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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
(producing PCR plastics for use in place of virgin plastics) (U.S. EPA, 2020a). Of the plastic
processed to be recycled, 1.89 million tons of was recycled domestically, and 1.2 tons was
exported as plastic scrap to various trade partners (United Nations, 2021). The estimates of
domestic post-consumer plastic EOL management come primarily from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's (EPA's) 2018 Tables and Figures. Assessing Trends in Materials
Generation and Management in the United States (U.S. EPA, 2020a).
There is limited public data on PCR plastic generation and use in consumer products in the
United States. We assumed that sorting losses were already accounted for in the EPA data on the
proportion of plastics going to landfill, WTE, or recycling. We estimated a process loss of 14%
of the 1.89 million tons of plastic recycled domestically, resulting in 1.63 million tons of PCR
plastic entering the domestic market. Our estimate of process loss came from Eunomia (2021),
which estimates process loss from recycling of HDPE bottles, PET bottles, and PET other rigid
containers and packaging products at 7%, 14%, and 21% respectively. We used the weighted
average of these values (13%), using U.S. EPA (2018) data for the weights of plastics recycled.
While the report also estimates process losses for plastics #3-7 (9%), we used the values for
HDPE and PET as these plastics are the most recycled plastics in the United States. See the
subsection on Mechanical (Secondary) Recycling in Section 2.4.3 for more information.
To estimate the export of recycled plastics (1.2 million tons), we applied the method described
by Law et al. (2020) to 2018 data. We accessed the United Nations Comtrade database and
summed the weight of all exported plastic scrap (trade code 3915) from the United States to all
other countries in 2018, a total of 1.2 million U.S. tons. Of the 1.2 tons exported as plastic scrap,
we estimate that approximately 80% was recycled and 20% discarded. This estimate is based on
Law et al. (2020), who estimate that 15-25% of plastic scrap exported from the United States
"consists of low-value plastics and plastic trash that would likely have been ultimately discarded
by processing facilities in importing countries." Law et al. (2020) based this range on a 2015
study from the Association of Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers (APPR) on the composition of
post-consumer mixed rigid plastic bales and a 2014 report by Moore Recycling Associates
(MRA) on post-consumer non-bottle plastic recycling (APPR, 2015; MRA, 2016).
2.2 Plastics Generation
Plastics were developed in the late 19th and early 20th century, but production and use on a large
scale date to the 1970s. Today, the U.S. plastics industry is massive and growing. Plastics and
Rubber Products is one of the top ten U.S. manufacturing sectors, with 2017 revenues of $8.28
billion. Between 1983 and 2019, plastic production in the United States tripled (ACC, 2020).
Some raw plastic produced in the United States is exported (29%), but most are used
domestically in packaging (31%), consumer and institutional products (17%), building and
construction (14%), the transportation industry (3%), electrical and electronic products (2%),
furniture and furnishings (1%), and industrial machinery (1%) (ACC, 2020). Some of these final
products are also exported. The remainder is used and, at the end of its life, enters the industrial
waste or MSW streams. This report focuses on post-consumer plastics that are collected and
enters the MSW stream.
As shown in Figure 2, in 1980, 18.45 million tons of virgin plastic were produced in the United
States, and 6.83 million tons of post-consumer plastic entered the MSW stream (ACC, 2020;
U.S. EPA, 2020a). By 2018, these values had increased to 60 million tons produced and 35.7
million tons entering the MSW stream. The proportion of virgin plastic produced in the United
4
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
States that enters the MSW stream as post-consumer plastic has also increased, from 37% in
1980 to 60% in 2018, and the portion recycled via municipal management has increased from
1% of virgin plastic production in 1980 to 5% in 2018 (ACC, 2020; U.S. EPA, 2020a). In 1980,
only 20,000 tons of plastic were recycled via municipal management; by 2018, this number had
climbed to 3.09 million tons (U.S. EPA, 2020a).
The largest domestic use of plastic is packaging, primarily food and beverage packaging (ACC,
2020). The shift away from in-store shopping to online shopping has also increased demand for
retail packaging to protect products during shipment. The second largest domestic use of plastic
is consumer and institutional products, which include things like appliances, clothing, footwear,
disposable diapers, household items, disposable medical supplies, and novelty items (ACC,
2020).
Figure 2. U.S. Plastics Produced, Entered MSW Stream, and Recycled, 1970-2018
0
& & & # # & / # # ^ ^ ^ J?
Year
Produced Entered MSW Stream Recycled
2.3 Post-Consumer Plastics: Municipal Solid Waste
The EPA estimates that 35.7 million tons of plastic waste entered the MSW stream in 2018 (U.S.
EPA, 2020a), accounting for about 12.8% of all MSW. This estimate excludes plastics generated
by construction and demolition, industrial waste, or mismanaged waste that does not enter the
MSW stream, which are not the focus of this report. Plastic waste created by industrial processes
(e.g., scrap and trimmings, fall-out products) enter the post-industrial waste stream, and EOL
management information for these plastic wastes is not publicly available, as they are often
handled within a company.
Two other studies have attempted to quantify MSW and plastic waste generation in the United
States, as shown in Table 1. The EPA uses a materials flow methodology based on production
and expected product life span. Powell and Chertow (2018) created a model triangulating
measurements of waste quantity data from 1,161 landfills and solid waste samples from 222 sites
5
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
across the United States in 2015 and arrived at estimates similar to the 2015 EPA estimates
(Powell & Chertow, 2018; U.S. EPA, 2018). The Environmental Research and Education
Foundation collected waste disposal data from 9,028 U.S. MSW management facilities and
estimated that 347 million tons of MSW were produced in 2013, 37% higher than the 2013 EPA
estimate (EREF, 2016; U.S. EPA, 2015). They also estimated that 21% of MSW was plastic,
compared to 12.8% estimated by EPA (EREF, 2016).
Despite different estimates of total plastics waste generation in the United States, there is
consensus that the United States produces more plastic waste than any other country in the
world, including the 28 countries in the European Union (EU) combined, both in total mass and
mass per capita. All estimates of U.S. plastic waste generation, regardless of method, when
converted to plastic waste per capita, are more than three times the global average, more than
twice that of the EU or Brazil, and more than 5 times that of China or India (Law et al., 2020).
Table 1. Estimates of Overall MSW Generation and Plastic Entering the MSW Stream in 2013,
2015, and 2016 (million tons)
Estimates
2013
2015
2016
Source
U.S. EPA (2015)
U.S. EPA (2018)
U.S. EPA (2019a)
Total MSW Generated
(million ton/yr)
254.1
262.43
266.82
Plastic Entering MSW Stream
(million ton/yr)
32.52
34.5
34.87
Plastic Entering MSW Stream
(% of Total MSW Generated)
12.8%
13.1%
13.1%
Source
EREF (2016)
Powell and Chertow
(2018)
Law et al. (2020)
Total MSW Generated
(million ton/yr)
347
253.5a
353.64°
Plastic Entering MSW Stream
(million ton/yr)
72.98
35.27b
46.3d
Plastic Entering MSW Stream
(% of Total MSW Generated)
21.0%)
13.9%
13.1%
Ratio of Non-EPA to EPA
Estimate
1.37
0.97
1.33
Method
Waste disposal data from
9,028 U.S. MSW
management facilities;
does not include
materials from retail-
sector-based recycling.
Model triangulating
measurements of
waste quantity data
from 1,161 landfills
and solid waste
samples from 222 sites
across the U.S.
2013 EREF estimate of
2.72 kg/person/day
applied to the 2016
population; 2016 EPA
estimate of plastics being
13.1% of all MSW.
a Converted from 230 million megagrams (Mg) to U.S. tons
b Converted from 32 million Mg to U.S. tons
0 Converted from 320,818,436 metric tons to U.S. tons
d Converted from 42,027,215 metric tons to U.S. tons
A proportion of post-consumer plastics do not enter the MSW stream because they are either
illegally dumped or littered. These categories are a small proportion of the waste stream: Law et
al. estimate that approximately 2% of plastics are littered in the United States, and a fraction of a
6
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
percent are illegally dumped (Law et al., 2020). Nevertheless, they are worth noting as they
introduce close to 1 million tons of plastics into the land and oceans around the country.
Post-consumer plastics can be divided into three categories:
Durable goods are assumed to be in use for at least three years and include things like
furniture, carpets and rugs, and appliances (U.S. EPA, 2019c). The EPA estimates that
13.69 million tons of plastic durable goods entered the MSW stream 2018, about 38% of
all plastic waste (U.S. EPA, 2020a).
Non-durable goods are assumed to be in use for less than three years and include plastic
food containers, trash bags, and other goods like clothing, footwear, disposable diapers,
household items, disposable medical supplies, and novelty items (U.S. EPA, 2019d). The
EPA estimates that 7.46 million tons of plastic non-durable goods entered the MSW
stream 2018, about 21% of all plastic waste (U.S. EPA, 2020a).
Containers and packaging products are assumed to be in use for a year or less and
include bottles, jugs, bags and sacks, wraps, clamshells, trays, caps, cartons, baskets,
coatings, and closures (U.S. EPA, 2019b). The EPA estimates that 14.53 million tons of
plastic containers and packaging products entered the MSW stream in 2018, about 41%
of all plastic MSW (U.S. EPA, 2020a).
2.4 Current EOL Management Options for Post-Consumer Plastics
The EPA quantifies three conventional EOL management pathways for post-consumer plastic
waste: landfill, waste-to-energy (WTE), and recycling. These categories include all post-
consumer plastics that enter the MSW stream.
2.4.1 Description of EOL Management Pathways
Landfilling is self-explanatory: these are plastics that end up in a MSW landfill.
Waste to energy (WTE; also called incineration or combustion with energy recovery, or thermal
recovery) is a set of processes to recover energy from plastics:
Gasification uses plastic waste to generate synthesis gas, which can further be processed
into electricity, ethanol, diesel, or other chemicals (GBB Inc., 2013). During the process,
air or steam is used to heat plastic waste to produce synthesis gas. Gasification can also
be applied to a mix of plastic waste with coal or biomass to obtain synthesis gas with
higher energy contents (Ciuffi, Chiaramonti, Rizzo, Frediani, & Rosi, 2020). The initial
infrastructure cost can be a drawback for using this process; nonetheless, plants have
been created and are operating in various parts of the world such as Japan, Canada, and
the United States (Ciuffi et al., 2020).
