Best Practices for Solid Waste Management: A Guide for Decision-Makers in Developing Countries Recycling Markets

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Recycling Markets

Best Practices for Solid Waste Management:

A Guide for Decision-Makers in Developing Countries

Recycling Markets

United States Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery

July 2023

Notice: Mention of trade names, products, resources, or services does not convey, and should not
be interpreted as conveying official United States Environmental Protection Agency approval,
endorsement, or recommendation. Unless otherwise indicated, photos included in this document
were obtained by United States Environmental Protection Agency and its contractors, or stock
photo aggregators.

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Recycling Markets

Contents

Case Studies iv

Case in Point Examples iv

Key Point Boxes iv

Acronyms and Abbreviations v

Acknowledgements vi

1. Introduction 3

2. What are Recycling Markets? 4

2.1 Why Focus on Recycling Markets? 7

3. Challenges 9

4. Best Practices 11

4.1 Identifying Local and Regional Stakeholders 11

4.2 Enabling Incentives/Instruments 13

4.3 Innovation and Technology 17

4.4 Strenghthening Domestic Policies and Market Development 18

4.5 Encouraging International Cooperation 19

4.6 Improving the Quality and Quantity of Recycled Materials 20

4.7 Attracting Investments for the Recycling Industry 21

5. Organics Recycling 23

5.1 Challenges 24

5.2 Best Practices 25

Questions for Decision-Makers 28

Bibliography 29

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Recycling Markets

Case Studies

Exhibit Number

Title

Page Number

Multi-Stakeholder Circular Economy E-Portal in Rwanda

Partnerships with Local Self-Help Groups for Improving Collection
and Segregation

Increasing Recycling Efforts Through Incentives Programs in Sri
Lanka

Zero Baht or Shop with Your Waste

Innovative Partnership Across Argentina and Latin American
Expands Recycling System

National Policies that Promote Recycling in India: Extended
Producer Responsibility

Biowaste Recycling and End-market Development in Chile

Case in Point Examples

Title

Page Number

Incentivizing Recycling for Free Transportation in Indonesia

Setting Recycled Content Standards Around the World

Using Al to Improve Job Quality and Recycling Markets

Setting a Global Recycling Initiative in Africa

Empowering the Informal Sector Leads to Investment in Africa

GOBAR-Dhan Scheme

Key Point Boxes

List

Page Number

International Influences on Recycling Exports

Informal Waste Sector Role in Recycling Market Development

Addressing International Textile Waste

Defining Types of Recyclable Waste Around the World

International Agreements - Global Methane Pledge (GMP)

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Recycling Markets

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AD Anaerobic Digestion

APR Association of Plastic Recyclers

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

CCAC Climate & Clean Air Coalition

CPCIC Cleaner Production and Climate Innovation Center

EPR Extended Producer Responsibility

ESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

GGGI Global Green Growth Institute

HDPE High-Density Polyethylene

ISCC International Sustainability and Carbon Certification

MRF Material Recovery Facility

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

PET Polyethylene Terephthalate

PPE Personal Protective Equipment

SWaCH Solid Waste Collection and Handling

UN United Nations

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNIDO UN Industrial Development Organization

U.S. EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

USAID United States Agency for International Development

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Recycling Markets

Acknowledgements

The United States Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery
developed the companion chapter on Recycling Markets as part of the Solid Waste Management Toolkit. The
toolkit is reflective of the United States Environmental Protection Agency's long history of supporting solid
waste management practices and policies that protect human health and the environment.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency received content development, graphical, editorial,
and production support from Abt Associates under contract EP-W-10-054, with considerable support from
independent consultant Nimmi Damodaran.

The following individuals and organizations supported the development of this companion chapter:
International Organizations

KaushikChandrasekhar, UN Environment Programme,

India Office

Chris Godlove, THINKCities Consulting

Zoe Lenkiewicz, Global Waste Lab

Sourabh Manuja, Independent Consultant

Brandon Bray, United States Agency for International
Development (USAID)

United States Environmental Protection Agency

Stephanie Adrian
Krystal Krejcik
Katherine Under
Audrianna Maki
Lia Yohanes
Lawrence Doppelt
Rachelle Riegerix
Tameka Taylor
Kim Cochran

Elle Chang
Janice Sims

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Key Resources

Best Practices for Solid Waste Management:
A Guide for Decision-Makers in Developing
Countries (U.S. EPA 2020)

Global Plastics Outlook: Economic Drivers.
Environmental Impacts and Policy Options
(OECD 2022)

Improving Markets for Recycled Plastics Trends.
Prospects and Policy Responses (OECD 2018)

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Recycling Markets

Section 1

Introduction

In many middle- and high-income countries,
recycling is an important economic development
opportunity contributing to job creation, cost
savings, and revenue generation for cities (OECD
2018). Recycling refers to collecting, sorting, and
processing materials that would otherwise be
disposed of as waste into new materials that re-
enter the supply chain. To be successful, recycled
materials must be reincorporated into supply chains
through recycling markets.Therefore, identifying and
developing recycling markets is critical to the success
of any recycling program. Recycling markets must
be strong enough to compete with the market for
raw or virgin materials in order to increase the use
of secondary materials, such as recycled plastics or
paper, in household and commercial products.

Recycling Markets is part of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's Best Practices
for Solid Waste Management in Developing
Countries Toolkit. The Toolkit serves as a free
resource for decision-makers implementing solid
waste management programs. The Toolkit includes
e-learning modules, communication materials,
webinar materials, videos, and the Best Practices
Guide for Solid Waste Management in Developing
Countries (the Guide). The Guide describes key
aspects of solid waste management and identifies
best practices that can be implemented in medium
and large cities in developing countries. Recycling
Markets is a companion chapter to the Guide.

In the existing Guide. Section 11 - Recycling

provides information on the benefits, challenges,
and best practices for planning and implementing
recycling programs.This companion chapter builds
on the Guide by providing information on the
benefits, challenges, and best practices for cities
to identify and facilitate development of recycling
markets when planning and implementing recycling
programs. This chapter covers the most common
types of recyclable materials and products, as listed
in Section 11 - Recycling: paper, aluminum, steel,

plastics, batteries, glass, tires, used motor oil, and
e-waste. A companion chapter on Addressing
Plastic Waste provides a closer look at plastic waste,
which may offer additional solutions to market
development for recycled plastics.

This companion chapter is not intended to be a step-
by-step implementation manual, but it highlights
resources that local authorities and decision-makers
can refer to for more detailed technical guidance.
Approaches that may be successful in one city or
region may not function everywhere, so the chapter
presents decision-makers with the information
and resources to improve equity in solid waste
management within the context of their given
situation.

In the solid waste management hierarchy developed
by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, recycling is considered the third most
preferred strategy to manage materials, behind
source reduction and reuse (U.S. EPA 2017). Recycling
materials reduces the demand for disposal of waste
in landfills or energy recovery facilities, which
are considered least preferred strategies for solid
waste management (U.S. EPA 2017). Section 3 -
Approaches of the Guide provides more information
on the solid waste management hierarchy.

The best practices aim to help cities identify and
facilitate development of recycling markets when
planning and implementing recycling programs.
Recycling around the world is limited, and current
recycling programs are often unable to deal with
the vast number of materials and products that
are manufactured and consumed. While the focus
of this chapter is on recycling markets, cities can
make recycling efforts more effective by preventing
and minimizing unnecessary, avoidable, and hard-
to-recycle materials and products. Section 8 -
Prevention and Minimization of the Guide provides
more detail on incorporating these strategies into
solid waste management plans.

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Recycling Markets

Section 2

What Are Recycling Markets?

Recycling markets involve customers (e.g., paper
mills, metal smelters, glass factories) which buy
recyclable materials from the waste stream to make
new products or handle the financial and shipping
transactions necessary to move recyclables through
the marketplace (U.S. EPA 1993). Exhibit 1 shows the
types of secondary materials captured from products
and identifies potential end-users and uses.

Waste characterization is a key first step to
understand what materials a city generates. For
more information, refer to Section 7 - Waste
Characterization of the Guide. With waste
characterization data, cities can identify the most
common materials and products in a waste stream.
With this information, cities can identify if recycling
markets for these materials exist.

