Greenhouse Gas and Energy
Consumption Rates for Onroad
Vehicles in MOVES5
oEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
-------
Greenhouse Gas and Energy
Consumption Rates for Onroad
Vehicles in MOVES5
Assessment and Standards Division
Office of Transportation and Air Quality
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
NOTICE
This technical report does not necessarily represent final EPA decisions
or positions. It is intended to present technical analysis of issues using
data that are currently available. The purpose in the release of such
reports is to facilitate the exchange of technical information and to
inform the public of technical developments.
United States
Environmental Protection
^1 Agency
EPA-420-R-24-018
November 2024
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Contents
1 Introduction 5
2 Energy Rates 7
2.1 Light-Duty Vehicles 7
2.1.1 Light-Duty GHG and CAFE Regulations 7
2.1.2 Light-Duty Running Energy Rates for Internal Combustion Engines 12
2.1.3 Light-Duty Running Energy Rates for Electric Vehicles 16
2.1.4 Light-Duty Start Energy Rates 18
2.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicles 21
2.2.1 Heavy-Duty Battery Electric and Fuel Cell Energy Rates 22
2.2.2 Hotelling Shore Power Energy Consumption 24
3 Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Emission Rates 25
3.1 Gasoline Vehicles 25
3.2 Diesel Vehicles 28
3.2.1 Light-Duty Diesel 28
3.2.2 Heavy-Duty Diesel 29
3.3 Alternative-Fueled Vehicles 33
4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Rates 34
4.1 Carbon Dioxide Calculations 34
4.2 Carbon Dioxide Equivalent Emissions 35
5 Fuel Consumption Calculations 36
Appendices 37
Appendix A. Timeline of Energy and GHG emissions in MOVES 37
Appendix B. Emission Control Technology Phase-In used for N2O Emission Rate
Calculations 40
Appendix C. EV ALPHA Parameters and Results 44
6 References 47
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List of Acronyms
ABT
emissions averaging, banking and trading program
A/C
Air Conditioning
ALPHA
Advanced Light-Duty Powertrain and Hybrid Analysis
APU
auxiliary power units
BEV
battery electric vehicle
bhp
brake horsepower
BTU
British Thermal Unit
CAFE
Corporate Average Fuel Economy
CARB
California Air Resources Board
CBD
Central Business District
CFR
Code of Federal Regulations
ch4
methane
CNG
Compressed Natural Gas
CO
carbon monoxide
C02
carbon dioxide
CRC
Coordinating Research Council
DB
database
DOE
U.S. Department of Energy
DPF
Diesel Particulate Filter
EMFAC
CARB emissions factors model
EPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EER
Energy Efficiency Ratio
FCEV
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle
FHWA
Federal Highway Administration
FTP
Federal Test Procedure
g
grams
GHG
Greenhouse Gases
g/mi
Grams per mile
GVWR
Gross Vehicle Weight Rating
GWP
Global Warming Potential
THC
Total Hydrocarbons
HD
Heavy-Duty
HDIU
Heavy-Duty Diesel In-Use
HDT
Heavy-Duty Truck
HFC
Hydrofluorocarbon
HHD
Heavy-Heavy-Duty Class 8 Trucks (GVWR > 33,000 lbs)
HHDD
Heavy Heavy-Duty Diesel
HP
horsepower
HPMS
Highway Performance Monitoring System
hr
hour
HV
heating value
H2O
water
ICE
Internal Combustion Engine
I/M
Inspection and Maintenance program
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kJ
Kilojoules
kW
Kilowatt
LD
Light-Duty
LHD
Light-Heavy-Duty
LHD2b3
Light-Heavy-Duty Class 2b and 3 Truck (8,500 < GVWR < 14,000 lbs)
LHD45
Light Heavy-Duty Class 4 or 5 Truck (14,000 < GVWR < 19,500 lbs)
LHDDT
Light Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck
MC
Motorcycle
MDPV
Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicle
MHD
Medium-Heavy-Duty Class 6 and 7 Trucks (19,500 < GVWR < 33,000
lbs)
M0BILE6
EPA Highway Vehicle Emission Factor Model, Version 6
MOVES
Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator Model
MY
model year
MYG
model year group
NREL
National Renewal Energy Laboratory
N20
nitrous oxide
OBD
On-Board Diagnostics
OEM
Original Equipment Manufacturer
PERE
Physical Emission Rate Estimator
SCR
selective catalytic reduction
STP
scaled tractive power
UDDS
Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule
VIN
Vehicle Identification Number
VIUS
Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey
VMT
Vehicle Miles Traveled
VSP
vehicle specific power
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1 Introduction
This report describes the energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) rates in MOVES and documents the
data sources and analyses we used to develop the energy and greenhouse gas emission rates. A
timeline of the development of the energy and greenhouse gas emission rates in MOVES is
presented in Appendix A.
The content of this report intersects with several other MOVES technical reports, including:
Exhaust Emission Rates for Heavy-Duty Onroad Vehicles in MOVES5,1 referred to
here as the HD Exhaust Report. Energy consumption rates for heavy-duty conventional
vehicles are detailed in this report. It also describes the total hydrocarbon emissions used
to estimate methane emissions.
Emission Adjustments for Onroad Vehicles in MOVES5,2 referred to here as the
Emission Adjustments Report. This report describes adjustments to account for charging
efficiency, battery deterioration, cabin temperature control and the modeling of fleet-
averaging emission standards for CO2 and energy such that electric vehicle fractions
impact the effective energy consumption rates for internal combustion engine (ICE)
vehicles.
Exhaust Emission Rates for Light-Duty Onroad Vehicles in MOVES5,3 referred to
here as the LD Exhaust Report. This report describes the total hydrocarbon emissions
used to estimate methane emissions.
Fuel Supply Defaults: Regional Fuels and the Fuel Wizard in MOVES5,4 referred to
here as the Fuel Supply Report.
Population and Activity of Onroad Vehicles in MOVES5,5 referred to here as the
Population and Activity Report. This report explains MOVES default vehicle activity and
vehicle populations, including age distributions and fuel mix. MOVES default electric
vehicle fractions are explained in this report.
Speciation of Total Organic Gas and Particulate Matter Emissions from Onroad
Vehicles in MOVES5,6 referred to here as the Onroad Speciation Report. This report
describes how MOVES estimates methane emissions.
All MOVES onroad technical reports can be accessed from the MOVES webpage.7
MOVES accounts for federal regulations on fuel consumption and GHG emissions from onroad
vehicles. The most recent of these are listed below:
• Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards and Corporate Average Fuel
Economy Standards for model years 2012 through 2016 (LD GHG Phase l)8
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and
Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles (HD GHG Phase l)9
• 2017 and Later Model Year Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions and
Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards (LD GHG Phase 2)10
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty
Engines and Vehicles—Phase 2 Rule (HD GHG Phase 2)11
• Safer Affordable Fuel Efficient (SAFE) Vehicles Rule for Model Years 2021-2026
Passenger Cars and Light Trucks12
• Revised 2023 and Later Model Year Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission
Standards (LD GHG 2023-2026)13
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• Multi-Pollutant Emissions Standards for Model Years 2027 and Later Light-Duty and
Medium-Duty Vehicles (LMDV2027)14
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards for Heavy-Duty Vehicles - Phase 3 (HD GHG
Phase 3)15
MOVES5 is the first MOVES version to account for LMDV2027 and HD GHG Phase 3. Both
rules are performance-based vehicle emissions standards covering model years 2027 and later.
They do not mandate the sales of electric vehicles, but we model manufacturers will comply with
them by selling a significant portion of electric vehicles.
This report is divided into four major sections:
1. Energy Rates
2. Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Emission Rates
3. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Rates
4. Fuel Consumption Calculations
The energy rates for light-duty vehicles are based on the work conducted for MOVES2004,16
however, they have been significantly updated in subsequent versions of MOVES. This report
documents the changes in energy rates that were made between MOVES2010 and current
versions of MOVES. We point the reader to the earlier reports that document the development of
the energy rates prior to MOVES2010.16 17 And, as noted above, energy rates for heavy-duty
vehicles are described in the HD Exhaust Report.1
The carbon dioxide (CO2) emission rates in MOVES are calculated based on energy
consumption. The values used to convert energy consumption to CO2 emissions are presented in
this report in addition to the equation and values used to calculate carbon dioxide equivalent
(CO2) emissions. The methods and data used to calculate nonroad fuel consumption and CO2
emission rates for nonroad equipment are documented in the nonroad emission rate reports
Exhaust and Crankcase Emissions Factors for Nonroad Compression-Ignition Engines and
Exhaust Emission Factors for Nonroad Engine Modeling - Spark Ignition.18
We also present the values that MOVES uses to calculate volumetric fuel consumption (gallons).
MOVES currently reports fuel usage in terms of energy consumption (e.g., kilojoules), but
calculates gallons for use in internal calculators as well. The values are presented in this report so
that users can calculate fuel volumes using MOVES output in a manner consistent with the
MOVES calculators.
Lastly, although methane is considered one of the major greenhouse gases, the development of
methane emission rates is not documented in this report. Methane emissions in MOVES are
calculated as a fraction of total hydrocarbons. Methane fractions and total hydrocarbon emission
rates are documented in the Onroad Speciation Report,6 LD Exhaust Report,3 and HD Exhaust
Report.1
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2 Energy Rates
In MOVES, energy consumption rates (energy use per time) are recorded in the emissionRate
table by fuel type, regulatory class, model year group, emission process, and operating mode. For
heavy-duty vehicles, further adjustments are recorded by source type, regulatory class, fuel type,
and model year in the emissionRateAdjustment table. Additional adjustments to energy
consumption are described in the Emission Adjustments Report.2
The first full suite of energy rates, released in MOVES2004, were developed by binning second-
by-second (1 Hz) data from test programs, including 16 EPA-sponsored test programs and
multiple non-EPA test programs. Details about the data and programs are documented in
MOVES2004 Energy and Emission Inputs report16. Since then, the energy rates in MOVES have
been updated to account for several GHG and Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
regulations.
