United States Office of Science Environmental Protection and Technology Agency Washington, D.C. June 30, 2002 EPA-822-R-03-020 £ EPA Office of Water Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Final Draft Prepared for Health and Ecological Criteria Division Office of Science and Technology 401 M Street, SW Washington, DC 20460 ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents i Chapter! Executive Summary 1-1 Chapter II. Physical and Chemical Properties II-1 Chapter III. Toxicokinetics Ill-1 A. Absorption Ill-1 B. Distribution III-3 C. Metabolism TTT-9 D. Excretion Ill-18 E. Bioaccumulation and Retention 111-20 F. Summary 111-20 Chapter IV. Human Exposure IV-1 Chapter V. Health Effects in Animals V-l A. Short-Term Exposure V-l B. Long-Term Exposure V-16 C. Reproductive and Developmental Effects V-26 D. Mutagenicity and Genotoxicity V-49 E. Carcinogenicity V-60 F. Summary V-65 Chapter VI. Health Effects in Humans VI-1 Chapter VII. Mechanisms of Toxicity and Sensitive Subpopulations VII-1 A. Biochemical Basis of Toxicity VII-1 B. Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis VII-11 C. Interactions and Suceptibilities VII-14 D. Summary VII-16 Chapter VIII. Quantification of Toxicological Effects VIII-1 A. Introduction to Methods VIII-1 B. Noncarcinogenic Effects VIII-8 C. Carcinogenic Effects VIII-42 D. Characteristics of Uncertainties and Data Groups VIII-44 Chapter IX. References IX-1 Appendix A. Benchmark Dose Modeling Results A-l Appendix B. Benchmark Dose Modeling Output (Available only in electronic form) EPA/OW/OST/HECD i Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Acknowledgements This document is an update and expansion of the Rough Final Draft for the Drinking Water Criteria Document on Haloacetonitriles, Chloropicrin and Cyanogen Chloride (U.S. EPA, 1987) and the 1993 Draft Drinking Water Health Advisory for Haloacetonitriles, from EPA's Office of Water. This document includes an evaluation of literature on the HANs resulting from a full literature search for toxicity data conducted in December 1999, and exposure data in May 2002. Key newer studies identified after the literature search date have been included as available at the time of document preparation. Chemical Manager: Nancy Chiu, Ph.D. Contractor Authors: Andrew Maier, Ph.D., C.I.H. (TERA) Claudine Kasunic (GRAM, Inc.) Lynne T. Haber, Ph.D. {TERA) Joan S. Dollarhide, M.S., M.T.S.C., J.D. {TERA) Bruce Allen, M.S. (ENVIRON) Nathan Bowles (GRAM, Inc.) External Peer Reviewers Patricia McGinnis, Ph.D., DABT, Syracuse Research Corporation John Reif, M.Sc. (Med), D.V.M., Colorado State University Alan Stern, Dr.P.H., DABT, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection EPA/OW/OST/HECD ii Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter I. Executive Summary A. Introduction Haloacetonitriles (HANs) are derivatives of acetonitrile (CH3CN), in which one to three halogen atoms are substituted for hydrogen. The four halogenated acetonitriles selected for consideration in this document are bromochloroacetonitrile (BCAN), dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), and trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN). These HANs were selected for inclusion in this document in consideration of the prevalence of individual HANs in drinking water, and the availability of toxicity data. This document includes an evaluation of literature on the HANs resulting from a full literature search for toxicity data conducted in December 1999, and exposure data in May 2002. Key newer studies identified after the literature search date have been included as available at the time of document preparation. B. Human Exposure The Information Collection Rule (ICR) database (U.S. EPA, 2002a) contains extensive information on concentrations of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in drinking-water systems, and on how those concentrations vary with input-water characteristics and treatment methods. The database contains information from six quarterly samples from 7/97 to 12/98, from approximately 300 large systems covering approximately 500 plants. The mean concentrations of BCAN were 0.73 and 1.14 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of DBAN were 0.82 and 0.75 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of DCAN were 0.87 and 2.21 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of TCAN were 0.14 and 0.03 //g/L in EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-1 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles groundwater and surface water, respectively. The median concentrations of BCAN, DBAN, DC AN, and TCAN were less than their means in groundwater and surface water. HANs are produced during water chlorination or chloramination from naturally occurring substances, including algae, humic acid, fulvic acid, and proteinaceous material. Reckhow el al. (1990) found that disinfection of water containing humic acids resulted in higher concentrations of HANs than disinfection of water containing the corresponding fulvic acids. The disinfection process producing the highest concentration of HANs was chlorination. Chloramine produced lower levels of HANs. Most investigators (Boorman et al., 1999; Richardson 1998; Lykins et al., 1994; Jacangelo et al., 1989) found that the formation of HANs when ozonation was followed by chlorine or chloramine was less than when chlorine or chloramine was the sole disinfectant. Interestingly, Miltner et al. (1990) reported that the formation of DBAN in simulated distribution water was higher (p = 0.05) when ozonation was combined with chlorination or with chloramination than when chlorination was used alone. In addition, Miltner et al. (1990) found that ozonation had no statistically significant effect on the formation of BCAN, DCAN, or TCAN. Richardson (1998) found that BCAN, DCAN, and TCAN were not produced in measurable quantities by ozonation or chlorine dioxide. However, DBAN was formed by ozone in the presence of elevated bromide, but not by chlorine dioxide disinfection. Ambient bromide levels appear to influence, to some degree, the speciation of HANs. DCAN is by far the most predominant HAN detected in drinking water from sources with EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles bromide levels of 20 |ig/L or less. In treated water from sources with higher bromide levels (50-80 //g/L), BCAN was the second most prevalent compound (WHO, 2000). Richardson (1998) found that when bromide was present in the source water, DBAN concentrations were greater than those of chloroform or dichloroacetic acid, which normally predominate. In general, increasing temperature and/or decreasing pH has been associated with increasing concentrations of HANs (AWWARF, 1991; Siddiqui & Amy, 1993). Although HANs form rapidly, they decay in the distribution system as a result of hydrolysis. HANs hydrolyzed at pH levels >9.0 and continued to degrade in the distribution system (Arora el al.,\ 997), The relative stability of individual HANs appears to be dependent on the specific source water (AWWARF, 1991). In general, there were no clear trends of the concentrations of HANs with season. However, among 35 water treatment facilities investigated, Krasner et al. (1989) found that at the facility with the highest bromide level (~ 3 mg/L bromide), there was a shift in the distribution of HANs from chlorinated HANs to brominated HANs. TCAN has been used as an insecticide (Budavari et al., 1989). No data were located on exposure to BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in food, air, or via dermal exposure when showering or swimming. EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles C. Toxicokinetics Limited data are available on the toxicokinetics of the HANs, with a comprehensive toxicokinetic study for oral dosing available only for DCAN, However, the existing toxicokinetic data suggest that HANs can be rapidly and nearly completely absorbed following oral dosing (Roby et al., 1986; Roth et al., 1990). Systemic toxicity data suggest that HANs are absorbed by the dermal route. Once absorbed, HANs appear to be widely distributed. The two compounds tested, DCAN (Roby et al., 1986) and TCAN (Lin et al., 1992), were widely distributed following oral dosing, with no clear preferences in tissue distribution apparent based on the limited data. No data were available on tissue-dependent metabolism, but an overall metabolic scheme for HANs involving an initial oxidative dehalogenation step has been proposed based on the ability of these compounds to form cyanide and metabolism studies for other nitriles (Pereira et al., 1984). Proposed intermediate metabolites have not been measured directly, and the identity of enzymes responsible for steps in the pathway have not been identified. Conjugation with glutathione (GSH), at least at high doses, might be a second important route of metabolism for HANs (Ahmed et al., 1989; Lin and Guion, 1989; Ahmed et al., 1991; NTP, 2002). Excretion of HANs is nearly complete over a period of days, largely in urine and in exhaled air. The rate of excretion may differ across species, since mice excrete DCAN more rapidly than rats (Roby et al., 1986). Differences in urinary excretion of thiocyanate for different HANs was observed by Pereira et al. (1984), with TCAN being excreted as thiocyanate to a lesser degree than the other HANs. The results of Roby et al. (1986) that showed relatively rapid excretion of DCAN-associated radioactivity suggests limited potential for the bioaccumulation of the HANs. However, no studies were located that provided data on long-term accumulation and retention of any of the HANs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-4 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles D. Health Effects In Animals The toxicity data on the HANs are summarized in Tables V-15 through V-18. Overall, very little data are available evaluating the non-cancer effects of the HANs. Acute oral LD50 values for DBAN, DC AN, and TCAN in rodents have been reported to range from 50 to 361 mg/kg. DBAN and TCAN have been reported to be irritants. DBAN causes eye, nasal, and respiratory tract irritation following inhalation, and skin irritation following dermal exposure. TCAN also causes skin irritation following dermal exposure. No data on the acute toxicity of BCAN are available, and no subacute or subchronic studies of either BCAN or TCAN are available. No chronic studies have been conducted on any of the HANs. No target organ has been clearly established for HANs following oral exposure, although absolute and relative organ weight changes, including decreased testes weight (NTP, 2002) and increased liver weight (Hayes et al., 1986; Christ et al., 1996) have been reported. Fourteen-day or longer systemic toxicity studies have been conducted in mice and rats. In 14-day and 90-day studies of DBAN (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986), consistent, compound-related, dose- dependent effects were limited to decreased water consumption, decreased body weight, and decreased testes weight and pathology. However, effects on the testes reported in the NTP (2002) study were observed only in rats in the 14-day study. No effects on the testes were observed in rats in the 13-week study, or in mice (NTP, 2002). In addition, no effects were observed on the testes in rats in a 14-day or 90-day gavage study in rats, even at much higher doses (Hayes et al., 1986). For DBAN, the observed liver weight increases reported in Hayes et al. (1986) were not supported by other measures of liver toxicity in the same study or observed in the more recent NTP study (NTP, 2002), and therefore, this endpoint was not selected as the EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-5 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment. Taken together, the data suggest that decreased body weight appears to be the primary indicator of toxicity for DBAN, Overall, male rats appear to be more sensitive than female rats for DBAN. For DC AN, consistent, compound- related, dose-dependent effects were limited to decreased body weight and increased liver weight (Hayes et al., 1986). In this case, the observed liver weight increases were supported by changes in serum biochemistry parameters suggestive of liver damage. No histopathological evaluation was done in the key study for DCAN (Hayes et al., 1986), so the degree, if any, of liver damage can not be confirmed. The data for TCAN and BCAN are too limited to identify with confidence any potential target organs. The data are inadequate to determine whether HANs are reproductive toxicants. No multigeneration reproductive toxicity study has been conducted. BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN at doses of up to 50 mg/kg/day had no effect on sperm morphology (Meier et al., 1985), but the data on testes weight changes are mixed (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986). DBAN at doses up to approximately 10 mg/kg/day had no effect on any male or female reproductive parameter evaluated in a screening assay (R.O.W. Sciences, 1997). A series of developmental toxicity studies in rats has also been conducted. Exposure to BCAN and DBAN on gestation days 7 to 21 resulted in reduced mean birth weight (Smith et al., 1986; Smith et al., 1987). It addition to this effect, DCAN and TCAN decreased the percentage of females delivering viable litters and increased fetal resorptions (Smith et al., 1986; Smith et al., 1987; Smith et al., 1988; Smith et al., 1989; Christ et al., 1996). DCAN and TCAN also significantly increase the frequency of malformations in fetuses (Smith et al., 1988; Smith et al., 1989; Christ et al., 1996). These studies by Smith and colleagues on the developmental toxicity of HANs in rats were EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-6 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles conducted using tricaprylin as a vehicle, because these compounds are very miscible in this vehicle. However, in these studies, comparison of tricaprylin versus water-treated controls revealed increased embryotoxicity due to tricaprylin. A recent study by Christ el al. (1996) indicates that tricaprylin also influences the pattern of malformations observed in fetuses caused by TCAN. For TCAN in corn oil, the malformations were primarily cranio-facial in nature while for TCAN in tricaprylin the malformations were primarily cardiovascular and urogenital in nature. Therefore, the use of data from studies in which tricaprylin was used as the vehicle is not appropriate for risk assessment purposes. In the one developmental toxicity study that used a vehicle other than tricaprylin (Christ et al., 1996), maternal toxicity was observed at lower doses than developmental effects. Overall, the data suggest that HANs can directly damage DNA as evaluated by a wide array of assays (summarized in Table V-12). The weight of the evidence varies for the each compound. BCAN has yielded positive results in all assays tested. DBAN yielded negative results in S. typhimurium mutation assays and failed to form DNA adducts in vivo. DBAN appears to induce DNA strand breaks and yield positive results in assays that reflect responses to DNA damage (i.e. SCE, gene conversion, and SOS assays). The results for DCAN and TCAN are less consistent. DCAN yielded positive results in S. typhimurium mutation assays and assays reflecting DNA recombination, but the reason for absence of significant effects in the DNA strand break assay is not clear. For TCAN, the weak responses in S. typhimurium mutation assays did not correspond well with the observed in vivo formation of DNA adducts, although the positive results in the DNA strand break assays and SCE assay were consistent. EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-7 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The evidence for the induction of chromosome damage by HANs is less compelling, due to the limited number of studies available for evaluation and the inconsistent results. In the single study that used a standard assay protocol to evaluate induction of micronuclei, no effect was observed for any of the HANs, although is was not clear that sufficiently high doses were tested. In contrast, positive results for micronuclei formation were reported for all four compounds in a less well characterized newt larvae system. DCAN, but not DBAN induced aneuploidy in Drosophila melanogaster assay system. The existing data provide at best only marginal support for the conclusion that HANs are carcinogenic. The evidence is stronger for BCAN, which increased tumor yields in both lung tumor and dermal screening assays (Bull and Robinson, 1985; Bull et al., 1985). DBAN was positive at non-ulcerative doses in the dermal screening assay. TCAN was positive only in the lung assay, and DCAN treatment did not increase either lung or skin tumors. Opposing these positive findings are the negative results for DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in the gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) foci assay (Herren-Freund and Pereira, 1986). Overall, the data are insufficient to qualitatively or quantitatively assess the carcinogenic potential of any of the HANs. The positive results in two tumor screening assays, together with positive bacterial gene mutation results, suggest that it would be worthwhile to conduct a full 2-year bioassay for BCAN. DBAN is currently on test for a full cancer bioassay (NTP, 2002). Results for the other HANs are more mixed, with inconsistencies between the genotoxicity and tumor screening data. EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-8 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles E. Health Effects in Humans Human epidemiology data on the toxicity of the HANs are lacking. Most of the human health data for HANs are as components of complex mixtures of water disinfection byproducts. These complex mixtures of disinfection byproducts have been associated with increased potential for adverse effects on reproduction (reviewed by Nieuwenhuijsen et al., 2000). Although most studies of human health effects following exposure to water disinfectant byproducts have used total trihalomethanes as the exposure metric, Klotz and Pyrch (1999), conducted a case-control study on the relationship between neural tube defects and drinking water exposure to trihalomethanes, HANs, and haloacetic acids. The specific compounds that were measured as part of the total HAN exposure estimate were not identified. Based on the results of the study, the authors concluded that the HANs did not exhibit a clear association with neural tube defects. No epidemiological studies have evaluated directly the carcinogenic potential of HANs in humans. Rather, studies have evaluated the carcinogenic potential of chlorinated versus unchlorinated drinking water or the presence of trihalomethanes as a marker of chlorination by- products (IARC, 1999; Mills et al., 1998). Many of these studies have shown an association between chronic exposure to chlorinated water and increased risks of bladder, rectal, or colon cancers (Mills et al., 1998; WHO, 2000). F. Mechanisms of Toxicity and Sensitive Subpopulations The HANs induce general systemic toxicity. Decreased body weight and a variety of organ weight changes occur following oral dosing, and the testes (NTP, 2002) and liver might be particularly sensitive (Hayes et al., 1986), although the reported effects in these organs in EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-9 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles available studies are fairly limited. The HANs also induce developmental effects (Smith el al., 1986; Smithed al., 1987; Smithed al., 1988; Smithed al., 1989; Christen al., 1995; Christen al., 1996). The mechanism(s) of toxicity are not known, but several possibilities have been described. HANs may act through direct interactions with cellular macromolecules such as DNA (Daniel el al., 1986; Lin et al., 1992; Nouraldeen and Ahmed, 1996). HAN toxicity might be secondary to GSH depletion (Ahmed et al., 1991) or oxidative stress (Ahmed el al., 1999; Mohamadin and Abdel-Naim, 1999). Formation of cyanide from HAN might be another important mechanism of toxicity, although important systemic effects that are sensitive indicators of cyanide toxicity have not been fully examined. The role of cyanide in the developmental toxicity of HANs has received much attention. Some studies suggest that metabolites other than cyanide play a critical role (Smith et al., 1986), and implicated glutathione depletion as an important factor (Christ et al., 1995; Abdel-Aziz el al., 1993). Although some indirect data supports a role of cyanide (Moudgal et al., 2000; Saillenfait and Sabate, 2000), evaluation of the available developmental toxicity studies of cyanide itself do not support this hypothesis (U.S. EPA, 2002c). The ability of the HANs to bind to cellular macromolecules (Daniel et al., 1986; Lin et al., 1992; Nouraldeen and Ahmed, 1996), as well as generally positive results in genotoxicity assays, supports direct DNA damage as the mode of action for the tumorigenicity observed in cancer screening studies (Bull et al., 1985; Bull and Robinson, 1985). However, the carcinogenic potential of the HANs is unknown, since epidemiology studies are not available and standard cancer animal bioassays of HANs have not been conducted. EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-10 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Identification of potential susceptible subpopulations is hampered by the incomplete characterization of HAN metabolism or identification of the toxic moiety. Although a metabolic pathway for the HANs has been proposed (Pereira el al., 1984), the enzymes important for catalyzing HAN metabolism are unknown. In addition, no studies on age-dependent differences in metabolism or toxicity were identified, although one study demonstrated that HANs may bind more greatly to fetal DNA than to DNA in maternal tissues (Abdel-Aziz et al., 1993). Analysis of the developmental toxicity studies for TCAN revealed a lower maternal than developmental NOAEL, which does not suggest that fetuses are more susceptible than adults. G. Derivation of the Health Advisories Health Advisory values (HA) for BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN are summarized in Table 1-1 and the derivation of these values is shown in Chapter VIII. Based on the clear limitations in the database and gaps in understanding of the mechanisms of toxicity for HANs, the derived RfD and HA values are best characterized as low in confidence. For BCAN, no suitable studies were identified for derivation of any HAs. For DBAN, no suitable studies were located for derivation of a One-day HA. A NOAEL of 12 mg/kg/day for decreased body weight, decreased testes weight and testes atrophy in male F344 rats in a 14-day drinking water study (NTP, 2002) was used to derive a Ten-day HA value of 1 mg/L for a 10-kg child. This Ten-day HA was used as a conservative value for the One-day HA. A NOAEL of 11.3 mg/kg/day was also identified in a parallel 90-day drinking water study in male F344 rats (NTP, 2002). The NOAEL value was used to calculate the Longer-term HA value of 0.4 mg/L for a 10-kg child and 1 mg/L for a 70-kg adult. No chronic study of DBAN toxicity was located, so the subchronic EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-11 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles (13-week) NOAEL was employed with an extra uncertainty factor to account for extrapolation from subchronic to chronic exposure to calculate a Life-time HA value of 0.08 mg/L (80 |ig/L). Table 1-1. Summary of Health Advisory Values for Drinking Water(a) Longer-Term HA Chemical One-Dav HA Ten-Dav HA Child Adult Life-Time HA BCAN _(b) - -- - - DBAN 1 1 0.4 1 0.08 DCAN 0.4 (0.5C) 0.4 (0.5C) 0.03 (0.04c) 0.09 (0.1c) 0.02 (0.009c) TCAN 2(2C) 2(2C) -- -- -- a mg/L b No value calculated due to lack of suitable toxicological data. c Value calculated from the study BMDL. For DC AN, no suitable studies were located for derivation of a One-day HA. A LOAEL of 12 mg/kg/day for increased relative liver weight in male rats greater than 10% in a 14-day gavage study (Hayes et al., 1986) was used to derive a Ten-day HA value of 0.4 mg/L for a 10- kg child. Further analysis of these data yielded a BMDL of 5 mg/kg/day as the critical effect level for this same effect. When derived on the basis of the BMDL, the Ten-day HA value is 0.5 mg/L. The Ten-day HA was used as a conservative value for the One-day HA. A LOAEL of 8 mg/kg/day was identified for increased relative liver weight, supported by clinical chemistry findings at higher doses in a 90-day study in male and female rats (Hayes et al., 1986). Further analysis of these data yielded a BMDL of 4 mg/kg/day as the critical effect level. The LOAEL and BMDL were used to calculate the Longer-term HA value. When derived on the basis of the LOAEL, the Longer-term HA value was 0.03 mg/L for a 10-kg child and was 0.09 mg/L for a 70- EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-12 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles kg adult. When derived on the basis of the BMDL, the Longer-term HA value was 0.04 mg/L for a 10-kg child and 0.1 mg/L for the 70-kg adult. No chronic study of DC AN toxicity was located, so the subchronic (90-day) LOAEL and BMDL were employed with an extra uncertainty factor to calculate the Life-time HA values of 0.02 mg/L (based on the LOAEL) and 0.009 mg/L (based on the BMDL). For TCAN, no suitable studies were located for derivation of a One-day HA. A NOAEL of 15 mg/kg/day for absence of a decrease in maternal body weight gain in pregnant rats was used to derive a Ten-day HA value of 2 mg/L for a 10-kg child. Further analysis of these data yielded a BMDL of 17 mg/kg/day as the critical effect level. When derived on the basis of the BMDL, the Ten-day HA value is 2 mg/L. The Ten-day HA was used as a conservative value for the One- day HA. No suitable subchronic or chronic toxicity data were located for derivation of Longer- term or Life-time HAs. Due to lack of adequate dose-response information, calculations of carcinogenic risk have not been performed for any of the haloacetonitriles. The limited short-term data from the mouse lung and skin assays, as well as QSTR analyses, indicate that BCAN, DBAN, and TCAN may have some carcinogenic potential in animals. In addition, data suggest that haloacetonitriles may induce genotoxicity through direct interactions with DNA. Although the available data provide at least limited indications of potential carcinogenicity of HANs, these data are not adequate to demonstrate carcinogenicity in animals. Following EPA's 1986 Guidelines for Cancer Risk Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1986), BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN are appropriately classified as Group D - Not Classifiable as to Human Carcinogenicity. This classification is appropriate EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-13 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans or animals. Following EPA's Draft 1999 Guidelines for Cancer Risk Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1999), the data for the HANs can best be described as Data Are Inadequate for an Assessment of Human Carcinogenic Potential. EPA/OW/OST/HECD 1-14 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter II. Physical and Chemical Properties Nitriles are organic compounds that contain a cyanogen moiety (-CN) as the characteristic functional group. Acetonitrile is the compound CH3-CN, and halogenated acetonitriles (HANs) are compounds of this structure in which one to three halogen atoms (e.g., chlorine or bromine) are substituted for hydrogen atoms on the methyl carbon. Four halogenated acetonitriles have been selected for consideration in this document. These are bromochloroacetonitrile (BCAN), dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN), dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN), and trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN). These HANs were selected for inclusion in this document in consideration of the prevalence of individual HANs in drinking water, and the availability of toxicity data. Available data on the physical and chemical properties of these compounds are summarized in Table II-1, and the structural formulas are provided in Figure II-1. Table II-1. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloacetonitriles. Bromochloro- Dibromo- Dichloro- Trichloro- Property acetonitrile acetonitrile acetonitrile acetonitrile (BCAN) (DBAN) (DCAN) (TCAN) Chemical Abstracts 83463-62-1 3252-43-5 3018-12-0 545-06-2 Registry Services No. Formula CHBrClCN CHBr2CN CHC12CN CC13CN Molecular weight 154.4 198.9 109.9 144.4 Appearance liquid liquid liquid liquid Density (g/mL) 1.68 2.30 1.37 1.44 Melting point (°C) - - - -42 Boiling point (°C) 125-130 67.69 112-113 84.6 EPA/OW/OST/HECD Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Property Bromochloro- acetonitrile (BCAN) Dibromo- acetonitrile (DBAN) Dichloro- acetonitrile (DCAN) Trichloro- acetonitrile (TCAN) Solubility Water Alcohol soluble - soluble - Adapted from O'Neil (2001), Lide (1992), Hechenbleikner (1946). BCAN Br 2 H C— EN CI DBAN Br H- EN Br DCAN ?' 2 H C— EN CI TCAN CI CI- EN CI Figure II-1. Chemical structures of the haloacetonitriles addressed. No data were found on commercial uses of the selected haloacetonitriles, except for TCAN, which has been used as an insecticide (Budavari et al., 1989; O'Neil et al., 2001). Dihaloacetonitriles (BCAN, DBAN, and DCAN) are reportedly produced during water chlorination from naturally occurring substances, including algae, fulvic acid and proteinaceous material (Bieber and Trehy, 1983; Oliver, 1983; Reckhow and Singer, 1990; Reckhow et al., 1990). Residues of proteinaceous material such as aspartyl residues are a potential source of EPA/OW/OST/HECD II-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles dihaloacetonitriles via a stepwise halogenation degradation (Bieber and Trehy, 1983). The ICR database (U.S. EPA, 2002a) contains extensive information on concentrations of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in drinking-water systems, and on how those concentrations vary with input- water characteristics and treatment methods. These occurrence data are described in detail in Chapter IV. Haloacetonitriles may also be formed in vivo following ingestion of chlorinated water. DCAN was detected in the stomach contents of nonfasted Sprague-Dawley rats following oral administration of sodium hypochlorite (Mink et al., 1983). The authors attributed the formation of DCAN to direct chlorination of organic material in the stomach. In a related test from the same study, Mink et al. (1983) detected DBAN and DCAN in the stomach contents of rats after oral gavage with NaOCl/KBr solutions. Bieber and Trehy (1983) reported that DHANs undergo hydrolysis in water to nonvolatile products. Half-lives of dihaloacetonitriles in water are presented in Table II-2. Table II-2. Half-Lives of Dihaloacetonitriles in Water at Several pH Values (25 °C). Half-life (hours) Compound pH 7.4 pH 8.3 pH 9.0 pH 9.77 BCAN - 35 - — DBAN 500 85 19 — DCAN - 30 - 0.75 Adapted from Beiber and Trehy (1983). EPA/OW/OST/HECD II-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter III. Toxicokinetics Limited data are available on the toxicokinetics of the haloacetonitriles (HANs). No data were located on the absorption or distribution of BCAN following oral exposure. A comparative toxicokinetics and metabolisms study in mice and rats has been conducted for DBAN (NTP, 2002). However, this study was not available for review at the time this document was prepared. No studies were located on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of any of the HANs following inhalation or dermal exposure, although some qualitative information can be inferred from toxicity studies. A. Absorption Roby et al. (1986) administered single oral gavage doses of either [1-14C]- (labeled on the cyanide group) or [2-14C]-DCAN (labeled on the dichloromethyl group) in water to male F344 rats and B6C3F1 mice. The administered doses were 0.2, 2, or 15 mg/kg for the rats and 2 or 15 mg/kg for the mice. Appearance of label in feces, urine and expired air was monitored until at least 70% of the radioactivity had been recovered. The amount of time required to recover 70% of the administered radioactivity differed across species. In rats, the collection of data continued for 6 days for [1-14C]- DCAN and for 2 days for [2-14C]-DCAN. In mice, collection was terminated at 24 hours for both positions of radiolabel, since at least 70% of the dose had been collected. These results indicate that DCAN in water is well absorbed (at least 80% to 90%) from the gastrointestinal tract, since only 8% to 20% of the total dose was excreted in feces. The rate of absorption was not determined, and data on the blood concentrations of radiolabel over time EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-l Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles were not reported. The appearance of radiolabel in urine and exhaled air at 24 hours suggests, however, that DCAN was absorbed rapidly. Roth et al. (1990), in a published abstract, reported on a study designed to test whether differential absorption and distribution kinetics of TCAN in tricaprylin versus corn oil was responsible for observed differences in developmental toxicity studies. Pregnant rats (strain and number not specified) were administered a single oral gavage dose of 55 mg [uC]-TCAN/kg in either tricaprylin or corn oil on gestation day 10 or 11. Levels of radiolabel were followed in the maternal stomach and intestinal contents, blood, liver, spleen, heart, adipose tissue, and embryonic tissue. Maximal blood and tissue levels were observed 4 to 6 hours following exposure, indicating rapid absorption kinetics. The choice of solvent vehicle did not affect the absorption kinetics. No data on the degree of absorption were provided in this published abstract. A published version of this study was not located, and the data presented did not allow an independent verification of the results. The lethality observed in acute dermal toxicity tests for BCAN (Eastman Kodak Co., 1992) and TCAN (Smyth et al., 1962) indicates that systemic exposure to these compounds occurred, demonstrating that HANs can be absorbed dermally. These studies are not adequate to estimate the rate and degree of absorption by the dermal route. In summary, the existing data suggest that HANs can be absorbed following either oral or dermal administration. HANs are rapidly absorbed following oral administration, based on the observed peak blood concentrations 4 to 6 hours after dosing reported by Roth et al. (1990). The EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles strength of this conclusion is limited, however, since only a published abstract is available. The degree of absorption following oral dosing is nearly complete, based on the small fraction of the administered radioactivity observed in feces (Roby et al., 1986). HANs can be absorbed through the skin, but the existing data are insufficient to estimate the rate or degree of absorption. No data are available to determine whether HANs can be absorbed following inhalation exposure. B. Distribution Roby et al. (1986) studied the tissue distribution of radiolabel following administration of single oral gavage doses of 0.2 to 15 mg/kg of [1-14C]- or [2-14C]-DCAN in water to rats and mice. Daily excreta, including exhaled volatile organic compounds and C02, were analyzed until at least 70% of the radioactivity was recovered. The amount of time required to recover 70% of the administered radioactivity differed across species: 6 days following oral administration of [1-14C]- DCAN and 48 hours for [2-14C]-DCAN in rats, and 24 hours regardless of the position of the radiolabel in mice. After at least 70% of the administered dose had been excreted, the animals were sacrificed and tissues were collected. Label was detected in all tissues tested (see Table III- 1), although the residual tissue levels represented a small portion of the administered dose. Six days after oral administration of [1-14C]-DCAN to rats, the tissue distribution of the label as percent of the administered dose was: blood (4.1-7.9%), muscle (3.9-7.9%), skin (3.3-6.3%) and liver (1.9-2.6%)) for the three dose groups. For [2-14C]-DCAN, the liver retained the largest amount of radiolabel (approximately 5% of the administered dose 2 days after treatment), followed by muscle (2.7-4.8%), blood (2-4.6%) and skin (0.9—1.0%). Most other tissues contained less than 1% of the dose. These tissue distribution data for rats are presented in Table III-1. In mice, the tissue distribution did not differ greatly between the alternately labeled EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles compounds. The largest amount of radioactivity was present in the liver, 3.5-4.3% of the administered dose for [1-14C]-DCAN and 5.1-5.4% for [2-14C]-DCAN. The muscle and skin also contained appreciable amounts of radioactivity as shown in Table III-2. EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-4 Final Draft ------- m > o o C/2 H O a S3 P Dose 0.20 mg/kg 2.0 mg/kg 15 mg/kg Tissue d-14c)b 14 c (2- C) (i-14c)b (2-lV 1 ¦o o (2-UC)C Blood 4.1211.36 2.47±0.19 7.8911.01 2.02+0.60 7.2211.44 4.5711.99 Liver 2.13±0.33 5.70+0.45 2.6010.35 5.23+0.32 1.8810.34 5.6710.54 Muscle 7.88±1.68 4.78±0.51 6.88+0.76 2.7410.96 3.88+0.47 3.3711.07 Skin 6.13±0.24 1.61±0.06 6.2510.92 0.9410.02 3.3210.37 1.62+0.24 Kidney 0.37+0.01 0.47±0.03 0.4410.04 0.37+0.01 0.35+0.05 0.47+0.04 Adipose 0.63+0.08 0.93+0.27 0.57+0.06 0.3510.12 0.4810.08 0.3110.02 Gastrointes t inal 1.91±0.28 0.7610.09 1.60+0.17 0.5910.04 0.97+0.24 0.7110.13 Brain 0.05±0.01 0.0810.00 0.06+0.01 0.0510.01 0.6010.01 0.0810.02 Lung 0.17±0.04 0.10+0.02 0.20+0.06 0.0710.01 0.1410.02 0.1210.01 Testes 0.23+0.06 0.12±0.01 0.2710.05 0.0710.01 0.1410.03 0.1010.01 Total tissue 23.62 17.02 26.76 12.43 18.98 17.02 retention 3Values are expressed as mean percentage of administered dose of equivalents (±S D = 3). Animals sacrificed six days after dosing. Animals sacrificed two days after dosing. Adapted from Roby et al. (1986). ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table III-2. Tissue Levels of DCAN One Day After Oral Administration to Mice3. Dose 2.0 mg/kg 15 i mg/kg Tissue (i-14c) (2-UC) (1-,4C) (2-UC) Blood 1.11±0.28 0.29±0.07 0.95+0.19 0.27±0.08 Liver 3.4810.43 5.12±1.14 4.25±0.35 5.37±0.43 Muscle 2.11+0.53 1.03±0.06 1.56±0.11 0.79±0.21 Skin 2.02+0.55 0.45+0.04 1.69+0.21 0.52+0.09 Kidney 0.38+0.10 0.56±0.15 0.46±0.02 0.50±0.04 Adipose 1.22±0.55 0.62±0.05 0.89±0.23 0.38+0.11 Gastrointestinal 1.46+0.27 0.65±0.12 1.59±0.27 0.80±0.26 Brain 0.04+0.02 0.04±0.01 0.03±0.01 0.03±0.01 Lung 0.05±0.03 0.04±0.01 0.07+0.01 0.03±0.01 Testes 0.05±0.03 0.02+0.00 0.04±0.02 0.05±0.05 Total tissue retention 11.95 8.37 11.53 8.74 Y^lues are expressed as mean percentage of administered dose of C equivalents (±S.D., N = 3). Adapted from Roby et al. (1986). EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-6 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles These data do not provide clear evidence for significant differences in distribution for the dimethyl and cyanide carbons, since only small differences were apparent in the rat study, and no difference was observed for the alternatively labeled compounds in mice. A study to assess the potential of TCAN to form protein and DNA adducts provides qualitative evidence for wide tissue distribution of HANs. Lin el al. (1992) administered single oral gavage doses ranging from 7.2 to 69.3 mg/kg of either [1-14C]- or [2-14C]-TCAN in tricaprylin to male F344 rats. DNA was isolated from liver, stomach, and kidney, and several proteins were isolated from blood. The tissues were analyzed from 4 to 48 hours following dosing. More radiolabel was associated with DNA when the trichloromethyl carbon [2-14C] was labeled than when the cyanide group carbon [1-14C] was labeled. The study authors hypothesized that the adducts resulted from the reaction of DNA with single carbon metabolites formed by the cleavage of TCAN. DNA binding was highest in the stomach, followed by liver and kidney. Adducts with globin, albumin, and globulins were also identified, and similar levels were observed with the label at either position. In addition, the HPLC elution profiles for the radioactivity was the same regardless of the position of the label, leading the authors to suggest that the protein adducts are formed from either "2-carbon metabolites (unsplit) or by direct reaction with TCAN." Adduct studies provide only limited information on tissue distribution, since macromolecular binding may also be dependent on metabolism of the compound. However, the observed formation of serum protein adducts and the appearance of DNA adducts in all three tissues measured suggests wide distribution of TCAN. EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-7 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Additional studies have been conducted to address the potential for solvent vehicle to alter the distribution of TCAN and have been reported in two published abstracts. Roth el al. (1990) administered a single dose of 55 mg [uC]-TCAN/kg to pregnant rats (strain and number not specified) in either tricaprylin or corn oil on gestation day 10 or 11. The radiolabel (the identity of the labeled carbon was not specified) was followed for 48 hours in the maternal stomach and intestinal contents, blood, liver, spleen, heart, and adipose tissue, and in embryos. In the blood, most counts were bound to red blood cells, and in the plasma up to 50% of the radiolabel was protein-bound. Tissue levels were highest in the liver (approximately 40 |ig TCAN equivalents/g at 6 hours post-exposure). Radiolabel was also detected in embryos. According to the study authors, there were no solvent-related differences reported for any of the toxicokinetic parameters evaluated for TCAN when administered in tricaprylin versus corn oil. In a follow up study to assess the impact of repeated dosing on the effect of solvent vehicle that was reported in a published abstract, Gordon et al. (1991) administered one, two, or three successive daily doses (dose not specified) of [1-14C] or [2-14C]-labeled TCAN in tricaprylin or corn oil to groups of pregnant rats (strain not specified) in mid-gestation. The animals were sacrificed on gestation day 13 and maternal and embryo levels of radiolabel were evaluated. The 14C levels in the embryos from the tricaprylin groups were described as much greater than in the corn oil vehicle group following 3 daily doses, but no quantitative estimate was reported. After three doses, maternal blood 14C levels were higher for the tricaprylin vehicle group compared to the corn oil group. The abstract did not report the effects of solvent vehicle on the embryo or maternal blood levels of TCAN-associated radioactivity after one or two daily doses, precluding an analysis of trends in the relationship between the number of days of dosing and tissue EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-8 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles accumulation. In the maternal liver, 14C accumulation of both [1-14C] and [2-14C] was greater in the tricaprylin group than in the corn oil group after two daily treatments, but after three doses with [2-14C]-labeled TCAN, accumulation was higher from corn oil. While solvent-related differences in the accumulation of radiolabel were reported in this study, the degree of difference between solvent vehicle groups was not provided for any of the findings and apparent inconsistencies observed across the dosing regimens were not adequately explained. Based on inconsistent results, the absence of quantitative data, and the lack of peer review, these data should be viewed as preliminary. In addition, the higher embryonic accumulation of TCAN with tricaprylin in this study appears to be inconsistent with the results of Roth et al. (1990) with TCAN in tricaprylin and corn oil, although the latter study used a shorter dosing regimen. Therefore, it remains unclear if solvent vehicle affects tissue distribution. Nevertheless, both abstracts provide qualitative evidence for wide tissue distribution of TCAN, in support of the better-documented study on DCAN by Roby el al. (1986). In summary, the two compounds tested, DCAN and TCAN, are widely distributed following oral dosing. Radiolabeled parent compound or metabolites have been identified to varying degrees in blood and a host of tissues, including in embryos, with no single tissue dominating HAN uptake. The role of solvent vehicle on distribution of HANs also remains unresolved, with contradictory results being reported within a single published abstract (Gordon et al., 1991). (See Chapter VII for additional analysis of potential solvent vehicle effects.) No data were identified to evaluate distribution of HANs following dermal or inhalation exposure. EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-9 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles C. Metabolism Pereira et al. (1984) administered a single gavage dose of 0.75 mmol/kg BCAN (116 mg/kg), DBAN (149 mg/kg), DCAN (82 mg/kg), or TCAN (108 mg/kg) in tricaprylin to male Sprague Dawley rats. Urinary thiocyanate, the only metabolite measured, accounted for 2.25% to 12.8% of the dose by 24 hours. The excretion of thiocyanates in the urine was in the order of BCAN>DCAN>DBAN>TCAN, The authors also measured the effects of the HANs on dimethylnitrosamine demethylase (DMN) activity (a measure of CYP2E1 activity) as a marker of protein binding. Based on dose-responses from in vitro incubations with rat liver microsomes, DBAN and BCAN were more potent inhibitors of this enzyme than DCAN or TCAN. In contrast to the in vitro results, a single gavage dose of 0.75 mmol/kg TCAN, but not 0.75 mmol/kg DBAN, significantly inhibited DMN activity in liver microsomes of rats sacrificed 3 or 18 hours after dosing. Results for other HANs were not presented. The mechanism of inhibition was considered to be noncompetitive or uncompetitive (noncompetitive inhibition is characterized by an altered ratio ofK^V^ with a decrease in Vmax, while uncompetitive inhibition is characterized by a constant ratio of with a decrease in the Vmax). The results suggest that HANs are not competing for the active site of CYP2E1. Although Pereira et al. (1984) suggest that oxidative dehalogenation is an initial step in the metabolism of HANs, the data are inadequate to identify the specific enzymes involved. Based on their results and earlier work on formation of cyanide from nitrile compounds presented by Silver et al. (1982), Pereira et al. (1984) proposed a metabolic scheme to explain the formation of thiocyanates from HANs (Figure III-l). EPA/OW/OST/HECD 111-10 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Figure III-l Proposed Metabolism of Haloacetonitriles Figure Legend. Proposed metabolic pathways for HANs. Two distinct pathways are proposed: conjugation with glutathione and oxidative metabolism. The glutathione pathway is shown with dashed lines to indicate that direct identification of these conjugates or other downstream metabolites has not been demonstrated in vivo, as described further in the text. It is not clear if the proposed glutathione conjugation is catalyzed by glutathione-V-transfcrases (GST) or is nonenzymatic. For the oxidative pathway, dehalogenation is thought to be catalyzed by CYPs, although the isoforms that mediate this reaction have not been identified. 1 2 5 Intermediate metabolites labeled in the figure with numbers 1 through 6 are as follows: 1) haloacetonitrile; 2) halocyanomethanol; 3) haloformaldehyde; 4) cyanoformaldehyde; 5) halocyanoformaldehyde; 6) unidentified glutathione conjugates. Presentation of the oxidative metabolism pathway adapted from Pereira etal. (1984). EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-11 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles As shown in this figure, metabolism of HANs is hypothesized to occur by oxidative dehalogenation to yield halocyanomethanols. These reactions are catalyzed by mixed-function oxidases such as cytochrome p450s (CYP), although the identity of the isozyme(s) that carries out the individual reactions has not been determined. The halocyanomethanols are proposed to then dehydrate to form halocyanoformaldehydes or lose cyanide to form haloformaldehydes, including phosgene. The cyanoformaldehydes undergo further oxidative metabolism to form C02 and cyanide (which can then be further metabolized to thiocyanate). Pereira et al. (1984) did not measure the intermediate metabolites proposed in their metabolic pathway. However, a study by Roby et al., (1986) provides additional indirect evidence for the oxidative metabolism of HANs. Roby et al. (1986) administered single oral doses of 0.2, 2, or 15 mg/kg [1-14C]- or [2-14C]-DCAN to rats, and 2 or 15 mg/kg of these compounds to mice. In both rats and mice, labeling of the cyanide group carbon resulted in higher amounts of radiolabel in urine than in expired air (i.e., as C02), while radioactivity excreted via both routes was nearly equal when the dichloromethyl group was labeled. Marginal dose-dependent changes in the amount of the radiolabel recovered in feces and expired air were reported, but the pattern of these changes were not consistent across species or with position of the radiolabel, making the findings difficult to interpret. The pattern of label distribution in tissues and excreta indicated to the authors that DCAN would be oxidized to dichlorocyanomethanol, consistent with the metabolic scheme proposed by Pereira et al. (1984). Dichlorocyanomethanol could then either dehydrate to chlorocyanoformaldehyde or lose cyanide to form phosgene, leading to terminal degradation products including chlorine, formic acid, C02 and cyanide. The authors did not, however, directly measure these metabolites. EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-12 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Conjugation with glutathione (GSH) also appears to be an important pathway in the metabolism of HANs as shown in Figure III-1. Lin and Guion (1989) investigated the ability of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN to interact with GSH and glutathione-s-transferases (GST) in a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. The in vitro experiments tested the effect of various incubation conditions on the direct reactivity of HANs with GSH as measured by the loss of GSH in the incubation mixture. Direct incubations (in the absence of GST) revealed that HANs have the potential to bind to GSH. The relative reactivity toward GSH was DBAN>BCAN»TCAN. No detectable binding with DCAN was observed. Addition of bovine serum albumin to the incubations reduced the degree of GSH removal by TCAN, but had no modifying effect on DBAN, suggesting that at least for DBAN, binding to GSH is somewhat specific (no results for BCAN were reported). The presence of cytosol (a cell fraction containing GST activity) did not alter GSH loss by DBAN or TCAN (no results for DCAN or BCAN were reported). Therefore, for at least these two HANs, GSH conjugation appears to be nonenzymatic. The presence of microsomes decreased GSH loss with DBAN and TCAN, leading the authors to suggest that microsomal metabolism of these HANs results in the formation of metabolites that are less GSH- reactive than the parent compounds. No results were presented for incubation of BCAN with microsomes. Even though the presence of cytosol alone did not alter GSH loss, incubation of both cytosol and microsome with DBAN or TCAN decreased GSH loss compared to that observed with microsomes alone. Taken together, these results show that the GSH reactivity of HANs varies greatly among the HANs under review in this document. These in vitro findings suggest that BCAN, DBAN, and TCAN appear to react with GSH in a nonenzymatic fashion as the parent compounds, while DCAN shows little propensity for binding to GSH. EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-13 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In a second part of this study, Lin and Guion (1989) tested the ability of HANs to inhibit GST activity (as measured by l-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) conjugation with GSH) in vitro and in vivo. All the HANs decreased GST activity in vitro in the order of TCAN>BCAN=DBAN>DCAN, with a 4-fold difference separating the level of GST activity in the presence of TCAN and DCAN, For the in vivo studies, male Fischer 344 rats were administered single gavage doses of 0.75 mmol/kg BCAN (116 mg/kg), DBAN (149 mg/kg), DCAN (82 mg/kg), or TCAN (108 mg/kg) in tricaprylin. These doses represented 10 to 30% of reported LD50 for the individual compounds. Liver GST activities and GSH concentrations were measured 1,3, and 18 hours after dosing. GST activity was slightly decreased at 3 hours by DBAN and TCAN, and was significantly decreased by DBAN at 18 hours (data not shown). The authors noted that there are several potential mechanisms for inhibition of GST activity by HANs, including depletion of GSH through direct conjugation, by competing with GSH for GST catalytic sites (competitive inhibition), or through noncompetitive protein binding to GST. To test this first possibility, the authors also measured liver GSH levels following in vivo administration of HANs using the same dosing protocol as for the GST activity measurements. For BCAN, DBAN, and DCAN, GSH levels were decreased at 1 hour post-treatment, recovered to control levels by 3 hours, and were elevated at 18 hours. For TCAN, liver GSH levels were unchanged at 1 hour, and were elevated at 3 and 18 hours post-treatment. These results show that initial decreases in GSH levels are transient, and that GSH levels return to control levels shortly after cessation of exposure, with a rebound to higher GSH levels within a day post-treatment. The effects of HANs on GST and GSH levels have also been investigated by Ahmed and colleagues (Ahmed et al., 1989; Ahmed et al., 1991). In an in vitro study, DBAN, DCAN, and EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-14 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles TCAN significantly inhibited GST activity (CDNB conjugation with GSH). IC50 (the concentration of inhibitor resulting in 50% inhibition) values for these three HANs were 0.82, 2.49, and 0.34 mM, respectively. This result suggests that TCAN binds more readily to GST than DBAN or DCAN, The observed inhibition of GST was reversible upon dialysis of the enzyme, suggesting reversible binding of HANs to GST (or other mechanisms not involving direct protein reactivity). Incubation with DBAN or DCAN decreased both the apparent Iv and the Vmax of GST activity toward GSH, while incubation with TCAN increased the apparent Iv and Vmax. Based on the patterns of activity of GST toward GSH, kinetic interactions were described as intermediate between uncompetitive and noncompetitive for DBAN, as uncompetitive for DCAN, and as competitive for TCAN. The effect of HANs on GST activity toward its substrate CDNB was also evaluated. The pattern of HAN inhibition of GST-dependent conjugation of CDNB was described as mixed by the study authors (i.e., showing aspects of competitive, uncompetitive, and noncompetitive inhibition). These complex patterns of inhibition suggest that HANs might interact with GST through multiple mechanisms. For example, HANs might interact at the catalytic site of the enzyme (consistent with competitive inhibition) as well as other protein sites (consistent with uncompetitive, and noncompetitive inhibition). In an in vivo study by Ahmed and colleagues (1991), GST activity and GSH levels were determined in time-course and dose-response experiments with DBAN. For the time-course experiment, male Sprague Dawley rats were administered a single oral dose of 75 mg/kg DBAN in dimethyl sulfoxide (75% of the LD50), and aortal blood, liver, stomach, and kidney were harvested at 0.5, 1, 2, or 4 hours after treatment. For the liver, GSH levels were significantly (p<0.05) decreased at 0.5 hours to roughly 60% of controls (as read from a figure in the paper), recovered EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-15 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles to control levels by 2 hours, and were increased above control levels at 4 hours. The mild increase at 4 hours was not statistically significant. For the stomach, GSH levels were nearly completely depleted by 0.5 hours (6% of control levels), and remained decreased for up to 4 hours. No significant change in blood or kidney GSH levels was detected. The effects of DBAN on GST activity closely paralleled the effects on GSH levels, with significant decreases beginning at 0.5 hours for the liver and stomach, and no significant effect in the kidney. For the dose-response experiment, Ahmed et al. (1991) administered single oral gavage doses of 0, 25, 75, or 100 mg/kg DBAN in dimethyl sulfoxide to male Sprague Dawley rats and harvested blood and tissues 0.5 hours after dosing as described for the time-course experiment. Hepatic and gastric GSH levels were decreased in a dose-dependent fashion, and were significantly (p<0.05) decreased beginning at 25 mg/kg. For the liver, GSH levels were decreased by 23% at 25 mg/kg, by 38% by 50 mg/kg, by 46% at 75 mg/kg, and by 57% at 100 mg/kg. GSH levels in the stomach tissue were decreased by 43% at 25 mg/kg, by 75% at 50 mg/kg, by 84% by 75 mg/kg, and 86% by 100 mg/kg. No significant effect on blood or kidney GSH levels was observed. Liver and stomach GST activities were also decreased in a dose-dependent fashion, but this effect was less severe than the decreases in GSH levels. The degree of inhibition (enzyme activity decreased to 60% of control levels in the liver, and decreased to 71% of control levels in the stomach) was statistically significant (p<0.05) beginning at 50 mg/kg. The authors suggested that the likely mechanism for GSH depletion was direct conjugation with HANs due to their electrophilic nature. They further noted that the depletion of GSH, coupled with protein binding to the GST enzyme itself, could lead to the observed inhibition of GST activity. EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-16 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The results of Lin and Guion (1989) and Ahmed et al. (1989; 1991) suggested that HANs inhibit liver GST activity. However, NTP (2002) reported an increase in liver GST activity in male F344 rats following exposure to DBAN in their drinking water for 14 days. The increase of 126% over controls was only significant in the male rats exposed to drinking water containing 200 mg/L DBAN (18 mg/kg/day). One possible explanation for the opposite effects of HANs on GST activity reported among these studies is the duration of dosing that was employed in each study. The studies by Lin and Guion (1989) and Ahmed et al. (1989; 1991) were single dose gavage studies. Even in these studies a rebound in GSH levels or GST activity was noted within a period of hours that often exceeded control levels. Therefore, it is possible that longer-term exposure (such as in the 14-day study) enhances GST activity due to a rebound effect after an initial decrease. A time course experiment measuring GSH levels and GST activities over acute and subchronic periods would be needed to determine if this is the case. The results of Lin and Guion (1989), Ahmed et al. (1989; 1991), and NTP (2002) suggest that conjugation with GSH may be an important source of HAN detoxification in animal toxicity studies. The in vitro results suggest that BCAN, DBAN, and TCAN are conjugated with GSH in a non-enzymatic fashion, and at least for DBAN, this interaction is somewhat selective. The decreases in GSH levels following oral dosing of rats with HANs further supports the in vitro findings. In in vitro experiments HANs also appear to inhibit GST activity, although a rebound effect after longer periods of exposure could be possible. Multiple mechanisms are likely involved in the observed inhibition following acute dosing. It is noteworthy that the concentrations of HANs used in these studies to demonstrate GSH depletion and altered GST activity are orders of magnitude greater than measured human exposures to these compounds in drinking water. Since EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-17 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles GSH depletion is clearly dose-dependent (Ahmed et al., 1991), the importance of this pathway in human exposure situations is probably minimal. D. Excretion Pereira et al. (1984) studied urinary excretion of thiocyanate in rats following single oral doses of 0.75 mmol/kg of several HANs in tricaprylin. The percentages of the administered dose excreted as thiocyanate after 24 hours were 12.8%, 7.67%, 9.28%, and 2.25% of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN, respectively. No data were presented for other urinary metabolites; thus the total contribution of urinary excretion cannot be estimated. This issue was, however, more fully evaluated in the kinetics study of Roby et al. (1986), in which single oral doses of [1-14C]- or [2-uC]-DCAN were administered in water to male rats and mice. Urine, feces, and expired air were collected and the radioactive content measured until at least 70% of the label had been recovered. In rats, this required 6 days for [1-14C]-DCAN and 2 days for [2-14C]-DCAN. In mice, excretion was more than 70% complete within 24 hours for both locations of the label. In both animal species, the label of [1-14C]-DCAN was excreted mostly in the urine (42-70%), with lower amounts in feces (9-20%, some of which may have been unabsorbed) and expired air (3—8%). For [2-'4C]-DCAN, label was excreted both as carbon dioxide in air (33—37%) and in urine (35—43%), with 8-13%) in feces (Shown in Table III-3 measured as radiolabel excretion). EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-18 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table III-3. Excretion of DCAN in Rats and Mice. Percentage of total dose excreted Excretion -DCAN [2-1* C]-DCAN route Rat Mouse" RatC Mouse" Urine 42-45 64-70 35-40 42-43 Feces 14-20 9-13 10-13 8-11 Expired air 3-8 5-6 33-34 31-37 Total excreted 62-73 83-85 82-86 84-88 ^The period of collection was 6 days. cThe period of collection was 24 hours. The period of collection was 2 days. Adapted from Roby et al. (1986). Based on these data, excretion of HANs is nearly complete over a period of days. The rate of excretion may differ across species, since mice excrete DCAN more rapidly than rats. Differences in excretion of thiocyanate for different HANs was observed by Pereira et al. (1984), with TCAN being excreted as thiocyanate to a lesser degree than the other HANs. It is not clear if this reflects differences in metabolism or differences in excretion, since total urinary excretion of the radiolabel was not determined. The dispensation of the two carbons also differs (Roby et al., 1986). The cyanide group tends to be more readily excreted in the urine and the halomethyl carbon is excreted nearly equally in expired air and in urine. Excretion in the feces appears to be limited. EPA/OW/OST/HECD III-19 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles E. Bioaccumulation and Retention No studies were located that provided data on long-term accumulation and retention of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, or TCAN in the body. The existing kinetic studies did not determine half- lives and were not conducted for sufficiently long periods to evaluate long-term accumulation. However, the results of Roby et al. (1986) that showed relatively rapid excretion of DCAN- associated radioactivity (at least 70% of the administered dose excreted within 6 days in rats or within 24 hours in mice) suggests limited potential for the bioaccumulation of the HANs. F. Summary Limited data are available on the toxicokinetics of the HANs, with a comprehensive toxicokinetic study for oral dosing available only for DCAN. However, the existing toxicokinetic data suggest that HANs can be rapidly and nearly completely absorbed following oral dosing (Roby et al., 1986; Roth et al., 1990). Systemic toxicity data suggest that HANs are absorbed by the dermal route. Once absorbed, HANs appear to be widely distributed. The two compounds tested, DCAN (Roby et al., 1986) and TCAN (Lin et al., 1992), were widely distributed following oral dosing, with no clear preferences in tissue distribution apparent based on the limited data. No data were available on tissue-dependent metabolism, but an overall metabolic scheme for HANs involving an initial oxidative dehalogenation step has been proposed based on the propensity for these compounds to form cyanide and metabolism studies for other nitriles (Pereira et al., 1984). Proposed intermediate metabolites have not been measured directly, and the identity of enzymes responsible for steps in the pathway have not been identified. Conjugation with GSH, at least at high doses, might be a second important route of metabolism for HANs (Ahmed et al., 1989; Lin and Guion, 1989; Ahmed et al., 1991; NTP, 2002). Excretion of HANs is nearly complete over a EPA/OW/OST/HECD 111-20 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles period of days, largely in urine and in exhaled air. The rate of excretion may differ across species, since mice excrete DCAN more rapidly than rats (Roby et al., 1986). Differences in urinary excretion of thiocyanate for different HANs was observed by Pereira et al. (1984), with TCAN being excreted as thiocyanate to a lesser degree than the other HANs. The results of Roby et al. (1986) that showed relatively rapid excretion of DCAN-associated radioactivity suggests limited potential for the bioaccumulation of the HANs. However, no studies were located that provided data on long-term accumulation and retention of any of the HANs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD 111-21 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter IV. Human Exposure A. Drinking Water Exposure BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN have been identified as drinking-water disinfection byproducts under the Information Collection Rule (U.S. EPA, 1994) and are being assessed for regulatory consideration in the Stage 2 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to be promulgated. Therefore, this section will examine the occurrence of these compounds in drinking water. A.l National Occurrence Data for BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN This section presents the data collected from the Information Collection Rule (ICR) database, which provides data from surface- and ground-water systems serving at least 100,000 persons. This database includes information gathered for 18 months from July 1997 to December 1998. Section A. 1.1 describes the ICR data set and analysis techniques used to present the data for the plants that submitted data under the ICR. The data in Sections A. 1.1 and A. 1.2 were taken from the online version of the ICR database (U.S. EPA, 2002a), and the explanation of the methods used was taken from the Draft EPA Document on Stage 2 Occurrence and Exposure Assessment for Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts (D/DBPs) in Public Drinking Water (U.S. EPA, 2000a). EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-1 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles A.1.1 ICR Plants The ICR generated plant-level sets of data that link water quality and treatment from source to tap, and aid in understanding the seasonal variability in these relationships. The database contains information from 18 monthly or six quarterly samples from 7/97 to 12/98 from approximately 300 large systems covering approximately 500 plants. These samples were tested for influent and finished water-quality parameters (e.g., TOC, temperature, pH, alkalinity), DBP levels, and disinfectant residuals. Samples were collected at several locations throughout the distribution system to cover the entire range of residence times during which DBPs can form in the finished water. Over the 18-month period, approximately 1470 samples were taken from 305 plants with surface water as their source, and approximately 580 samples were taken from 123 plants with groundwater as their source. For more detailed information, such as sampling locations and frequencies, refer to the ICR Data Analysis Plan (U.S. EPA, 2000b). A. 1.2 Quarterly Distribution System Average and Highest Value for BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN This section describes the data-analysis techniques employed for the analysis of observed data for water-quality parameters, and for BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN concentrations. All data are categorized according to the types of source water - surface or ground. Plants having both surface- and ground-water sources (mixed) or that purchase water are included in the surface- water category. Quarterly Distribution System Average and Highest Value for the HANs are presented in Table IV-1. Data presented in the table have been taken from the ICR database EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles as provided to avoid misrepresentation or misinterpretation. Therefore, although all data in the table are presented with two decimal points (as provided in the ICR database), this does not necessarily represent the actual precision of the data. The quarterly distribution-system average is an average of the following four distinct locations in the distribution system. • Distribution System Equivalent (DSE) location; • Average 1 (AVG 1) and Average 2 (AVG 2) locations: Two sample points in the distribution system representing the approximate average residence time as designated by the water system; and • Distribution System Maximum: Sample point in the distribution system having the highest residence time (or approaching the longest time) as designated by the water system The quarterly distribution-system highest value is the highest of the four distribution- system samples collected by a plant in a given quarter. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table IV-1. Haloacetonitriles Quarterly Distribution System Average and Highest Value Source Quarterly Dist. Sys. Plants N PctND % Mean jig/L Median jig/L STD jig/L Min jig/L Max jig/L plO jig/L p90 jig/L BCAN SW Average 304 1411 20.55 1.14 0.88 1.21 0.00 13.13 0.00 2.63 High 304 1411 20.55 1.40 1.05 1.41 0.00 13.40 0.00 3.20 GW Average 108 524 50.38 0.73 0.00 1.10 0.00 7.38 0.00 2.13 High 108 524 50.38 0.99 0.00 1.48 0.00 13.00 0.00 2.70 DBAN SW Average 304 1397 43.88 0.75 0.27 1.12 0.00 7.78 0.00 2.25 High 304 1397 43.88 0.96 0.60 1.36 0.00 11.30 0.00 2.70 GW Average 108 523 37.86 0.82 0.43 1.17 0.00 8.93 0.00 2.15 High 108 523 37.86 1.10 0.80 1.39 0.00 10.00 0.00 2.60 DCAN SW Average 304 1406 10.10 2.21 1.74 2.09 0.00 17.13 0.00 4.53 High 304 1406 10.10 2.72 2.20 2.52 0.00 24.60 0.00 5.40 GW Average 110 524 57.63 0.87 0.00 2.08 0.00 17.65 0.00 2.35 High 110 524 57.63 1.25 0.00 2.72 0.00 21.00 0.00 3.70 TCAN SW Average 304 1393 96.91 0.03 0.00 0.30 0.00 7.28 0.00 0.00 High 304 1393 96.91 0.07 0.00 0.74 0.00 20.50 0.00 0.00 GW Average 110 515 97.67 0.14 0.00 2.07 0.00 39.60 0.00 0.00 High 110 515 97.67 0.17 0.00 2.20 0.00 41.54 0.00 0.00 Source: SW - Surface Water, GW - Groundwater Quarterly Dist. Sys: Quarterly Distribution System (DS) Samples. Average - quarterly average of 4 locations in DS. High - highest of 4 locations in DS. Plants: Number of plants sampled N: Number of samples PctND: Percent samples nondetect (detection limits not provided) Mean: Arithmetic mean of all samples Median: Median value of all samples STD: Standard deviation Min: Minimum Value Max: Maximum Value plO: 10th percentile p90: 90th percentile ND: Nondetected EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-4 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The median concentrations for all four chemicals were less than the corresponding mean concentrations, for both surface water and groundwater. The mean concentrations of BCAN (averaged across the four sampling locations) were 0.73 and 1.14 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The median concentrations of BCAN were 0.00 and 0.88 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of DBAN (averaged across the four sampling locations) were 0.82 and 0.75 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The median concentrations of DBAN were 0.43 and 0.27 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of DCAN (averaged across the four sampling locations) were 0.87 and 2.21 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The median concentrations of DCAN were 0.00 and 1.74 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of TCAN (averaged across the four sampling locations) were 0.14 and 0.03 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The median concentrations of TCAN were 0.00 //g/L in both groundwater and surface water. The lowest mean concentrations are associated with the highest percentage of nondetects, which are treated as zero in the calculation of the mean, median, standard deviation, and plO values (U.S. EPA, 2000a). A.2 Factors Affecting the Relative Concentrations of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in Drinking Water Sections A.2.1 - A.2.5 contain investigational information on the effects of disinfection chemicals, influent bromide concentration, influent total organic carbon (TOC) concentration, EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-5 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles temperature and pH, and seasonal shifts, respectively in BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN concentrations. A.2.1 Disinfection Treatment Chlorination has been the predominant water-disinfection method in the United States. However, water utilities are considering a shift to alternative disinfectants. Therefore, there is a need to understand the occurrence of DBPs in drinking water and the factors that may influence their formation. Several published studies (Boorman et al., 1999; Richardson, 1998; Lykins et al., 1994; Jacangelo et al., 1989; Miltner et al., 1990) reported on the formation of HANs and other DBPs under different disinfection conditions. In a review on drinking-water disinfection byproducts, Boorman et al. (1999) compared the concentrations of different drinking-water disinfection byproducts, including BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN, formed by chlorination, ozonation, chlorine dioxide, and chloramination. Most of the data that were available were from surface-water systems that used chlorination. For the systems using chlorination, DCAN was present at the highest concentrations, with a median and a maximum concentration of 2.1 and 10 |ig/L, respectively. The median and maximum concentrations of BCAN were 0.6 and 1.1 |ig/L, respectively. The median concentrations of both DBAN and TCAN in chlorinated water were less than their limits of detection at < 0.5 and <0.02 |ig/L, respectively. The maximum concentrations of DBAN and TCAN in chlorinated water were 9.4 and 0.02 |ig/L, respectively. The principal products formed by chloramination EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-6 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles were similar to those formed by chlorination; additional information was not provided. HANs were not detected when the water was treated with ozone. Boorman et al. (1999) reported that chlorine dioxide formed oxidation by-products similar to those formed by ozonation; additional details were not provided. Richardson (1998) compared the relative concentrations of DBPs in drinking water using different treatment methods, and also reported that chlorination produced the highest concentration of DBPs, including BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN, Compared to chlorine treatment, chloramine produced 3% to 20% lower levels of by-products, including HANs. Richardson (1998) speculated that, as with the other halogenated by-products of chlorination, the formation of the HANs may be caused by residual chlorine in the chloramination process, rather than by the chloramine itself. Richardson (1998) found that BCAN, DCAN, and TCAN were not produced by ozonation or chlorine dioxide in measurable quantities. However, DBAN was formed by ozone in the presence of elevated bromide, but not by chlorine dioxide disinfection. When ozone was the primary disinfectant (i.e., ozone followed by chlorine or ozone followed by chloramine) the formation of DBPs (including HANs) was less than when chlorine or chloramine was the sole disinfectant. This was believed to be due to the destruction by ozone of DBP precursor material. In addition, lower levels of chlorine or chloramine are required when ozone is used as the primary disinfectant, and this also leads to lower levels of DBPs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-7 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Lykins et al. (1994) investigated the formation of halogenated DBPs in the water- distribution system, by predisinfecting and postdisinfecting the water with either chlorine or chloramine and holding the water for five days. Similar to the other investigators, Lykins et al. (1994) also found that the use of chlorine produced the highest concentration of halogenated DBPs and that, in general, the concentrations were less when chloramine was used or when ozone was used as a predisinfectant followed by either postchlorination or postchloramination. Lykins et al. (1994) found that relatively low concentrations of HANs were formed. The highest average concentration of total HANs (3.1 //g/L) was when chlorine was used, with or without ozonation. The total HANs concentrations observed with the other process streams was < 1 //g/L. DCAN, with a concentration of approximately 1.9 //g/L, was the predominant HAN when chlorine (with or without ozone) was used, followed by BCAN (0.6 /ig/L), DBAN (~ 0.4 /ig/L), and TCAN (0.1 ££g/L). In contrast, the average concentrations of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN were 0 £ig/L when the water was treated with chloramine or with ozone followed by chloramine. Jacangelo et al. (1989) examined the impact of ozonation on the formation and control of DBPs in drinking water at four utilities. Treatment modifications were made on the process train at each full or pilot-scale plant to incorporate ozone in the treatment process. The disinfection schemes that employed ozonation followed by chloramines as a disinfectant resulted in large decreases (> 90%) in HAN formation relative to chlorination and > 25% to > 90% decreases in HAN formation relative to chloramines only. For two utilities that measured individual HANs, preozonation followed by chlorination decreased the total HANs by 29-35%, when compared EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-8 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles with chlorination only. The concentrations of BCAN and DCAN decreased with ozonation, while the concentrations of DBAN increased at one facility and showed little change at the second facility. The concentrations of TCAN were less than the limit of detection (<0.012 //g/L) with and without preozonation. Miltner et al. (1990) studied DBP formation and control in three surface water pilot plants employing three different disinfectant methods (chlorine, ozone followed by chlorine, and ozone followed by chloramine). In an examination of the data using the Student's t-test, the authors found that ozonation had no effect (at p = 0.05) on the formation of BCAN, DCAN, or TCAN in simulated finished water and distribution water, and had no effect on the formation of DBAN in simulated finished water. However, the formation of DBAN in simulated distribution water was higher (at p = 0.05) when ozonation was combined with chlorination or with chloramination than when chlorination was used alone. A.2.2 Bromide Concentration Ambient bromide levels appear to influence, to some degree, the speciation of HANs (WHO, 2000). DCAN is by far the most predominant HAN detected in drinking water from sources with bromide levels of 20 |ig/L or less. In treated water from sources with higher bromide levels (50-80 //g/L), BCAN was the second most prevalent HAN. None of the treated water from any of these sources had a DBAN concentration exceeding 0.5 |ig/L, including treated water from one source that had a much higher bromide level, 170 |ig/L (WHO, 2000). However, EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-9 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Richardson (1998) found that when bromide was present in the source water, DBAN concentrations were greater than those of chloroform or dichloroacetic acid, which normally predominate. A.2.3 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Concentration Many researchers have documented that chlorine reacts with natural organic matter, including algae, humic acid, fulvic acid, and proteinaceous material to produce a variety of DBPs, including HANs (Bieber & Trehy, 1983; Oliver, 1983; Reckhow and Singer, 1990; Reckhow et al., 1990). Reckhow el al. (1990) found that the disinfection of water containing humic acids resulted in higher concentrations of HANs than disinfection of water containing the corresponding fulvic acids. A.2.4 Temperature and pH In general, increasing temperature and/or decreasing pH has been associated with increasing concentrations of HANs (AWWARF, 1991; Siddiqui & Amy, 1993). Dihalogenated acetonitriles (BCAN, DBAN, DC AN) are reported to undergo hydrolysis in water (Bieber & Trehy, 1983). Arora el al. (1997) analyzed results of a DBP survey and a two-year DBP- monitoring study of more than 100 treatment plants of the American Water System (a large water utility) from 1989 to 1991, and found that HANs hydrolyzed at pH levels > 9.0 and continued to degrade in the distribution system. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-10 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Different trends were observed in the HAN concentrations of different source waters. For two source waters, HAN levels formed rapidly for the first eight hours and continued to increase slowly or leveled off after 96 hours (AWWARF, 1991). DBAN levels remained relatively stable over the 96 hours, as did BCAN and DCAN levels. For other sources, levels of HANs consisting mostly of DCAN increased rapidly up to 4-8 hours and began to decline by the end of the 96- hour period. For these sources, BCAN appeared to be slightly more stable than DCAN (AWWARF, 1991). A.2.5 Seasonal Shifts Seasonal shifts in HANs were investigated by Krasner et al. (1989). In September 1987, the US EPA's Office of Drinking Water entered into a cooperative agreement with the Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies (AMWA) to perform a study of the occurrence and control of DBPs. The AMWA contracted with the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD) to provide management services for the project and to perform the DBP analysis. In addition, the State of California Department of Health Services (CDHS), through the California Public Health Foundation (CPHF), contracted with MWD to perform a similar study in California. Baseline data were gathered on 35 water-treatment facilities, including 25 water utilities across the United States in the U.S. EPA study and 10 California water utilities in the CDHS study. Levels of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN were measured. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-11 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles During the first quarter (spring 1988), a good correlation was found between the HANs and trihalomethanes, another class of disinfectant byproduct. In addition, Krasner et al. (1989) reported that relatively high levels of the measured brominated DBPs were detected at some of the utilities. These findings suggested that the influence of bromide in the raw water should be evaluated. Therefore, chloride and bromide analyses were added to the protocol, beginning with the second quarter (summer 1988) of sampling. Among the 35 facilities, bromide levels ranged from < 0.01 to 3.00 mg/L. At the utility with the highest bromide levels (~ 3 mg/L bromide) there was a shift in the distribution of DBPs from the chlorinated DBPs to the brominated DBPs, resulting in DBAN as the major HAN detected. This is in apparent contrast to the findings of WHO (2000), which found that at high bromide levels, BCAN was the second most prevalent compound, following DC AN. While there were no clear trends of the concentrations of bromide ions or brominated acetonitriles with season in the composite analysis, DBAN levels were higher in the fall in the utility with the highest bromide levels. Some shifts in DBPs formed were also seen as the result of drought conditions and saltwater intrusion. B. Exposure to Sources Other Than Drinking Water TCAN has been used as an insecticide (Budavari et al., 1989). No data were located on exposure to BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in food, air, or via dermal exposure when showering or swimming. Therefore, no assessment of overall exposure to any of the HANs can be performed. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-12 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles C. Body Burden No data could be located on body burden. However, the results of Roby et al. (1986) that showed relatively rapid excretion of DCAN-associated radioactivity (at least 70% of the administered dose excreted within 6 days in rats or within 24 hours in mice) suggests limited potential for the bioaccumulation of the HANs. D. Summary The ICR database (U.S. EPA, 2002a) contains extensive information on concentrations of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in drinking-water systems, and on how those concentrations vary with input-water characteristics and treatment methods. The database contains information from six quarterly samples from 7/97 to 12/98, from approximately 300 large systems covering approximately 500 plants. The mean concentrations of BCAN were 0.73 and 1.14 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of DBAN were 0.82 and 0.75 £ig/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of DCAN were 0.87 and 2.21 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The mean concentrations of TCAN were 0.14 and 0.03 //g/L in groundwater and surface water, respectively. The median concentrations of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN were less than their means in groundwater and surface water. HANs are produced during water chlorination or chloramination from naturally occurring substances, including algae, humic acid, fulvic acid, and proteinaceous material. Reckhow el al. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-13 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles (1990) found that disinfection of water containing humic acids resulted in higher concentrations of HANs than disinfection of water containing the corresponding fulvic acids. The disinfection process producing the highest concentration of HANs was chlorination. Chloramine produced lower levels of HANs. Most investigators (Boorman et al., 1999; Richardson 1998; Lykins et al., 1994; Jacangelo et al., 1989) found that the formation of HANs when ozonation was followed by chlorine or chloramine was less than when chlorine or chloramine was the sole disinfectant. Interestingly, Miltner et al. (1990) reported that the formation of DBAN in simulated distribution water was higher (at p = 0.05) when ozonation was combined with chlorination or with chloramination than when chlorination was used alone. In addition, Miltner et al. (1990) found that ozonation had no statistically significant effect on the formation of BCAN, DCAN, or TCAN. Richardson (1998) found that BCAN, DCAN, and TCAN were not produced in measurable quantities by ozonation or chlorine dioxide. However, DBAN was formed by ozone in the presence of elevated bromide, but not by chlorine dioxide disinfection. Ambient bromide levels appear to influence, to some degree, the speciation of HANs. DCAN is by far the most predominant HAN detected in drinking water from sources with bromide levels of 20 |ig/L or less. In treated water from sources with higher bromide levels (50-80 jj,g/L), BCAN was the second most prevalent compound (WHO, 2000). Richardson EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-14 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles (1998) found that when bromide was present in the source water, DBAN concentrations were greater than those of chloroform or dichloroacetic acid, which normally predominate. In general, increasing temperature and/or decreasing pH has been associated with increasing concentrations of HANs (AWWARF, 1991; Siddiqui & Amy, 1993). Although HANs form rapidly, they decay in the distribution system as a result of hydrolysis. HANs hydrolyzed at pH levels >9.0 and continued to degrade in the distribution system (Arora el al.,\ 997), The relative stability of individual HANs appears to be dependent on the specific source water (AWWARF, 1991). In general, there were no clear trends of the concentrations of HANs with season. However, among 35 water treatment facilities investigated, Krasner et al. (1989) found that at the facility with the highest bromide level (~ 3 mg/L bromide), there was a shift in the distribution of HANs from chlorinated HANs to brominated HANs. At this facility DBAN was the major HAN detected, with the highest DBAN levels detected in the fall. This is in apparent contrast to the findings of WHO (2000), which reported that at high bromide levels, BCAN was the second most prevalent compound following DCAN. TCAN has been used as an insecticide (Budavari et al., 1989). No data were located on exposure to BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in food, air, or via dermal exposure when showering or swimming. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-15 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles No data could be located on body burden. However, the results of Roby et al. (1986) that showed relatively rapid excretion of DCAN-associated radioactivity (at least 70% of the administered dose excreted within 6 days in rats or within 24 hours in mice) suggests limited potential for the bioaccumulation of the HANs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IV-16 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter V. Health Effects in Animals Limited toxicity testing data are available for the HANs. Tables V-15 through V-18 at the end of the chapter provide a summary of the toxicity studies for BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN for noncarcinogenic endpoints. A. Short-Term Exposures Acute oral LD50 values for DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in rodents have been reported by several investigators, as summarized in Table V-l. Acute oral LD50 values for DBAN and DCAN were reported to range from 245 to 361 mg/kg in male and female CD rats and mice given single oral doses dissolved in corn oil. Ataxia, depressed respiration, depressed activity, and coma preceded death. No consistent, compound-related, gross pathological effects were observed at necropsy (Hayes et al., 1986). In a limited report on the acute toxicity of DBAN, groups of 20 rats and mice (sex and strain not specified) were given single gavage doses of 10% DBAN in corn oil ranging from 25 to 1,600 mg/kg in rats and from 25 to 3,200 mg/kg in mice. The LD50 was estimated as 50 to 100 mg/kg in rats and 50 mg/kg in mice with slight to moderate convulsions the only symptom reported (Eastman Kodak Co., 1992). Smyth et al. (1962) reported an oral LD50 of 0.25 mL/kg (360 mg/kg) in male Wistar rats for TCAN (vehicle was not specified). EPA/OW/OST/HECD V-l Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-l. Acute Oral Lethality of Haloacetonitriles. Reference Species LD50 (mg/kg) Male Female DBAN Hayes et al. (1986) Mouse 289 (253-324)a 303 (269-342) Hayes et al. (1986) Rat 245 (210-286) 361 (320-410) Eastman Kodak Co., 1992 Mouse 50 (sex not specified) Eastman Kodak Co., 1992 Rat 50 - 100 (sex not specified) DCAN Hayes et al. (1986) Mouse 270 (241 - 303) 279 (263 - 296) Hayes et al. (1986) Rat 339 (298 - 387) 330 (300 - 500) TCAN Smyth et al. (1962) Rat 360 '95% Confidence limits. Lin and Guion (1989) reported clinical signs of toxicity in a mechanistic study to evaluate the ability of HANs to deplete liver GSH and inhibit GST activity. Male Fischer 344 rats were administered single gavage doses of 0.75 mmol/kg BCAN (116 mg/kg), DBAN (149 mg/kg), DCAN (82 mg/kg), or TCAN (108 mg/kg) in tricaprylin. These doses represented 10 to 30% of the reported LD50 for the individual compounds. The incidence of deaths at 18 hours was 2 of 20 for TCAN and 1 of 10 for DBAN. No deaths were reported for the other HANs. Overt signs of acute toxicity, including gasping and salivation, were observed for TCAN and DBAN. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The acute toxicity of DBAN has also been evaluated by the inhalation route. Sprague- Dawley rats (10 animals/sex/dose) were exposed for 6 hours to air concentrations of 3.5, 9.5, 17.9, or 41 ppm DBAN (28.5, 77.3, 145.6, or 333.5 mg/m3)(Dow Chemical Co., 1992). Slight transient eye and nasal irritation was noted at the lowest concentration and increased in severity with increasing concentration. In addition, respiratory tract irritation was observed at 9.5 ppm and increased in severity with increasing concentration. Three males and two females did not survive following exposure to 9.5 ppm; all males and 6 females in the 17.9 ppm exposure group died. The LC50 was reported as 9.6 ppm for males and 14.4 ppm for females, respectively, calculated using a moving average method. In the low exposure group, no treatment-related effects were observed at necropsy. In the 9.5 ppm group, nasal irritation and distended stomach were the principal findings in the animals that did not survive; no effects were observed in the surviving animals. In the two high-exposure groups, necropsy revealed distended stomachs, and congested liver and lungs. No treatment-related lesions were observed following gross pathological examination in the four females that survived the 17.9 ppm exposure. In the study by Smyth et al. (1962), no mortality was observed following a single 4-hour exposure to 125 ppm (738 mg/m3) of TCAN in a group of six albino rats (sex and strain not specified), indicating that the 4-hour LC50 would be well above 125 ppm. Data were not reported for end points other than mortality in this study. Although the different exposure durations and strains used preclude a direct comparison, the finding that the 4-hour LC50 for TCAN was likely much higher than the 6- hour LC50 for DBAN suggests that DBAN has higher acute inhalation toxicity. No inhalation studies were identified for BCAN or DCAN. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In a poorly-reported skin irritation study, undiluted DBAN was applied to the skin of guinea pigs (3 animals/dose) at doses ranging from 0.01 to 1.0 mL/kg (23 to 2,300 mg/kg)(Eastman Kodak Co., 1992). The estimated LD50 was 0.1 to 1.0 mL/kg (230 to 2,300 mg/kg). Irritant symptoms were recorded as moderate to gross edema, with necrosis of the entire patch area and hemorrhagic periphery at 24 hours. At 1 week, the authors reported heavy eschar that was broken at the edges with secondary eschar beneath. At 2 weeks, small secondary eschar was noted, with heavy scarring and alopecia. The LD50 value for a single dermal application of TCAN to male New Zealand rabbits was reported to be 0.90 mL/kg (1,296 mg/kg)(Smyth el al., 1962). TCAN is extremely irritating; 0.5 mL of a 1% solution produced a severe eye burn in rabbits, and 0.01 mL of the material caused necrosis when applied to the clipped skin of rabbits. The study descriptions did not indicate if the TCAN was undiluted or applied in a solvent vehicle. No dermal studies were identified for BCAN or DCAN. In addition to acute lethality and irritation, other effects of short-term exposure to DBAN and DCAN have been evaluated. The evaluation of several endpoints for DBAN toxicity have been conducted or are being planned. DBAN has been selected for a neurotoxicity study (NTP, 2002), has been tested in a short-term reproductive and developmental toxicity screening study (R.O.W. Sciences, 1997), and has been evaluated in 14-day dose-range finding studies (NTP, 2002). These latter two studies are described in this section. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 4 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The short-term effects of DBAN were evaluated as part of dose-range finding studies conducted for a reproductive and developmental toxicity screening study (R.O.W. Sciences, 1997). In the initial dose-range finding study, male and female Sprague-Dawley rats (5/sex/dose) were exposed to drinking water containing 0, 250, 500, 1000, or 2000 ppm DBAN (doses resulting from these exposures were not reported by the study authors). Significant decreases in body weight relative to controls and decreased food consumption were observed within 4 days of exposure, beginning at 250 ppm in males and 500 ppm in females. Water consumption was significantly decreased at the lowest concentration tested (250 ppm) in males and females. The onset of these effects led the authors to terminate the study, since the lowest concentration used in this first range-finding study was judged to be too high for use in the main study. Therefore, the rats were allowed to recover to control body weights, and were exposed to a lower set of range-finding concentrations of 0, 7, 20, 70, or 200 ppm in drinking water for 2 weeks. The rats were evaluated for clinical signs of toxicity, body weight, and feed and water consumption. Based on measured water consumption and body weights, the estimated dose levels in the second range-finding study were 0, 0.7, 2.2, 5.8, and 13.2 mg/kg/day for the males and 0, 0.8, 2.4, 6.8, and 17.9 mg/kg/day for the females. No clinical signs of toxicity were observed in any of the exposure groups. A significant decrease in body weights of roughly 10% was observed in males exposed to 20 or 200 ppm DBAN after 4 days of treatment. However, no similar decrease was observed in the males exposed to 70 ppm, and the mean final weight and total weight gain at the end of the study were not affected in any dose group. No significant effects on feed consumption were observed. Water consumption was significantly decreased (p<0.05) on day 11 in females EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 5 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles exposed to 70 ppm (to 71% of controls). Water consumption was significantly decreased at each time point examined (study days 4, 8, 11, and 15) for males and females in the 200-ppm group. The maximum decrease in water consumption was to 50% of controls for males and to 67% of controls for females. The absence of clinical signs of toxicity or body weight changes indicates that the highest concentration tested (200 ppm in the second range-finding study) is a study NOAEL. Decreased water consumption is not judged to be an adverse toxicological effect, as this result may reflect poor palatability of the DBAN-containing water. Based on these considerations, the study NOAEL is the highest dose tested (13.2 mg/kg/day in males; 17.9 mg/kg/day in females) and no LOAEL was determined. In the main study (described in more detail in the Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity Section), Sprague-Dawley rats were given 0, 15, 50, or 150 ppm DBAN in their drinking water. Male rats (10 animals/dose) were given treated water on study days 6 through 35, and were then examined for clinical pathology (hematology and clinical chemistry), body and organ weight changes (liver, right kidney, spleen, thymus, right testis, right epididymis, right cauda epididymis), sperm analyses, and histopathology. Estimated DBAN doses in males were 0, 1.4, 3.3, and 8.2 mg/kg/day as calculated by the study authors from body weight and water consumption data. Separate groups of female rats were exposed to the same concentrations as males on study days 1-34 (Group A) or from gestation day 6 to postnatal day 1 (Group B). Estimated DBAN doses were 0, 1.8, 5.1, and 10.9 mg/kg/day for Group A females, and 0, 1.9, 5.3, and 10.8 mg/kg/day for Group B females. For both groups of females, clinical signs of EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 6 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles toxicity, body weight, and feed and water consumption were determined at various intervals, and general pathology was evaluated at necropsy. No compound-related effect was observed for any of these parameters. The only biologically-significant effect that was treatment related for males or females was a decrease in water consumption in the mid- and high-concentration groups, which might have been related to decreased water palatability. Since the males were examined for more sensitive endpoints than females (i.e. clinical chemistry and histopathology were evaluated), the NOAEL for systemic effects in this study was 8.2 mg/kg/day, the highest dose level in males, and no LOAEL was identified. The subacute toxicity of DBAN has also been evaluated by the NTP (2002) in B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats as part of initial dose-range finding studies in support of chronic exposure studies that are currently in progress. For the mouse study, DBAN was administered in drinking water for 14 days to male and female B6C3F1 mice (5/sex/dose) at concentrations of 0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, or 200 mg/L. The corresponding doses reported by the study authors were 0, 2.1, 4.3, 8.2, 14.7, and 21.4 mg/kg/day for males and 2.0, 3.3, 10.0, 13.9, and 21.6 mg/kg/day for females. Animals were observed for clinical signs of toxicity, as well as body weight, and organ weight and pathology. In addition, liver glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity was measured. The only treatment-related effect was a decrease in water consumption in both males and females. The decrease in water consumption was concentration-related, decreasing to 58% of controls for males and 54% controls for the 200 mg/L group mice. Since the only effect observed was a concentration-related decrease in water intake, which could reflect poor water palatability, the EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 7 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles high doses of 21.4 mg/kg/day for males and 21.6 mg/kg/day for females is considered a NOAEL. No LOAEL is identified. For the rat study, DBAN was administered in drinking water for 14 days to male and female F344 rats (5/sex/dose) at concentrations of 0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, or 200 mg/L. The corresponding doses reported by the study authors were 0, 2, 3, 7, 12, and 18 mg/kg/day for males and 2, 4, 7, 12, and 19 mg/kg/day for females. Animals were observed for clinical signs of toxicity, as well as body weight, and organ weight and pathology. In addition, liver glutathione- S-transferase (GST) activity was measured. A concentration-related decrease in water consumption was observed for both males and females. Water consumption decreased to 60% of controls for males and 61% controls for females in the 200 mg/L group mice. No effects other than decreased water consumption were noted in females. However, in males DBAN exposure caused a decrease in body weight gain and terminal body weight that was judged to be toxicologically-significant only at the high dose. The reported body weight gains for males were 61.1, 66.3, 66.0, 65.2, 56.4, and 34.0 grams for the control and increasing dose-groups, respectively. Terminal body weights as percent of controls were 100, 104.5, 104.3, 101.3, 98.7, 82.7%) for the control and increasing dose-groups, respectively. Significantly decreased testes weights were observed in the high dose-group males. This finding was accompanied by testicular atrophy in 2 of 5 males in this dose group. Elevated liver GST activity (126% of controls) was also reported for high dose males. Based on decreased body weight and decreased testes weight EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 8 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles and pathology in males, the NOAEL for this study is 12 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL is 18 mg/kg/day. Hayes et al. (1986) investigated the subacute (14-day) toxicity of DBAN in adult CD rats. The chemical was administered daily by gavage in corn oil at doses of 0, 23, 45, 90, or 180 mg/kg/day (10 animals/sex/dose). Endpoints assessed included mortality, body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, and gross necropsy, as shown in Tables V-2 and V-3. Histopathological studies were not conducted. Also, food and water consumption rates were not measured. There was 100% mortality at 180 mg/kg/day. At 90 mg/kg/day, 40% of the males and 20% of the females were dead by day 14. No consistent, compound-related and dose- dependent adverse effects were apparent in any of the serum chemistry, hematological, or urinary parameters measured, although several serum chemistry parameters were significantly different than controls, particularly at the high dose. The authors reported a trend toward higher values for hemoglobin, total red blood cell and white blood cell counts, and fibrinogen in all treated animals (no data reported). No remarkable findings were observed at necropsy (gross observation). Sporadic relative or absolute organ weight changes were reported, mostly at the high dose, but these were not considered as compound related. The only organ weight change that showed a clear dose-dependence at multiple doses was for absolute liver weight in females, which was significantly increased 12% over controls (p < 0.05) beginning at 23 mg/kg/day, up to 22% above controls at 90 mg/kg/day. Liver weights relative to body weight and brain weight were also affected, but only at higher doses. However, no corresponding significant elevation of serum EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 9 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles levels of hepatic enzymes was observed in females, and in the absence of histopathology data, it is unclear if the increased liver weight in females is an adverse response. The authors could not identify specific target organs for DBAN toxicity, and concluded that decreased body weight was the most sensitive indicator of toxicity. In males, no decrease in body weight was observed at 23 mg/kg/day; body weight was decreased by more than 20% in a dose-related manner at 45 and 90 mg/kg/day (p < 0.05). No effect on body weight was noted in females. The authors stated that the NOAEL for DBAN was 45 mg/kg/day, but the decreased body weight in male rats exposed to 45 mg/kg/day suggests that the NOAEL in this study is 23 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL is 45 mg/kg/day. The data sets for body weight in males and relative liver weight in females were further analyzed to determine benchmark doses (BMDs) according to draft EPA Guidance (U.S. EPA, 2000c) to identify alternative critical effect levels. The results of the modeling are described in detail in Appendix A. A BMDL of 16 mg/kg/day for decreased body weight in males was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose- response assessment. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 10 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-2. Organ weights and ratios of CD rats exposed to dibromoacetonitrile by gavage for 14 days.3 Parameter15 Vehicle (corn oil) Male 23 mg/kg/day Male 45 mg/kg/day Male 90 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 23 mg/kg/day Female 45 mg/kg/day Female 90 mg/kg/day Female Body Weight 275.5 ±3.2 274.6 ±5.5 243.7 ±4.6* 209.4 ± 10.1* 176.5 ±6.8 184.9 ±2.4 181.1 ±2.8 165.9 ±5.4 Brain % body weight 1.81 ±0.05 0.66 ± 0.02 1.77 ±0.06 0.65 ±0.03 1.76 ±0.03 0.73 ±0.02* 1.66 ±0.05 0.80 ±0.06* 1.67 ±0.04 0.96 ±0.04 1.68 ±0.04 0.91 ±0.03 1.64 ±0.04 0.91 ±0.03 1.69 ±0.06 1.03 ±0.04 Liver % body weight 12.91 ± 0.34 4.69 ±0.15 11.60 ± 1.24 4.25 ±0.45 11.47 ± 1.2 4.71 ±0.49 10.18 ± 1.89 4.72 ±0.83 8.59 ±0.26 4.89 ±0.12 9.65 ± 0.25* 5.22 ±0.11 9.73 ± 0.20* 5.39 ±0.15 10.50 ±0.44* 6.34 ±0.24* Spleen % body weight 0.64 ±0.03 0.23± 0.01 0.59 ±0.05 0.21 ±0.02 0.56 ± 0.05 0.23 ±0.02 0.42 ±0.05* 0.20 ± 0.02 0.48 ±0.03 0.27 ±0.01 0.45 ±0.02 0.24 ±0.01 0.52 ±0.03 0.29 ±0.02 0.42 ± 0.04 0.26 ± 0.02 Lungs % body weight 1.69 ±0.10 0.61 ±0.03 1.49 ±0.09 0.54 ±0.04 1.44 ±0.07 0.59 ±0.03 1.30 ±0.14* 0.62 ± 0.06 1.58 ±0.19 0.88 ±0.08 1.42 ±0.09 0.77 ±0.05 1.25 ±0.06 0.69 ±0.04 1.09 ±0.06* 0.66 ±0.04* Thymus % body weight 0.51 ±0.03 0.19 ±0.01 0.52 ±0.04 0.19 ±0.01 0.46 ± 0.02 0.19 ±0.01 0.24 ±0.06* 0.11 ±0.03* 0.40 ±0.03 0.23 ±0.02 0.44 ±0.03 0.24 ± 0.02 0.40 ±0.01 0.22 ±0.01 0.21 ±0.02* 0.13 ±0.01* Kidneys % body weight 2.50 ±0.10 0.91 ±0.05 2.39 ±0.09 0.87 ±0.03 2.08 ±0.06* 0.85 ±0.02 2.13 ±0.15* 1.02 ±0.06 1.56 ±0.06 0.89 ±0.02 1.64 ±0.04 0.89 ±0.02 1.62 ±0.04 0.89 ±0.03 1.53 ±0.05 0.92 ±0.03 Testes/Ovaries % body weight 2.70 ±0.09 0.99 ±0.04 2.71 ±0.07 0.99 ±0.03 2.67 ± 0.06 1.10 ±0.03 2.69 ±0.06 1.30 ±0.07* 0.11 ±0.01 0.06 ± 0.00 0.14 ±0.01 0.07 ±0.01 0.14 ±0.01 0.08 ±0.01 0.12 ±0.02 0.07 ±0.01 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). " All data expressed as mean ± SEM. b All absolute weights are presented in grams. * Significantly different from vehicle control (p < 0.05). EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 11 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-3. Serum Chemistry Values for CD Rats Exposed to Dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN) for 14 days.3 Parameter Vehicle (corn oil) Male 23 mg/kg/day Male 45 mg/kg/day Male 90 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 23 mg/kg/day Female 45mg/kg/ day Female 90 mg/kg/day Female Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase (IU/L) 168 ±55 75 ±9 76 ± 11 77 ± 19 74 ±6 62 ±8 74 ± 14 68 ± 11 Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetic Transaminase (IU/L) 339± 105 142 ± 14 172 ± 26 273 ± 81 178 ±32 138 ±9 182 ±21 161 ± 15 Alkaline Phosphatase (IU/L) 360 ±41 466 ± 33 247 ± 29 187 ±8* 236 ± 26 299 ± 29 260 ± 24 179 ±34 5'-Nucleotidase (IU/L) 18 ±3 17 ± 1 13 ±2 14 ± 1 25 ±4 22 ±2 28 ±2 18 ±4 Protein (g/dL) 6.3 ±0.1 6.5 ±0.1 6.2 ±0.1 4.7 ±0.4* 6.7 ±0.1 6.2 ±0.3 6.2 ±0.1 5.3 ±0.2* Albumin (g/dL) 4.0 ±0.1 4.0 ±0.0 4.0 ±0.1 2.9 ±0.3* 4.3 ±0.2 4.0 ±0.1 4.2 ±0.1 3.5 ± 0.1* Globulin (g/dL) 2.3 ±0.1 2.5 ±0.1 2.2 ±0.1 1.8 ± 0.1* 2.5 ±0.1 2.2 ±0.2 2.1 ±0.1 1.8 ± 0.1* Alb/globulin ratio 1.8 ±0.1 1.6 ±0.1 1.8 ±0.1 1.6 ±0.2 1.7 ±0.1 1.8 ±0.1 2.1 ±0.1 2.0 ±0.1 Glucose (mg/dL) 265 ± 47 212 ±41 217 ±40 130 ± 1 212 ± 17 171 ± 18 197 ± 22 138 ± 17 Cholesterol (mg/dL) 66 ±2 64 ±2 74 ±4 95 ±5* 66 ±4 58 ±6 66 ±6 71 ±3 Bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.3 ±0.0 0.4 ±0.0 0.2 ±0.0 0.3 ±0.1 0.3 ±0.0 0.2 ±0.0 0.3 ±0.0 0.2 ±0.0 BUN (mg/dL) 15 ± 1 13 ± 1 10 ± 1 18 ±6 15 ±2 13 ±2 13 ± 1 15 ±2 Creatinine (mg/dL) 1.3 ±0.2 0.8 ±0.1 0.9 ±0.1 0.7 ±0.0* 1.2 ±0.1 1.0 ±0.1 1.0 ±0.1 0.8 ±0.0* BUN/creatinine ratio 13 ±2 16 ±2 12 ± 1* 24 ±8 12 ±2 15 ±4 14 ±2 19 ±3 Calcium (mg/dL) 11.3 ±0.4 12.5 ±0.6 11.8 ±0.4 9.6 ±0.6 11.9 ±0.4 11.1 ±0.3 12.1 ±0.5 11.1 ±0.3 Phosphorus (mg/dL) 12.0 ±0.4 11.2 ±0.4 11.3 ±0.5 7.6 ±0.7* 11.6 ±0.1 10.1 ±0.6 10.8 ±0.5 9.3 ±0.7* Chloride (mEq/L) 99 ±2 99 ±2 99 ± 1 100 ±2 98 ± 1.4 102 ±0.7 100 ± 1.2 101 ±0.7 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). a All data expressed as mean± SEM. * Significantly different from vehicle control (p < 0.05). EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 12 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-4. Body Organ Weights and Ratios of CD rats Exposed to Dichloroacetonitrile by Gavage for 14 days.a Parameterb Vehicle (corn oil) Male 12 mg/kg/day Male 23 mg/kg/day Male 45 mg/kg/day Male 90 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 12 mg/kg/day Female 23 mg/kg/day Female 45 mg/kg/day Female 90 mg/kg/day Female Body Weight 157 ±5 170 ±7 147 ±5 137 ±5 115 ±4 148 ±6 147 ±6 143 ±4 146 ±5 113 ±5 Brain % body weight 1.68 ±0.09 1.06 ±0.03 1.63 ±0.12 0.99 ±0.09 1.66 ±0.03 1.14 ±0.04 1.56 ±0.04 1.15 ±0.04 1.52 ± 0.05* 1.34 ± 0.06* 1.61 ±0.04 1.09 ±0.04 1.52 ±0.08 1.04 ±0.04 1.47 ±0.06 1.03 ±0.03 1.61 ±0.05 1.11 ±0.07 1.45 ±0.04 1.30 ±0.06* Liver % body weight 8.15 ±0.31 5.19 ±0.10 9.96 ±0.58 5.85 ±0.16* 9.71 ±0.64 6.57 ± 0.30* 10.11± 0.52* 7.37±0.18* 8.63 ±0.48 7.50 ±0.26* 8.06 ±0.53 5.40 ± .20 8.49 ±0.35 5.81 ±0.15 10.56 ± 0.50* 7.37 ±0.27* 11.14 ±0.57* 7.59 ±0.23* 7.78 ±0.92 7.07 ±0.82* Spleen % body weight 0.54 ±0.04 0.34 ±0.02 0.62 ±0.07 0.36 ±0.04 0.46 ±0.03 0.31 ±0.01 0.47 ±0.05 0.34 ±0.03 0.35 ± 0.03* 0.30 ±0.02 0.44 ±0.03 0.30 ±0.02 0.43 ±0.04 0.30 ±0.03 0.40 ±0.02 0.28 ±0.02 0.43 ±0.02 0.29 ±0.02 0.29 ±0.02* 0.26 ±0.01 Lungs % body weight 1.27 ±0.07 0.81 ±0.04 1.37 ±0.11 0.82 ±0.07 1.26 ±0.08 0.85 ±0.05 1.17 ± 0.07 0.86 ±0.05 1.02 ±0.09 0.89 ±0.07 1.35 ±0.09 0.91 ±0.06 1.17 ±0.09 0.80 ±0.05 1.13 ±0.07 0.79 ±0.05 1.23 ±0.10 0.84 ±0.06 0.96 ±0.07* 0.86 ±0.07 Thymus % body weight 0.43 ±0.04 0.27 ±0.02 0.55 ±0.05 0.32 ±0.03 0.38 ± 0.02* 0.26 ±0.02 0.33 ± 0.02* 0.24 ±0.02 0.27 ± 0.02* 0.24 ± 0.02* 0.48 ±0.03 0.33 ±0.02 0.42 ±0.04 0.29 ±0.03 0.38 ±0.03 0.27 ±0.02 0.42 ±0.02 0.29 ±0.02 0.32 ±0.02* 0.29 ±0.02 Kidneys % body weight 1.53 ±0.05 0.98 ±0.03 1.85 ±0.08* 1.10 ±0.04* 1.52 ±0.05 1.03 ±0.02 1.48 ±0.06 1.08 ±0.02 1.38 ±0.07 1.20 ± 0.04* 1.52 ±0.05 1.03 ±0.03 1.42 ±0.06 0.97 ±0.03 1.47 ±0.04 1.03 ±0.03 1.51 ±0.06 1.03 ±0.02 1.28 ±0.05* 1.14 ±0.04 Testes/ Ovaries % body weight 1.54 ± 0.13 0.97 ±0.07 1.74 ±0.15 1.00 ±0.06 1.54 ±0.12 1.03 ±0.06 1.26 ±0.13 0.90 ±0.09 1.25 ±0.14 1.07 ±0.11 0.11 ±0.01 0.08 ±0.01 0.10 ±0.01 0.07 ±0.01 0.10 ±0.01 0.07 ±0.01 0.10 ±0.01 0.07 ±0.01 0.08 ±0.01 0.07 ±0.01 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). a All data expressed as mean ± SEM. b All absolute weights are presented in grams. * Significantly different from vehicle control (p < 0.05). EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 13 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-5. Serum Chemistry Values for CD Rats Exposed to Dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) for 14 days3. Parameter Vehicle (corn oil) Male 12 mg/kg/day Male 23 mg/kg/day Male 45 mg/kg/day Male 90 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 12 mg/kg/day Female 23 mg/kg/day Female 45 mg/kg/day Female 90 mg/kg/day Female Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase (IU/L) 70 ±3 71 ±6 89 ±22 87 ± 15 88 ± 14 57 ±6 66 ±7 63 ±4 63 ±7 134 ±38* Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetic Transaminase (IU/L) 167 ± 13 266 ± 22 213 ±53 276 ± 40 233 ±27 205 ±8 198 ±6 201 ±33 181 ±28 340 ± 96 Alkaline Phosphatase (IU/L) 457 ±63 459 ±39 384 ±21 398 ±50 712 ±84* 261 ±24 381 ±48 352 ±45 384 ±35* 651±159* 5'-Nucleotidase (IU/L) 14 ± 1 16 ± 1 14 ±2 17 ± 2 23 ±2* 23 ±3 20 ±2 16 ± 1 18 ± 1 24 ±2 Protein (g/dL) 5.8 ±0.2 6.0 ±0.2 5.7 ±0.2 5.5 ±0.2 6.0 ±0.1 6.4 ±0.3 6.2 ±0.2 6.4 ±0.3 5.9 ±0.2 6.1 ±0.4 Albumin(g/dL) 4.4 ±0.1 4.3 ±0.1 4.3 ±0.1 4.3 ±0.1 4.8 ±0.1 4.6 ±0.1 4.4 ±0.1 4.5 ±0.1 4.7 ±0.1 4.8 ±0.2 Globulin (g/dL) 1.4 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.1 1.4 ±0.2 1.2 ±0.2 1.2 ±0.2 1.8 ±0.2 1.9 ±0.2 1.9 ±0.2 1.2 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.3 Alb/globulin ratio 3.1 ±0.1 2.6 ±0.1* 3.4 ±0.5 3.8 ±0.5 4.5 ±0.7 2.8 ±0.4 2.4 ±0.2 2.4 ±0.2 3.9 ±0.3 4.0 ±0.7 Glucose (mg/dL) 154 ± 11 129 ± 16 138 ±6 134 ± 10 112 ± 16 191 ± 19 162 ± 30 142 ± 17 160 ±6 137 ± 15 Cholesterol (mg/dL) 90 ±5 93 ±2 91 ±6 80 ± 10 81 ± 11 84 ±3 86 ±4 99 ±6 82 ±8 73 ±8 Bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.2 ±0.0 0.2 ±0.0 0.3 ±0.0 0.4 ±0.0* 0.6 ±0.1 0.2 ±0.0 0.2 ±0.0 0.2 ±0.0 0.4 ±0.0* 0.7 ±0.1* BUN (mg/dL) 17 ± 2 17 ± 2 15 ± 2 17 ± 2 15 ± 1 17 ± 1 17 ± 1 15 ± 2 20 ±3 23 ±2 Creatinine (mg/dL) 1.7 ±0.2 1.4 ±0.2 1.4 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.1 1.6 ±0.2 1.3 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.1 1.6 ±0.2 BUN/creatinine ratio 11 ±3 12 ± 1 11 ± 1 12 ±2 11 ± 1 11 ± 1 13 ± 1 13 ± 2 12 ± 1 14 ± 1 Calcium (mg/dL) 11.4 ± 0.1 11.0 ± 0.2 11.3 ± 0.2 9.8 ±1.5 11.7 ± 0.3 11.7 ± 0.5 11.1 ±0.3 11.3 ± 0.2 11.9 ± 0.3 11.8 ± 0.5 Phosphorus (mg/dL) 12.3 ±0.6 12.0 ±0.8 12.5 ±0.6 11.7 ± 0.5 12.9 ±0.4 11.4 ± 0.9 10.9 ±0.5 11.4 ± 0.9 12.7 ±0.1 9.9 ±0.4 Chloride( mEq/L) 100 ± 1 100 ± 1 101 ± 1 101 ±2 101 ± 1 100 ± 1 99 ± 1 100 ± 1 101 ± 1 101 ±2 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). aAll data expressed as mean ± SEM * Significantly different from vehicle control at (p<0.05) EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 14 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In a similar 14-day repeated dosing study with DCAN, Hayes el al. (1986) administered gavage doses of 0, 12, 23, 45, or 90 mg/kg/day in corn oil to CD rats (10 animals/sex/dose). Food and water consumption rates were not measured. No mortality was reported for any treatment group. In males, depression in body weight to 94%, 87%, and 73% of body weight in control animals was observed at 23, 45, and 90 mg/kg/day, respectively, as shown in Table V-4. In females, body weight was decreased to 76% of controls at 90 mg/kg/day. Several serum markers for organ toxicity were increased in treated animals as shown in Table V-5. Significantly increased levels of serum glutamic pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) in females at 90 mg/kg/day, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels at 90 mg/kg/day in males and at 45 and 90 mg/kg/day in females were reported. Although the authors did not consider these changes to be compound- related adverse effects, they did not provide a reason. We considered these changes to be adverse, based on the magnitude of the change, and the supporting data for DCAN in females in the subchronic study. No other consistent dose-dependent adverse effects were observed in any of the other serum chemistry, hematological, or urinary parameters measured. The authors reported a trend toward elevated red blood cell and white blood cell counts in all treated animals, but no data were provided. No remarkable findings were observed at necropsy (gross observation). Relative liver weight was significantly increased (p < 0.05) in male and female rats. The relative liver weights in males were 13%, 26%, 42%, and 45% greater than controls at doses of 12, 23, 45, and 90 mg/kg/day, respectively. Absolute liver weight, in contrast, was significantly increased (p < 0.05) only in the 45 mg/kg/day dose group. In female rats, both relative and absolute liver weights were elevated beginning at 23 mg/kg/day, with relative liver weights 36%), 40%, and 31% greater than controls at 23, 45, and 90 mg/kg/day, respectively. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 15 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Liver weight changes would be considered as potentially adaptive in the absence of other signs of hepatic injury. However, the observed increase in serum levels of hepatic enzyme activity at higher doses than those associated with liver weight gives greater weight to the potential toxicological significance of the liver weight changes, even though the absence of histopathology data makes it difficult to determine conclusively if the effects were adverse at low doses. Based on this uncertainty, both decreased body weight and increased relative liver weight are considered toxicologically-relevant responses. The more sensitive of these endpoints was selected as the critical effect. Therefore, the lowest dose tested of 12 mg/kg/day is the study LOAEL for increased relative liver weight in males, and no NOAEL is determined. The data sets for body weight and relative liver weight in males and females were further analyzed to determine benchmark doses (BMDs) according to draft EPA Guidance (U.S. EPA, 2000c) to identify alternative critical effect levels. The results of the modeling are described in detail in Appendix A. A BMDL of 5 mg/kg/day for relative liver weight in males was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment. B. Long-Term Exposures No studies were identified that evaluated the toxicity of long-term exposure to BCAN or TCAN by any route. No studies were identified that evaluated the toxicity of long-term exposure to DBAN or DCAN by the inhalation or dermal routes. The subchronic toxicity of DBAN has been evaluated by the NTP (2002) in B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats as part of initial dose-range finding studies for chronic exposure studies that are EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 16 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles currently in progress. For the mouse study, DBAN was administered in drinking water for 13 weeks to male and female B6C3F1 mice (10/sex/dose) at concentrations of 0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg/L. The corresponding doses reported by the study authors were 0, 1.6, 3.2, 5.6, 10.7, and 17.9 mg/kg/day for males and 0, 1.6, 3.0, 6.1, 11.1, and 17.9 mg/kg/day for females. Animals were observed for clinical signs of toxicity, as well as body weight, organ weight and pathology, hematology, and clinical chemistry. A separate set of animals (10/sex/dose) were exposed to the same concentrations as the main study groups for 26 days, but were co-exposed to DBAN and 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine during the last five days of this period. These animals were used to collect tissue sample for analysis of induce cell proliferation. Decreased water consumption and decreased body weight were the only effects related to DBAN treatment. Decreased water consumption was observed in both males and females at DBAN concentrations of 50 mg/L and higher. A slight and transient decrease in body weight gain was observed; terminal body weights were 94% of controls in high-dose males and 96% of controls in high dose females. These small changes are not judged as toxicologically-significant. Based on the minimal effects observed for DBAN in this study, the NOAEL is 17.9 mg/kg/day for males and females. No LOAEL was identified. For the rat study, DBAN was administered in drinking water for 13 weeks to male and female F344 rats (10/sex/dose) at concentrations of 0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg/L. The corresponding doses reported by the study authors were 0, 0.9, 1.8, 3.3, 6.2, and 11.3 mg/kg/day for males and 0, 1.0, 1.9, 3.8, 6.8, and 12.6 mg/kg/day for females. Animals were observed for clinical signs of toxicity, as well as body weight, organ weight and pathology, hematology, and EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 17 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles clinical chemistry. A separate set of animals (10/sex/dose) were exposed to the same concentrations as the main study groups for 26 days, but were co-exposed to DBAN and 5- bromo-2-deoxyuridine during the last five days of this period. These animals were used to collect tissue samples for analysis of cell proliferation. Decreased water consumption and decreased body weight were the only effects related to DBAN treatment. Slight changes in clinical chemistry and hematology findings were considered by the study authors to be related to decreased water consumption. Decreased water consumption was observed in males at DBAN concentrations of 50 mg/L and higher and in females at the two highest concentrations. A slight decrease in body weight gain was observed for high dose males and females. Terminal body weights were 94% of controls in high-dose males and 95% of controls in high dose females. These small changes are not judged as toxicologically-significant. Based on the minimal effects observed for DBAN in this study, the NOAEL is 11.3 mg/kg/day for males and 12.6 mg/kg/day for females. No LOAEL was identified. In a 90-day study of DBAN toxicity, Hayes et al. (1986) administered doses of 0, 6, 23, or 45 mg/kg/day in corn oil by gavage to groups of CD rats (20 animals/sex/dose). No compound-related deaths occurred during this study. Body weights were depressed to 79% of controls at the end of the study in males, but not in females, at the highest dose tested (45 mg/kg/ day). Food and water consumption rates were not measured. Observed changes in the serum chemistry, hematological, urinary parameters, and organ weight were generally not dose-related and were not considered to be compound-related (Tables V-6 and V-7). The only exceptions were significantly increased ALP in females at 45 mg/kg/day and a significant increase in relative EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 18 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles liver weight (but not absolute weight) in males at 45 mg/kg/day. Interim serum biochemistry analyses at one and two months of exposure also revealed no treatment-related effects. No remarkable findings were apparent at gross necropsy and the authors did not identify a specific target tissue for DBAN, The finding that effects on the liver in this subchronic study were comparable to the effects following the 14-day exposure at the same doses suggests that the liver weight changes seen in the 14-day study were adaptive, or at least that tolerance developed to the repeated dosing. In addition, no clear increase in serum enzyme markers of hepatic injury were observed in males, even though they had a greater increase in relative liver weight than females. Based on this discordance between serum biochemistry and liver weight findings, and in light of the results from the 14-day study, the observed liver weight changes were not judged sufficiently adverse to serve as the basis for the dose-response assessment. Based on decreased body weight in males as the most sensitive endpoint, the NOAEL for this study is 23 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL is 45 mg/kg/day. The body weight data in males were further analyzed to determine benchmark doses (BMDs) according to draft EPA Guidance (U.S. EPA, 2000c) to identify alternative critical effect levels. The results of the modeling are described in detail in Appendix A. A BMDL of 20 mg/kg/day for decreased body weight in males was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V- 19 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-6. Body and Organ Weights for CD Rats Exposed to Dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN) by Gavage for 90 Days3. Parameterb Vehicle (corn oil) Male 6 mg/kg/day Male 23 mg/kg day Male 45 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 6 mg/kg/day Female 23 mg/kg/day Female 45 mg/kg/day Female Body Weight 556.0±12.7 545.9±13.5 523.1±11.4 438.6±7.5* 292.9±5.8 279.6±7.3 291.7±9.5 274.9±7.2 Brain % body weight 1.96±0.04 0.36±0.01 1.98±0.05 0.37±0.01 1.95±0.04 0.38±0.01 1.93±0.4 0.44±0.01* 1.83±0.03 0.63±0.02 1.81±0.04 0.65±0.02 1.76±0.04 0.61±0.01 1.76±0.04 0.64±0.02 Liver % body weight 21.85±0.99 3.93±0.15 21.70±0.68 3.98±0.08 22.39±0.84 4.27±0.12 19.7±0.67 4.44±0.13* 11.62±0.37 3.98±0.12 11.1±0.36 3.98±0.10 12.31±0.33 4.25±0.11 11.95±0.39 4.36±0.12 Spleen % body weight 0.84±0.04 0.15±0.01 0.84±0.03 0.15±0.01 0.78±0.04 0.15±0.01 0.72±0.04 0.16±0.01 0.51±0.03 0.17±0.01 0.52±0.02 0.19±0.01 0.55±0.03 0.19±0.01 0.57±0.04 0.21±0.01 Lungs % body weight 3.22±0.14 0.58±0.03 2.95±0.09 0.54±0.02 3.09±0.11 0.59±0.02 2.73±0.09* 0.63±0.03 2.27±0.15 0.78±0.05 2.34±0.16 0.85±0.07 2.35±0.14 0.81±0.05 2.47±0.17 0.90±0.06 Thymus % body weight 0.55±0.03 0.10±0.01 0.50±0.03 0.09±0.01 0.53±0.02 0.10±0.00 0.43±0.03* 0.10±0.01 0.40±0.03 0.14±0.01 0.40±0.03 0.15±0.01 0.34±0.02 0.12±0.01 0.26±0.03* 1.10±0.01* Kidneys % body weight 3.67±0.10 0.66±0.02 3.56±0.09 0.66±0.02 3.62±0.10 0.69±0.01 3.16±0.10* 0.72±0.02* 2.10±0.05 0.72±0.02 1.98±0.06 0.71±0.02 2.01±0.70 0.70±0.02 1.98±0.07 0.72±0.02 Testes/ Ovaries % body weight 3.58±0.05 0.65±0.01 3.76±0.07 0.69±0.02 3.49±0.60 0.67±0.02 3.51±0.15 0.80±0.03* 0.17±0.01 0.06±0.00 0.17±0.01 0.06±0.00 0.16±0.01 0.05±0.00 0.17±0.01 0.06±0.60 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). aAll data expressed as mean ± SEM bAll absolute weights are presented in grams. * Significantly different from vehicle control (p < 0.05). EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 20 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-7. Serum Chemistry Values for CD Rats Exposed to Dibromoacetonitrile (DBAN) by Gavage for 90 days.3 Parameter Vehicle (corn oil) Male 6 mg/kg/day Male 23 mg/kg/day Male 45 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 6 mg/kg/day Female 23 mg/kg/ day Female 45 mg/kg/day Female Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase (IU/L) 44 ±4 69 ±3 42 ±4 44 ±5 46 ±3 35 ±3 37 ±3 32 ±3* Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetic Transaminase (IU/L) 176 ± 12 245 ±52 190 ±30 181 ± 13 207 ±31 169 ±31 174 ± 10 161 ± 11 Alkaline Phosphatase (IU/L) 191 ± 16 171 ±28 192 ±23 157 ± 16 134 ± 11 130 ±9 138 ± 19 208 ± 32* 5'-Nucleotidase (IU/L) 15 ± 1 17 ±2 16 ± 1 13 ± 1 26 ±2 26 ±2 24 ±2 19 ± 1* Protein (g/dL) 8.2 ±0.4 8.2 ±0.3 8.1 ±0.2 7.0 ±0.2* 7.3 ±0.2 7.5 ±0.2 7.1 ±0.2 6.9 ±0.2 Albumin(g/dL) 5.2 ±0.1 5.3 ±0.2 5.8 ± 0.1* 5.8 ± 0.1* 6.1 ±0.1 6.6 ±0.1* 6.1 ±0.1 5.6 ±0.1* Globulin (g/dL) 2.9 ±0.5 2.9 ±0.4 2.3 ±0.2 1.2 ± 0.1* 1.2 ±0.1 0.9 ±0.2 1.1 ±0.1 1.3 ±0.2 Alb/globulin ratio 2.5 ±0.6 2.3 ±0.3 2.8 ±0.4 5.8 ±0.8 5.7 ±0.6 9.0 ± 1.3* 6.3 ±0.8 5.3 ±0.8 Glucose (mg/dL) 148 ±7 139 ±7 143 ±8 134 ±5 145 ±8 147 ±5 135 ± 10 130 ±7 Cholesterol (mg/dL) 73 ±5 70 ±5 69 ±4 77 ±5 80 ±4 80 ±6 78 ±4 64 ±3* Bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.6 ±0.1 0.9 ±0.1 0.8 ±0.1 0.7 ±0.0 0.5 ±0.0 0.5 ±0.0 0.4 ±0.1 0.7 ±0.0* BUN (mg/dL) 17 ± 1 15 ± 1 17 ± 1 18 ± 1 18 ± 1 18 ± 1 18 ± 1 15 ± 1 Creatinine (mg/dL) 1.0 ±0.1 0.9 ±0.1 1.3 ±0.0 1.0 ±0.0 1.2 ±0.0 1.3 ±0.1 1.0 ±0.1 1.0 ±0.0* BUN/creatinine ratio 17 ± 1 17 ±2 14 ±0 19 ± 1 15 ± 1 14 ± 1 18 ±2 15 ± 1 Calcium (mg/dL) 11.3 ±0.5 11.7 ±0.2 12.8 ±0.2* 10.9 ±0.2 10.9 ±0.2 11.4 ±0.2 11.1 ±0.2 10.7 ±0.3 Phosphorus (mg/dL) 6.4 ±0.4 6.9 ±0.4 6.7 ±0.2 6.5 ±0.2 4.6 ±0.2 4.8 ±0.1 5.7 ±0.2* 6.2 ±0.3* Chloride (mEq/L) 102 ± 1 101 ± 1 102 ± 1 102 ± 1 102 ± 1 101 ± 1 102 ± 1 101 ± 1 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). " All data expressed as mean SEM * Significantly different from vehicle control (p < 0.05). EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 21 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In a 90-day study of DCAN toxicity, Hayes el al. (1986) administered doses of 0, 8, 33, or 65 mg/kg/day by gavage in corn oil to groups of CD rats (20 animals/sex/dose). Food and water consumption data were not reported. At 65mg/kg/day, 50% of males and 25% of females had died by the completion of the study; at 33 mg/kg/day, 10% of males and 5% of females had died; and at 8 mg/kg/day, 5% of males had died. Supplementary information provided by the authors indicated that there were one to three deaths (5% to 15%) in the control groups, and that some of the deaths in the high-dose groups were due to gavage error. Most of the deaths that were judged to be compound-related occurred in weeks 9 to 10. Body weight was significantly depressed in male and female rats at 65 mg/kg/day (to 73% of controls) and in males at 33 mg/kg/day (to 81% of controls). Most of the observed changes in the serum chemistry, hematological, and urinary parameters did not appear to be compound-related (Tables V-8 and V- 9). The exception was alkaline phosphatase, which was significantly increased in males and females at the high dose, and in males also at 33 mg/kg/day. Sporadic organ weight changes were observed, mostly at the high dose. Of these, a dose-dependent increase was seen only for relative liver weights. Relative liver weight (relative to body weight) was significantly increased (p<0.05) in males beginning at 33 mg/kg/day (60% increase), and in females beginning at 8 mg/kg/day (17%) increase). The relative liver weight was also increased in males (by 12%) at 8 mg/kg/day. Although the 12% increase in relative liver weight in males was not statistically significant, it is judged to be biologically significant, based on the magnitude of the change and the observation in the 14-day study that males were more sensitive to liver weight changes than females. Liver weight changes would be considered as potentially adaptive in the absence of other signs of hepatic injury. The observed increase in serum levels of ALP activity gives greater weight to the EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 22 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles potential toxicological significance of the liver weight changes, although ALP is not a liver- specific enzyme, and no corresponding increases in the liver-specific enzymes SGPT or serum glutamate oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) were observed at study termination in the subchronic study. However, the toxicological relevance of the ALP results following subchronic dosing is supported by the increase in both ALP and SGPT observed in the 14-day study. The absence of histopathology data makes it difficult to determine conclusively if the effects were adverse at low doses. Based on this uncertainty, both decreased body weight and increased relative liver weight are considered toxicologically-relevant responses. The more sensitive of these endpoints was selected as the critical effect. Therefore, the lowest dose tested of 8 mg/kg/day is the study LOAEL for increased relative liver weight in males and females, and no NOAEL is determined. The body weight and relative liver weight data in males and females were further analyzed to determine benchmark doses (BMDs) for these endpoints according to draft EPA Guidance (U.S. EPA, 2000c) to identify alternative critical effect levels. The results of the modeling are described in detail in Appendix A. A BMDL of 4 mg/kg/day for increased relative liver weight in males was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 23 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-8. Body and Organ Weights for CD Rats Exposed to Dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) by Gavage for 90 days3. Parameterb Vehicle (corn oil) Male 8 mg/kg/day Male 33 mg/kg/ day Male 65 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 8 mg/kg/day Female 33 mg/kg day Female 65 mg/kg/day Female Body Weight 541.4±13.1 572.1±14.5 438.0±16.6* 285.6±20.6* 309.0±6.91 282.5±17.4 280.6±10.7 225.5±8.9* Brain % body weight 1.86±0.06 0.35±0.01 1.84±0.07 0.33±0.02 1.86±0.06 0.44±0.02* 1.77±0.06 0.63±0.03* 1.68±0.07 0.55±0.02 1.69±0.07 0.57±0.02 1.58±0.06 0.58±0.03 1.46±0.08 0.66±0.05 Liver % body weight 21.43±0.73 4.0±0.10 25.83±0.104 4.5±0.13 27.26±1.06 6.4±0.43* 17.91±1.60 6.4±0.92* 12.10±0.42 4.0±0.14 14.13±0.87 4.7±0.29* 16.83±0.58* 6.1±0.22* 13.88±0.705 6.1±0.15* Spleen % body weight 0.72±0.03 0.13±0.03 0.73±0.03 0.13±0.02 0.63±0.03 0.15±0.04 0.50±0.06* 0.18±0.03 0.54±0.02 0.18±0.01 0.56±0.03 0.19±0.01 0.50±0.02 0.18±0.01 0.450±0.020 0.20±0.01 Lungs % body weight 2.98±0.13 0.56±0.02 2.77±0.13 0.49±0.02* 2.63±0.10 0.61±0.02 1.83±0.06* 0.65±0.04 2.04±0.10 0.67±0.03 2.20±0.15 0.74±0.05 2.22±0.16 0.79±0.03* 1.83±0.10 0.82±0.05* Thymus % body weight 0.60±0.03 0.12±0.01 0.79±0.04* 0.14±0.01 0.62±0.03 0.15±0.01* 0.31±0.03* 0.11±0.02 0.50±0.03 0.16±0.01 0.54±0.03 0.18±0.01 0.42±0.02* 0.15±0.01 0.375±0.02 0.17±0.01 Kidneys % body weight 3.71±0.07 0.69±0.01 3.88±0.12 0.68±0.02 3.45±0.12 0.81±0.04* 2.77±0.19* 1.0±0.12* 2.23±0.06 0.72±0.01 2.38±0.06 0.80±0.02 2.20±0.08 0.80±0.03 2.25±0.12 1.00±0.02* Testes/ Ovaries % body weight 3.42±0.08 0.63±0.02 3.66±0.06 0.65±0.02 3.40±0.07 0.80±0.04* 2.91±0.15* 1.0±0.12* 0.16±0.01 0.05±0.004 0.14±0.01 0.05±0.002 0.14±0.01 0.05±0.003 0.10±0.02* 0.05±0.01 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). All data expressed as mean ± SEM. b All absolute weights are presented in grams. * Significantly different from vehicle control (p < 0.05). EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 24 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-9. Serum Chemistry Values for CD Rats Exposed to Dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) for 90 days.3 Parameter Vehicle (corn oil) Male 8 mg/kg/day Male 33 mg/kg/day Male 65 mg/kg/day Male Vehicle (corn oil) Female 8 mg/kg/ day Female 33 mg/kg/day Female 65 mg/kg/day Female Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase (IU/L) 53 ± 1 45 ±2 116 ±60 53 ±4 51 ± 3 32 ±2* 27 ± 2* 35 ±3* Serum Glutamate Oxaloacetic Transaminase (IU/L) 195 ±28 140 ± 13 265 ± 96 163 ± 18 120 ± 14 127 ± 15 124 ± 14 126 ± 16 Alkaline Phosphatase (IU/L) 222 ± 20 320 ±31 471 ±46* 603 ± 79* 228 ± 29 226 ± 25 286 ± 30 499 ± 46* 5'-Nucleotidase (IU/L) 19 ±2 14 ± 1 22 ±3 21 ± 1 30 ±2 19 ± 1* 16 ± 1* 17 ± 1* Protein (g/dL) 7.5 ±0.1 7.2 ±0.1 7.0 ±0.1* 6.5 ±0.1 7.1 ±0.1 7.3 ±0.1 7.1 ±0.1 6.6 ±0.1* Albumin (g/dL) 5.6 ±0.1 6.0 ±0.1* 5.6 ±0.1* 5.4 ±0.1 6.2 ±0.2 6.0 ±0.1 6.0 ±0.1 5.5 ± 0.1* Globulin (g/dL) 1.9 ±0.1 1.2 ±0.1 1.4 ±0.1 1.0 ±0.1 0.9 ±0.1 1.3 ±0.1 1.1 ±0.1 1.1 ±0.1 Alb/globulin ratio 3.1 ±0.4 5.3 ±0.4 4.0 ±0.4 5.0 ± 1 7.0 ± 1 5.1 ±0.4 6.0 ±0.4 5.0 ± 1 Glucose (mg/dL) 145 ±4 143 ±3 147 ±4 109 ±4* 150 ±6 127 ±5* 140 ±5 120 ± 6* Cholesterol (mg/dL) 81 ±6 92 ±6 71 ±5 55 ±4* 73 ±3 96 ±6* 80 ±7 54 ±4* Bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.5 ±0.0 0.5 ±0.0 0.5± 0.1 0.6 ±0.1 0.5 ±0.0 0.4 ±0.0 0.4 ±0.0 0.5 ±0.0 BUN (mg/dL) 14 ± 1 13 ± 1 14 ± 1 16 ±2 15 ± 1 16 ± 1 15 ± 1 16 ± 1 Creatinine (mg/dL) 1.1 ±0.0 1.1 ±0.0 1.2 ±0.0 1.2 ±0.0 1.1 ±0.0 1.2 ±0.1 1.2 ±0.1 1.4 ± 0.1* BUN/creatinine ratio 13.8 ± 1 11.7 ±0.7 11.4 ±0.7 13.2 ± 1 14 ± 1 13 ± 1 12 ± 1 12 ± 1 Calcium (mg/dL) 10.1 ±0.2 9.4 ±0.1* 9.6 ±0.2 9.2 ±0.3* 9.7 ±0.1 10.1 ±0.2 9.8 ±0.2 9.8 ±0.2 Phosphorus (mg/dL) 5.7 ±0.3 5.1 ±0.2 6.1 ±0.4 5.9 ±0.3 5.0 ±0.2 5.1 ±0.2 5.4 ±0.2 5.0 ±0.2 Chloride (mEq/L) 105 ± 1 103 ± 1 103 ± 1 107 ± 1 107 ± 1 106 ±2 105 ± 1 106 ± 1 Adapted from Hayes et al. (1986). ". All data expressed as mean ± SEM. * Significantly different from vehicle control at p < 0.05. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 25 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles C. Reproductive and Developmental Effects No multigeneration studies were located on the reproductive effects of any of the haloacetonitriles (HANs). No reproductive or developmental studies were identified for any of the HANs following inhalation or dermal exposure. Meier et al. (1985) evaluated the in vivo genotoxicity of several drinking water disinfectants and their by-products in mice. As part of this study, the ability of a series of disinfectants to induce sperm head shape abnormalities was examined as a measure of germ cell mutagenicity. Of the disinfectants tested, only hypochlorite induced a dose-related increase in the percent of abnormal sperm heads. To investigate whether this positive finding with hypochlorite might be due to the in vivo formation of haloacetonitriles from hypochlorite, groups of 8 tol 1- week old male B6C3F, mice (10/dose group) were administered 0, 12.5, 25, or 50 mg/kg/day of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, or TCAN in water by gavage for 5 days. The authors indicated that the highest total dose of 250 mg/kg (5 days x 50 mg/kg/day) was selected to approximate the reported LD50 values for these compounds. Positive controls received five daily doses of 200 mg/kg ethylmethanesulfonate administered intraperitoneally. Control and test animals were sacrificed three or five weeks after the last treatment and sperm recovered from the caudae epididymides were examined for abnormal sperm-head morphology. The study authors reported no effects on sperm head shape abnormalities for any of the HANs at doses up to 50 mg/kg/day. The positive control yielded an increase in sperm head abnormalities. The NOAEL for effects on sperm head abnormalities in this study is 50 mg/kg/day for all of the HANs that were tested. The EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 26 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles HANs were not tested for their potential to cause micronuclei or chromosome aberrations, since no positive results were seen for these end points with the initial disinfectants. R.O.W. Sciences (1997) conducted a reproductive and developmental toxicity screening study for DBAN, Based on the results of the dose-range finding studies (described in detail in the section on shorter-term toxicity studies), the main reproductive and developmental toxicity study included concentrations of 0, 15, 50, or 150 ppm DBAN in the drinking water of Sprague-Dawley rats (10 animals/dose). Male rats, 11 weeks of age on study day 1, were given treated water on study days 6 through 34 or 35 (the day of necropsy). The estimated doses resulting from exposure to 0, 15, 50, or 150 ppm DBAN were 0, 1.4, 3.3, and 8.2 mg/kg/day (calculated by the study authors from body weight and water consumption data). Males were examined for clinical signs of toxicity and body weight at various intervals during the study. At study termination, clinical pathology (hematology and clinical chemistry), body and organ (liver, right kidney, spleen, thymus, right testis, right epididymis, right cauda epididymis) weight measurements, and gross and histopathology (of the same array of organs for which organ weight was determined) were conducted. Sperm analyses for control and high-dose males included sperm motility, spermatid head counts, sperm morphology, and chromatin structure. Sperm density was assessed for all necropsied males. All parameters evaluated were within normal limits, unless described below. The only concentration-related effects in males were a slight (4%) body weight decrease at 150 ppm that was not statistically significant, and statistically significant decreases in water consumption at 50 ppm and 150 ppm. Decreased water consumption (reported on the basis of grams/kg body weight/day) ranged from 68% to 78% for study days 8, 10, 21, and 33 in the 50 EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 27 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles ppm group, and from 53% to 67% in the 150 ppm exposure group. Decreased food consumption (reported on the basis of grams/kg body weight/day) was observed at 150 ppm on study days 8 (85%) of controls) and 10 (89%> of controls), but not on study days 21 or 33. A 14% decrease in the absolute weight of the right cauda epididymis was reported for the 50 ppm males. However, the absence of a statistically significant effect at the highest concentration, coupled with the absence of effects on any of the measured sperm parameters or on epididymal histopathology suggests that this result is not biologically significant. Female rats were divided into two groups to separately evaluate toxicity during conception and early gestation (designated as Group A) versus toxicity during gestation through parturition (designated as Group B). Female rats for both groups were approximately 11 weeks of age on study day 1. Group A females (10 animals/dose) were exposed on study days 1 through 34, cohabitated with treated males on days 13 through 17, and examined on day 34 (the day of necropsy). The estimated doses resulting from exposure to 0, 15, 50, or 150 ppm DBAN were 0, 1.8, 5.1, and 10.9 mg/kg/day (calculated by the study authors from body weight and water consumption data). Group A females were removed from cohabitation upon detection of vaginal sperm or a copulatory plug, or after five days in the absence of mating. Clinical signs of toxicity, body weight, and feed and water consumption were determined at various intervals. At study termination (corresponding to gestation day 16-20), gross necropsy was performed and the rats were evaluated for pregnancy status, number and position of live and dead fetuses, number and position of early and late resorptions, and number of corpora lutea. Mating, pregnancy, and fertility indices, total number of implants, and pre- and post-implantation losses were calculated. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 28 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles No treatment-related changes were observed in any of the mating, fertility, pregnancy, or developmental endpoints that were examined. All of the maternal parameters evaluated were within normal limits, except for a 7% decrease in terminal body weight (non-statistically significant) observed at 150 ppm. Feed and water consumption was also significantly decreased in this concentration group. Feed consumption was statistically-significantly decreased only on study day 3 (88% of controls) in the 150 ppm exposure group; slight decreases in food consumption on other study days were not statistically significant. Water consumption was statistically-significantly decreased in the 150 ppm exposure group on all four study days for which the data were summarized. The decrease in water consumption relative to controls was 52% on day 3, 72% on day 5, 67% on day 21, and 71% on day 33. Slight decreases in water consumption in the 50 ppm exposure group were not statistically significant. Group B females (13 animals/dose) were cohabitated with males beginning on study day 1, were separated as soon as they were sperm-positive, had a copulatory plug, or on study day 5, and then were exposed on gestation day 6 through postnatal day (PND) 1. The estimated doses resulting from exposure to 0, 15, 50, or 150 ppm DBAN were 0, 1.9, 5.3, and 10.8 mg/kg/day (calculated by the study authors from body weight and water consumption data). The group B females were examined on PND 5, and pups were examined on PND 1, 3, and 5. Clinical signs of toxicity, body weight, and feed and water consumption were determined at various intervals during the study. At study termination (PND 5), females were examined for terminal body weight, gross necropsy was performed, and uterine evaluation was conducted with the number of implantation sites and resorptions recorded. On PND 1, 3, and 5, pup weights, number of live EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 29 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles and dead pups, and number of male and female pups were recorded. The anogenital distance of pups was also measured on PND 1. All parameters were within normal control limits except for decreased water consumption in the 50 and 150 ppm exposure groups on study days 8, 14, and 21, but not on study day 6. In the 50 ppm exposure group water consumption decreases ranged from 72% to 83% of controls. In the 150 ppm exposure group water consumption decreases ranged from 47% to 60%. This study suggests that DBAN is not a reproductive or developmental toxicant at the highest dose tested, since no treatment-related effects on reproductive or developmental parameters were observed for males or Group A or Group B females. However, definitive conclusions regarding the potential for DBAN to induce reproductive or developmental effects is hampered by the fact that this was a screening study that was not designed to evaluate the full spectrum of endpoints of interest. For example, males were not exposed during all stages of spermatogenesis, and the pups were not evaluated for possible visceral or skeletal malformations. The NOAEL for male reproductive effects in this study is 8.2 mg/kg/day. The NOAEL for female reproductive and developmental effects is 10.8 mg/kg/day (the lower of the calculated doses for Group A and Group B females exposed to the highest DBAN concentration). No LOAEL was identified for male or female reproductive or developmental toxicity. Slight (non-statistically significant) body weight decreases were observed in high-concentration group males and Group A females. However, these results were not considered biologically significant because of their limited magnitude, and the fact that they might be secondary to decreased water consumption, rather than due to a toxicological effect. The systemic effects evaluated in males were more EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 30 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles extensive than in females, and yield a critical effect level with the greatest degree of certainty. Therefore, the NOAEL of 8.2 mg/kg/day for males is selected as the overall study NOAEL for systemic toxicity. No LOAEL was identified. Smith and colleagues have investigated the reproductive and developmental effects of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN through a series of studies, first testing different HANs at the maximum tolerated dose, and then conducting dose-response studies with the individual compounds. These studies were followed by investigation of the potentially confounding role of the tricaprylin solvent vehicle in the observed developmental toxicity. NOAELs and LOAELs are reported for the initial studies, conducted in tricaprylin vehicle, for completeness. However, as discussed below these NOAELs are not adequate to serve as the basis for the dose-response assessment, since tricaprylin itself contributes to the developmental toxicity of the HANs, and the effects due to tricaprylin cannot be separated from those that are due to the test chemical. In the initial developmental toxicity screening studies (Smith et al., 1986; Smith el al., 1987) sexually-mature Long-Evans rats (age not provided, 20 to 26 sperm positive rats per dose group) were administered gavage doses on gestation days 7 to 21 at the maximum tolerated dose for each chemical dissolved in tricaprylin: 55 mg/kg/day for BCAN, DCAN, and TCAN; 50 mg/kg/day for DBAN. Control rats received tricaprylin alone. No food and water consumption data were reported. Duration of pregnancy, litter size, sex ratios, and litter weights were determined at birth. Dams not delivering by day 23 of gestation were sacrificed, and the status of their pregnancies was determined. Survival and weight gain of offspring to PND 4 were EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 31 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles measured. At PND 6, litters were randomly culled to a consistent number. At weaning, the number of pups per litter were further randomly reduced to a consistent number. The remaining pups were monitored for growth and health until study day 41-42. At this time, all surviving pups were sacrificed and subjected to gross necropsy, with livers, kidneys, spleens, lungs, and gonads removed and weighed. The following parameters were evaluated: maternal toxicity (maternal weight gain and mortality), reproductive success (percent pregnant, percent delivering viable litters), and growth and viability of pups (live pups/litter; postnatal survival; mean birth weight; survival, weight gain and development through necropsy; gross necropsy and organ weight results). All parameters evaluated were within normal limits, unless described below. Treatment-related increases in maternal deaths were observed for DBAN (15% of dams) and for TCAN in one study group (20% of dams), although the result for TCAN was not replicated in a second study group receiving the same dose. The study authors could not explain the disparate results in duplicate dose groups for this endpoint, or other endpoints noted below. Maternal deaths observed in the BCAN and DCAN groups were attributed to intubation error. No maternal deaths were reported in the vehicle controls. All four HANs caused decreased maternal weight gain during gestation, although the decrease was not statistically significant for BCAN. Since the maternal weights were measured prior to delivery, decreased unadjusted maternal weights are affected by litter resorptions and decreased pup weights. As a result, the observed decreases in maternal weight gain cannot be attributed solely to maternal toxicity. Both DCAN and TCAN decreased the percentage of sperm-positive females that became pregnant, but the decrease in apparent pregnancy rate was observed only in one of two duplicate dose groups EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 32 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles for each compound. According to the study authors, the apparent decrease in pregnancy rate could reflect late preimplantation losses or very early resorptions. This conclusion was based on the expected stage of pregnancy at the initiation of dosing on gestation day (GD) 7 and the absence of detectable ammonium-sulfide staining decidua (which would indicate implantation sites). DC AN and TCAN (in only one of two duplicate dose groups for TCAN) also decreased the percentage of females delivering viable litters and increased the percentage of litters totally resorbed (p < 0.05). Mean birth weights were reduced for all four compounds (p < 0.05), and postnatal survival on day 4 was significantly reduced (p < 0.05) in pups from dams exposed to DCAN (in only one of two duplicate dose groups) and TCAN. Cursory visual inspection of nonviable pups did not reveal gross terata, although the authors noted that the current study protocol was not expected to provide a sensitive assessment of malformations because of the embryolethality of the single doses that were tested. No pups died after the culling of litters on day 6 until weaning, but after weaning some pups (number not reported) from the DCAN replicate died because they were too small to reach the water source. Weight gain to PND 4 was significantly decreased for male and female pups for BCAN and DCAN (in one of two duplicate dose groups), and in male pups for DBAN. Measurement of pup weights at weaning (days 21- 22) and adolescence (days 41-42) revealed significant decreases in pup body weight at both time points for TCAN and at adolescence for DCAN (in one of two duplicate dose groups). Postnatal weight gain from weaning until puberty and sacrifice was reduced in both male and female pups in all groups administered HANs, but these effects were statistically significant only in males and females receiving TCAN and females receiving BCAN. A scattering of effects in the relative organ to body weight ratios obtained at the day 41-42 sacrifice was reported across all dose EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 33 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles groups. However, these effects are judged to be without biological significance because no uniform or consistent patterns of change were noted. This study identifies a frank effect level (FEL) of 50 mg/kg/day for DBAN and 55 mg/kg/day for TCAN, based on increased maternal deaths. A maternal LOAEL of 55 mg/kg/day is assigned for BCAN and DCAN based on decreased maternal weight gain. However, the contribution of developmental effects (e.g. decreased litter sizes, fetal weight) to the observed decrease in weight gain cannot be ruled out, and therefore it is not known if the observed effect was due to systemic toxicity, severe developmental toxicity, or both. The LOAEL for developmental effects was 50 to 55 mg/kg for all four compounds. For DCAN and TCAN, these LOAELs were based on severe effects (increased percent of early resorptions or litters totally resorbed). Maternal and developmental NOAELs were not identified due to the limited number of test doses used in this screening assay. In a follow-up study evaluating the dose response for TCAN, Smith et al. (1988) administered TCAN to sperm-positive Long-Evans rats aged 65-80 days (19 to 21 per dose group of TCAN-treated animals, 30 rats in the vehicle control group, and 10 rats in water controls) by gavage in tricaprylin at doses of 0, 1.0, 7.5, 15, 35, or 55 mg/kg/day on gestation days 6 to 18. Dams were sacrificed on day 21 of gestation, their uterine horns were examined for number and location of fetuses or resorption sites, and the fetuses were removed and examined. Two-thirds of each litter was fixed for dissection and one-third stained for bone and cartilage examination. The parameters evaluated in this study were maternal toxicity (maternal weight gain and EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 34 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles mortality), embryolethality (number and location of fetuses or resorption sites, number of viable litters, litter sizes), and the following fetal effects: weights, sex ratios, and structural abnormalities including external, visceral, and skeletal effects. All parameters were within normal limits, unless described below (statistical comparisons are made to the tricaprylin control unless noted otherwise). The high dose was lethal in 4 out of 19 dams, and maternal weight gain was decreased beginning at 15 mg/kg/day, but maternal weight gain adjusted for fetal weight and excluding females with full-litter resorptions was significantly decreased only at 55 mg/kg/day. The primary developmental effects were on fetal viability, malformations, and fetal body weight. There was a dose-related increase in full-litter resorptions (compared to both water and tricaprylin control groups) at 7.5 mg/kg/day and higher, affecting 2/3 of the surviving dams at the high dose. Fetal weight was significantly decreased only at 35 mg/kg/day, while post-implantation loss (as percent resorptions per litter) was significantly elevated at doses of 15 mg/kg/day and higher. Post-implantation losses were significantly higher and male fetal body weight was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the tricaprylin controls compared to the water controls. The authors noted that the value obtained for post-implantation loss for water controls in this study was lower than the historical laboratory control levels for this endpoint, which might have enhanced the observed effect of the tricaprylin control. While no malformations were observed in the water controls, soft-tissue (fetal incidence of 3.8% and litter incidence of 6/30) and skeletal (fetal incidence of 13.3% and litter incidence of 7/30) malformations were observed in tricaprylin controls. The percent of fetuses affected per litter with soft-tissue malformations was dose-dependent, ranging from 18%) at 7.5 mg/kg/day to 35% at 35 mg/kg/day. This value decreased to 22% at the high dose. The soft tissue malformation frequency at the low dose of 1.0 mg/kg/day (8.4% of fetuses EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 35 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles affected per litter) was not statistically different from vehicle controls (3.8%), although the authors expressed concern that this level of malformations could be of biological significance. However, consideration of the data in terms of the more appropriate unit (U.S. EPA, 1991) of percent of litters affected indicated no effect of TCAN compared to the tricaprylin control (4/20 litters affected at 1 mg/kg/day and 6/30 litters affected in tricaprylin controls). The incidence of pups with cardiovascular malformations was increased at 15 mg/kg/day and urogenital malformations were significantly increased at both 15 mg/kg/day and 35 mg/kg/day (p<0.05); the percentage of litters with cardiovascular malformations was increased beginning at 7.5 mg/kg/day (8/18 litters affected versus 6/30 litters in tricaprylin controls). No increase in the incidence of external or skeletal malformations was reported, and the study authors do not appear to have reported on the incidences of external, skeletal, or internal variations (which are more subtle effects than malformations). Since the apparent increase in soft tissue malformations at 1.0 mg/kg/day was not statistically significant when compared to tricaprylin controls, and there was no effect on the percentage of affected litters, a dose of 1.0 mg/kg/day of TCAN is the NOAEL for developmental toxicity, and 7.5 mg/kg/day is the LOAEL, although this conclusion is limited by the absence of reported data on the incidence of variations. The maternal NOAEL for this study is 35 mg/kg/day. The next higher dose of 55 mg/kg/day is a FEL, based on increased maternal deaths. Although significant decreases in overall maternal body weight gain were observed beginning at 15 mg/kg/day, adjusted body weight gain was decreased only at 55 mg/kg/day. Adjusted body weight gain is a more appropriate indicator of maternal toxicity than overall body weight gain, EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 36 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles since the latter would be affected by developmental toxicity as well as maternal toxicity. Regardless of the selection of the critical effect levels, the results of this study are not appropriate for dose-response analysis due to the confounding effects of the tricaprylin solvent vehicle as evidenced by the differences between water and tricaprylin controls in this study, and as described in more detail in the study by Christ et al. (1996) for TCAN. In a second follow-up study evaluating the dose-response for DCAN, Smith el al. (1989) administered DCAN in tricaprylin to pregnant Long-Evans rats aged 65-80 days (22 to 24 rats per dose group) by gavage at doses of 0, 5, 15, 25, or 45 mg/kg/day on gestation days 6 to 18. Tricaprylin served as the vehicle control and distilled water served as an additional control group. Dams were sacrificed on day 20 of gestation. Their livers, spleens, and kidneys were removed and weighed, and their uterine horns were examined for number and location of fetuses or resorption sites. Fetuses were removed and examined. Two-thirds of each litter was fixed for dissection and one-third stained for bone and cartilage examination. The parameters evaluated in this study were maternal toxicity (maternal body weight gain, liver, spleen, and kidney weight, and mortality), embryolethality (number and location of fetuses or resorption sites, number of viable litters, litter sizes), and the following fetal effects: weights, crown-rump lengths, sex ratios, and structural abnormalities including external, visceral, and skeletal effects. All parameters were within normal limits, unless described below (statistical comparisons are made to the tricaprylin control unless noted otherwise). Two of 22 dams died in the high dose group (45 mg/kg/day). No maternal deaths were observed in any other dose group, or in either of the control groups. Maternal body weight gain and adjusted maternal body weight gain were significantly decreased EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 37 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles (p<0.05) at 45 mg/kg/day. Surviving dams in the 45 mg/kg/day dose group showed elevated spleen and kidney weights (p<0.05). Liver weight was significantly increased at 25 mg/kg/day, but not at the high dose. DCAN treatment affected a number of developmental toxicity parameters. Post- implantation loss was significantly increased beginning at 25 mg/kg/day. At 45 mg/kg/day, the following developmental effects were observed: increased number of totally resorbed litters, decreased number of viable litters, decreased fetal weight in males and females, and decreased crown-rump length in male and females. The incidence of malformations increased in a dose- related manner. Significant increases (p<0.05) in total soft tissue, cardiovascular, urogenital system, and skeletal malformations were observed in fetuses from dams exposed to 45 mg/kg/day. Increases in the incidence of litters affected was most apparent for total soft tissue malformations: water control 0/19; tricaprylin control 4/19; 5 mg/kg/day 5/22; 15 mg/kg/day 5/16; 25 mg/kg/day 9/16; 45 mg/kg/day 7/7. The authors did not present a statistical analysis of the malformation data presented as the incidence of litters affected. Analysis of these data for preparation of this Criteria Document (using Fischer's Exact Test) revealed that the litter incidence of malformations is significantly greater (P<0.05) in the 25 mg/kg/day and 45 mg/kg/day dose groups than in tricaprylin controls. The water controls were not significantly different than the tricaprylin controls (P = 0.0525), based on the litter incidence, although the study authors reported a significant difference between water and tricaprylin controls on the basis of fetuses affected per litter. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 38 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The NOAEL for maternal toxicity for this study is 15 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL is 25 mg/kg/day based on increased liver weight. No additional measures of liver toxicity were included in this study, but the selection of increased liver weight as an adverse effect is supported by ability of DCAN to induce liver toxicity at similar doses as reported in the subacute and subchronic studies by Hayes et al. (1986). The NOAEL for developmental toxicity is 15 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL is 25 mg/kg/day, based on increased post-implantation loss and malformations. No differences in fetal viability or size were noted between the water and tricaprylin control groups. However, the incidence of total soft tissue malformations was significantly lower in water (0/19 litters affected) versus tricaprylin controls (4/19 litters affected), suggesting that tricaprylin induces developmental toxicity, and that this effect is further potentiated following combined treatment with tricaprylin and DCAN (as high as 9/16 litters affected). Such a finding is of considerable importance because, as mentioned in the paragraph above introducing the Smith studies, it raises the possibility that the fetal malformations attributed to the HANs in this study may result from the potentiation by the tricaprylin vehicle. Tricaprylin effects and their implications for assessing HAN toxicity are discussed further in the studies below. The developmental toxicity of BCAN was evaluated in 120 to 150-day old Long-Evans rats (Christ et al., 1995) in a third study to evaluate the dose-response for HANs. Pregnant rats were administered BCAN by gavage in tricaprylin on gestation days 6 to 18 at doses of 0, 5, 25, 45, or 65 mg/kg/day. Dams treated with tricaprylin only served as the vehicle control and dams treated with distilled water served as an additional control. The number of rats per treatment EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 39 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles group is unclear, because while the methods section indicates that between 17 and 23 animals were assigned per dose group, results for reproductive performance presented in the paper suggest group sizes of 20 to 28 dams. Dams were sacrificed on day 20 of gestation. Their livers, spleens, and kidneys were removed and weighed, and their uterine horns were examined for number and location of fetuses or resorption sites. Fetuses were removed and examined. Two- thirds of each litter was fixed for dissection and one-third stained for bone and cartilage examination. The parameters evaluated in this study were maternal toxicity (maternal body weight gain, liver, spleen, and kidney weight, and mortality), embryolethality (number and location of fetuses or resorption sites, number of viable litters, litter sizes), and the following fetal effects: weights, crown-rump lengths, sex ratios, and structural abnormalities, including external, visceral, and skeletal effects. All parameters were within normal limits, unless described below (statistical comparisons are made to the tricaprylin control unless noted otherwise). Treatment with BCAN in tricaprylin resulted in both maternal and developmental toxicity. Mortality was statistically significantly increased in the high-dose dams (3 of 26 treated dams) compared with the water and tricaprylin control groups in which no treatment-related deaths were observed. Dams in both the 45 and 65 mg/kg/day dose groups had significantly decreased percentage of body weight gain compared with the tricaprylin control group, and dams in the 65 mg/kg/day group had decreased body weight gain after adjusting for gravid uterine weight. Kidney weights were significantly increased in dams at doses >25 mg/kg/day compared with tricaprylin controls. Liver and spleen weights were significantly increased only in the high-dose EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 40 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles dams. There was no difference in any of these maternal toxicity parameters between tricaprylin and water controls. In terms of reproductive and developmental endpoints, an increase in the number of litters totally resorbed and a decrease in the number of viable litters compared with tricaprylin controls were observed beginning at 45 mg/kg/day. The percent post-implantation loss and the percent of resorbed fetuses per litter increased at doses of >45 mg/kg/day compared with the tricaprylin control group. Although the increase for post-implantation loss was not statistically significant in the high-dose group, this parameter was statistically significant in the second-highest dose group, and also substantially elevated, although not statistically, in the third-highest dose group. Fetal crown-rump length was significantly decreased in all the treated groups, and fetal weights were decreased beginning at 25 mg/kg/day. Statistical analysis of the malformation data was done in terms of the percent of fetuses affected per litter. However, examination of the data on the basis of the percent of litters affected appears to lead to similar conclusions with regard to selection of effect levels. A significant increase in cardiovascular malformations compared with tricaprylin controls was observed in all the dose groups. Urogenital malformations were significantly increased only at 45 mg/kg/day, although the percentage of litters affected appeared to be significantly greater at both 25 and 45 mg/kg/day. Total soft tissue malformations were increased beginning at 25 mg/kg/day and skeletal malformations were significantly increased beginning at 45 mg/kg/day. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 41 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In addition to the BCAN-treated groups, tricaprylin vehicle alone had significant effects on embryotoxicity. Developmental endpoints affected by tricaprylin are noted as mean ± standard error tricaprylin versus water controls. Animals in the tricaprylin control group had significantly increased percent post-implantation loss (15.5 ± 19.0 versus 6.7 ± 9.8); decreased fetal body weight (grams) in males (3.19 ± 0.3 versus 3.61 ± 0.2); decreased fetal body weight (grams) in females (2.90 ± 0.3 versus 3.41 ± 0.2); decreased crown-rump length (cm) in males (3.4 ± 0.2 versus 3.6 ± 0.2); and decreased crown-rump length (cm) in females (3.4 ± 0.2 versus 3.5 ± 0.1). An increased incidence of urogenital malformations (0/19 litters versus 4/23 litters) was also induced by tricaprylin as compared to water controls. The NOAEL for maternal toxicity in this study is 45 mg/kg/day and the high dose of 65 mg/kg/day is a FEL based on increased maternal deaths, and accompanied by decreased adjusted maternal weight gain, and organ weight changes. The increase in kidney weight at the lower doses was not used as the basis for assigning maternal toxicity effect levels because of the absence of data to determine whether this effect was adverse. Developmental effects, including decreased crown-rump length and increased cardiovascular malformations were observed at the the low dose of 5 mg/kg/day. Therefore, 5 mg/kg/day is a developmental LOAEL for this study, and no NOAEL is identified. However, based on the observation of embryotoxicity of the tricaprylin vehicle in this study, and later work by this laboratory which suggests that tricaprylin may act synergistically with TCAN to enhance developmental toxicity (Christ el al., 1996), use of this study for dose-response assessment is not appropriate, because it may not accurately reflect the toxicity of BCAN in drinking water in the absence of the tricaprylin vehicle. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 42 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Based on the observed increased embryotoxicity in tricaprylin versus water-treated controls in earlier studies, Christ et al. (1996) investigated the effect of solvent vehicle on the developmental toxicity of TCAN (Table V-10). Groups of approximately 20 sperm-positive Long-Evans rats aged 65-80 days were treated with 15, 35, 55, or 75 mg/kg/day TCAN in corn oil, or 15 mg/kg/day TCAN in tricaprylin. In addition, water, corn oil, and tricaprylin were used as controls. Treatments were administered by oral gavage on gestation days 6 to 18 for all of the treatment groups. Dams were sacrificed on day 20 of gestation. Their livers, spleens, and kidneys were removed and weighed, and their uterine horns were examined for number and location of fetuses or resorption sites. Fetuses were removed and examined. Two-thirds of each litter was fixed for dissection and one-third stained for bone and cartilage examination. The parameters evaluated in this study were maternal toxicity (maternal body weight gain, liver, spleen, and kidney weight, and mortality), embryolethality (number and location of fetuses or resorption sites, number of viable litters, litter sizes), and the following fetal effects: weights, crown-rump lengths, sex ratios, and structural abnormalities, including external, visceral, and skeletal effects. All parameters were within normal limits, unless described below. Of the 20 dams treated with 75 mg/kg/day TCAN in corn oil, five dams died, five were nonpregnant, and nine dams resorbed their entire litter, so that only one viable litter was produced. For this reason, other data for the 75 mg/kg/day group were not reported. No maternal deaths were reported in any of the other groups. Maternal weight gain was significantly decreased beginning at 15 mg/kg/day, and maternal weight gain, after adjusting for gravid uterine weight, was significantly decreased at 35 mg/kg/day and higher doses. Relative maternal liver weight was increased at >35 mg/kg/day, and liver, spleen, and kidney weights were significantly increased at 55 mg/kg/day as compared to EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 43 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles corn oil vehicle controls. Similarly, increased relative liver weights were observed in the animals given 15 mg/kg/day TCAN in tricaprylin as compared to 15 mg/kg/day TCAN administered in corn oil. The percent post-implantation loss was significantly increased, and the number of live fetuses per litter, fetal body weight, and crown-rump length were all significantly decreased in the group administered 55 mg/kg/day TCAN in corn-oil vehicle. Also in this dose group, the mean percentage of fetuses per litter with external malformations, skeletal malformations, and soft- tissue malformations was significantly increased. The incidence of cardiovascular and urogenital malformations was not increased at any dose, but other soft tissue malformations (i.e. not classified as either cardiovascular or urogenital) were significantly increased in the 55 mg/kg/day dose group. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 44 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-10. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of TCANa. TCAN (mg/kg/d) TCAN (mg/kg/d) Water Corn oil 15 35 55 75 Tricaprylin 15 No. Sperm-positive treated females 20 20 17 21 21 20 20 21 Nonpregnant females 2 3 0 0 3 5 1 2 Deaths 0 0 0 0 0 5b 0 0 Litters totally resorbed 0 0 0 0 1 9b 0 3 Viable litters0 18 17 17 21 17 1 19 16 Percent maternal weight gaind 45.5 ±9.0 48.9 ±8.1 44.2 ± 7.8b 36.9 ±8.8b 23.7 ±7.7b nde 41.6 ± 10.0 41.7 ± 10.5 Adjusted maternal weight gaind 18.6 ±5.5 20.4 ±4.8 17.6 ±5.6 11.1 ± 5.7b 6.8 ± 5.4b nde 18.1 ±5.8 17.3 ±6.7 Total implants per litter 13.6 ±1.6 14.2 ± 1.3 13.8 ± 1.3 13.4 ±2.4 13.8 ± 1.7 12.3 ±4.3 12.7 ± 2.5f 13.4 ±3.0 Percent preimplantation lossg 3.3 ±5.6 4.6 ±7.5 3.5 ±6.6 5.0 ± 13.8 3.8 ±8.3 17.7 ± 28.1 14.0 ± 13.9h 11.6 ±20.0 Percent post-implantation loss1 12.1 ± 12.4 7.0 ±7.6 6.3 ±7.0 8.4 ± 11.1 29.7 ± 25.2b 98.8 ± 4.0b 15.9 ± 17.8 25.4 ±34.8 Live fetuses per litter 11.9 ±2.1 13.2 ± 1.6 12.9 ± 1.4 12.3 ±2.8 10.4 ± 2.6b nd 10.7 ± 3.2f 12.4 ± 1.8 Fetal body weight (g) (male) 3.58 ± 0.25 3.42 ± 0.17 3.52 ±0.20 3.38 ±0.30 2.54 ± 0.46b nd 3.22 ± 0.28f 2.93 ± 0.37bj Fetal body weight (g) (female) 3.41 ± 0.26 3.28 ± 0.19 3.26 ±0.22 3.25 ±0.30 2.39 ± 0.41b nd 3.01 ±0.25h 2.76 ± 0.38bj Crown-rump length (cm) (male) 3.58 ± 0.08 3.57 ± 0.11 3.60 ±0.13 3.54 ±0.14 3.28 ± 0.23b nd 3.45 ± 0.13h 3 .46 ± 0.161 EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 45 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-10. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of TCANa. TCAN (mg/kg/d) TCAN (mg/kg/d) Water Corn oil 15 35 55 75 Tricaprylin 15 Crown-rump length (cm) (female) 3.51 ± 0.09 3.52 ± 0.09 3.51 ±0.17 3.45 ±0.13 3.16 ± 0.19b nd 3.36 ± 0.13h 3.36 ± 0.18j Fetal malformations External 0 0 0 1.4 ±6.2 (1/21)k 5.3 ± 8.8b (6/17) nd 0 0.5 ±1.9 (1/16) Total soft tissue (visceral) 0 1.9 ±4.3 (3/17) 0.6 ±2.4 (1/17) 0 15.0 ± 17. lb (3/17) nd 2.4 ±6.3 (3/19) 15.0 ± 21.2bj (9/16) Cardiovascular 0 0.6 ±2.4 (1/17) 0.6 ±2.4 (1/17) 0 4.5 ± 11.2 (3/17) nd 1.3 ±5.7 (1/19) 12.0 ± 17.3bj (7/16) Urogenital 0 1.3 ±3.8 (2/17) 0 0 0 nd 2.4 ±6.3 (3/19) 3.0 ±7.1 (4/16) Other soft tissues 0 0 0 0 10.4 ± 16.3b (3/17) nd 0 0 Skeletal 0 0 0 1.6 ±7.3 (1/21) 7.1 ± 14.4b (2/17) nd 0 0 a. Adapted from Christ et. al. (1996) b. Significantly different from vehicle control, p < 0.05. c. Viable litters were those containing at least one live pup. d. Weight gain analysis included only females with viable litters (mean ± SD reported); adjusted maternal weight gain controls for the effect of gravid uterine weight. e. Values for 75 mg/kg/day are not reported since there was only one dam with a viable litter. f. Significantly different from corn oil control, p < 0.05. g. Percent preimplantation loss = (number of copora lutea - number of implants) / number of corpora lutea x 100. h. Significantly different from water or corn oil control, p < 0.05. i. Percent post-implantation loss = (number of implants - number of live fetuses) / number of implants x 100. j. Significantly different from TCAN 15/mg/kg/day in corn oil. k. (number litters examined / number of litters affected) EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 46 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles No developmental effects were observed at the doses below 55 mg/kg/day of TCAN in corn oil. By contrast, fetal body weight was significantly decreased in the group dosed with 15 mg/kg/day TCAN in the tricaprylin vehicle and the percentage of fetuses per litter with total soft tissue and cardiovascular malformations also was significantly increased in this group (both comparisons relative to both the the tricaprylin control and the same dose of TCAN in corn oil). The authors noted a shift in the spectrum of soft tissue malformations from cardiovascular (communication or vascular defects) and urogenital effects in the groups treated with TCAN in tricaprylin to external cranio-facial malformations and positional cardiovascular malformations (e.g., levocardia) in the groups treated with TCAN in corn oil. Comparing the two vehicles, TCAN administered at 15 mg/kg/day in tricaprylin produced effects, including increased liver and kidney weights, decreased fetal weight, decreased crown-rump length, and increased percent of fetuses with soft-tissue malformations that were not observed when TCAN was administered at 15 mg/kg/day in corn oil. When the water, corn oil, and tricaprylin control groups were compared, no differences were observed between the water and corn oil groups. However, the tricaprylin group had the following statistically significant changes compared to water or corn oil groups: increased maternal kidney weight, decreased total implants per litter, increased preimplantation loss, decreased live fetuses/litter, and decreased fetal weight and crown-rump length. The comparison of solvent vehicle effects in this study clearly shows that when TCAN is administered in tricaprylin, maternal and developmental toxicity are observed at lower doses and the spectrum of effects is changed as compared to TCAN administered in corn oil. Since corn oil EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 47 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles and water control responses were not different in this study, but tricaprylin controls showed increased toxicity for several endpoints, the data for TCAN dissolved in corn oil are judged to be most relevant for dose-response assessment, and the data for TCAN in tricaprylin are judged as inadequate for use in dose-response assessment. Based on this rationale, the NOAEL for maternal toxicity in this study is 15 mg/kg/day, and the LOAEL is 35 mg/kg/day for decreased maternal body weight after adjusting for gravid uterine weight. No developmental effects were observed below 55 mg/kg/day TCAN in corn oil. Therefore, for developmental effects, the NOAEL of TCAN in corn oil is 35 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL is 55 mg/kg/day. The data sets for maternal and developmental endpoints were further analyzed to determine benchmark doses (BMDs) according to draft EPA Guidance (U.S. EPA, 2000c) to identify alternative critical effect levels. The results of the modeling are described in detail in Appendix A. A BMDL of 17 mg/kg/day for decreased adjusted maternal body weight gain was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment. Based on the effects of tricaprylin alone and its ability to potentiate the toxicity of TCAN, the use of the data from the developmental toxicity studies using this vehicle is not appropriate for risk assessment. The mechanism responsible for the greater sensitivity and different pattern of malformations produced by TCAN when it is administered in tricaprylin instead of water or corn oil is not understood. However, an earlier abstract by this same laboratory (Gordon et al., 1991) suggested that multiple exposures to TCAN in tricaprylin results in different distribution of TCAN (or the TCAN/tricaprylin combination) to maternal tissues and embryos than occurs when TCAN is administered in corn oil. However, as described in more detail in Chapter III (Toxicokinetics) EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 48 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles the data are not sufficient to determine whether the observed differences in response when tricaprylin was used as the solvent vehicle were due to a toxicokinetic or a toxicodynamic interaction. D. Mutagenicity and Genotoxicity The genotoxicity of HANs has been tested in a variety of diverse assays. In this section we present the study results for the HANs by study type. The results of mutagenicity assays are described first, followed by measures of chromosome effects, and then assays of DNA damage. Table V-12 provided at the end of this section summarizes the overall genotoxicity study results on a chemical-by-chemical basis. The mutagenicity of HANs has been studied by several investigators using standard protocols or variations of the Salmonella typhimurium/mammaWan microsome mutagenesis assay. In a report summarizing results of the USEPA Gene-Tox program, Kier et ol. (1986) presented the results of testing DCAN in strains TA1535, TA1537, TA1538, TA100, and TA98. These varying tester strains are used to identify a range of mutagenic target sites, where strains TA100 and TA1535 detect transitions and transversions, while strains TA98 and TA1538 detect frameshifts and small deletions/insertions. (The study results were initially reported by Simmon et al., 1977; and Simmon and Kauhanen, 1978). A positive result was defined as the generation of greater revertant counts than controls at two doses and at one dose the number of the revertants had to be 3-times greater than control for strains TA1535, TA1537, or TA1538, or twice the control value for TA100 or TA98. Positive mutagenic activity with or without addition of S9 EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 49 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles activation was reported in strains TA100 and TA1535, while findings were negative regardless of S9 activation in strains TA98, TA1537, and TA1538. Overall, DCAN was positive in this assay. Bull et al. (1985) studied the mutagenic effects of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in the Salmonella!microsome assay using tester strains TA98, TA100, TA1535, TA1537, and TA1538. Cells were dosed with up to 5.44 |imol/plate BCAN, up to 0.58 |imol/plate DBAN, up to 12.4 |imol/plate of DCAN, and up to 11.7 |imol/plate TCAN. Wide ranges of doses were used and the highest concentration equaled or exceeded the LC50 for each compound. In this assay, BCAN was positive in strain TA100 (+S9) and in TA1535 (+S9 or - S9), while DCAN was positive in TA98, TA100, and TA1535 regardless of S9 activation. The positive results for BCAN and DCAN in strain TA1535 led the authors to conclude that both of these compounds can induce base-pair substitutions. None of the HANs increased the number of revertants in strains TA1537 or TA1538. In addition, DBAN and TCAN failed to produce dose-related increases in the frequency of histidine revertants in any strain. The Ames-fluctuation test was performed by exposing S. typhimurium strain TA100 to the HANs in liquid culture with and without the addition of S9 (Le Curieux el al., 1995). The range of doses tested, in |ig/mL, were as follows: BCAN, 0.03-10 (-S9), 0.3-100 (+S9); DBAN, 0.03- 10 (-S9), 0.1-30 (+S9); DCAN, 0.3-300 (-S9), 0.3-1000 (+S9); TCAN, 0.1-1000 (+/- S9). In all cases the tested dose range included cytotoxic concentrations (defined as sufficient to reduce the number of positive wells compared to controls). All of the compounds except DBAN generated positive results (i.e. generated a statistically significant increase in the number of positive wells EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 50 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles compared to controls). The effective doses ranged widely and no clear pattern of dependence on S9 activation was apparent. BCAN yielded a positive result at a concentration as low as 0.6 |ig/mL (-S9), DCAN yielded a positive result at 10 |ig/mL (-S9) and 300 |ig/mL (+S9), and TCAN at 30 |ig/mL (-S9). Gee el al. (1998) conducted a validation analysis for the Salmonella!microsome assay by comparing the effects of a group of substances in base-specific tester strains to mutagenic activity in traditional strains. Mutagenic activity of TCAN in the base-specific strains TA7001, TA7002, TA7003, TA7004, TA7005, and TA7006 and a mix of these six strains was contrasted to the mutagenic activity of TCAN in the traditional frameshift strains TA98 and TA1537. The assay was done using a liquid fluctuation exposure protocol in the presence and absence of S9 activation. For each combination of tester strains, four doses of TCAN ranging from 50 to 1000 |ig/mL in dimethyl sulfoxide were used, plus solvent control and positive control groups. The test agent was considered mutagenic if any of the test doses were found to generate revertants at statistically significant levels compared to the control. The only positive result reported was for the base-specific strain mix with S9 activation. This result must be interpreted with caution, however, because the authors did not explain why a positive result was identified in the base- specific strain mix, when none of the base-specific strains was positive when tested individually. In addition, inspection of the raw data (available from an online site provided in the paper) did not reveal any clear increase in the frequency of revertants in the mix versus the individual test strains. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 51 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Taken together, these mutagenicity assays indicate that BCAN and DCAN are mutagenic in S. typhimurium (Bull et al., 1985; Kier et al., 1986; Le Curieux et al., 1995). TCAN has produced mixed results, with negative results reported in the standard assay protocol (Bull et al., 1985; Le Curieux et al., 1995; Gee et al., 1998). DBAN has yielded negative results in all of the assays reported (Bull et al., 1985; Le Curieux et al., 1995). No studies testing any of these compounds in mammalian gene mutation assays were located. Several investigators have tested the ability of HANs to induce chromosome damage, with mixed results. Bull et al. (1985) studied the ability of HANs to produce chromosomal damage or loss by examining micronuclei production in polychromatic erythrocytes in an in vivo assay in CD- 1 mice (5 animals/sex/group). Animals were dosed by gavage with BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, or TCAN dissolved in 10% Emulphor at 0, 12.5, 25, or 50 mg/kg/day for five consecutive days and sacrificed 6 hours after the last dose. The highest dose was selected to generate a cumulative dose (5 doses x 50 mg/kg/day = 250 mg/kg/day) approximating the oral LD50. No significant increases in micronuclei frequency were observed for any of the HANs tested. It is unclear, however, whether sufficiently high doses were tested in this study. The study authors did not present the supporting data and did not report whether cytotoxicity of the target tissue occurred (as evidenced by a change in the ratio of polychromatic to normochromatic erythrocytes). In addition, the shallow duration-response curve seen for the 14-day versus 90-day toxicity (Hayes et al., 1986) suggests that the cumulative dose is not an appropriate surrogate for a single dose at the LD50. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 52 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In contrast to this result, other investigators have reported positive evidence for chromosome damage using less standard assay systems. Le Curieux et al. (1995) treated Pleurodeles waltl larvae (newt) with HANs dissolved in the container water. Following 12 days of treatment, blood was collected and micronucleated erythrocytes were counted from a population of 1,000 erythrocytes. The range of concentrations tested, in |ig/mL, were as follows: BCAN, 0.0312-0.125; DBAN, 0.12-0.5; DCAN, 0.25-1; TCAN, 0.025-0.1. All the test compounds generated a positive result in this assay, with the lowest effective concentration for TCAN beginning at 0.1 |ig/mL, for DBAN, and BCAN at 0.12 |ig/mL, and for DCAN at 0.25 |ig/mL, Although all of the compounds significantly increased micronuclei formation, the magnitude of this effect was characterized as relatively weak for DCAN and BCAN, since median increases in the number of micronucleated erythrocytes was on the order of 2-fold compared to controls. Based on results provided in a summary table, the maximum increase in the number of micronucleated erythrocytes for TCAN was also near 2-fold, while for DBAN increases were larger (maximum of 6.17-fold). In another assay for chromosome damage, DCAN at an inhalation concentration of 8.6 ppm induced aneuploidy in the offspring of female Drosophila melanogaster exposed for up to 45 minutes (Osgood and Sterling, 1991). DBAN was highly toxic; a concentration of only 0.3 ppm killed 30-40% of flies after a 45-minute exposure, compared to 8.6 ppm for DCAN. However, at a dose of 0.3 ppm, DBAN did not induce aneuploidy. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 53 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles A variety of other studies have been conducted to test whether HANs can result in DNA damage. Bull et al. (1985) studied the ability of HANs to induce sister chromatid exchanges (SCE), which measures a repair response to DNA damage. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells were treated with BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, or TCAN (concentrations indicated in Table V-l 1) without exogenous metabolic activation for 2 hours, at which time 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) was added to the medium and the incubation was continued for 26 to 32 hours. The cells with metabolic activation were treated with HANs for 2 hours in the presence of S9, at which time the cells were rinsed and fresh medium containing BrdU was added and the incubation was continued for 26 hours. The average SCE frequency was significantly elevated in the presence of nonactivated or S9-activated for BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN. Comparisons of the potency of the HANs established the following: DBAN > BCAN > TCAN > DCAN. Zimmermann et al. (1984) compiled and reviewed published results of genetic damage assays in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast). The only HAN compound for which data were presented was DCAN (based on the study of Simmon et al., 1977; and Simmon and Kauhanen, 1978). Based on their analysis of the original report, Zimmerman and colleagues summarized the results of a homozygosity assay, which serves to indicate gene recombination and gene conversion events. The assay was conducted in a stationary culture of S. cerevesiae strain D3 with and without metabolic activation with liver microsomes. DCAN yielded a positive result in this assay EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 54 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-ll. Induction of Sister Chromatid Exchange in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells by BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN. . CHO assay without CHO assay with . . S-9 activation S-9 activation concentration Compound (yM) Trial SCEs/cell3 P value SCEs/cell3 P value DCAN 0 1 9.0±0.A — 8.9±0.4 0.2 8.9±0.4 NS NTC 0.6 8.9+.04 NS NT 2.1 8.1±0.4 NS 8.1±0.4 NS 6.2 9.0+0.4 NS 8.8+0.4 NS 20.8 10.9±0.5 NS 9.4+0.4 NS 62.2 TR — 13.2+0.5 0.01 207.5 NT — 15.7+0.6 0.01 0 124.5 155.6 186.8 217.9 249.0 NT NT NT NT NT NT 7.5±0.4 9.4+0.4 9.8+0.4 11. 7±0.5 11.7+0.5 12.5+0.5 NS NS 0.01 0.01 0.01 DBAN 0 1 7. 7±0.4 — 8.0+0.4 0.06 8.8+0.4 NS NT 0.17 10.6±0.5 0.01 8.8+0.4 NS 0.58 9.7±0.4 0.01 8.8+.04 NS 1.73 10.2±0.5 0.01 8.9+0.4 NS 5.78 NT — 9.1+0.4 NS 17.33 NT -- 11.6+0.5 0.01 0 2 8.6+0.4 — 8.9+0.4 — 1.7 8.8±0.4 NS NT — 2.3 10.0±0.4 NS NT — 2.9 10.3+0.5 NS NT — 3.5 10.5±0.5 0.01 NT — 4.0 10.9+0.5 0.01 NT — 11.5 NT — 9.1±0.4 NS 17.3 NT — 9.3±0.4 NS 23.1 NT — 11.7+0.5 0.01 28.9 NT — 13.5±0.7 0.01 34.7 NT — 18.9±0.8 0.01 continued- ^Mean±standard error. cNS = Not significantly greater than concurrent solvent control at P=0.01. jNT = Dose level not tested in specific assay. TR = Insufficient number of second metaphase cells for scoring due to toxic response. A-V-17 EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 55 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles regardless of metabolic activation. In a more complex assay system in yeast, Zimmermann and Mohr (1992) studied the effects of several agents, including DBAN, on mitotic chromosome loss and mitotic recombination. Diploid S. cerevisiae strain D61.M, heterozygous for three recessive alleles (cyh2, leu I, and ade6) on chromosome VII, was used to test for effects of DBAN on chromosomal malsegregation or mitotic recombination. Chromosome loss was scored based on the number of colonies expressing all three recessive markers, and mitotic recombination was evaluated based on the expression of the chy2 and ade6 (but not leu I which was located between these two markers on the chromosome). Gene expression was identified by colony formation on the appropriate selective plates. The yeast cultures were treated with DBAN at concentrations ranging from 0 to 18.2 mg/mL. Mitotic recombination was induced in a dose-dependent fashion. Chromosome loss was not the reason for the expression of the recessive markers. In contrast to this result, when yeast were treated with DBAN in combination with propionitrile, which is known to induce chromosome loss and enhances the sensitivity of the malsegregation analysis, the expected loss of chromosomes was observed. The authors speculated that failure to induce malsegregation with DBAN treatment alone reflects high toxicity at doses that would induce malsegregation. The studies that have evaluated DNA damage at the chromosome level have resulted in inconsistent results. No increase in micronuclei was reported for any of the HANs in a standard assay for this end point (Bull et al., 1985), but it is unclear whether high enough doses were tested. Positive results were reported for all four compounds in newt larvae, but this is not a well- characterized assay system. Positive results have generally been observed in assays that measure EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 56 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles responses to DNA damage, including sister chromatid exchange in CHO cells (Bull et al., 1985) and recombination studies in yeast (Zimmermann et al., 1984; Zimmermann and Mohr, 1992). Several studies have been conducted to evaluate DNA damage. Le Curieux et al. (1995) studied the genotoxicity of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in the SOS chromotest. This assay measures genotoxic activity, based on induction of the SOS DNA repair system (measured by increased P-galactosidase activity) in the Escherichia coli strain PQ37. The test was conducted with and without S9 activation. The range of doses tested, in |ig/mL, was: BCAN, 3- 3000 (+/-S9); DBAN, 3-1000 (+/-S9); DCAN 3-1000 (+/-S9); TCAN, 3-1000 (+S9), 0.01-1000 (-S9). TCAN was negative up to cytotoxic concentrations. BCAN and DBAN were active beginning at 5 |ig/mL and 10 |ig/mL, respectively, in the absence of S9, but were inactive in the presence of S9 activation. DCAN generated a positive result in the presence of S9 beginning at 50 |ig/mL, and was negative in the absence of S9. The results were dose-dependent at the lower doses, but decreased at the higher concentrations, as the doses exceeded the threshold concentrations for cytotoxicity. The responses seen with BCAN, DBAN, and DCAN were considered weak, based on limited induction of P-galactosidase activity. Lin and colleagues in a series of papers have reported on the ability of HANs to induce direct DNA damage by measuring DNA strand breaks, the ability to bind to the nucleophilic agent (4-p-nitrobenzyl-pyridine), and formation of covalent DNA adducts (reviewed in Lin el al., 1986). Daniel et al. (1986) reported that HANs produced DNA strand breaks in cultured human lymphoblastic cells. The most potent initiator of DNA strand breaks compared to control cells EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 57 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles was TCAN which induced 2-fold more strand breaks than the positive controls. BCAN and DBAN had intermediate activity, while DCAN was described as having marginal activity. The protocol description did not clearly state the concentration of the HANs at which strand breaks were observed, but exposure to 50 |iM for 1 hour resulted in cell survival decreases ranging from 40% to 80% of control cells. The HANs also showed highly variable alkylation potential as measured by the potential to bind to 4-p-nitrobenzyl-pyridine (Daniel el al., 1986). The relative alkylation potential of the HANs was DBAN>BCAN»DCAN>TCAN. The range in reactivity toward 4-p-nitrobenzyl-pyridine varied by 627-fold among the HANs. Daniel et al. (1986) also reported the results of DNA adduct analysis. In a cell-free system, [14C]-DCAN was incubated with calf thymus DNA, the DNA was precipitated, hydrolyzed and separated by HPLC. Similar elution peaks were observed between the hydrolyzed calf thymus DNA and incubations of 14[C]-DCAN with polyadenylic acid or polyguanylic acid, suggesting that DCAN forms an adduct with these nucleotides. Oral administration of DCAN or DBAN to rats did not result in detectable adduct formation in liver DNA (no supporting data were presented) (Lin et al., 1986). In a subsequent study, Lin el al. (1992) reported the formation of DNA adducts following gavage dosing of radiolabeled TCAN to male F344 rats. A single oral gavage dose of either [1-14C]- or [2-14C]-TCAN (in tricaprylin, 7.2-69.3 mg/kg) was administered to male F344 rats and tissues were analyzed from 2 to 48 hours following dosing. TCAN bound to both DNA and proteins and DNA binding was highest in the stomach, followed by liver and kidney. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 58 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Overall, the data suggest that HANs can directly damage DNA as evaluated by a wide array of assays (summarized in Table V-12). The weight of the evidence varies for each compound. BCAN has yielded positive results in all assays tested. DBAN yielded negative results in S. typhimurium mutation assays and failed to form DNA adducts in vivo. DBAN appears to induce DNA strand breaks and yield positive results in assays that reflect responses to DNA damage (i.e. SCE, gene conversion, and SOS assays). The results for DCAN and TCAN are less consistent. DCAN yielded positive results in S. typhimurium mutation assays and assays reflecting DNA recombination, but the reason for absence of significant effects in the DNA strand break assay is not clear. For TCAN, the weak responses in S. typhimurium mutation assays did not correspond well with the observed in vivo formation of DNA adducts, although the positive results in the DNA strand break assay and SCE assay were consistent. Table V-12. Summary of Results of Genotoxicity and Tumor Screening Assays for Haloacetonitriles. BCAN DBAN DCAN TCAN Mutation assays (S. typhimurium) + - + ± Micronuclei ± ± ± ± Aneuploidy (I). Melanogaster) nt - + nt Sister Chromatid Exchange + + + + Gene Conversion/Recombination (S. cerevisiae) nt + + nt SOS chromotest + + + - DNA Strand Breaks + + - + DNA adducts (in vivo) nt - - + Lung tumors (A/J mice) + - - + Skin tumors (Senear mice) + + - - nt = not tested EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 59 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The evidence for the induction of chromosome damage by HANs is less compelling, due to the limited number of studies available for evaluation and the inconsistent results. In the single study that used a standard assay protocol to evaluate induction of micronuclei, no effect was observed for any of the HANs, although is was not clear that sufficiently high doses were used. In contrast, positive results for micronuclei formation were reported for all four compounds in a less well characterized newt larvae system. DCAN, but not DBAN, induced aneuploidy in the Drosophila melanogaster assay system. E. Carcinogenicity No 2-year carcinogenicity bioassays have been conducted for any of the HANs by any route of exposure. No alternative carcinogenicity studies were identified for any the HANs by the inhalation route. There are, however, several short-term assays that can aid in hazard identification. In addition, DBAN is currently under test in a full cancer bioassay by NTP (2002). In a published review paper, Bull and Robinson (1985) reported studies on the incidence of lung tumors in groups of 40 female A/J mice (10 weeks of age) that were administered a single oral dose of 10 mg/kg of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, or TCAN, three times weekly for 8 weeks (Table V-13). Control groups received the vehicle only (10% emulphor) or ethyl carbamate (positive control). As discussed in Chapter VII, emulphor solutions have generally been deemed as more appropriate solvent vehicles than corn oil for disinfectant byproducts. All animals were sacrificed at 9 months of age, allowing for an approximately 6 months post-exposure observation period. The incidence of lung tumors (adenomas) was significantly increased in groups given EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 60 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles BCAN and TCAN (p < 0.05). DBAN and DCAN produced marginal, but nonsignificant (p > 0.05) increases in lung tumors. The authors stated that the results should be interpreted with caution, since there is a relatively large variation in the background incidence of lung tumors in this strain of mice and the 10 mg/kg dose level was considerably below the maximum tolerated dose, decreasing the reliability of the negative findings with DBAN and DCAN. Table V-13. Effects of Orally Administered Haloacetonitriles on the Development of Lung Adenomas in Female A/J Mice. Number of %Animals Tumors/ Chemical Dosea animals necropsied w/tumors animal Vehicle (emulphor 10%) 0.2 mL/mouse x24 31 10 0.10 BCAN 10 mg/kg x24 32 31 0.34b DBAN 10 mg/kg x 24 31 16 0.19 DCAN 10 mg/kg x 24 30 23 0.23 TCAN 10 mg/kg x 24 32 28 0.38b Ethyl carbamate (positive control) 42 mg/kg x 24 29 100 9.00 a. Forty female strain A/J mice were administered the indicated doses of each chemical three times weekly for a period of 8 weeks. Treatment was begun at 10 weeks of age. Animals were sacrificed at nine months of age. b. Significantly increased above controls at P<0.05. Adapted from Bull and Robinson (1985). Bull et al. (1985) studied the ability of BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN to induce tumors in mouse skin the ability of dermally-applied HANs to act as tumor initiators was studied using a tumor initiation/promotion protocol. Six topical doses of 0, 200, 400, or 800 mg/kg HAN dissolved in acetone were applied to the shaved backs of female Senear mice (40 animals/dose group) over a two-week period, for total doses of 0, 1200, 2400 and 4800 mg/kg. Beginning two EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 61 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles weeks after the last HAN dose, 1.0 |ig of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) was applied three times per week for 20 weeks. Papilloma incidence and regression were recorded on a weekly basis. Animals were then maintained for 1 year and sacrificed to determine the incidence of squamous cell carcinomas. The results from this initiation/promotion study are presented in Table V-14. These data were compiled by the study author from three independent experiments as indicated in the column of the table labeled "Experiment No". Table V-14. Histopathological Diagnosis of Tumors Resulting from Topical Treatment with Halogenated Haloacetonitriles in the Senear Mouse Number of animals Squamous cell tumors Experiment Total Dose1 TV* with squamous cell diagnosed % Animals Treatment No. (mg/kg) tumors bearing Number % Papilloma Carcinoma carcinomas Acetone 1 0.2 ml X 6 34 1 3 0 1 2.9 2 0.2 ml X 6 37 3 8 3 0 0 3 0.2 ml X 6 34 5 15 1 4 11.7 BCAN 2 1200 35 1 3 0 1 2.9 2 2400 37 7 19 0 7 18.9* 2 4800 37 8 22* 3 6 16.2* DBAN 1 1200 36 8 22* 6 2 5.6 2 2400 35 17 49** 9 8 22.9** 3 2400 35 16 45** 7 9 25.7** 2 4800 37 7 19 5 2 5.4 3 4800 37 3 11 1 2 7.4 DCAN 1 1200 39 4 10 4 0 0 2 2400 35 4 11 2 3 8.6 2 4800 35 1 3 1 0 0 TCAN 1 1200 34 2 6 1 1 2.9 2 2400 36 11 31** 5 6 16.7* 3 2400 38 1 3 0 1 2.6 2 4800 36 3 8 2 1 2.8 3 4800 29 2 7 1 1 3.4 EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 62 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles " Total doses of haloacetonitrile shown were delivered topically in six equal doses over a 2-week period. Then 2 weeks later animals were treated with 1.0 |ig 12-O-tctradccanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) in 1.2 mL acetone topically 3 times weekly for 20 weeks. b There were 40 animals initiated in each group, N = number available for histological examination. * Significantly different from the control, p < 0.05, Fisher exact test. ** Significantly different from control, p < 0.01, Fisher exact test. Adapted from Bull et al. (1985). Both BCAN and DBAN induced dose-related increases in the percent of animals with squamous cell tumors (i.e., combined papillomas and carcinomas) (during the first 24 weeks after TP A application was started) and the percent of animals with carcinomas (at 1.5 years)(Table V- 14). The study authors indicated that the decreased tumor response for DBAN at the high dose as compared to the low and mid-doses may have resulted from the severe irritation and ulcerations induced by this treatment. For TCAN, an increase in the percent of animals with squamous cell tumors and in carcinomas was observed at the mid-dose (in experiment 2), but this increase was not replicated in experiment 3 at this dose. The combined data for TCAN did not yield a significant increase in tumor response. No significant increase in papillomas or carcinomas was observed with DCAN. A similar pattern of results for each of the HANs was obtained when the number of tumors/animal was evaluated as the response metric. Based on these results, the authors concluded that DBAN is the most potent mouse skin tumor initiator of the HANs tested. DBAN is followed in potency by BCAN, while TCAN and DCAN were judged as ineffective inducers of skin tumors in this screening bioassay. Bull et al. (1985) conducted a second series of studies, designed to assess the ability of orally-administered HANs to act as tumor initiators. In this study, total oral doses of 50 mg/kg were administered to female Senear mice six times over a 2-week period. The promotion phase EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 63 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles of the study was conducted using the same procedures as for the dermal-dosing initiation/promotion study described above. No statistically-significant increase in tumor yield or decrease in the time-to-tumor was observed for any of the HANs when the data across all oral experiments were combined. Sporadic increases in tumor yield at various times for individual HANs were noted (data not shown by the authors), but were not judged by the study authors to be biologically significant. The positive control, 300 mg/kg urethane, increased the yield of papillomas. In a third cancer screening study presented in the paper by Bull et al. (1985), the ability of dermally-applied HANs to act as complete carcinogens was assessed. For this study, BCAN, DCAN, or TCAN (800 mg/kg), or DBAN (400 mg/kg) was applied to the skin of female Senear mice 3 times per week for 24 weeks, and the number of squamous cell tumors recorded. None of the HANs induced skin tumors in this assay (data not shown by the authors). DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN were tested for initiating activity using the rat liver gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase foci (GGT-foci) assay in F344 rats as an indicator of carcinogenicity (Herren-Freund and Pereira, 1986; Lin el al., 1986). The protocol for this assay consists of a two-thirds partial hepatectomy followed 18 or 24 hours later by the administration of the initiator. The doses employed were 2.0 mmol/kg (398 mg/kg) for DBAN, 2.0 mmol/kg (220 mg/kg) for DCAN, and 1.0 mmol/kg (144 mg/kg) for TCAN. Seven days after initiation, the rats received the promoter (500 ppm sodium phenobarbital in their drinking water) for at least ten weeks. The halogenated acetonitriles were inactive as initiators in the GGT-foci assay. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 64 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The existing data provide at best only marginal support for the conclusion that HANs are carcinogenic. The evidence is stronger for BCAN, which increased tumor yields in both lung tumor and dermal screening assays. DBAN was positive at non-ulcerative doses in the dermal screening assay. TCAN was positive only in the lung assay, and DCAN treatment did not increase either lung or skin tumors. Opposing these positive findings are the negative results for DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in the GGT foci assay. Overall, the data are insufficient to qualitatively or quantitatively assess the carcinogenic potential of any of the HANs. The positive results in two tumor screening assays, together with positive bacterial gene mutation results, suggest that it would be worthwhile to conduct a full 2-year bioassay for BCAN. Results for the other HANs are mixed, with inconsistencies between the genotoxicity and tumor screening data. F. Summary The toxicity data on the HANs are summarized in Tables V-15 through V-18. Overall, very little data are available evaluating the non-cancer effects of the HANs. Acute oral LD50 values for DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in rodents have been reported to range from 50 to 361 mg/kg. DBAN and TCAN have been reported to be irritants. DBAN causes eye, nasal, and respiratory tract irritation following inhalation, and skin irritation following dermal exposure. TCAN also causes skin irritation following dermal exposure. No data on the acute toxicity of BCAN are available, and no subacute or subchronic studies of either BCAN or TCAN are available. No chronic studies have been conducted on any of the HANs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 65 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles No target organ has been clearly established for HANs following oral exposure, although absolute and relative organ weight changes, including decreased testes weight (NTP, 2002) and increased liver weight (Hayes et al., 1986; Christ et al., 1996) have been reported. Fourteen-day or longer systemic toxicity studies have been conducted in mice and rats. In 14-day and 90-day studies of DBAN (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986), consistent, compound-related, dose- dependent effects were limited to decreased water consumption, decreased body weight, and decreased testes weight and pathology. However, effects on the testes reported in the NTP (2002) study were observed only in rats in the 14-day study. No effects on the testes were observed in rats in the 13-week study, or in mice (NTP, 2002). In addition, no effects were observed on the testes in rats in a 14-day or 90-day gavage study in rats, even at much higher doses (Hayes et al., 1986). For DBAN, the observed liver weight increases reported in Hayes et al. (1986) were not supported by other measures of liver toxicity in the same study or observed in the more recent NTP study (NTP, 2002), and therefore, this endpoint was not selected as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment. Taken together, the data suggest that decreased body weight appears to be the primary indicator of toxicity for DBAN. Overall, male rats appear to be more sensitive than female rats for DBAN. For DC AN, consistent, compound- related, dose-dependent effects were limited to decreased body weight and increased liver weight (Hayes et al., 1986). In this case, the observed liver weight increases were supported by changes in serum biochemistry parameters suggestive of liver damage. No histopathological evaluation was done in the key study for DCAN (Hayes et al., 1986), so the degree, if any, of liver damage can not be confirmed. The data for TCAN and BCAN are too limited to identify with confidence any potential target organs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 66 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The data are inadequate to determine whether HANs are reproductive toxicants. No multigeneration reproductive toxicity study has been conducted. BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN at doses of up to 50 mg/kg/day had no effect on sperm morphology (Meier el al., 1985), but the data on testes weight changes are mixed (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986). DBAN at doses up to approximately 10 mg/kg/day had no effect on any male or female reproductive parameter evaluated in a screening assay (R.O.W Sciences, 1997). A series of developmental toxicity studies in rats has also been conducted. Exposure to BCAN and DBAN on gestation days 7 to 21 resulted in reduced mean birth weight (Smith et al., 1986; Smith el al., 1987). It addition to this effect, DCAN and TCAN decreased the percentage of females delivering viable litters and increased fetal resorptions (Smith et al., 1986; Smith et al., 1987; Smith et al., 1988; Smith et al., 1989; Christ et al., 1996). DCAN and TCAN also significantly increase the frequency of malformations in fetuses (Smith et al., 1988; Smith et al., 1989; Christ et al., 1996). These studies by Smith and colleagues on the developmental toxicity of HANs in rats were conducted using tricaprylin as a vehicle, because these compounds are very miscible in this vehicle. However, in these studies, comparison of tricaprylin versus water-treated controls revealed increased embryotoxicity due to tricaprylin. A recent study by Christ et al. (1996) indicates that tricaprylin also influences the pattern of malformations observed in fetuses caused by TCAN. For TCAN in corn oil, the malformations were primarily cranio-facial in nature while for TCAN in tricaprylin the malformations were primarily cardiovascular and urogenital in nature. Therefore, the use of data from studies in which tricaprylin was used as the vehicle is not appropriate for risk assessment purposes. In the one developmental toxicity study that used a EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 67 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles vehicle other than tricaprylin (Christ el al., 1996), maternal toxicity was observed at lower doses than developmental effects. Overall, the data suggest that HANs can directly damage DNA as evaluated by a wide array of assays (summarized in Table V-12). The weight of the evidence varies for the each compound. BCAN has yielded positive results in all assays tested. DBAN yielded negative results in S. typhimurium mutation assays and failed to form DNA adducts in vivo. DBAN appears to induce DNA strand breaks and yield positive results in assays that reflect responses to DNA damage (i.e. SCE, gene conversion, and SOS assays). The results for DCAN and TCAN are less consistent. DCAN yielded positive results in S. typhimurium mutation assays and assays reflecting DNA recombination, but the reason for absence of significant effects in the DNA strand break assay is not clear. For TCAN, the weak responses in S. typhimurium mutation assays did not correspond well with the observed in vivo formation of DNA adducts, although the positive results in the DNA strand break assays and SCE assay were consistent. The evidence for the induction of chromosome damage by HANs is less compelling, due to the limited number of studies available for evaluation and the inconsistent results. In the single study that used a standard assay protocol to evaluate induction of micronuclei, no effect was observed for any of the HANs, although is was not clear that sufficiently high doses were tested. In contrast, positive results for micronuclei formation were reported for all four compounds in a less well characterized newt larvae system. DCAN, but not DBAN induced aneuploidy in Drosophila melanogaster assay system. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 68 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The existing data provide at best only marginal support for the conclusion that HANs are carcinogenic. The evidence is stronger for BCAN, which increased tumor yields in both lung tumor and dermal screening assays (Bull and Robinson, 1985; Bull et al., 1985). DBAN was positive at non-ulcerative doses in the dermal screening assay. TCAN was positive only in the lung assay, and DCAN treatment did not increase either lung or skin tumors. Opposing these positive findings are the negative results for DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN in the GGT foci assay (Herren-Freund and Pereira, 1986). Overall, the data are insufficient to qualitatively or quantitatively assess the carcinogenic potential of any of the HANs. The positive results in two tumor screening assays, together with positive bacterial gene mutation results, suggest that it would be worthwhile to conduct a full 2-year bioassay for BCAN. DBAN is currently on test for a full cancer bioassay (NTP, 2002). Results for the other HANs are more mixed, with inconsistencies between the genotoxicity and tumor screening data. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 69 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-15. Summary of Oral Studies of BCAN Toxicity. Reference Species/ Strain Route Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 (Free- standing NOAEL) NDa Smith et al. (1987) Rat- Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricaprylinb 55 mg/kg/day Days 7 to 21 of gestation Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth Maternal: ND Developmental: ND Maternal: ND (Nonsignificant decrease maternal weight gain) Development: 55 (Decreased birth weight, decreased postnatal weight gain) Christ et al. (1995) Rat- Long- Evans Gavage in tricaprylinb 0, 5,25, 45,65 mg/kg/day Days 6 to 18 of gestation Maternal body and organ weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth, malformations Maternal: 45 Developmental: ND Maternal: 65 (FEL for maternal death; decrease maternal weight gain) Development: 5 (Decreased crown- rump length, increased cardiovascular malformations) a. ND = not determined. b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 70 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-16. Summary of Oral Studies of DBAN Toxicity. Reference Species/ Strain Route Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Hayes et al. (1986) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in corn oil 25 - 3,200 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality NDa LD50 = 289 (M) 303 (F) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 25 - 1,600 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 = 245 (M) 361 (F) Eastman Kodak Co. (1992) Mouse Unspecified Gavage 25 - 1,600 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 = 50 Rat Unspecified Gavage 25 - 3200 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 = 50 - 100 Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 (Free- standing NOAEL) ND R.O.W Sciences (1997) Rat- Sprague- Dawley Drinking Water 0,0.7,2.2, 5.8, 13.2 mg/kg/day (males) 0,0.8,2.4, 6.8, 17.9 mg/kg/day (females) 14 Days Clinical signs, body weight, food consumption 13.2 (m); 17.9(f) (Free- standing NOAEL) ND Hayes et al. (1986) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 0, 23,45, 90, 180 mg/kg/day 14 Days Body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, gross necropsy 23 45 (Decreased body weight in males) EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 71 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Reference Species/ Route Exposure Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL LOAEL Strain Duration (mg/kg/day) (mg/kg/day) Rat- Gavage in 90 Days Body weight, organ 23 45 (Decreased corn oil weight, serum body weight in CD chemistry, hematology, males) 0, 6, 23,45 urinalysis, gross mg/kg/day necropsy NTP (2002) Mice- Drinking 14 Days Clinical signs, body 21 (Free- Water weight, water standing B6C3F1 consumption, organ NOAEL) 0,2.1,4.3, weight and pathology, 8.2, 14.7, liver GST activity 21.4 mg/kg/day (Males) 0,2.0, 3.3, 10.0, 13.9, 21.6 mg/kg/day (Females) Rat- Drinking 14 Days Clinical signs, body 12 (m) 18 (Decreased Water weight, water body weight, Fischer-344 consumption, organ decreased testes 0, 2, 3, 7, weight and pathology, weight and 12, 18 liver GST activity pathology in mg/kg/day males) (Males) 0, 2, 4, 7, 12, 19 mg/kg/day (Females) Mice- Drinking 13 Weeks Clinical signs, body 17.9 (Free- Water weight, water standing B6C3F1 consumption, organ NOAEL) 0, 1.6, 3.2, weight and pathology, 5.6, 10.7, hematology and clinical 17.9 chemistry mg/kg/day (Males) 0, 1.6, 3, 6.1, 11.1, 17.9 mg/kg/day (Females) EPA/OW/OST/HECD V-72 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Reference Species/ Route Exposure Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL LOAEL Strain Duration (mg/kg/day) (mg/kg/day) Rat- Drinking 13 Weeks Clinical signs, body 11.3 (m); Water weight, water 12.6(f) Fischer- 344 consumption, organ (Free- 0,0.9, 1.8, weight and pathology, standing 3.3,6.2, hematology and clinical NOAEL) 11.3 chemistry mg/kg/day (Males) 0, 1, 1.9, 3.8,6.8, 12.6 mg/kg/day (Females) R.O.W Rat- Drinking (M) 30 (M) Clinical pathology, Paternal: 8.2 ND Sciences Water Days, (F) organ weight, sperm (M); 10.8 (F) (1997) Sprague- 35 days analysis, histopathology: Dawley 0, 1.4, 3.3, periconcep (F) maternal weight, Reproductive 8.2 tion or 35 reproductive success, /development mg/kg/day days pup viability and growth al: 8.2 (M); gestation 10.8(F) day 5 to PND 1 (Free- standing NOAEL) Smith et al. Rat- Gavage in Gestation Maternal weight, Maternal: ND Maternal: 50 (1987) tricapyrlinb days 7 to reproductive success, (FEL for Long- Evans 21 pup viability and growth maternal death; Hooded 50 decrease mg/kg/day maternal weight Development gain) al: ND Development: 50 (Decreased litter size, decreased fetal weight) a. ND = not determined. b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 73 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-17. Summary of Oral Studies of DCAN Toxicity. Reference Species/ Strain Route Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Hayes et al. (1986) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in corn oil 25 - 3,200 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality NDa LD50 = 270 (M) 279 (F) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 25 - 1,600 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 =339 (M) 330 (F) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 0, 12, 23, 45, 90 mg/kg/day 14 Days Body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, gross necropsy ND 12 (Increased liver weight) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 0, 8,33,65 mg/kg/day 90 Days Body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, gross necropsy ND 8 (Increased liver weight) Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 mg/kg (Free-standing NOAEL) ND Smith et al. (1987) Rat- Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricapyrlinb 55 mg/kg/day Gestation days 7 to 21 Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth ND Maternal: 55 (Decreased maternal weight) Development: 55 (Decreased pregnancy rate; decreased viable litters; increased litters resorbed; decreased fetal weight) EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 74 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Reference Species/ Strain Route Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Smith et Rat- Gavage in Gestation Maternal weight, Maternal: 15 Maternal: 25 al. (1989) tricapyrlinb days 6 to reproductive success, (increased liver Long- 18 pup viability and weight) Evans 0, 5, 15, growth Hooded 25,45 mg/kg/day Developmental: 15 Development: 25 (Increased post- implantation loss, increased soft-tissue malformations) a. ND = not determined. b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 75 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table V-18. Summary of Oral Studies of TCAN Toxicity. Reference Species/ Strain Route Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Smyth et al. (1962) Rat- Wistar Gavage 0.19-0.32 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality NDa LD50 = 360 Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 mg/kg (Free- standing NOAEL) ND Smith et al. (1987) Rat Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricaprylinb 55 mg/kg/day Days 7 to 21 of gestation Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth Maternal: ND Developmental: ND Maternal: 55 (FEL for maternal death; decrease maternal weight gain) Development: 55 (Decreased pregnancy rate; decreased viable litters; increased litters resorbed; decreased fetal weight) Smith et al. (1988) Rat Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricaprylinb 0, 1,7.5, 15, 35, 55 mg/kg/day Days 6 to 18 of gestation Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth, malformations Maternal: 35 Developmental: 1 Maternal: 55 (FEL for maternal death; decrease maternal weight gain) Developmental: 7.5 (Increased full-liter resorptions; increased cardiovascular malformations) Christ et al. (1996) Rat Long- Evans Gavage in corn oilc 0, 15, 35, 55,75 mg/kg/day Days 6 to 18 of gestation Maternal body and organ weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth, malformations Maternal: 15 Developmental: 35 Maternal: 35 (Decreased maternal weight gain; organ weight changes) Development: 55 (increased post- implantation loss, cardiovascular and cranio-facial malformations; decreased live fetuses per litter, fetal body weight, crown-rump length. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 76 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles a. ND = not determined b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. c. Only data relating to the corn oil control are reported in the table, since the developmental toxicity reported in the groups administered tricaprylin were not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. EPA/OW/OST/HECD V - 77 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter VI. Health Effects in Humans Human epidemiology data on the toxicity of the HANs are lacking. Most of the human health data for HANs are as components of complex mixtures of water disinfection byproducts. These complex mixtures of disinfection byproducts have been associated with increased potential for adverse effects on reproduction (reviewed by Nieuwenhuijsen et al., 2000). Although most studies of human health effects following exposure to water disinfectant byproducts have used total trihalomethanes as the exposure metric, Klotz and Pyrch (1999), conducted a case-control study on the relationship between neural tube defects and drinking water exposure to trihalomethanes, HANs, and haloacetic acids. The study included 112 eligible cases of neural tube defects in 1993 and 1994 that were identified through the New Jersey Birth Defect and Fetal Death Registries. A total of 248 controls were selected randomly from all New Jersey births with approximately ten controls selected for each month over 24 months. While a statistically significant prevalence odds ratio (POR) was reported for the highest tertile (third) of trihalomethane exposure, only a slight non-statistically significant excess risk (POR 1.3: 95% confidence interval 0.6-2.8 for the mid tertile, and POR 1.3: 95% confidence interval 0.6-2.5 for the upper tertile) was found for cases when analyzed based on total HAN tertiles. The specific compounds that were measured as part of the total HAN exposure estimate were not identified. Based on the results of the study, the authors concluded that the HANs did not exhibit a clear association with neural tube defects. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VI-1 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles No epidemiological studies have evaluated directly the carcinogenic potential of HANs in humans. Rather, studies have evaluated the carcinogenic potential of chlorinated versus unchlorinated drinking water or the presence of trihalomethanes as a marker of chlorination by- products (IARC, 1999; Mills el al., 1998). Many of these studies have shown an association between chronic exposure to chlorinated water and increased risks of bladder, rectal, or colon cancers (Mills et al., 1998; WHO, 2000). EPA/OW/OST/HECD VT-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter VII. Mechanism of Toxicity and Sensitive Subpopulations A. Biochemical Basis of Toxicity Both DBAN and DCAN are general systemic toxicants, with depressed body weight identified as a common adverse effect (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1996). Although other organ weight changes were observed at doses associated with decreased body weight, the liver is an organ for which dose-dependent effects on organ weight were supported by other measures of toxicity. Increased enzyme levels (e.g., ALP) in the serum were observed at doses higher than those that induced liver weight changes (Hayes et al., 1986), suggesting that DBAN and DCAN might induce hepatocellular necrosis. However, ALP is not a liver specific enzyme, and changes in the liver specific enzymes SGPT and SGOT were not consistently dose-related. In addition, Hayes et al. (1986) did not perform histopathological examinations, and therefore, cellular changes resulting in increased liver weight could not be determined. The data suggest that DCAN may be the more potent liver toxicant compared to DBAN, since the observed effects in the gavage study (Hayes et al., 1986) for DCAN were more severe than for DBAN. Furthermore, DBAN administered in drinking water did not induce liver toxicity, other than a treatment-related increase in liver GST activity (NTP, 2002). However, the highest doses in the drinking water study (NTP, 2002) were similar to the NOAEL in the Hayes et al. (1986) study. None of the available data are adequate to determine mechanisms of liver toxicity for the HANs. One postulated mode of action for the toxicity of haloacetonitriles (HANs) is through direct interactions with cellular macromolecules (Pereira et al., 1984; Daniel et al., 1986; Lin and Guion, 1989; Lin et al., 1992). Depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH) could also play a role. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-1 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles HANs have been shown to induce transient decreases in rat liver GSH levels and inhibit glutathione-S-transferase activity in vivo (Lin and Guion, 1989; Ahmed et al., 1991). Ahmed et al. (1989) noted that the relative degree of inhibition of rat liver glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity in vitro, reported as TCAN>DBAN>DCAN, is consistent with the relative toxicity of these compounds reported in the literature, suggesting perturbation of GSH protection as an important mechanism of toxicity. As further support for the relatedness of GSH depletion and HAN-induced toxicity, Ahmed et al. (1991) noted that the sustained depletion of cellular GSH levels in stomach tissues by DBAN was consistent with their earlier preliminary finding that acute oral doses of HANs can damage the gastric tissues. However, the effect of HANs on gastric tissue might simply reflect the direct irritancy of these compounds, rather than GSH depletion. The initial finding of HANs damaging gastric tissues cannot be further investigated, because the subacute and subchronic studies (Hayes et al., 1986) did not include a histopathological examination of the stomach. GSH depletion could enhance cytotoxicity by allowing damage to cellular macromolecules by HANs, their metabolites, or other reactive species accumulated in the cell. Since GSH is an important cellular antioxidant, its depletion might induce cellular oxidative stress. In support of this idea, Ahmed et al. (1999) reported that orally-administered monochloroacetonitrile (MCAN) induced a dose-dependent decrease in GSH levels and increased levels of oxidative DNA damage in the stomach mucosa of rats. Alternative mechanisms for MCAN-induced oxidative stress were discussed by the study authors. One proposed mechanism involves GSH depletion, resulting in decreased ability of the cell to detoxify endogenous reactive oxygen species. In an alternative mechanism, cyanide derived from MCAN metabolism might alter cellular oxygen utilization and EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles increase the formation of reactive oxygen species. In agreement with the proposed role of oxidative stress, Mohamadin and Abdel-Naim (1999) reported that MCAN decreased cellular GSH content and increased lipid peroxidation, as measured by the concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), in rat gastric epithelial cells in culture. Cell viability, measured by the release of lactate dehydrogenase activity, was correlated with the depletion of cellular GSH levels ® =0.96). Supplementing the culture medium with treatments that protect against cellular oxidative stress (e.g. antioxidants or iron chelators), decreased the cytotoxicity and lipid peroxidation induced by MCAN. MCAN is not a compound under review for this document. However, since it shares the ability to deplete GSH and form cyanide with other HANs, these data are appropriate for discussion here, although in generalizing about the HANs as a class of compounds, differences in their ability to deplete GSH should be considered in evaluating the likely mechanisms for any individual compound. In addition to the induction of oxidative stress secondary to GSH depletion or cyanide activity on cell respiration, an alternative pathway might include activation of macrophages to release reactive oxygen species. Ahmed et al. (2000) reported that DCAN induced oxidative stress responses, including increased oxidation of glutathione, increased formation of reactive oxygen intermediates, and increased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-a) secretion (a cellular response during macrophage activation) in a mouse macrophage cell line in culture. To explain these data, the authors proposed that DCAN treatment activates macrophages, with subsequent increases in reactive oxygen intermediate production and in TNF-a secretion. The increased production of reactive oxygen species induces oxidative stress that reduces cell viability through apoptosis and necrosis. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The identification of thiocyanate as a urinary metabolite in animals orally-dosed with HANs, and the hypothesized metabolism to cyanide (Pereira el al., 1984), suggest additional possible effects of HANs that should be investigated. Longer-term exposure to thiocyanate (either from thiocyanate dosing or as a metabolite of cyanide) causes thyroid effects. Central nervous system effects (e.g., myelin degeneration) and male reproductive effects (decreased epididymal weight and sperm motility) have also been observed following long-term exposure to cyanide (U.S. EPA, 2002c). Effects on the central nervous system or thyroid were not observed in a recent 14-day or 13-week NTP (2002) study for DBAN, Although decreased testes weight and testes atrophy were reported in the 14-day (NTP, 2002) study for DBAN, this effect has not been observed in subchronic studies (Hayes et al., 1986; NTP, 2002), or in other studies that evaluated male reproductive tract parameters (R.O.W. Sciences, 1997; Meier et al., 1985). However, only limited conclusions can drawn regarding the potential for HANs to induce a similar array of effects as cyanide and thiocyanate, based on limitations in the overall database. A comparison of relative potency among HANs in thiocyanate excretion, alkylation potential (p-nitrobenzopyridine binding), protein binding (inhibition of dinitrosamine demethylase activity), and production of DNA strand breaks, suggested that relative thiocyanate excretion did not correspond well to some of these markers of potential macromolecule interaction (Pereira el al., 1984). For example, monochloroacetonitrile (MCAN) was the most potent thiocyanate former, but TCAN was more potent than MCAN in protein binding and inducing DNA strand breaks. The authors suggested that this discordance between propensity for cyanide formation and induction of toxic outcomes might reflect the formation of reactive intermediates other than cyanide from TCAN, such as phosgene and cyanoformyl chloride. The results of the comparative EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-4 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles analysis by Pereira et al. (1984) suggest that intermediate metabolites, other than cyanide, may be important in producing some of the toxic effects observed for HANs. In further support of this conclusion, the systemic toxicity induced by cyanide and thiocyanate does not closely parallel the range of effects observed for HANs. For example, cyanide and thiocyanate are not potent liver toxicants, a target organ for the effects of HANs (U.S. EPA, 2002c). BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN all cause developmental toxicity in vivo (Smith et al., 1986; Smithed al., 1987; Smithed al., 1988; Smithed al., 1989; Christen al., 1995; Christen al., 1996), but the relative potency of these compounds is unclear, due to the likely potentiating effects of the solvent vehicle (tricaprylin) used in these studies (Christ el al., 1996). As discussed in Chapter III (Toxicokinetics), it remains unclear whether the potentiating effect of tricaprylin on the developmental toxicity of HANs represents a toxicokinetic or toxicodynamic interaction, or whether both of these mechanisms play a role. Since the data on tricaprylin effects for HANs were limited to two published abstracts (Roth et al., 1990; Gordon et al., 1991), a review of the literature on interactions between solvent vehicles and other disinfectant by-products or unsaturated nitriles was done to determine whether a consistent relationship could be found. Solvent vehicles are needed for studies with these compounds, due to the minimal water solubility. No data were found for interactions between tricaprylin and the comparison compounds. Therefore, data on observed solvent vehicle interactions are too limited for trihalomethanes and unsaturated nitriles to be useful in reaching a general conclusion about the mechanisms involved in the ability of tricaprylin to potentiate the developmental toxicity of HANs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-5 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Developmental toxicity has been observed even in the absence of confounding by tricaprylin, at least for TCAN (Christ el al., 1996). Maternal toxicity was observed at lower doses than developmental effects in this study, and therefore, it is possible that the observed developmental effects were secondary to maternal effects. Mechanistic explanations for the developmental toxicity of HANs have been explored, including cyanide formation and glutathione depletion. Early evidence suggested that the developmental toxicity of HANs might not be secondary to cyanide formation. When a maximally tolerated dose of a series of HANs in a tricaprylin vehicle was administered to Long-Evans rats, developmental toxicity was greatest for the highly chlorine-substituted acetonitriles (Smith et al., 1986). These results were contrasted with the work of Pereira et al. (1984), who found that thiocyanate excretion (and hence cyanide production) is inversely related to chlorine substitution. Based on this comparison, in which greater chlorine substitution increases developmental toxicity and decreases thiocyanate excretion, the authors concluded that the degree of developmental toxicity was not due to cyanide formation. However, conclusions drawn from the HANs studies must be tempered by uncertainty regarding their true relative developmental toxicity potencies. The tricaprylin vehicle used in the developmental toxicity studies causes developmental effects by itself (Smith et al., 1989; Christ et al., 1995), and interacts with TCAN to cause both qualitative changes in the spectrum of developmental effects, as well as more-than-additive quantitative changes. Because of these effects of the vehicle used in the relevant developmental toxicity studies, and because the relative potentiating ability of tricaprylin may differ for each of the HANs tested, the true relative developmental toxicity potencies are unknown. Another potential avenue for determining the contribution of cyanide to the developmental toxicity of HANs would be to compare the developmental effects observed in animals exposed to cyanide versus those observed for HANs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-6 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles However, the available developmental toxicity studies for both HANs (see Chapter V) and cyanide (U.S. EPA, 2002c) are too limited to conduct a meaningful comparison of their relative potencies as developmental toxicants. Christ et al. (1995), in a study on the developmental toxicity of BCAN, reiterated the discordance between developmental toxicity and degree of metabolism to cyanide, and introduced GSH depletion as another possible mechanism for developmental toxicity. To address the role of GSH depletion in the developmental toxicity of HANs, Christ et al. (1995) cited the study of Abdel-Aziz et al. (1993), who compared maternal and fetal uptake of [2-uC]-MCAN in CD-I mice. Abdel-Aziz et al. (1993) treated dams with diethylmaleate (DEM) by intraperitoneal injection to induce an oxidative stress response on gestation day 13. One hour later, control mice and DEM-pretreated mice were given a 77 mg/kg dose of radiolabeled MCAN by i.v. injection. MCAN treatment significantly decreased maternal liver, uterus, and fetal tissue levels of GSH, and the degree of GSH depletion was further increased in the DEM-pretreated mice. Urinary excretion of thiocyanate, a measure of MCAN metabolism, was five times higher in the DEM- pretreated mice given MCAN as compared to control mice treated with MCAN only. MCAN equivalents determined from the yield of radioactivity in maternal uterine tissues, amniotic fluid, and in fetuses rose rapidly to similar levels at 1 hour for both DEM-pretreated mice and mice not given DEM. In the absence of DEM pretreatment, MCAN equivalents declined rapidly for all three tissues examined. However, in DEM-pretreated animals, the removal of tissue radioactivity was significantly slower. At 24 hours, the level of MCAN equivalents was two-fold higher in fetal DNA than in maternal uterine DNA. This effect was further enhanced by DEM pretreatment. The total DNA-bound MCAN equivalent level in DEM-pretreated mice was four-fold higher in EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-7 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles fetal DNA than in maternal uterine DNA, suggesting that fetuses might be particularly sensitive to the effects of GSH depletion. Based on the increases in thiocyanate excretion and DNA binding under oxidative stress conditions that deplete GSH, the authors suggested that GSH depletion increases the metabolism of the remaining unconjugated MCAN and/or increases the availability of MCAN to react directly with cellular macromolecules such as DNA. These data suggest that the developmental toxicity of HANs may be directly related to the ability of these compounds to deplete GSH levels. Saillenfait and Sabate (2000) tested the developmental toxicity of aliphatic nitriles (sodium cyanide, acetonitrile, propionitrile, n-butyronitrile, acrylonitrile, methacrylonitrile, allylnitrile, cis- 2-pentenenitrile, and 2-chloroacrylonitrile) in a rat whole embryo assay and in vivo. Although no HANs were included in this study, the results may have implications for the developmental toxicity of HANs based on similar chemical reactivity. In the whole embryo testing experiment, a wide range of embryotoxicity was observed. In addition, no common pattern of developmental effects was observed among all the compounds tested. Enhancement of metabolism by supplementation of the cultures with microsomes increased the severity of embryolethality and developmental toxicity for the unsaturated aliphatic nitriles (e.g., acrylonitrile), but not the saturated aliphatic nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile). This result, coupled with the difference between the spectrum of dysmorphogenesis observed for the unsaturated nitriles and for embryos treated with sodium cyanide, led the authors to suggest that microsomal metabolism of unsaturated nitriles generates toxic metabolites in addition to cyanide. In further support of a mechanism distinct from cyanide release for the in vitro developmental toxicity of the tested compounds, their relative EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-8 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles potency in the whole-embryo culture assay did not directly correspond with increasing cyanide release kinetics as determined from in vitro metabolism studies. No haloacetontriles were included in the study by Saillenfait and Sabate (2000), but based on their shared ability to deplete cellular GSH (as described in the rest of this paragraph), HANs may act chemically more like unsaturated nitriles than saturated ones, and thus may induce developmental toxicity through mechanisms other than cyanide release. Ahmed et al. (1982) reported that unsaturated but not saturated aliphatic nitriles decrease liver glutathione levels. Clinical signs of toxicity were different for unsaturated nitriles than for potassium cyanide, while animals administered saturated nitriles and potassium cyanide showed a similar spectrum of symptoms. Taken together, the results of Saillenfait and Sabate (2000) and Ahmed et al. (1982) suggest that reactive metabolites in addition to cyanide might be important for the induction of developmental toxicity. In further support for a common toxic mechanism for unsaturated nitriles and HANs, Smith et al. (1989) noted that a similar spectrum of soft-tissue malformations is observed for TCAN, DCAN, and the unsaturated nitrile, acrylonitrile. However, later evidence presented by Christ et al. (1996), demonstrated that the use of tricaprylin in these earlier studies might have caused a shift in the type of soft-tissue malformations, placing the earlier conclusion in doubt. Some results, however, do suggest an involvement of cyanide in the developmental toxicity of HANs. In contrast to their whole-embryo assay results, Saillenfait and Sabate (2000) reported similarities in the spectrum of developmental effects induced by all of the nitriles when tested in vivo. In this experiment, CD-I mice dams received a single dose of aliphatic nitrile on EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTI-9 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles gestation day 10, and evaluation of embryos for defects was conducted on gestation day 12. The dysmorphogenic effects characteristic of sodium cyanide, including misdirected allantois (a tubular structure of the embryonic hindgut), trunk, or caudal extremity were induced by saturated as well as unsaturated aliphatic nitriles. The concordance in these results in vivo is consistent with cyanide being an active moiety for both saturated and unsaturated aliphatic nitriles. Moudgal et al. (2000) evaluated relationships between the structure of 244 disinfectant byproducts, including 21 nitriles, and potential developmental toxicity using a rat oral developmental toxicity submodel of TOPKAT®, a quantitative structure toxicity relationship (QSTR) prediction tool. Based on individual structural descriptors, model probabilities were used to derive qualitative estimates as follows: 0.0 to 0.3 negative, 0.3 to 0.7 indeterminate, 0.7 to 1.0 positive. The probability estimate is independent of the potency or severity of developmental effects that could be induced, and would be interpreted as the likelihood that the chemical can cause developmental toxicity in rats following oral dosing. As a group, the nitrile disinfectant byproducts were characterized as having a high probability of developmental toxicity. Of the 21 individual nitrile compounds, 13 were positive, 5 were negative, and for 3 the model did not make a prediction. Only three of the four specific HANs under consideration in this document were assessed. DBAN and TCAN were predicted as positive and BCAN was predicted as negative. TCAN was one of the chemicals in the model training set. Four other HANs were predicted as positive. A cursory evaluation of these data do not reveal a clear reason for the negative prediction for BCAN, since positive results were obtained for bromoacetonitrile, bromodichloroacetonitrile, and dibromochloroacetonitrile. The effects of individual structural moieties were also examined by the software for various structural classes of compounds. The EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-10 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles nitrile moiety, chlorine atom, and bromine atom were identified as contributing most significantly to the developmental toxicity predictions for the group of 20 nitriles. The importance of the nitrile group in the developmental toxicity predictions is consistent with cyanide as a causal factor in the developmental toxicity of these compounds in vivo, since this functional group gives rise to cyanide during HAN metabolism. In summary, mechanisms of toxicity for noncarcinogenic effects (decreased body weight, gastric and liver toxicity, and developmental effects) have been hypothesized to be related to direct interaction with cellular proteins (disrupting critical enzyme functions), depletion of cellular antioxidant defenses (i.e, depletion of GSH and inhibition of GST), or effects secondary to cyanide formation. The data are not adequate to rule out any of these possibilities, and therefore, any or all of these mechanisms could be involved. B. Mechanism of Carcinogenesis The carcinogenic potential of the HANs is unknown. No epidemiological studies have evaluated directly the carcinogenic potential of HANs in humans. Rather, studies have evaluated the carcinogenic potential of chlorinated versus unchlorinated drinking water or the presence of trihalomethanes as a marker of chlorination by-products (IARC, 1999; Mills et al., 1998). Many of these studies have shown an association between chronic exposure to chlorinated water and increased risks of bladder, rectal, or colon cancers (Mills et al., 1998; WHO, 2000). No standard cancer bioassays of HANs have been done in animals. Limited short-term exposure data from the mouse skin assay (Bull et al., 1985) and the mouse lung assay (Bull and Robinson, 1985) indicate that BCAN, DBAN, and TCAN may be tumorigenic, although DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN were EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-11 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles reported to be negative in the rat liver GGT-foci assay (Herren-Freund and Pereira, 1986). In a qualitative review of structure activity relationships, Bull and Robinson (1985) discussed potential structural relationships among the results for the cancer screening assays and genotoxicity results for various HANs. They commented that there is no apparent consistent pattern in the potency of the individual compounds across the various assays. Quantitative analysis of structural relationships of HANs with carcinogenic outcomes have also been investigated. Moudgal et al. (2000) evaluated relationships between the structure of 244 disinfectant byproducts, including 21 HANs, and potential carcinogenicity using mouse and rat oral submodels of TOPKAT®, a quantitative structure toxicity relationship (QSTR) prediction tool. As a group, the nitrile disinfectant byproducts were characterized as having a low probability of carcinogenicity. However, for the subset of six HANs in the total group of 20 nitrile compounds for which individual data were presented (carcinogenicity predictions for TCAN were not included), four were predicted as positive in at least one sex in mice or rats. The results were largely mixed across species or sex for each test compound. For example, BCAN was predicted as positive in male and female mice, but negative in both sexes of rats. DBAN was negative in both sexes of mice, and female rats, but indeterminate in male rats. These QSTR results are consistent with the screening bioassays in indicating at least limited carcinogenic potential of the HANs. The HANs or their metabolites are reactive compounds that can bind macromolecules including DNA (Daniel et al., 1986; Lin et al., 1992). Nouraldeen and Ahmed (1996) demonstrated in vitro that the degree of DNA binding was much lower for DC AN and TCAN EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-12 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles than it was for bromoacetonitrile or MCAN, Based on changes in fluorescence as a measure of adduct formation, relative DNA adduct formation as compared to bromoacetonitrile was 8.6%, 1.0%, and 0.2% for MCAN, DCAN, and TCAN respectively. The chemical nature of the adducts that were formed was not identified for each compound. However, a 7- (cyanomethyl)guanine adduct was the single major adduct identified from the reaction of bromoacetonitrile with calf-thymus DNA. Since the more fully halogenated acetonitriles BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN, may be metabolized to monohaloacetonitriles in vivo (Pereira el al., 1984), they might induce the formation of similar adducts. On the other hand, the relative DNA reactivity observed in vitro may not directly translate to mutagenic or carcinogenic potential in vivo, since the metabolism of the compound and the mutagenicity of the adducts formed may differ for each HAN. Glutathione conjugation may be an important cellular protection against these reactive HANs or their metabolites (Lin and Guion, 1989; Ahmed et al., 1991). The genotoxicity of each of the HAN compounds BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN has been evaluated in at least one assay, and in most cases a variety of different assays. Although some of the data have provided contradictory results, all of the tested compounds appear to have some capacity to induce genotoxic effects. For example, BCAN, DCAN, and TCAN (but not DBAN) have been found to generate a positive result in at least one reported Salmonella!microsome assay. In addition, while not uniformly consistent, a variety of other assays, including those for chromosome effects, have yielded positive results for some of the HANs. Overall, these data suggest that HANs induce genotoxicity through direct interactions with DNA. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-13 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles C. Interactions and Susceptibilities Potential Interactions No studies on interactions of HANs with other classes of compounds were identified, except as noted above for solvent vehicle effects. Childhood Susceptibility As discussed above, developmental toxicity has been associated with exposure to BCAN, DBAN, DC AN, and TCAN, although the findings for all these compounds, except TCAN, are confounded by the developmental toxicity of the vehicle. The developmental toxicity of the HANs is supported by the reports of Roth et al. (1990) and Gordon el al. (1991) in published abstracts that radioactivity was detected in embryos of dams given [14C]TCAN, suggesting that fetuses may be targets for HAN toxicity. In addition, Abdel-Aziz et al. (1993) found that fetuses may be more susceptible than adults to direct DNA damage induced by haloacetontriles. Although the relationship between metabolism of HANs and the onset of toxicity has not been thoroughly determined (as discussed above), acute cyanide intoxication from accidental pediatric acetonitrile exposures (Caravati et al., 1988; Geller et al., 1991; Kurt et al., 1991) indicates that HAN metabolism to cyanide occurs in children. There are limited data available for assessing directly the susceptibility of fetuses and children to HANs. No systemic toxicity studies have been identified that evaluated age-related EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-14 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles differences in sensitivity and no multigeneration reproductive studies have been reported. In addition, age-related differences in the metabolism of the HANs could not be investigated, because the enzyme(s) responsible for HAN metabolism are not known. Pereira et al. (1984) hypothesized that mixed function oxidases are involved, but the isozyme involved has not been identified, and the age-dependent expression differs among the different cytochrome P450 isozymes. Although the developmental toxicity of the HANs has been evaluated, most of the available literature cannot be used to determine relative maternal and developmental toxicity of these compounds, due to potential interactions between the test compound and the dosing vehicle (tricaprylin). Excluding these studies from this evaluation leaves only limited data. No developmental toxicity was observed following administration of up to 10.9 mg/kg/day DBAN in drinking water (R.O.W. Sciences, 1997), but this was only a screening study that did not include evaluation of pups for malformations. The only maternal effect at this dose was a decrease in drinking water consumption. In a study using corn oil as the solvent vehicle for TCAN, the maternal NOAEL was 15 mg/kg/day and the NOAEL for developmental toxicity was 35 mg/kg/day (Christ et al., 1996). Thus, these two studies do not provide evidence that fetuses are more susceptible than adults, although the data are too limited to make a definitive conclusion. Other potential susceptibilities Although a role of oxidative metabolism and glutathione conjugation have been hypothesized to be involved in HAN metabolism, the identity of enzymes involved in these pathways has not been determined. Therefore, the potential role of interindividual differences in metabolism due to genetic polymorphism, age, or other factors cannot be determined. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-15 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles D. Summary The HANs induce general systemic toxicity. Decreased body weight and a variety of organ weight changes occur following oral dosing, and the testes (NTP, 2002) and liver might be particularly sensitive (Hayes et al., 1986), although the reported effects in these organs in available studies are fairly limited. The HANs also induce developmental effects (Smith et al., 1986; Smithed al., 1987; Smithed al., 1988; Smithed al., 1989; Christen al., 1995; Christen al., 1996). The mechanism(s) of toxicity are not known, but several possibilities have been described. HANs may act through direct interactions with cellular macromolecules such as DNA (Daniel el al., 1986; Lin et al., 1992; Nouraldeen and Ahmed, 1996). HAN toxicity might be secondary to GSH depletion (Ahmed et al., 1991) or oxidative stress (Ahmed et al., 1999; Mohamadin and Abdel-Naim, 1999). Formation of cyanide from HAN might be another important mechanism of toxicity, although important systemic effects that are sensitive indicators of cyanide toxicity have not been fully examined. The role of cyanide in the developmental toxicity of HANs has received much attention. Some studies suggest that metabolites other than cyanide play a critical role (Smith et al., 1986), and implicated glutathione depletion as an important factor (Christ et al., 1995; Abdel-Aziz et al., 1993). Although some indirect data supports a role of cyanide (Moudgal et al., 2000; Saillenfait and Sabate, 2000), evaluation of the available developmental toxicity studies of cyanide itself do not support this hypothesis (U.S. EPA, 2002c). The ability of the HANs to bind to cellular macromolecules (Daniel et al., 1986; Lin et al., 1992; Nouraldeen and Ahmed, 1996), as well as generally positive results in genotoxicity assays, EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-16 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles supports direct DNA damage as the mode of action for the tumorigenicity observed in cancer screening studies (Bull et al., 1985; Bull and Robinson, 1985). However, the carcinogenic potential of the HANs is unknown, since epidemiology studies are not available and standard cancer animal bioassays of HANs have not been conducted. Identification of potential susceptible subpopulations is hampered by the incomplete characterization of HAN metabolism or identification of the toxic moiety. Although a metabolic pathway for the HANs has been proposed (Pereira et al., 1984), the enzymes important for catalyzing HAN metabolism are unknown. In addition, no studies on age-dependent differences in metabolism or toxicity were identified, although one study demonstrated that HANs may bind more greatly to fetal DNA than to DNA in maternal tissues (Abdel-Aziz et al., 1993). Analysis of the developmental toxicity studies for TCAN revealed a lower maternal than developmental NOAEL, which does not suggest that fetuses are more susceptible than adults. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VII-17 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter VIII. Quantification of Toxicological Effects The quantification of toxicological effects of a chemical consists of separate assessments of noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic health effects. Unless otherwise specified, chemicals which do not produce carcinogenic effects are believed to have a threshold dose below which no adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects occur, while carcinogens are assumed to act without a threshold. A. Introduction to Methods A.l Quantification of Noncarcinogenic Effects In quantification of noncarcinogenic effects, a Reference Dose (RfD) (formerly called the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)) is calculated. The RfD is "an estimate (with uncertainty spanning approximately an order-of-magnitude) of a daily exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without appreciable risk of deleterious effects over a lifetime" (U.S. EPA, 1993). The RfD is derived from a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL), lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL), or a NOAEL surrogate such as a benchmark dose identified from a subchronic or chronic study, and divided by a composite uncertainty factor(s). The RfD is calculated as follows: RfD = NOAEL (LOAEL) UF x MF where: NOAEL = No-observed-adverse-effect level from a high-quality toxicological study of an appropriate duration EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-1 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles LOAEL = Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level from a high-quality toxicological study of an appropriate duration. In situations where there is no NOAEL for a contaminant but there is a LOAEL, the LOAEL can be used for the RfD calculation with the inclusion of an additional uncertainty factor. UF = Uncertainty factor chosen according to EPA/NAS guidelines MF = Modifying factor Selection of the uncertainty factor to be employed in calculation of the RfD is based on professional judgment, while considering the entire database of toxicological effects for the chemical. To ensure that uncertainty factors are selected and applied in a consistent manner, the Office of Water (OW) employs a modification to the guidelines proposed by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 1977, 1980). According to the EPA approach (U.S. EPA, 1993), uncertainty is broken down into its components, and each dimension of uncertainty is given a quantitative rating. The total uncertainty factor is the product of the component uncertainties. The individual components of the uncertainty are as follows: UFh A factor of 1, 3, or 10-fold used when extrapolating from valid data in studies using long-term exposure to average healthy humans. This factor is intended to account for the variation in sensitivity (intraspecies variation) among the members of the human population. UFa An additional factor of 1, 3, or 10 used when extrapolating from valid results of long-term studies on experimental animals when results of studies of human exposure are not available or are inadequate. This factor is intended to account for the uncertainty involved in extrapolating from animal data to humans (interspecies variation). UFS An additional factor of 1, 3, or 10 used when extrapolating from less-than- chronic results on experimental animals when there are no useful long-term human data. This factor is intended to account for the uncertainty involved in extrapolating from less-than-chronic NOAELs to chronic NOAELs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles UFl An additional factor of 1, 3, or 10 used when deriving an RfD from a LOAEL, instead of a NOAEL. This factor is intended to account for the uncertainty involved in extrapolating from LOAELs to NOAELs. UFd An additional factor of 1, 3- or 10 used when deriving an RfD from an "incomplete" database. This factor is meant to account for the inability of any single type of study to consider all toxic endpoints. The intermediate factor of 3 (approximately V2 log10 unit, i.e., the square root of 10) is often used when there is a single data gap exclusive of chronic data. It is often designated as UFD. On occasion, EPA also uses a modifying factor in the determination of the RfD. A modifying factor is an additional uncertainty factor that is greater than zero and less than or equal to 10. The magnitude of the MF depends upon the professional assessment of scientific uncertainties of the study and database not explicitly treated above (e.g., the number of species tested). The default value for the MF is 1. In establishing the UF or MF, it is recognized that professional scientific judgment must be used. The total product of the uncertainty factors and modifying factor should not exceed 3000. If the assignment of uncertainty results in a UF/MF product that exceeds 3000, then the database does not support development of an RfD. The quantification of toxicological effects of a chemical consists of separate assessments of noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic health effects. Unless otherwise specified, chemicals which do not produce carcinogenic effects are believed to have a threshold dose below which no adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects occur, while carcinogens are assumed to act without a threshold. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles A. 1.1. Drinking Water Equivalent Level The drinking water equivalent (DWEL) is calculated from the RfD. The DWEL represents a drinking-water-specific lifetime exposure at which adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects are not anticipated to occur. The DWEL assumes 100% exposure from drinking water. The DWEL provides the noncarcinogenic health-effects basis for establishing a drinking-water standard. For ingestion data, the DWEL is derived as follows: DWEL = (RfD) x BW WI where: BW = 70-kg adult body weight WI = Drinking water intake (2 L/day) A.1.2. Health Advisory Values In addition to the RfD and the DWEL, EPA calculates Health Advisory (HA) values for noncancer effects. HAs are determined for lifetime exposures as well as for exposures of shorter duration (1-day, 10-day, and longer-term). The shorter duration HA values are used as informal guidance to municipalities and other organizations when emergency spills or contamination situations occur. The lifetime HA becomes the MCLG for a chemical that is not a carcinogen. The shorter-term HAs are calculated using an equation similar to the ones for RfD and DWEL; however, the NOAELs or LOAELs are derived from acute or subchronic studies and identify a sensitive noncarcinogenic endpoint of toxicity. The HAs are derived as follows: EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-4 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles HA = NOAEL or LOAEL x BW UF x WI where: NOAEL or LOAEL = BW UF WI No- or lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level in mg/kg bw/day Assumed body weight of a child (10 kg) or an adult (70 kg) Uncertainty factor, in accordance with EPA or NAS/OW guidelines Assumed daily water consumption of a child (1 L/day) or an adult (2 L/day) Using the above equation, the following drinking water HAs are developed for noncarcinogenic effects: 1-day HA for a 10-kg child ingesting 1 L water per day. 10-day HA for a 10-kg child ingesting 1 L water per day. Longer-term HA for a 10-kg child ingesting 1 L water per day. Longer-term HA for a 70-kg adult ingesting 2 L water per day. Each of these shorter-term HA values assumes that the total exposure to the contaminant comes from drinking water. The lifetime HA is calculated from the DWEL and takes into account exposure from sources other than drinking water. It is calculated using the following equation: EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-5 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Lifetime HA = DWEL x RSC where: DWEL = Drinking water equivalent level RSC = Relative source contribution. The fraction of the total exposure allocated to drinking water following EPA guidance (U.S. EPA, 2000b). A.2 Quantification of Carcinogenic Effects Under the 1986 guidelines, the EPA categorizes the carcinogenic potential of a chemical based on the overall weight-of-evidence according to the following scheme: Group A: Human Carcinogen. Sufficient evidence exists from epidemiology studies to support a causal association between exposure to the chemical and human cancer. Group B: Probable Human Carcinogen. Sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals with limited (Group Bl) or inadequate (Group B2) evidence in humans. Group C: Possible Human Carcinogen. Limited evidence of carcinogenicity in animals in the absence of human data. Group D: Not classified as to Human Carcinogenicity. Inadequate human and animal evidence of carcinogenicity or for which no data are available. Group E: Evidence of Noncarcinogenicity for Humans. No evidence of carcinogenicity in at least two adequate animal tests in different species or in both adequate epidemiologic and animal studies. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-6 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles If toxicological evidence leads to the classification of the contaminant as a genotoxic, probable or possible human carcinogen, mathematical models are used to calculate the estimated excess cancer risk associated with ingestion of the contaminant in drinking water. The data used in these estimates usually come from lifetime-exposure studies in animals. In order to predict the risk for humans from animal data, animal doses must be converted to equivalent human doses. This conversion includes correction for noncontinuous exposure, less-than-lifetime studies and differences in size. It is assumed that the average adult human-body weight is 70 kg and that the average water consumption of an adult human is two liters of water per day. For contaminants with a carcinogenic potential, chemical levels are correlated with a carcinogenic-risk estimate by employing a cancer potency (unit risk) value together with the assumption for lifetime exposure via ingestion of water. Under the 1986 Carcinogen Risk Assessment Guidelines, the cancer unit risk is usually derived from a linearized multistage model with a 95% upper confidence limit providing a low-dose estimate; that is, the true risk to humans, while not identifiable, is not likely to exceed the upper-limit estimate and, in fact, may be lower. Excess cancer-risk estimates may also be calculated using other models such as the one-hit, Weibull, logit and probit models. There is little basis in the current understanding of the biological mechanisms involved in cancer to suggest that any one of these models is able to predict risk more accurately than any of the others. Because each model is based upon differing assumptions, the estimates that are derived for each model can differ by several orders of magnitude. The scientific data base used to calculate and support the setting of cancer-risk rates has an inherent uncertainty due to the systematic and random errors in scientific measurement. In EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-7 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles most cases, only studies using experimental animals have been performed. Thus, there is uncertainty when the data are extrapolated to humans. When developing cancer-risk rates, several other areas of uncertainty exist, such as the incomplete knowledge concerning the health effects of contaminants in drinking water, the impact of the experimental animal's age, sex and species, the nature of the target organ system(s) examined and the actual rate of exposure of the internal targets in experimental animals or humans. Dose-response data usually are available only for high levels of exposure, not for the lower levels of exposure at which a standard may be set. When there is exposure to more than one contaminant, additional uncertainty results from a lack of information about possible synergistic or antagonistic effects. The quantification of toxicological effects of a chemical consists of separate assessments of noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic health effects. Chemicals that do not produce carcinogenic effects are believed to have a threshold dose below which no adverse, noncarcinogenic health effects occur, while carcinogens are assumed to act without a threshold. B. Noncarcinogenic Effects Analysis of the dose-response data for noncarcinogenic effects for each of the four HANs and the derivation of Health Advisories is described below and summarized in Tables VIII-1 through VIII-7. B.l BCAN The oral toxicity data for BCAN are summarized in Table VIII-1. No systemic toxicity studies of BCAN are available. The most comprehensive studies of BCAN toxicity were two EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-8 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles developmental studies of BCAN. Smith et al. (1987) reported that the single dose tested of 55 mg/kg/day of BCAN, administered by gavage to pregnant rats on days 7 to 21 of gestation, resulted in decreased maternal weight gain and reduced pup birth weights. In a dose-response study (Christ et al., 1995), sperm-positive female rats were administered BCAN by gavage in tricaprylin on gestation days 6 to 18 at doses of 0, 5, 25, 45, and 65 mg/kg/day. Treatment with BCAN in tricaprylin resulted in both maternal and embryotoxicity. The LOAEL for developmental effects was 5 mg/kg/day compared to tricaprylin treated controls. No maternal effects were observed at this dose. However, use of this study for dose-response assessment is not appropriate, because it may not accurately reflect the toxicity of BCAN in drinking water. Tricaprylin vehicle alone produced embryotoxicity in this study, and later work by this laboratory (Christ et al., 1996) suggests that tricaprylin may act synergistically with TCAN to enhance developmental toxicity. In the absence of a more complete data base, the data are inadequate for derivation of any Health Advisory values for BCAN. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-9 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table VIII-1 Summary of Oral Studies of BCAN Toxicity Reference Species/ Strain Route/ Dose Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 (Free- standing NOAEL) NDa Smith et al. (1987) Rat- Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricaprylinb 55 mg/kg/day Days 7 to 21 of gestation Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth Maternal: ND Developmental: ND Maternal: ND (Nonsignificant decrease maternal weight gain) Development: 55 (Decreased birth weight, decreased postnatal weight gain) Christ et al. (1995) Rat- Long- Evans Gavage in tricaprylinb 0, 5,25, 45,65 mg/kg/day Days 6 to 18 of gestation Maternal body and organ weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth, malformations Maternal: 45 Developmental: ND Maternal: 65 (FEL for maternal death; decrease maternal weight gain) Development: 5 (Decreased crown- rump length, increased cardiovascular malformations) a. ND = not determined. b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. B.2 DBAN B.2.1 One-Day Health Advisory for DBAN The oral toxicity data for DBAN are summarized in Table VIII-2. Two studies (Hayes el al., 1986; Eastman Kodak Co., 1992) identify acute oral LD50 values for DBAN of 50 to 361 mg/kg. Clinical signs observed include convulsions, ataxia, depressed respiration and activity, and coma. However, LD50 studies are not suitable for the development of one-day health advisories EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-10 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles and no other suitable acute studies were located for DBAN, In the absence of such data, the Ten-day HA value is recommended as a conservative estimate of an appropriate One-day HA value. B.2.2 Ten-Day Health Advisory for DBAN Two reports of adequate general toxicity studies (NTP, 2002, which tested both mice and rats, and Hayes et al., 1986, which tested rats only) of a suitable duration for the Ten-day HA were located. NTP (2002) conducted a 14-day drinking water toxicity study in B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats. Concentration-related decreases in water consumption were noted in males and females of both species, but this effect was not considered to be toxicologically significant. The only toxicologically-significant effects in either species were observed in male rats at the high dose of 18 mg/kg/day, and included decreased body weight, decreased testes weight and testes atrophy. The NOAEL for this study was 12 mg/kg/day with a LOAEL of 18 mg/kg/day. BMD modeling was not performed for this study, since the full NTP study reports were not available at the time of preparation of this document. However, preliminary modeling based on the body weight gain data provided in the study summaries suggests that the BMDL would not differ significantly from the study NOAEL. Hayes et al. (1986) conducted a 14-day study of DBAN toxicity in rats. No significant effects on serum chemistry, hematological or urinary parameters or remarkable findings at necropsy were observed. The only organ weight change that showed a clear dose dependence was relative liver weight in females, which was increased 12% over controls (p < 0.05) at 23 mg/kg/day, and was increased by as much as 22% above controls at 90 mg/kg/day. The increase EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-11 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles in relative liver weight was statistically significant only at the high dose. In the absence of histopathology data or clinical chemistry findings, however, it is unclear if this is an adverse response. In males, body weight was decreased at the 45 mg/kg/day dose level, but not at the 23 mg/kg/day dose level. Therefore, decreased body weight in males is considered the critical effect and 23 mg/kg/day is considered the NOAEL. BMD modeling was conducted to identify alternative critical effect levels for this study. A BMDL of 16 mg/kg/day for decreased body weight in males was selected as the most appropriate modeling result for this endpoint (see Appendix A). As part of a reproductive toxicity study, R.O.W. Sciences (1997) conducted range-finding studies of DBAN that evaluated its short-term effects. Among rats exposed to drinking water concentrations of DBAN up to 200 ppm for 2 weeks, the only consistent effect was a decrease in water consumption at the high concentration. The absence of clinical signs of toxicity or body weight changes indicates that the highest concentration tested of 200 ppm in the second range- finding study (equivalent to doses of 13.2 mg/kg/day in males; 17.9 mg/kg/day in females) is a study NOAEL. These same rats had previously been exposed for 4 days to higher concentrations that caused significant decreases in body weight, and decreased food and water consumption; the rats were allowed to recover to control body weights before being exposed to the lower concentrations in the second range-finding study. In the main reproductive and developmental study the exposure duration was 30 days for males and 35 days for females - longer than is suitable for a Ten-day HA. In addition, there were no adverse effects observed at the highest dose tested, 8.2 mg/kg/day in males and 10.8 mg/kg/day in females. Smith et al. (1987) reported on the developmental toxicity of DBAN. However, use of this study for dose-response EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-12 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles assessment is not appropriate, because it may not accurately reflect the toxicity of DBAN in drinking water, due to interactions between tricaprylin vehicle and HANs. Decreased body weight, decreased testes weight, and testes atrophy in male F344 rats reported in NTP (2002) at doses greater thanl2 mg/kg/day is considered the most appropriate basis for deriving the Ten-day HA for DBAN. Decreased body weight was clearly an appropriate endpoint to serve as the critical effect for deriving the Ten-day HA. Although the reported effects of DBAN on the testes were considered to be adverse, their appropriateness to serve as the basis for the HA was not clear. The Ten-day HA is based on water consumption by children directly. Therefore, male reproductive effects are not an appropriate endpoint for this HA value unless the observed effects are likely to persist to a reproductive age. The data were not adequate to make this determination, since none of the shorter-term studies tracked the recovery of this endpoint after cessation of exposure. It is noteworthy that no effects on the testes were observed in the 13- week NTP (2002) study in the same strain of rats, suggesting that the testes effects might be transient. However, the highest dose in the subchronic study NTP (2002) study was 11.3 mg/kg/day, which is essentially the same as the NOAEL for testes effects in the 14-day NTP study. Therefore, comparison across the 14-day and 13-week NTP studies cannot answer whether the testes effects are likely to be persistent. Hayes et al. (1986) also evaluated testes weight in CD rats after 14-day and subchronic gavage dosing with DBAN. This study did not identify decreased testes weight at either time point. This could be due to rat strain differences in sensitivity to male reproductive tract toxicity, or reflect differences in the route of DBAN administration. DBAN administered in drinking water caused a decrease in water consumption in the NTP (2002) study. If the effects on the testes were secondary to decreased water EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-13 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles consumption, then they would not have been observed in the Hayes et al. (1986) study, which used gavage dosing. DBAN did not affect male reproductive parameters in Sprague-Dawley rats in a reproductive and developmental screening study (R.O.W. Sciences, 1997) in which males were exposed for 30 days to DBAN in drinking water. However, in this study, the highest dose tested was 8.2 mg/kg/day (the drinking water concentration was 150 mg/L), which was below the NOAEL of 12 mg/kg/day for F344 rats in the 14-day NTP study. None of the available studies allow for a determination of the degree to which the testes effects are likely to persist. Therefore, since the potential of the observed testicular effects to persist to a reproductive age cannot be excluded, they are considered to be appropriate co-critical effects for derivation of the Ten-day HA. Based on the decreased body weight, decreased testes weight, and testes atrophy in male rats reported in NTP (2002) at doses greater than 12 mg/kg/day, the Ten-day HA for DBAN may be calculated as shown below and summarized in Table VIII-3. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for extrapolation from a NOAEL in an animal study and an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for inter-individual variability in human sensitivity. The composite uncertainty factor used is 100. „ , (12 mg/kg/day) (10 kg) „ . , . Ten-day HA = ^ (i £/day) = m§ (rounded t0 1 mS/L) where: 12 mg/kg/day = NOAEL, based on decreased body weight, decreased testes weight, and testes atrophy in male rats exposed to a LOAEL of 18 mg/kg/day DBAN in drinking water for 14 days (NTP, 2002). 