Paper

Paperboard packaging, corrugated containers
(e.g., cardboard boxes), direct mail, magazines and
catalogs, newspapers and inserts, office papers,
paper products (e.g., books, paper towels, tissues,
paper plates and paper cups), plastic- or aluminum-
lined containers and cartons

Paper mills, recycled
paperboard manufacturers

Moderate value material

Aluminum

Electronics; cans; appliances

Can sheet manufacture mills

High value material

Steel

Electronics; cans; appliances; building products;
vehicles

Mills with electric arc furnaces
and steel mills; construction
industry

High value material

Plastics

Bottles and containers; durable plastics found in
appliances, furniture, and sporting and recreational
equipment; rigid, flexible, and expanded foam
packaging; plastic bags and wraps; plastic lumber;
asphalt for roads; cement blocks

Carpet fiber and fiberfill
manufacturers, plastic product
manufacturers, polystyrene
industry, plastics industry

Volume of material in
transport; Low value
material; Value influences
based on influence from
fossil fuel pricing and
other commodities

Batteries

Rechargeable batteries (e.g., lithium-ion, lead-acid,
nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride) and primary
batteries (e.g., alkaline, lithium, silver oxide) from
small consumer electronics, large vehicles, personal
electric mobility devices (e.g., scooters and e-bikes),
and other battery-operated household devices

Recycled at special facilities

Hazardous materials
posing health risks

Glass

Containers and packaging, glass found in appliances,
consumer furniture

Glass factories, fiberglass
industry

Heavy weight of material;
transport; lack of off-
takers

Used
motor oil

Motor oil

Lubricants, fuel oils, raw
materials for oil-refining
industry

Hazardous materials
posing health risks

Tires

Tires from automobiles, motorcycles, bicycles, light-
duty trucks, commercial trucks and buses

Baled for civil engineering uses,
shredded and used as liners
and covers at landfills

Hazardous materials
posing health risks

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Recycling Markets

Cities could collect and recycle nearly three quarters
of their waste stream. According to the World Bank
estimates, up to 56 percent of municipal waste is
food and green waste that could be treated through
organics recycling, and up to 16 percent of waste
could be recycled, including plastic, glass, metal,
paper, and cardboard (Kaza et al. 2018).

Exhibit 3 shows a regional breakdown of waste
composition. Refer to the Oraanics Recycling section
for more information on end-markets for products
from composting and anaerobic digestion (AD).
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD), markets
for recycled materials are growing due to policy
incentives and changing commercial conditions
(OECD 2018). This section includes background
information on recycling markets:

• Recycling markets are separate from but
linked to municipal recycling programs.

Recycling programs are municipal or private
programs that collect and process materials that
would otherwise be disposed as waste. Recycling
markets are a critical component to the economic
and social success of a city's recycling program.
Customers, often manufacturers, purchase
the recycled materials and use them as inputs

into new products. Exhibit 2 shows the flow
of materials through the recycling program to
the end-market. For more information, refer to
Section 11 - Recycling of the Guide.

• Successful, long-term recycling markets
put secondary materials back in the supply
chain. Once these recyclables, or secondary
materials, enter the recycling market, the
material becomes available for manufacturers to
purchase and reincorporate into the supply chain
and ultimately back into products that can be
purchased and used. Having a long-term market
is crucial to ensuring that the economics of
recycling works over a prolonged period of time.

• Recycling markets consist of multiple material-
specific markets. The value of each type of
recycled material is highly variable and depends
on a number of factors including the material
type, transportation costs, weight of material,
material costs, processing costs, labor costs, and
the existing market. For example, a city may not
see value in collecting glass for recycling due

to high transport costs as a result of its heavy
weight.

Exhibit 2. Boundaries and Connections of a Recycling Program within the Recycling Market

Boundaries and Connections of a Recycling Program within the Recycling Market

Materials sold to
end markets

(Markets that use
recycled materials
to manufacture into
new products)

Manufactured into
new products

Local: Boundaries of a recycling program that local stakeholders can directly manage.

Local, National, and International: Boundaries of a recycling program that link recycled materials to end markets and manufactured products. Linkages
can occur at all levels of government and across a range of businesses along the value chain, and help close the loop back to consumers and back into the
recycling program.

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Recycling Markets

36%

21%

19% 11%

53%

12%

15% 12%

Exhibit 3. Global Waste Composition by Geographic Region (Kazaetal. 2018).

Waste Type •Food and Green •Glass • Metal •Other • Paper and Cardboard •Plastic • Rubber and Leather ®Wood
Europe and Central Asia
East Asia and Pacific

Sub-Saharan Africa I

c .

Latin America and the Caribbean
en 1

Middle East and North Africa
North America
South Asia

5% 9% 4%

3% 3% 8% 13% 12%

12% 9% 6%

4% 3% 15% 10% 8%

20%

40% 60%

Percent Composition

80%

100%

Recycling markets can be local, regional,
national, or international. Recycling markets are
classified into multiple geographic boundaries
including domestic and international.

• Local markets. Communities within a city
in which recyclables are collected, including
formal and informal sector workers. Cities
can help drive local markets by enacting
policies or schemes to increase collection and
decrease contamination of recyclables.

• Regional markets. Communities within a
couple hundred miles or kilometers from
the community (U.S. EPA 1993). Cities can
enable regional markets by engaging in
partnerships with other communities.
Facilitating transportation to achieve markets
at a more regional level, especially in rural
areas, is an important step in developing
regional markets. Partnering and connecting
with neighboring communities and linking
generators and cities with the online and
offline marketplaces can increase capacity

to recycle additional materials and can help
identify new potential markets for materials.

National markets. All communities within a
country (U.S. EPA 1993). Cities can enable a
national recycling market to foster a circular
economy. A national recycling market creates
jobs in the recycling and manufacturing
industry and offers cities the opportunity to
tap into domestic sources of material.

International markets. All other countries
in which recyclables are imported from or
exported to. Changing international policies
have limited the export of materials to certain
countries (U.S. EPA 2021a). Policies to restrict
imports such as the China National Sword,
which was enacted to stop receiving dirty,
unprocessed "recycled bales"from around the
world, have caused local recycling facilities to
limit the materials accepted for recycling or
stop accepting recyclables altogether.

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Recycling Markets

KEY POINT

International Influences on Recycling Exports

China National Sword Policy. In 2017, China prohibited the import of all but the highest quality recyclable materials,
including post-consumer plastics. This policy shifted the plastics market to other countries, where infrastructure to
properly handle recyclables could not keep up with the increase of incoming materials. Recycling programs around
the world were affected, causing some materials, such as plastics, to be mismanaged (e.g., improperly disposed of or
littered) or sent to landfills or incinerators.

Basel Convention Plastic Waste Amendments. The fourteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel
Convention adopted amendments to Annexes II, VIII, and IX to the Convention with the objectives of enhancing the
control of the transboundary movements of plastic waste and clarifying the scope of the Convention as it applies to
such waste,These amendments have impacts on recycling markets. National-level policies are also impacting these
markets; for example, Thailand is planning a ban of imports of plastics by 2025 (Plastic Free World 2023).

Global Commitment 2022. The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, in collaboration with the IJNEP, launched the Global
Commitment to reduce virgin plastic use and start building a circular economy. More than 500 international
organizations are signatories of this commitment, including Nestle, PepsiCo, and Unilever [Ellen MacArthur
Foundation Undated (b)l.

2.1. Why Focus on Recycling
Markets?

Focusing on recycling markets offers various benefits,
including:

• Promoting a circular economy. Exhibit 4 shows
the basic concept of how materials flow through
the recycling system in a circular economy.
which keeps materials, products, and services
in circulation for as long as possible. Recycling
markets benefit from a circular system because
materials are contained within the system and are
constantly used and sold to end-markets. While

the quality of some materials is reduced during
the recycling process, recycling is a more circular
strategy than discarding materials before their
end of useful life. Cities can directly contribute
to circularity by recovering valuable materials
in their waste streams and connecting those
secondary materials with recycling markets.

Supporting economic development and
partnerships between the public and private

sectors. Linking informal waste collectors with
formal collection systems can address gaps in
waste collection. Forming partnerships between
the formal and informal collection system will

Exhibit 4. Flow of Materials Through A Recycling System

Inputs

Manufacturing

Feedstock
Production

New Products

Escape from Economy

Sortition

Source: Environmental Protection Agency
National Recycling Strategy

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Recycling Markets

strengthen existing recycling markets and may
lead to the development of new end-markets.
Additionally, the growth of the recycling industry
contributes to jobs, wages, and tax revenue for
cities (U.S. EPA 2020b).

• Reducing resources to process virgin material.

