric
generating utilities, river authorities, water districts, water utilities, and ground water management
areas. The RWPGs identify water supply resources and water demands. SB 2 stipulated those regional
plans must 1) include water conservation practices and drought management measures; and 2) align
with long-term protection of the state's water, agricultural, and natural resources.
¦ Both legislative actions inferred a willingness to honor the experience of local leaders, if they were
willing to collaborate and identify regional solutions to make Texas a water secure state. Collectively,
these regional plans inform the State Water Plan, which reflects the distinct needs of each region. As
Denis Quails (Dallas Water Utilities) observed, "We'd much rather come up with the solution ourselves
than be told what the solution is going to be" (Quails, 2021).
¦ Applying for return flow reuse permits simultaneously engenders a shared responsibility among the
major wastewater dischargers in the Trinity River Basin. By each reserving the right to lodge (and
occasionally lodging) a protest against the other's reclaimed water permit request, agency leaders
ensure that they have a seat at the table when reuse allocations are assigned, and regulatory
requirements are further underscored. This emphasizes the importance of institutionalized transparency
and fairness amongst the agencies (City of Dallas, 2020b). It also creates a collaborative environment
where the concept "all for one and one for all" is demonstrated every day by these four regional entities.
By working together to agree on allocations of return flows—which make up most of the Trinity River
during the summer months—North Central Texas water agencies demonstrate an approach that might
serve as a model for agencies located along inland rivers in other states.
Economics
* Interagency collaboration
streamlines projects, building
economies of scope and scale and
reducing the individual price tag for
agency partners. When the agencies
in these case studies worked
together, they were consistently able
to save money and accomplish
projects on a larger scale that would
have most likely been otherwise
unachievable. A prominent example
includes the North Texas Integrated
Pipeline Project, a partnership between DWU and TRWD. Economists predict inflation could increase the
estimated overall $2.4 billion price tag to $3 billion by the time the last pipe is laid in 2035. Nevertheless,
they have forecast ratepayer savings of $500 million in capital expenses and $1 billion in projected
energy and other operational costs over the pipeline's expected 100-year life cycle (Graves, 2019).
By giving up control of the [IPL]
project to Tarrant Regional Water
District, it was estimated that Dallas,
over the life of the financing, would
have a cost avoidance of over $2
billion due to bond coverage
requirements."
Denis Quails, Dallas Water Utilities
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ . ^ . _ ... ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water A§enc,es >7
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Economies of scale occur when local agencies collaborate to take a regional approach. The Swap
Agreement between DWU and NTMWD was actualized after the conclusion of a collaborative reuse
study that determined the feasibility of a joint project in lieu of two independent projects in the same
vicinity of the Elm Fork of the Trinity River. The study identified a combined cost savings of a joint project
of between $58 million and $126 million, and reinforced the partnership between the agencies, leading
to this successful joint project (City of Dallas, 2008).
¦ Sharing the responsibility of managing a regional asset, such as the Trinity River, allows each agency to
leverage their strengths and maximize the benefits of regional projects. The Swap Agreement included
joint funding of design and construction of the Main Stem Diversion Pump Station, which directs water
to the wetlands.
¦ By discharging effluent of similar quality from their secondary and advanced secondary wastewater
treatment plants, the agencies ensured the equitable implementation of waste load allocations. By
developing large, constructed wetlands, they were able to improve the quality of the effluent-dominated
flows efficiently and economically prior to blending with the drinking water reservoirs.
¦ By exchanging water NTMWD discharged into DWU's Lake Ray Hubbard Reservoir for flows from their
Central and Southside treatment plants, Dallas avoided having to construct pipelines to convey effluent
and could operate their reservoir more independently.
The North Central Texas agencies' longstanding cooperation demonstrates the importance of passing
the baton from one generation to the next. Creating opportunities for intergenerational champions to
emerge benefits each agency, as it preserves institutionalized understanding of the region and the
partnerships that have been fostered over time.
¦ Formal and informal leadership opportunities are essential to building trust and credibility across
agencies. They build the foundation for near-term and long-term actions to be considered and acted
upon. It is just as important to share a meal with a colleague as it is to schedule a meeting.
¦ Creating a culture of mutual understanding and a shared vocabulary is essential to clear communication.
During IPL contract negotiations, TRWD asked if DWU thought their City Council would approve the
contract. DWU replied that any council member could pull an item which made TRWD uncomfortable,
since when their board members pulled an agenda item, it meant that it was indefinitely suspended.
DWU explained that for them pulling an item only meant that it may be pulled from the consent agenda,
giving a Council member the opportunity to ask detailed questions.
The Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality Compact (2003 Update to "An Agreement among the City of Dallas, the City
of Fort Worth, the North Texas Municipal Water District, and the Trinity River Authority of Texas Continuing the
Upper Trinity Basin Water Quality Compact").
City of Dallas-Tarrant Regional Water District Interlocal Cooperation Contract (2007) and Water Transmission
Facilities Financing Agreement (2010).
Contract ("Swap Agreement") Between City of Dallas and North Texas Municipal Water District (2008).
Management
Leadership
Referenced Agreements
Agency Contacts
¦ Glenn Clingenpeel, Trinity River Authority, ClingenpeelG@trinityra.org
¦ Nicole Rutigliano, Tarrant Regional Water District, nicole.rutigliano@trwd.com
¦ Ellen McDonald, Principal, Water Planning, Plummer Associates, emcdonald@plummer.com
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies*58
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R.J. Muraski, PMP, Assistant Deputy, CIP and Planning, North Texas Municipal Water District,
rmuraskiPntmwd.com
Wayne Owen, San Jacinto River Authority (formerly TRWD), wowenPsjra.net
Denis Quails, Planning Division Manager, City of Dallas Water Utilities, denis.quallsPdallascityhall.com
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #2: North Central Texas Water Agencies*59
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CASE STUDY #3: SOUTHERN ARIZONA-TUCSON AND
PIMA COUNTY
Timeline
Ground water extraction's adverse impacts become evident with drying up of the Santa Cruz
River, the region's only perennial surface water body. Regional aquifer is the only available water
supply source.
Population grows sixfold, from 77,000 to 450,000, accompanied by rapid economic growth and
associated growth in water demands from 10,000 AFY to 80,000 AFY. Ground water table
experiences severe declines and costly subsidence issues emerge. By the latter part of the 1970s,
with a strong regional desire to continue growth, the need to develop a sustainable water source
is widely recognized at local and state level.
Inter-Governmental Agreement (IGA) established. Pima County assumes responsibility for
wastewater treatment for City of Tucson and transfers rights to 90 percent of effluent to Tucson;
City of Tucson transfers its wastewater treatment plants to Pima County to facilitate access to
federal grant moneys, and Tucson takes on potable and reclaimed water service responsibilities
for the city and portions of the surrounding county (1979).
Arizona Groundwater Management Act establishes the Tucson "Active Management Area" and
requires Tucson to document ground water pumping levels and identify plans to reach "safe yield"
for the regional aquifer by 2025 (1980).
City of Tucson begins design and construction of tertiary treatment facility and 8-mile pipeline to
supply nonpotable water to La Paloma Golf Course and Resort, sharing cost with Pima County;
Pima County provides effluent to Tucson at fixed cost (1984).
Pima County and City of Tucson amend IGA to create a Conservation Effluent Pool of up to 10,000
AFY for approved riparian projects within the Santa Cruz River and elsewhere. (2000).
2020-Present Tucson/Pima County recycled water program recognized as an instrumental part of reliable and
largely sustainable regional water supply portfolio that collectively serves about 800,000 city and
county residents. Cost allocation and related equity issues continue to be part of ongoing
discussions between City of Tucson and the portions of Pima County it serves.
Tucson Water receives the 2021 U.S. Water Prize for Outstanding Public Sector Organization by
the U.S. Water Alliance for its work (in partnership with Pima County) advancing sustainable,
integrated, and inclusive solutions to water challenges (2021).
Overview and Key Takeaways
For at least the past 40 years, the City of Tucson and Pima County have together faced the dilemma of a growing
population and a declining ground water table. By the 1970s, the regional aquifer—the area's only local water
supply—had been depleted to the point that ground water levels dropped significantly with noticeable subsidence.
The two southern Arizona jurisdictions (Pima County surrounds and includes the City of Tucson) had each
historically run their own wastewater treatment plants, but in 1979 they agreed to divide their water and
wastewater responsibilities. The County took over the treatment of all wastewater, and the city assumed
responsibility for further treatment of effluent as well as the production and distribution of recycled water. They
codified this arrangement with a formal intergovernmental agreement, reviewed regularly, which has stood the
test of time. The agreement was most recently amended in 2000 to reflect changes in infrastructure and allocate
1920s
1950-1980
1980-2000
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
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Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County»60
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water for approved riparian restoration projects. The two agencies together recover the cost of service through
recycled water, potable water, and wastewater charges. The City manages the combined billing for water,
sewage, and environmental services for the customers they share.
Necessity is the mother of cooperation: Dire circumstances (significant groundwater depletion) made the need for
a large reuse program very apparent. Although each entity could have tried going its own way, Pima County and
the City of Tucson worked out a collaborative IGA that continues, after more than 40 years, to serve the region
well
You can lead a horse to water, but money will help make them drink: Fiscal incentives from the federal
Construction Grants program helped the entities accept specific exclusive roles (wastewater for county; water
service, including reuse, for city), contributing to the absolute necessity for collaboration on reuse.
Blurring the political jurisdictional boundaries: Four of the five Pima County supervisors) represent both City of
Tucson residents and voters residing in unincorporated areas of the county. This contributes to the perspective
that everyone is in the same boat and that, ultimately, both the city and county serve the same households. The
city and county have an informal policy of staggering years in which each imposes rate increases to avoid a double
rate impact on customers. However, Tucson has questioned subsidized reuse for golf courses outside city limits,
and it is considering implementing differential billing for water service it provides outside of city limits.
Sharing a vision of community values and aesthetics: All Pima County residents appreciate the necessity and value
of water and there is wide support for developing water-related opportunities to enhance their community and
environment (e.g., ecologic streamfiow augmentation).
Cross-collaboration, including informal meetings across staff levels helps build and maintain trust, information
sharing, and successful collaboration.
Shared participation and two degrees of separation: Staff from both agencies serve on or participate in local and
regional organizations, and many of the agencies' professionals are well acquainted with each other.
Setting
The Tucson metropolitan area in eastern Pima County is in
the hot, arid Sonoran Desert of southern Arizona. Pima
County covers 9,200 square miles (about the size of the state
of New Hampshire) with a 2020 population of approximately
1.1 million people. The vast majority of the residents
(approximately 1 million persons) live within the Tucson
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) (ASU, 2021). Annual
precipitation in the county averages less than 10.6 inches,
and there are few remaining natural surface water supply
sources in the region. Apart from intermittent stormwater-
fed flows, the region's major perennial river, the Santa Cruz
River, has not experienced sustained natural surface flows
since the 1920s.
The Tucson region experienced very rapid population and
economic growth following World War II, as people flocked
to the warm sunny climate to retire, recreate, and/or pursue
the economic opportunities afforded by the area's rapid development. The region's population was 77,000 in
1950, growing nearly sixfold to more than 450,000 people by 1980, and then more than doubling again to reach
approximately 1 million people by 2020, more than half of whom live in the City of Tucson. Until the beginnings of
the Reclaimed Water System (RWS) in the 1980s, the only viable water supply was the regional ground water
basin, the Tucson/Avra Valley Aquifer.
TOHONO O'ODHAI
NATION SAN
UNIKMIEHiOISTOIC'
PIMA COUNTY
Figure 10. Tucson and Pima County (Kmiec,
2021).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County-6
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Tucson's rapid population and economic growth significantly increased water demands. Total water production in
the 1940s was less than 10,000 AFY, grew to approximately 80,000 AFY by 1980, and peaked at over 130,000 AFY
by 2000. Due to rapid growth in water demands multiple water providers pumped the regional aquifer at
unsustainable levels and ground water levels declined by as much as 400 feet in some areas. Land subsidence and
related ecosystem damages became a growing concern.
The City of Tucson (CoT) is currently home to approximately 550,000 people. Tucson Water (TW) is a department
of the city of Tucson (CoT). The mayor and council make policy decisions and provide staff direction, but the city
manager handles day-to-day departmental management. The utility's service area extends into neighboring
communities and portions of unincorporated Pima County. TW provides potable water and nonpotable recycled
water to customers not only within city limits, but also to residents in portions of unincorporated Pima County.
TW's service area population nearly doubled from approximately 420,000 in 1980 to 780,000 in 2021.
Approximately 30 percent of TW customers reside outside of city limits. Smaller water providers serve
unincorporated Pima County, perimeter towns in the basin, and even some pockets within the city itself.
Pima County's wastewater agency, the Pima County Regional Water Reclamation District (PCRWRD), treats
wastewater for the City of Tucson and the other communities in the region. (Two smaller wastewater agencies
also deliver wastewater service within the basin.) PCWRD is governed by the county supervisors. Four of the five
county supervisors represent areas that include both Tucson residents and Pima County voters residing outside
the city limits. This gives the board ability to look beyond narrow "city versus county" differences and keep an eye
on the broader shared regional interests.
Working Together to Survive
A Call to Action: Arizona's 1980 Groundwater Management Act
By the late 1970s, local and state officials recognized the need to take action to protect the regional aquifer and
develop a more sustainable water supply to maintain the desired level of growth. In 1979, Pima County instituted a
countywide ordinance requiring the use of a sustainable water supply for turf irrigation at any new development.
In 1980, the state of Arizona passed its Groundwater Management Act (GWMA), which prohibited the
development of turf sites without renewable water.
The major reason behind the county's ordinance was to prevent further subsidence due to over-pumping. At the
time, many in the region believed they were facing an environmental disaster and a critical limit to desired growth.
State-level action on the GWMA was stimulated, in part, by the need to ensure that Arizona's ground water use
met federal requirements for access to Colorado River water under the Central Arizona Project (CAP). CAP was
designed to bring Colorado River water to southern Arizona,
beyond Phoenix and on to Tucson. Using recycled water
allowed the city to quickly alleviate a portion of the regional
subsidence and ground water depletion problems while waiting
another 12 years for the CAP water to be delivered in 1992.
Origins of the Reclaimed Water System
(RWS)
In anticipation of the 1980 state-level ground water
management legislation, in 1979 the city of Tucson and Pima
County developed an Intergovernmental agreement (IGA). The
IGA designated the City of Tucson as the primary regional water
supplier and assigned to Tucson all Pima County's regional
water supply assets (City of Tucson and County of Pima, 1979).
The IGA also assigned to the county sole responsibility and
ownership of the region's wastewater collection and treatment
systems. This was done largely to access federal funding. Both city and county wastewater plants needed
reinvestment, and prior to execution of the IGA both agencies were in the process of applying for federal
City of Tucson and Pima County
Located in southwest U.S. Sonoran
Desert, averaging about 10 in
rain/year.
Service population: 1 million (2020).
Tucson Water: Regional water supplier
(130 KAFY).
Pima County: Countywide wastewater
treatment (55 MGD).
Water reuse: 14-20 KAFY nonpotable
reuse for landscape irrigation (some
industrial cooling).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
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Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County»62
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assistance under EPA's Construction Grants wastewater funding program. EPA would only consider funding one
wastewater entity in the area, however, which led to consolidating the wastewater facilities under Pima County.
Under a Mutual Utility Management (MUM) agreement, the city transferred its wastewater assets to the county,
and the IGA assigned rights to 90 percent of Pima County's effluent to TW (which, in 1979, amounted to 68,000
AFY).
The IGA forged the beginnings of the Reclaimed Water System (RWS), in which the City of Tucson further treats
wastewater effluent from Pima County and distributes it for reuse. Since 1984, the RWS has provided nonpotable
recycled water to the region's golf courses, parks, and other large users of landscape irrigation. Ecological
restoration and ground water recharge have been added as additional valuable applications of RWS water in more
The Arizona GWMA established five Active Management Areas (AMAs), and water management goals were
created for the Tucson AMA. Tucson's Assured Water Supply Program included requirements to monitor and
record ground water pumping in all areas, and to identify goals and practices to help the AMA to reach a "safe
yield" and avoid future ground water overdraft, which had already caused subsidence in areas of significant
ground water decline.
City and county both had several incentives to reuse water. In addition to compliance with the GWMA and the
need to gain access to CAP water, local officials were motivated by their desire to promote growth. The city of
Tucson was surrounded by a large unincorporated area, which allowed for tremendous growth in nearby suburbs.
To serve them, Tucson Water expanded beyond city limits to become a regional water utility, just as Pima County
already had regional wastewater treatment responsibilities. The city and the county saw expanding the region's
water supply as a means of enabling desired growth for the region.
TW's effluent entitlement under the IGA has been reduced by several actions since the 1979 IGA assigned rights to
68,000 AFY from the Pima County wastewater treatment plant to the City of Tucson. The federal 1982 Southern
Arizona Water Rights Settlement Act (SAWRSA) reallocated a large portion of TW's effluent rights to Native
American tribes in exchange for tribal rights to CAP water. The effluent awarded to SAWRSA is subtracted from the
total available effluent, so both TW and PC contribute a proportional share of their effluent. This reduced the City's
rights to Pima County effluent to 28,200 AFY. The City's allocation was further reduced in 2003 when water rights
were transferred to Oro Valley and other localities based on of the amount of wastewater they produced.
Consequently, the City of Tucson now has rights to about 20,000 AFY of Pima County effluent.
Evolving to Meet Emerging Needs and Priorities: Restoring the River
Several revisions have been made to the original IGA over the following decades to accommodate changing
conditions and emerging opportunities. These modifications reflect a recognition that cooperation between the
city and county entities was a more productive avenue for meeting shared objectives for the region than lawsuits
and other battles.
For example, the City of Tucson and Pima County signed a Supplemental IGA in 2000 to resolve issues related to
recharging effluent in the Santa Cruz River and similar environmental purposes (City of Tucson and County of Pima,
2000). The Supplemental IGA contained numerous agreements, including the following:
The City of Tucson and Pima County agreed to establish a Conservation Effluent Pool for use on riparian
projects.
The City and County agreed to cooperatively plan and establish recharge projects to store recycled
water.
¦ The City would no longer control effluent from existing non-metropolitan plants.
The County could use its allocation of effluent for any public use (Malcolm Pirnie/Arcadis, 2013).
The 2000 Supplemental IGA also established that the City would grant other local water providers ownership of
wastewater effluent proportional to the amount of wastewater produced by its potable water customers. The
amount of effluent would vary depending on how much potable water the providers delivered in any given year
recent years.
Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County*63
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and subject to other provisions of the effluent IGA governing the city of Tucson and Pima County. Tucson Water
staff also worked collaboratively with these other water providers to develop agreements to convey their water
through Tucson Water infrastructure (Malcolm Pirnie/Arcadis, 2013).
Overview of the RWS today
TW's RWS currently delivers recycled water to customers within its potable water service area (see Figure 11) and
to the service areas of the University of Arizona, Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, the town of Marana, the town of
Oro Valley, and the Flowing Wells Irrigation District (FWID). These service areas are located within the
governmental jurisdictions of the city of Tucson, town of South Tucson, town of Marana, town of Oro Valley, and in
unincorporated Pima County. The program is designed to serve nonpotable recycled water to irrigate golf courses
in the metro area and service is extended to parks, schools, and other large turf areas along the way. The RWS
began in earnest in 1984 with development of the La Paloma golf course. The program now delivers approximately
14,000 to 20,000 AFY of total recycled water, with more than half purchased by golf courses (Figure 11 and Figure
12). Current RWS customers currently include 17 golf courses (11 private, six public), 62 schools, and 37 parks
(Kmiec, 2021).
Tucson Water's
Recycled Water
System
• All 6 Public (City And
County) Golf Courses &
11 Private Courses
• 62 Schools
• 37 Parks
Legend
? 0-1989 Recycled Water Reservoir
0-1989 Recycled Water Mains
? 1990-1999 Recyc led Water Res ervoir
— 1990-1999 Recycled Water Mains
? 2000-2009 Recyc led Water Res ervoir
2000-2009 Recycled Water Mains
¦ ~ ¦ Oro Valley Wheeling Water Mains
? 2010-2019 Recyc led Water Res ervoir
— 2010-2019 Recycled Water Mains
? 2020-2029 Recyc led Water Res ervoir
— 2020-2029 Recycled Water Mains
North
TUCSON
WATER
Figure 11. Diagram of Tucson's Recycled Water System. Source: (Kmiec, 2021).
Economic Considerations and Benefits
There are several key economic considerations relevant to the way in which PCRWRD and TW collaborate to
provide recycled water in the region. The program enjoys broad support and the many benefits RWS provides
throughout the region are widely recognized. Nevertheless, periodically the agencies differ in their opinion
regarding who should pay how much to support the program. Like many nonpotable reuse programs, the RWS
sells recycled water to its customers at less than its full cost of service in order to attract irrigation customers
(Raucher, et at.,. 2019). Typical annual total costs for the RWS ($13 million) exceed sales revenues ($9 million) by
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County*64
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about $4 million (Kmiec, 2021). I his necessitates a "cross subsidy" from other utility customers, even though these
potable water customers do not receive reclaimed water.
Recycled Water Use By Sector (% Volume)
Parks
IIAtucson
(C# WATER
Figure 12. Tucson!Pima County recycled water use (by sector) (Kmiec, 2021).