Pyrolysis (thermal cracking) takes waste plastics that are difficult to depolymerize and
cannot be mechanically recycled, such as multilayered plastic packaging, and creates
final products of gas, char, and liquid oil (Solis & Silveira, 2020). Pyrolysis parameters
include temperature, pressure, time, catalysts, and heating rate. Pyrolysis can be
contaminated by the chlorinated compounds in PVC, and pyrolysis is only economically
viable when done in large volumes (Sharuddin, Abnisa, Daud, & Aroua, 2017). However,
pyrolysis is considered the most viable option to recover resources from complex
packaging material.
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Catalytic cracking is a form of pyrolysis with a catalyst added that reduces the
temperature needed, thus reducing energy use and costs. Most catalytic cracking to date
has been performed with pure polymers, not mixed plastics, but can yield -90% oil from
plastic. Pretreatment of the plastic is sometimes necessary because inorganic materials,
such as chloride and nitrogen compounds, can hinder the process.
Hydrocracking is another cracking process with hydrogen is added to improve product
quality. Hydrocracking is also used in the petroleum industry, but the high cost of
hydrogen is a barrier, and this method is still in a pilot phase.
Recycling most often refers to mechanical (or physical) recycling (Ragaert, Delva, & Van Geem,
2017), in which plastics entering the MSW stream are transformed into plastic flakes or pellets
for raw material for new products. These materials may be used domestically or exported. Some
other technologies are emerging (chemical and biological recycling) but are not currently in
widespread use.
Mechanical recycling involves several steps:
° Separation is the most complex, as plastics must be separated into groups by shape,
density, color, or chemical compositions.2 A rotating sieve can be used to remove
small objects. Whole plastic products can be sorted automatically using near-infrared
(NIR) technology to separate PET and HDPE, and optical color recognition to further
sort plastics by color. These automated techniques can mis-sort if a label covers the
entire surface of the product, and they cannot sort black plastics, which are common
in food trays. Whole plastics can be sorted manually by an operator, but this is more
expensive and not common. Mixed plastics can also be separated by density after
grinding and washing using float-sink and wind separation. Separation after grinding
usually results in blends of plastics with similar densities. Plastic blends can be of
varying quality and value. Other less common separation techniques include
electrostatic separation, froth floatation, magnetic density separation, and x-ray
detection of PVC (Ragaert et al., 2017).
Washing removes food or chemical residues that would contaminate the recycled
plastic.3
Grinding reduces the plastic into flakes.
° Pelletizing, or regranulation, produces the raw material for new plastic products or
export. Impurities are also removed at the regranulation step using melt filtration to
remove impurities that melt at a higher temperature than plastic, such as wood, paper,
or rubber.
Challenges to mechanical recycling primarily relate to the separation of plastics and the
challenges of mixed polymers. Plastics also degrade during their lifetime from
environmental exposure to heat, light, oxygen, and mechanical stress, which can create
volatile compounds that compromise the quality of PCR plastics. Because of this
degradation, plastic material can only be recycled a few times before the resin degrades
and can no longer be recycled. Finally, PCR plastics can also have contaminants
2 https://plasticsrecYcling.org/images/librarv/APR-Plastic-Sorting-BMPs.pdf
3 Post-industrial plastic waste creates higher quality recycled plastic than post-consumer plastic waste in the MSW
stream, because it is clean and of known composition (Ragaert et al., 2017).
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
introduced during the recycling process. For this reason, FDA approves the use of PCR
plastics in food-contact containers on a case-by-case basis (U.S. FDA, 2020).
Emerging recycling technologies include chemical recycling and biological recycling:
° Chemical Recycling: Also called feedstock recycling, chemical recycling is the use of
chemical processes to depolymerize or break down plastic waste into fuels or
monomer petrochemical feedstocks to create new plastic products (Ragaert et al.,
2017). Chemical recycling nomenclature varies widely from report to report, but
generally includes the following different processes:4 (1) solvent dissolution, which
uses solvents to purify plastics, no chemical conversion occurs; (2)
enzymatic/catalytic chemical recycling, which uses enzymes or catalysts to
depolymerize plastics; and (3) solvolysis, which depolymerizes plastics using water
(hydrolysis), glycol molecules in the presence of trans esterification catalysts
(glycolysis), or methanol at high temperature and pressure (methanolysis).The
intermediate products generated in chemical recycling can either be chemically
recycled themselves or could be produced to have bio-degenerative properties. Plastic
waste has insignificant amounts of oxygen and high amounts of hydrocarbons,
making them more valuable than organic material for fuel or petrochemical
feedstocks. However, chemically recycled polymers are more expensive than virgin
polymers.
° Biological Recycling: Also called biological deconstruction, biological recycling is
the use of microorganisms and enzymes to degrade plastics(Danso, Chow, & Streit,
2019; Ru, Huo, & Yang, 2020).5 Researchers are investigating how to utilize these
biological processes to recycle wasted plastic into more usable material. The U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) is funding research through its Plastics Innovations
Challenge to discover or engineer new enzymes and metabolic pathways. One
challenge is that enzymes and microorganisms require aqueous environments, and
plastics are not water-soluble. Another challenge is mixed plastic waste because each
different polymer requires a different enzyme or metabolic pathway. Biological
recycling is not yet an economically viable EOL management option at scale, but it
could be in decades to come. The French firm Carbios claims to have optimized
material and fungal cutinase and lipase enzymes to depolymerize 97% of PET within
24 hours and is building a 10,000-metric-ton plant with the hope of competing against
virgin PET markets.
2.4.2 Prevalence of EOL Management Options
As shown in Figure 3, 75.5% of all plastics entering the MSW stream are landfilled, 15.8% go to
WTE, and 8.7% are recycled (excluding WTE) (U.S. EPA, 2020a). Reuse is not covered as an
EOL management option because reused plastics are technically not at the end of their life and
will eventually enter the MSW stream when they are discarded and become waste.
Nearly 27 million tons of plastics are landfilled in the United States each year, or 75.5% of
plastics entering the MSW stream (U.S. EPA, 2020a). In addition to being the most common
4 https://onlinelibrarv.wileY.com/doi/full/10.1002/anie.2Q1915651
5 See also https://www.energv.gov/plastics-innovation-challenge/downloads/plastics-innovation-challenge-draft-
roadinap-and-rcauesl: https://www.waste360.com/fleets-teclinologv/carbios-teclinology-aims-bio-recvcle-plastic-
induslrial-scale: https://www.carbios.com/en/
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
management option for post-consumer plastics in the United States, landfilling is also the
cheapest. The downside to landfilling plastics is that the materials used to create the plastics are
never recovered and can never be reused (Hopewell, Dvorak, & Kosior, 2009). A second
downside to landfilling plastics is they potentially could take centuries to degrade depending on
the physical conditions of the landfill and the presence of the necessary micro-organisms
(Hopewell et al., 2009).
Figure 3. U.S. EOL Management of Post-Consumer Plastic Waste, 2018.
WTE is used for EOL management of 5.62 million tons of post-consumer plastic a year in the
United States, or 15.8% of post-consumer plastics (U.S. EPA, 2020a). MSW WTE facilities use
plastics (as part of bulk MSW) to generate electricity by burning waste to produce steam in a
boiler used to generate electricity (ERC, 2019; U.S. EIA, 2020). The benefits of WTE include
that it reduces the mass and volume of the waste by about 15-20% while generating energy (U.S.
EIA, 2020). The energy content of plastic is comparable with heating oil (11,000 kcal/kg plastic
vs 10,200 kcal/L heating oil) (Kumar, Panda, & Singh, 2011). WTE displaces electricity that
otherwise would be generated in the utility sector, which creates benefits such as avoidance of
CO2 emissions from fossil-fuel based electricity generation. Similar to other power generation
plants, WTE creates CO2 and other pollutants that require advanced pollution control measures,
such as scrubbers (U.S. EPA, 2020b).
While the proportion of all MSW and of plastic MSW that is managed by WTE has remained
relatively constant over the past 20 years, the number of WTE facilities in the United States
began to decline in the 1990s, in part due to the Clean Air Act amendments of 1990 (U.S. DOE,
2019). Only 77 WTE facilities remain in the United States, primarily in the Northeast and
Florida (ERC, 2019; U.S. EPA, 2020a). The decline is due to high construction and maintenance
costs, volatile revenue streams, and community objections to WTE facilities. Many of the
remaining WTE facilities are near communities of color or low-income communities, making
10
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
WTE facilities, and their placement and maintenance, an environmental justice issue (Tishman
EDC, 2019).
In contrast, WTE is the most common EOL management technique for post-consumer plastics in
Europe due to limited new space for landfills, a cultural acceptance of the practice, and 1999-
2001 European Union legislation to divert waste away from landfills and to use renewable
energy sources (U.S. EPA, 2016). However, the carbon footprint of WTE has led the European
Union to encourage member nations to minimize its use (CECCE, 2017).
Recycling is the least used EOL management method for post-consumer plastics in the United
States, where only 8.7% of plastics that enter the MSW stream are recycled (U.S. EPA, 2020a).
Recycled plastics are most often used to create a different product than the one the recycled
plastic came from, called open-loop recycling (Ragaert et al., 2017). For example, virgin plastics
may be used for food containers, and if those containers are recycled, the recycled plastics are
used for non-food containers, like shampoo bottles or products. For PET, the recycled plastics
can also be used for the same product they were recovered from, called closed-loop recycling. In
2017, 333 million pounds (21%) of the total 1,575 million pounds of all recycled PET bottles
entering the U.S. market became recycled-PET food and beverage bottles (NAPCOR, 2018). The
rest became fiber, sheet and film, strapping, and non-food bottles (e.g., shampoo). Closed-loop
recycling is not really viable for other types of plastic.