In this chapter, we discuss the energy rates for both light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles. In each
section, relevant regulations are briefly introduced and the modeling approaches used to
incorporate them into MOVES are explained or referenced.
2.1 Light-Duty Vehicles
In MOVES, light-duty vehicles include passenger cars, passenger trucks, and light commercial
trucks. For details about corresponding vehicle weights and HPMS classes, refer to the
Population and Activity Report.5 For information about operating modes and vehicle-specific
power (VSP) bins, see the LD Exhaust Report.3
2.1.1 Light-Duty GHG and CAFE Regulations
Several regulations are relevant for LD energy consumption rats in MOVES. These are discussed
in the sections below.
2.1.1.1 LD GHG Rule Phase 1 and Phase 2
The Light Duty GHG Phase 1 rule covers model years 2012 through 2016, while the Phase 2 rule
covers model years 2017 through 2025. Both Phase 1 and 2 rules apply to passenger cars and
light trucks. A summary of source type and regulatory class combination that are covered under
LD GHG rules is in Table 2-1. Projected fleet-average emission targets are shown in Table 2-2
and Table 2-3.
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Table 2-1 A summary of source type and regulatory class combinations covered under LP GHG rules
Source Type (sourceTypelD)
Regulatory Class (regClassID)
passenger cars (21)
Light-duty vehicles (LDV) (20)
passenger trucks (31)
Light-duty Trucks (LDT) (30),
Light Heavy-duty Class 2b and
3 Trucks (LHD2b3) (41)a
light commercial trucks (32)
LDT (30), LHD2b3 (41)a
Table 2-2 Projected fleet-wide emissions compliance levels under the footprint-based CO2 standards (g/mi) -
LD GHG Phase 1
LD Vehicle Group
Model Year
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Passenger Cars
263
256
247
236
225
Light Trucks
346
337
326
312
298
Combined Cars and Trucks
295
286
276
263
250
Table 2-3 Projected fleet-wide emissions compliance levels under the footprint-based CO2 standards (g/mi) -
LD GHG Phase 2
LD Vehicle
Model Year
Group
2016
base
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
Passenger Cars
225
212
202
191
182
172
164
157
150
143
Light Trucks
298
295
285
277
269
249
237
225
214
203
Combined Cars
and Trucks
250
243
232
222
213
199
190
180
171
163
The footprint-based methodology was used for both LD GHG Phase 1 and Phase 2 rules to
project fleet average emissions. Each vehicle has a projected CO2 emission rate based on its
footprint,13 19 represented by footprint curves. Figure 2-1 is an example of the footprint curve for
passenger cars under the LD GHG Phase 2 rule. The footprint-based CO2 emission rates were
then weighted by the historical and projected vehicle sales to generate the fleet average
emissions shown in Table 2-2 and Table 2-3.
a While the LD GHG and SAFE rules apply to the Medium-Duty Passenger Vehicles portion of LHD2b3 vehicles
(GVWR 8,500 to 14,000 lbs), most LHD2b3 vehicles are covered by HD GHG rules. Thus, until MY 2027,
MOVES models the entire LHD2b3 class under the HD GHG rules as described in the HD section.
b "Footprint" refers to the size of the vehicle, specifically, the product of wheelbase times average track width (the
area defined by where the centers of the tires touch the ground) as explained in the 2020 EPA Automotive Trends
report.
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Figure 2-1. CO2 (g/mile) footprint curves for passenger cars
Air conditioning (A/C) systems contribute to vehicle GHG emissions in two ways. First, when
the compressor pumps the refrigerant around the system loop, it adds an extra load to the
powertrain, increasing energy consumption and tailpipe CO2 emissions. Second, they contribute
directly to GHG emissions via refrigerant leakage (for example, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
leakage).
Accordingly, there are two types of A/C credits in the LD GHG rules - A/C efficiency credits
and A/C refrigerant credits (aka. leakage credits). Both types of credits are used when converting
projected CO2 compliance target to projected 2-cycle CO2. Projected CO2 compliance targets
represent the curve standard numbers, while projected 2-cycle CO2 represent the actual standards
that manufactures need to comply with. The projected 2-cycle CO2 is the sum of projected CO2
compliance targets, incentives, and credits, where incentives include advanced technology
multipliers and intermediate volume provisions and credits include off cycle credit, A/C
refrigerant credit, and A/C efficiency credit. Table 2-4 shows the values for projected CO2
compliance targets, incentives, credits, and projected 2-cycle CO2 emissions for passenger cars
for model years 2016 to 2025. There are similar tables for passenger trucks and the combined
passenger cars and trucks fleet in the LD GHG Phase 1 and 2 rules.
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Table 2-4 Projections for fleetwide tailpipe emissions compliance with CO2 standards for passenger cars
(g/mile) - LP GHG Phase 2 i
Model
Projected
Incentives
Projected
Credits
Projected
Year
C02
Advanced
Intermediate
Achieved
Off-
A/C
A/C
2-cycle
compliance
Technology
Volume
C02
cycle
Refrigerant
Efficiencv
C02
target
Multiplier
Provisions
Credit
2016
225
0
0
225
0.4
5.4
4.8
235
base
2017
212
0.6
0.1
213
0.5
7.8
5.0
226
2018
202
1.1
0.3
203
0.6
9.3
5.0
218
2019
191
1.6
0.1
193
0.7
10.8
5.0
210
2020
182
1.5
0.1
183
0.8
12.3
5.0
201
2021
172
1.2
0
173
0.8
13.8
5.0
193
2022
164
0
0
164
0.9
13.8
5.0
184
2023
157
0
0
157
1.0
13.8
5.0
177
2024
150
0
0
150
1.1
13.8
5.0
170
2025
143
0
0
143
1.4
13.8
5.0
163
MOVES uses the real-world tailpipe CO2 defined in LD GHG rule Regulatory Impact Analysis
(RIA)20 to represent on-road fleet average CO2 emissions (see Table 2-5). The real-world tailpipe
CO2 was calculated using Equation 2-1 shown below. The value 1.25 multiplying factor in
Equation 2-1 is derived from the 20% gap between test (NHTSA's CAFE 2-Cycle test including
the FTP and HWFET) and on-road MPG (EPA's 5-cycle test used for fuel economy labeling,
including the FTP, HWFET, US06, SC03, and UDDS)21 for liquid fueled vehicles. We believe
that EPA's 5-cycle test is more representative of real-world driving, so we converted the 2-cycle
CO2 emission to real-world CO2 by dividing by 0.8 (equal to multiplying by 1.25).
Real World Tailpipe C02
= ( Projected 2 Cycle C02 — Off Cycle Credit Equation 2-1
— A/C Efficiency Credit) * 1.25
Table 2-5 Projections for the average, real-world fleetwide tailpipe CO2 emissions and fuel economy
Model Year
Real-World Tailpipe CO? (g/mile)
Real-World Fuel Economy (miles per gallon)
Cars
Trucks
Cars + Trucks
Cars
Trucks
Cars + Trucks
2016 base
287
381
320
30.9
23.3
27.8
2017
276
378
313
32.2
23.5
28.4
2018
266
373
304
33.5
23.9
29.2
2019
255
363
294
34.8
24.5
30.2
2020
244
357
284
36.4
24.9
31.3
2021
234
334
269
38.0
26.6
33.1
2022
223
318
256
39.9
27.9
34.7
2023
215
304
244
41.3
29.3
36.4
2024
205
289
233
43.4
30.8
38.1
2025
196
277
223
45.5
32.1
40.0
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2.1.1.2 SAFE Rule
The SAFE rule, finalized in March 2020 and effective on June 29, 2020, amended existing
CAFE and GHG standards for passenger cars and light trucks. The fleet-average targets for light-
duty passenger cars and trucks in the SAFE rule are shown in Table 2-6. We updated energy
rates based on the SAFE rule in MOVES3 as described in Section 2.1.2 (running energy rates)
and in Section 2.1.3 (start energy rates).0
Table 2-6 Fleet-average fuel economy and CO2 targets in the SAFE rule
Model
Average of OEM Established Requirements
Year
Passenger Cars
Passenger Trucks
CAFE mog
CO7 g/mile
CAFE mog
C02 g/mile
2021
44.2
183
31.6
264
2022
44.9
180
32.1
259
2023
45.6
177
32.6
255
2024
46.3
174
33.1
251
2025
47.0
171
33.6
247
2026
47.7
168
34.1
243
2.1.1.3 Revised 2023 and Later LD GHG Standards
The Revised 2023 and Later Model Year Light Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emission
Standards (LD GHG 2023-2026) rule22 tightened the CO2 emission requirements for model years
2023 and later. These standards, shown in Table 2-7, are expected to increase the fraction of
electric vehicles in the fleet as described in the Population and Activity Report5 and to change
the average energy consumption of the remaining ICE vehicles.
Table 2-7 Estimated fleet-wide CO2 targets corresponding to the final LD GHG 2023-2026 standards
Model
CO? Emission Targets (g/mile)
Year
Passenger Cars
Passenger Trucks
Fleet-Average
2023
166
234
202
2024
158
222
192
2025
149
207
179
2026 and
132
187
161
beyond
2.1.1.4 LMDV2027 Standards
The Multi-Pollutant Emissions Standards for Model Years 2027 and Later Light-Duty and
Medium-Duty Vehicles (LMDV2027) rule was finalized by EPA in 2024 and incorporated into
MOVES5. The standards increase in stringency each year over a six-year period from model
years 2027 to 2032. The proposed standards are projected to result in an industry-wide average
target for the light-duty fleet of 82 g/mile of CO2 in MY 2032. The CO2 emission rates for
0 The SAFE "Part 1" Final Rule (One National Program) was released in September 2019. As a result, EPA
withdrew the Clean Air Act preemption waiver for LD vehicles it had granted to California. The California Clean
Air Act preemption waiver was reinstated in 2023.