In the case of Tucson, this cross subsidy may be justified by the benefits received, based on the wide array of
benefits to the businesses and households in the greater Tucson region. Pima County communities would not have
been able to support their population and economic growth if they relied only on their over-tapped ground water
supplies, even when augmented (after 2001) by CAP allocations. Locally controlled, sustainable, and climate-
resilient recycled water has diversified and helped stabilize the region's water supply portfolio, providing
considerable economic value for the community.
Another benefit is the avoided costs of expanding the potable supply by the additional 35 MGD to meet the
current peak recycled water demand. A recent study pegs the value of this (cost savings) for an average Tucson
single-family residence at around $90 per year (2021 U.S. dollars) (Mayer, 2017). This is considerably more than
the estimated $10 per year per household cross subsidy to cover the shortfall in recycled water revenues.
In addition to cost savings, regional economic benefits accrue from TWs active ground water recharge program,
which has been enhanced by its use of the RWS to provide the region with a more reliable and sustainable supply.
Net ground water recharge attributable to the RWS averages between 8,000 and 9,000 AFY (Scully, 2021). If
replaced with CAP water (at a cost of $372/AF), the value of recycled water to the community equals an additional
$3-$3.4 million per year. Through 2020, Tucson Water has stored over 35,000 acre-feet of reclaimed water
underground for future use (Malcolm Pirnie/Arcadis, 2013).
Despite the value of increased reliability and the avoided costs that appear to outweigh the cost of the cross-
subsidy, for Tucson potable water customers to subsidize the cost of water sold to golf courses outside city limits
remains controversial and will likely be a topic of discussion in upcoming rate-setting deliberations. Such
discussions wiil require Tucson and Pima County managers to draw on the relationships they have developed over
the past several years to reach a mutually acceptable resolution.
Commercial
Residential
Agriculture
(U of A Farms)
Schools
Oro Valley
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Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County*65
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Other benefits
In addition to avoided costs and water supply reliability benefits—which are highly valuable in their own right-
several other aspects of recycled water use benefit the region, although these are more difficult to quantify.
Among these are ecosystem, recreation, and related social "quality-of-life" benefits. Recently, the U.S. Water
Alliance awarded the city of Tucson its 2021 prize for Outstanding Public Sector Organization, recognizing the
importance of these nonmonetized benefits. The Alliance specifically cited Tucson's recycled water and "green
stormwater" programs in recognizing the city for its work advancing sustainable, integrated, and inclusive
solutions to water challenges (US Water Alliance, 2021b).
Ecosystem restoration and recreation are both accomplished with recycled water through three notable projects.
Originally, filter backwash flow from recycled water production at Tucson Water's Sweetwater Recycled Water
Facility was used to create and maintain Sweetwater Wetlands (Figure 13). With improved water quality from the
Pima County WRS, the filters are no longer required, so the Sweetwater Wetlands are maintained with water from
the recycled water system. A prime birdwatching habitat, the Audubon Society alone sponsors more than 50
fieldtrips there annually for some 1,500 participants (Safford, 2021). Based on a nonmarket valuation of $74.50
per person, the economic value of this feature alone exceeds $100,000 per year (Oregon State University College
of Forestry, 2016).
Another notable ecological benefit is the Santa Cruz River Heritage Project. Launched in June 2019, the Heritage
Project reintroduced perennially flowing water into the otherwise dry Santa Cruz River after an 80-year absence.
The restored river is not only vital to the environment, but also Tucson's history, culture, and identity. In addition,
the South Houghton Area Recharge Project (SHARP) is a 40-acre recharge and recycled water project comprised of
three recharge basins receiving recycled water from the Houghton Reclaimed Reservoir. This water recharges an
area of the aquifer that has declined in the past several years. SHARP also provides opportunities for community
recreation and interaction, providing the public with green space for walking, running, and biking (US Water
Alliance, 2021b).
Tucson Meet Your Birds
Come to Sweetwater Wetlands and let us show
you the birds!
Saturday, March 3 | 7 AM to noon
Learn more
Figure 13. Tucson's Sweetwater Wetlands (Credit: City of Tucson).
While difficult to express in monetary terms, the benefits provided by the Sweetwater Wetlands, Santa Cruz River
Heritage, and Southeast Houghton Area Recharge projects represent considerable recreational, aesthetic, and
educational value for the community. Compounding the value provided by recycled water, these projects also help
alleviate the "heat island" impact from urban hardscape, which is predicted to intensify public health risks under
changing climate conditions.
Moving forward
With a successful partnership spanning more than 40 years, Pima County and the city of Tucson have provided
their residents and businesses with a highly valuable, reliable, and sustainable recycled water program. The
partnership was initially forged out of absolute necessity by the region's severe and unsustainable ground water
depletion, and driven by a combination of statutory, regulatory, and economic development pressures to respond
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ , , . _ , _. _ ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #3; Southern Anzona-Tucson and P,ma County66
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to that crisis. Through cooperation, recognition of shared values, and the vision and capacity to let the IGA evolve
with changing needs and opportunities, the region's utility leaders and elected officials have enabled the RWS to
provide value to the community.
TW and PCRWRD may have been joined out of necessity, but their managers and other professionals have built a
successful long-term relationship. While challenges and debates periodically surface—such as ongoing
deliberations about cost allocations and water rates for city and noncity potable and recycled water customers—
the foundation established by the IGA provides a basis for meeting new challenges and providing important
benefits to the community.
Governance
Revisit and revise agreements to meet emerging needs and evolving priorities. The terms in the IGA and the
willingness and ability of the parties to amend it periodically provide a strong governance foundation for clarity
and collaboration. Clearly written, specific bilateral agreements help agencies overcome concerns about
independence and loss of control. Circumstances change, however, and the agreements need to be modified
regularly "to grow with the program." Subsequent amendments to the IGA have each been more detailed and
specific than the ones that came before, as knowledge and experience help the parties identify and address issues
more explicitly and proactively.
Identify and work toward your shared visions and regional identity. Managers at both TW and PCRWRD recognize
the necessity of collaborating to provide water services that support a livable city/region within the harsh, arid
setting of the Sonoran Desert. Collaboration extends from senior managers down to midlevel staffers, including
joint participation in several regional initiatives and organizations (e.g., the Sonoran Institute), and routinely
scheduled informal meetings over breakfast or lunch.
Regulations
Statutory requirements and regulations can help promote sustainable "one water" programs. The state of
Arizona's GWMA is a key legislative and regulatory framework reinforcing the need for wastewater and water
utilities to collaborate to serve recycled water, protect the Tucson AMA, and meet the city's ground water-related
protection and sustainability targets.
Recognize how effluent treatment requirements factor into cost shares. Pima County produces the water that
meets the most stringent Arizona requirements for nonpotable use (A+ treatment suitable for residential,
schoolground and other open access irrigation without restriction (Arizona Administrative Code, 2021)), regardless
of whether it is discharged or recycled. The investment to meet A+ treatment requirements has added
considerable expense for PCRWRD, while potentially saving money for Tucson Water, which may now scale back
its filtration step. Since both entities largely serve the same customers, they recognize that combined billings to
most customers would not change regardless of how costs are allocated. On the other hand, since both utilities
also serve other customers as well, equity remains an important consideration.
Water rights are another key regulatory consideration. Rights to the PCRWRD effluent have been adjusted
downwards over the past several decades because of settlements and legal/regulatory requirements associated
with CAP water allocations, tribal rights, and other factors. TW can still produce enough reclaimed water to meet
their customers' irrigation demands and support several ecological, recreation, and aesthetic needs, with the
remaining recycled water contributing to ground water recharge. No significant increases in demand for
nonpotable irrigation recycled water are anticipated for the RWS (Malcolm Pirnie/Arcadis, 2013).
Area Insights
Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County»67
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Economics
Different pockets, same pants. While managers may recognize a divergence of interests between Pima County
residents who live inside and outside the Tucson city limits, both utilities largely serve the same set of customers.
As such, they informally aim to stagger their rate increases so that they do not impact customers within the same
year. TW provides joint billings that help convey to
regional residents a sense of unified regional water
services provision.
What goes around, comes around. Jurisdictional overlap
also influences relationships. Tucson Water distributes its
nonpotable recycled water at the same subsidized rate to
customers both within and outside the city limits. The
difference is made up by potable water ratepayers in both
the city and unincorporated Pima County, and concerns
about equity continue to surface between the agencies.
Recognize and communicate the many monetary and nonmonetary benefits from water reuse. While recycled
water appears to be relatively expensive, the RWS provides a wide array of highly valuable benefits. Benefits in the
form of avoided costs (cost savings) may not be found on any accounting ledger, yet they often outweigh the cost
of developing and operating a reuse program. As a drought-independent supply, reuse also provides important
water supply reliability and resiliency benefits for regional businesses and households, including ground water
recharge and storage. Ecological, recreational, educational, cultural, aesthetic, urban cooling, and other
"nonmarket benefits" are provided by many reuse programs. While not always amenable to valuation in dollar
terms, these benefits are extremely valuable and need to be recognized.
Align who pays with who benefits. Although the benefits derived from the recycled water are considerable, widely
recognized, and justify the expense associated with the RWS, agencies may still have differences of opinion
regarding who pays, and how much, to support the facility. Benefits to potable system customers—in the form of
avoided potable system costs—may justify cross subsidies based on the principle "beneficiaries pay" for reused
water pricing and cost allocations.
Management
Shared vision, informal interactions, and mutual respect smooth over challenges. Under the IGA, Pima County is
responsible for meeting all wastewater-related regulatory requirements for its effluent, even though the portion
of its effluent directed to the RWS is not discharged to the river, and instead is conveyed to TW as source water for
the RWS. The state's stricter effluent treatment standards, especially those for nitrogen, led PCRWRD to invest
$660 million to remove ammonia and nitrogen along with other facility upgrades (Pima County, 2016) (Malcolm
Pirnie/Arcadis, 2013). The PCRWRD upgrades provide TW with RWS higher quality source waters, allowing TW to
reduce its filtration treatment for the RWS and saving TW some expense.
Leadership
Shared challenges help spawn shared remedies. The RWS partnership was borne from shared acknowledgement
of a critical regionwide need. By the late 1970s, city and county officials recognized the importance of working
together to develop a sustainable regional water supply to address severe ground water depletion and subsidence
to support desired levels of growth
Leadership can be reinforced by governance and regulatory mandates. Anticipated state passage and
implementation of the 1980 GWMA prompted Tucson and Pima County to work together to achieve and maintain
their GWMA designation of "Assured Water Supply" demonstrating the availability of long-term, reliable water
resources to support current and future water customers in their Arizona communities.
Get it in writing and be willing to update and amend agreements to meet emerging challenges and grasp new
opportunities. For over 40 years, utility managers and elected officials in the Tucson area have accommodated the
Issues can arise regarding which
agency pays for what, but
ultimately we now recognize that
all costs ultimately are borne by
the same customers."
Kathy Chaves, Pima County
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ , ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #3: Southern Anzona-Tucson and P,ma County ,8
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evolving needs of their communities by modifying the IGA to address a range of emerging issues. Amending
agreements such as the IGA is an important way leaders can assure mutual understandings are clear and
enforceable while also accommodating appropriate changes over time.
Stay in touch and find opportunities to work together. The utility leaders at TW and PCRWRD have collaborated
successfully by establishing joint billings and open lines of formal and informal communication (e.g., periodic
meetings of midlevel managers). Still, some tensions may inevitably arise that require collaborative attention, such
as addressing the equity aspects of who pays for and who benefits from the RWS.
In the City of Tucson-Pima County collaboration, the initial partnership may be viewed as a "marriage of necessity"
borne from the need to secure a sustainable addition to their regional water supply portfolio, facilitate desired
high levels of continued growth, and comply with anticipated state requirements under the Arizona GWMA. The
initial 1979 IGA secured the foundation of the collaborative arrangement between Pima County and the City of
Tucson and qualified for funding from the federal Construction Grants Program which was contingent on
consolidating the city and county wastewater programs into a single entity.
Across the subsequent decades, the partners have sustained a reasonably healthy, long-lasting marriage. While
there have been inevitable points of stress and contention over the subsequent 40 years, the partnership has
continued to function well and serve the evolving needs of the community through several revisions to the IGA. A
remaining tension within the partnership is about who pays, and how these cost allocations align with who
benefits, yet it is evident that the whole region benefits from the successful RWS collaboration between the CoT
and Pima County.
Intergovernmental Agreement between the City of Tucson and Pima County (1979). Codifies agreement to
transfer all wastewater facilities and responsibilities to Pima County, and water supply and reclaimed water assets
and responsibilities to the city of Tucson.
Supplemental Intergovernmental Agreement between City of Tucson and County of Pima Related to Effluent
(2000). Clarifies and amends original IGA and establishes a set aside of reclaimed water for use in riparian
reclamation projects.
Intergovernmental Agreement between the City of Tucson and Pima County for Treating Effluent and Wheeling
Reclaimed Water (2003).
https://www.webcms.pima.gov/UserFiles/Servers/Server 6/File/Government/Office%20of%20Sustainability%20a
nd%20Conservation/The%20Water%20Resources%20Unit/2003-IGA-APPENDIX-A.PDF
Conclusions
Referenced Agreements
Agency Contacts
Kathy Chavez, Water Policy Manager, Pima County, kathy.chavezPpima.gov
John Kmiec, Interim Director,Tucson Water iohn.kmiecPtucsonaz.gov
Case Study #3: Southern Arizona—Tucson and Pima County»69
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CASE STUDY #4: CENTRAL CALIFORNIA AND MONTEREY
ONE WATER
Timeline
1850-1930
1930-1960
1960-1980
1980-1995
1995-2010
2010-2020
Monterey agriculture transitions from cattle to wheat to sugar beets before establishing itself as
"the nation's salad bowl," producing high-value fruits and vegetables.
The Monterey Peninsula becomes a tourist mecca when a cohort of railroad tycoons (including
Charles Crocker and Leland Stanford) form the Pacific Improvement Company to purchase 7,000
acres there for a luxury hotel and build the first dam on the Carmel River (1883).
Samuel Morse acquires Pacific Improvement's assets, including water rights to Monterey Peninsula,
and transfers ownership to private California Water and Telephone Company (CW&T) (1930).
Despite rising water rates, voters decline to make CW&T a public utility (1935). CW&T builds Los
Padres Dam on Carmel River over objections of local fisherman (1948).
California Department of Water Resources (then "Public Works") publishes Bulletin 52,
documenting seawater intrusion into the upper aquifers (Simpson, 1946). Declining water levels and
seawater intrusion force some Salinas Valley farmers to replace lettuce and strawberries with more
salt tolerant crops and look for additional supplies.
Monterey County Water Resources Agency (MCWRA) formed (as "County Flood Control and Water
Conservation District") to reduce seawater intrusion from over-pumping (1947).
Marina Coast Water District (MCWD) formed to provide water and sewer service to growing north
county communities (1960).
Monterey One Water (M1W) formed (as "Monterey Regional Water Pollution Control Agency") to
treat wastewater from six cities and four special districts (1972). Encouraged by growers, M1W
begins study of using recycled water for agricultural irrigation to reduce seawater intrusion (1976).
Second public attempt to take over CW&T fails. CW&T sold to American Water Works, which forms
California-American Water Company (Cal-Am) (1965). Monterey Peninsula Water Management
District (MPWMD) created to serve as public water wholesaler to Cal-Am and solve over-pumping
of the Carmel River (1978).
MCWD forced to drill new wells in the deep aquifer due to seawater intrusion (1983).
Monterey Wastewater Reclamation Study for Agriculture (MWRSA) concludes that irrigation with
reclaimed water is "safe as irrigation with well water" (1987). Castroville Seawater Intrusion Project
(CSIP) is designed to send growers recycled water (1994).
CSIP provides up to 20 MGD of recycled water to 12,000 acres of Salinas Valley farmland.
California Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) determines that Cal-Am exceeded its Carmel
River allocations and orders them to develop alternate supplies (1995), then issues Cease and Desist
Order (CDO) compelling them to reduce Carmel River withdrawals (2009).
Cal-Am proposes the Coastal Water Project, an ocean desalination facility to supplement Carmel
River water and Seaside aquifer. Proposal withdrawn (2010).
Cal-Am files Environmental Impact Report (EIR) for the Monterey Peninsula Water Supply Project
ocean desalination facility. M1W prepares EIR for Pure Water Monterey potable water ground
water recharge project (2015).
Pure Water Monterey begins recharging aquifer with 3,500 AFY of potable recycled water (2020).
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water*70
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Overview and Key Takeaways
For over a century, California's fertile and scenic Monterey Bay region (Figure 14) has sustained both prolific
agriculture and burgeoning tourism. For the past 50 years, however, local agencies have struggled to maintain
adequate supplies as water use has been limited by seawater intrusion and environmental concerns. Seawater
now extends several miles inland into some coastal aquifers and pumping from the Carmel River is curtailed by a
Cease and Desist Order from the California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB).
In 1998, Monterey One Water (M1W), in partnership with the Monterey County Water Resources Agency
(MCWRA), began serving recycled water to area farmers. The idea of using recycled water to prevent seawater
intrusion had been considered 30 years earlier, but it took the formation of M1W after the 1972 Clean Water Act
to put the wheels in motion, and another decade to validate the suitability of using effluent to irrigate vegetables
eaten raw (e.g., lettuce) for the project to gather steam. Ultimately, the project gained the wholehearted support
of Monterey farmers, and for more than 20 years the Castroville Seawater Intrusion Project (CSIP) has delivered
over 10,000 AFY of recycled water to local growers; some summer months M1W discharges no effluent to the
ocean.
While CSIP helped the growers, the Pure Water Monterey project was designed to aid residents and businesses in
Monterey, Carmel, and other coastal communities served by California American Water Company (Cal-Am). Under
orders to reduce withdrawals from the Carmel River, Cal-Am had proposed to make up for that supply with water
from an ocean desalination facility, but approval was delayed because of community opposition and the multiple
approvals needed. In partnership with the Monterey Peninsula Water Management District (MPWMD), M1W
constructed an advanced treatment facility (Figure 15), and Pure Water Monterey now recharges MPWMD's
Seaside Aquifer with 4 MGD of highly treated and purified wastewater.
Implementation of Pure Water Monterey was complicated,
however, by the need to reconcile competing concerns of
multiple agencies. Cal-Am was set on building a desalination
plant, but the peninsula needed a new water supply sooner.
Salinas Valley growers, meanwhile, had come to rely on
recycled water and objected to diverting effluent to benefit
tourist towns on the other side of "the lettuce curtain."
Thinking outside the box, M1W worked with other local water
managers to create additional solutions. MPWMD promised to
help foot the bill for the advanced treatment facility. MCWRA,
which had been supplementing CSIP with Salinas River flows,
offered to redirect additional agricultural drainage to the M1W
plant to bolster supply. The City of Salinas (a M1W member)
found a way to add 3 MGD of agricultural process water and
stormwater into the mix. Meanwhile, in exchange for a share
of the water, Marina Coast Water District allowed M1W to use
its new pipeline to convey highly treated and purified
wastewater to the peninsula. A five-party memorandum of
understanding was inked in 2014, and the project was
underway.
Figure 14. Map of Monterey County
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Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water*71
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Figure 15. Monterey One Water Regional Treatment Plant (Photo Credit: Monterey One Water)
Key lessons learned include:
Perseverance furthers. The problems water utilities face have evolved over a century and can't be solved
overnight. Agencies need time to adjust to new roles in order to adopt new strategies. In Monterey, it
took M1W (a wastewater agency) and MCWRA (a flood management agency) 20 years to establish their
partnership as recycled water wholesaler and retailer. Once in league together, they needed a 10-year
study to convince themselves and their CSIP customers that seawater intrusion could be safely slowed by
substituting treated effluent for traditional supplies. It took nearly another decade for peninsula
interests to align with valley concerns in Pure Water Monterey.
Strength in numbers. The best solutions often take the most partners. The patience Monterey agencies
showed was rewarded with a robust water reuse program that wili serve them far into the future. The
number of bilateral, trilateral, and multilateral agreements required to implement Pure Water Monterey
is a testament to the leadership of those managers. It also serves as a reminder that it takes the whole
community working together to address the region's economic, environmental, and social concerns and
create a sustainable water supply.
Invest in partnerships. A significant portion of the cost of Pure Water Monterey was underwritten by
federal and state grants and loans. Many California water grants are contingent on coordination through
the Integrated Water Management Plan process, and additional evidence of collaboration in the form of
interagency agreements can make projects even more attractive candidates for government funding.
Look beyond traditional supplies. Only after M1W and Salinas recognized the feasibility of diverting 3
MGD of agricultural wash water to the treatment plant did Pure Water Monterey satisfy both municipal
and agricultural Interests. All communities faced with water shortages can benefit from considering
alternative sources in the light of available treatment technologies.
Pilot projects build trust. Treating a variety of impaired sources to produce a single high quality water
supply presents several technical challenges. While treatment process design is guided by theory, at
some point pilot plants and demonstration projects are needed to determine the best course. Pilot
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ . „. _ . _ ... , ... ^ ^ ...
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Stud" #4: Central Cal,forma and Monterey One Water-72
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projects also help staff from different agencies form long-term working relationships as they train
together to operate the new facilities.