Figure 4 shows the quantity of plastics that are recycled and not recycled (main bar chart) in the
three product categories defined earlier (durable goods, non-durable goods, and containers and
packaging) as well as several subcategories. The percentage shown in the recycled section of the
bar is the percent of plastic in that category that is recycled. The inset pie chart shows the portion
of all recycled plastics that is made up of each of these categories. Thus, while only 7% of plastic
durable goods are recycled (Figure 4, leftmost bar; 0.93 million tons recycled per year of 13.7
million tons entering MSW stream), they account for 30% of recycled post-consumer plastics
(inset) because durable goods account for a large share (38%) of all post-consumer plastics in the
United States. About 2% of nondurable goods are recycled (second set of bars). Non-durable
goods make up a smaller part of all post-consumer plastics in the United States (21%) and thus
account for the smallest share of all recycled plastics (6%, inset). About 3% of clothing and
footwear (shown as other non-durable goods in Figure 4) are recycled in the United States,
making up 6% of all recycled plastics (0.18 million tons per year); the remainder of non-durable
plastic goods (plates and cups, and trash bags) are not recycled at all. Finally, about 14% of
plastic containers and packaging products are recycled. Bottles and jars made from PET and
HDPE have the highest recycling rates at 29% (U.S. EPA, 2020a). Approximately 16% of other
containers, 10% of bags and wraps, and 3% of other packaging (e.g., clamshells, cartons,
backets, trays, lids) are recycled. Containers and packaging make up 64% of all recycled post-
consumer plastics (1.98 million tons recycled per year).
11
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Figure 4. Product Makeup of Post-Consumer Plastics Entering MSW Stream and Recycled in the
U.S.
14
12
10
c
o
on
=>
c
o
^ 6
7o^ Bar legend:
¦ Not recycled
Recycled
Containers
& packaging
(64%)
3%
93%
0%
100%
Q.
3
u
o3
01
Q_
0%
100%
go
03
_Q
97%
_Q
03
T3
C
o
c
Durable
Goods
29%
71%
cu
o3
o
QQ
O
_Q
75
03
10%
Q.
03
U
03
00
03
CO
(U
c
c
o
u
Durable
Goods
(30%)
Non-
durable
goods
(6%)
3%
16%
29%
71%
90%
84%
97%
euo
'cuo
03
u
03
Q.
Non-durable Goods
Containers & Packaging
Source: adapted from Table 8 of U.S. EPA (2020a)
As shown in Figure 5, the most recycled plastics are PET and HDPE, which are commonly
accepted by municipal recycling facilities and have high recyclability due to recycling
infrastructure and their chemical properties. Percentages in Figure 5 indicate percent of total
produced; as a percent of total entering the MSW stream (not shown in the figure), 19% and 9%
of PET and HDPE are recycled. PVC, LDPE, polypropylene, and polystyrene are recycled at low
rates, less than 3% of total produced and less than 4% of total entering the MSW stream.
According to the EPA (U.S. EPA, 2020a), "other plastics" (resin code #7) are recycled at a rate
of 13% of total produced and 27% of total entering the MSW stream, higher rates than either
PET or HDPE, but it is unclear where this figure comes from, given that recycling of #7 resins in
containers and packaging is negligible and the amount of durable and nondurable goods for all
plastics recycled is so low (about 1 million tons combined) that the rates are not broken down by
resin. Green Peace surveyed 367 material recovery facilities (MRFs) and found that U.S.
capacity for reprocessing plastic #7 waste is negligible: most MRFs send plastics other than PET
and HDPE to landfills or WTE facilities due to lack of buyers, or export them, most frequently to
12
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Southeast Asia (Hocevar, 2020). This is supported by a recent review of recycling systems in all
50 states, with states reporting recycling of rigid plastics other than PET and HDPE at rates
between 0% (West Virginia, Arkansas) and 15% (Maine), with a median recycling rate of 4%
(Eunomia, 2021).
Figure 5. Post-Consumer Plastics Produced, Entering MSW Stream, and Recycled in the U.S. in
2018, by Resin Type (million U.S. tons and % of total produced)
o
o
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Overall bar height is total produced; each color is an end point, with % of total produced
3%
5%
12%
/- 0%
54%
10%
52%
36%
40%
90%
63%
34%
1%
95%
1%
4%
86%
13%
13%
36%
51%
PET HDPE PVC LDPE PP PS Other
Does Not Enter MSW Stream ¦ Enters MSW Stream, Not Recycled ¦ Recycled
Source: Adapted from data on total production, total amount entering MSW stream, and amount recycled from U.S. EPA (2020a);
amount that does not enter the MSW stream (blue) is the total produced minus the amount entering MSW; the amount
that enters MSW and is not recycled (orange) is the total entering MSW minus the amount recycled. Amount recycled
(gray) is directly from the data source. All percentages calculated.
After plastics that have entered the recycling process are separated and cleaned, they may be
baled by resin or as mixed scrap plastic and exported for recycling, WTE, or landfilling in other
countries. Figure 6 shows the trend in U.S. exports of plastic scrap over the last decade. The
amount of plastic scrap exported by the United States globally changed dramatically in 2017 in
response to China foreshadowing an upcoming ban on plastic scrap imports in April 2017, which
they then announced officially in July 2017. China's "National Sword" policy banned the import
of plastic scrap and other materials for recycling effective January 1, 2018 and dropped their
import of recycling by 99% (Katz, 2019). As a result, U.S. exports of plastic scrap dropped from
about 2.3 million tons in 2015 to 1.3 million tons in 2017, and exports have continued to decline
in subsequent years, to a low of 0.6 million tons in 2020 (United Nations, 2021). Export data to
China and several other key countries was unavailable in 2016, so U.S. total export data was
unavailable.
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Figure 6. U.S. Exports of Plastic Scrap, 2010-2020
Although data for 2016 are not available, it seems likely that the 2016 value would be similar to 2010 to
2015 levels, and that the drop from 2015 to 2017 can be attributed to China's change in policy in 2017.
IF V
Year of Export
As shown in Figure 7, most of U.S. exports of plastic scrap are to Asia and other North
American countries, with very little to countries on other continents. In 2015, about half of
exports to Asia were to China (United Nations, 2021). By 2018, exports to China dropped from
just under 1 million U.S. tons to near zero (5,000 U.S. tons), while total exports to other Asian
countries remained about the same (around 1 million U.S. tons). Exports to other North America
countries also dropped, and while exports to other continents (Europe, Africa and the Middle
East, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Oceana) increased, the overall total exported was, as
shown in Figure 6, much lower.
Figure 7. Plastic Waste Exported by the U.S. in 2015 and 2018, by Continent
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Many Asian countries to which the United States has shifted export (e.g., Malaysia, Thailand)
had set up facilities to produce recycled pellets from the imported plastic, which they sold to the
Chinese markets.6 However, in late 2020, China imposed heavy fines and increased enforcement
of existing purity regulations on imports of recycled plastic pellets.7 With the new fines and
enforcement, these countries may no longer be able to sell recycled pellets to the Chinese
markets, which could impact whether they continue to accept plastic scrap exports from the
United States and the fate of the scrap that they do accept.
2.4.3 Fates of Recycled Plastic Resins
An estimated 1.63 million tons of PCR entered the domestic market in 2018 (U.S. EPA, 2020a).
However, data describing the fates of these recycled resins is limited largely due to the
complexity of the EOL management chain, the variety of plastic resin types, and the consistency
of post-recycling resin quality.
Resins, such as PET from soda bottles, which are comparatively easy to recycle and represent the
most commonly recycled plastics, can be recycled into bottles for cleaning products, egg cartons
and polyester fibers used for clothing and carpets8. For example, Nike, partnering with the
National Basketball Association (NBA), and uniform rental companies, Aramark and Cintas, use
recycled polyester fibers in their sport jerseys and uniforms 910. Other easily recyclable resins
include HDPE and LDPE that are used to make milk and juice bottles and grocery and sandwich
bags, respectively. HDPE is often recycled to produce products such as flower pots, toys, trash
can, and lumber substitutes, and LDPE is most often recycled back into bags. According to
Proficient Market Insights11, PET and HDPE comprise about 54% of the global PCR market.
Harder and less economically viable plastic resins to recycle include PS, PP, and PVC, with the
limited quantities of these resins being recycled back into similar products or lumber
substitutes1213. However, recycled PS can also be used to make insulation, carry out containers,
light switches, egg cartons, plates, rulers, and foam packing etc.14 Recycled PP is usually mixed
with virgin PP (up to 50%) to produce clothes or playground equipment,15 but can also be used
to make bags, dishware, gardening supplies, etc.16 In general, the vast majority of recycled
6 https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-plastics-recYcling-markets-report-2020-markets-should-grow-
from-26-5-billion-in-2020-to-34-4-billion-bv-2025--301203328.html: https://resource-
recYcling.com/plastics/2020/10/21/covid-19-and-cliina-drive-global-market-changes/
7 https://bir.org/news-press/news/item/cliina-tightens-enforcement-of-existing-regulations-regarding-imports-of-
recvcled-plastics-pellets
8 https://calrecYcle.ca.gov/plastics/resins/
9 https://www.ptonline.com/blog/post/each-nike-nba-uniforni-made-out-of-20-recycled-pet-bottles
111 https://www.wastedive.com/news/waste-management-sustainability-recycled-unifornis-esg/594788/
11 https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2022/10/21/2539424/0/en/Post-Consumer-Resin-PCR-Market-
Proiected-to-Grow-with-magnificent-CAGR-During-the-2022-2028-Forecast-Timeframe-116-Pages-Report.html
12 https://www.cirplus.com/materials/recYcled-ps
13 https://www.greenbuildennedia.com/blog/finallY-a-recYcled-pvc-product
14https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=7915#:~:text=Applications%20of%20Recycled%20PS&text=Recy
cled%20polystyrene%20can%20be%20used,out%20containers%20and%20foam%20packing.)