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gasoline, diesel, and E-85 vehicles in MOVES regulatory classes 20, 30, and 41 were updated by
matching MOVES output to the rates generated by the EPA Optimization Model for reducing
Emissions of Greenhouse Gases from Automobiles (OMEGA) model for the final rule (FRM)
central case scenario, which can be found in the docket for the rulemaking.23
2.1.2 Light-Duty Running Energy Rates for Internal Combustion Engines
This section focuses on running energy rates for light-duty vehicles with internal combustion
engines (ICE). The main text focuses on gasoline vehicles, including hybrids. Hybrids are
subject to the same CO2 standards as conventional gasoline vehicles and are incorporated into the
fleet average emissions for gasoline vehicles. Energy consumption rates for vehicles running on
diesel and ethanol fuels are described in Section 2.1.2.6.
2.1.2.1 Motorcycles
Motorcycle energy consumption rates have not been updated since MOVES2014. The energy
rates were developed initially for MOVES200416 for three weight categories (<500 lbs, 500-700
lbs, and >700 lbs), and three engine size categories (<170 cc, 170-280 cc, and > 280 cc). We
consolidated the energy consumption rates into a single energy rate by model year for all
motorcycles in MOVES2010a.17 Due to a population shift to larger motorcycles24, this resulted
in an average increase in motorcycle energy consumption rates between MY 1991 and MY 2000.
We assumed the same distributions of motorcycles starting in MY 2000 going forward to MY
2060 (2.9% <170cc, 4.3% 170-280cc, and 92.8%>280 cc, with 30% between 500-700 lbs, and
70% > 700 lbs), thus the motorcycle energy running rates for MY 2000 through MY 2060
remain constant.
2.1.2.2 Model Years Prior to 2017
Energy consumption rates for light-duty vehicles (LDV) from before MY 2017, and light-duty
trucks (LDT) from before MY 2017 are unchanged from MOVES2014. The energy rates for
motorcycles, light-duty cars and light-duty trucks are distinguished by fuel type, engine
technology, regulatory class, and model year.
Before MOVES2010a, MOVES stored energy rates in significantly more detail than it does now;
rates varied by engine technology, engine size and more refined loaded weight classes. For
MOVES2010a, the energy rates were simplified to use single energy rates for each regulatory
class, fuel type and model year combination. This was done by removing advanced technology
energy rates and aggregating the MOVES2010 energy rates across engine size and vehicle
weight classes according to the default vehicle populations in MOVES2010. Because this
approach used highly detailed energy consumption data, coupled with information on engine size
and vehicle weight for the vehicle fleet that varied for each model year, year-by-year variability
was introduced into the pre-2000 MY aggregated energy rates used in MOVES2010a and carried
into later MOVES versions.
The effects of the LD GHG Phase 1 and Phase 2 rules were modelled by adjusting the energy
rates in previous MOVES versions, as documented in the MOVES2010 and MOVES2014 GHG
and Energy Consumption Rates reports.17 25
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2.1.2.3 Model Years 2017-2026
Light-duty energy consumption rates for model years 2017 through 2022 are based sales and
certification data from the 2023 Automotive Trends Report.26
For model years 2023-2026, MOVES estimates the effects of the LD GHG 2023-2026 rule. The
basic methodology we used is the same as the one used to incorporate LD GHG rules in
MOVES2014, where we used ratios of the estimated real-world CO2 (or on-road CO2) values
developed in the rulemaking as input to update the MOVES rates in the emissionRate table. The
real-world CO2 calculation for model years 2023-2026 uses CO2 2-cycle g/mile rates, off-cycle
credits, and AJC efficiency credits, as shown in Equation 2-1.
MOVES also incorporates an adjustment to ICE energy rates that accounts for fleet averaging
and the sales of electric vehicles as documented in the Emission Adjustments Report.2 The
adjustment results in an increase in the average C02/mile for gasoline and diesel vehicles.
2.1.2.4 Model Years 2027 and beyond
For LMDV2027, we calculated adjustment ratios from on-road CO2 values generated by
OMEGA and applied them directly to running energy rates in the emissionRate table, including
for all ICE light-duty vehicles (regulatory classes 20 and 30) and all medium-duty vehicles
(regulatory class 41). The new, more stringent emissions standards for criteria pollutants and
greenhouse gases (GHG) for light-duty vehicles and medium-duty vehicles (LMDV) phase in
over model years 2027 through 2032 and then are stable beyond model year 2032.
The LMDV2027 standards are different for Class 2b and Class 3 vehicles, which are both
modeled in MOVES as regulatory class 41. In MOVES, we set the regClass 41 values in the
emissionRate table to the rate appropriate for Class 3 vehicles and adjust this to reflect the Class
2b standards for source types 31 and 32 by applying adjustments via the emissionrateadjustment
table.
MOVES also incorporates an adjustment to ICE energy rates that accounts for the fleet averaging
provisions of LMDV2027 as documented in the Emission Adjustments Report. The fleet
averaging adjustment results in higher CO2 g/mile rates for ICE vehicles in years where we
project that Inflation Reduction Act subsidies will result in higher EV sales fractions than needed
to comply with the LMDV2027 rule.
2.1.2.5 LD Running Energy by Operating Mode
Figure 2-2 shows the energy consumption rates by operating mode for motorcycles, LDVs, and
LDTs in model year 2025. The relative energy consumption rates by operating mode are the
same for all passenger cars beginning in MY 1999 and all light-duty trucks beginning in MY
2001.
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4&+G5-
1 n •
•
r
2e+05-
1
1
1
0
•
¦ j
le+05-
•
1
1
»
•
—I 1 1—
0 1 2
—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—
4 5 6 7 019 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 23 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 3B 39 40
opModelD
fuelTypeDesc • Diesel Fuel • Gasoline
Figure 2-2. Running energy rates by operating mode (opModelD) for motorcycles (MC), light-duty vehicles
(LDV) and light-duty trucks (LDT) for model year 2025
2.1.2.6 LD Running Energy Rate Summary
Beginning in MY 2021, the absolute magnitude of light-duty energy consumption rates fall,
driven by EPA rules. This can be seen in Figure 2-3 and Figure 2-4, which plot the MOVES
national average CO2 emission rates for motorcycles, LDVs, and LDTs for the running process.
Model years 1950-1969 have the same CO2 emission rates as MY 1970.
These emission rates represent fleet average emissions and do not necessarily reflect GHG
standards directly. Some changes in base rates may be caused by MOVES modeling of fleet
averaging when EVs represent a significant portion of total light-duty sales.
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1 il K A
n
Y
tm>W
\f
Reg
Class
20-LDV
-t-
30-LDT
1980 2000 2020 2040
Model Year
Figure 2-4. Base running rates in MOVES5 for atmospheric CO2 from diesel light-duty vehicles and light-
duty trucks averaged over nationally representative operating mode distributions. MOVES5 models no diesel
passenger cars after MY 2019.
15
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Starting in MY 2012, diesel LDVs and LDTs have the same relative energy rates (for starts and
running) and operating mode trends as corresponding gasoline vehicles. The diesel energy rates
are 2.9% lower than the gasoline running energy rates. The 2.9% difference accounts for the
higher carbon content in diesel fuel (Table 4-1) as compared to gasoline fuel, such that the CO2
emission rates are equivalent for 2012 MY+ gasoline and diesel vehicles. The model year trends
for diesel LDV and LDT CO2 emission rates are similar to gasoline vehicles beginning in MY
2012, as shown in Figure 2-4.
Ethanol (E-85) vehicles are assumed to have the same energy consumption rates as comparable
gasoline vehicles. However, the differences in carbon content results in different CO2 emission
rates as discussed in Section 4.1.
2.1.3 Light-Duty Running Energy Rates for Electric Vehicles
Energy rates for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) were significantly updated in MOVES4,
relative to MOVES3. There is limited experimental data available at the 1 HZ level, which is the
resolution that MOVES requires. We modeled nine BEVs representative of the 2019 fleet in
EPA's ALPHA (Advanced Light-Duty Powertrain and Hybrid Analysis) model.27 The vehicles
modelled include the Chevy Bolt, Tesla Model 3, Honda Clarity (BEV), Nissan Leaf, Fiat 500e,
Tesla Model S, BMW i3, VW e-Golf, and Tesla Model X. Inputs for each vehicle were compiled
from the EPA test car list28, manufacturer data, press releases, and other sources. See Appendix
C for a comprehensive table of the values used for these vehicles. These rates were used for all
model years 2011-2060.
In ALPHA, we simulated each vehicle over three repeats of the EPA UDDS and HWFET21
cycles, as well as two additional sets of drive cycles in order to increase the sample sizes for the
high-powered operating modes. The first set included the UDDS, LA92, US06, and Worldwide
harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycles (WLTC). The second set was a custom-built cycle
intended to fully populate every MOVES operating mode. It consisted of 50 hard accelerations
based on a standard 0-78.5 mph acceleration curve but varied slightly with a maximum speed
ranging from 75 to 80 miles per hour. This enabled rate collection for a variety of speeds and
vehicle-specific power bins (VSPs). Data during deceleration back to 0 mph was ignored because
the cycle was intended only to sample high-power operation, not represent real-world operation.
Typically, operating mode is assigned using power at the wheels, as calculated by ALPHA based
on the individual vehicle characteristics. Since MOVES uses the same road load coefficients for
BEVs and ICE vehicles, that approach meant the resulting energy consumption values were
biased too high. Instead, we calculated VSP and assigned operating modes using the road loads
in MOVES and the values for velocity and acceleration reported by ALPHA. After making this
change, the energy rates calculated by ALPHA were much more closely aligned with the data
from the test car list.28 More details about parameters and results in ALPHA modeling can be
found in Appendix C.
We derived final energy rates by calculating the average rate across all of the modelled vehicles
in ALPHA, weighted by 2019 sales volumes. The sales volumes can be found in Table C-l in
16
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Appendix C. This approach accounts for variations in BEV engineering, increases the sample
size in each operating mode, and helps make the energy rates less sensitive to differences in
vehicle characteristics.