Setting
Monterey County extends from the Pacific coast to the foothills of the mountains that mark the western edge of
California's Central Valley and follows the Salinas River from its mouth in the middle of Monterey Bay to its
confluence with the Nacimiento and San Antonio Rivers 100 miles to the south. In many ways it mirrors the entire
state: a fertile agricultural region nestled between the Santa Lucia and Gabilan mountain ranges, with the iconic
California coastline (Carmel, Pebble Beach, Big Sur) drawing tourists from around the world (MCWRA, 1998). In
addition to the streams and rivers that flow through the Salinas watershed, the area is underlain by aquifers
usually divided into five separate zones. In the north county, water produced at depths of 180 and 400 feet in the
pressure area were the first tapped by area farmers and the first to experience seawater intrusion that rendered
wells too salty for agriculture. Ground water withdrawals from the Seaside Basin to serve Monterey Peninsula are
limited by a watermaster to prevent contamination by seawater.
The history of Monterey County also parallels that of California. After uprooting the indigenous tribes, Spanish
friars had little success in establishing agriculture until they built a 3-mile irrigation ditch from the Carmel River to
the mission (Hampson, 2010). Following the American conquest, cattle and sheep production predominated until
the invention of the mechanical reaper and extension of the railroad spurred wheat production (Ryan & Breschini,
2021). Then came sugar beets, irrigated from deep wells operated by steam-powered pumps that supplemented
wastewater from the adjacent sugar refinery—an early example of agricultural water reuse. It wasn't until 1920
that Salinas Valley growers planted lettuce, but by midcentury they were producing more than half the lettuce
consumed in the U.S. (UC Davis Cooperative Extension, 2021) (Geisseler & Horwath, 2016) (Monterey Farm
Bureau, 2021). As in the state as a whole, the more farmers planted the more water they diverted from surface
streams and pumped from aquifers to satisfy their demand. Coastal wells began to show evidence of seawater
intrusion as early as the 1930s, and in 1947, Monterey farmers began looking in earnest for alternate sources of
water.
Whilethe Salinas Valley was being transformed into the nation's salad bowl, the scenic Monterey Peninsula
became a haven for tourists with a thriving year-round community of its own. Monterey's tourist industry traces
its origin to a group of railroad tycoons (including Charles Crocker and former Governor Leland Stanford) who
formed the Pacific Improvement Company in order to build "a large, handsome and perfectly equipped resort to
render available the extraordinary natural charms which the peculiar climate of the coast afforded" (Barrows &
Luther, 1893). In 1883, the company purchased 7,000 acres—nearly the entire peninsula—and began to develop
their property, but they were soon impacted by the same droughts that afflicted the area farms. They constructed
the first dam on the Carmel River to stabilize their water supply, but for at least the past 50 years peninsula
communities have faced periodic water shortages.
Born to recycle
Monterey One Water (M1W) was destined to serve recycled water to farmers and residents of Monterey County
since its inception. Prior to passage of the 1972 Clean Water Act, each town had its own sewer plant, discharging
sewage into Monterey Bay with limited treatment. That same year, Monterey and a few other peninsula
communities got together to plan a regional facility to meet the Act's stricter pollution limits. Within a decade they
were joined by Salinas and other valley cities and formed the Monterey Regional Water Pollution Control Agency
(the name changed to "Monterey One Water" in 2017) (M1W, 2021).
One Water for Many Purposes
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water*73
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Even before the regional treatment facility began operation in
1990 community leaders were calculating how best to reuse
the new recycled supply to supplement agricultural demand
(SWRCB, 1975). The concept was cultivated by both M1W and
Monterey County Water Resources Agency (MCWRA). That
agency—which was formed in 1947, not long after publication
of the state report warning of seawater intrusion—was
charged with mitigating flooding by collecting stormwater in
upstream reservoirs and releasing it into the Salinas River to
replenish aquifers by percolating through the porous river
bottom. MCWRA saw recycled water as a welcome addition to
their portfolio of strategies for keeping seawater out of coastal
aquifers.
To address concerns about the safety of reuse with high-value
crops like lettuce and strawberries, MCWRA and M1W general
managers Ken DeMent and Keith Israel launched a 10-year
study on the health effects of using recycled water on fruits
and vegetables normally eaten raw. They tapped into the
effluent pipe at Castroville's 400,000 gallons per day of
secondary sewage treatment plant and ran pilot-scale tertiary
treatment filters to irrigate test plots of artichokes, broccoli,
celery, and lettuce on 30 nearby acres. Eleven years and
Monterey One Water (M1W)
Regional wastewater treatment agency
(17 MGD avg annual flow).
Service area: Provides wastewater
treatment to six cities and three special
districts in Monterey County, serving
250,000 residents and
7,000 businesses.
Governance: 10-member board
representing each of the member cities
and districts.
Annual O&M budget: $45 million
(FY21-22).
Capital budget: $100 million (10 years).
Water reuse: Castrovilie Seawater
Intrusion Project: 10 KAFY agricultural
irrigation; Pure Water Monterey: 3,500
AFY aquifer recharge (expanding to
5,750 AFY).
countless bioassays later, the Monterey Wastewater
Reclamation Study for Agriculture (MWRSA) concluded that "based on virological, bacteriological and chemical
results from sampled tissues, irrigation with filtered effluent or Title 22 [recycled water] appears to be as safe as
with well water" (Sheikh, 1986).
According to current M1W General Manager Paul Sciuto, the MRWSA study was instrumental in changing the
opinion of growers and regulators alike: "To some—including the county environmental health director—the
concept of 'using sewage' on agricultural crops consumed raw was beyond belief. So we made him the head of the
task force guiding the study." Demonstrating the same inclusive approach used to develop future Monterey reuse
projects, the task force also included a half-dozen representatives from the agricultural community (an artichoke
grower was co-chair), county planning and public works departments, state water quality and water resource
boards, and even several local newspapers and TV stations.
Encouraged by these results, in 1992 MCWRA and M1W agreed to add filters to the new Regional Wastewater
Treatment Plant and began planning how best to bring recycled water to the fields. As well as affirming their joint
commitment to serve recycled water to growers in northern Monterey County, the 1992 agreement assigned each
agency roles and responsibilities according to their individual institutional missions. Formally known as the
Monterey County Water Recycling Project (MCWRP), the project was divided into two parts. As the agency
responsible for wastewater treatment, M1W took the lead on the Salinas Valley Reclamation Project (SVRP), which
included design, construction, and operation of the flocculation, filtration, and disinfection facilities needed to
treat effluent for agricultural irrigation, as well as the transmission line to convey the water to the distribution
system. With laudable foresight, M1W designed the SVRP so that their entire 30 MGD design flow could be treated
to California's rigorous Title 22 standards for manufacturing water suitable for "unrestricted" nonpotable use.
MCWRA, which was formed to address both flooding and seawater intrusion problems, assumed the role of water
retailer to area farms. They took ownership of the Castroville Seawater Intrusion Project (CSIP), as well as the
distribution portion of the Water Recycling Project, including laterals and turnouts to over 100 farms (Jones &
Stokes, 1993).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water*74
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Funding for the project was similarly allocated to the two agencies based on their ownership of the facilities,
although the costs are primarily borne by MCWRA ratepayers. M1W and MCWRA each received separate U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation BOR loans, but MCWRA ratepayers are
now charged benefit assessments to repay both of them, as well
as a portion of operations and maintenance costs. For its part,
MCWRA charges growers who receive recycled water a delivery
fee to cover the major portion of O&M costs (MCWRA, 1992).
According to current MCWRA general manager Brent Buche:
Monterey County Water Resources
Agency (MCWRA)
Formed as Monterey County Flood
Control and Water Conservation
District (1947) "to prevent flooding and
limit seawater intrusion ... through
storage and release of stormwater for
aquifer recharge." Changed name to
MCWRA in 1991.
In addition to flood management,
MCWRA can buy and sell water and
prevent activities that harm the basin.
Annual O&M budget: $24 million
(MCWRA, 2020)
Water reuse (with M1W): Castroville
Seawater Intrusion Project (CSIP)
supplies 13,500 AFY recycled water
blended with 5-7 KAFY of Salinas River
water to reduce salinity and increase
supply for 12,000 acres
The thing to focus on is the fact that the problem was
identified by the scientists, but the solution was identified
by the agricultural stakeholders who paid for the project.
The tertiary treatment plant and all the piping
infrastructure is essentially paid for by the entire Salinas
Valley, and the individuals that directly benefit from the
water pay a greater percentage. (Buche, 2021)
The federal government also took an active interest in the
project, supporting nearly three-fourths of the cost of the $70
million project. In addition to the $7 million EPA invested in the
MRWSA study, BOR provided over $50 million in low-interest
loans for recycled water treatment and distribution (Haddad,
2002). In 1998, CSIP began delivering a mixture of about two-
thirds recycled water and one-third ground water pumped from
supplemental wells to agricultural fields in the Castroville area. To
further reduce ground water pumping, the Salinas River Diversion
Facility (SRDF) was constructed in 2010 to add surface water to
the CSIP supply, which now totals over 20 KAFY and is comprised
of about 50 percent recycled water, 25 percent well water, and 25 percent surface water (McCullough, 2021).
Peninsula Water Woes
While Salinas Valley farmers were battling seawater intrusion, the hotels, restaurants, and residents on the
Peninsula were struggling with their own water quandaries. The railroad magnates who purchased the Peninsula
installed the first dam on the Carmel River in 1883, followed by additional dams installed in 1921 (San Clemente)
and 1949 (Los Padres). Since 1965, California American Water Company (Cal-Am), an investor-owned utility,
supplied Carmel River water to Peninsula communities from 21 wells that pumped river water from the alluvial
aquifer, a total of 14,000 AFY.
Unfortunately, that rate of withdrawal meant that the river would frequently run dry in summer. Lawsuits by the
Sierra Club and others questioned Cal-Am's rights to the water, citing harm to the steelhead and other fish that
spawned in the river. In 1995, the California SWRCB determined that Cal-Am was taking about four times more
flow than it was legally entitled to, and that it would have to cut deliveries or obtain clear title to about 70 percent
of its supply (SWRCB, 1995).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water»75
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The SWRCB directed Cal-Am to obtain legal rights to the river or find an alternative supply. In response, Cal-Am
proposed building a seawater desalination project that would provide up to 9,000 AFY, but 15 years later it is still
engaged in a combative regulatory permitting process. Further aggravating the situation, in 2003, local
withdrawals from the seaside aquifer were limited when the safe yield was found to be about half of then-current
extractions (MPWMD, 2019). By 2009, when SWRCB issued a Cease and Desist Order (CDO) to force Cal-Am to
reduce withdrawals, Peninsula residents and businesses faced
significant cutbacks in their water use (MPWMD, 2011).
Cal-Am was not alone in pursuing solutions to the looming water
crisis. In 1978, local voters formed the Monterey Peninsula
Water Management District (MPWMD) to serve as a watchdog
over the private utility. Decades of periodic water shortages,
combined with growing concerns about the sustainability of
peninsula water supplies, had convinced the legislature that
"water problems in the Monterey Peninsula area require
integrated management" and that a special district was needed
"for the public welfare and for the protection of the
environmental quality and the health and property of the
residents therein" (State of California, 1996). Following the
issuance of the CDO, MPWMD and M1W managers began
discussing the potential to treat effluent from the regional
wastewater treatment plant to potable standards. The result of
those discussions was Pure Water Monterey, a project to supply
more than 4,000 AFY of highly treated water to recharge the
Seaside Aquifer.
With surface water and ground water supplies both curtailed,
one might expect that Pure Water Monterey would be
universally endorsed. In fact, MPWMD supported both the Cal-
Am desalination and M1W reuse projects. Many in the Peninsula
business community, however, preferred CalAm's plan as the surest way to support Peninsula growth by making
up for all the "lost" Carmel River and Seaside Aquifer allocations. In the valley, Pure Water Monterey was opposed
by growers who resented diversion of recycled water to urban water use, even though most winter flows were
discharged to the ocean. Cal-Am continued to pursue its plans to build the Coastal Water Project desalination
plant, but kept its options open by proposing both an 11,000 AFY facility and a smaller 6,000 AFY plant scaled to
work in tandem with an expanded Pure Water Monterey project capable of adding 5,750 AFY to the local supply
(CPUC, 2018).
Alliance Through Abundance
It is a testament to the creativity and perseverance of agency managers responding to these conflicting interests
that they were ultimately able to agree on a path forward. Dave Stoldt, who took over as general manager of
MPWMD just two years after the CDO was issued, appreciated the challenge Cal-Am faced to meet the SWRCB's
terms while fending off attempts by local ratepayers to take over the utility. (Despite Cal-Am's efforts, in 2018
Peninsula residents voted to undertake a feasibility study on the public takeover of Cal-Am.) At the same time,
Paul Sciuto (who succeeded Keith Israel in 2015 as GM of M1W) understood that a successful project would need
to satisfy growers' concerns about an adequate nonpotable water supply, especially since the City of Salinas—the
largest city in his service area and a member of the M1W Board—represented a large agricultural constituency.
The solution lay in reimagining the project as a way to provide more water for both peninsula residents and Salinas
Valley growers. As MPWMD GM Stoldt recalled:
There was extra capacity in the M1W treatment plant which was designed to meet anticipated growth
before we had as much water conservation. And the plant represented about $1 billion in infrastructure, so
California American Water Company
(Cal-Am)
Investor-owned utility established in
1965 by parent company American
Water Works Company (AWK) after
purchase of CW&T.
Privately managed corporate
structure with oversight by
MPWMD; rates subject to approval
by California Public Utilities
Commission (CPUC).
Cal-Am California Water Operations:
$228 million in revenues from
177,000 retail customers, including
40,000 in Monterey County (AWK,
2020); (LWV, 2007).
Water reuse: 4000 AFY purchased
from Pure Water Monterey
(MPWMD/M1W).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ , ^ , .. ^ _ ... ^
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #4: Central Callfornla and Monterey 0ne Water '6
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that amounted to a lot of stranded investment. As it turned out, there were several additional sources of
water available, including agricultural drain flows, wash water and stormwater. (Stoldt, et al., 2021)
To Stoldt, a former investment banker, this represented a classic "win-win" situation.
Charged with finding additional sources of water to augment MlW's
wastewater flows, managers identified not one but three different
impaired water supplies that could be treated and reused. MCWRA,
responsible for managing the Blanco Drain, which conveyed about
1500 AFY of agricultural tailwater to the Salinas River, recognized that
this previously "unallocated" flow might be diverted to M1W water for
further treatment and reuse. The city of Salinas, meanwhile, had
regularly operated a separate industrial wastewater system to collect
water used to wash lettuce and other produce. Designed to treat
wastewater from the manufacture of C-Rations during World War II,
the system was segregated from their sanitary sewer system and
conveyed relatively clean agricultural wastewater to percolation
ponds. Salinas also had an additional stormwater drain that flowed to
the Salinas River. By diverting both flows to M1W, Salinas could add
another 3 to 4 MGD to their recycled water supply.
Monterey Peninsula Water
Management District (MPWMD)
Governance: Seven-member
board with five elected members
and two appointed officials.
Service area: 112,000 people in
seven cities and unincorporated
Monterey County.
Annual operating budget: $18
million (MPWMD, 2020).
Capital budget: $18 million (2020-
23).
Water reuse: 3,500 AFY ground
water augmentation with
Monterey One Water (Pure Water
Monterey); proposed expansion
to 5,750 AFY.
In July 2014, a "five-party" memorandum of understanding was signed
by M1W, MPWMD, MCWRA, the City of Salinas, and Marina Coast
Water District (MCWD). As set out in this preliminary agreement,
M1W would fund and build the Pure Water Monterey advanced
treatment facility and recharge the Seaside Aquifer, and MPWMD
would purchase the stored water and wholesale it to Cal-Am. Salinas
would divert flows to M1W for treatment to potable or nonpotable standards, as appropriate, and MCWRA as the
wholesaler would sell the new irrigation water supplies to the growers. Marina Coast Water District—a M1W
member which reserved the right to reuse all its wastewater—agreed to allow M1W the use its existing pipeline to
convey advanced treated water to the recharge area in exchange for a share of the water for landscape irrigation.
As MPWMD GM Stoldt recalled, "Our approach was to focus on the multi-regional, multi-benefit effects to make it
possible for each of the five entities to get something they were seeking. And this initial 'agreement to agree'
included off-ramps, so agencies unsure about what they were getting into might have an opportunity to back out
in the future."
The agreements were finalized in 2015, and within two years environmental documentation had been submitted
and financing was in place. The SWRCB recognized the value of this collaboration by providing over $130 million in
State Revolving Fund loans and grants. (In a separate 30-year agreement, M1W, MPWMD, and Cal-Am set out
terms for producing, conveying, and purchasing specified amounts of recycled water and assigning liability for any
subsequent claims (MPWMD, 2016).) The agencies held a joint ribbon-cutting in October 2017, and by 2020 Pure
Water Monterey was pumping 3,500 AFY of highly treated water into the aquifer for use by peninsula residents
and businesses. In all but the driest years, the project would also provide an extra 4,500 to 4,750 AFY of recycled
water for agricultural irrigation. As of this writing (2021), plans are underway to expand the advanced treatment
facility from a peak capacity of 5 MGD up to 7.6 MGD and add up to 2 miles of conveyance pipelines connecting
the purified water reservoir to an expanded injection well area (Duffy, 2016).
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water*77
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Operational challenges
Successfully operating Pure Water
Monterey required the same type
of close coordination of the
participating agencies as
developing of the initial
agreements. Once discussions with
the City of Salinas revealed the
availability of 3 MGD of agricultural
wash water as an additional
recycled water supply, M1W and
city staff worked together to
develop a pilot program to divert
and treat the waste flow. The two
groups took advantage of existing
infrastructure, but according to
Brian Frus, Salinas Water, Waste,
and Energy Manager, there were
more details to be considered:
The infrastructure was very conveniently located, so initially we just shunted water from the industrial
waste to the regional plant interceptor line. There were problems downstream, however: the wash water
was hot, and had disinfectants in it, so we stored it in the ponds and blended it with the additional tailwater
flows before sending it to the plant.
The joint team met weekly to identify and address issues and coordinate with the appropriate work groups in the
City and at M1W. The experience of staff operating the project on a pilot scale prepared them to deal with issues
of full-scale operation, as more equipment and instrumentation was needed, including combined SCADA systems
to coordinate flow diversion to the plant. It is worth noting that the pilot project was started during another
drought, so the water was sent to growers in place of river water. Said Frus, "The project started out 'elementary'
but soon moved to 'advanced' as we added infrastructure that was built to make this process easier. It was
definitely helpful to have worked together from the start." M1W and MPWMD had a similar experience, as they
shared staff to enhance operation of the recharge facilities. In all cases, regular communication between work
groups in different agencies has been a critical element of the project's success.
The Good Neighbor Agency
Building on its role as the county's recycled water producer, benefitting all residents and both the agricultural and
tourist industries, M1W has begun to explore opportunities to work with other local agencies. For instance, the
Salinas Valley city of Soledad operates its own wastewater treatment plant that uses membrane filtration. They
have expressed an interest in producing recycled water, and M1W has provided both technical assistance and
support for their laboratory analyses.
They have been similarly forthcoming
to other Monterey area cities, offering
their expertise and assistance and in
the process reinforcing the concept of
"one water" for the entire county. As
M1W GM Paul Sciuto observed, "I
look at the wastewater treatment
plant as a community resource, just as
Monterey Bay is a community resource. And I wish I had more resources. There are many ways our county could
become more resilient and more protective of our beautiful environment. Working together we can go a long way
towards achieving that goal."
PROJECT MAP
WASTEWATER CONVEYANCE PIPELINE
A M1W-OWNEO PUMP STATION
• CITY-OWNED PUMP STATION
PRODUCT WATER PIPELINE
Monterey
Bay
Figure 16. Map of Monterey One Water's Pure Water Monterey project.
There are many ways our county could become
more resilient and more protective of our beautiful
environment. Working together we can go a long
way towards achieving that goal."
Paul Sciuto, Monterey One Water
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ . . _ ... , ... ^ ^ ...
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Stud" #4: Central Cal,forma and Monterey One Water-78
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Area Insights
Governance
The protracted negotiations among the many different agencies involved in managing water in Monterey
County—public and private, urban and rural, water and wastewater—illustrates the durability of Blomquist's
concept of "watershed management from the bottom up." It also further demonstrates the extent to which,
insofar as Monterey's water management challenge is a "wicked" problem, the value of any proposed solution
depends upon its ability to meet the needs of the different interest groups involved. From this perspective it
stands to reason that Monterey One Water, with its countywide mandate, should serve as the hub of this complex
network of interagency agreements, enabling the entities with a more local focus (MCWD, Salinas, Cal-Am,
MPWMD) to join in creating a regional solution to the extent they are able.
M1W and MPWMD implemented a carefully crafted strategy for building agency consensus in support of the Pure
Water Monterey project. With the 5-Party MOU, they were able to create a framework for the final agreement
without binding any of the participants to irrevocable terms. During that time, they were able to define each
party's terms and conditions of concern and reflect them in the several two- and three-party agreements from
which they ultimately constructed the project.
In all cases, the general manager's task remains to walk a tightrope, suspended between the broadest notion of
what is best for the entire community and the narrower notion of what is good for the agency that pays their
salary. On the other hand, the solutions that engage the most partners are often the ones that provide the
greatest benefits overall. As MCWRA chief Brent Buche explained, "They may describe another agency as the
enemy, but the board still expects the GM to solve these problems. You have to network with people and
constantly build bridges. We know that none of us get 100 percent of what our agency wants. But 50 percent is
better than 0 percent."