(https://calrecycle.ca.gov/plastics/resins/
15 https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx? ArticleID=240
16 https://cmsplastic.com/what-items-can-be-made-from-recvcled-polvpropvlene-pp-
plastics/#:~:text=Recvcled%20polvpropvlene%20can%20be%20turned.then%20be%20woven%20into%20clothe
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
plastics are open-loop recycled into different products; only an estimated 2% of plastic
packaging is recycled in closed loop,17 and only 6% of recycled PET is reused in the creation of
new bottles.18 However, there are examples of government initiatives19 and companies and that
have or are in the process of developing closed-loop recycling systems to re-use plastics from
their end of life products.20 21 A more complete market assessment would be necessary to
determine the amounts and fates of recycled PCR and the short and long term prospects for
closed-loop recycling in the United States.
One of the challenges in the use of PCR in the manufacturing of new products is the consistency
of post-recycling resin quality. When plastics are recycled, they need to be properly sorted by
type and cleaned before being processed into new plastic flakes, pellets, or powder.22 Some
plastics have a large number of additives which make it difficult to separate into pure or
chemically consistent resin, and often there are impurities that remain in the precured resin
coating (PRC) resin. These impurities change the physical properties of the resin and/or result in
undesirable specks or discolorations in the finished products. Although some plastic resin
companies, such as MGG Polymers, have proprietary sorting and separating technologies that are
able to produce high quality through a management system that includes testing of rheologic,
physical, and chemical parameters and chemical compliance with ISO 9000, ISO 14001, Cenelec
EN 50625, and EuCertPlast and REACH and RoHS standards, a more thorough market
assessment would be needed to understand the current PCR-specific volumes and capacities of
companies like MGG Polymers.
In addition, most plastic resins can only be mechanically recycled a limited number of times.
With successive rounds of recycling, polymer chains are broken down, progressively decreasing
tensile strength and viscosity to the point where the resins are unusable.23 As a result, less than
10% of plastic is mechanically recycled more than once24, and most recycled plastics are made
into products that are different from their source.25 26 However, it is possible to add
compatibilizers27-28 or virgin resins to create a blended plastic with properties close to those of
17 https://newsroom.tomra.com/only-2-plastic-packaging-closed-loop/
18 https://www.mitchellwilliamslaw.com/rpet-recycling-closed-loop-partners-study-addressing-system-interventions-
to-improve-cost-structure
19 https://ec.europa.eu/enviromnent/circular-economy/pdf/new_circular_economy_action_plan.pdf
211 https://global.sharp/corporate/eco/cmr/recvcle/
21http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press kits/2009/ecosolutions/reduceimpact/HPClosedLoopRecvclingFactSh
eet.pdf
22 https://www.ipfinc.net/what-is-post-consumer-recycled-
resin/#:~:text=Post%20consumer%20recycled%20resin%20(PCR,developed%20with%20virgin%20plastic%20re
sin.
23 https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210510-how-to-recycle-any-plastic
24 https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2021/04/22/infinitely-recyclable-plastic/
25 https://www.iamrenew.com/knowledge-hub-sustainabilitv/recvcle-conundrum-how-manv-times-can-recvclables-
be-recvcled/
26 https://www.forbes.com/sites/lauratenenbaum/2019/05/15/these-tliree-plastic-recvcling-mvths-will-blow-vour-
mind/?sh=527c09ef75f0
27 https://www.ceguide.org/Strategies-and-
examples/Dispose/Compatibilizers#:~:text=Compatibilizers%20are%20additives%20that%20allow,or%20adhere
%20to%20each%20other
28 https://oceanworks.co/blogs/ocean-plastic-news/the-perfonnance-of-recycled-vs-virgin-plastics
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
100% virgin resins.29 As little as 30% virgin resin is enough to improve recycled resins to virgin
quality.30 In addition, emerging recycling technologies that involve pyrolysis and other
comparable chemical recycling techniques that convert plastics back to monomers that are
comparable to the virgin plastic fossil-based feedstock appear to be able to recycle plastic resins
multiple times without degradation.31-32-33 Further review of these technologies and the degree to
which they have been or are soon to be adopted commercially is necessary to understand the
potential role they could play in the recycling of plastics in the United States.
3. Key Plastics Policies and Initiatives
This section discusses a variety of policies and initiatives: international trade policies (Section
3.1); circular economy initiatives (Section 3.2); extended producer responsibility policies
(Section 3.3); single-use plastics policies (Section 3.4); container deposit policies and bottle bills
(Section 3.5); national (U.S.) legislation and proposed bills (Section 3.6); successful local
initiatives (Section 3.7); and private sector initiatives (Section 3.8).
3.1 International Trade Policies
Two recent shifts in international trade policy for plastic wastes have significantly impacted U.S.
domestic plastic waste management. Because most of the plastic waste recycled by households
and consumers was previously exported internationally for processing, international policy
changes have great potential to upset domestic recycling trends.
3.1.1 Basel Convention Amendments
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and
their Disposal is a treaty designed to control international movement of potentially hazardous
waste, including plastic recyclables. The Basel Convention Plastic Waste Amendmentswhich
entered into force on January 1, 2021, and are aimed at addressing marine plastic littershifted
international policy to classify most plastic scrap and waste as subject to stricter requirements for
export (U.S. DOS, 2021). Under these amendments, acceptable export plastic waste must meet a
high degree of purity: separated from other types of plastic and uncontaminated with food
residue or other types of waste. Plastics must also be destined for "recycling in an
environmentally sound manner" in the importing country. These amendments would effectively
halt U.S. trade in plastic scrap with countries that are not members of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, including the Asian countries that currently receive
most American plastic scrap exports. However, while 187 countries, including many significant
importers of U.S. plastic recyclables, are a party to (and thus bound by) the Convention, the
United States is only a signatory; we have not ratified (and thus are not bound by) the
Convention and can therefore still enter into direct bilateral agreements with specific countries to
export or import plastic wast (U.S. DOS, 2021).
29 https://residentialwastesYStems.com/blog/is-recYcled-plastic-better-than-new-plastic/
311 https://oceanworks.co/blogs/ocean-plastic-news/the-perfonnance-of-recycled-vs-virgin-plastics
31 https://www.honeYwell.com/us/en/press/2021/ll/lioneYwell-introduces-revolutionarv-plastics-recYcling-
technology-to-drive-a-circular-plastics-economr
32 https://www.bbc.com/future/article/2021051Q-how-to-recYcle-anY-plastic
33 https://www.euronews.com/green/2020/02/04/breaktlirough-means-plastic-can-be-recycled-hundreds-of-times
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
3.1.2 China's National Sword Policy
Recent changes to China's waste import policies greatly impacted domestic recycling in the
United States. The National Sword Policy, first implemented in 2017 and aimed at protecting
environmental quality inside China, restricted the types and quality of plastic recyclables the
country would import (Katz, 2019), effectively banning export of plastic scrap to China. Before
the policy, most U.S. plastic recyclables were exported to China for processing. U.S. global
exports of plastic scrap have dropped to about half 2015 levels since the policy's implementation
(United Nations, 2021), with the result that numerous U.S. municipal recycling programs in the
are no longer economically viable and have been discontinued (Corkery, 2019).
3.2 Circular Economy Initiatives
The term "circular economy" refers to a production and consumption model that challenges
practices leading to waste and overconsumption. The goal of a circular economy is to balance
economic growth with environmental and human health. The circular economy promotes the
idea that people and businesses should repair, reuse, and remanufacture products and materials
instead of throwing waste away. This means that materials should reenter and cycle through the
economy several times before finally being considered waste.34 Applied to plastics, this model
encourages eliminating the generation of unnecessary plastics, ensuring that necessary plastics
are recyclable, and continuing to circulate plastics through the economy rather than the
environment (World Economic Forum, Ellen Macarthur Foundation, & McKinsey & Company,
2016). The US EPA is adopting a Circular Economy approach for its National Recycling
Strategy. Current management of plastics does not fit a circular model because plastics do not
decompose in nature in a reasonable timeframe, and they create toxic degradation products and
cause many environmental impacts. Single use plastic packaging contributes one of the biggest
environmental impacts. An example of a plastics policy promoting a circular economy is when
a retailer discounts customers who bring their own reusable cups or utensils.
Several international initiatives aim to create a circular plastics economy:
In 2018, the European Union adopted a European strategy for plastics in a circular
economy as a part of their action plan for a circular economy.
The New Plastics Economy Global Commitment is global initiative to create a circular
economy for plastic35 led by the UN Environment Programme and the Ellen MacArthur
Foundation. There are over 450 signatories, including the governments of the UK, the
Netherlands, France, Portugal, New Zealand, Peru, Chile, Rwanda, Grenada, and the
Republic of Seychelles.
3.3 Extended Producer Responsibility Policies
Extended producer responsibility (EPR) policies shift the burden of managing waste from the
end user to the original manufacturer. To comply with EPR policies, companies physically or
financially provide management for the waste their products generate, either by enabling
customers to return products and packaging for reuse or recycling, or by paying for them to be
recycled. These policies both cover the cost of waste management and incentivize manufacturers
to use more efficient or recyclable packaging. A report from the Center for International
34 https://sustainabilitvguide.eu/sustainabilitv/circular-economv/
35 https://www.newplasticseconomv.org/
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Environmental Law identified EPR as one of five plastic waste management policies with
substantial potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions(CIEL, 2019).
3.3.1 International EPR Policies
Forty-three countries have EPR policies for single-use plastics with varying mechanisms,
including deposit refunds, product returns, and targets for recycling (UNEP, 2018). The
European Union has had an EPR program on packaging since 1994. Appendix A provides
descriptions of example EPR rules from several countries.
The "Green Dot" symbol shown at right was created by Packaging Recovery
Organization Europe and is a worldwide protected trademark that indicates that
the producer has made a financial contribution to a qualified national packaging
recovery organization to compensate for the product packaging.36 It is primarily
used in Europe and has been adopted by 31 countries.
3.3.2 National EPR Policies
No federal EPR policies are currently in place, although the Break Free from Plastic Pollution
Act of 2021 currently in Congress would implement EPR, and the CLEAN Future Act includes
some elements of producer responsibility (see Section 3.6).