Recycle and reuse of materials such as plastic,
aluminum, paper, glass, or others can save
production and energy costs required to process
more virgin material in order to meet market
demand [Stanford Undated],The United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) suggests that
a shift to a circular economy can reduce virgin
plastic production by approximately 55 percent
and help governments reduce emissions by 25
percent (UNEP 2022).

• Reducing the environmental impact of rapidly
growing and urbanizing areas. Recycling
recovers materials that hold economic value.
More end-markets result in more materials
recovered. As more materials are recovered,
fewer materials leak into the environment,
limiting the negative impacts from solid waste
pollution. For more material-specific information

on environmental impacts, refer to Section
11 - Recycling of the Guide. Recovering more
materials also reduces the reliance on extracting
raw materials for new products and supports
resource efficiency. Raw material extraction and
processing is responsible for half of all global
greenhouse gas emissions and up to 90 percent
of biodiversity loss and water usage (UNEP 2019).

• Advancing social issues. Vulnerable populations
benefit from recycling markets because
markets can create new and better jobs. New
opportunities for women, the informal sector,
and youth may result from improving recycling
markets that shift toward a more circular
economy.

New skills such as transportation and storage
logistics, delivery, re-processing, reuse, and repair
are necessary to support recycling and material
recovery in emerging economies. Entry-level jobs
may attract more youth and low-literacy workers
because they require more basic skillsets. A
growing recycling sector can offer a wide range
of employment opportunities, from those that
require only basic skill sets to more technical jobs
suitable for the highly skilled.

ytm

KEY POINT Q

Informal Waste Sector Role irr
Recycling Market Development

The private sector, including the informal sector, is responsible for most recycling services. The informal sector consists of
individuals, groups, and small businesses that collect, sort, and sell recyclable materials. In many low-income countries,
informal workers play a key role in a city's overall waste management system by starting and sustaining recycling
services, filling in gaps where collection and sorting efforts may be lacking in the formal system. Informal sector workers
achieve high recovery rates because collection is vital for their livelihoods Incorporating the informal waste sector with
the formal collection system offers key benefits including:

• Environmental advantages. Increased recovery rates keep waste out of waterbodies and other critical habitats, as
well as reducing dependence on open burning.

• Economic advantages. The informal sector converts waste into tradeable commodities, forms new trading
networks and businesses, and generates employment.

• Social advantages. Informal waste collectors'exposure to hazards is ideally lessened when these workers are
integrated into the formal system. In some places, informal sector workers receive personal protective equipment
(PPE), health insurance and safety checks, and education and training benefits as part of their integration into the
formal recycling system.

• Technological advantages. Informal sector workers often introduce new and innovative technologies, such as
phone applications for on-demand recyclables pickup.

For more information about the informal waste sector, see the fiver on Informal Sector Recycling as part of the Best
Practices for Solid Waste Management Toolkit.

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Recycling Markets

Section 3

Challenges

Market failures and barriers can undermine the
effectiveness of city recycling programs and
collection of recycled materials. Cities face several
challenges in identifying and developing recycling
markets, including:

• Geographic boundaries and lack of collection.

One study estimates that about two billion
people do not have access to waste collection
services, limiting the number of materials
collected for recycling (UNEP 2015). For those
who do have adequate waste collection services,
materials and products may not always align with
the recycling technology available in each region.

• Lack of data. Data on the generation of and final
management pathways of plastics and other
recyclable materials is limited and inconsistent
(OECD 2018). Having available data on material
supply and demand will help suppliers and end-
users better understand the recycling market,
identify gaps in the market, and connect end-
markets.

• Volatile supply and demand. It is especially
important for cities to identify local and regional
markets for recyclables, and tailor segregation
plans accordingly. In instances where markets
for certain products do not currently exist, cities
can work with the private sector to encourage
market demand and lower risks to the city. The
demand for recyclables can shift unpredictably,
resulting in price fluctuations. Situations such as
a global pandemic and other global economic
factors have an impact on the recycling sector.
For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, oil
prices decreased, resulting in the cost of virgin
plastics being much lower than the price of
recycled ones (University of Colorado Boulder
2022). In some instances, sudden drops in
material prices can make operating recycling

facilities financially unsustainable. In such cases,
recyclables may end up being disposed of in
landfills (U.S. EPA 1993). Low supply of recycled
materials may discourage the development of
a market for that material. High supply or low
demand for a material may overwhelm the
market, decreasing the value of the material.

• Price considerations. Cities have found it
useful to collect and analyze data on the size
of the local market for recyclable materials. Key
considerations include:

• Distance to the nearest recycler or
remanufacturing facility. It may not be

economically and logistically feasible to
recycle certain materials if the nearest
recycler or remanufacturing facility is
located far away. For example, Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) bottle-to-bottle recycling
facilities are not commonly located near every
city. As a result, the price paid for PET bottles
is very low, and many of them are recycled
into lower-value products such as polyester
for clothing manufacturers. Cities looking
to develop recycling programs for specific
materials can learn from the challenges of
other cities or communities with similar
conditions.

• Handling and transportation costs for
recyclables. It may be less expensive to use
raw or virgin materials if it is too costly to
handle and transport recycled materials. If
recyclables are transported, the buyer and
seller will need to determine and agree upon
who bears the cost of transportation of the
recyclables.

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Recycling Markets

• Volatility of market prices for different
materials. For many raw materials, volatile
prices cause markets to fluctuate (UN
Industrial Development Organization

2019).The manufacturing process is then
left with limited material availability, which
influences recycling programs and virgin
material markets (UN Industrial Development
Organization 2019). Price swings contribute
to the vulnerability of low-income and
informal workers, many of whom already
face extreme poverty and may not receive
compensation for their time and labor.

• Quality and contamination of the recyclable
materials. The quality of a recyclable material
impacts the sale price. Higher-quality recycled
materials are more effective substitutes for
raw or virgin materials. However, mixing of
waste leads to contamination of materials
during streamlined recycling collection.This
is a common phenomenon in developing
countries where the tipping fee model for
collection is followed. In some cases, buyers
will demand some pre-processing such

as baling, washing, or chipping, meaning
investments in equipment are required to
achieve the highest possible price.

Challenges posed by single-use plastics, and
variable quality and types of plastic in items
such as cutlery, plates, straws, cups, balloons,
and plastic bags, present special challenges
for recycling and often are not seen as worth
the time required to process.

• Historical and future trends. Commodity
prices for recycled materials fluctuate over
time. For example, the U.S. EPA has compiled
historical commodity prices for recycled
materials, which show that in the United
States, there was a general downward
trend in the values of all commodities
between 2010 and 2018, except for high-
density polyethylene (HDPE) and glass (U.S.
EPA 2020a). Cities can use historical data

to prioritize which materials to focus on
recovering. If these data are not available,
decisions could be informed by either (1)
a large presence of recyclable material
in the residual waste stream, or (2) local
manufacturing sector and corresponding
material demand.

• Consumer perception. Consumer perceptions
provide one of the largest challenges for recycling
markets. Key considerations include:

• Perception that recycling is expensive.

In many places, waste collection services
are private, requiring households to pay
(McKinsey & Company 2022). In some cities
with private waste collection, residents may
avoid paying fees by dumping or burning
waste, contributing to negative public health
outcomes and increased land and marine
pollution.

• Limited information about proper
separation, recycling schemes, drop-off
points, and recycling partners. Consumers
may not fully understand which materials
can be recycled, causing low recycling rates
and high contamination.This may lead
consumers to assume that non-recyclable
waste is recyclable ("wishcycle") (iDSA 2021).
Materials are not often sorted correctly at the
source, causing materials to be contaminated
by "wet" organic materials when they arrive
at material recovery facilities (MRFs; McKinsey
2022). Contamination limits the quality, value,
and availability of materials entering the
recycling market (McKinsey 2022).

• Reduced quality of recycled products. A

recycled product is not as high quality as
a product made from virgin materials. For
example, recycled fibers from all materials
lose some of their virgin qualities and
durability.This may lead consumers to choose
a product that is made from virgin materials
over recycled.

Furthermore, people may think that a
recycled product should be cheaper than
one made from virgin materials even if it
is of equal quality. The use of additives in
manufacturing processes can also hinder
the suitability of materials for recycling. For
plastics, the use of composite plastics, a wide
range of polymers, special additives, various
colors, and end-uses—food grade vs. non-
food grade plastic—presents a challenge for
developing a recycling market for plastics
(OECD2006; OECD 2018).