Regulations
The wisdom of advice to engage with regulators "early and often" was also borne out in Monterey. The 11-year
Monterey Reclaimed Water Study for Agriculture (MRWSA) was an essential element in the success of the
Castroville Seawater Intrusion Project (CSIP). The results of the study certainly had a profound effect on Walter
Wong, head of the Monterey Department of Public Health, who was originally highly doubtful of the safety of
using recycled water on lettuce, celery, strawberries, and other vegetables and fruits commonly eaten raw. By
including him as chair of the study's advisory board, MCWRA ensured that decision-makers would be influenced by
the outcome of the research.
Economics
Monterey growers depend upon high quality water to produce their crops. Their margins are often small,
however, so they are sensitive to even a small increase in the price of water. Similarly, when they have invested in
a water supply (e.g., CSIP), they are wary of any plans to provide them less water for their investment. This was
perhaps the primary reason growers opposed the original Pure Water Monterey proposal, which did not include
any additional water for agriculture, but allocated a specific amount of existing flow to peninsula residents and
businesses. Only by finding additional sources of influent, over and above traditional wastewater flows, was M1W
able to persuade board members representing agricultural constituencies to support the project.
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water*79
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The city of Salinas was the source of most
of that additional flow, and they too were PP-r, ,, ., .... • ...
^ ^ The problem was identified by the scientists,
suspicious of incurring additional costs for , ..
activities that did not benefit them directly. but the solutlon was identified by the
Valley growers and Salinas residents are by agricultural stakeholders who paid for the
and large hard-working, lower to middle project."
income folks, while the peninsula cities are „ . „ , .. .. . ... .
fJ, Brent Buche, Monterey County Water
home to some of the highest per capita ' ' '
income neighborhoods in the country. As a Resources Agency
result, city officials in Salinas needed to
ensure that their involvement in supplying agricultural tail water drainage and wash water to M1W for use on the
Peninsula did not inadvertently result in a similar flow of funds from Salinas to Carmel. Their sensitivity on this
point also serves as a reminder that economic values are closely related to the social and political concerns of the
communities involved.
Management
In Pure Water Monterey, just as with the MOU that preceded the final agreements, pilot projects led the way.
According to M1W and Salinas staff involved in the project, the initial pilot simply involved installing a rubber plug
in an industrial wastewater pipe to divert the flows into an adjacent M1W sanitary sewer line. Only after the issues
of water quality were identified and resolved and staff from the two agencies became accustomed to working
together did they begin to improve the infrastructure with mechanical valves and SCADA systems to facilitate
remote operation.
Leadership
One consistent mark of leadership in all the projects across the country is the ability to focus different groups of
people on their common interest, in this case preserving water for its highest and best use. The peninsula's
looming water shortages convinced MPWMD and their ratepayers of the need for a ground water recharge
project, but it was harder to make the case to valley growers with little regard for the needs of hotels and
restaurants on the other side of "the lettuce curtain." However, according to valley managers, even staunch
opponents to Pure Water Monterey were ultimately swayed by asking, about the flows still discharged into
Monterey Bay, "Is this the best use of our water?" Once that conversation started, county residents were more
likely come together to maximize water reuse.
Referenced Agreements
Amended and Restated Water Recycling Agreement Between Monterey Regional Water Pollution Control Agency
and Monterey County Water Resources Agency (2015). References 1992 Agreement for implementing SVRP and
CSIP, amended to allocate flows from Pure Water Monterey Project.
https://www.montereyonewater.org/DocumentCenter/View/722/MCWRA-MRWPCA-Restated-Agreement-Draft-
10615-for-website
MRWPCA-MPWMD Groundwater Replenishment Project Cost Sharing Agreement (2013). Amended in 2016 and
2017. Sets out terms and conditions between M1W, MPWMD, and Cal-Am for implementation of Pure Water
Monterey project. https://www.mpwmd.net/asd/board/boardpacket/2016/20160718/ll/ltem-ll-Exh-A.pdf
Agency Contacts
Paul Sciuto, General Manager, Monterey One Water, pauiPmylwater.org
Brent Buche, General Manager, Monterey County Water Resources Agency, buchebPco.monterey.ca.us
Dave Stoldt, General Manager, Monterey Peninsula Water Management District, dstoldtPmpwmd.net
Brian Frus, Water, Waste, and Energy Manager, City of Salinas, brianfPci.salinas.ca.us
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Case Study #4: Central California and Monterey One Water*80
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CASE STUDY #5: GREATER LOS ANGELES AREA
Timeline
1890-1950 City of Los Angeles (City of LA) builds Hyperion Treatment Plant to manage wastewater (1894). LA Aqueduct brings
water from Owens Valley to Los Angeles (1913).
Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts (LACSD) created (1923). LACSD's Joint Water Pollution Control Plant
constructed in Carson, California (1928).
Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (Metropolitan) created to import water from the Colorado River
(1928). Colorado Aqueduct completed (1941).
1950-1980 City of LA upgrades Hyperion wastewater treatment after years of deterioration (1950).
Water Replenishment District of Southern California (WRD) formed to replenish and protect Central and West Coast
Basin aquifers (1959).
Metropolitan joins State Water Project to bring water from the northern Sierra Nevada Mountains to the Central
Valley and Southern California (1960).
WRD recharges Montebello Forebay aquifer with recycled water from LACSD Whittier Narrows treatment plant to
replenish the Central Basin (1962).
1980-2000 City of Los Angeles reduces flows through the LA Aqueduct to help restore Mono Lake and mitigate dust pollution in
the Owens Valley (1994 and 1999).
Both City of Los Angeles and Metropolitan see additional constraints on imported water supplies via the State Water
Project due to regulatory decisions for environmental protection.
City of Los Angeles increases recycled water production at Hyperion, Donald C. Tillman, Terminal Island, and LA
Glendale water reclamation plants (1980-2000). The City achieves full secondary treatment at the Hyperion Water
Reclamation Plant (1998) but "toilet to tap" movement slows further expansion (2000).
In the midst of a "100-year drought," City of LA conveys effluent from Hyperion to West Basin Municipal Water District
(WBMWD) for further treatment and reuse (1991).
2000-2020 LACSD expands recycling programs at 10 inland treatment plants producing 90-100 MGD for both non-potable reuse
and groundwater recharge to achieves full secondary treatment at the Joint Water Pollution Control Plant (2002).
WRD campaign Water Independence Now (WIN) commences with a goal of achieving groundwater replenishment self-
reliance by 2019 (2003). WIN becomes "WIN4AN" as WRD reaches negotiated agreement with area groundwater rights
holders to free up 450,000 acre feet of additional storage space for recycled water and stormwater (2014).
City of LA Mayor Garcetti sets goal of 50 percent reliance on local sources by 2024 (2014), increasing to 70 percent
reliant on local sources by 2035 (2017). LASAN and LADWP partner in Hyperion 2035 and Operation NEXT projects to
recycle 100 percent of Hyperion effluent by 2035 (2019).
Metropolitan and LACSD evaluate feasibility of large-scale water recycling at LACSD's Joint Water Pollution Control
Plant (2015) and open Regional Recycled Water Project (RRWP) Advanced Purification Center with 0.5 MGD
demonstration project (2019).
2020-Present Long term drought in the western U.S. leads to first ever Tier 1 shortage condition on Colorado River and second
"drought of the century" in California in five years (2021).
Metropolitan Board and LACSD build 0.5 MGD Advanced Purification Facility, and Metropolitan begins environmental
review of 150 MGD Regional Recycled Water Program (2021).
City of LA begins 1.5 MGD advanced reuse pilot project (2020) and starts environmental review of 217 MGD Hyperion
2035 and Operation NEXT programs (2021).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs: _ _ . _ , .
Lessons for Successful Collaboration Case Study #5: Greater Los An§eles Area 51
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Overview and Key Takeaways
The preceding case studies illustrate how diverse water agencies can collaborate to achieve something of greater
value for the communities they serve than they can individually. They have very different physical settings,
different regulatory and economic drivers compelling water reuse, and different operational challenges. What they
all have in common, however, are individuals and groups of leaders who were able to imagine a greater good
working together than they could accomplish alone. We close with an example of how leaders with vision can
build on a history of successful reuse collaborations to create new projects of breathtaking scale and scope, with
implications not just for the region but for the entire United States.
While California's history of competition over scarce water supplies is the stuff of lore ("Chinatown") and the
source of a famously misattributed quote ("Whiskey is for drinking and water is for fighting"), in fact Southern
California water agencies have a long tradition of collaborating to reuse water. Water recycling has been
performed in the greater Los Angeles area since the early days of the practice. To cite just a few examples, in
addition to the previously cited partnership between the OCWD and OC San (Introduction), both the City of Los
Angeles and the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts provide treated effluent for reuse to over a dozen area
cities. To the east, the joint powers Santa Ana Water Project Authority (SAWPA) is currently implementing a plan
to exchange recycled water for imported water flows among its five member agencies. To the south the City of
San Diego "Pure Water" program is building a pathbreaking reservoir augmentation facility
Motivated by the mounting risk that climate change poses to a region already heavily dependent upon imported
water, two globally significant programs are now taking shape that will affirm Southern California's place as the
epicenter of recycled water progress. The City of Los Angeles has developed a plan to reuse 100 percent of the
effluent that can be captured from its 450-MGD capacity Hyperion Water Reclamation Plant (Hyperion), which
now averages 257 MGD due to successful conservation efforts. At the same time, the Metropolitan Water District
of Southern California (Metropolitan) and the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts (LACSD) are working together
on a program to reuse 150 MGD from LACSD's largest treatment plant, which has an average daily flow of about
260 MGD.7 Collectively these two programs will add over 350 MGD of recycled water to the region's water
supplies, and both owe a debt to the vision and generosity of spirit of yet another agency—the Water
Replenishment District of Southern California (WRD). Equally large to the City of LA in population served but lesser
known than either Metropolitan or the City of LA, WRD's commitment to independence from imported water has
enhanced the resilience of the entire region.
Key lessons include:
¦ Leaders who can see the greater regional good can help others realize their resilience dreams sooner
than later. Leaders at the Water Replenishment District of Southern California (WRD) spent years
negotiating with overlying groundwater pumpers to agree on letting others use their basin to store and
stage water, allowing the City of Los Angeles to accelerate its plans to recycle 100 percent of its
wastewater from the Hyperion treatment plant. Metropolitan Water District of Southern California
realized that the region could recycle water from LA County Sanitation Districts' large coastal treatment
plant if they stepped up to do it, so they did.
¦ Strategically developed regulations can enable bigger projects. A requirement to develop statewide
standards for different types of potable reuse on a legislatively mandated timetable reassured water
7 While this paper focuses on wastewater recycling, Los Angeles County voters recently approved $300
million per year for multi-benefit projects that capture and reuse stormwater, increase urban greening,
protect water quality, and improve flood control all of which will further add to the region's resilience.
(LA County, 2021). Combined with the recycling programs discussed here, they constitute one of the
largest urban climate adaptation strategies in the nation.
Case Study #5: Greater Los Angeles Area°82
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reuse proponents that regulations for potable reuse projects would be available in a set timeframe
which allowed them to begin planning projects. It also created a focused effort among agencies,
regulators, and stakeholders with robust participation, including an expert panel. This inspired and
enabled the development of two large projects that could integrate water supply and wastewater
programs across a region serving 19 mill!on people.
Collaboration isn't instantaneous—it is developed over time and lays a foundation for even more
collaboration. While not always in agreement on all things, water agencies in the greater Los Angeles
area have a long history of collaborating with each other and with the environmental community and
regulatory agencies. That created a supportive environment for taking the next big steps.
Existential threats have a way of sharpening the mind. The greater Los Angeles area, like most of
Southern California, is heavily dependent upon imported water sources that are subject to disruption
from climate change, natural disaster, and increasing regulatory requirements. While not abandoning
their imported water sources, Southern California leaders recognize the risks and have been rapidly
developing resilience tools of conservation, stormwater capture, and water reuse for years, with events
of the past few years accelerating the urgency of action.
Sometimes giving up power can get you more. WRD realized that it would need to give up power and
control over the mechanics of its groundwater basins to gain collective support for using their storage
space for the greater good.
Bringing Water to LA
The greater Los Angeles metropolitan region of California
is home to over 10 million people: more than 4 million
reside in the City of Los Angeles proper (City of LA), while
the rest live in more than 88 cities and unincorporated
communities in Los Angeles County (LA County).
Southern California as a whole has a population of 19
million, most of whom are served (directly or indirectly)
by Metropolitan. The area is blessed with a temperate,
Mediterranean climate but its burgeoning population
currently relies upon water imported from hundreds of
miles away. Over half of Southern California's water is
imported from three distant sources: 1) the Colorado
River, which crosses seven US states and Mexico; 2) the
San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers, via the State Water
Project; and 3) the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, via the Los Angeles Aqueduct.
Figure 17. Southern California Water Sources
(Credit: LADWP Urban Water Management Plan
2010)
The largest wholesale water provider in the nation, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California
(Metropolitan) takes water from the first two supplies. The City of Los Angeles (City of LA) takes water from its
own LA Aqueduct which brings water from the east side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and from the San
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Fernando Valley groundwater basin that it manages. What more it
needs the City of LA must purchase from Metropolitan, and at times
the City is 90 percent dependent upon imported water sources
(Hagekhalil & Wiersema, 2016). Underlying both these agencies—in
many respects literally—the Water Replenishment District of
Southern California (WRD) manages the groundwater basins from
which millions of LA area residents and businesses draw—and
store—a portion of their water.
The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) serves as
the City of LA's water utility, and Los Angeles Sanitation and
Environment (LASAN) is the City of LA's sanitation agency, which is
also responsible for solid waste and stormwater. In addition to
serving the City of LA, LASAN handles wastewater on a contract
basis for nearly thirty local agencies. Communities in LA County
outside the city's limits receive water from a multitude of water
supply agencies, but their wastewater service is largely provided by
a confederation of 24 special districts that collectively manages
wastewater and solid waste, the Los Angeles County Sanitation
Districts (LACSD).
Metropolitan Water District of
Southern California (Metropolitan)
Established to construct Colorado
Aqueduct (1928) and later to
contract from the California State
Water Project (1960)
Directed by a 38-member board
of directors, representing each of
the district's 26 member agencies
Annual Operating Budget: $1.9
billion
Annual Capital Budget: $250
million
$584 million for operations and
maintenance
$831 million for capital projects
$176 million for purchased water
Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (Metropolitan) is
a wholesaler and sells both untreated and treated imported water
to its 26 member agencies. Not long after the City of LA built its aqueduct, Metropolitan was formed to bring
water from the Colorado River to Southern California (based upon early work done by the City). 20+ years after the
completion of the 242-mile Colorado Aqueduct in 1941, Metropolitan joined the State Water Project, which brings
water from the northern Sierra Nevada Mountains to the Central Valley and Southern California urban and
agricultural users. Metropolitan operates five large-scale drinking water plants, numerous reservoirs, and 830
miles of pipelines to deliver water to 26 member agencies that collectively serve over 19 million people, who rely
on Metropolitan's imported water for over half their daily needs (Metropolitan, 2021b).
The Water Replenishment District of Southern California (WRD) was
created in 1959 to reverse subsidence and overextraction of two large
urban groundwater basins in Los Angeles County. It is the largest
groundwater agency in California, responsible for replenishing two
basins that cover 420 square miles. WRD provides half of the water
relied upon by over 4 million people in 43 cities, including a portion of
the City of Los Angeles. It is also charged with monitoring the quality of
groundwater, which had long been a victim of industrial pollution as
well as preventing seawater intrusion by recharging the basins with a
combination of captured stormwater, desalted brackish water,
imported water (from Metropolitan), and recycled water from several
area wastewater facilities. In 2004 WRD formally committed to strive
for "independence from imported water supplies" and in the
subsequent decades it has shared both its vision and its basins with
other utilities to increase water resilience in the entire region.
Two Grand Visions, One Big Idea
Water Replenishment District of
Southern California (WRD)
Created in 1959 to reverse
subsidence and overextraction
of LA County groundwater
basins
Governed by a five-member
elected board
Responsible for aquifers
underlying 420 mi2 that
provide 50% of the water relied
upon by > 4 million people in
43 cities
Annual Budget: $85 million
Operating Budget: $70 million
Capital Budget: $15 million
The City of LA's two-part reuse program, "Operation NEXT" and
"Hyperion 2035," relies on the close cooperation between LASAN and
LADWP. LASAN's role is to upgrade the treatment provided at the
Hyperion plant to produce recycled water for indirect and/or direct potable reuse applications. Their part of the
program (Hyperion 2035) has commenced with design of a 1.5 MGD pilot facility demonstrating the suitability of
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membrane bioreactors, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet disinfection, and advanced oxidation. Currently, the program's
goal is to produce up to 217 MGD of advanced treated water suitable for groundwater replenishment at WRD and
in the City's San Fernando Valley. Following treatment at the plant, LADWP (Operation NEXT) will take over
responsibility for conveying the water for aquifer storage and higher levels of treatment (LADWP, 2021a) with the
aim of eventually treating water to direct potable reuse standards at the City's drinking water treatment facilities
in the North San Fernando Valley. The final location of advanced purification facilities and the allocation of
responsibility may shift as the program evolves.
Just as ambitious, Metropolitan and LACSD's Regional
Recycled Water Project (RRWP) is anticipated to
provide an additional 150 MGD of recycled water for
groundwater recharge (via both spreading arid
injection), industrial reuse, and eventually direct
potable reuse. The recycled water will come from
Metropolitan's partner agency, LACSD, which has
operated its Joint Water Pollution Control Plant
(JWPCP) for nearly a century. About 20 years ago the
JWPCP was upgraded to provide full secondary
treatment of wastewater. To produce water suitable
for potable reuse, however, LACSD would need to add
advanced treatment and disinfection for 150 MGD of
effluent that Metropolitan would then convey to four
large groundwater basins throughout Los Angeles and
Orange Counties (Metropolitan, 2021a). Like Operation NEXT, future plans call for conveyance and more advanced
treatment for integration directly into Metropolitan's considerable drinking water treatment and storage systems.
Both large programs build on partnerships and relationships with WRD. Long before the City of LA or Metropolitan
began investing in reuse, WRD recognized the importance of recycled water to the Los Angeles area. In 1962, WRD
and LACSD partnered to use secondary treated effluent from LACSD's Whittier Narrows treatment plant to
recharge its Montebello Forebay to prevent seawater intrusion. Not only was recycled water less costly than
imported water, but it was also less susceptible to curtailment during the periodic droughts that regularly reduced
surface water supplies. Over time, WRD gradually increased the proportion of recycled water it added to the basin;
today they regularly purchase 50,000 AFY of recycled water to recharge the groundwater basin through
percolation and further treat for injection.
In 2003 WRD embarked on its Water Independence Now (WIN) campaign. Its goal was to become independent
from imported supplies by replenishing the Central and West Coast Basins with local and recycled water. The
program officially met its goal in 2019 with the dedication of the Albert Robles Center for Water Recycling and
Environmental Learning, but the agency was not content to achieve self-sufficiency only within their own service
area so in 2016 WRD expanded that program to make their groundwater basins available to other communities as
well. To ensure the success of Water Independence Now—For All (WIN4AII), WRD through then-General Manager
Robb Whitaker led a muiti-year negotiation with groundwater rights holders to allow the City of LA and others to
use the excess capacity in the basins so they could have a secure and cost-effective place to store recycled water
for future use.
Things got heated when some Central Basin pumpers figured that If WRD could make additional capacity available
to others, perhaps they could sell it instead. As Whitaker recalled, "I see nothing wrong with [monetization], but
we thought that the best use of the storage space was for the benefit of the entire region. WRD wasn't very
altruistic in the beginning—we wanted full control of the use of the storage space—but we realized that if we all
tried to get control of the biggest pieces for ourselves, we would not come to a consensus. We all had to put our
desire for power aside if we wanted to make it work." (Whitaker, 2021). Whitaker's efforts were rewarded in 2014
with the creation of over 450,000 acre-feet of available storage to enhance the resilience of the entire region
(WRD, 2021b). WRD's commitment allowed the Operation NEXT and Hyperion 2035 programs to commit to 100
percent recycling at Hyperion because Central Basin's aquifer is far closer than the City's own recharge facilities in
OounrMttttr condmont in th* Imf) WOO* 'h* formation ol WW: ¦
60 Years of Sustainable Groundwater Mana..
Alamitos Gap Barrier
Figure 18. Water Replenishment District of Southern
California Service Area (Source: WRD)
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the San Fernando Valley (which will also receive recycled water for recharge in future phases of the project). WRD
also has significant involvement with LACSD and Metropolitan's projects including the RRWP.
Driven by Resilience: The LA Story
2021 may be the year that climate change came to the forefront of
the national consciousness, or as one observer declared, "the year
when the unimaginable became the unavoidable" (Brownstein,
2021) (Lustgarten, 2021). Over the past two decades local
governments—more than their state or federal counterparts-
have led the charge in adapting to climate change, and by the end
of the century climate change may well drive local water agencies
across the country to recycle water. Climate change affects
agencies in various ways: drought and water shortage in some
places, flooding and stranded infrastructure in others. The
investments necessary to protect life and property, to provide
water for sustenance and sanitation, and to protect groundwater
from seawater intrusion will be enormous, but necessary.