3.3.3 State and Local EPR Policies
As of 2021, nine U.S. states37 have formed an EPR for Packaging Network to coordinate on
legislation to implement EPR, with legislation expected to be introduced in additional states.38
Support for EPR policies has increased in recent years, particularly in response to the rising cost
of municipal recycling programs and the declining international market for plastic scrap. Some
municipalities have begun planning changes to their recycling programs in anticipation of
statewide EPR legislation (King County [WA], 2020).
3.4 Single-Use Plastic Policies
Regulating the manufacture, distribution and disposal of single-use plastic bags, utensils, food
containers, and other disposable plastics is a common legislative tool to control plastic waste.
There is a paucity of information on the impacts of single-use plastic policies on plastics
generation, littering, or economics. A 2019 PBS poll of 1,317 U.S. adults found about a quarter
support a national total ban on single-use-plastics, and two thirds of Americans would pay more
for everyday items if they were more environmentally sustainable.39
3.4.1 International Single-Use Plastic Policies
As of 2018, bans, taxes, or other regulations on single-use plastic bags were in place in 127
countries (UNEP, 2018). The comprehensiveness, type, enforcement, and efficacy of these
policies varies, but most commonly they restrict the free distribution of bags at the point of retail
sale.
(&
36 https://www.pro-e.org/the-green-dot-trademark
37 California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maryland, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington.
38 https://resource-recYcling.com/plastics/2021/02/03/state-lawmakers-nationwide-begin-coordinated-push-for-epr/
39 https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/most-americans-would-paY-more-to-avoid-using-plastic-poll-saYS
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Plastic bag reduction policies first appeared in the late 1990s and early 2000s in South Asia,
Ireland, and Denmark. Ireland's tax on single-use plastic bags at retail points of sale successfully
reduced plastic littering, and the UK's bag tax reduced single-use plastic bag usage by as much
as 85% and was shown to have successfully reduced marine plastic pollution (Maes et al., 2018).
3.4.2 National Single-Use Plastic Policies
The United States has not implemented any federal policies to restrict single use plastics. The
only federal ban on plastics is the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015,40 forbidding the use of
microbeads in cosmetics to reduce marine plastic pollution from rinse-off cosmetics. The
proposed Break Free from Plastic Pollution Act of 2021 (H.R. 5845) would require single-use
plastic producers to finance and manage recycling programs (see Section 3.6).
3.4.3 State and Local Single-Use Plastic Policies
Eight states have banned single-use plastic bags, and 330 localities in 24 states have passed
plastic restrictions.41 Maine was the first state to enact plastic bag recycling, requiring since 1991
that retail locations providing plastic bags also have convenient recycling receptacles for them.
All major population centers in Hawaii banned plastic bags between 2011 and 2015, creating a
de facto statewide ban. Several other states passed legislation banning plastic bags in 2019.
Appendix A provides a more detailed overview of state laws on single-use plastic bags.
Many cities, counties, and towns across the country have banned plastic bags locally. Boston,
Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle are among the cities that have banned plastic
bags; Boulder, New York, Portland (Maine), Montgomery County (Maryland), and Washington,
D.C. have enacted plastic bag bans and paper bag fees.42 However, tensions exist in many states
between localities and state government. Several states have forbidden localities from passing
any regulations on "ancillary containers," including plastic bags and Styrofoam, either in
response to or in anticipation of local bans, fueled by plastic industry lobbying. In states like
North and South Carolina, beach communities locally impacted by marine plastic pollution
passed bans or taxes, only to have the state legislature overturn them.43 Legal challenges and
court cases between localities and state governments are ongoing in many states. Additionally,
the onset of COVID-19 prompted many states and localities to temporarily relax prohibitions on
single-use plastics.44
3.5 Container Deposit Policies and "Bottle Bills"
Bottle bills charge a refundable deposit on beverages sold in plastic, metal, or glass containers,
which is refunded when consumers return the bottle for recycling. Bottle bills are one of the most
effective means of boosting recycling; the policies have been found to reduce environmental
411 https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-laws-regulations/microbead-free-waters-act-faas
41 https://www.ncsl.org/researcli/environment-and-natural-resources/enviromTient-and-natural-resources-state-bill-
tracking-database.aspx
42 https://www.ncsl.org/researcli/environment-and-natural-resources/plastic-bag-legislation.aspx
43 https://www.plasticbaglaws.org/preemption: https://www.surfrider.org/coastal-blog/entrv/whats-the-score-on-
plastic-pollution-laws-and-preemption-of-local-ordinance: https://www.postandcourier.com/politics/follv-beach-
mavor-tells-south-carolina-lawmakers-plastic-bag-ban/article 32dac218-f61a-lle7-b6a9-abe353ee697b.html
44 https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analvsis/blogs/stateline/2021/03/30/pandemic-paused-plastic-bag-
bans-ripped-anew-bv-critics
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
waste by 30% to 50% in states where they have been enacted.45 Ten states have enacted bottle
bills, with six more currently considering them. Appendix A provides a more detailed overview
of state-level container deposit laws.
3.6 National A cts and Proposed Bills
3.6.1 Save Our Seas 2.0 Act
The Save Our Seas 2.0 Act, signed into law in December 2020, is one of many policy efforts
aimed at reducing plastic pollution in oceans and seas. Although marine environments are the
purview of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, legislation to prevent marine
pollution includes initiatives to study and improve land-based management of plastics. This act
makes available funding for research, innovation, and international engagement around reducing
marine pollution.46 It commissions research into several specific topics, including pollution from
derelict fishing gear, plastic waste use in infrastructure, circular polymer certification, and plastic
import and export patterns.
It also requires the development of federal definitions for "microfiber" and "microplastics,"
provides grant money to incentivize private sector innovations, and directs the executive branch
to actively engage in international policy to combat marine debris.
3.6.2 Realizing the Economic Opportunities and Values of Expanding Recycling
(RECOVER) Act (H.R. 5115)
The RECOVER Act is a bipartisan bill introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in
November 2019 and reintroduced in April 2021. The bill allocates $500 million in matching
grants to states and municipalities for improving their recycling infrastructure, programs, and
education efforts.47 It also requires a follow-up report within two years submitted to Congress
detailing the recipients of the grants and their progress diverting waste.
3.6.3 Recycling Enhancements to Collection and Yield through Consumer
Learning and Education (RECYCLE) Act of 2021 (S.2941)
The RECYCLE Act is a bipartisan bill introduced to the U.S. Senate in November 2019 and
reintroduced in March 2021 that aims to provide support for community recycling programs.48 It
directs the EPA to fund $15 million of state and local recycling outreach and education
programs, aiming to inform consumers about which materials are and are not recyclable to
decrease contamination in the recycling system. As part of the bill, the EPA would also develop
a model recycling program toolkit and regularly revise its guidelines for government agencies to
purchase products containing recycled materials.
3.6.4 Break Free from Plastic Pollution Act of 2021 (S.984)
One bill introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in February 2020 and introduced in the
Senate March 2021 has the potential to significantly overhaul plastic management; combining
elements of several best-practice policies discussed above into a comprehensive plastic pollution
45 https://www.container-recYcling.org/index.php/issues/bottle-bills
46 https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1982/text
47 https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/liouse-bill/5115/text
48 https://www.congress. gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/2941
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
policy. The Break Free from Plastic Act would reduce the production of new plastic waste by
banning single-use plastic bags and polystyrene, suspending the permits for construction of new
plastic-producing plants, and expanding EPR requirements for plastics.49 The bill would also
encourage recycling through the creation of a national container deposit system, standardization
of recycling labels, and by pumping significant funding to local recycling programs for
infrastructure improvements, outreach, and education. Though the bill has no Republican
cosponsors and is unpopular with plastic industry lobbyists, its support is significant and growing
among legislators and environmental groups.
3.6.5 CLEAN Future Act (H.R.1512)
The CLEAN Future Act would broadly decarbonize significant portions of the U.S. economy,
with the goal of completely eliminating greenhouse gas pollution.50 The bill targets net zero
greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, with an interim target of bringing down emissions to half of
what they were in 2005 by no later than 2030, in line with recommendations of the United
Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Included in the bill are decarbonization
solutions for the power, transportation, industrial and building sectors, including infrastructure
investments, clean and efficient energy standards, and funding to support various transition
efforts.
Specific to plastic, the bill would introduce new regulations on manufacturing emissions and
recycling. Post-consumer recycled content standards would be established for household
products, a national bottle deposit system would be implemented, and communities would have
access to a new pool of grant money for setting up local zero-waste programs. The bill also
proposes pausing permit issuing for new plastic-producing and some petrochemical facilities.
3.7 Successful Local Plastics Initiatives
3.7.1 San Francisco, California, Zero Waste Initiative
The city of San Francisco set an ambitious zero waste goal for 2020. Although it was not on
track to eliminate waste in 2019, the city manages to divert 80% of its waste from landfills.
Households, businesses, and events are required to separate recyclable and compostable items
from landfilled trash. Single-use food containers must be compostable or recyclable, and single-
use plastics and polystyrene are banned. The city has also made significant strides in
infrastructure to redirect plastics, wood, metal and other reclaimed materials to appropriate
consumers, ensuring a resilient market for recycled materials.51
3.7.2 Austin, Texas, Zero Waste Initiative
Texas' capital city committed to achieving zero waste by 2040 by signing the Urban
Environmental Accords in 2005, with interim targets of diverting 75% of waste from landfills by
2020 and 90% by 2030. Policy changes made towards this goal include a universal recycling and
composting ordinance requiring all properties to provide recycling service to their tenants and a
requirement for construction projects to recycle at least half their construction debris. The city is
49 https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/984/all-info
511 https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/liouse-bill/1512
51 https://www.epa.gov/transfonning-waste-tool/zero-waste-case-studv-san-francisco
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
also considering EPR initiatives and a takeback ordinance; it had a single-use plastic packaging
ordinance that was preempted by a statewide bill.52
3.8 Private Sector Initiatives
3.8.1 Plastics Pact
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation organized a network of plastic waste management initiatives
into an organization known as The Plastics Pact, which aims to achieve a set of targets around
reducing the use of single-use plastic and encouraging plastic recycling. The Plastics Pact is part
of the larger New Plastic Economy Initiative to promote a circular plastics economy. The Pact is
a network of organizations across countries, including governments, companies, individuals, and
nonprofits.53 The Plastics Pact recently expanded to the United States, led by The Recycling
Partnership, with members including large multinational firms like Walmart, Target, Unilever,
General Mills, and Coca-Cola. Goals of the U.S. Plastics Pact include reformulating plastic
packaging to (1) be recyclable, reusable, or compostable; (2) be efficiently designed; and (3)
incorporate more recycled material. These goals are set for 2025, with progress towards them
reported annually.54
In the United States, Stina Inc. manages several tools and platforms for promoting a circular
economy in plastics,55 including the following:
Circularity in Action is a web platform to promote companies participating in a
circular economy and to provide tools and resources from various organizations.