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Recycling Markets

Section 4

Best Practices

This section describes best practices for improving
markets for recycled materials. Many cities find that
a combination of strategies and partnerships is most
beneficial to enable recycling markets, including:

• Local and regional stakeholders. Cities can
identify stakeholders for each part of the
recycling system and create partnerships that
can help overcome barriers and create a more
resilient recycling system.

• Frameworks and incentives. Existing waste
management rules and systems, economic
incentives and disincentives, accessing and
investing in technologies, strengthening
domestic policies and market development, and
strengthening international cooperation are

all effective ways cities can enable a successful
recycling market.

• Quality and quantity of recycled materials.
Improving the quality and increasing the quantity
of materials provides market confidence and can
result in increased demand for recycled materials.

• investments. Attracting investments can help
cities increase the volume of recycled materials
collected, and the quality of materials recycled
and sold to end-markets.

4.1. Identifying Local and Regional
Stakeholders

It is important to engage with all stakeholders in
the solid waste management system to address
information barriers that can inhibit the connection
of recycling collectors, processors, and end-market
purchases (UNIDO 2019). Exhibit 6 identifies local
and regional stakeholders that cities may engage
when improving recycling markets. Cities can form
partnerships with stakeholders to identify and
overcome common barriers, working together to find
solutions (Exhibit 5 and 7). The condition of the road
network may determine whether certain partnerships
are financially practical. Transfer stations and reverse
logistics can help to facilitate capture of materials
from a broader area.

Stakeholder-led actions can create a stronger, more
resilient, and cost-effective solid waste system (U.S.
EPA 2021 a). Conducting consumer outreach and
education campaigns on the value of secondary
materials and importance of the consumer role in
purchasing and waste management can enhance the
volume and quality of recyclables collected. For more
information, refer to see Section 4 - Stakeholder
Engagement of the Guide.

Multi-Stakeholder Circular Economy E-Portal in Rwanda

The Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), in collaboration with Rwanda Environment Management Authority, the
United Kingdom's Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, and Save The Environment Initiative, worked
together to develop the Circular Economy Marketplace E-portal.The portal was developed due to the lack of data
available about the quantities and types of plastic waste found in Rwanda. The Cleaner Production and Climate
Innovation Center (CPCIC) maintains this interactive portal.The portal is designed to help stakeholders identify gaps,
opportunities, and challenges within the plastic waste value chain. Producers of plastic waste can connect with
recycling companies to increase the volume of recycled plastics for new products. Policymakers can use the tool to
identify effective actions needed to incentivize the reuse of plastic to increase circularity in the plastic waste value
chain.

For more information, visit the GGGI and CPCIC websites.

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Recycling Markets

Exhibit 6. Recycling Services Stakeholders

Stakeholder

Role

Public health and sanitation
departments

Inspection and enforcement of solid waste management system

Public works departments

Operational functions of waste collection

Natural resource management
agencies

Management of solid waste, such as recovery or composting

National or state/provincial
environmental ministries

Development and implementation of policies and plans

Municipal governments

Oversight of solid waste management operations such as trucks, workers, and equipment

Land use or town/physical
planning agencies

Planning for new infrastructure locations

Regional governments

Oversight of solid waste management operations, such as landfills, incinerators, and
composting facilities

Private sector companies

Collection, street sweeping, material recovery, and building and operating facilities; off-take
of materials

Households/residential waste
generators

Residents who are underserved can organize community-based organizations (CBOs) to
advocate for enhancing the solid waste management system, including increased service,
funding, and participation

Business waste generators

Waste from businesses; may have to pay for waste service directly

Informal sector workers,
enterprises, and MRF operators
or contractors

Recovery of resources from waste streams throughout the city; scavenging for waste at
dumpsites to recover recyclable materials

Non-governmental
organizations

Improvement of environment and quality of life for people by organizing and advocating for
informal sector workers, and communicating between CBOs and government authorities

Community-based organizations

Raising awareness of and increasing participation in solid waste management activities;
some CBOs deliver waste collection and recycling services

Low-income residents and peri-
urban communities

Greatest need for enhanced solid waste management system to reduce environmental
health risks

Women

Often responsible for domestic waste management and segregation of recyclables; more
vulnerable to negative health impacts from mismanaged waste; may be restricted to low-
value roles and lacking influence and opportunity within the value chain

Independent collectors

Move across waste dump sites to recover recyclable materials

Cart pushers, bicycle, and tricycle
riders

Collection by individuals or organized groups of recyclable materials from dumpsites, streets
or homes, sometimes with a handcart or something similar

External funding agencies

Provision of technical assistance for projects they fund

Source: Gana et al. (2022)

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Recycling Markets

EXHIBIT 7 CASE STUDY

Partnerships with Local Self-Help Groups for Improving Collection and Segregation

The Solid Waste Collection and Handling (SWaCH) cooperative autonomous enterprise that provides front-end waste
management services which includes collection, segregation, transportation and management to the citizens of Rune,
SwACH is a workers'cooperative run by informal workers that receives policy and infrastructure support from Rune
Municipal Corporation (Centre for Public Impact 2021). The formation of SWaCH dates back to the early 1990s when
waste pickers and itinerant waste buyers in Rune and Pimpri Chinchwad came together to form a membership-based
trade union. The trade union's efforts were recognized by Pune Municipal Corporation, which signed an agreement
with the union for collection and handling of waste. The initiative today works with nearly 3,000 informal sector
workers by protecting their right to dignity and providing a safe livelihood [ESCAP Undated].

The SWaCH workers are associated with the door-to-door collection at the ward level. The waste collected is brought
to sorting stations or sheds. The waste is then manually segregated into different recyclable fractions. The workers
receive their income from the monthly user fee that households pay for the service and the sale of recyclables from the
sorted waste.

For more information, see the Centre for Public Impact's website.

4.2. Enabling Incentives/
Instruments

Cities can use economic and policy instruments to
enable and advance markets for recycled materials
(Exhibit 8). Common solutions include:

• Economic incentives. Stakeholders can
collaborate to create regulatory policy
instruments that offer incentives and capacity
building to collect, sort, and recycle solid waste.
Further incentivizing sorting of solid waste can
increase the value of recycled materials because
contamination of other materials is limited, and
additional recycled materials can be recovered
through sorting efforts [OECD Undated(a)].

Extended producer responsibility (ERR) is "an
environmental policy approach that gives
producers financial or physical responsibility for a
product's entire lifecycle, including the treatment
or disposal of post-consumer products" (Exhibit
12) (OECD 2022). In practice, this means that
companies pay a fee according to the quantity
of material they are putting into the market. Fees
collected through EPR schemes are dedicated to
funding waste collection services. EPR schemes
have been applied to plastic packaging, e-waste,
vehicles, and batteries. Sometimes, EPR plays
a crucial role in meeting the minimum price

for sustaining collection and transportation of
materials from cities. Successful implementation
of EPR can incentivize recyclability at the design
stage while increasing the quantity recovered
through collection and recycling systems.

Taxes. Cities can set taxes on manufacturers
to disincentivize use of single-use materials or
offer subsidies or credits for manufacturers that
meet specific criteria to reduce pollution (OECD
2022).Tax incentives or credits for using recycled
materials can advance recycling markets by
driving up the demand for recycled materials
(OECD 2018). Taxes are most effective when they
are high enough to discourage consumption.

Deposit-refund schemes. Deposit-refund
schemes offer incentives, such as payments or
credits, to encourage the recovery of products
such as glass or plastic bottles (OECD 2022).
Consumers pay the additional deposit when
purchasing a product (e.g., US$0.05 for a glass
bottle, in addition to the normal price of the
purchase) and have the deposit refunded when
returned for recycling at a designated collection
point. Deposit-refund schemes can help to
improve the quantity and quality of recovered
materials (Exhibit 9 and 10).

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Recycling Markets

• Recycled content standards. Recycled content
standards require producers to ensure that a
certain percentage of their products or packaging
are made from recycled content (OECD 2022).
For example, a government may set a target
requiring manufacturers to use at least 50
percent recycled plastic when making plastic
products. Cities can also align their own public
procurement policies with recycled content
requirements. Recycled content standards can
help increase the demand for recycled materials
and give confidence to the market. Standards are
most effective when accompanying enforcement
mechanisms are in place.

• Encourage participation in certification

schemes and product standards. Cities can
increase the demand for secondary materials
by participating in certification schemes and
product standards. Such schemes and standards
offer cities an opportunity to increase the volume
of materials recycled as well as the quality of
recycled materials.