Climate change and the water scarcity it will bring is an enormous
motivating force, and a key to understanding the scale of the Los
Angeles area projects. Since the drought of 1986-1992 the City of
LA had already taken the lead in water conservation, stormwater
capture, and water recycling. As evidence of the effectiveness of
these projects, over the past 40 years LA's population has increased
by 25 percent while its total water use decreased substantially
(LASAN, 2021a). The same is true for Southern California as a whole
(demands dropping 20 percent since 1990 despite a 30 percent rise
in population). Nevertheless, the region remains extremely vulnerable to disruption of its imported water supplies.
Even if the long straws that connect Southern California to its water holes to the north and east survive periodic
earthquakes and wildfires, the longer and deeper Western droughts due to climate change could leave them
empty far more often. With average temperatures rising, each spring will bring less winter snow, reducing the
natural storage upon which the existing infrastructure relies.
LA Sanitation and Environment
(LASAN)
Department of the City of Los
Angeles responsible for Solid
Waste Resources, Clean Water and
Watershed Protection programs
Reports to the five-member Board
of Public Works appointed by the
mayor
Collects, cleans, and recycles both
solid and liquid waste generated by
residential, commercial, and
industrial users in the City of LA
and surrounding communities
Annual budget (Clean Water
Program): $700 million
O&M budget: $351 million
Capital budget: $349 million
Whether it is specifically a lack of winter snowpack or a general
lack of seasonal rains to replenish reservoirs, streams, and
groundwater basins, the impacts of climate change threaten to
upend Southern California's water supply, despite its advances in
conservation and recycling (DWR, 2014). Faced with the same
existential threat that a century earlier had prompted its civic
leaders to bring water from Owens Valley, the Sierras, and the
Rockies, in this era Southern California managers and leaders
looked in their own backyard.
Bringing it All Back Home
LA Sanitation and Environment (LASAN) operates four water
reclamation plants that serve over four million people, and
currently treats an average of 321 MGD, out of a total capacity of
Agency Profile:
LA Department of Water & Power
(LADWP)
Established to deliver water (1902)
and electricity (1916) to the City of LA
Directed by a five-member Board of
Water and Power Commissioners
appointed by the Mayor
Total annual budget: $1.59 billion
$584 million for O&M
$831 million for capital projects
$176 million for purchased
water
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580 MGD8 (LASAN, 2021b). Of that amount LASAN recycles 100 MGD or more, not all of which is currently reused.
Approximately 35 MGD from the Hyperion plant is delivered to the West Basin Municipal 'Water District (WMBWD)
where it is treated further for a variety of industrial uses and groundwater
injection to prevent seawater intrusion (WBMWD, 2021). The other three
treatment plants collectively produce an average of 56 MGD of recycled water
used for landscape irrigation (Tillman Japanese Garden, golf courses and
cemeteries); recreational impoundments (Lake Balboa); and environmental
enhancement (Sepulveda Basin Wildlife Preserve). Effluent from these plants
also constitutes the lion's share of the flow in the LA River, which supports
habitat and wildlife. The impact of these flows has been so beneficial that
recent proposals by LA and neighboring cities Burbank, Giendale, and
Pasadena to increase reuse precipitated a study to determine optimal flow
regimes to best balance water supply while protecting environmental
beneficial uses.
One of the largest wastewater treatment plants in the United States, LA's
Hyperion plant is the focus of the current effort. The Hyperion 2035 program
will direct the plant's flow through a battery of advanced treatment processes
rendering the effluent clean enough for groundwater injection and,
potentially, for direct potable reuse after additional treatment. Hyperion has a
suitably dramatic history to star in such a production. Once celebrated for
advancing the cause of sanitation (In 1958 Aldous Huxley praised its ability to
remove the "Malthusian flotsam and unspeakable jetsam" that once littered
the public beaches) (Huxley, 2002), it repeatedly collapsed into disrepair
before being reborn periodically as an advanced facility for its times. As
related (in at least two versions of the story) by Sklar (2008) and Sharpsteen (2010), a period of decline in the
1980s led to a series of public battles in the media and the courts which pushed city officials to ink a consent
decree with state and federal regulators mandating improvements to the facility. As the city went from garnering
lawsuits to winning awards for its innovations, it increased its deliveries to WBMWD, which ran a portion of
Hyperion's secondary effluent through no fewer than five distinct treatment trains to produce "designer water"
for a variety of uses. Los Angeles leaders, however, were eager to recycle more of the Hyperion water for
themselves.
Despite the success of its collaboration with WBMWD and its reuse at its other treatment plants, recycling water
on a larger scale at Hyperion eluded the city. Like many coastal wastewater treatment plants, LASAN relies heavily
on gravity to transport wastewater to the piant, and the expense of pumping that volume of water uphili where it
could be used in large amounts was greater than the perceived benefit of reuse. Instead, the city focused on
recycling wastewater treated at upstream facilities, but even then the cost of building separate pipeline systems
for non-potable reuse rendered larger scale recycling seemingly out of reach.
The notion of reusing most of LASAN's wastewater got a boost in 2015 when the SWRCB promulgated statewide
standards for groundwater replenishment. The challenge of widespread reuse was stiil daunting, given the
expense of pumping water over 20 miles uphill from Hyperion to the city-managed groundwater basins in the San
Fernando Valley (or even further north to LADWP's water filtration plants). But with the uncertainty of access to
Hyperion Service Area (HSA|
Figure 19. City of Los Angeles
Wastewater Treatment and
Collection System. (Source: City
of Los Angeles)
8 The capacity of the four plants is 580 MGD but conservation success has lowered the actual amount treated
over the past two decades. The same dynamic is true for the LACSD system of 11 plants, who have a capacity of
600 mgd but are treating far less on average because of the far greater efficiency of fixtures, appliances, and
public change in behaviors inside the home.
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imported water rising and the region's survival potentially at stake, the concept of "a more droughtproof LA"
began to gain traction.
In 2014, LA Mayor Eric Garcetti had announced an ambitious "water directive" to cut reliance on imported
supplies by 50 percent by 2024 (later revised upward to require 70 percent reliance on local sources by 2035)
through a combination of conservation, water recycling, stormwater capture, and cleanup of legacy groundwater
contamination. (Hagekhalil & Wiersema, 2016)(Garcettti, 2019). In addition, once the value of WRD's WIN4AII
program became known, it suddenly became possible for the city to store a significant volume of advanced treated
water much closer to the treatment plant. The prospect of potable reuse without underground storage was also
made possible by the apparent progression of statewide standards for reservoir augmentation and eventual direct
potable reuse (raw water and treated water augmentation). As LASAN's Chief Operating Officer Traci Minamide
recalled, "Hyperion 2035 became reality when our mayor announced his goals for water recycling in LA's Green
New Deal. The key factors for making this happen are WRD providing storage close to our Hyperion plant and state
agencies moving forward with potable reuse regulations." (Minamide, 2021)
In February 2019, with LASAN's enthusiastic support, Mayor Garcetti formally announced the City's commitment
to recycling 100 percent of the Hyperion's wastewater (Boxall, 2019). The project will bring Hyperion's reuse up to
an estimated 217 MGD, adding to the City's already extensive non-potable reuse program and making it the
largest potable recycled water project in the world. (Orange County Water District's Groundwater Replenishment
System (GWRS) is currently the largest, treating up to 100 MGD, and expanding to 130 MGD (OCWD, 2021).
Operation NEXT and Hyperion 2035
The program to achieve 100 percent recycling at the Hyperion Water Reclamation Plant is called Hyperion 2035,
and the distribution of that recycled water as well as future additional treatment is known as Operation NEXT.
Hyperion 2035, led by LASAN out of the city's Department of Public Works (DPW), is responsible for upgrading the
treatment plant to at least groundwater replenishment standards for potable reuse applications. Operation NEXT,
led by LADWP, will handle the conveyance of water to the Central Basin for storage, and integration into LADWP's
distribution system to local customers. Operation NEXT will also be responsible for conveying treated water in
future phases to the San Fernando Valley (for groundwater recharge) and to more advanced treatment (for
integration into the city's water system), eventually reaching 70 percent of the city's service area..9 The program is
operated cooperatively by the two city departments (LASAN and LADWP) which have separate governing boards
and different organizational structures despite being within the same city. While historically having somewhat of a
fractious relationship, at this stage the governance is collaborative, with relatively straightforward agreements and
with successive agreements expected as each stage of the program proceeds over the next 10-15 years..
9 For example, LADWP is currently developing a 1 mgd demonstration and education facility in the San Fernando
Valley where they will treat tertiary polished effluent from LASAN's Los Angeles Glendale Water Reclamation
Plant as a DPR Demonstration Project. The project is designed to test proven technologies and new approaches,
to support the development of the state regulations, and to prove the public health and safety of
DPR (Mouakkad, 2021).
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The Power of Two: Metropolitan and LACSD Team Up on the
Regional Recycled Water Project
Metropolitan: Diving into Reuse
The Metropolitan Water District of California
(Metropolitan) was formed in 1928 to
facilitate imports of water to Southern
California, first from the Colorado River
system, which spans seven western states,
and years later (1960s) by importing water
from the Northern Sierras via the State Water
Project. Over the years, Metropolitan has
supported its members' efforts to develop
alternative water supplies (including recycled
water, stormwater capture, and desalination)
with grants from its Local Resources Program,
its primary role, however, has been as the
protector and provider of imported water
sources for its members' direct delivery to
customers and for groundwater recharge.
THE METROPOLITAN WATER DISTRICT OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Figure 20. Metropolitan Water District member agencies
(Credit: Metropolitan Water District)
Metropolitan is well aware that the only way
we're going to survive climate change and its
challenges is by partnering together."
Jeff Kightlinger, Metropolitan (former GM,
Metropolitan Water District)
In the last decade, as it became increasingly
evident that imported supplies were
threatened, leadership at Metropolitan
started looking more seriously at direct
development of recycled water projects to
support regional resilience. While many
agencies took advantage of the Local
Assistance Program, the total volume of water
they recycled was not as great as they, or
Metropolitan, had hoped. At the same time
that available imported water supplies had
dropped due to drought and increased
environmental regulation, the development of
new technologies for wastewater treatment and monitoring, combined with promulgation of progressive state
standards for all forms of potable water reuse, made the idea of taking on a recycled water project at scale seem
more feasible than before (Metropolitan, 2019). And it turned out that Metropolitan was weli positioned physically
and technically to serve significant volumes of recycled water to their member agencies for groundwater
replenishment. Due to their size and resources Metropolitan could integrate advanced treated potable recycled
water into their massive treatment, storage, and distribution system in a way that individual agencies could not.
With the state standards in progress, "a regional path started to feel possible [with] a permitting path that would
not have happened in a purple pipe framework." They also found great shared "sense of common purpose to
pursue a world class project" with their LACSD partners (Upadyhay, 2020) (Metropolitan, 2019) (Metropolitan,
2015).
LACSD: Back to the Future
The Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts (LACSD) is a large regional wastewater collection and treatment agency
serving over 5.5 million people in 78 cities and unincorporated areas within Los Angeles County. Formed in 1923 to
treat the sewage and industrial waste discharged to the Pacific from the "phenomenal and unpredictable
expansion" of Southern California after World War I (Rawn, 1965), LACSD was one of the earliest agencies to
recycle water. Today, ten of its eleven wastewater facilities currently treat and deliver 90 MGD of recycled water
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(Smith, 2021) to more than 830 sites for agricultural and
landscape irrigation and industrial use, and WRD has been
recharging its groundwater basins with LACSD recycled water
since 1962 (Chalmers, et a]., 2020). At this point only the
largest of LACSD's facilities, the Joint Water Pollution Control
Plant (JWPCP) does not provide water for reuse.
The JWPCP discharges full secondary treated effluent into the
Pacific Ocean off the Palos Verdes Peninsula, treating an
average of 260 MGD, with a capacity of 400 MGD. Lacking any
specific regulatory driver pushing them to recycle water, the
LACSD nevertheless wanted to make use of their treated
wastewater by including their largest plant in their already
extensive recycling program. Agency managers understood
that ocean discharge standards would only become stricter in
the future, and for the good of the region they could enhance
reliability of a water supply already threatened by a variety of
stressors. According to Robert C. Ferrante, Chief Engineer and
General Manager of LACSD "the RRWP will bring about the full
use of the treated wastewater from JWPCP. In this arid climate
of Southern California, together with climate change, we
cannot afford to waste any of our precious water resources."
(Ferrante, 2021)
Regional Teamwork
Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles
County (LACSD)
LACSD consists of 24 independent
special districts covering about 850
mi.2 serving 78 cities and 5.6 million
people in LA County
Established to manage wastewater
(1923) and solid waste (1950) for
residents and businesses in LA county
Annual Budget (wastewater): $627
million
O&M Budget: $247 million
Capital Budget: $180 million
Water reuse: 135 mgd for
groundwater recharge, irrigation,
industrial use
Source: (LACSD, 2021a)
In 2011 Metropolitan and LACSD began to discuss in earnest the possibility of a large-scale water reuse program
that would build on their combined strengths. They conducted feasibility studies, and in 2015 they agreed to build
a pilot project to
demonstrate the efficacy
of a treatment train that
would enable the JWPCP
to produce potable
quality water. In 2019
they ratified a formal
memorandum of
understanding (MOU) to
develop the 150 MGD
(168 KAFY) Regional
Recycled Water Project
(RRWP) which would
include a new advanced
water treatment facility
and a new regional
conveyance system to
deliver advanced treated
water for groundwater
recharge in four iarge
groundwater basins
throughout LA and
Orange Counties
(Metropolitan, 2019).
The program is designed
to be open to the
AWT-advanced water treatment. JWPCP-Joint Water Pollution Control Plant.
MWD—Metropolitan Water District
The program covers a large geographic area and includes elements such as a new
advanced water treatment facility, 60-mile pipeline, and pump stations.
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potential for even more advanced treatment for indirect and direct potable reuse through Metropolitan's
enormous treatment and distribution system.
The RRWP Advanced Purification Center opened in 2019 treating 0.5 MGD of wastewater with an innovative
application of membrane bioreactor that promises to save considerably on capital and operating costs.
(Metropolitan, 2019), The Center also serves as an educational facility for the entire RRWP, even conducting
virtual online tours during the current pandemic. WRD is also a key partner in this program through its existing
interconnections and rights of way between the J WPCP and seawater intrusion barriers at the coast and spreading
grounds along the route. One of the most interesting features of the RRWP from a scale and scope perspective is
the inclusion of the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA), the water supply and wastewater agency serving
the Las Vegas, Nevada metropolitan area. Metropolitan is a key agency in negotiating the management of the
Colorado River, which spans seven states and is governed at the federal level. The river, as noted earlier, is facing
diminishing snowpack in its watershed and has been in a prolonged state of drought for nearly two decades.
A series of agreements have been reached in recent years on how to manage the shortages, such as the Drought
Contingency Plan (DCP) prepared for water users of the Colorado River (NIDiS/NOAA, 2019). In August 2021, BOR
declared a first ever "Tier 1 shortage" on the river, prompting a first level of cuts that apply largely to portions of
Arizona (BOR, 2021) (Brulliard & Partlow, 2021). As droughts persist and Colorado River supplies dwindle,
deliveries to Nevada and California users (including Metropolitan) will be reduced far more than they have been
previously due simply to annual hydrologic variations or lesser shortage declarations. The new agreement between
Metropolitan and the Southern Nevada Water Agency (SNWA) allows SNWA to participate in and help fund the
programmatic environmental review for the RRWP and could lead to co-funding the RRWP in exchange for a
portion of MWD's Colorado River water when available (Businesswire, 2020). Discussions along similar lines are
also ongoing with representatives of the Central Arizona Project (CAP) (Smith, 2021).
Figure 22. Potential future integration of Los Angeles city and county potable reuse programs
(Smith, 2021)
As noted previously, both the RRWP and the City of LA's Hyperion 2035 and Operation NEXT programs are
undergoing programmatic review over the next few years. Both involve Initial focus on groundwater
replenishment for spreading or injection, with consideration of adding advanced conveyance and treatment to
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integrate into their larger drinking water treatment, storage, and distribution systems. (Metropolitan, 2019)
(LADWP, 2021a). Together, these agencies are evaluating eventual connection of their two enormous system to
create a regional "water grid" that would provide even greater resilience for this massive, populated area.
(Chalmers, et al., 2020)
Governance
The relationship between LASAN and LADWP, as well as the partnership between Metropolitan and LACSD, is
documented in a series of straightforward agreements allocating responsibility, ratified by their respective
governing boards. LADWP also has a longstanding relationship with WRD as a member agency, and the two are
developing an agreement to allow LADWP to store water from the Operation NEXT and Hyperion 2035 programs
in the Central and West Coast groundwater basins. LACSD and WRD also have a history working together
productively on groundwater recharge and seawater intrusion in the Central and West Coast Basins and many
interconnected facilities, and LACSD and Metropolitan have for many years provided recycled and surface water
respectively for groundwater recharge to many of the same local water agencies. This extensive history of working
together, even in parallel, is a great help in forging new and expanded partnerships. This is especially important,
because both Operation NEXT/Hyperion 2035 and the RRWP will have to navigate integration of the drinking water
agency's oversight into the entirety of the recycled water production process..10
Regulations
Regulations Can Help Enable Bigger Projects
While regulations (and regulators) can hinder the speed or flexibility of recycled water projects, they can also
help. In the early 2010s, a collaborative of water associations and individual agencies called for statewide
standards, on a legislatively-set and therefore predictable schedule, for a range of indirect and direct potable
reuse standards. The timetable and substance of those standards enabled large water and wastewater system
operators to plan vastly larger projects to integrate advanced treated water into the water supply system,
benefitting millions of Southern Californians and potentially water agencies in other states. Throughout this
process water associations and agencies worked closely with regulators in a public process. Regulators from all
local, state, and federal agencies have been brought in at the early stages of the projects as they are being
shaped..11
Metropolitan's Board relied on this regulatory certainty to make the leap from being steward of imported water
and supporting member agencies in their individual water reuse projects, to taking direct responsibility for
developing a regional scale project. Similarly, the City of Los Angeles saw the opportunity to plan for groundwater
replenishment (and eventually direct potable reuse) at scale because the new regulations allowed them to
integrate recycled water into their overall water system. The regulations gave the City of LA, Metropolitan, and
LACSD the confidence to move recycled water through their existing water distribution systems rather than
building thousands of miles of expensive non-potable distribution pipelines. Knowing the state would "have their
backs" in supporting the projects so long as they complied with well-defined regulations, the agencies could
envision incorporating water reuse into their entire programs, sending recycled water to multiple locations for
10 Under California's current draft framework for DPR regulation, the drinking water agency partner in a DPR
project must be designated as the DiPRRA, or "Direct potable reuse responsible agency" (SWRCB, 2021).
11 This is not to say that statewide rules are the only (or even the best) way to go. Customized and early
engagement with regulators can work well in any individual permit context. The only point here is that in this
case, it enabled the vision and planning for a greatly expanded set of programs and projects.
Area Insights
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groundwater recharge and (eventually) to upstream drinking water treatment plants. With statewide regulatory
requirements specified and a schedule set for their adoption, Southern California agencies did not have to guess
what local permitting agencies might require, or how long they might wait to receive a permit. This is especially
significant given the extensive areas their programs span which encompass multiple regional permitting offices.
Nor did Metropolitan and the City of LA sit idly by while SWRCB developed the new indirect and direct potable
water reuse permit rules Sacramento. Both agencies were actively engaged in the regulatory development process
through meetings and discussions and by virtue of their demonstration pilot project. The City of Los Angeles and
LACSD are currently working with the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board to set conditions for
discharge of treatment residuals through their NPDES permits. At the pilot plant located at their joint Advanced
Purification Center, LACSD and Metropolitan are testing a unique membrane bioreactor application, and Hyperion
2035 is also developing a 1.5 MGD pilot plant to test advanced membrane technology. Operation NEXT is
preparing a DPR demonstration facility in the San Fernando Valley to test technologies for direct potable reuse.
Information from the facility will be available for review during the state's regulatory process, and the facility will
also be used as a public education center. In addition, as their projects enter the Programmatic Environmental
Impact Review stage both agrencies are reaching out to regulators and to their stakeholder communities. The
RRWP offers both virtual and in person tours of its demonstration facility, while the City has created a Technical
Advisory Group for Hyperion 2035 and Operation NEXT that that will meet regularly through the development of
the program, and includes academics, community members, and regional, state, and federal regulatory agencies.
Economics
The cost of these projects is estimated to run into the billions of dollars. The City of LA currently estimates at least
$4 billion in capital costs for up to 217 MGD (243,000 AFY) of advanced treated water, and Metropolitan/LACSD
estimates run up to $3.4 billion in capital costs for approximately 150 MGD. (168,000 AFY). Conveyance and
additional treatment will add many billions more. On the other hand, considering the added benefit of greater
reliability, these costs could compare favorably with projected future costs of imported water over time. WRD
estimates that its reuse program has already saved its customers $570 million, relative to the alternative cost of
purchasing imported water, in addition to being a locally reliable and resilient supply (WRD, 2021c).
When wild swings in hydrological variations due to climate change are added to the constant threat of
earthquakes and other natural disasters, political leaders, and water all across the country are increasingly
realizing that water recycling is the key to a sustainable future. While hard to put a price on, the value of
preventing disruption of water supply has been quantified by existing research which has been instrumental in
helping to make "the case for reuse" (Raucher, et al., 2013) (Raucher, et al., 2015). To further prove this point, the
City of LA has commissioned the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Luskin Center for Innovation to
provide a third-party assessment of the value of a more resilient and reliable water supply in the face of climate
change, earthquake, or other interruption. The report is expected in late 2021 (Villegas, 2021).