Info Exchange is an online directory of recycling market development efforts made by
national departments, states, counties, and organizations to bolster the economic
opportunities for recycled material.
Buy Recycled Products Directory is a directory of products made using post-consumer
resin plastic.
Plasticmarkets.org is an online directory that connects recycling companies looking to
buy or sell any type of scrap plastic (from bales to post-consumer resin) across North
America;
Sort for Value Calculator is an online calculator that enables users to explore the value
of sorting various combinations of plastic bale types.
3.8.2 Private Research and Development
Some small private sector firms are engaging in research and development around challenges
from all phases of plastic waste management. Agilyx and PureCycle Technologies work on
different advanced approaches to the challenges of breaking down difficult-to-recycle plastic
wastes, including contaminated and colored plastics, into synthetic oils, chemicals, and other
plastic products. Others work on logistical and supply chain recycling issues, like Ridwell, a
52 https://www.epa.gov/transfomiing-waste-tool/zero-waste-case-studY-austin
53 https://www.newplasticseconomY.org/proiects/plastics-pact
54 https://www.elleninacarthurfoundation.org/news/the-u-s-launches-a-national-plastics-pact-supported-bY-all-
sectors
55 https://stinainc.com/view/tools
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Seattle service that collects and redistributes household waste materials no longer accepted by
municipal recycling programs, and Loop Industries, which creates reusable packaging that
consumers return for a deposit.56
3.8.3 Brand Initiatives
Large multinational firms may engage in initiatives to encourage recycling or otherwise reduce
plastic waste. Nestle aims to have 100% recyclable or reusable packaging by 2025 and to reduce
its use of virgin plastics by one-third from 2018 to 2025.57 PepsiCo is reducing virgin plastic
content in its packaging by 35% between 2019 and 2025.58 Mondelez aims to cut virgin plastic
use in rigid plastic packaging by at least 25% from 2020 to 2025.59 In 2019, Coca-Cola pledged
$5.4 million to various nonprofits to improve recycling infrastructure, educate households on
proper recycling, and expand curbside quality programs. The company has stated goals to
increase the amount of recycled material used in its products, make its products fully recyclable,
and to collect bottles and cans for recycling comparable to the number they sell.60
4. Interventions in Plastics Management
Plastics management is complicated in part because there are so many stakeholders across the
value chain:
Generation: petrochemical companies, plastics manufacturers, lobbyists
Use: Brand owners, retailers, venture capital funds, transporters to bring product to
market, consumers, lobbyists
EOL Management: MSW management companies; MSW departments; city, county,
state, and federal governments; MRFs and sorting facilities; mechanical, chemical, and
thermal recycling facilities; support services, lobbyists.
Here, we describe interventions in plastics management in four categories: reducing plastics
generation, reusing plastics, and optimizing recycling.
4.1 Reducing Plastics Generation
Reducing plastic use is an important step in plastics management, because it reduces cost and
environmental impacts of both generation and EOL management of plastics. Most of the current
focus of plastic reduction is on single-use plastics and containers and packaging. Imposing taxes
and bans on single-use plastics or virgin plastics in containers and packaging, as discussed in
Section 3.7 can be a viable method to reduce the demand for new plastics and provide a market
incentive for a recycled plastics market. The effects of policies aimed at reducing plastics
generation have not yet been demonstrated in the virgin plastics market but may be beginning to
have an effect. The American Chemistry Council notes that production of North American
plastics products fell 1.6% in 2019, the first decline since the 2009 recession, and that demand in
56 https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2020/03/13/fix-recYcling-america/
57 https://www.nestle.com/media/pressreleases/allpressreleases/nestle-market-food-grade-recYcled-plastics-launch-
fund-packaging-innovation
58 https://www.pepsico.com/news/press-release/pepsico-accelerates-plastic-waste-reduction-efforts09132019
59 https://ir.mondelezinternational.com/news-releases/news-release-details/mondelez-international-commits-
reduction-virgin-plastic-use
611 https://www.wastedive.com/news/coca-cola-new-recYcling-grants/550502/
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
domestic and foreign markets fell in 2019 by 7.8% (ACC, 2020). However, it is unclear if this is
a long term trend and how COVID-19 affected plastics production in 2020. Here we explore two
different options for reducing plastics generation: product redesign and material substitution.
4.1.1 Product Redesign
Redesigning product packaging to contain less plastic is one option to reduce the total mass of
plastic used in containers and packaging, and is a solution that many major brands are
embracing. Walmart-Canada prevented 1.1 million pounds of plastic from entering circulation in
2019 by simple changes like removing unnecessary plastic packaging on bananas and peppers
and using recycled plastic for baked goods.61 However, some foods may require plastic
packaging for food safety and preservation (Prata et al., 2019). Nonetheless, there are many
instances where package redesign can reduce plastic waste.
4.1.2 Material Substitution
Alternative materials to plastic that maintain plastic's useful properties but are biodegradable
could be one part in reducing the overall generation of synthetic plastics. Biodegradable plastics
(bioplastics) can be made from petroleum products or renewable resources like cellulose, starch,
or sugars. Petroleum-based bioplastics include polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(butylene
adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), while bio-based bioplastics include polylactic acid (PLA),
thermoplastic starch (TPS), and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). Biodegradation of bioplastics
varies due to environmental conditions and the characteristics of the bioplastic, and can be quite
low in some cases. Around 6 million tons of bioplastics were manufactured globally in 2018
(Narancic & O'Connor, 2017; Thakur et al., 2018).
Replacing food packaging with plastic alternatives is another option, but it provides its own
challenge - spoilage. A total of 30% of food is wasted between the farm and the consumer.
Plastic packaging has been increasingly utilized to prevent spoilage; however, research is being
conducted to develop bio-based spoilage prevention packaging that could serve as an alternative
packaging option while also maintaining food quality (Kumar, Mukheijee, & Dutta, 2020;
Qamar, Asgher, Bilal, & Iqbal, 2020). Some of the materials being used for bio-based spoilage
prevention packaging are sourced from microbial polymers, wood-based polymers, and protein-
based polymers.
In addition, it is necessary to consider and compare the environmental impacts of plastics vs.
alternate materials for packaging. An online search was conducted to find sources that compared
the environmental impacts of plastic packaging versus alternative materials such as cardboard,
paper, glass, aluminum, and compostable/bio-based materials. Most of the sources identified
used Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) to compare the impacts of materials.
Ecobahn 62 - compared plastic and cardboard packaging by assessing raw materials, the
carbon footprint of manufacturing, material weight, and the recycling process of both
materials. Plastic manufacturing consumes a significant portion of the global oil supply,
and while cardboard is made from a renewable source, the impact depends on responsible
sourcing (deforestation versus sustainably sourced). Plastic manufacturing requires more
61 https://www.walmartcanada.ca/news/2019/10/24/update-walmart-canada-prevents-ll-million-pounds-of-plastic-
from-entering-its-supplv-chain
62 https://theecobalin.com/packaging/plastic-vs-cardboard-packaging-a-complex-choice/
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
energy than cardboard, but cardboard uses more water. Manufacturing plastics also
accounts for a larger portion of greenhouse gas emissions compared to cardboard.
However, the low weight of plastic results in lower transportation emissions than
cardboard. In terms of recycling, the recycling of plastic is more beneficial than the
recycling of cardboard, as the production of plastic requires more energy and creates
more emissions than cardboard. However, the United States recycles more cardboard
than plastic, and cardboard products are more likely to be made with recycled materials.
EcoChain 63/TAPP Water64 - the weight of materials is an important aspect to consider
when assessing their environmental impacts. EcoChain analyzed plastic and glass
packaging of some food products. To compare, they looked at the carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions and Environmental Cost Indicator (ECI), as well as set assumptions for end-of-
life scenarios. They concluded that, due to the much higher weight of glass, the plastic
packaging was more sustainable. Another source, TAPP Water, echoed EcoChain's
conclusion. The heavier weight of glass translated to less efficient transportation and
distribution, as well as causing more wear and tear on manufacturing machinery - both
leading to higher fuel costs and emissions. TAPP Water also analyzed the environmental
impacts of aluminum cans compared to plastic and glass bottles. While the weight of
aluminum is low, similar to that of plastic, the low recycling rate and low reuse of
recycled aluminum in the production of aluminum cans in the United States offsets the
benefits of the low weight.
BioCycle65 - summarized an Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ)
study66 that analyzed compostable and biobased materials' environmental impacts. The
Oregon DEQ study drew from previously published LCAs. The conclusion from the
study was that compostable materials do not necessarily guarantee low environmental
impacts. Compostable packaging materials may have higher impacts due to production or
manufacturing. When comparing biobased plastics to non-biobased plastics, biobased
plastics were associated with reduced fossil fuel energy consumption, lower mineral
depletion, and reduced water consumption. However, biobased plastics were also
associated with an increased impact for land occupation, ecotoxicity, and eutrophication.
American Chemistry Council (ACC)67 - commissioned an independent study on the
environmental costs of plastics in consumer goods in comparison to other materials by a
London environmental consulting firm called Trucost PLC. The study found that the
environmental cost of plastics is four times less than the costs of alternative materials.