In theory, a similar methodology could be applied to passenger trucks. However, at the time of
our analysis for MOVES4, there was not enough information available about EV trucks on the
market or in the test car list to properly represent these vehicles in ALPHA. Therefore, we scaled
the rates for light-duty electric trucks and LHD2b3 trucks (regulatory classes 30 and 41) from the
light-duty electric car rates, assuming that energy gained from regenerative braking and energy
used during all other operation increases linearly with vehicle mass. We calculated the specific
scaling factor from the fixedMassFactor column of the sourceUseTypePhysics table. The scaling
factor for converting LDV rates to LDT rates is 1.2624, while the scaling factor to convert LDV
rates to LHD2b3 is 3.3811.
The MOVES energy consumption rates for MY2011-2060 passenger cars and passenger trucks
are shown below in Figure 2-5 and Figure 2-6. In both figures, the blue bars represent energy
consumption rates for a BEV and the orange bars represent the rates for an ICE vehicle. Negative
energy consumption values in the plots represent regenerative braking. For passenger cars and
trucks, BEV energy rates for each operating mode have lower values than ICE energy rates.
4e+05
3e+05-
.2 2e+05
o
o
1e+05
0e+00
EV Car
ICE Car
Operating Mode
Figure 2-5. MOVES5 base energy rates for electric and ICE model year 2011-2060 passenger cars by
operating mode
17
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4e+05
3e+05
2e+05
o
o
S 1e+05
Oe+OO
EV Truck
ICE Truck
Operating Mode
Figure 2-6. MOVES5 base energy rates for electric and ICE model year 2011-2060 passenger trucks by
operating mode
Further adjustments to BEV energy consumption rates are documented in the Emission
Adjustments Report,2 including adjustments for ambient temperature, air conditioning, and for
charging and battery efficiency. MOVES does not model light-duty fuel cell electric vehicles.
2.1.4 Light-Duty Start Energy Rates
LD BEVs are modelled with zero energy consumption for starts. ICE vehicles, on the other hand,
require energy to start the internal combustion engine, especially when the engine has been
sitting ("soaking") for a long time or in low ambient temperatures.
Figure 2-7 displays the start energy rates for gasoline motorcycles (MC), light-duty vehicles
(LDV), and light-duty trucks (LDT) by operating mode for model year 2020. Start energy rates
increase for operating modes with longer soak times as defined in Table 2-8. The operating mode
fractions are used for all model years and fuel types of light-duty vehicles and motorcycles.
MOVES also adjusts the start rates for the increased fuel consumption required to start a vehicle
at cold ambient temperatures. The temperature effects on start energy consumption are
documented in the Emission Adjustments Report2 and the 2004 Energy Report.16
18
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2000"
1500-
1000-
500
0 -L
1500-
1000-
500
i 0
2000""
1500"
10D0-
500-
0 -.
104 105
opModelD
fuelTypeDesc
Diesel Fuel
Gasoline
Figure 2-7. Start energy rates by operating mode (opModelD) for motorcycles (MC), light-duty vehicles
(LDV) and light-duty trucks (LDT) for model year 2025
Table 2-8. Proportion of energy consumed at start of varying soak lengths compared to the energy consumed
Operating
Mode
Description
Proportion of energy
consumption
compared to cold
start
101
Soak Time < 6 minutes
0.013
102
6 minutes <= Soak Time < 30 minutes
0.0773
103
30 minutes <= Soak Time < 60 minutes
0.1903
104
60 minutes <= Soak Time < 90 minutes
0.3118
105
90 minutes <= Soak Time < 120 minutes
0.4078
106
120 minutes <= Soak Time < 360 minutes
0.5786
107
360 minutes <= Soak Time < 720 minutes
0.8751
108
720 minutes <= Soak Time
1
To account for the LD GHG 2023-2026 rule, we reduced start energy rates (based on the rule's
estimated real-world CO2) for all ICE light-duty vehicles by the same ratios as used for running
energy consumption rates. This was discussed in Section 2.1.1.3. We similarly applied the same
adjustment factors for model years 2027 and beyond as we did for running emissions to capture
the impact of the LMDV2027 rule. This was discussed in Section 2.1.1.4. The adjustment ratios
vary by model year from 2020 to 2050. The adjustment ratio for MY 2050 was applied to model
years 2051 and beyond.
19
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Figure 2-8 and Figure 2-9 plot the start CO2 emission rates for cold starts (opModel08) across
model years for gasoline and diesel light-duty vehicles, respectively. Motorcycles have a sharp
decrease in CO2 emission starts in 1991 because MOVES assumes 'controlled' energy starts
beginning in MY 1991 as documented in the MOVES2004 energy report.16 The start rates for
LDV and LDT have a large decrease starting in MY 2012 that follows the same general trends as
the running rates.
Reg Class
10-MC
20-LDV
30-LDT
1970
1990
2010
Model Year
2030
2050
Figure 2-8. Cold start CO2 emission rates (opMode 108) for gasoline motorcycle, light-duty vehicles, and
light-duty trucks
20
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Model Year
Figure 2-9. Cold start CO2 emission rates (opMode 108) for diesel light-duty vehicles, and light-duty trucks
2.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicles
MOVES has heavy-duty running energy consumption rates for five fuel types: diesel, gasoline,
compressed natural gas (CNG), battery electric (BEV) and hydrogen fuel cell (FCEV). Note that
the output for BEVs and FCEVs is combined as the electricity fuel type.
The development of the heavy-duty energy rates by regulatory class, fuel type, and model year
for ICE technologies are documented in the HD Exhaust Report.1 These rates include the
reductions from the HD GHG Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 standards which are only
summarized here. Energy consumption rates for heavy-duty electric vehicles are documented in
Section 2.2.1 of this report.
The HD GHG Phase 1 standards began in MY 2014 and increase in stringency through MY
2018. The standards were set to continue indefinitely after 2018. The program divides the diverse
truck sector into three distinct categories:
• Line haul tractors (largest heavy-duty tractors used to pull trailers, i.e., semi-trucks)
• Heavy-duty pickups and vans (3/4- and 1- ton trucks and vans)
• Vocational trucks (buses, refuse trucks, concrete mixers, etc)
The program set separate standards for engines and vehicles, and set separate standards for fuel
consumption, CO2, N2O, CH4 and HFCs.d
The HD GHG Phase 1 rule was incorporated into MOVES through three key elements. These
include (a) revised running emission rates for energy consumption, (b) new aerodynamic
d HFCs are not modeled in MOVES, and the N20 and CH4 standards are not considered forcing on emissions.
21
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coefficients and weights, (c) auxiliary power units (APUs), which largely replace extended idle
in long-haul trucks and were added as a new process in MOVES. The Phase 1 reductions vary by
fuel type, regulatory class, and model year. CNG and diesel vehicles have the same reductions
because they have the same standards. The effect of the HD GHG Phase 1 rule on running
energy consumption rates, APU energy consumption rates, and criteria emission rates is
documented in the HD Exhaust Report.1 The revised aerodynamic coefficients for MY 2014 and
later heavy-duty trucks are documented in the Population and Activity Report.5
MOVES also accounts for the HD GHG Phase 2 rule. The Phase 2 reductions in energy rates
vary by fuel type, regulatory class, and model year like the Phase 1 rule, but also by source type.
For details regarding these updates, please refer to HD Exhaust Report.1
In MOVES5, we updated heavy-duty vehicle energy rates to incorporate the HD GHG Phase 3
rule. As with Phase 1 and Phase 2, the Phase 3 reductions in energy rates vary by vehicle type
and are documented in the HD Exhaust Report.1
2.2.1 Heavy-Duty Battery Electric and Fuel Cell Energy Rates
In MOVES, heavy-duty EVs can have either battery electric or fuel cell powertrains, referred to
as battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), respectively.
Light-duty EV energy consumption was estimated using EPA's ALPHA model, based on the
average energy consumption of real BEV passenger cars and SUVs (see Section 2.1.3).
Unfortunately, there is not enough data for heavy-duty BEVs or FCEVs to implement a similar
approach to developing energy consumption rates.
Therefore, we used a more general approach based on an Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) of
electric vehicles to diesel vehicles. The EER allows MOVES to calculate EV energy
consumption relative to diesel energy consumption, which is much better understood. CARB has
used the EER to express EV energy consumption as well.29 The energy consumption of an HD
EV can be calculated using Equation 2-2:
Energydiesel •> •>
EnergyEV = — Equation 2-2
CCil
BEV EERs are generally greater than 1, indicating EVs are generally more efficient than
comparable diesel vehicles. An EER of 2 means an electric vehicle is twice as efficient as its
diesel counterpart and therefore consumes half the energy. While an EER can be formulated
relative to any ICE vehicle, we use diesel as the reference because it is the dominant fuel type in
the heavy-duty sector. For BEVs, we implemented this approach by first duplicating diesel
energy consumption rates for all electric vehicles in the EmissionRate table, then applying the
EERs using the EmissionRateAdjustment table.
Heavy-duty FCEVs have a lower efficiency ratio than comparable BEVs. However, MOVES
aggregates BEVs and FCEVs together into the electricity fuel type by the time the EERs are
22
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applied. The result is that the same EER is applied to both engine technologies. To account for
this, the energy consumption rates for FCEVs in the EmissionRate table are scaled up by a
FCEV:BEV scaling factor. This scaling factor incorporates all operational differences between
the two vehicle types, including differences in energy conversion efficiency and other MOVES
effects such as the temperature effect and charging efficiency adjustments for BEVs.2
In MOVES4, we calculated BEV EERs and the FCEV:BEV ratio based on a literature review of
sources available at the time. For MOVES5, we updated the EERs to be based entirely on heavy-
duty vehicle modeling in EPA's Heavy-Duty Technology Resource Use Case Scenario Tool (HD
TRUCS). HD TRUCS was developed for the HD GHG Phase 3 rule and was EPA's technology
assessment tool to support the development of technology packages for the final HD Phase 3
standards. It was peer reviewed in 202330 and is more fully discussed in the HD Phase 3
Regulatory Impact Analysis Chapter 2.31 For our analysis, we used the FRM version of HD
TRUCS available in the HD Phase 3 docket.32
HD TRUCS evaluates the energy and power demands of 101 representative HD vehicle types.