The journey to 100 percent recycling at Hyperion became economically viable when the WRD groundwater
storage negotiations allowed the City of LA to cut the cost of the project considerably by storing and staging
deliveries of recycled water in their Central and West Coast Basin aquifers, which are far closer to the Hyperion
Treatment Plant and LA's local water customers than LADWP'S own drinking water treatment facilities or the
groundwater basins in the San Fernando Valley. Those more distant facilities may ultimately be used to take
advantage of the City's larger gravity-fed water distribution system, but the closer basins allow the city to reuse
water far sooner. In a similar vein, Metropolitan may reduce its costs if the early agreement with SNWA and its
ongoing talks with the Central Arizona Project enable them to shoulder some of the expense of the RRWP in
exchange for occasional use of some of the Colorado River water to which Metropolitan is entitled.
While still in the programmatic evaluation stages, the costs for the projects are being shared by the drinking water
and wastewater agencies largely along the lines of their traditional roles. Wastewater agencies contribute an
investment commensurate with their benefits (e.g., facilitated compliance with wastewater discharge
requirements) as well as provide expertise and real estate for location of treatment facilities. The water supply
partners pay for the upgrade to higher levels of recycled water and the distribution system. According to
Operation NEXT Program Manager Rafael Villegas (2021),
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In terms of cost sharing, LADWP will actually be responsible for financing 100 percent of the program. It was
a pretty easy call: Operation NEXT is a water supply program, so under the City Charter, it is purview of
LADWP. LASAN is responsible for treating to discharge limits—for which they do a great job—so anything
above and beyond discharge limits is water supply.
While costs and allocations will evolve over time, the collective interest and political leadership at the entities has
not made the cost allocation a source of friction or delay to date for any of the programs.
"Economy of Scope" is as Broad as You Can Envision
The scale of the LA suite of projects is breathtaking due to the sheer volume of water being handled and the large
land area that the multiple facilities and lengthy pipelines will encompass. Metropolitan and LACSD's joint RRWP
program even crosses state lines over hundreds of miles to include other Colorado River users in upstream states,
potentially easing scarcity for them while building resilience at home. But the scale of the programs should not
obscure that they share with other case studies the virtue of expanding the value of the solution by increasing the
complexity of the problem.
Taking on large-scale projects like these always entails risk, as inevitably agencies are required to stretch beyond
their traditional responsibilities. When Monterey One Water accepted agricultural wastewater from the City of
Salinas to augment their recycled water supply—taking runoff from the fields and water used to clean bagged
salad greens to help bridge the divide between agricultural and urban water users—they no longer defined their
mission as limited to treating municipal wastewater. Similarly, when Hampton Roads' assumed responsibility for
issues historically dealt with by separate agencies (wastewater discharge, stormwater requirements, groundwater
pumping rules), they saw the advantage of addressing disparate problems with a single, comprehensive, regional
solution.
What inspires leaders to take on this difficult task often boils down to a sense of responsibility for the community
as a whole. In this case, the negotiations WRD successfully concluded to make their groundwater basin available
for large-scale storage was far more difficult and complex than related here. But as WRD's Robb Whitaker (2021)
recounted, he was motivated to accept that challenge simply because of the tremendous benefits it would unlock:
At the beginning of the negotiations, I told our Board of Directors - This is it. This single effort will be the
key to creating a locally sustainable water supply for our region—for the 4 million residents of 43 cities in
southern Los Angeles County.' That kept me motivated from the start of the groundwater storage
discussions in 1999 through the final resolution of those efforts in 2014, through 15 years filled with much
acrimony with occasional flashes of goodwill. Gladly, for our region, goodwill finally won out.
Overall, the projects currently on the drawing board in Southern California underscore the lessons of successful
water reuse collaborations around the country, many of which have been catalyzed by a single agency willing to
extend itself for the benefit of the community at large. WRD's role as a regional entity (like HRSD's position in
Eastern Virginia) allowed it to play a pivotal part in facilitating Southern California water reuse when they
convinced others using the groundwater basin to provide up to 450,000 acre feet of storage to LA, LACSD,
Metropolitan and others in addition to themselves. A remarkable example of vision and persistence, to Whitaker it
was a simple decision:
For me, it was a simple supply and demand issue. Our region still had substantial amounts of recycled water
being released to the ocean without being reused. Our region also had substantial amounts of underground
storage capacity in our two groundwater basins. Utilizing these unused resources together by advanced
treatment of the recycled water and injection of that water into the empty storage space in our
groundwater basins would create a new and locally sustainable groundwater supply. Together, the amount
of unused recycled water and the amount of unused groundwater storage space was more than enough to
provide for the entire water demand in southern Los Angeles County, completely eliminating our region's
demand for imported water." (Whitaker, 2021)
Case Study #5: Greater Los Angeles Area°94
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Management
The interagency agreements for both projects, which will ultimately define the operational and managerial roles of
the various partner agencies, are still at a relatively early stage of development. Of special importance will be their
ability to identify all the key parties involved in their operation. Operation NEXT must work closely with WRD, while
the RRWP must align their flows with other groundwater basin managers, especially the Main San Gabriel Basin
Watermaster and Metropolitan's member agencies. Also, the agreements should address the potential for
connecting and further integrating these systems (City of LA and Metropolitan/LACSD) in the future.
The ultimate success of the City of LA's reuse program rests on its ability to coordinate with WRD operations. As
noted by Operation NEXT's Rafael Villegas (2021):
The program doesn't work without groundwater storage. It will be difficult to manage the block flow coming
out of Hyperion; we need a way to modulate flows so they match the demand. WRD will play a crucial role
in this regard. They manage two large groundwater basins close to Hyperion, so these basins will essentially
represent the first phase of the program. We hope to phase Operation NEXT in such a way where we can
start producing water when the pipeline has reached predetermined offramps, or buckets.
While the scope and scale of the RRWP and the Operation NEXT and Hyperion 2035 programs are enormous in
their own right, the agencies involved have all considered the possibility of connecting them into a "virtual water
grid" covering all of Southern California in the future (Figure 20). Should that come to pass, it will be in large part
due to the successful collaborations pioneered in earlier reuse programs which are today being developed into the
relationships that underpin these mammoth projects.
Leadership
At heart, every successful recycling project is a story of leadership, involving individuals with vision who could see
beyond their organizational boundaries and narrow missions, historic achievements, current needs, and comfort.
In Southern California, the projects build on an already impressive history of recycling success to reach for the
stars and rely on both individual and community leadership.
In the City of LA, the Hyperion Water Reclamation Plant's evolution became the centerpiece of a significant
relationship between the City and the environmental community that led to several environmental initiatives and
laid the foundation for the drive to recycle 100 percent of the City's wastewater. Mayor Garcetti's water directive
was the culmination of decades of engagement; Metropolitan and LACSD's transitions were less visible but their
leaders were equally driven by the needs of the community.
Sometimes "leadership" is just doing the right thing because you can.
The preceding case studies provide multiple instances of individuals and agencies stepping beyond their narrow
notions of self-interest or "job responsibilities" for the greater good. In many cases there is a logical or significant
benefit that accrues to them from thataction in an institutional sense. In others, theyjust thought itwas the "right
thing to do" (e.g., HRSD providing nutrient credits to the neighboring communities). In the present case, as noted,
LACSD was under no political or regulatory pressure to join Metropolitan in undertaking regional reuse. Showing
the same initiative they demonstrated when they pioneered water reuse the 1960's, they determined that
enhancing community resilience was "the right thing to do." As Robb Whitaker (2021) put it,
Los Angeles County Sanitation District is truly the pioneer of indirect potable reuse in our region. The
Whittier Narrows Water Reclamation Plant was the first recycled water facility built for the purpose of
treating recycled water for groundwater recharge through surface percolation.
Sometimes "leadership" is seeing around the bend—and the next bend
A key feature of the leadership demonstrated by these Southern California agencies is their willingness to look at
the long-term needs of their communities. In Los Angeles, Mayor Garcetti decided that incremental steps would
not provide Los Angeles with a water-secure future. His 2014 "Water Directive" to reduce dependence upon
Case Study #5: Greater Los Angeles Area°95
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imported water would require LA residents to vastly expand their already impressive conservation, recycling, and
stormwater capture programs at tremendous cost. His direction galvanized LA water managers to focus on
recovering Hyperion's massive volume, which could meet 35 percent of the City's total water supply needs. As
Richard Harasick (2021), former head of LADWP's water system, put it:
Recycling at this scale is necessary because it matches the scale of the challenge. Quite simply, our current
sources of water are not sustainable in the long run. And like Mulholland over 100 years ago, we needed to
look for what that next source would be that would allow Los Angeles to thrive—a source to match the
scale of Los Angeles itself.
Metropolitan's decision to step into the direct recycling arena, while not attributable to any one person, is an
enormous shift for a wholesale agency traditionally focused on imported water. And, to bring the story full circle,
all of these projects build upon the pioneering vision of the Orange County agencies, whose historic collaboration
has led the way for the rest of the country for the past fifty years.
Memorandum of Understanding Between the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and the Los Angeles
Department of Public Works Bureau of Sanitation Regarding the Development of Recycled Water from the
Hyperion Water Reclamation Plant (2019)
https://cityclerk.laci tv.org/CouncilAgenda/AttachmentViewer.ashx?Attach me ntlD=111172<em I D=110236
Regional Recycled Water Program Agreement between Metropolitan and LACSD (2015) and First Amendment
(2020) https://www.mwdh2o.com/media/18199/lacsd loi amendment.pdf
Traci Minamide, Chief Operating Officer, LASAN, traci.minamidePlacity.org
¦ Paul Liu, Manager, Water Recycling Policy, Groundwater Rights, and Resource Management Section,
Water Resources Division, LADWP, paul.liuPladwp.com
¦ R. Bruce Chalmers, Regional Recycled Water Engineering Services Group Program Manager,
Metropolitan, RChalmersPmwdh2o.com
Martha Tremblay, Department Head, Technical Services, LACSD, MTremblavPlacsd.org
Robert Whitaker, General Manager (ret'd.), WRD, robb.whitakerPgmail.com
Referenced Agreements
Agency Contacts
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In addition to a variety of advice from reuse practitioners around the country, this section offers questions that will
help orient agencies interested in working together to implement water reuse projects, as well as some exercises
to help focus on issues critical to successful collaboration.
The following is a summary by topic area of the key "lessons learned" identified in the framework and the case
studies in this report:
Governance
1. Water utilities were created to solve problems in a specific time and place, but their problems evolve
faster than their governance structures. (Framework)
2. Water, wastewater, and stormwater agencies work together best when they each recognize how their
goals intersect and how water reuse supports their missions. (Framework)
3. Legal structures, from agreements to joint authorities, can be used to formalize agency partnerships.
(Framework)
4. Acknowledge how the stated missions, constituencies, and governance and funding structures varies
between partner agencies. Knowing something of an agency's history—when and why it was created,
milestone events—can help potential partners better understand the point of view of prospective
partners. (Case Studies)
5. Identify how your agency's mission intersects with other water, wastewater, and stormwater water
authorities in the Recitals section ("Whereas...") of agreements. "Growing the problem" may lead to
more complex governance structures but can do more for the community all agencies serve. (Case
Studies)
6. A variety of legal instruments from simple bilateral agreements to the formation of joint power
authorities can all be used to document, formalize, and ultimately institutionalize agency partnerships.
There's not one best way to organize multi-agency collaboratives. Transparency and early agreements
on accountability to each other can enhance collaboration. (Case Studies)
1. Successful projects engage with regulators early on—during the development of regulations so the
adopted rules are consistent with their practices, and during the development of their projects to see
that they comply with regulations. (Framework)
2. Early and ongoing communication between water agencies and regulators is both possible and advisable
and leads to easier project design and delivery. (Case Studies)
3. Do a thorough survey of the complete regulatory landscape early in the process as it can help design
projects that can meet multiple objectives with less transaction cost later. (Case Studies)
4. Strategic regulation can enable projects; investment in helping to develop regulations can enable
strategic regulation. (Case Studies)
Lessons Learned
Regulations
Economics
Clearly articulate all the important benefits to be enjoyed by your communities, the environment,
regional businesses, and your utilities. (Framework)
Lessons Learned, Questions and Exercises*97
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a. Describe, Quantify, and Monetize. Describe, quantify and (to the extent reasonably credible and
feasible) monetize the benefits important to your communities and utilities.
b. Include TBL Benefits. Triple bottom line (TBL) benefits often include significant avoided costs for
utilities (and your customers), increased regional water supply reliability, environmental support,
and quality of life enhancements
c. Communicate. Communicate broadly, consistently, and effectively all the important benefits
your reuse project will provide your communities and utilities.
d. Anticipate Critics. Be prepared to address what may appear as a high unit cost per volume of reuse
water produced or sold. Compare reuse costs to other new water supply enhancement options
(not to what it cost in the past to provide water) - reuse often is cost-effective compared to other
potential future supply options
e. Provide Subsidies. For nonpotable reuse, recognize that sales revenues are unlikely to fully recover
costs (e.g., pricing reuse at less than your current potable rate, to build demand for the reuse
water). Anticipate the need for a cross subsidy for nonpotable reuse (e.g., from potable
customers).
f. Remember the Benefits. Keep the array of reuse benefits in mind - the benefits may well justify
what appears as a relatively high cost.
2. Consider a "beneficiary pays" approach for allocating reuse costs across utilities, and across utility
customers. (Case Studies)
a. Align Benefits and Payments. Align who benefits (and by how much) with who pays. For example,
potable system customers typically benefit from nonpotable reuse programs offsetting potable
demands, so a cross subsidy borne by potable customers is often justified.
b. See Things from the Ratepayers' Perspective. Recognize that collaborating utilities often serve the
same set of customers - "different pocket, same pants."
c. Explore Grants. Explore how collaborative approaches may expand opportunities for grants and
advantageous financing.
Management
1. When assigning responsibilities for collaborative reuse projects, consider availability of resources and
agency expertise in addition to jurisdictional boundaries. (Framework)
2. Joint reuse projects provide utility operators and opportunity to develop new skills. (Framework)
3. Accurate, verifiable information builds confidence between partner agencies. Ensure that project data
(including costs) are collected in a mutually agreeable manner. (Framework)
4. Building and running a recycled water utility involves many different tasks, and some agencies are more
suited to some than others. Figure out what the critical jobs are, and who's best suited to them, to save
money and add efficiency in the long run. (Case Studies)
5. Develop a mutually acceptable process for gathering and reporting project information (including costs
and revenues) to ensure transparency and build trust. (Case Studies)
6. Joint pilot projects help staff from different organizations learn to work together and set the stage for
further collaboration managing full-scale facilities. (Case Studies)
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
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Leadership
1. Climate change and population growth contribute to a future of "permanent Whitewater" requiring
collaborative strategies that build resilience. (Framework)
2. Managers who can identify future challenges and understand the "economy of scope" lead people out
of their silos by showing how reuse supports their multiple missions. (Framework)
3. When planning for a resilient future, there can be no fixed presumptions, other than change will be
constant. (Case Studies)
4. The most successful water reuse projects demonstrate support for leadership at the individual and
organizational level. (CaseStudies)
5. When utilities and agencies set goals together, they increase the likelihood of successful implementation
by embracing shared accountability and responsibility for the process. (Case Studies)
6. In order for a vision to be embraced by multiple stakeholders, the leader or champion, must be able to
convey the benefits and potential of the vision in such a way that others are compelled to adopt and
follow. (CaseStudies)
Questions and Exercises
The following questions and exercises are designed to help agency managers and other interested parties clarify
their common interests, identify potential challenges, and find solutions to support successful multi-agency
collaborations.
Governance
1. When were your agencies created, and for what purpose(s)? How do these purposes overlap, and how
do they diverge?
2. What challenges do you now face that were not anticipated in your original charters?
3. What common issues have you faced in the past, and how did you work together to resolve them? On
what issues have you taken opposing positions, and why?
4. What types of legal structures (agreements, contracts, JPAs) have you executed between your agencies
in the past, and which ones have been most successful? Which ones are still current? Which ones are
easierto implement in your jurisdiction?
Regulations
1. Call your regulators to discuss your project—don't just seek clarification, enlist their support in helping
advance your community goals.
2. Identify all the regulations that are applicable to your project. What are you confused about? What are
you concerned about? Don't suffer in silence or defer to consultants who benefit from discord or
complexity—ask questions of regulators directly.
3. Consider how to expand or adjust your project to make it meet multiple community goals based upon a
collection of regulatory requirements.
4. Identify all the stakeholders in the regulatory process. They can help you succeed through the process or
slow your process down. Be sure to include:
¦ Local officials
¦ Neighbors
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Lessons Learned, Questions and Exercises*99
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Agency attorneys
Consultants
¦ Environmental or other community activists
The regulators, or other agencies who may not directly regulate you but who could lend credibility
to the project.
5. Have you looked "upstream" in the regulatory process and considered possible revisions or
adjustments/applications of the regulations to facilitate the project? New regulations that would give
you certainty and state backing for recycled water use?
6. Have you called your regulators yet?
Economics
1. Articulate benefits. You are pursuing your reuse project for several good reasons, so clearly articulate all
the important benefits to be enjoyed by your communities, the environment, regional businesses, and
your utilities, including environmental and social benefits.
2. What were the main objectives for developing your reuse program, and what important benefits has it
(will it) provide the communities/customers you serve?
3. How did your collaborative reuse program/project address "who pays, how much, for what" issues
across the engaged utilities and your respective ratepayers?
4. What financial and economic advantages did your collaborative approach for reuse provide, such as by
reducing/avoiding costs, generating benefits for your customers/ communities, and/or securing
grants/better financing?
Management
1. Ask each participating agency to list their priority management and operational concerns. At a minimum,
consider the issues discussed in the Management and Operations section of the Analytical Framework
related to water production, supply, and reliability (listed in Table 5). Compare lists and identify key
concerns. Discuss which agencies are most able to respond to the issues in question and develop a
response plan accordingly.
2. Reviewing a list of the operational and maintenance responsibilities associated with the project, which
tasks are currently performed by each agency? Which tasks require additional training or certification?
3. With respect to the quantity and quality of recycled water delivered by the project, what criteria (e.g.,
peak flow, TDS, etc.) are critical to the project's success? What instrumentation and controls are
required to ensure that they stay within the optimum range?
Leadership
1. How is leadership development currently supported within your agency? Where are the opportunities to
enhance individual and organizational capacity?
2. When do you meet with your peers in other agencies on an informal basis? Has this contributed to
building trust among the partners? Do you foster such collaboration outside your organization at
different levels of your organization?
3. What can you do differently by looking at your community's needs as a whole through collaboration
with other agencies? Can you be a community leader as an organization through partnering with others?
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Lessons Learned, Questions and Exercises*100
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Are you really sincere about working across organizational divides? Put aside the time to understand
your partners' culture and needs to create a relationship that will help your community thrive and avoid
misunderstanding.
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Lessons Learned, Questions and Exercises*101
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AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
During the course of developing a framework for evaluating interagency cooperation and assembling the detailed
case studies presented in this report we discovered a number of additional questions related to how utilities can
work more effectively together. These questions included the following:
¦ How do interagency issues differ with the type of reuse (e.g., onsite or stormwater reuse)?
¦ Are different collaborative strategies appropriate when developing agreements between agencies of
different sizes?
¦ Are there regulatory streamlining programs that are more effective in facilitating the implementation of
reuse projects?
¦ What types of funding mechanisms are most amenable to multi-agency projects?
¦ Are different strategies and styles of interagency collaboration more successful in different regions of
the country?
¦ How do organizations led by a charismatic leader continue to implement their projects when the
individual is no longer involved?
To answer these questions, building on the understanding developed to date, we identified the following research
topics that will add to our capacity to create multi-agency water reuse programs:
A review of successful multi-agency stormwater capture and reuse projects will provide insight into
how this important resource can be developed further in the future.
2. A study of the full range of direct and indirect community benefits provided by different types of reuse
projects to demonstrate the ability of agencies to justify funding of multi-agency programs.
3. An evaluation of projects with various funding sources to determine whether different financing
methods may facilitate interagency collaboration.
4. Analysis of agreements between agencies of different sizes will shed further light on how large regional
utilities can work effectively with more locally focused utilities.
5. Additional case studies from other parts of the country may add to our appreciation of the regional
nature of water reuse and help clarify which issues may be more critical depending on the different
motivations for using recycled water.
6. A study of unsuccessful collaborations may also reveal certain "fatal flaws" to be avoided in developing
partnerships. How were these issues handled differently by successful programs? What agreements
were used to help support their continued cooperation?
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
Areas for Further Research *102
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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Challenge of Interagency Collaboration
Dentoni, D. V., Schouten, J., & Bitzer, G. (2018). Harnessing Wicked Problems in Multi-stakeholder Partnerships.