This is in large part due to the strength-to-weight ratio of plastics as well as the need to
use a greater amount of alternative materials compared to plastic to achieve the same
result. The study acknowledges that although alternative materials such as glass, tin,
aluminum, and paper may be suitable alternatives for many consumer goods applications,
it also found that alternative materials require four times more material by mass on
average compared to plastic. Another study by the ACC titled "Life Cycle Impacts of
63 https://ecochain.com/storv/case-studY-packaging-plastic-vs-glass/
64 https://tappwater.co/en/glass-vs-plastic-vs-aluminium-what-is-the-most-sustainable-choice/
65 https://www.biocvcle.net/enviromnental-impacts-packaging-options/
66 https://www.oregon.gov/dea/mm/production/Pages/Materials-Attributes.aspx
67 http://read.nxtbook.com/wilev/plasticsengineering/september2016/plasticsmakeitpossible.html
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Plastic Packaging Compared to Substitutes in the U.S. and Canada: Theoretical
Substitution Analysis,"68 as summarized by Plastics Technology69, concluded that using
alternative materials in place of plastic in packaging would result in increased energy use,
water consumption, solid waste, greenhouse gas emissions, acidification, eutrophication,
and ozone depletion.
The comparison of plastic packaging materials versus alternate materials is complex it is not
always guaranteed that non-plastic alternatives have lower environmental impacts than plastics.
LC As are commonly used to analyze the impacts and many factors are considered when
comparing materials.
4.2 Reusing Plastics: Transitioning from Single-Use to Reusable
Products
Although re-use is not an EOL management option, plastics recovery and reuse reduces the
demand for new plastics production and could alter the waste stream if plastics that were
destined for the landfill or WTE are recaptured to enter the recycling/reuse stream. There is an
ongoing cultural shift from single-use products to reusable products made from durable plastics
or non-plastic materials, such as the culture shift to carrying a reusable water bottle.70 There are
also an increasing number of cities and institutions banning single-use plastics in the United
States, which could support an increase in the reuse of plastics, especially plastic containers and
packaging products (see Section 3.3).
4.3 Optimizing Recycling
4.3.1 Design for Recycling
Design for recycling is the concept of considering the recyclability of a product during the design
phase. The Association of Plastic Recyclers publish an APR Design Guide for Plastic
Recyclability for package designers with the goal of improving the recyclability of products and
minimizing contamination in the recycling stream.
Black plastic is a challenging material because it cannot be detected by the near-infrared sorting
machines in MRFs and thus is not sorted and recycled, but rather landfilled. Black plastic is
commonly used in food trays such as ready-to-eat meals in grocery stores or take-out trays. New
near-infrared-detectable black colorants allow for sorting of black plastics at MRFs.71
68 https://www.americanchemistrv.com/better-policY-regulation/plastics/resources/life-CYcle-impacts-of-plastic-
packaging-compared-to-substitutes-in-the-united-states-and-canada-theoretical-substitution-analvsis
69 https://www.ptonline.com/articles/new-studY-refutes-negative-enviromnental-impact-of-plastics-packaging
711 https://www.refinerv29.com/en-us/expensive-reusable-water-bottle-trend-swell
71 https://www.clariant.com/en/Business-Units/Pigments/Plastics/NIR-detectable-black-colorants
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
4.3.2 Improved Consumer Education
Having a standardized way to label and communicate about recycling is important for consumer
education. Improved consumer knowledge about recycling will help improve the quality of
plastic waste by reducing contamination from non-recyclable plastics, food residues, and other
waste. Many currently available educational materials about preparing plastics for curbside
pickup and what can be recycled are complicated and confusing. New outreach and education
campaigns should use behavior science to create the most effective educational materials.
In 2008, the GreenBlue Institute's Sustainable Packaging Coalition
developed the How2Recycle label (SPC, 2021), shown at right. The
goal of this project is for brands to voluntarily label their products
with a clear, standardized recycling label that can inform consumers
on how to recycle the product correctly. The label provides
instructions for all components of a package, including how to
prepare the material for recycling (e.g., whether to rinse, whether to
replace the cap), how to recycle it, the type of material that is recyclable, and which part of the
packaging is recyclable. The label follows the Federal Trade Commission Green Guide and is
used by more than 225 brands and over 65 material manufacturers and packaging converters.
4.3.3 Effective MRF Plastic Sorting
An effective method or set of methods for sorting plastics at MRFs is a necessary step to
increasing the efficiency of plastic recycling. Recycled plastics must be about 99% pure to be
usable for food packaging. Chemical fluorescent markers or digital watermarks on packaging
labels can be combined with the current near-infrared sorting technologies to improve the ability
of MRFs to effectively sort plastic into the different polymer groups, increasing the purity of the
recycled plastic stock.72 These labels even work with challenging materials like black plastics,
which are invisible to near infrared sorting systems and are thus not sorted and recycled.
Artificial intelligence and machine learning are other methods being explored, using algorithms
to teach machines to recognize different plastic polymers by showing thousands of images of the
plastics to be sorted. Effective plastic sorting could mean that plastics like polystyrene, which
have polymer properties that make them very recyclable but are not easily sorted, could now be
sorted and recycled at a high purity.
4.3.4 End Market Development
The economics of recycled plastics are unfavorable compared to the virgin plastics market, and
the available feedstock of recycled polymers is a major barrier to creating an end market for
recycled plastics. Recycled plastic feedstock is limited due to low global and domestic recycling
rates, creating highly volatile market pricing for post-consumer plastics.73 Trade restrictions on
plastic scrap may also hinder the development of a market for post-consumer plastics.
However, the recycled plastics market may become more stable and economically viable in the
future. Government taxes on virgin plastics and regulation requiring use of recycled plastics is
increasing the demand for recycled plastics, and local demand exceeding local supply is driving
72 https://www.chemistrvworld.com/features/the-plastic-sorting-challenge/4011434.article
73 https://www.oecd.org/environment/waste/policY-liiglilights-improving-plastics-management.pdf
Rinse Before
Recycling
&
2*
¦W Check \
r Locally*^
PAPER
PLASTIC
PLASTIC
BOX
WRAP
TRAY
*Not recycled in
all communities
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
recycled plastics market globalization.74 As an end market for recycled plastics develops, this
may in turn lead to a more stable supply of recycled plastics to meet the demand, and higher
standards for purity and quality of recycled plastics. For example, California will require 15%
post-consumer content in plastic containers by 2022; 25% by 2025; and 50% by 2030, which is
increasing domestic demand for high quality recycled PET.75
There are some companies taking innovative approaches to new end markets for low quality
plastics. ByFusion has developed a system for MRFs or industries to take plastics, shred them,
and superheat the plastic to fuse it into "ByBlocks," which can be sold for use in place of cinder
blocks in construction.76 The process avoids sorting and prewashing, does not use any chemicals
or additives, and can use mixed or low-value plastics, such as #3-7.
5. Information Gaps and Areas for Future Research
The goal of this research was to characterize current EOL management for plastics to inform
future identification of barriers (technical, infrastructure, economic, and standards) to recycling,
reuse, and conversion to value-added products.
Key identified information gaps and potential future research activities to advance sustainable
materials management for plastic may include:
Conduct EOL pathway assessment for plastic. Data, albeit limited, are available for
estimating the generation and composition of plastic waste by resin type in the United
States.
Characterize the flow by resin type at the end of life to gain a better understanding of
recycling rates by resin type, gaps in recycling, and the potential for enhancing
recovery and recycling via technology and programmatic initiatives.
Quantify plastic being managed using chemical and thermal recycling, being exported
after sorting, and escaping the municipal management system.
Characterize plastic recycling infrastructure. Additional research is needed to
characterize state and local plastic collection programs and infrastructure, as well as
recycling infrastructure to better understand gaps and infrastructure bottlenecks limiting
plastic recycling of all plastics and by resin.
Characterize collection at the national, regional, state and local levels to better
understand gaps in plastic waste collection that create bottlenecks or otherwise limit
recycling.
Characterize recyclers with respect to resin types accepted, infrastructure, capacity
and end products/markets.
Identify interventions to improve the efficiency of recycling or increase plastics
recycling in the United States, such as improved labeling, defining what plastics are
recyclable, and increased capacity for recycling of plastics #3-7
74 https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/blogs/petrochemicals/Q31121-recYcled-plastics-global-
market-commoditization-standards-pricing
75 https://www.plasticstodaY.com/legislation-regulations/california-governor-signs-nations-first-mandatorv-recYcled-
content-bill
76 https://www.bvfusion.com/bYfusion-unveils-100-plastic-waste-bvblock-building-material/
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Prepare plastics management guidance for targeted interventions and audiences.
EPA should be the objective source of data and information about plastics management
in the United States. Transparent information and targeted guidance can be prepared for:
Generators along the plastics value chain, to create plastics better designed for
sustainable management
Communities, to identify interventions that best fit the local/regional context
Consumers, to better understand how to prepare plastics for recycling
Companies, to inform policies and decisions about plastic sustainable management
options.
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
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https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/27113
United Nations (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
(A/RES/70/l)Retrieved from sustainabledevelopment.un.org
United Nations (2021). U.N. Comtrade Database. Retrieved from https://comtrade.un.org/data/
World Economic Forum, Ellen Macarthur Foundation, & McKinsey & Company (2016). The New
Plastics Economy: Rethinking the Future of Plastics Retrieved from
https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/the-new-plastics-economv-rethinking-the-
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future-of-plastics
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Appendix A. State and International Policies
Table 2. Summary of State-level Plastic Bag Policies (Enacted, Adopted, or Passed Referendum)
State
Legislation
Summary
AZ
2015 SB 1241
Preemption
CA
2014 SB 270
As of July 1, 2015, certain large stores are prohibited from providing a single-use plastic carryout bag to a customer, unless the retailer makes that bag available for
$0.10 and certain conditions are met.
CA
2011 CAS
567
Prohibits the sale of plastic products labeled as compostable, home compostable, or marine-degradable unless it meets standard specifications. It provides for a civil
penalty for a violation.