The representative vehicles cover many aspects of work performed by vehicles in the heavy-duty
sector. This work was translated into total energy and power demands by vehicle type based on
everyday use of HD vehicles. HD TRUCS then identifies the technical properties required for
electric vehicles (BEV, FCEV, or plug-in hybrids) to meet the operational needs of a comparable
diesel vehicle. In other words, HD TRUCS estimates the energy consumption rates of BEVs and
directly comparable diesel using component-level vehicle modeling and data.
We used the HD TRUCS output to calculate sales-weighted average diesel and BEV energy
consumption by MOVES source type and regulatory class.6 This, then, allows for the calculation
of BEV EERs, which appear in Table 2-9. Similarly, we used HD TRUCS output to calculate a
single FCEV:BEV scaling factor of 1.211 that includes all the operational differences between
BEVs and FCEVs.
e The sales volumes used to calculate the sales-weighted averages are included in HD TRUCS.
23
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Table 2-9 BEV Energy Efficiency Ratios (EER) calculated from HP TRUCS
Source Type
LHD45
regClassID 42
MHD67
regClassID 46
HHD8
regClassID 47
Urban Bus
regClassID 48
Other Buses
sourceTypelD 41
4.23
3.84
2.70
Transit Buses
sourceTypelD 42
3.59
3.44
3.65
3.65
School Buses
sourceTypelD 43
3.89
4.05
3.15
Refuse Trucks
sourceTypelD 51
3.53
3.53
3.70
Single Unit Short-Haul Trucks
sourceTypelD 52
3.78
3.45
3.03
Single Unit Long-Haul Trucks
sourceTypelD 53
3.47
2.92
2.39
Motor Homes
sourceTypelD 54
3.33
3.08
3.04
Combination Short-Haul Trucks
sourceTypelD 61
2.34
2.28
Combination Long-Haul Trucks
sourceTypelD 62
2.15
2.15
This approach has its limitations; the most important being the implicit assumption that relative
power demand across operating modes is the same between ICE and EV vehicles. While
regenerative braking is included in HD TRUCS and thus is included in the estimation of EERs,
MOVES cannot explicitly model regenerative braking (a negative energy consumption for the
braking operating modes) for heavy-duty EVs like it can for light-duty.
This approach is used only for running energy consumption. Heavy-duty EV energy
consumption is assumed to be zero for starts, consistent with the approach for light-duty. For
hotelling, we assume EV combination long-haul trucks will use shore power from the facility at
which they hotel, or otherwise keep the main battery off. Energy consumption for shore power is
discussed in the following section.
2.2.2 Hotelling Shore Power Energy Consumption
"Hotelling" refers to rest periods by long-haul trucking operators where the truck is used as a
residence. Energy consumption and emission rates during hotelling from conventional vehicles is
described in the HD Exhaust Report.1 To fully estimate energy demand on the grid for electric
and other vehicles, MOVES estimates energy consumption for combination trucks which hotel
overnight plugged into the AC power at the facility - known in the industry as using shore
power.
Shore power is represented by processID 93 and its energy consumption rates are stored in the
operating mode 203. In MOVES3, operating mode 203 covered both shore power and battery
usage for hotelling. In newer versions of MOVES, battery activity is classified as operating mode
204. Details are available in the Population and Activity Report.5
24
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Combination trucks of any fuel type can use shore power if they have the correct equipment.
Because the shore power is used to run accessories in the cabin, we assume that the energy
consumption for all fuel types using shore power is the same. Likewise, because the energy
consumption is related to accessory use, we use the same energy consumption rate for all model
years.
There is little data on shore power energy consumption, in large part because shore power usage
is still relatively rare - operators typically opt for auxiliary power units. Frey and Kuo (2009)33
collected energy consumption data from hotelling trucks from late 2006 through early 2008,
including engine-on idling, APU usage, and shore power for MY 2006 combination trucks.
Using their published energy consumption values, we derived a shore power EER, consistent
with our approach to modeling running energy consumption for heavy-duty EVs described in
Section 2.2.1. Frey and Kuo report data for both a mid-temperature and high-temperature
scenario, with EERs (relative to diesel engine-on energy consumption) that evaluate to 12.05 and
3.75, respectively.
We assume that the representative real-world average EER for shore power is 8, roughly
averaging the EER values reported by Frey and Kuo. Therefore, the shore power energy
consumption rate in MOVES is l/8th the energy consumption for a 2006 model year Class 8
tractor extended idling. We apply this rate (12,135.6 kilojoules per hour) to combination trucks
of all fuel types and model years.
3 Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Emission Rates
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful, long-lived greenhouse gas and is formed as a byproduct in
virtually all combustion processes34 and in catalytic exhaust emission aftertreatment systems.
MOVES estimates N2O emission rates for start and running exhaust. In general, the nitrous oxide
(N2O) emission rates in MOVES are estimated more coarsely than other pollutants. In
MOVES2014 and earlier versions, running (N2O) emission rates were estimated for one single
operating mode (opModelD 300 = all running). In MOVES3, we updated the N2O emission rates
to use the 23 operating modes that we use for most other pollutants (opModelDs 0 through 40),
however, for most regulatory classes, model years, and fuel types, the average running emission
rate is simply copied into the more detailed running exhaust operating modes. Start emissions
continue to use a single operating mode ("Starting," opModelD = 100). The N2O start and
running exhaust emission rates do not vary by vehicle age and are stored in the EmissionRate
table.
3.1 Gasoline Vehicles
As detailed in the MOVES2010a energy and greenhouse gas emission rate report17, the
gasoline N2O emission rates are derived from emission measurements on the Federal Test
Procedure (FTP)21 and supplemented with N2O emission rates from the Inventory of U.S.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2006 report46.
25
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The running and start emission rates are derived from composite FTP emission rates by using
Bag 2 of the FTP to estimate the average running emission rates (in grams per hour), and then
estimating the start emissions as the remainder of the composite emissions.
Table 3-1 lists the FTP composite N2O emission rates, calculated running rates (in grams
per hour) and start rates (in grams per start). The heavy-duty gasoline vehicle emission
rates are used for all heavy-duty regulatory classes (LHD2b3, LHD45, MHD, and HHD).
Table 3-1 Composite FTP, running, and start N2O emissions for gasoline vehicles
Vehicle Tvoe /
Control Technology
FTP Composite
(g/ mile)
Running
(g/hour)
Start
(g / start)
Motorcycles
Non-Catalyst Control
0.0069
0.0854
0.0189
Uncontrolled
0.0087
0.1076
0.0238
Gasoline Passenger Cars
EPA Tier 2
0.0050
0.0399
0.0221
LEVs
0.0101
0.0148
0.0697
EPA Tier 1
0.0283
0.2316
0.1228
EPA TierO
0.0538
0.6650
0.1470
Oxidation Catalyst
0.0504
0.6235
0.1379
Non-Catalyst Control
0.0197
0.2437
0.0539
Uncontrolled
0.0197
0.2437
0.0539
Gasoline Light-Duty Trucks
EPA Tier 2
0.0066
0.0436
0.0325
LEVs
0.0148
0.0975
0.0728
EPA Tier 1
0.0674
0.6500
0.2546
EPA TierO
0.0370
0.2323
0.1869
Oxidation Catalyst
0.0906
0.8492
0.3513
Non-Catalyst Control
0.0218
0.2044
0.0845
Uncontrolled
0.0220
0.2062
0.0853
Gasoline Heavy-Duty Vehicles
EPA Tier 2
0.0134
0.1345
0.0486
LEVs
0.0320
0.3213
0.1160
EPA Tier 1
0.1750
1.7569
0.6342
EPA TierO
0.0814
0.8172
0.2950
Oxidation Catalyst
0.1317
1.3222
0.4773
Non-Catalyst Control
0.0473
0.4749
0.1714
Uncontrolled
0.0497
0.4990
0.1801
26
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The N2O emission rates are applied in MOVES using model year group ranges that map to
technology distinctions. Table B-l through Table B-4 in Appendix B provide the distribution of
gasoline emission control technologies by model year. The running and start emission rates in
Table 3-1 are multiplied by the model-year-specific technology penetrations to provide model-
year-specific emission rates in MOVES. The values in Table B-l through Table B-4 are taken
directly from the Inventory of the US GHG Emissions and Sinks, Annex Tables A-84 through A-
8746, except for a few revisions noted in the footnotes of the tables. Nationally representative
N2O base rates for gasoline vehicles are shown in Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2.
1980 2000 2020 2040
Model Year
Figure 3-1. Base running rates in MOVES5 for N2O from gasoline motorcycle, light-duty vehicles and light-
duty trucks averaged over nationally representative operating mode distributions.
Reg Class
10-MC
20-LDV
30-LDT
27
-------
0.06
V 0.04
|
CD
ra
K
0.02
0.00'
Reg Class
41-LHD2b3
42-LHD45
46-MHD67
-+¦ 47-HHD8
1980
2000 2020
Model Year
2040
Figure 3-2. Base running rates in MOVES5 for N2O from gasoline heavy-duty vehicles averaged over
nationally representative operating mode distributions.
3.2 Diesel Vehicles
3.2.1 Light-Duty Diesel
For light-duty diesel vehicles, we estimated N2O emission rates using the FTP composite
emission rates reported in the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-
2006 report46, and the algorithm described above for gasoline vehicles. The emission rates by
control technology used for light-duty diesel vehicles and light-duty trucks are shown in Table
3-2.