Journal of Business Ethics, 150, 333-356. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/sl0551-018-3858-6
This is a comprehensive overview of "wicked problems" including definition, attributes, and applications. The case
study focus of the paper is on multi-stakeholder public-private partnerships in the regulation of the palm oil
industry—the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, but it is nevertheless applicable to the water industry. The
authors hold that the key to developing appropriate responses to wicked problems (there are no "solutions" per
se) lies in embracing ("harnessing" in their words) the nature of their wickedness. From the text:
The key implication of these dimensions of wicked problems is that no stakeholder can effectively
respond to wicked problems independently from other stakeholders—individual action against wicked
problems has limited or no effectiveness action of others... "Harnessing wickedness," i.e., the approach of
taking into account and responding to the different dimensions of wicked problems, thus requires a
governance process that enables networked action, stimulate collective processes and deal with complex
dynamics to achieve small wins." p.338. (Emphasis added.)
Diringer, S., Thebo, A., Cooley, H., Shimabuku, M., Wilkinson, R., & Bradford, M. (2019). Moving Toward a Multi-
Benefit Approach to Water Management. Oakland: Pacific Institute, https://pacinst.org/wp-
content/uploads/2019/04/moving-toward-multi-benefit-approach.pdf
Researchers set out "to develop, build consensus around, and promote the uptake of a framework to embed the
multiple benefits of water projects into decision-making processes." Key elements of this framework address the
challenge of 1) identifying a broad range of costs and benefits related to water: energy, risk reduction,
environmental and social impacts; 2) characterizing these benefits with "benefit-specific methods"; and 3)
incorporating benefits and costs into the decision-making process. The ultimate goal is to broaden consensus
around water management solutions that address multiple issues.
Henderson, J., & Raucher, R. S. (2019). Water Utility Partnerships: Resource Guide and Toolbox (WRF-4750).
Denver: Water Research Foundation.
This report includes a tool to "help practitioners assess the needs of the utility and explore the types of
partnerships that may be beneficial." The authors suggest that local agencies can cooperate together as an
alternative to forming a single large agency to implement a broader regional solution, and that developing
recycled water might even forestall the need for trans-basin solutions. They begin with a working definition of
water/wastewater partnerships:
A utility partnership is a collaboration between utilities (or similar organizations with water management
responsibilities) located in proximity to one another, for the purpose of addressing challenges or taking
advantage of opportunities.
That raises the question, "Why should utilities partner?" One plausible reason is to recycle water, which usually
requires the cooperation of both water and wastewater utilities. The special character of partnerships between
water and wastewater agencies is explored further in the section, "Differences between Drinking Water and Clean
Water Partnerships." There the authors observe that, despite the fact that agency consolidation has reduced the
number of clean water utilities below that of water agencies, "there may be fewer opportunities for partnerships.
Nonetheless, important benefits from future additional partnerships exist."
Another partnership approach is for drinking water and wastewater systems to combine or work more closely
together. An integrated water and wastewater approach can capture efficiencies and help meet community goals.
For instance, the Louisville Water Company and Louisville MSD entered into a Comprehensive Interlocal
Annotated Bibliography ° 119
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Agreement in 2014 to save money and provide better services. Under the agreement, employees provide services
to either organization under a work order, but they remain either Louisville Water or Louisville MSD employees.
The two utilities so far have joined their information technology, fleet services, and purchasing teams and are
evaluating how to share human resources, customer service, and energy functions. The ultimate vision is for the
utilities to operate as an integrated "One Water" utility of the future (Louisville Water 2018).
Henley, A. T., 1957. The Evolution of Forms of Water Users Organizations in California. California Law Review,
45(5), pp. 665-675. https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/1109557
Fragmentation of the water industry has deep historic roots. Writing about special water districts in California
when they were a new phenomenon, Henley (1957) observes that the formation of flood control and water
conservation districts "all follow naturally from pressures of need created and felt by an expanding and demanding
citizenry." He traces California water utilities from 19th century reclamation districts whose purpose was "to
reduce land from a natural to a useable state" to the irrigation districts whose development "was of infinitely
greater value to California than the discovery of gold" and the 20th century municipal water districts established as
the state became more urban. Looking back, he observes that "the history of water management organization
laws provides a rough parallel of the evolution of California from a true frontier through a period of agricultural
dominance...to one in which the influence of the needs of suburbs and industries is clearly felt." In conclusion, he
presciently observes:
It seems probable that a great deal of the water management work which we can perceive in the future will
be done by two or more districts or other public agencies, working together. As public necessities in this
field...grow in magnitude it will become more and more advantageous for existing bodies to unite their
resources, both financial and political, in the interest of a mutually beneficial plan. (Emphasis added.)
Paulsen, C., Broley, W. & Stephens, L., 2017. Blueprint for One Water, Denver: Water Research Foundation (WRF).
A "One Water" paradigm allows agencies to pool resources to address water challenges holistically. "A One Water
approach considers the water cycle as an integrated system, recognizing the interconnectedness of surface water
and groundwater supply, stormwater, wastewater, and energy." (p.2) The One Water approach involves
connecting the various utilities each responsible for a segment of "the urban water cycle" by "identifying potential
partners with similar interests can help you accomplish goals that cannot be achieved alone. Partners may include
separate departments within your own agency, regional departments, and agencies responsible for water supply
reliability, wastewater treatment, and/or stormwater management—or even other city departments such as
planning, parks, or transportation (p. 16). Individual utilities can work together to implement a One Water strategy
in five (5) stages (p.9):
¦ Setting the Foundation: Define you One Water scope; identify and convene partners; assess needs and
opportunities
¦ Establishing Direction: Craft vision and objectives
¦ Developing the Framework: Establish lasting leadership and institutional structure; create framework of
plan; conduct adaptive planning; develop financing strategies
¦ Implementation: Implement the Framework
¦ Engaging Stakeholders: Public & Special Interest Groups; Regulators; Elected Officials
Raucher, R. S., Cromwell, J., Henderson, J., Wagner, C., Rubin, S., Goldstein, J., Kirsch, B. (2008). Regional Solutions
to Water Supply Provision. Denver: AWWA Research Foundation. (Raucher, etal., 2008)
This WRF-funded study of regionalization of water agencies characterizes how water agencies relate to each other
in order to pursue joint supply projects. It is applicable to water-wastewater interactions as well. A key finding of
this research and related case studies is the importance of identifying and clearly articulating what the anticipated
benefits of cooperative multi-utility agreements will be (e.g., long-term savings to customers; more reliable and
resilient water supply for meeting community demands) to set the stage for more challenging aspects of the
deliberations (e.g., addressing concerns over potential loss of local autonomy).
Annotated Bibliography ° 120
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Raucher, R., J. Henderson, R. Atwater, E. Rosenblum, R. Watson, J. Chong. 2019. Challenges and Successful
Strategies for Pricing Reuse Water. Water Research Foundation, Project 4662. Denver, CO.
This report provides practical information to assist utility practitioners, and other water sector professionals, as
they grapple with the challenges of setting prices, generating revenues, and recovering costs from the provision of
reuse water. A significant challenge utilities face in pricing reuse water is developing a suitable balance between
(1) creating and sustaining a market for NPR water—by offering attractive, competitive pricing and other
incentivizing terms; and (2) concurrently generating sufficient revenue to cover their costs of acquiring or
producing reuse water and delivering the recycled water to their customers.
A key distinction is made between traditional COS-based cost recovery (which is rarely feasible for reuse) and a
more suitable alternative of applying a "beneficiary pays" approach that provides sound justification for cross
subsidies (e.g., from potable and/or wastewater system customers) to help cover reuse costs. Additional issues
examined include (1) the use of contracts and various types of contract clauses to help establish and sustain a
viable reuse program, (2) using a Triple Bottom Line framework to identify beneficiaries and estimate reuse
program benefits, and (3) how institutional arrangements between wastewater and water supply agencies need to
be able to accommodate changing circumstances as regional needs and values evolve over time. Several case
studies are provided as well.
Sedlak, D. (2014). Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World's Most Vital Resource (1st ed.). New
Haven: Yale University Press.
Sedlak (2014) takes an even more panoramic view of holistic water management. Beginning in antiquity with Iraqi
qanats and Roman aqueducts (Water 1.0), he follows the arc of water management through the advent of drinking
water disinfection (2.0) and wastewater treatment (3.0), and predicts a future of integrated centralized and
distributed water infrastructure (Water 4.0). At this stage, "there will no longer be separate divisions within cities
or utilities dedicated exclusively to water supply, sewage treatment, or urban drainage. Instead, we will manage
water holistically and will integrate the natural environment into water conveyance and treatment systems."
(Emphasis added.)
Sehring, J., 2005. 'Do not fix the pipes, fix the institutions that fix the pipes.' Water Governance as a crucial factor
for sustainable and equitable water management. In: P. M. Schmitz, ed. Water and Sustainable Development.
Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 101-116.
Sehring (2005) maintains that water institutions reflect the society in which they operate, which explains the
evolution of water management over the past 150 years. During the heroic age of water engineering (in the late
19th and 20th centuries), agencies built dams and pipelines to support the growth of cities ("the paradigm of
industrial modernity"). In the 1960s, rising envirnomental awareness and technological improvements allowed
agencies to decouple water supply from progress, conserving water and reserving a share for the environment
("the ecological paradigm"). This was succeeded in the 1980s by a demand-oriented approach and a trend to value
water as an economic good ("the economic paradigm"), with a focus on market-based water allocation strategies.
Holding that "The current water crisis is mainly a crisis of water governance," Sehring proposes that further
advances in water governance will also remain linked to the larger legal, political, social and environmental context
in which these water systems operate. (Emphasis added.)
WERF Exploratory Team, 2011. SUSTAINABLE INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT, Alexandria, VA: Water
Environment Research Foundation.
Institutional challenges limit the ability of organizations to collaborate with each other on projects of mutual
benefit. The Water Environment Research Council's Exploratory Team (2011) concluded that management of
various water resources by different agencies at the federal, state, regional, and local levels make managing water
in a holistic manner "virtually impossible." Among the steps required to facilitate integrated water planning they
highlighted "Development of governance and institutional structures necessary to affect a global paradigm shift
towards sustainable water management, including watershed scale planning and management." (Emphasis
added.)
Annotated Bibliography ° 121
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Governance Issues
Blomquist, W. (1992). Dividing the Waters: Governing Groundwater in Southern California. San Francisco: Center
for Self-Governance Press.
Blomquist, W., & Schlager, E. (1999). Watershed Management from the Ground Up: Political Science and the
Explanation of Regional Governance Arrangements. Atlanta: American Political Science Association.
Blomquist, William, Edella Schlager, and Tanya Heikkila Common Waters, Diverging Streams: Linking Institutions to
Water Management in Arizona, California, and Colorado. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future (2004)
Blomquist, W., Heikkila, T., & Schlager, E. (2004). Common Waters, Diverging Streams: Linking Institutions to
Water Management in Arizona, California, and Colorado. Washington, DC:: Resources for the Future.
Schlager, E. & Blomquist, W., 2008. Multiple Goals, Communities, and Organizations: A Watershed Political
Economy. In: Embracing Watershed Politics. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, pp. 123-150
These five sources authored by William Blomquist and his colleagues offer an innovative approach to integrated
water management that does not rely on the enlightened judgment of a single basin-wide authority. Based on
their study of water management strategies, policies, and practices in the southwestern United States, they
demonstrate how comprehensive watershed management goals can be achieved through a variety of different
institutional structures, including a "federalist" approach which embraces local decision-making. This approach
provides a useful background for the multi-agency collaboration discussed in this report.
The 1999 address provides a reasoned critique of watershed management as a governance tool. It provides a
thorough and detailed analysis of the evolution of alternative governance strategies to manage the San Gabriel
River Watershed and the Santa Ana River Watershed in southern California, and the South Platte and Arkansas
River Watersheds in Colorado. The authors propose that the formation of these important governance strategies
allows for "watershed management without a watershed manager" and points to a collaborative process that
creates an effective self-governing structure without the need of a single overarching agency.
Based on their analysis of several water agencies in the western US, the authors make a case for a decentralized
approach to watershed management. While many argue that coordination of the many issues that impact a given
watershed require the oversight of a single authority, they show how authority distributed among multiple
agencies with overlapping constitencies can result in robust management of complex issues. This approach, they
claim, has the advantage of building on past institutional infrastructure, adding, that we cannot simply abandon
the institutions of the past, created by enterprising pioneers who "frequently had to invent new concepts and
propose new rules that no one previously had used...that have performed effectively over several decades with
many efficiently enhancing properties." (Blomquist, 1992). (Emphasis added.)
The authors further elaborated this concept in their book, "Embracing Watershed Politics" (Schlager, E. and W.
Blomquist, Embracing Watershed Politics, University of Colorado Press, 2008) which offers federalism as "an
approach for structuring complementary, cooperative, competitive, and conflicting relations among citizens,
organizations, and governments at interstate watershed scales (p.152).
GAO, 2005. Results Oriented Government: Practices That Can Help Enhance and Sustain Collaboration among
Federal Agencies, Washington DC: GAO. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-06-15
In support of its overall goal of promoting government efficiency, in 2005 the GAO published a report which
identified a number of strategies and practices that agencies can implement to collaborate more effectively. GAO
studies three collaborative agency efforts: the Healthy People 2010 initiative (HHS-NIH, FDA, CDC, and DOE);
Wildland Fire Management (USDA-Forest Service and DOI-BIA, BLM, FWS and IMPS); and health sharing between
DOD and the VA. The report identified eight (8) key strategies to promote interagency collaboration:
¦ define and articulate a common outcome;
¦ establish mutually reinforcing or joint strategies;
Annotated Bibliography ° 122
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¦ identify and address needs by leveraging resources;
¦ agree on roles and responsibilities;
¦ establish compatible policies, procedures, and other means to operate across agency boundaries;
¦ develop mechanisms to monitor, evaluate, and report on results;
¦ reinforce agency accountability for collaborative efforts through agency plans and reports; and
¦ reinforce individual accountability for collaborative efforts through performance management systems.
This report was followed in 2012 by a sequel ("Managing for Results: Key Considerations for Implementing
Interagency Collaboration," Washington: GAO, 2012 https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-12-1022 ) which
broadened the scope of the inquiry to include a number of other collaborative efforts, including response to
climate change and inter-service cooperation among branches of the armed forces. The report confirmed the
findings of the earlier study and added a number of issues to be considered when collaborating, including:
¦ outcomes and accountability;
¦ bridging organizational cultures;
¦ clarity of roles and responsibilities;
¦ leadership;
¦ participants;
¦ resources; and
¦ written guidance and agreements.
The experts enlisted by the authors provided many insights to the collaboration process, notably "that in a
collaborative process, the participants may not have the same overall interests—in fact they may have conflicting
interests. However, by establishing a goal based on what the group shares in common, rather than on where there
is disagreement among missions or philosophies, a collaborative group can shape its own vision and define its own
purpose."
Grafton , R. Q., Garrick, D., Manero, A. & Do, T. N., 2019. The Water Governance Reform Framework: Overview
and Applications to Australia, Mexico, Tanzania, USA and Vietnam. Water, 11(1), p. 137
After reviewing other institutional frameworks for integrated water management, the authors determined that to
facilitate water management reform a new framework was needed. Their "Water Governance Reform Framework"
is more specific than the general tenets of Integrated Water Management, but less prescriptive than either
international Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's 12-point framework, or the Asian
Development Bank's 10-point River Basin Planning framework. The table below shows how the frameworks
compare thematically:
Water Governance Reform
Framework (WGRF)
OECD
River Basin Planning
well-defined and publicly
available reform objectives (1)
Clear roles and responsibilities
(1)
Policy coherence (3)
Develop a comprehensive understanding of
the entire system (1)
Develop relevant and consistent thematic
plans (6)
Select the planning approach and methods to
suit basin needs (10)
transparency in decision-
making and public access to
available data (2)
Data and information (5)
Integrity and transparency (9)
Stakeholder engagement (10)
Engage stakeholders (8)
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
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water valuation of uses and
non-uses to assess trade-offs
and winners and losers (3)
Trade-offs across users (11)
compensation for the
marginalized or mitigation for
persons who are
disadvantaged by reform (4)
Financing (6)
reform oversight and
"champions" (5)
Regulatory frameworks (7)
capacity to deliver; and (6)
Appropriate scales within
basin systems (2)
Capacity (4)
Plan and act, even without full knowledge (2)
Prioritize issues and adopt a phased and
iterative approach (3)
Address issues at the appropriate scale (7)
Focus on implementation (9)
resilient decision-making (7)
Innovation (8)
Enable adaptation (4)
Accept basin planning is an inherently
iterative and chaotic process (5)
Following their introduction of the framework, the authors retroactively apply it to successful efforts to modify
water management institutions in five (5) countries. Of note, their framework focuses more than others on the
need to compensate those negatively impacted by reform efforts and emphasizes a robust valuation of water
beyond its market price.
Rogers, P. & Hall, A. W., 2003. Effective Water Governance, Stockholm: Global Water Partnership Technical
Committee (TEC), https://gwp.org/globalassets/global/toolbox/publications/background-papers/07-effective-
water-governance-2003-english.pdf
Produced by the Global Water Partnership, an organization that claims nearly 4000 partner associations
throughout the world, this white paper provides a high-level view of water governance in theory and practice. The
authors define "governance" broadly to include both the legal structures that regulate the operation of water
management agencies as well as the "informal" structures which influence their activity. Invoking the conclusion of
the 2000 World Water Forum that "that the water crisis is often a crisis of governance," they argue that societies
should organize and regulate their water system in a manner that facilitates "Integrated Water Resource
Management (IWRM)." To this end they suggest that the water utilities and the institutional rules which govern
them should be designed to reduce the "transaction costs" of integrated water management. They also provide
references to the GWP "IWRM ToolBox" (https://www.gwp.org/en/learn/iwrm-toolbox), an online resource that
provides advice to water professionals on institutional arrangements to build capacity.
Reuse and the Regulatory Framework
Blue Ribbon Committee, 2011. Report of the Blue Ribbon Committee, Los Angeles, CA: Metropolitan Water District
of Southern Califonia (MWD)
When the directors of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD) established their Blue Ribbon
Committee (BRC) in January 2010 to "look over the horizon for strategies to meet the region's water-related needs
fifty years out, they may not have known it would come back with a recommendation to reuse an additional 100
MGD of treated effluent. But to provide for sustainability for Southern California in the coming decades, a big
increase in recycled water and other local sources (vs. imported water) was required (p. xxivTable S.5.
"Comparison of 2011 and 2060 Metropolitan Business Models."). The report provides insight into "The Steps to
Get to 2060 Metropolitan Business Model" and how it needs to change to engage wastewater and stormwater
agencies as partners (p. xxv Table S.6.) It also makes a clear case for change, listing the characteristics required for
MWD to remain relevant to their membership over the coming decades as a "regional integrator" (pp. 48-53).
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
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New partnerships with other agencies that manage water in the region will expand Metropolitan's capacity to
implement a more integrated and efficient regional system with its members and take advantage of sources and
storage facilities that could reduce regional vulnerabilities to supply disruptions.
Notably, the Blue Ribbon Committee's report also reaffirms that "neighbors helping neighbors" is an effective
strategy. MWD's success a success was built on cooperation among the cities and agencies that together achieve
goals that none could have achieved independently. From that perspective, MWD will not survive if it devolves into
an amalgamation of water "haves" and "have-nots."
Cantu, C. 2015. People, Resources, and Policy in Integrated Water Resource Management. Pp. 201-219. Chapter 9
in Lassiter, A. Sustainable Water: Challenges and Solutions from California. University of California Press. (Cantu,
2015)
In this chapter from Lassiter's book on California water management, former general manager for the Santa Ana
Watershed Project Authority (SAWPA) Celeste Cantu provides an overview of integrated regional water
management (IRWM) principles and progress around the world, with specific applications to SAWPA. She
describes the creation of a "One Water, One Watershed" committee (OWOW) with over 4000 members and an 11
member stakeholder committee, including everyone from the Army Corps of Engineers, the Regional Water
Quality Control Board and water agencies, to local mayors and planning commissions. She explains how principles
adapted from systems scientist Peter Senge form the basis of SAWPA's holistic approach, inspiring the agency to
solve their collective watershed issues by "thinking anew" and adopting a watershed health based approach.
With respect to the role of regulation in interagency collaboration, Cantu describes how SAWPA included federal,
state, and local regulators at every level in their committee (including the steering committee), creating "a shared
vehicle" for understanding the interests, drivers, and concerns of all participants so that by the time an issue gets
to the regional board it is well thought-out and resolved. "Every watershed has its own idiosyncratic history,
challenges, and opportunities," Cantu claims, adding that "each enjoys past successes and suffers from old
misunderstandings." She acknowledges that interpersonal communication skills often make up "the missing piece"
(referencing Blomquistand Dinar).
This example of regional collaboration produced many significant achievements. Residents in the lower watershed
helped pay for desalters in the upper watershed because they understood the bigger picture water quality and
regulatory needs. Wetlands were employed to protect water quality and enhance groundwater recharge because
of the multiple benefits they offered to participants including the private sector.
Freeman, J. & Rossi, J., 2012. Agency Coordination in Shared Regulatory Space. Harvard Law Review, March,
125(5), pp. 1134-1211.
This article does not describe how water agencies deal with their regulators or divide regulatory responsibilities
but focuses instead on the "shared regulatory space," where agency regulatory responsibilities overlap. The
authors propose that, as a result of legislative action, there are multiple "overlapping and fragmented" regulatory
jurisdictions comprising "a complex thicket" requiring extensive coordination so that they can progress efficiently,
effectively, and without surprises. It should be noted that this thicket is as complex for the regulators as for the
regulated, (p.1135)
The paper includes a discussion of interagency agreements especially Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs),
describing how agencies sign MOUs for a variety of purposes, including:
1. delineating jurisdictional lines;
2. establishing procedures for information;
3. sharing or production of information;
4. agreeing to collaborate in a common mission;
Annotated Bibliography ° 125
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5. coordinating reviews or approvals where more than one agency has authority to act; and (in rarer cases
subject to the Administrative Procedure Act 36),
6. agreeing on substantive policy.