CASE IN POINT ^

Incentivizing Recycling
for Free Transportation in
Indonesia

In 2017, Indonesia joined the United Nations Clean Seas campaign and committed to reducing marine litter by 70 percent
by 2025. To increase plastics collection, the city of Surabaya developed a program that allowed the city's bus riders to receive
a free, hour-long trip in exchange for three large bottles, five medium bottles, or 10 plastic cups. In a city of 2.9 million,
approximately 16,000 residents trade plastic bottles for free travel weekly.

For more information, visit Trash for Tickets on Indonasia's'Plastic Bus'and the Clean Seas website.

Below is an overview of some recycled content regulations:

The European Union has mandated that industry include 25 percent recycled content in PET bottles by 2025 and 30
percent in all plastic bottles by 2030 under the Single-Use Plastics Directive.

Likewise, in the U.S. state of California, manufacturers are required to include an annual average of 15 percent post-
consumer recycled content in beverage containers starting in 2022. By 2025, the mandate is set to increase to 25 percent
and by 2030 to 50 percent.

Washington state has also recently announced a schedule for post-consumer recycled content requirements for different
product categories, starting with beverage containers and trash bags in 2023, adding certain household cleaning and
personal care products in 2025, and expanding to dairy milk containers in 2028.

For more information, visit the Holland Colours website.

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Recycling Markets

Exhibit 8. Potential certification schemes and product standards.

Scheme/Standard

Objective

Association of Plastic Recyclers (APR) Design Guide for
Plastics Recyclability1

Guide plastic package designers by outlining industry-
accepted criteria to ensure products are compatible for
recycling

Global Recycled Standard (GRS) and the Recycled Claim
Standard (RCS)2

International standards that set requirements for recycled
materials in products across the entire supply chain

International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC)
Plus3

Certifies waste and residue raw materials across the
supply chain

QA-CER Recycled Content Certification System4

A global certification system for plastic, textiles, or
composite materials based on ISO 9001 principles

SCS Recycled Content Standard V7.05

Requirements for recycled content found in final
products

UL 2809 Environmental Claim Validation Procedure (ECVP)
for Recycled Content6

Validates the recycled content for any materials in pre-
and post-consumer products

Resources:

1. The Association of Plastics [Undated]

2. Textile Exchange [Undated]

3. ISCC (2019)

4. Belgian Quality Association (2017)

5. SCS Global Services (2017)

6. UL Standards (2020)

KEY POINT

Addressing Textile Waste

The international clothing industry has doubled in sales between 2000 and 2015.Textile waste from clothing
continues to increase as clothing utilization—the average number of times a garment is worn before it ceases to be
used—decreases due to lower priced clothing and new, seasonal trends. This phenomenon is known as "fast fashion"
[Ellen MacArthur Undated (a)]. Cities can work towards creating a textile circular economy by incentivizing the private
sector to develop take-back programs for consumers to recycle old or no longer functional clothes and household
textiles. Import bans or landfill bans can also prevent textiles from entering a country or a landfill, and can encourage
additional recycling of textiles. For example, East African countries Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania,
and Uganda enacted an import ban on second-hand clothing in 2016 to decrease the volume of textiles in the
countries (Changing Markets Foundation 2021).

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Recycling Markets

EXHIBIT 9 CASE STUDY

Increasing Recycling Efforts Through Incentive Programs in Sri Lanka

It is estimated that about 20 percent of households in Sri Lanka have access to public waste collection services.

This results in large amounts of waste being burned or improperly disposed of in their communities or the
environment. In 2018, USAID's Clean Cities, Blue Ocean program partnered with the Sri Lankan government to
create solutions for advancing recycling efforts throughout the country.These efforts involve heavily engaging the
private sector, as the government believes the private sector to be a key player in combatting ocean pollution.

One such effort is in partnership with the Idea Factory, which has developed a reverse vending machine that
instantly pays users for recycling qualified waste. These vending machines have been placed throughout the
Jaffna District to see if rewards or other incentives will increase participation in recycling efforts. This effort will also
provide the national government with useful data and feedback to incorporate in future larger scale efforts.

The program and Sri Lankan local governments have also partnered with Janathakshan to design and launch new
plastic recovery centers throughout the Kaduwela Municipal Council area of Colombo. Informal collectors will
be able to sell recyclable waste at fair market prices to the centers, where they will then be sorted, cleaned, and
resold to commercial recyclers to be made into new products. This effort seeks to close the gap between end-users
discarding recyclable waste and the market demands for clean, recyclable materials.

For more information, visit the Urban Links website.

EXHIBIT 10 CASE STUDY

Zero Baht or Shop with Your Waste

Zero Baht is a concept in Thailand for setting up shops that allow citizens to barter recyclable goods for other
goods without transacting in currency [OECD Undated(b)]. A similar concept has also been implemented in the
city of Panjim, Goa, in partnership with the local municipal authority.The initiative acts as an intermediary between
citizens and MRFs and provides incentives in the form of daily use products such as soap or shampoo in exchange
for recyclables at pre-decided rates. The rates at which recyclables are exchanged are adjusted every two weeks on
the basis of the current market value and are decided by the local municipal authority. The initiative offers a win-
win opportunity to all stakeholders involved including the shopkeeper.

For more information, visit Marine Plastics Pollution I hailand

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Recycling Markets

4.3. Innovation and Technology

Innovation of new technologies to collect, sort, and
recycle solid waste is necessary to improve markets
for recycled materials. Cities can support research
and development of technologies and products
that will expand market opportunities. Research and
development can result in:

• Increased volume of recycled materials. By

investing in innovative systems and technologies,
cities can capture additional and better-quality
materials from the solid waste stream and reduce
contamination and leakage of materials into the
environment [OECD Undated (a)].

• Decreased contamination. Sorting technologies
can help cities properly sort recycled materials
and limit contamination of non-recyclable
materials. For more information about increasing
the value of recycled materials, refer to the
Identifying opportunities to improve the quality and
quantity of recycled materials section.

• New markets. Cities can create new markets
for materials by developing new strategies
to use secondary materials as feedstocks and
developing technology to allow the recycling of
difficult-to-recycle materials (U.S. EPA 2021 a).

• New partnerships. Cities can form new
partnerships with stakeholders to implement new
projects that can fund secondary materials use
and expand markets for materials and products
(U.S. EPA 2021 a) (Exhibit 11).

• Addressing risks. Cities can use research to
address certain risks that materials pose such
as risk that materials will be used to fuel energy
generation or risks that recyclable materials may
not prove as resilient as virgin materials (e.g.,
recycled materials used in eco-bricks).

Innovative Partnership Across Argentina and Latin American Expands

Recycling System

In 2019, Delterra, a nonprofit organization, partnered with the Barrio Mugica community and 13 labor cooperatives
to establish a recycling and composting program called ATodo Reciclaje (AIR). Under ATR, collection workers
use QR code technology to track data on recyclable, compostable, and mixed waste. Data are used to compare
performance on a weekly basis and to identify solutions for any challenges that arise. Since the program's
inception, Barrio Mugica has achieved the highest recycling rates in the city.

The program then expanded its efforts to the city of Olavarria, where the formal recycling rate was less than 1
percent. Here, Delterra established the Gestion Integral de Residuos de Olavarria program to create a replicable,
economically sustainable and inclusive model for solid waste management in Argentina. Delterra has collaborated
with supply-chain partners to address the challenges of recycling along the entire value chain.

After achieving success in Barrio Mugica and Olavarria, Delterra is expanding its partnership with Red Innovacion
Local, a network of more than 280 Argentine cities. Delterra's partnerships with Barrio Mugica, Olavarria, and this
network are helping to lay the groundwork for a reliable and ethical supply chain for companies seeking to source
recycled material. These efforts are helping Argentina transition to a circular economy.

For more information, visit Delterra's website and Transforming recycling in communities in Latin America

with Delterra.

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Recycling Markets

CASE IN POINT |gjk

Using Artificial Intelligence to
Improve Job Quality and Recycling

Markets

In India, Kabadiwalla Connect uses Al to connect waste collectors with recycling facilities. By using data and mapping, clear
market information is provided to informal sector workers to help track and plan where to collect materials. This reduces the
need for waste pickers to forage through dumpsites and results in higher-quality materials that are sold to end-markets.

For more information, visit Solutions for Youth,

4.4. Strengthening Domestic
Policies and Market Development

National and sub-national governments can help
drive the demand side of recycling markets through
sustainable public procurement policies. Key factors
to consider when designing domestic policies
include:

Targeting the closure of leakage pathways of
materials into the environment;

Incentivizing recycling and sorting at the source;
and

Restraining demand and designing for circularity
of a material [OECD Undated (a)].