Vehicle Tvoe / Control
FTP Composite
Running
Start
Technology3
(g/mile)
(g/hour)
(g / start)
Diesel Passenger Cars
Advanced
0.0010
0.0168
0.0010
Moderate
0.0010
0.0168
0.0010
Uncontrolled
0.0012
0.0202
0.0012
Diesel Light-Duty Trucks
Advanced
0.0015
0.0253
0.0015
Moderate
0.0014
0.0236
0.0014
Uncontrolled
0.0017
0.0286
0.0018
1 Table B-4 defines the model year group definitions of the diesel control technologies groups
28
-------
We used the distribution of light-duty diesel technology types by model year in Table B-4 to
estimate model year specific N2O emission rates in MOVES. The model year specific N2O rates
are shown in Figure 3-3.
0.00075
a;
|
2 0.00050
s
£
O
CM
0.00025
0.00000
/
\
Reg Class
20-LDV
30-LDT
1980 2000 2020 2040
Model Year
Figure 3-3. Base running rates in MOVES5 for N2O from diesel passenger cars and passenger trucks
averaged over nationally representative operating mode distributions. MOVES5 models no diesel passenger
cars after MY 2019.
3.2.2 Heavy-Duty Diesel
3.2.2.1 MY 1950-2003 Heavy-Duty Diesel
For heavy-duty diesel vehicles, the N2O emission rates by technology for MY 1950-2003 were
taken from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2006 report46
shown in Table 3-3. These emission rates are used in conjunction with the technology to model
year mapping in Table B-4 to estimate model-year-specific N2O emission rates in MOVES. The
heavy-duty diesel emission rates are used for all heavy-duty diesel regulatory classes including:
LHD2b3, LHD45, MHD, HHD, and Urban Bus. In addition, glider vehicles (regClassID 49) use
the "Advanced" emission rate in Table 3-5 for model years 1996-2060.
Table 3-3 Composite FTP, running, and start N2O emissions for model year 1950-2003 heavy-duty diesel
vehicles
Vehicle Type / Control
Technology3
FTP Composite
(g/mile)
Running
(g/hour)
Start
(g / start)
Diesel Heavy-Duty Vehicles
Advanced
0.0049
0.0828
0.0051
Moderate
0.0048
0.0809
0.0049
Uncontrolled
0.0048
0.0809
0.0049
1 Table B-4 defines the model year group definitions of the diesel control technologies groups
29
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3.2.2.2 MY 2004-2060 Heavy-Duty Diesel
Diesel exhaust aftertreatment technologies are known to increase N2O from diesel trucks. For
MOVES4, we updated heavy-duty diesel N2O emission rates based on information reported in
recent emission studies, as summarized in Table 3-4. The heavy-duty diesel emission rates are
classified according to engine model year and aftertreatment technology, including diesel
particulate filters (DPF) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems. Since net emissions for
gasoline and light-duty diesel vehicles are expected to remain relatively low (see Figure 3-1,
Figure 3-2, and Figure 3-3), we did not update those rates and they continue to be based on the
older data and methodology described in the sections above.
Preble et al. (2019)35 sampled individual heavy-duty vehicle exhaust plumes at the entrance to
the Caldecott Tunnel near Oakland, California and at the Port of Oakland for multiple years. At
the entrance of the Caldecott Tunnel, heavy-duty trucks were traveling up a 4% grade between
30 and 75 mph. At the Port of Oakland, the trucks were traveling on a level roadway at around
30 mph. The data from Preble et al. (2019) is also used to update the NFb and NO/NO2 fractions
as discussed in the HD Exhaust Report.1 Quiros et al. (2016)36 sampled six heavy-duty diesel
tractors hauling a mobile emissions laboratory trailer. They sampled the vehicles along six routes
intended to represent goods movement in Southern California. The confidence intervals reported
for Quiros et al. (2016) in Table 3-4 were calculated from the average N2O emission rate
associated with each of the six routes, which ranged between 0.27 (near-port route) to 0.97
(urban route) g/kg-fuel. The Advanced Collaborative Emissions Study (ACES)37 38 tested four
model year 2007 and three model year 2010 heavy-duty diesel engines using an engine
dynamometer.
Each of the studies demonstrate that model year 2010 and later diesel vehicles have significantly
higher N2O emission rates than earlier models of heavy-duty vehicles. N2O is an unintended
byproduct formed within the selective catalytic reduction and ammonia oxidation catalysts
aftertreatment systems used to control NOx and NH3.39-41136 To ensure that these systems do not
produce excessive N2O emissions, the Phase 1 Heavy-Duty Greenhouse Gas Rule implemented
an N2O emission standard on the FTP cycle of 0.1 g/hp-hr for 2014 and newer engines, which is
roughly equivalent to 0.6 g/kg-fuel. We summarized manufacturer submitted certification data
for heavy-duty engines between model year 2016 and 202041 in Table 3-4, which shows that the
average FTP cycle average N2O emission rates are roughly half the fuel-specific equivalent
Phase 1 standard.
For the SCR-equipped vehicles, there is significant variability in the N2O emission rates among
the different studies, likely due to different operating conditions. The fuel-based rate reported in
Quiros et al. (2016) varied significantly across different road types, and Preble et al. (2019)
measured significantly higher SCR-equipped N2O emission rates at the high load conditions of
the Caldecott Tunnel compared to the more moderate conditions of the Port of Oakland.
30
-------
Table 3-4. Fuel-based N2O emission rates (± 95% Confidence Intervals, if available) from heavy-duty diesel
vehicles by aftertreatment system and engine model year reported from recent studies
Study
Description
Sample
Size
Aftertreatment
Engine MY
N20 emission rate
(g/kg)
Preble et al.
(2019)35
Caldecott Tunnel near
Oakland California, Plume-
Capture, Sample Years: 2014,
2015,2018
1447
DPF + SCR
2010-2018
0.93 ±0.13
744
DPF
2007-2009
0.01 ±0.01
346
DPF Retrofit
1994-2006
0.01 ±0.02
183
No DPF
2004-2006
0.00 ±0.03
433
No DPF
1965-2003
0.00 ±0.09
Preble et al.
(2019)35
Port of Oakland, Sample Year:
2015
300
DPF + SCR
2010-2016
0.44 ±0.11
866
DPF
2007-2009
0.06 ±0.01
11
No DPF
2004-2006
0.07 ± 0.06
Quiros et al.
(2016)36
Six good movements routes in
Southern California sampled
using mobile laboratory
4
DPF + SCR
2013-2014
0.51 ±0.28 (0.27
to 0.97)
1
DPF (Hybrid
Diesel)
2011
0.03 ±0.01
1
DPF
2007
0.06 ± 0.06
Khalek et
al. (2013)38
Advanced Collaborative
Emissions Control Study,
engine dynamometer
3
DPF + SCR
2011
0.26 ±0.48
(16-hour cycle)
0.38 ± 0.59 (FTPA)
Khalek et
al. (2009)37
4
DPF
2007
0.05 ±0.03
(16-hour cycle)
0.07 ± 0.07 (FTP)
EPA
Certification
Data
(2020)41
Heavy-duty FTP Transient
Certification Test
60
DPF + SCR
2016-2020
0.34
(FTP Transient)
0.34 (SETB
Steady-State)
A Federal Test Procedure (FTP)
B Supplemental Emission Test (SET)
For developing N2O emission rates, we chose to use the fuel-based rates from the Port of
Oakland collected by Preble et al. (2019)35 because the DPF+SCR rates fell within the range of
the other DPF+SCR fuel-based rates, and the DPF-only rates were similar to the other reported
studies.
To develop MOVES heavy-duty diesel N2O emission rates by regulatory class, model year, and
operating mode, we multiplied the MOVES3 heavy-duty diesel vehicle fuel-consumption rates
by regulatory class, model year, operating mode (Fuel RatesReg MYi0p) by the Preble et al.
(2019) fuel-based N2O emission rates (FERModei Year Group) listed in Table 3-4, as shown below
in Equation 3-1.
ERReg,MY,age,op Fuel RcitesReg,op ^ FERModei Year Group Equation 3-1
Figure 3-4 shows example N2O emission rates for the LHD2b3 and HHD regulatory classes for
model year 2017. Even though the fuel-based emission rate is the same, the N2O gram/hour rate
31
-------
is higher for the HHD regulatory class due to the higher fuel consumption rates. The N2O
emission rates for model years 2018 and later were set equal to the rates for 2017.
LHD2b3
~i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1—
HHD8
ll
0 1 11 1213141516212223242527282930333537383940 0 1 11 12131415162122232425272829 3033 35 3738 3940
Operating Mode
Figure 3-4. N2O running emission rates (g/hour) by operating mode for model year 2017 LHD2b3 and HHD
Figure 3-5 shows heavy-duty diesel N2O rates by regulatory class, averaged over nationally
representative operating mode distributions, in grams per mile.
32
-------
0.2'
C3
K
° 0.1
0.0'
PS.
Reg Class
-- 41-LHD2b3
42-LHD45
46-MHD67
-*¦ 47-HHD8
48-Urban Bus
49-Gliders
1980 2000 2020 2040
Model Year
Figure 3-5. Base running rates in MOVES5 for N2O from diesel heavy-duty vehicles averaged over nationally
representative operating mode distributions.
We evaluated N2O start emissions from the data collected in the ACES engine dynamometer
study by comparing the FTP cycle (40 minute cycle with one cold start and one hot start) and the
16-hour cycle (one cold and one hot-start over a 16-hour cycle). The N2O emissions from both
the 2011 and 2007 engines were higher in the FTP than the 16-hour cycle (Table 3-4), but a
paired-test showed that the difference was not statistically significant (p-value of 0.08 and 0.12,
respectively). Because the start emissions appear to make a negligible contribution to the total
tailpipe N2O emissions, we estimate zero N2O start emission rates for model year 2004-2060
heavy-duty diesel vehicles.
MOVES does not include estimates of N2O from the extended idle and auxiliary power unit
exhaust processes. Overall, we anticipate the N2O from these processes to be very low, in part
because auxiliary power units are not anticipated to be equipped with SCR systems. Future
versions of MOVES could consider incorporating N2O emission from extended idling and
auxiliary power unit exhaust as more data become available.