CA
2010 SB 228
Requires manufacturers of compostable plastic bags to ensure that the bag is readily and easily identifiable from other bags. Prohibits a compostable plastic bag sold
in the state from displaying a chasing arrow resin identification code or recycling symbol in any form.
CA
2006 AB 2449
Retail stores must adopt an at-store recycling program. Plastic bags used at retailers must have clearly printed "Please Return to a Participating Store for Recycling"
on the bag.
CT
2019 HB 7424
Imposes a 10-cent fee on single-use plastic bags provided at the point of sale until June 30, 2021 and bans them beginning July 1, 2021.
DE
2019 HB 130
Expands upon the existing at-store recycling program regarding the use of single-use plastic bags and limits stores subject to the program from providing single-use
plastic bags for only specific uses.
DE
2009 HB 15
2014 HB 198
Encourages the use of reusable bags by consumers and retailers. It requires a store to establish an at-store recycling program that provides an opportunity for
customers of the store to return plastic bags and requires all plastic carryout bags to display a recycling message.
DC
2010B150
Protects the aquatic and environmental assets of the District of Columbia, bans the use of disposable non-recyclable plastic carryout bags, establishes a fee on all
other disposable carryout bags provided by certain retail stores, and establishes the recurring Anacostia River Cleanup and Protection Fund.
ID
2016 HB 372
States that any regulation regarding the use, disposition or sale of plastic bags or other "auxiliary containers" shall be imposed only by a statute enacted by the
legislature.
IL
2016 HR1139
Establishes "Recycle Thin Film Friday" in the State of Illinois as an effort to reclaim used thin-film plastic bags and to encourage consumers to use reusable bags.
ME
2019 HB 1115
Prohibits a retail establishment from providing single-use carryout bags at the point of sale or otherwise making the bags available to customers, with exemptions for
certain types and uses of plastic and paper bags.
ME
2010 SB 131
Convenes a workgroup, through a partnership with state agencies and other appropriate entities, to work towards a viable solution to the checkout bag issue to
achieve environmental benefits, maintain financial viability for manufacturers and retailers and avoid cost impacts, provides for a report to the legislature.
ME
1991 LD 1166
Retailers may only provide customers with plastic bags if there is a receptacle to collect used plastic bags within 20 feet of the entrance and all plastic bags collected
are then recycled.
MS
2018 SB 2570
Preemption
MO
2015 HB 722
It provides all merchants doing business in the state with the option to provide either paper or plastic bags. Prevents localities from imposing a ban, fee, or tax upon
the use of either paper or plastic bags.
NY
2008 AB
11725
Plastic Bag Reduction, Reuse and Recycling Act; retailers of stores are to establish in-store recycling programs that provide an opportunity for the customer to return
clean plastic bags to be recycled. The plastic carryout bags provided by the store must have printed on them "Please Return to a Participating Store for Recycling."
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State
Legislation
Summary
NC
2010 SB 1018
Reduces plastic and non-recycled paper bag use on North Carolina's Outer Banks. A retailer subject to certain provisions shall display a sign in a location viewable
by customers saying "[county name] County discourages the use of single-use plastic and paper bags to protect our environment from excess litter and greenhouse
gases. We would appreciate our customers using reusable bags, but if you are not able to, a 100% recycled paper bag will be furnished for your use."
NC
2017 HB 56
Repeals the eight-year ban on the use of plastic bags by retailers on the Outer Banks.
ND
2019 HB 1200
Prohibits a political subdivision from regulating an auxiliary container.
OK
2019 SB 1001
Preempts local governments from regulating, taxing, or restricting the sale or use of an "auxiliary container," such as plastic bags, plastic water bottles, or disposable
food containers.
OR
2019 HB 2509
Prohibits, with certain exceptions, retail establishments and restaurants from providing single-use plastic bags to customers unless they charge a minimum of five
cents per bag.
Rl
2008 SB 2565
This legislation promotes the use of paper bags by retailers. Retail establishments must offer the use of paper bags to the consumer. Every retail establishment that
provides customers with plastic bags must provide conveniently located receptacles where customers can return their clean and dry plastic bags to be recycled.
Failure to comply with these laws is punishable with fines up to $500.
TN
2019 HB 1021
Prohibits local governments from regulating in various ways auxiliary containers, a term that includes plastic bags along with many other products.
VT
2019 SB 113
Relates to the prohibition of plastic carryout bags, expanded polystyrene, and single-use plastic straws.
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Table 3 . Bottle Bill Details by State
State
Statute
Year
Deposit
Amount
Beverages Covered
Containers Covered
Unredeemed Deposits
CA
Cal. Public Resources
Code §§14501 - 14599
1986
50 (<24 oz.)
100 (>24oz.)
Beer, malt, wine and distilled spirit
coolers; all non-alcoholic beverages,
except milk. Excludes vegetable
juices over 16 oz.
Any container composed of
aluminum, glass, plastic, or bi-
metal; Exempts refillables
Property of program;
Used for program
administration
CT
Conn. Gen. Stat. §§22a-
243 - 22a-246
1978
50
Beer, malt, carbonated soft drinks,
bottled water
Any sealed bottle, can, jar, or
carton composed of glass, metal or
plastic; Excludes containers over
three liters containing non-
carbonated beverages, and HDPE
containers
Returned to the state
HI
Hawaii Rev. Stat.
§§342G-101 -342G-122
2002
50
Beer, malt, mixed spirits and wine; all
non-alcoholic drinks, except dairy
products
Any container up to 68 oz.
composed of aluminum, bi-metal,
glass, or plastic
Property of state; Used
for program
administration
IA
Iowa Code §455C.1 -
455C.17
1978
50
Beer, wine coolers, wine, liquor,
carbonated soft drinks, mineral water
Any sealed bottle, can, jar, or
carton composed of glass, metal or
plastic
Retained by distributor
and bottlers
ME
Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit.
38, §§3101-3118
1976
150 (win el
liquor)
50 (all others)
All beverages except dairy products
and unprocessed cider
Any sealed container of four liters
or less composed of glass, metal
or plastic
Property of state
MA
Mass. Gen. Laws Ann.
Ch. 94, §§321 - 327
1981
50
Beer, malt, carbonated soft drinks,
mineral water
Any sealable bottle, can, jar, or
carton composed of glass, metal,
plastic, or a combination; Excludes
biodegradables
Property of state
general fund
Ml
Mich. Comp. Laws
§§445.571 -445.576
1976
100
Beer, wine coolers, canned cocktails,
soft drinks, carbonated and mineral
water
Any airtight container under one
gallon composed of metal, glass,
paper, or plastic
75% to state for
environmental
programs; 25% to
retailers
NY
N.Y. Environmental
Conservation Law §§27-
1001 -27-1019
(Amended 2013 SB
2608)
1982
50
Beer, malt, wine products, carbonated
soft drinks, soda water, and water not
containing sugar
Any sealed bottle, can, or jar less
than one gallon composed of
glass, metal, aluminum, steel, or
plastic
80% to the state
general fund; 20%
retained by distributor
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
State
Statute
Year
Deposit
Amount
Beverages Covered
Containers Covered
Unredeemed Deposits
OR
Or. Rev. Stat.
§§459A.700 -459A.740
1971
100
20 (standard
refillable)
Beer, malt, carbonated soft drinks,
bottled water (will cover all beverages
except wine, distilled liquor, milk, milk
substitutes and infant formula by
2018).
Any sealed bottle, can, or jar
composed of glass, metal or plastic
Retained by distributor
and bottlers
VT
Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 10,
§§1521 - 1529
1972
150 (liquor)
50 (all others)
Beer, malt, mixed wine, liquor,
carbonated soft drinks.
Any bottle, can, jar, or carton
composed of glass, metal, paper,
plastic, or a combination; Excludes
biodegradables
Retained by distributor
and bottlers
Source: National Conference of State Legislatures (https://www.ncsl.orq/research/environment-and-natural-resources/state-beveraqe-container-laws.aspx)
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Table A 3 . International Examples of EPR Rules for Plastic Packaging and Bags
Country
EPR Rules
Paraguay
There are obligations on the generator to ensure storage in containers suitable for their volume, handling and
characteristics, to avoid its dispersion.
Zimbabwe
The Agency responsible for plastic waste shall set prevention targets including (a) the disposal of plastic waste by the
responsible person in designated receptacles or sites; or (b) the design of plastics containing few pollutants, are
recyclable and durable when put to their intended use; or (c) the use of biodegradable plastics; or (d) the creation of the
mode of distribution and return systems, that reduce residual plastic waste to a minimum.
Bhutan
With the aim of achieving a more sustainable approach to resource use and a reduction in the quantity of waste going
to disposal, the Commission may require producers to take responsibility for the costs of the management of their
products when they become waste, by diverting end of life products to reuse, recycling or other forms of recovery and
safe disposal. The law indicates that Producers/industries shall be fully responsible for safe and proper disposal of their
waste.
Vanuatu
The Minister may by regulation impose requirements in relation to certain wastes that have adverse impacts on the
environment or human health by imposing obligations on persons importing, exporting, using or manufacturing certain
objects, substances or things which may become waste in relation to their eventual disposal.
Finland
It is the responsibility of the producer to manage waste management and associated costs related to products it has
brought to the market. The producer's responsibility applies to discarded products delivered to a reception points or for
transportation
Norway
Producers that place on the market at least 1000 kg per year of a specific type of packaging shall fund the collection,
sorting, recycling and other treatment of used packaging and packaging waste through membership of a producer
responsibility organization that has been approved by the Norwegian Environment Agency.
Source: Legal Limits on Single-Use Plastics and Microplastics: A Global Review of National Laws and Regulations (https://wedocs.unep.Org/handle/20.500.11822/27113)
PEER REVIEWERS
This report was peer reviewed by the following external reviewers:
1. Gayle Hubert
US Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7
Land, Chemicals, and Redevelopment Division
Brownfields Redevelopment and Reuse Branch
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Sustainable End of Life Management of Plastics
Sustainable Materials Management Section
11201 Renner Blvd, Lenexa, KS 66219
2. Amanda Cotton
Electronic Waste Coordinator
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Phone number: 651-757-2211
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