These factors can help increase the volume and
quality of materials that can be recycled and sold to
end-markets.

Cities can strengthen and promote domestic market
development by:

• Conducting market development workshops.

Cities can bring stakeholders together by
coordinating market development workshops
to discuss current markets for recycled materials,
understand ways these markets can be
strengthened, and to identify other potential
markets for recycled materials. Initially, cities
can start identifying and mapping recyclers in
their local market, recognize them through a
registration mechanism, and thereafter bring
them together for support. This support should
be reciprocal, and recyclers should also be shown
the advantage of linkages. Market development
workshops can also provide an opportunity

for cities to educate stakeholders on the value
of secondary materials. Market development
workshops can be effective at the local, national,
and regional levels (U.S. EPA 2021a).

Education and outreach. Cities can provide
educational materials to community members
that inform communities about and provide
basic market development materials, explain
the importance of recycling and the economic
benefits associated with recycled materials, and
identify local market development challenges.
An effective way to promote these materials is
through a market development toolkit, where
all necessary resources are compiled into one
reference or source (U.S. EPA 2021 a).

Increasing awareness of recycled materials.

Cities can increase awareness of available
recycled materials among industries throughout
the region through compounder or raw material
sellers. Manufacturers may only look to local
markets for recycled material feedstock and
may not be aware of available recycled material
feedstock throughout the broader region. Cities
may issue certificates to traders or recyclers
that purchase recycled dry waste from their
regions. By increasing awareness of available
recycled material feedstock, manufacturers
can take advantage of the available supply and
develop infrastructure in areas with a consistent
supply of feedstock (U.S. EPA 2021a). Cities can
also intervene by developing and promoting
awareness about recycling parks or industrial
clusters that are only for recyclers and by offering
financial benefits or access to the city waste
stream for its users.

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Recycling Markets

Expanding to smaller or more remote
jurisdictions. Cities can build recycling
market opportunities by expanding to smaller
jurisdictions that may not currently have access
to the same recycling markets in cities.This is an
effective way to stimulate local job growth, form
regional partnerships, and enable new markets
for recycled materials to form and become more
attractive to private sector investors (U.S. EPA
2021a).

•a . *

4.5. Encouraging International
Cooperation

Cities can work together with nearby cities
or neighboring countries to develop regional
partnerships and action plans that promote a circular
economy [OECD Undated (a)]. For example, the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
launched the ASEAN Regional Action Plan for
Combating Marine Debris in the ASEAN Member
States (2021 - 2025) supported by member national
governments and donor partners such as GIZ and
USAID.The Regional Action Plan is focused on
reducing plastic usage, enhancing collection, and
minimizing leakage, as well as creating value from
waste.The Regional Action Plan provides guidelines
for countries to help reduce or phase out certain
single-use plastics, harmonize regional policies on
recycling and plastics packaging standards, and
strengthen regional measurement and monitoring of
marine litter (The World Bank 2021).

EXHIBIT 12 CASE STUDY

National Policies that Promote Recycling in India: Extended Producer

Responsibility

India's ERR framework seeks to promote the concept of circularity. Plastics were recently included through the
amended Plastic Waste Management Rules of 2022, introduced in February 2022. Under the rules, producers, importers
of plastic packaging, and brand owners are made accountable (termed "obligated entities") for managing the end
packaging waste. The EPR framework mandates annual targets for collection, reuse, and recycling of plastic packaging
for each obligated entity. The rules clearly classify eligible plastics as rigid, flexible (single or multi-layer of plastic), MLP
(at least one layer of plastic and one layer other than plastic), or plastic sheet or similar used for packaging. A similar
framework has been introduced for waste streams including tires, batteries, and electronic waste.

For more information, visit India's EPR Guidelines.

CASE IN POINT

Setting a Global Recycling

HmSm

Initiative in Africa

An estimated US$8 billion is lost in Africa due to unrecovered recyclable materials. One estimate projects this value to increase
to up to US$60 billion by 2050.To help address this lost revenue, Egypt announced a global initiative, called "50 by 2050,"
at the Conference of the Parties 27 (CoP27).The initiative aims to improve the recycling rate in Africa from 10 percent to 50
percent by 2050. This initiative is the first holistic approach for the African continent to address all waste types and offers a
collaborative platform for all stakeholders involved in waste management to contribute. Egypt's announcement was the first
time in CoP history that waste was put on the map as a global climate strategy.

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Recycling Markets

4.6. Improving the quality and
quantity of recycled materials

Improving the quality and quantity of recycled
materials is key to a successful recycling market.
Higher-quality materials have a higher economic
value. Increasing the quantity of recycled materials
allows for more materials to be sold to end-markets.
Common strategies to improve the quality and
quantity of recycled materials include:

• Collecting general data. Collecting as much data
as possible is a critical step to understanding the
waste stream and informing key decision making
about where to focus or prioritize investment and
policies. Key data points to collect include:

Estimated tonnages of generated materials

Estimated tonnages of recycled materials

Estimated tonnages of recycled materials
received at MRFs and other recycling facilities

Estimated tonnages or proportions of source-
separated weight, ensuring quality and
quantity of recyclables

• Conducting a baseline assessment. A baseline
assessment to understand the types and
applications of materials in the waste stream
and monitor the flow of waste is a critical first
step in creating recycling markets. It is important
to understand and identify areas of concern,
including products, businesses, sectors, and each
step of the recycling system, before deciding to
create a recycling market. For more information,
refer to Section 7 - Waste Characterization of
the Guide.

• Identifying products in the waste stream and
analyzing the end-markets for those materials.

Cities can conduct analyses to understand the
composition and volume of waste streams.

Waste streams can vary by generation source
(e.g., residential, commercial, institutional, and
industrial). For example, the commercial sector
may have a higher percentage of paper materials
than the residential sector. Understanding the

composition and volume of waste can establish a
baseline to understand the types of materials in
each waste stream and evaluate contamination of
the waste stream. By establishing a baseline, cities
can understand if the waste stream is comprised
of primarily recyclable or non-recyclable
materials.

Analyzing contamination of the waste stream
can help authorities tailor solutions for expanded
sorting infrastructure and technology or
enhanced educational campaigns. It can also help
authorities make educated assumptions about
future recycling and waste management needs,
and plan appropriately for those needs (Climate &
Clean Air Coalition [CCAC] 2018). It is important to
assess current end-market trends for a material,
as well as the immediate past trends and near
future projections (U.S. EPA 1993).

• Implementing educational campaigns. Cities
can offer educational campaigns, instructional
literature, and other communications such as TV
and radio announcements about proper recycling
practices or economic incentive opportunities.
These may lead to lower contamination of
recycled materials, thus increasing their value
(OECD2018).

• Investing in infrastructure and technology.

Cities can increase participation and the volume
of recycled materials by increasing the availability
of suitable recycling infrastructure. Infrastructure
can also lead to a less-contaminated recycling
system with the right sorting technology (OECD
2018).

• Manually sorting recycled materials. Labor-
intensive options such as manual sorting offer
a low-cost, labor-effective way to increase
the quality and quantity of recycled materials
(McKinsey & Company 2022). In places where
there is high unemployment, such labor-intensive
activities can provide a wide range of jobs. In
many places this will be more appropriate than
expensive sorting technology.

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Recycling Markets

• One-time funding mechanisms, such as:

• Local revenue sources, including taxes,
tariffs, and services charges.

• Local and national operating budgets,

including budget funds and subsidies.

• Long-term funding mechanisms, such as:

• Grants, including from national
governments, financial institutions, and
foundations.

• Results-based financing, including
linkages of payment for services to the
achievement and verification of pre-
agreed outcomes or targets.

• Public-private partnerships, including
cooperative agreements between the
public and private sector.

• Bonds, including bonds that cities can
sell to institutions or individuals with a
promise to pay back the bonds'value
and interest at specified intervals. These
are less common in some developing
countries with high levels of debt.

• Loans, including from financial
institutions or banks that have fixed
repayment rates over a set period.

For more information, refer to Section 6 -
Economic Considerations in the Guide.