3.3 Alternative-Fueled Vehicles
MOVES includes N2O emission rates for alternative fuels, including E85 and CNG fueled
vehicles. The N2O emission rates were based on limited data from the Sources and Sinks
report.46 In MOVES, the N2O emission rates for E85-fueled vehicles are set to be the same as
gasoline vehicles.
Heavy-duty CNG vehicles use the emission rates reported in Table 3-5. These rates remain
unchanged from the numbers reported for MOVES2010a17. The composite emission rate was
obtained from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-200646, and
33
-------
disaggregated into running and starts using the same relative running and start splits as heavy-
gasoline vehicles.
Table 3-5. N2O emission rates for CNG-fueled heavy-duty vehicles in MOVES
FTP Composite
(g/mile)
Running
(g/hour)
Starts
(g/start)
0.175
1.6797
0.6636
4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emission Rates
4.1 Carbon Dioxide Calculations
MOVES does not store carbon dioxide emission rates in the emission rate tables (e.g., CCh/mile
or CCh/hour operation), but calculates carbon dioxide emissions from total energy consumption
as shown in Equation 4-1.
/44\
C02 = Total Energy Consumed x Carbon Content x Oxidation Fraction x \ Equation 4-1
Carbon content is expressed in grams of carbon per kJ of energy consumed. Oxidation fraction is
the fraction of carbon that is oxidized to form CO2 in the atmosphere. A small mass percentage
of fuel is emitted as carbon monoxide, organic gases and organic carbon. Currently, MOVES
assumes an oxidation fraction of 1 for all the hydrocarbon-based fuels. The value (44/12) is the
molecular mass of CO2 divided by the atomic mass of carbon.
The carbon content and oxidation fractions used to calculate CO2 emissions are provided in
Table 4-1. The carbon content values used in MOVES were developed for MOVES200416 based
on values derived from the life-cycle model GREET. In MOVES4, we updated the values for
subtypes 12-21 to reflect measured properties of certification test fuels (subtypes 12 and 20) with
mathematical adjustments for other blend levels using biofuel properties published by DOE's
Alternative Fuel Data Center.42 43 Because MOVES doesn't model upstream emissions, the
carbon content for electricity (whether from BEVs or FCEVs) is zero. Energy content refers to
lower heating values.
34
-------
Table 4-1. Carbon content and oxidation fraction by fuel subtype
fuelSubtypelD
fuelTypelD
Fuel Subtype
Carbon
Content (g/kJ)
Oxidation
Fraction
10
1
Conventional Gasoline
0.0196
1
11
1
Reformulated Gasoline
(RFG)
0.0196
1
12
1
Gasohol (E10)
0.01982
1
13
1
Gasohol (E8)
0.01982
1
14
1
Gasohol (E5)
0.01984
1
15
1
Gasohol (El5)
0.01980
1
20
2
Conventional Diesel Fuel
0.02022
1
21
2
Biodiesel Blend
0.02022
1
22
2
Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
(FTD100)
0.0207
1
30
3
Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG)
0.0161
1
40
4
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG)
0.0161
1
50
5
Ethanol
0.0194
1
51
5
Ethanol (E85)
0.0194
1
52
5
Ethanol (E70)
0.0194
1
90
9
Electricity
0
0
4.2 Carbon Dioxide Equivalent Emissions
CO2 equivalent (CChe) is a combined measure of greenhouse gas emissions weighted according
to the global warming potential (GWP) of each gas relative to CO2. Although the mass emissions
of CH4 and N2O are much smaller than CO2, the global warming potential is higher, which
increases the contribution of these gases to the overall greenhouse effect. MOVES calculates
CChe from CO2, N2O, and CH4 mass emissions according to Equation 4-2.
C02 equivalent = C02 x GWPC02 + CH4 X GWPCHa + N20 X GWPN2q Equation 4-2
By definition, the GWP of CO2 is 1. For CH4 and N2O, MOVES uses the 100-year GWPs listed
in Table 4-2 and stored in the pollutant table of the MOVES default database. MOVES uses the
100-year GWP values from the 2014 International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth
Assessment Report (AR5).44
Table 4-2 100-year Global Warming Potentials used in MOVES
Pollutant
Global Wanning Potential (GWP)
Methane (CH4)
28
Nitrous Oxide (N20)
265
Atmospheric CO2
1
35
-------
5 Fuel Consumption Calculations
MOVES reports fuel consumption in terms of energy use, but not in terms of volume or mass.
However, MOVES calculates fuel usage in terms of volume and mass within the refueling and
sulfur dioxide emission calculators,1 respectively. To do so, it uses energy content and the
density of the fuel to calculate fuel volume, as presented in Equation 5-1 and the values in Table
5-1.
Fuel (.gallons) = Energy«/) x (__L_) (A) x Equation 5-1
The fuel density and the energy content values are stored in the fuelType and fuelSubType
tables, respectively. Fuel density is classified according to the more general fuel types, and
energy content varies according to fuel subtype. Because MOVES outputs energy consumption
by fueltype but not fuelsubtype, the average energy content by fuel type can be calculated using
the energy content of each fuel subtype and its market share, stored in the fuel Supply table. The
derivation of the fuelSupply table is documented in the Fuel Supply Report.4
The fuel properties shown here were originally derived from GREET and other published
references, as described in Section 6 of the MOVES2004 Energy and Emissions Inputs draft
report.16 For MOVES4, we updated the values for subtypes 12-21 to reflect measured properties
of certification test fuels (subtypes 12 and 20) with mathematical adjustments for other blend
levels using biofuel properties published by DOE's Alternative Fuel Data Center.42 43 Energy
content figures are lower heating values.
Table 5-1. Fuel density and energy content by fuel type and subty
pe
fuelTypelD
fuelSubtypelD
fuelSubtypeDesc
Fuel Density
(g/gallon)
Energy
Content
(kJ/g,LHV)
1
10
Conventional Gasoline
2829
43.488
1
11
Reformulated Gasoline (RFG)
2829
42.358
1
12
Gasohol (E10)
2829
41.696
1
13
Gasohol (E8)
2829
42.027
1
14
Gasohol (E5)
2829
42.523
1
15
Gasohol (El5)
2829
40.877
2
20
Conventional Diesel Fuel
3203
42.869
2
21
Biodiesel Blend
3203
42.700
2
22
Fischer-Tropsch Diesel (FTD100)
3203
43.247
3
30
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
NULL
48.632
4
40
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
1923
46.607
5
50
Ethanol
2944
26.592
5
51
Ethanol (E85)
2944
29.12
5
52
Ethanol (E70)
2944
31.649
9
90
Electricity
NULL
NULL
36
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Appendices
Appendix A. Timeline of Energy and GHG emissions in MOVES
• MOVES2004
o Released with a full suite of energy, methane, rates to allow estimation of fuel
consumption and GHG emissions,
o Energy rates developed at a fine level of detail by vehicle attributes including
classes for engine technologies, engine sizes, and loaded weight classes. The
emission rates were created by analyzing second by second (1 Hz) resolution
data from 16 EPA test programs covering approximately 500 vehicles and 26
non-EPA test programs covering approximately 10,760 vehicles,
o "Holes" in the data were filled using either the Physical Emission Rate
Estimator (PERE)45 or interpolation,
o Energy consumption at starts increases at temperatures < 75F
• MOVES2009
o Updates of Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) emission rates
¦ Based on an enlarged database of Federal Test Procedure (FTP)
emission tests and the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Sinks: 1990-200646
o Energy start rates adjusted for soak time
• MOVES2010
o Heavy-duty energy rates replaced based on new data and analysis using scaled
tractive power (STP) methodology
o Light-duty rates updated to include 2008-2011 model year Corporate Average
Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards for light trucks
• MOVES2010a
o Updates to the MOVES database to reflect new data and projections for 2008
and newer light-duty energy rates
¦ Model year 2008-2010 vehicle data
¦ Model year 2011 Fuel Economy (FE) final rule projections
¦ Model year 2012-2016 LD GHG Phase 1 rule
¦ Corrections to model year 2000+ light-duty diesel energy start rates
o Modifications to the organization of energy rates in MOVES database (DB)
¦ Improved consistency between energy rates and other MOVES
emission rates.
¦ Redefined energy rate structure
¦ Removed engine size classes, and consolidated the loaded weight
classes to a single weight class for each regulatory class
¦ Removed unused engine technologies and emission rates from the
MOVES DB
o Updates to the methane algorithm such that methane is calculated as a fraction
of total hydrocarbons (THC)
¦ MOVES2010 methane and THC emission rates used to derive
methane/THC ratios
37
-------
• MOVES2014
o Medium- and heavy-duty energy rates for model year 2014 and later updated
to account for the Phase 1 of the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards and
Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines and
Vehicles
o Light-duty energy rates for model year 2017 and later updated to account for
the Light-duty EPA and NHTSA greenhouse gas and fuel economy standards
(LD GHG Phase 2 FRM)
• MOVE S3
o The Safer Affordable Fuel-Efficient (SAFE) Vehicles Rule for Model Years
2021-2026 Passenger Cars and Light Trucks was incorporated for MY 2017-
2026 and forward
o Updates to heavy-duty vehicle energy rates to account for the HD GHG
Phase2 rule
o Updated the 2010-2060 HD baseline energy rates
¦ HD diesel and CNG vehicles rates were updated based on the
manufacturer-run heavy-duty in-use testing (HDIUT) program
¦ Baseline heavy-duty gasoline energy rates for 2010-2060 were updated
based on the HDIUT program
• MOVES4
o The Revised 2023 and Later Model Year Light Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas
Emission Standards (LD GHG 2023-2026) rule22 was incorporated, updating
rates for light-duty ICE vehicles for MY2020 -2060
o Updated light-duty and heavy-duty BEV adoption rates were updated
o Energy rates for Light duty BEVs were updated based on BEV modeling
instead of using the same rates as gasoline vehicles
o Energy rates for heavy-duty BEVs were added using EER approach based on
diesel rates
o Additional updates relevant to GHGs and energy such are described in the
MOVES4 Emission Adjustments report. These include adjustments to account
for charging efficiency, battery deterioration, cabin temperature control and
the impact of electric vehicle fractions on the effective standards for internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles,
o Heavy-duty diesel emission rates were updated to account for newer studies
which show the significant impacts that selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
systems have onN20 emissions (Section 3.2.2.2). The nitrous oxide (N2O)
emission rates for light-duty diesel and all gasoline and CNG vehicles remain
the same. Carbon content and energy content updates
o HD fuel cell EV EER updates
o Kept constant the HD GHG Phase 2 energy reductions for regulatory class 41
stored in the EmissionRateAdjustment table for MY2025 and later at the
MY2024 level
• MOVES5
38
-------
Updated light-duty energy consumption rates for MY 2017-2022 based on the
2023 Automotive Trends Report
The LMDV2027 rule was incorporated to update light-duty and medium-duty
C02 fleet average rates
HD GHG Phase 3 rule was incorporated to update heavy-duty C02 fleet
average rates
HD EV EERs were updated based on the Phase 3 technology assessment in
HD TRUCS
Additional updates relevant to GHGs and energy as described in the MOVES5
Emission Adjustments report. These include the new fleet averaging algorithm
update and new EV multipliers.