The authors note that the content of MOUs varies widely. Though they tend to be short (less than 10 pages), some
are quite detailed and may specify goals, assign responsibilities, establish metrics, commit personnel and funding,
and establish responsibility for oversight. Some include deadlines for revisiting and updating the agreement, while
others are more like framework documents that outline principles and leave more detailed elaboration to
subsequent agreements or "implementing arrangements." In order to have successful recycling projects, the
impact on the local agencies needs to be managed collectively at the local level.
National Research Council. 2012. Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation's Water Supply Through Reuse
of Municipal Wastewater. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, https://doi.org/10.17226/13303.
Chapter 10 Social, Legal, and Regulatory Issues and Opportunities, pp. 165-192. (National Research Council, 2012).
This paper provides an excellent summary of a full range of issues pertaining to water reuse and includes an
especially complete chapter on the regulatory framework. They not only identify the range of issues that project
proponents need to consider, e.g., water rights as well as recycled water standards and waste discharge standards,
but they illustrate how different states may have extremely different rules on the same subject matter. While not
complete, and there are other types of regulations to be considered for deciding whether a water recycling
program is appropriate and for, the paper gives a flavor of the range of regulations to be considered, albeit some
outdated. Many regulations, of course, are at the local or state level (with federal guidance when the Clean Water
Act is involved or where the state does not have a delegated program), but this summary is a good overview and
preliminary checklist.
Nellor, M. H., & Larson, R. (2010). 08-01: Assessment of Approaches to Achieve Nationally Consistent Reclaimed
Water Standards. The Water Research Foundation, https://watereuse.org/watereuse-research/08-01-assessment-
of-approaches-to-achieve-nationally-consistent-reclaimed-water-standards/.
This White Paper assesses five potential alternatives to achieving national consistency in the quality of recycled
water produced through reuse. The options were evaluated in terms of their advantages and disadvantages, how
they would be implemented, and potential implementation obstacles. Water reuse in the United States is currently
governed by individual state regulations and guidelines as there are no national regulations or guidelines in place.
As some states lack regulations and there is no uniformity among the state regulations that do exist, concerns
have been raised regarding confidence in reuse projects and public acceptance of projects. Project 08-01:
Assessment of Approaches to Achieve Nationally Consistent Reclaimed Water Standards originates from the idea
that a consistent and accepted treatment and/or monitoring scheme may, if reliably applied, provide enhanced
public confidence in water reuse projects.
Atwater, R., F. Dryden, and V. Grebbien. 1998. Urban Water Recycling Assessment Feasibility Guidebook. California
Urban Water Agencies with assistance from the WateReuse Association of California. Bookman-Edmonston
Engineering. September.
This report provides guidance and several strategies for how utilities can secure long-term water reuse customers
by overcoming the various concerns and obstacles that often arise, including retrofit costs, concerns over system
reliability and water quality, and long-term pricing guarantees. In addition, strategies to attract external funding
are described.
Note that the BOR feasibility report grant guidance requires the agency submitting a request to identify
interagency agreements and legal requirements along with solutions and a timetable:
from the Preface:
Economic Issues
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This Guidebook is to be used by a public water supply or wastewater disposal agency that may be considering
developing a water recycling project. The purpose of the Guidebook is to provide an overview of the planning
process for evaluating the feasibility of a water recycling project and the critical implementation issues. The
Guidebook provides a method for developing answers to the following questions:
¦ How do you determine if there is a need?
¦ How much will it cost?
¦ Who has to be involved?
¦ What are the regulatory issues and hurdles?
¦ How to involve the public and other interested parties in the evaluation of the project feasibility?
¦ What are the next steps to determine feasibility?
The Guidebook addresses all the issues that should be considered, the technical and economic questions that
should be addressed, and provides several case studies for comparison purposes. It briefly discussed issues and
concerns to include in developing and evaluating a water recycling concept to the point of determining feasibility
and potential financing mechanisms. (ER 7/1/20)
AWWA. 2008. Water Reuse Rates and Charges: 2000 and 2007 Survey Results. Denver, CO: American Water Works
Association, Water Reuse Committee. Prepared by G. Carpenter, G. Grinnell, C. Haney, G. Jacobi, S. Koorn, D.
O'Reilly, C. Pierce, C. Riley, A. Rimer, K. Thompson, and D. Vandertulip.
Survey results of water reuse utilities confirm that utilities often need to offer incentives to encourage the use of
reclaimed water, especially for nonpotable purposes, because of the higher unit cost of most reclaimed water
supplies relative to potable supplies, and the need to anticipate upward pressure on water and wastewater rates
due to substitution. Hence, the price charged for reclaimed water is often capped at the potable water price, and
more frequently the costs recovered are less than the full cost. This AWWA-sponsored survey of reclaimed water
rates in 2000 and in 2007 showed rates for reclaimed water vary greatly from 20% to 100% of the potable water
rate, with a median rate of 80%.
AWWA (2017) Manual of Water Supply Practices. Ml—Seventh Edition. Principles of Water Rates, Fees, and
Charges. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association.
Water and wastewater utilities typically use a cost-of-service (COS) rate setting methodology, based on a utility-
specific study that is dependent on system characteristics, to recover the full cost of providing the utility's service.
This is the predominant pricing methodology adopted in the U.S. A definitive discussion of the COS methodology
for water service can be found in the American Water Works Association's (AWWA's) Ml service manual, Manual
of Water Supply Practices. The Ml manual details the multi-step cost allocation process that underlies the COS
methodology.
Unfortunately, for water reuse (especially NPR), COS-based pricing typically is not feasible, as creating a market for
NPR requires incentivized pricing below the competing potable rate, resulting in a fiscal loss (reuse revenues less
than costs) for most NPR programs. As described elsewhere, cross subsidies from potable water customers is often
justified, however, based on benefits accruing to the potable system (e.g., avoided costs).
AWWA. 2019. Water Reuse Cost Allocations and Pricing Survey. Prepared by William B. Zieburtz, Jr., Mihaela
Coopersmith, and Andrew Burnham, for the AWWA Technical and Education Council. (Denver: May, 2019)
The authors were engaged by AWWA to develop a survey, conduct interviews, and report on patterns in the cost
allocation and pricing for reuse water service in the United States. The objective was to illustrate practices and to
draw out lessons and opportunities, based on the practices of a sample of water utilities drawn from across the
country. They found that utility efforts at cost allocation and pricing are highly varied and disconnected.
The authors discovered a wide diversity of approaches to pricing and cost recovery for reuse water programs.
Their primary conclusion was that a "one size fits all" approach does not apply, and that "a fully informed
approach to reuse pricing must focus on utility-specific policies and objectives, not on specific [cost] allocation
Annotated Bibliography ° 127
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processes, and be fully responsive to the unique conditions facing each reuse utility. It is not that cost of service
principles do not apply, or that revenue adequacy, financial stability, or any other fundamental principle of utility
management is irrelevant, it is rather that successful reuse programs are especially sensitive to local conditions,
and that these conditions require the use of very different cost allocation and pricing strategies from locale to
locale..."
Carpenter, G., G. Grinnell, C. Haney, G. Jacobi, S. Koorn, D. O'Reilly, C. Pierce, C. Riley, A. Rimer, K.Thompson, and
D. Vandertulip. 2008. Water Reuse Rates and Charges: 2000 and 2007 Survey Results. Denver, CO: American
Water Works Association, Water Reuse Committee.
Survey results of water reuse utilities confirm that utilities often need to offer incentives to encourage the use of
reclaimed water, especially for nonpotable purposes, because of the higher unit cost of most reclaimed water
supplies relative to potable supplies, and the need to anticipate upward pressure on water and wastewater rates
due to substitution. Hence, the price charged for reclaimed water is often capped at the potable water price, and
more frequently the costs recovered are less than the full cost. This AWWA-sponsored survey of reclaimed water
rates in 2000 and in 2007 showed rates for reclaimed water vary greatly from 20% to 100% of the potable water
rate, with a median rate of 80%.
CPUC. 2014. Decision 14-08-058. CPUC Rulemaking 10-11-014. California Public Utilities Commission. Issued
August 29. Pp. 28-32.
An important ruling by the California Public Utilities Commission (which is the economic regulator for investor-
owned water utilities in the state) recognizing that traditional COS-based pricing is unsustainable to support many
water reuse projects, and that cross subsidies from potable system (and/or wastewater system) customers is
justified and allowed.
Cristiano, T., and J. Henderson. 2009. Evaluating Pricing Levels and Structures to Support Reclaimed Water
Systems. Denver, CO: WateReuse Research Foundation, Project 05-01.
The authors examine the fiscal challenges associated with pricing reuse water, and they note that one challenge is
that reclaimed water is often used as a direct substitute for potable water demand (e.g., irrigation demand is
switched from potable water to reclaimed water). Water utility costs are fixed in the short run in that costs do not
vary much with usage. As reclaimed water usage is substituted for potable water usage, the amount of potable
water consumption is reduced, but the costs of potable water production remain essentially fixed. The substitution
of potable water by reclaimed water therefore results in an upward pressure on potable water and wastewater
rates
De Souza, S., J. Medellin-Azuara, J. Lund, and R. Howitt. 2011. Beneficiary Pays Analysis of Water Recycling
Projects. A report prepared for the State Water Resources Control Board, Economic Analysis Task Force for Water
Recycling in California. March 9.
This report addresses challenges and approaches for applying a beneficiary pays approach for reuse cost recovery.
Several methods are available to allocate cost under a COS methodology, one of which is the Separable Costs-
Remaining Benefits (SCRB) method. The SCRB method is suited to allocating costs across users and purposes for
the project in a manner that align with beneficiary pays. Costs are distributed among project purposes by
identifying separable costs for each user or participant (the "private" costs that can be directly associated with
that user), and then determining joint costs by subtracting separable costs from total project costs. The method
then allocates joint costs or joint savings in proportion to each user's share of the remaining public benefits. This
report also examines approaches for obtaining external funding support, such as via grants or low interest loans.
Hanson, L., P. Faeth, C. Glass, and M. Ramamoorthy. 2017. Economic Pathways and Partners for Water Reuse and
Stormwater Harvesting. Alexandria, VA: Water Environment and Reuse Foundation.
This report describes various strategies that may be beneficial to water reuse utilities for dealing with challenging
issues such as seasonal demands or other fluctuations in demand that might otherwise limit sales and revenues,
Annotated Bibliography ° 128
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and/or result in unused product water. Strategies for managing/reducing costs, as well as a basis for allocating
costs between wastewater and water supply utilities, also are provided.
Raucher, R., K. Darr, J. Henderson, J. Rice, and B. Sheikh. 2006. An Economic Framework for Evaluating the Benefits
and Costs of Water Reuse. Denver, CO: WateReuse Research Foundation, Project 03-06.
This report provides a rationale and guidance for applying a Triple Bottom Line (TBL) approach to fully identify,
describe, and - to the extent feasible and credible - quantify and monetize all the benefits and costs associated
with a water reuse option. A key distinction is made between a financial analysis (focused on revenues and costs),
and an economic analysis (focused on benefits and costs). A step-by-step process is defined and illustrated for
assessing benefits and identifying associated beneficiaries. By understanding the full range of benefits, a reuse
project can be properly evaluated relative to its anticipated costs. And, by understanding the full range of benefits,
the beneficiary pays approach can be more readily developed to generate the fiscal revenues required to pay for
reuse programs generating positive net benefits.
Watson, R., Fane, S., & Mitchell, C. (2016). The Critical Role of Impact Distribution for Local Recycled Water
Systems. International Journal of Water Governance, 4(1), 1-18.
This report describes how when recycled water systems are delivered at a different scale and/or by a different
provider, compared to the centralized potable water system, a different and much broader distribution of impacts
will arise than has traditionally occurred. Most significantly, it can place the upfront and ongoing costs on a smaller
customer group than larger centralized systems. In contrast, as a cumulative strategy, benefits of local recycled
water systems can accrue to the broader community (greening, urban cooling) and potentially to the public utility
(avoided costs, enhanced resilience).
Watson, R., P. Mukheibir, and C. Mitchell. 2017. Recycled Water Investment in Sydney—What's Happening and
Why. OzWater 17. Sydney, Australia: AWA.
This report describes the various challenges associated with trying to quantify and value many of the important
benefits associated with water reuse projects, and the authors suggest approaches to address these challenges.
The application to the setting of Sydney, New South Wales (Australia) is provided. Continuing to improve
measurement and assessment tools, particularly in the areas of resilience and liveability, will be an important
factor in improving the capacity to make efficient recycled water investment decisions. However, the full picture is
more complex. Considering the interplay among environmental, social, and regulatory conditions, together with
the interaction between recycled water and the centralized potable system, is critical for identifying and
measuring impacts more robustly. The proposed approach will assist in both robustly identifying and valuing
recycled water investment, and fairly allocating benefits to the full range of beneficiaries.
CUWA, 2016. Potable Reuse Operator Certification White Paper, Walnut Creek: California Urban Water Agencies.
The introduction of nonpotable reuse as a common practice changed the focus of operations from regulatory
compliance and the preservation of aquatic ecosystems to protection of public health, as recycled water was
applied to parks and schoolyards. Treatment of wastewater to potable standards represents an even more
significant challenge to the operators of conventional water and wastewater treatment plants, who often gained
their experience with different technologies. As this foundational report by the California Urban Water Agencies
(CUWA) notes, "Such systems use complex treatment trains centered on reverse osmosis (RO) and advanced
oxidation processes (AOPs) not present in conventional WWTPs and WTPs." The report served as guidance to the
California and Nevada water and wastewater associations in their development of a certification process for
Advanced Water Treatment Operators (AWTO) which has become a model for similar certifications through the
United States. In addition to the details of certification, the report provides evidence of the fundamental changes
confronting water and wastewater agencies as they evolve into organizations dedicated to sustainable resource
recovery.
Management Issues
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Martz, R. J., McCarthy, W. J. & Morris, J.. C., 2017. The Consent Order as Mandated Collaboration: The Case of
Hampton Roads Sanitation District. Public Works Management & Policy, 23, 2(2), pp. 168-185.
This article offers a detailed account of Hampton Roads Sanitation District's collaboration with the Tidewater
Virginia cities to create the Sustainable Water Initiative for Tomorrow, also profiled in the WRAP Action 2.16
report. The authors' contention that the consent order mandated collaboration seems to understate the
importance of HRSD leadership and local water managers commitment to the common good, Nevertheless they
offer a rare "play-by-play" account of the negotiation process, including the agencies reluctance to share data and
its critical significance in moving the project forward.
Rosenblum, E. (2017). Institutional Issues and Agreements Required to Reuse Municipally Treated Effluent. Walnut
Creek, CA: Carollo Engineers.
This slide deck contains a number of tables listing the issues which arise between agencies working together to
reuse water in the San Francisco Bay Area. It includes a graphic depicting the highly fragmented status of water
management in that region including overlapping jurisdictions of water treatment, wholesale and retail water
supply, sewage collection, wastewater treatment, and wastewater discharge agencies. It also includes examples of
terms negotiated in cooperative agreements executed between cooperating entities. It was presented to the
Northern California chapter of WateReuse in December 2017.
Burn, S., Maheepala, S., & Sharma, A. (2012, 07). Utilising integrated urban water management to assess the
viability of decentralised water solutions. Water Science and Technology, 66(1), 113-121.
doi:10.2166/wst.2012.071
This paper explores Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) and its applications, using the Australian water
sector as an example. Though it primarily focuses on a decentralized approach, it applies a collaborative lens and
offers a set of activities to identify opportunities for implementation, highlight the individual champion, and
reinforce the necessity of engagement with key stakeholders, and underscore the importance of organizational
support from complementary utilities and agencies.
Bahri, Brikke, F., & Vairavamoorthy, K. (2016, 08). Managing Change to Implement Integrated Urban Water
Management in African Cities. Aquatic Procedia, 6, 3-14. doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2016.06.002
The paper identifies the critical issues for improving uptake and scaling up of integrated urban water management
(IUWM), including strong leadership, the commitment of government and the institutions involved, and a formal
approach to capacity building and technical assistance in three African locations. Specifically, it identifies the
importance of leadership from government as well as the Public Utilities Commission in scaling urban water
management and expanding water reuse. Bahri et al concludes, "Strong leadership and commitment from the
national government, city policymakers and elected officials is essential in driving the IUWM process, for
coordinating across city departments and for fostering a supportive staff environment."
Bettini, Y., Brown, R. R., & Haan, F. J. (2015). Exploring institutional adaptive capacity in practice: Examining water
governance adaptation in Australia. Ecology and Society, 20(1). doi:10.5751/es-07291-200147
Through studying different responses to drought in Australia, this paper highlights three forms of adaptive capacity
that appear critical: the ability to learn, decide, and act. "The analytical approach developed provides insight into
change dynamics and the agency mechanisms that generate them. The paper proposes a typology of adaptive
capacity by characterizing these change dynamics and mechanisms for locked-in, crisis, reorganizing, and
stabilizing systems." Additionally, this paper examines leadership and the various forms it must take on in order to
successfully navigate change and opportunities to adapt in rapidly shifting environments.
Daley, D. M. (2008, 10). Interdisciplinary Problems and Agency Boundaries: Exploring Effective Cross-Agency
Collaboration. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 19(3), 477-493. doi:10.1093/jopart/mun020
Interpersonal Issues and Leadership
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This research explores what conditions are needed to promote interagency collaboration across two state
departments. The author uses departments in the state of Wisconsin for her research and concludes that trust and
leadership is essential for long-term collaboration and that, not surprisingly, long-term collaboration relies on
partners trusting each other. Daley's study also reports that state department personnel indicated that support
from top leadership in forming and sustaining collaborative relationships across departments was important.
Meyer, C. {2017, 03). UN World Water Development Report 2017: "Wastewater: The untapped resource".
doi:10.29104/wins.d.0002.2018
This 2017 report gives an extensive overview of the opportunities and challenges to develop water reuse and
recycling projects. Most importantly, wastewater is framed as a resource with potential to enhance local water
capacity, security, and resilience.
Thakhathi, Andani, "Champions of Change and Organizational Development: A Return to Schon and Typology for
Future Research and Practice" In Research in Organizational Change and Development. Published online: 30 Jul
2018; 265-306. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0897-301620180000026007
This study explores organizational development and seeks to understand the drivers of champions of change. The
author undergoes a rigorous review of the typology of champions since the 1960s and distills the fragmented
literature into ten meta-champions, which reflect the primary ways in which people are compelled to drive
change.
Figure 23. The Meta-champions of Change and Organizational Development (OD) Typology (Thakhathi, 2018)
Sustainability
Champions
Technology
Champions
Multi-Agency Water Reuse Programs:
Lessons for Successful Collaboration
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Reibenspiess, V., Drechsler, K., Eckhardt, A., & Wagner, H. (2018). Enabling Innovation Champions in Organizations
- Results of a Systematic Literature Analysis. Proceedings of the 51st Hawaii International Conference on System
Sciences. doi:10.24251/hicss.2018.523
"Based on a systematic literature analysis, this paper takes stock of the current landscape of research on
innovation champions from an individual and organizational perspective: 149 journals and conference proceedings
were examined on the topic of innovation champions. 85 articles were identified as relevant and systematically
categorized according to two perspectives by synthesizing enablers of innovation champions on the individual
(e.g., skills) and organizational level (e.g., knowledge management). While our analysis illuminates a high variety of
enablers that influence innovation champions, the descriptive findings show a stronger focus of innovation
champion studies on individual level enablers."
Tollman, P., Keenan, P., Mingardon, S., Dosik, D., Rizvi, S., & Hurder, S. (2020, December 02). Getting Smart About
Change Management. Retrieved December 27, 2020, from https://www.bcg.com/publications/2017/change-
management-getting-smart-about-change-management
This piece delves into four "fatal errors" through which innovation via change programs may come to an abrupt
halt within an organization. Notably, Fatal Error 2 is Underengaging the Extended Leadership Team. Essentially,
innovations may fail because only the senior leadership team (thought leaders) understands the who, when, and
why; those who may be in charge of implementing a change or innovation are often not adequately brought into
the process and thus, do not feel brought into the change or may even feel disincentivized to enact the change
because they have not been engaged with the greater vision.
Warrick, D. (2017, 05). What leaders need to know about organizational culture. Business Horizons, 60(3), 395-
404. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2017.01.011
Organizational culture is linked to leadership development and the sustaining of an organization during times of
change and transition. Warrick asserts that, "Although many factors influence culture, organizational cultures
primarily reflect their leaders." This research provides a comprehensive description of conditions that are needed
to build a high performing, organizational cultures.
Wolf, J. A. (2010). Transcending paradox: Movement as a means for sustaining high performance. In R. W.
Woodman, W. A. Pasmore, & A. B. Shani (Eds.), Research in organizational change and development (Vol. 18, pp.
77_107). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
With the rapidly changing times, we now regularly operate and plan in a state of "permanent Whitewater." The
author drives home the need to shift and adapt ones thinking and approach to be able to understand and distill
information as it is presented in order to make action-based decisions. The author hypothesizes that this is
necessary to sustain high performance and relevant, meaningful, organizational impact.
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