MR. GREEN AFRICA

CASE IN POINT jgj

Empowering the Informal Sector
Leads to Investment in Africa

Mr. Green Africa was the first recycling company to be a Certified B Corporation on the African continent. The company
collects and recycles plastics by integrating informal waste workers, micro-entrepreneurs, and consumers into a formal
value chain. This approach helps increase the volume of post-consumer plastic waste collected and offers stakeholders an
opportunity to earn a fair and transparent income. Clients of Mr. Green Africa have been able to achieve their targets for
using recycled materials in manufacturing due to the high-quality feedstock collected by the company. Due to the company's
approach to achieve high-quality feedstock while contributing to a just and equitable supply chain, Mr. Green Africa has been
successful in attracting investors (USAID 2022). For example, the Global Innovation Fund has invested US$1 million in equity
and debt due to Mr. Green Africa's efforts to integrate the informal waste sector into their model [Global Innovation Fund
Undated].

For more information, see Investii

ia in Waste Manaaement and Recvclina with a Gender Lens and the Global

Innovation Fund.

4.7. Attracting investments for the
recycling industry

Successful recycling markets require investments into
all parts of the recycling system including collection,
sorting, and processing of solid waste. Investing in all
parts of the recycling system can increase the volume
of recycled materials collected, and the quality of
materials recycled and sold to end-markets. Common
best practices for attracting investments include:

• Conducting a baseline assessment. Cities
can conduct a baseline assessment to better
understand current investments in the recycling
system and to identify potential areas that require
investment. For example, during a baseline
assessment, a city may notice that collection
efforts are well funded, but funding for sorting
efforts after materials are collected may be
lacking. A city could then focus on attracting
investments for sorting efforts to enhance the
quality of recycled materials.

• Identifying sources of funding. Cities can
consider various sources of funding, both internal
and external. Common sources for funding
include:

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Recycling Markets

Creating a common marketplace for feedstock
and products. Cities can offer more supply
and demand security for recyclers by creating
a common marketplace for both raw materials
and recycled materials (McKinsey& Company
2020). For example, the Circular Plastics Alliance
is comprised of more than 300 organizations
across the plastics value chain committed to
boosting the European Union market for recycled
plastics to more than 11 million tons [European
Commission Undated],

Creating an investment-friendly environment.

Cities can create an investment-friendly
environment by increasing collection and
separation efforts that reduce contamination.
Educating and empowering consumers to
properly separate and dispose of their waste
can help reduce contamination of recyclable
materials and provide recyclers with higher-
value materials. Technology such as artificial
intelligence (Al) and higher-quality washing
systems can help increase the value of recycled
materials (McKinsey & Company 2020). Refer to
Case in Point: Using Al to Improve Job Quality and
Recycling Markets for an example of how Al can
be used.

A strong and effective legal, policy, and
institutional framework, as well as political and
economic stability, offer an investment-friendly
environment. By creating an investment-friendly
environment, cities allow for increased business
development opportunities (UNIDO 2019).

• Integrating gender and the informal waste
sector. Gender and informal sector workers
are important considerations as they are key to
increasing volumes of recycled materials. Cities
can integrate gender and informal sector workers
in the recycling system to attract investors
that share a common mission to improve the
livelihoods of these groups (USAID 2022). Cities
can help support self-help groups, spaces for
informal sector workers to be integrated, and
social security and insurance schemes. Public
sector bodies can also influence private sector
inclusion of informal waste collectors through
procurement specifications.

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Recycling Markets

Section 5

Organics Recycling

Section 10 - Organic Waste of the Guide provides
an overview of the benefits of organic diversion
and best practices for organic waste management
options, including organics recycling through
composting, anaerobic digestion (AD), and animal
or livestock feed. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency's Food Recovery Hierarchy
ranks the prioritized actions to prevent and divert
waste food.This hierarchy includes the following
management practices, ranking from most preferred
to least preferred: source reduction, feeding hungry
people, feeding animals, industrial uses, composting,
and landfill or incineration (U.S. EPA 2022). For more
information, refer to Section 10 - Organic Waste
Management of the Guide.

• Composting is the controlled decomposition
of organic materials in the presence of oxygen.
The use of compost enriches soil, helps retain
moisture, suppresses plant diseases and pests,
and reduces the need for chemical fertilizers (U.S.
EPA 2020c). Composting requires three general
steps:

Combining organic waste types, such as
wasted food, yard trimmings, and manure

Adding wood chips, shredded paper, or other
bulking agents to accelerate the breakdown
of organic waste

Allowing the compost to stabilize and mature
through a curing process (U.S. EPA 2015)

• AD is a process through which bacteria break
down organic matter—such as animal manure,
wastewater biosolids, and food wastes—in the
absence of oxygen [U.S. EPA Undated(a)].The
products of the AD process include biogas, an
energy source that contains mostly methane and
carbon dioxide, and digestate. Digestate is the
material that is leftover after organic materials
are anaerobically digested. Digestate is rich in
nutrients and can be used as fertilizer for crops
(U.S. EPA 2020c). AD minimizes odor, reduces
pathogens and solid waste, and produces gas and
digested materials (both wet and dry) that can be
used for various applications (U.S. EPA 2020c).

When deciding which management practice or
practices to use for organic waste, it is important
to understand the tradeoffs of each management
practice and inputs. For example, composting is
a more financially feasible system than AD, and
agricultural waste or market waste is often a less
contaminated feedstock input than household or
restaurant food waste (CCAC 2016).

KEY POINT

Defining Types of Recyclable
Waste Around the World

Wastes such as food waste, green waste, and yard waste are defined using terms such as organic waste, biowaste,
or wet waste, whereas recyclables such as plastics, metals, and papers are commonly referred to as dry waste in the
international waste community.

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Recycling Markets

5.1. Challenges

Cities face many challenges when developing

markets for organics, including:

• Low feedstock quality. The types of organic
waste that are used for biogas production
through AD can have a drastic impact on the
quality of the product. Foods that are easily
digestible convert into volatile fatty acids, which
can introduce bigger challenges down the line
in the biogas production process (Xu et al. 2017).
This causes recyclers to use waste that has low
organic loading rates to ensure there are no
contaminants in the mix.

• Limited supply of feedstock. The stock of waste
available to organics recyclers is often limited.
With the current market, AD may have reached a
tipping point at which the demand for feedstock
has surpassed the supply (Baddeley 2014).

• High costs of contamination. To meet legislative
standards and regulation levels, organic waste
goes through a treatment process, such as
removing plastic packaging, which can be costly
to the processors or recycler and increase daily
operating costs, both of which could outweigh
the profits. This treatment is necessary to ensure
no dry waste is present in the wet waste (CCAC
2016).

• High costs of technology and infrastructure.

Investing in technologies for AD for biogas
production can come at a high cost. Certain
organic wastes such as pre-consumer food wastes
that are composed of inorganic compounds
might not be compatible with other wastes for
AD processes, which could require a recycler to
invest in separate machinery to digest the other
materials (Xu et al. 2017).

• Operational challenges. These challenges
include long-term contracts; slurry, which
can cause damage to the environment if not
managed properly; climate factors; space
constraints; and transport requirements.

• Limited off-take markets for end-products. The

limited off-take markets for end-products present
a challenge because the amount of end-products
produced may exceed the demand, leaving
organic waste recyclers with excess product.

KEY POINT

International Agreements -
Global Methane Pledge

In 2021, the United States and European Union launched the Global Methane Pledge (GMP), inviting countries to
collectively reduce global methane emissions by at least 30 percent from 2020 levels by 2030. Over 150 countries
have committed to the pledge [Global Methane Pledge Undated].

Waste is responsible for approximately 20 percent of global methane emissions from human activities. Under the
GMP, the GMP Waste Pathway was launched to focus on reducing emissions across the solid waste value chain. As a
result, a Food Waste Management Accelerator is helping to develop methane mitigation projects in 10 countries, the
Global Food Banking Network is launching a new effort to quantify and track food banking methane mitigation, the
Inter-American Development Bank project #SinDesperdicio is creating projects to reduce food loss, and a new USAID
Food Loss and Waste Partnerships Facility will scale efforts in six countries (U.S. Department of State 2022).

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Recycling Markets

5.2. Best Practices

This section describes best practices for improving

markets for organic materials, including animal

or livestock feed, compost, biogas, and digestate.

Common strategies to consider include:

Animal or Livestock Feed

• Turning food scraps and waste into proper
feed for agricultural operations. Food scraps
and waste can be diverted to feed animals.This
can be a beneficial way for farmers to save money
on purchasing food for livestock (Leib et al. 2016).