Updated GWP values for methane and nitrous oxide consistent with the IPCC
AR5 report
39
-------
Appendix B. Emission Control Technology Phase-In used for N2O
Emission Rate Calculations
Table B-l Control Technology Assignments for Gasoline Passenger Cars (Percent of VMT). Reproduced with
exceptions from Table A-84 from Inventory of US GHG Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2006
Model
Years
Non-Catalvst
Control
Oxidation
Catalvst
EPA Tier 0
EPA Tier 1
LEVs
EPA Tier 2
1973-1974
100%
1975
20%
80%
1976-1977
15%
85%
1978-1979
10%
90%
1980
5%
88%
7%
1981
15%
85%
1982
14%
86%
1983
12%
88%
1984-1993
100%
1994
60%
40%
1995
20%
80%
1996
1%
97%
2%
1997
1%
97%
3%
1998
0%
87%
13%
1999
0%
67%
33%
2000
44%
56%
2001
3%
97%
2002
1%
99%
2003
0%
87%
13%
2004
0%
41%
59%
2005
38%
62%
2006+
0%
100%a
a We assume 100% EPA Tier 2 emission rates for model years 2006 and forward which differs from the US GHG
Emissions and Sinks.
40
-------
Table B-2 Control Technology Assignments for Gasoline Light-Duty Trucks (Percent of VMT) Reproduced
with exceptions from Table A-85 from Inventory of US GHG Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2006.
Model
Years
Not
Controlled
Non-
Catalvst
Control
Oxidation
Catalvst
EPA
TierO
EPA
Tier 1
LEVs
EPA
Tier 2
1973-1974
0%
100%
1975
30%
70%
1976
20%
80%
1977-1978
25%
75%
1979-1980
20%
80%
1981
95%
5%
1982
90%
10%
1983
80%
20%
1984
70%
30%
1985
60%
40%
1986
50%
50%
1987-1993
5%
95%
1994
60%
40%
1995
20%
80%
1996
100%
1997
100%
1998
80%
20%
1999
57%
43%
2000
65%
35%
2001
1%
99%
2002
10%
90%
2003
<1%
53%
47%
2004
72%
28%
2005
38%
62%
2006+
100%a
a We assume 100% EPA Tier 2 emission rates for model years 2006+, which differs from the US GHG Emissions
and Sinks.
41
-------
Table B-3 Control Technology Assignments for Gasoline Heavy-Duty Vehicles (Percent of VMT) Reproduced
with exceptions from Table A-86 from Inventory of US GHG Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2006.
Model
Years
Not
Controlled
Non-
Catalvst
Control
Oxidation
Catalvst
EPA
TierO
EPA
Tier 1
LEVs
EPA
Tier 2
Pre-1982
100%
1982-
1984
95%
5%
1985-
1986
95%
5%
1987
70%
15%
15%
1988-
1989
60%
25%
15%
1990-
1995
45%
30%
25%
1996
25%
10%
65%
1997
10%
5%
85%
1998
96%
4%
_
1999
78%
22%
_
2000
54%
46%
_
2001
64%
36%
_
2002
69%
31%
_
2003
65%
30%
5%
2004
5%
37%
59%
2005
23%
77%
2006+
100%a
a We assume 100% EPA Tier 2 emission rates for model years 2006+, which differs from the US GHG Emissions
and Sinks.
42
-------
Table B-4 Control Technology Assignments for Diesel Highway Vehicles and Motorcycles. Reproduced with
Vehicle TvDe/Control Technology
Model
Years
Diesel Passenger Cars and Light-Duty Trucks
Uncontrolled
1950-1982
Moderate control
1983-1995
Advanced control
1996-
2006+a
Diesel Medium- and Heavy-Duty Trucks and Buses
Uncontrolled
1950-1982
Moderate control
1983-1995
Advanced control
1996-2004
Motorcycles
Uncontrolled
1950-1995
Non-catalyst controls
1996-2006+
a In MOVES, we continue using the 1996-2006 rates for all light-duty model years beyond 2006. The 2013 US GHG
Emissions and Sinks updates the Advanced Control to up to 2011 model year vehicles, and adds a new category of
diesel (aftertreatment diesel). However, the N20 emission rates of aftertreatment diesel are unchanged from
advanced control.47
43
-------
Appendix C.
EV ALPHA Parameters and Results
To develop energy rates for light-duty battery electric vehicles, BEVs representative of the 2019
fleet, based on 2019 sales figures, were modelled in EPA's ALPHA (Advanced Light-Duty
Powertrain and Hybrid Analysis) tool using values from the EPA test car list, manufacturer data,
press releases, and other internet sources. These values are listed in Table C-l.
Overall range, highway mileage, and city mileage were calculated for all selected vehicles in
ALPHA, and the output was then compared to published values to determine how well each
vehicle was being modeled. This is represented via the percent difference between the two
values. These percentages were then averaged by sales within each category to observe how well
ALPHA modeled the 2019 fleet as a whole. Those values are listed in the Table C-2.
44
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Table C-l: Vehicle Parameters for ALPHA Modeling
Vehicle
2019
Sales 48
Battery
Size
(kWh)
Battery
Voltage
Parall
el
Series
Total
Cells
Max
Torque
Max
Torque
Units
Max
RPM
Max
Power
Max
Power
Units
Wheel
Diameter
(in)
Final
Drive
Gear
Ratio
Vehicle
Mass
A Coeff
B Coeff
C Coeff
Chevy
Bolt 49
16,313
60
35050
3
96
288
360
J
8810
150
kW
17
7.05
3875
28.4
0.201
8
0.019
5
Tesla
Model 3
51
154,84
0
53.6
36051
3
86
256
38952
Ib-ft
9000
282
Hp
18
9.04
3875
36.01
0.128
9
0.0167
Honda
Clarity
BEV 53
742
25.5
32354
3
88
264
222
Ib-ft
9500
161
Hp
18
9.33
3
4250
25.41
0.233
8
0.017
6
Nissan
Leaf 55
12,365
40
350
2
96
192
236
Ib-ft
1039
0
147
Hp
16
8.19
3500
25.89
0.344
9
0.019
5
Fiat
500E 56
632
24
364
1
100
100
147
Ib-ft
9500
110
Hp
15
9.59
3250
24.91
0.236
5
0.018
2
Tesla
Model S
57
15,090
85
320
6
74
444
440
J
1370
0
400
kW
19
9.34
4500
40.21
8
0.060
4
0.017
1
BMW i3
58
4,854
42.2
350
3
67
201
184
Ib-ft
1000
0
181
Hp
19
9.67
3375
29
0.297
0.017
8
VWe-
Golf 59
4,863
35.8
323
3
88
264
214
Ib-ft
1200
0
134
Hp
16
9.74
7
3750
32.8
0.384
9
0.015
6
Tesla
Model X
60
19,425
100
350
5
96
480
660
J
1230
0
400
kW
20
9.34
5250
40.32
0.099
0.021
4
Jaguar i-
Pace
2,594
90.2
389
4
108
432
696
J
1300
0
294
kW
20
9.04
5000
35.70
6
0.640
2
0.017
7
MOVES
Values
35.17
4
0.201
2
0.022
1
45
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Table C-2: Comparison of Published and Modelled Range
Vehicle
Published
Range
Test
Car
UDDS
Test
Car
HWY
ALPHA
Range
ALPHA
UDDS
ALPHA
HWY
RangeDiff
UDDSDiff
HWYDiff
Chevy
Bolt
238
182.2
157.4
193.89
207.62
142.17
-18.53%
13.95%
-9.68%
Tesla
Model 3
220
197.3
176.6
225.28
204.77
167.73
2.40%
3.79%
-5.02%
Honda
Clarity
BEV
89
179.6
146.5
94.79
211.74
153.29
6.51%
17.90%
4.63%
Nissan
Leaf
150
174
141.1
121.52
209.08
133.98
-18.99%
20.16%
-5.05%
Fiat 500E
84
172.9
147.8
108.9
221.86
176.28
29.64%
28.32%
19.27%
Tesla
Model S
271
151.7
140.1
241.54
165.7
140.13
-10.87%
9.23%
0.02%
BMW i3
153
177.7
145.5
144.75
211
143.47
-5.39%
18.74%
-1.40%
VWe-
Golf
125
174.4
154
113.55
191.9
135.09
-9.16%
10.03%
-12.28%
Tesla
Model X
305
140
130.5
238.89
151.37
119.09
-21.68%
8.12%
-8.74%
Jaguar i-
Pace
246
114.1
102.9
198.2
150.5
107.9
-19.44%
31.88%
4.84%
Fleet
Sale-
Weighted
Avg Diffs
9.51%
10.81%
4.73%
46
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