• Forming partnerships with food waste
generators and livestock growers. Developing
partnerships between food waste generators and
livestock growers can create a mutually beneficial
system where food waste generators can supply
livestock growers with feedstock that would
otherwise be disposed of at landfills or through
incineration.This can also decrease disposal costs
because fewer food scraps are sent to landfills
(Leib et al. 2016).

• Promote the environmental benefits of
using food scraps as animal or livestock
feed. Using food scraps as animal feed offers
environmental benefits such as decreasing the
amount of energy, water, and other resources
typically required to grow crops to feed animals
or livestock, and decreases the amount of land
necessary to grow such food. By diverting food
scraps from the landfill, less methane will be
emitted from the decomposition of food (Leib et
al. 2016).

• Understand any laws about feeding animals or
livestock. Cities or countries may have different
laws surrounding feeding animals or livestock.
Learning about potential food bans or required
licenses is a critical step to take before deciding to
implement an animal or livestock feed program.

• Utilizing Black Soldier Fly larvae. Black Solider
Fly larvae are fed on food waste and then used for
animal feed and in aquaculture (CCAC 2022).

Compost and Digestate

• Identifying customers and perception.

Consider all potential customers and their needs
and willingness to pay for compost and digestate.
Common customers of compost include
conventional farmers, organic farmers, residents,
landscapers and developers, public entities, and
plant nurseries (CCAC 2016). By understanding
the potential customers, cities can plan for
customers'end-product requirements such as
compost grade, nutritional requirements, and
purchasing patterns (e.g., timing, frequency).The
demand of customers may also be influenced by
seasonal patterns (CCAC 2016).

To address customer perception, it is important
to consider the quality of compost. If the
quality of the compost is low, there will not be
a market for it. Consider following international
guidelines or standards to ensure quality
compost. For example, American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) D5975-17: Standard
Test Method For Determining The Stability Of
Compost By Measuring Oxygen Consumption
is an international standard that can help
composters understand if the organic material
can be used for its intended purpose (ASTM
2017).

• Promoting and incentivizing high quality end-
products. Consider customer perceptions when
strategizing on the market for end-products like
compost and digestate. Compost and digestate
offers various benefits compared to alternative
products such chemical fertilizers, animal waste,
mulch, and peat moss. Benefits include:

• Nutrient restoration, including nitrogen,
potassium, and phosphorus (CCAC 2016).

• Land conditioning, including replenishing
depleted soil; supporting root growth, soil
aeration, and microorganism growth; and
balancing soil acidity (CCAC 2016).

• Moisture management, including improved
land drainage and water retention (CCAC
2016).

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Recycling Markets

The Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources (GOBAR-Dhan) scheme in India is an initiative by the Department of
Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India launched in 2018 and aims to support the rural areas and
villages in managing their biodegradable, agricultural, and cattle waste.The department supports every district in
India by providing both technical and financial support of 50 Indian Rupees to achieve effective management of
cattle/biodegradable waste and convert it into biogas and organic manure. This financial support is used to create
infrastructure that the community itself will use, own, operate, and manage.

A total of 583 plants are presently working in about 151 districts in India under this scheme. There are close to
another 175 plants under construction [GOBAR-Dhan Undated].

For more information, see the case study on Safe Management of Cattle and Other Biodegradable

Waste.

• Erosion control and re-vegetation, including
replacing lost soil due to erosion and
preventing further erosion by absorbing
water (CCAC 2016).

• Filtration, including improving water quality
by filtering out heavy metals, grease, and fuel
when applied as a lining (CCAC 2016).

• Public health benefits, because compost
does not pose any physical illness if processed
properly, unlike chemical fertilizers (CCAC
2016).

• Waste reduction and environmental
benefits, including reduced reliance on
chemical fertilizers and decreased methane
emissions by diverting organic waste from
landfills (CCAC 2016).

Cities can emphasize the benefits of using
compost and incentivize customers to buy
compost to increase the demand for high-quality
compost.

Establishing quality standards. Cities can
establish quality standards to ensure that the
compost does not contain any contaminants,
such as plastics, heavy metals, or disease vectors
and is viable for plant growth conditions. This can
help consumers feel comfortable that they are
buying quality compost (CCAC 2016).

• Identifying distribution methods. Cities
have various ways to distribute compost,
including on-site usage or sales, or through
secondary channels such as local retailers
and bulk wholesalers. Customers may have
different distribution needs. For example, local
farmers who purchase compost on-site reduce
transportation costs. Identifying the most
effective distribution method for customers can
increase demand for compost (CCAC 2016).

• Economic considerations, such as collection
and transportation costs and markets. Cities
can consider the various costs associated with
composting including sourcing feedstock
(collection and transport); operations and
maintenance; and end-product storage,
marketing, and transportation. Understanding
where organic waste is generated can help
cities strategize how to collect and transport
in cost-effective ways. For example, if there is a
centralized marketplace that produces a high
volume of organic waste, it would be financially
beneficial to have a communal collection point
for organic waste located nearby to reduce
collection and transportation costs.To help
protect against variations in demand, cities
can engage with customers to understand
purchasing patterns and conduct financial
forecasts. This can be an effective way to protect
against the volatility of compost markets (CCAC
2016). For more information, refer to Section 9 -
Separation, Collection, and Transportation of
the Guide.

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Recycling Markets

Biogas and Digestate

• Identifying end uses. Cities can tailor marketing
efforts based on the current or potential demand
for biogas and digestate, Biogas can be used

for a variety of end-uses including for cooking,
electricity, heating, conversion into biomethane
(after purification) for injection into the gas
distribution grid, or use as renewable transport
fuel. Digestate can be used on agricultural land or
used as bedding material for urban landscaping
projects, for home gardens, or in horticulture or
forestry (World Biogas Association 2018).

• Promote the benefits of using biogas or

digestate. Cities can promote the benefits
of using biogas and digestate as a means of
increasing demand for the products (Exhibit
13). Biogas offers a wide range of end uses,
such as thermal applications, power generation,
industrial applications, biomethane injection, or
for vehicle fuels (U.S. EPA 2014). Digestate offers
rich micro-organisms, carbon, micronutrients, and
other nutrients including nitrogen, phosphate,
potash, calcium, magnesium and sulfur. Digestate
also can increase crop yield and reduce the use
of chemical fertilizers (World Biogas Association
2018).

• Understanding the varying market value. The

market value of digestate varies based on the
type of feedstock and digestion processed used
to produce it. The dry matter percentage, pH

level, and nutrient contents vary based on how
the digestate was produced. Cities can market
various types of digestate to attract a variety of
end-users (World Biogas Association 2018).

Participating in certification schemes. Cities
can leverage certification schemes to enhance
marketability and promote quality end-products.
Certification schemes can reduce contamination,
providing cities with higher-quality end-products
(World Biogas Association 2018).

Incentivizing renewable energy. Cities can
incentivize the use of biogas to increase supply
and demand. Common incentives include:

• Structured payments, including payments
that require energy companies to invest

in biogas technology, which can create
additional supply of biogas.

• Minimum renewable energy standards,
including mechanisms that require energy
generators to source a minimum percentage
of energy from biogas (World Biogas
Association 2018).

• Renewable Energy Certificates, including
mechanisms that offer credits for renewable
energy generation (U.S. EPA 2014).

Biowaste Recycling and End-market Development in Chile

The Reciclo Organicos program is implemented by the Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change of
Canada and Environment Ministry of Chile and executed by Arcadis Canada with support from Arcadis Chile and
ImplementaSur. Approximately 58 percent of municipal solid waste in Chile is organic and heavily contributes to
greenhouse gas emissions upon decomposing in landfills.The program seeks to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from organic waste by diverting it from disposal and into composting or AD, and by capturing and utilizing landfill
gas at existing disposal sites. The program is estimated to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the waste sector
by 70 percent.

For more information, visit the Arcadis website.

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Recycling Markets

Questions for Decision-Makers

What materials are currently collected in the city? Are there additional materials that could be
collected for recycling?

How can the contamination of materials be minimized?

What educational or outreach campaigns has the city conducted to increase awareness that
recycled materials hold economic value if managed properly?

Has the city considered both domestic and international markets when developing the recycling
system?

How has the city worked with the private sector? How can the city work in public-private
partnerships for enabling effective recycling markets?

What role does the informal sector play in the delivery of recycling services?

How might the formalizing of recycling services impact the livelihood of the informal sector?

Does the city have data as to how much recycled material is available to supply end-users? If yes,
are there any gaps in the demand for certain materials?

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Recycling Markets

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