10kg= assumed body weight of a child. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-14 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles 100 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a NOAEL in animals, and inter-individual variability in humans. 1 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 10-kg child. B.2.3 Longer-Term Health Advisory for DBAN Only two reports of suitable studies for deriving a longer-term HA were located. NTP (2002) evaluated the subchronic toxicity of DBAN in B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats exposed to DBAN in their drinking water. In both species the only effects were decreased water consumption and slight decreases in body weight. The highest dose tested was the study NOAEL of 17.9 mg/kg/day for both male and female mice, 12.6 mg/kg/day for female rats, and 11.3 mg/kg/day for male rats. No NOAEL was identified. Hayes et al. (1986) conducted a 90-day gavage study of DBAN toxicity in CD rats. At the high dose of 45 mg/kg/day, males, but not females, had decreased body weight. The next lower dose of 23 mg/kg/day was the NOAEL for decreased body weight. The only other noteworthy effects observed in the study were significantly increased ALP in females at 45 mg/kg/day and a significant increase in relative (but not absolute) liver weight in males at 45 mg/kg/day. With the exception of elevated ALP levels at the high dose, there were no significant treatment-related effects on serum chemistry, hematological, or urinary parameters or remarkable findings at necropsy at any dose level. The observed liver weight changes were not judged as adverse since no clinical chemistry signs of liver toxicity were observed in males. Females had an increase in ALP at the high dose, but did not have a corresponding increase in liver weight. No histopathology examination was performed to clarify if the liver weight changes in males was EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-15 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles adverse or adaptive. Based on these considerations, decreased body weight in males was selected as the critical effect for this study. The NOAEL was 23 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL was 45 mg/kg/day. BMD modeling was conducted for decreased body weight in males to identify alternative critical effect levels for this study. A BMDL of 20 mg/kg/day was selected as the most appropriate modeling result for this endpoint (see Appendix A). Both the NTP (2002) subchronic drinking water study in male rats and the subchronic gavage study by Hayes et al. (1986) were considered in the selection of the critical study for derivation of the Longer-term HA. The NOAEL of 11.3 mg/kg/day for male rats in the 13-week NTP study was selected as the most appropriate basis for derivation of the Longer-term HA. This value was judged to be more appropriate for deriving the HA than the NOAEL of 23 mg/kg/day for decreased body weight observed in male rats reported in Hayes et al. (1986) for several reasons. First, in the NTP study DBAN was administered in drinking water, a dose route more relevant to environmental exposure than the corn-oil gavage dosing employed by Hayes et al. (1986). Second, although the NTP 13-week study did not identify a LOAEL, the NOAELs for decreased body weight were the same for the 14-day and 13-week NTP studies, and the LOAEL was 18 mg/kg/day in the 14-day study. Since slight body weight decreases were also observed in the 13-week study at 11.3 mg/kg/day, this suggests that the LOAEL for the 13-week study might approximate the LOAEL of 18 mg/kg/day for the 14-day study, which is significantly lower than the LOAEL of 45 mg/kg/day reported in Hayes et al. (1986). This argues that the NOAEL/LOAEL boundary would be lower in the NTP (2002) study than in Hayes et al. (1986). Third, since the NTP (2002) and Hayes et al. (1986) studies are not directly comparable, due to differences in the methods of dose administration and rats strains employed, and both studies were EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-16 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles of adequate quality to derive the Longer-term HA, selection of the lower study NOAEL would be most appropriate, even in the absence of a LOAEL. The Longer-term HA value for a 10-kg child for DBAN may be calculated as shown below and summarized in Table VIII-3. Derivation of the health advisories is shown using the study NOAEL of 11.3 mg/kg/day from the NTP (2002) 13-week study as the point of departure. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for extrapolation from an animal study and an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for inter-individual variability in human sensitivity, in the absence of sufficient data to depart from these defaults. An additional uncertainty factor of 3 is used to account for database insufficiencies. This factor is selected since none of the available reproductive or developmental studies were adequate to use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. The data gap may be particularly relevant since cyanide, a metabolite of DBAN, induces male reproductive system toxicity (U.S. EPA, 2002c), and due to uncertainty regarding the significance of the testes effects observed in the 14-day NTP (2002) study for DBAN. The reproductive and developmental toxicity study by R.O.W. Sciences (1997) was limited by the fact that this was a screening study that was not designed to evaluate the full spectrum of endpoints of interest. The developmental toxicity study by Smith et al. (1987) is of limited use, because it was a single-dose study, because an insufficient array of endpoints was evaluated, and because the observed toxicity was confounded by the use of tricaprylin as the solvent vehicle. A full factor of 10 was not used for the database uncertainty factor since the systemic toxicity of DBAN has been tested in two species in subchronic studies (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986). The composite uncertainty factor used is 300. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-17 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Derivation of the Longer-term HA based on the study NOAEL Longer-Term HA (11.3 mg/kg/dav) (10 kg) (300) (1 L/day) 0.38 mg/L (rounded to 0.4 mg/L) where: 11.3 mg/kg/day = NOAEL in male F344 rats exposed to DBAN in drinking water for 13- weeks (NTP, 2002). 10 kg = assumed body weight of a child. 300 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a NOAEL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, and insufficiencies in the database. 1 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 10-kg child. The Longer-term HA for a 70-kg adult consuming 2 L/day of water is calculated as follows: where: 11.3 mg/kg/day = NOAEL in male F344 rats exposed to DBAN in drinking water for 13- weeks (NTP, 2002). 70 kg = assumed body weight of an adult. 300 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a NOAEL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, and insufficiencies in the database. 2 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 70-kg adult. B.2.4 Lifetime Health Advisory for DBAN No chronic studies of DBAN toxicity were located, although DBAN is currently under test for chronic toxicity in mice and rats (NTP, 2002). In the absence of such data, the available Longer-Term HA (11.3 mg/kg/dav) (70 kg) (300)(2 L/day) 1.3 mg/L (rounded to 1 mg/L) EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-18 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles subchronic studies (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986) may be used to derive the Lifetime HA. As described for the Longer-term HA, the NOAEL of 11.3 mg/kg/day for male rats identified in the NTP (2002) study is the most appropriate basis for deriving the RfD. The derivation of the RfD is shown below and summarized in Table VIII-3. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for extrapolation from an animal study and an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for inter- individual variability in human sensitivity, in the absence of sufficient data to depart from these defaults. An uncertainty factor of 3, instead of the default value of 10, was chosen to account for less-than-lifetime exposure, based on the absence of progression of toxicological effects (or even regression) from 14 days to 90 days (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986). An uncertainty factor of 3 is used to account for insufficiencies in the database. This factor was chosen to replace the default factor of 10 because the subchronic toxicity of DBAN has been evaluated in two species (NTP, 2002; Hayes et al., 1986). Furthermore, decreased body weight was the identified as the most sensitive effect in both studies, even though the NTP study included a thorough examination of tissue histopathology, hematology, and clinical chemistry. These results suggest that no new systemic target organs for DBAN are likely to be identified. However, none of the available reproductive or developmental studies were adequate to use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. The data gap may be particularly relevant since cyanide, a metabolite of DBAN, induces male reproductive system toxicity (U.S. EPA, 2002c), and due to uncertainty regarding the significance of the testes effects observed in the 14-day NTP (2002) study for DBAN. The reproductive and developmental toxicity study by R.O.W. Sciences (1997) was limited by the fact that this was a screening study that was not designed to evaluate the full spectrum of endpoints of interest. The developmental toxicity study by Smith et al. (1987) is of limited use, because it was a single-dose study, because an insufficient array of endpoints was evaluated, and because the EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-19 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles observed toxicity was confounded by the use of tricaprylin as the solvent vehicle. Therefore, based on default factors of 10 each for interspecies extrapolation and inter-individual variability, and partial factors of 3 each for subchronic to chronic extrapolation and for database insufficiencies (lack of adequate developmental and reproductive toxicity studies), the composite uncertainty factor used is 1000. Derivation of the Lifetime HA based on the study NOAEL. Step 1: Determination of the Reference Dose (RfD) for DBAN RfD = ^' ' (1 = 0.011 mg/kg/day (rounded to 0.01 mg/kg/day) where: 11.3 mg/kg/day = NOAEL in male F344 rats exposed to DBAN in drinking water for 13- weeks (NTP, 2002). 1000 = composite uncertainty factor chosen to account for extrapolation from a NOAEL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, less-than-lifetime exposure, and insufficiencies in the database. Step 2: Determination of the Drinking Water Equivalent Level (DWEL) for DBAN tyyxttjt (0.011 mg/kg/day) (70 kg) DWEL = (2 L/day) =0.39 mg/L (rounded to 0.4 mg/L) where: 0.011 mg/kg/day = RfD (before rounding) 70 kg = assumed body weight of an adult. 2 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 70-kg adult. Step 3: Determination of the Lifetime Health Advisory for DBAN Lifetime HA = (0.39 mg/L) (20%) = 0.078 mg/L (rounded to 0.08 mg/L) EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-20 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles where: 0.39 mg/L = DWEL 20% = assumed relative source contribution from water Table VIII-2 Summary of Oral Studies of DBAN Toxicity Reference Species/ Strain Route/ Dose Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Hayes et al. (1986) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in corn oil 25 - 3,200 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality NDa LD50 = 289 (M) 303 (F) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 25 - 1,600 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 = 245 (M) 361 (F) Eastman Kodak Co. (1992) Mouse Not specified Gavage 25 - 1,600 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 = 50 Rat Not specified Gavage 25 - 3200 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 = 50 - 100 Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 (Free- standing NOAEL) ND R.O.W Sciences (1997) Rat- Sprague- Dawley Drinking Water 0,0.7,2.2,5.8, 13.2 mg/kg/day (males) 0,0.8,2.4,6.8, 17.9 mg/kg/day (females) 14 Days Clinical signs, body weight, food consumption 13.2 (m); 17.9 (f) (Free- standing NOAEL) ND Hayes et al. (1986) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 0, 23,45, 90, 180 mg/kg/day 14 Days Body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, gross necropsy 23 45 (Decreased body weight in males) EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-21 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Reference Species/ Strain Route/ Dose Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 0, 6, 23,45 mg/kg/day 90 Days Body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, gross necropsy 23 45 (Decreased body weight in males) NTP (2002) Mice- B6C3F1 Drinking Water 0,2.1,4.3, 8.2, 14.7,21.4 mg/kg/day (Males) 0,2.0, 3.3, 10.0, 13.9,21.6 mg/kg/day (Females) 14 Days Clinical signs, body weight, water consumption, organ weight and pathology, liver GST activity 21 (Free- standing NOAEL) Rat- Fischer- 344 Drinking Water 0, 2,3,7, 12, 18 mg/kg/day (Males) 0, 2, 4, 7, 12, 19 mg/kg/day (Females) 14 Days Clinical signs, body weight, water consumption, organ weight and pathology, liver GST activity 12 (m) 18 (Decreased body weight, decreased testes weight and pathology in males) Mice- B6C3F1 Drinking Water 0, 1.6, 3.2, 5.6, 10.7, 17.9 mg/kg/day (Males) 0, 1.6,3,6.1, 11.1, 17.9 mg/kg/day (Females) 13 Weeks Clinical signs, body weight, water consumption, organ weight and pathology, hematology and clinical chemistry 17.9 (m) (Free- standing NOAEL) Rat- Fischer- 344 Drinking Water 0,0.9, 1.8,3.3, 6.2, 11.3 mg/kg/day (Males) 0, 1, 1.9, 3.8, 6.8, 12.6 mg/kg/day (Females) 13 Weeks Clinical signs, body weight, water consumption, organ weight and pathology, hematology and clinical chemistry 11.3 (m); 12.6 (!) (Free- standing NOAEL) EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-22 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Reference Species/ Route/ Exposure Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL LOAEL Strain Dose Duration (mg/kg/day) (mg/kg/day) R.O.W Rat- Drinking Water (M) 30 (M) Clinical pathology, Paternal: 8.2 ND Sciences Days, (F) organ weight, sperm (M); 10.8 (F) (1997) Sprague- 35 days analysis, Dawley 0, 1.4, 3.3, 8.2 penconce histopathology: (F) Reproductive/de mg/kg/day ption or 35 days gestation day 5 to PND 1 maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth velopmental: 8.2 (M); 10.8 (F) (Free-standing NOAEL) Smith et al. Rat- Gavage in Gestation Maternal weight, Maternal: ND Maternal: 50 (1987) tricapyrlinb days 7 to reproductive success, (FEL for Long- 21 pup viability and maternal death; Evans 50 mg/kg/day growth decrease Hooded Developmental: ND maternal weight gain) Development: 50 (Decreased litter size, decreased fetal weight) a. ND = not determined. b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-23 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table VTTT-3 Summary of Development of the Health Advisories for DBAN Study Critical Effect Critical Effect Level Uncertainty Factors3 RfD (mg/kg/day) Health Advisory (mg/L) Ten-day NTP (2002) Decreased body weight, decreased testes weight, and testes atrophy 12 mg/kg/day (NOAEL) 100 (10H, 10A) 1 Longer-term NTP (2002) Decreased body weight 11.3 mg/kg/day (NOAEL) 300 (10H, 10A, 3d) Child 0.4 Adult 1 Lifetime NTP (2002) Decreased body weight 11.3 mg/kg/day (NOAEL) 1000 (10H, ioA, 3S, 3d) 0.01 0.08 a. Areas of uncertainty addressed by uncertainty factors are: animal to human extrapolation (A); intrahuman variability and protection of sensitive subpopulations (H); extrapolation from a LOAEL to a NOAEL(L); extrapolation from a subchronic to chronic exposure (S); and lack of a complete database (D) B.3 DCAN B.3.1 One-Day Health Advisory for DCAN The oral toxicity data for DCAN are summarized in Table VIII-4. Hayes et al. (1986) identify acute oral LD50 values for DCAN of 270 to 339 mg/kg. Clinical signs observed include ataxia, depressed respiration, depressed activity, and coma. However, LD50 studies are not suitable for the development of one-day health advisories and no other adequate acute studies were located for DCAN. In the absence of such data, the Ten-day HA value is recommended as a conservative estimate of an appropriate One-day HA value. B.3.2 Ten-Day Health Advisory for DCAN One general toxicity study of suitable duration for the Ten-day HA was located. Hayes et al. (1986) conducted a 14-day study of DCAN toxicity in rats. Body weight decreases were EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-24 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles observed in both males and females. Males were more sensitive to this effect than females. In males, a decrease in body weight of greater than 10% was observed at 45 and 90 mg/kg/day, although these results were not statistically significant. Several serum markers for organ toxicity were increased in treated animals. Significantly increased SGPT levels in females at 90 mg/kg/day, and ALP levels at 90 mg/kg/day in males and at 45 and 90 mg/kg/day in females were reported, possibly indicative of hepatotoxicity. Although the authors did not consider these changes to be compound-related adverse effects (no reason provided), these changes were considered adverse for this assessment, based on the magnitude of the changes, and the supporting data for DCAN in females in the subchronic study. No remarkable findings were observed at necropsy; however, relative liver weight was significantly increased (p < 0.05) in male and female rats. The observed increase in serum levels of hepatic enzyme activity at higher doses than those associated with liver weight gives greater weight to the potential toxicological significance of the liver weight changes, even though the absence of histopathology data makes it difficult to determine conclusively if the effects were adverse at low doses. Based on this uncertainty, both decreased body weight and increased relative liver weight are considered toxicologically-relevant responses. The more sensitive of these endpoints was selected as the critical effect for this study. Therefore, the lowest dose tested of 12 mg/kg/day is the study LOAEL for increased relative liver weight in males, and no NOAEL is determined. BMD modeling was conducted for decreased body weight and increased relative liver weight in both sexes to identify alternative critical effect levels for this study. A BMDL of 5 mg/kg/day for increased relative liver weight in males was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment (see Appendix A). EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-25 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles As a follow-up to their earlier single-dose study, Smith et al. (1989) reported that doses of 25 to 45 mg/kg/day administered for 12 days during gestation resulted in fetotoxicity and teratogenicity in rats. However, use of this study for dose-response assessment is not appropriate, because it may not accurately reflect the toxicity of DC AN in drinking water. This conclusion is based on the observation of embryotoxicity of the tricaprylin vehicle in this study and later work by this laboratory which suggests that tricaprylin may act synergistically with TCAN to enhance developmental toxicity (Christ el al., 1996). Based on increased relative liver weight in male rats (Hayes et al., 1986) the Ten-day HA was calculated as shown below and summarized in Table VIII-5. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for extrapolation from an animal study and an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for inter-individual variability in human sensitivity. An additional factor of 3 was used to account for extrapolation from a minimal LOAEL. A factor of 10 was not used since the adverse effect (increased relative liver weight) was of marginal severity (i.e. no clinical chemistry findings were observed at this dose). This additional factor was not used for derivation of the Ten-day HA when the BMDL was used as the point of departure, since the BMDL often approximates a NOAEL as indicated by the lower value of the BMDL for the same effect the critical study. The composite uncertainty factor used is 300 when the LOAEL was used as the point of departure, and 100 when the BMDL was used as the point of departure. Derivation of the Ten-day HA based on the study LOAEL. T J TTA (12 mg/kg/day) (10 kg) Ten-day HA = (300)(1 L/day) = 0.4 mg/L EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-26 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles where: 12 mg/kg/day = LOAEL, based on increased relative liver weight in males supported by clinical chemistry findings at higher doses in rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 14 days (Hayeses a/., 1986). 10 kg = assumed body weight of a child. 300 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a minimal LOAEL in animals, and inter-individual variability in humans. 1 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 10-kg child. Derivation of the Ten-day HA based on the study BMDL. ^ , T T a (5 mg/kg/day) (10 kg) Ten-day HA = (100)(1 L/day) = 0.5 mg/L where: 5 mg/kg/day = BMDL, based on increased relative liver weight in males supported by clinical chemistry findings at higher doses in rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 14 days (Hayeses a/., 1986). 10 kg = assumed body weight of a child. 100 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a BMDL in animals, and inter-individual variability in humans. 1 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 10-kg child. B.3.3 Longer-Term Health Advisory for DCAN Only one study of suitable duration for the derivation of a longer-term HA was located. Hayes et al. (1986) conducted a 90-day subchronic toxicity study in rats. Body weight was significantly decreased in high-dose male and female rats and in male rats at 33 mg/kg/day. Relative liver weights were statistically significantly elevated in males beginning at 33 mg/kg/day and in females beginning at 8 mg/kg/day. However, relative liver weight increases were greater EPA/OW/OST/HECD VIII-27 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles than 10% at 8 mg/kg/day in both males and females, and therefore the increase in relative liver weight at this dose was considered toxicologically relevant for both sexes. The observed increase in serum levels of ALP activity in the subchronic study, and the increase in both ALP and SGPT observed in the 14-day study support the toxicological relevance of the liver weight findings. The absence of histopathology data makes it difficult to determine conclusively if the effects were adverse at low doses. Based on this uncertainty, both decreased body weight and increased relative liver weight are considered toxicologically-relevant responses. The more sensitive of these endpoints was selected as the critical effect. Therefore, the lowest dose tested of 8 mg/kg/day is the study LOAEL for increased relative liver weight in males and females, and no NOAEL is determined. BMD modeling was conducted for decreased body weight and increased relative liver weight in both sexes to identify alternative critical effect levels for this study. A BMDL of 4 mg/kg/day for increased relative liver weight in males was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment, using a benchmark response (BMR) of a one standard deviation decrease in relative liver weight (see Appendix A). Based on the increased relative liver weight in rats (Hayes et al., 1986), the Longer-term HA value for a 10-kg child may be calculated as shown below and summarized in Table VIII-5. Derivation of the health advisories are shown when either the study LOAEL (8 mg/kg/day) or BMDL (4 mg/kg/day) is selected as the point of departure. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for extrapolation from an animal study and an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for human variability in sensitivity, in the absence of sufficient data to depart from these defaults. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for insufficiencies in the database. This factor was EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-28 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles chosen because only one subchronic toxicity study in a single species was identified for derivation of the Longer-term HA (Table VIII-4). The absence of a systemic toxicity study of suitable duration in a second species, the lack of histopathology data in the existing 90-day study, and failure to investigate effects associated with thiocyanate (an identified metabolite) or cyanide (the likely precursor of thiocyanate), such as thyroid or central nervous system effects, further weakens the database. In addition, no adequate studies on reproductive or developmental toxicity were reported. The only available developmental toxicity study testing multiple dose levels (Smith et al., 1989) was compromised by the use of tricaprylin as the solvent vehicle and was judged as inadequate for use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. If the LOAEL is selected as the point of departure, an additional factor of 3 is used to account from extrapolation from a LOAEL for minimally adverse liver effects, since no clinical chemistry changes were observed at this dose to accompany the observed increases in liver weight. The composite uncertainty factor used is 3000 with the LOAEL as the point of departure and 1000 with the BMDL as the point of departure, based on full factors of 10 each for interspecies extrapolation and inter-individual human variability, a factor of 10 for database insufficiencies, and, for the LOAEL only, a partial factor of 3 for a minimal LOAEL. Derivation of the Longer-term HA based on the study LOAEL. Longer-Term HA = (8 ^^Q^L/day^ = ° °27 mg/L (rounded t0 0 03 mS/L) where: 8 mg/kg/day = LOAEL, based on increased relative liver weight in male and female rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 90 days (Hayes et al., 1986). EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-29 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles 10 kg = assumed body weight of a child. 3000 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a LOAEL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, and insufficiencies in the database. 1 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 10-kg child. The Longer-term HA for a 70-kg adult consuming 2 L/day of water is calculated as follows: Longer-Term HA = (8 = 0 093 m8/L (rounded to 0.09 mg/L) (3000)(2 L/day) where: 8 mg/kg/day = LOAEL, based on increased relative liver weight in male and female rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 90 days (Hayes et al., 1986). 70 kg = assumed body weight of an adult 3000 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a LOAEL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, and insufficiencies in the database. 2 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 70-kg adult Derivation of the Longer-term HA based on the study BMDL. t t ua (4 mg/kg/day) (10 kg) Longer-Term HA = (1000)(1 L/day) = 0 04 mg/L where: 4 mg/kg/day = BMDL, based on increased relative liver weight in male rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 90 days (Hayes et al., 1986). 10 kg = assumed body weight of a child. 1000 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a BMDL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, and insufficiencies in the database. 1 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 10-kg child. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-30 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The Longer-term HA for a 70-kg adult consuming 2 L/day of water is calculated as follows: Longer-Term HA = (4 ^= °-14 m8/L (rounded to 0.1 mg/L) (1000)(2 L/day) where: 4 mg/kg/day = BMDL, based on increased relative liver weight in male rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 90 days (Hayes et al., 1986). 70 kg = assumed body weight of an adult 1000 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a BMDL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, and insufficiencies in the database. 2 L/day = assumed daily water consumption by a 70-kg adult B.3.4 Lifetime Health Advisory for DCAN No chronic studies of DCAN toxicity were located. In the absence of such data, the subchronic (90-day) LOAEL of 8 mg/kg/day or the BMDL of 4 mg/kg/day for increased relative liver weight in rats reported in the study by Hayes et al. (1986) may be employed to derive the RfD as shown below and summarized in Table VIII-5. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for extrapolation from an animal study and an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for inter-individual variability in human sensitivity, in the absence of sufficient data to depart from these defaults. An additional factor of 3 is used to account for less-than-lifetime exposure for DCAN. This factor of 3 was used to replace the default factor of 10 for extrapolation from a subchronic study. In selecting a factor of 3, comparison of the critical effect levels between the 14-day and 90-day studies (Hayes et al., 1986) is not helpful since the low dose was the LOAEL for EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-31 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles increased liver weight in both cases. An added complication is that the same dose levels were not used in the 14-day and 90-day studies, which makes comparison of the severity of effects with duration more difficult. However, examination of the liver weight changes across durations suggests that the uncertainty factor for extrapolation from a subchronic-to-chronic study would be adequately accounted by an uncertainty factor of 3. This conclusion is supported by the observation that for males a similar degree of change in relative liver weight (increase of 13%) was observed over a 1.5-fold change in dose (8 mg/kg/day for 90 days versus 12 mg/kg/day for 14 days). Furthermore, in females the increase in relative liver weight was roughly two-fold greater at 8 mg/kg/day in the 90-day study than at 12 mg/kg-day in the 14-day study, suggesting a differences in responsiveness of 3-fold on an equal dose basis (1.5-fold decrease in dose x 2-fold increase in effect). A similar type of evaluation for higher doses suggests that the difference in the magnitude of liver weight increases is not likely to increase by ten-fold, with increasing exposure duration, although some increase in magnitude of the effect is observed with longer-term exposure. Finally, the BMDL calculated for the 14-day study (5 mg/kg/day) is nearly identical to the BMDL calculated for the 90-day study (4 mg/kg/day) for the same endpoint. Since the BMDL is based on a defined change in mean and not dependent on the dose levels, the similarity of the BMDLs across study duration suggest minimal progression. An uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for insufficiencies in the database. This factor was chosen because only one subchronic toxicity study in a single species was identified for derivation of the Lifetime HA (Table VIII-4). The absence of a systemic toxicity study of suitable duration in a second species, the lack of histopathology data in the existing 90-day study, and failure to investigate effects associated with thiocyanate (an identified metabolite) or cyanide (the EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-32 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles likely precursor of thiocyanate), such as thyroid or central nervous system effects, further weakens the database. In addition, no sufficient studies on reproductive or developmental toxicity were reported. The only available multiple-dose developmental toxicity study (Smith et. al., 1989) was compromised by the use of tricaprylin as the solvent vehicle and was judged as inadequate for use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. If the LOAEL is selected as the point of departure an additional factor of 3 is used to account from extrapolation from a LOAEL for minimally adverse liver effects, since no clinical chemistry changes were observed at this dose to accompany the observed increases in relative liver weight. When the LOAEL is used as the point of departure, the composite uncertainty factor is based on three full factors of 10 and two partial factors of 3. This is equivalent to four full areas of uncertainty. Based on EPA policy (Dourson, 1994) the composite uncertainty factor for four individual factors of 10 is 3000, reflecting overlap in the individual factors. Therefore, the composite uncertainty factor is 3000 when the LOAEL is used as the point of departure. When the BMDL is used as the point of departure, the composite uncertainty factor is based on three full factors of 10 and one partial factor of 3. Therefore, the composite uncertainty factor is also 3000 when the BMDL is used as the point of departure. Derivation of the Lifetime HA based on the study LOAEL. Step 1: Determination of RfD for DC AN RfD = ^ (3000)^aV' = ^-0027 mg/kg/day (rounded to 0.003 mg/kg/day) where: EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-33 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles 8 mg/kg/day = LOAEL, based on increased relative liver weight in male and female rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 90 days (Hayes et al., 1986). 3000 = composite uncertainty factor chosen to account for extrapolation from a LOAEL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, less-than-lifetime exposure, and insufficiencies in the database. Step 2: Determination of the Drinking Water Equivalent Level (DWEL) for DCAN (0.0027 mg/kg/day) (70 kg) „ . . . „. DWEL = (2 L/day) = 0 094 mg/L (rounded to 0.09 mg/L) where: 0.0027 mg/kg/day = RfD. 70 kg = assumed body weight of an adult. 2 L/day = assumed water consumption of a 70-kg adult. Step 3: Determination of Lifetime HA for DCAN Lifetime HA = (0.094 mg/L) (20%) = 0.019 mg/L (rounded to 0.02 mg/L) where: 0.094 mg/L = DWEL 20% = assumed relative source contribution from water Derivation of the Lifetime HA based on the study BMDL. Step 1: Determination of RfD for DCAN RfD = ^ (3000)^aV' = 0.0013 mg/kg/day (rounded to 0.001 mg/kg/day) where: 4 mg/kg/day = BMDL, based on increased relative liver weight in male rats exposed to DCAN by gavage for 90 days (Hayes et al., 1986). EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-34 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles 3000 = composite uncertainty factor chosen to account for extrapolation from a BMDL in animals, inter-individual variability in humans, less-than-lifetime exposure, and insufficiencies in the database. Step 2: Determination of the Drinking Water Equivalent Level (DWEL) for DCAN where: 0.0013 mg/kg/day = RfD (before rounding) 70 kg = assumed body weight of an adult. 2 L/day = assumed water consumption of a 70-kg adult. Step 3: Determination of Lifetime HA for DCAN Lifetime HA = (0.046 mg/L) (20%) = 0.0092 mg/L (rounded to 0.009 mg/L) DWEL (0.0013 mg/kg/dav) (70 kg) (2 L/day) 0.046 mg/L (rounded to 0.05 mg/L) where: 0.046 mg/L = DWEL 20% = assumed relative source contribution from water EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-35 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table VIII-4 Summary of Oral Studies of DC AN Toxicity Reference Species/ Strain Route/ Dose Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Hayes et al. (1986) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in corn oil 25 - 3,200 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality NDa LD50 = 270 (M) 279 (F) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 25 - 1,600 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality ND LD50 =339 (M) 330 (F) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 0, 12, 23, 45, 90 mg/kg/day 14 Days Body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, gross necropsy ND 12 (Increased liver weight) Rat- CD Gavage in corn oil 0, 8,33,65 mg/kg/day 90 Days Body weight, organ weight, serum chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, gross necropsy ND 8 (Increased liver weight) Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 mg/kg (Free-standing NOAEL) ND Smith et al. (1987) Rat- Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricapyrlinb 55 mg/kg/day Gestation days 7 to 21 Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth ND Maternal: 55 (Decreased maternal weight) Development: 55 (Decreased pregnancy rate; decreased viable litters; increased litters resorbed; decreased fetal weight) EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-36 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Reference Species/ Route/ Exposure Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Strain Dose Duration (mg/kg/day) Smith et Rat- Gavage in Gestation Maternal weight, Maternal: 15 Maternal: 25 al. (1989) tricapyrlinb days 6 to reproductive success, (increased liver Long- 18 pup viability and weight) Evans 0, 5, 15, growth Hooded 25,45 mg/kg/day Developmental: 15 Development: 25 (Increased post- implantation loss, increased soft-tissue malformations) a. ND = not determined. b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. Table VIII-5 Summary of Development of the Health Advisories for DC AN Study Critical Effect Critical Effect Level Uncertainty Factors3 RfD (mg/kg/day) Health Advisory (mg/L) Ten-day Hayes et al. (1986) Increased relative liver weight 12 mg/kg/day (LOAEL) 300 (10H, 10A, 3l) 0.4 Hayes et al. (1986) Increased relative liver weight 5 mg/kg/day (BMDL) 100 (10H, 10A) 0.5 Longer-term Hayes et al. (1986) Increased relative liver weight 8 mg/kg/day (LOAEL) 3000 (10H, 10A, 3l, 10d) Child 0.03 Adult 0.09 Hayes et al. (1986) Increased relative liver weight 4 mg/kg/day (BMDL) 1000 (10H, ioA, 10D) Child 0.04 Adult 0.1 Lifetime Hayes et al. (1986) Increased relative liver weight 8 mg/kg/day (LOAEL) 3000 (10H, 10A, 3S, 3l, 10d) 0.003 0.02 Hayes et al. (1986) Increased relative liver weight 4 mg/kg/day (BMDL) 3000 (10H, 10A, 3S, 10D) 0.001 0.009 a. Areas of uncertainty addressed by uncertainty factors are: animal to human extrapolation (A); intrahuman variability and protection of sensitive subpopulations (H); extrapolation from a LOAEL to a NOAEL(L); extrapolation from a subchronic to chronic exposure (S); and lack of a complete database (D) EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-37 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles B.4 TCAN B.4.1 One-Day Health Advisory for TCAN The oral toxicity data for TCAN are summarized in Table VIII-6. An oral LD50 of 360 mg/kg has been reported (Smyth et al., 1962). However, LD50 studies are not suitable for the development of one-day health advisories and no other adequate acute studies were located for TCAN. In the absence of suitable acute data, the Ten-day HA value is recommended as a conservative estimate of the One-day HA value. B.4.2 Ten-Day Health Advisory for TCAN Two developmental studies have been conducted which evaluate the short-term effects of TCAN. In Smith et al. (1988), oral exposure of pregnant rats to TCAN in tricaprylin on gestation days 6 through 18 resulted in significant fetotoxic and teratogenic effects at doses of 7.5 mg/kg/day or higher. Although the increased incidence of teratogenic effects was not statistically significant at a dose of 1 mg/kg/day, the authors expressed concern that this might be of biological significance. However, further evaluation of these data based on litter incidences did not reveal a treatment-related effect at 1 mg/kg/day. In a later study by Christ et al. (1996), oral exposure of pregnant rats to TCAN in corn oil on gestation days 6 to 18 resulted in significantly reduced maternal weight gain at doses of 35 mg/kg/day and higher. Fetotoxic and teratogenic effects were not observed until doses of 55 mg/kg/day and higher. Because of the confounding effect of tricaprylin toxicity, as identified by Christ et al. (1996), exposure to TCAN in corn oil is more appropriate basis for a health advisory. Therefore, the Christ et al. (1996) study is selected as the critical study for derivation of the Ten-day HA as shown below and summarized in Table VIII-7. In general, developmental toxicity endpoints arising from in utero exposure have limited EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-38 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles application as the basis for the derivation of the Ten-day HA, since the Ten-day HA is based on water consumption by children directly, and not from maternal exposure. However, when the critical effect is a general systemic endpoint (e.g., decreased maternal weight gain) that is likely to be relevant to exposed children, it is appropriate to use these data to derive the Ten-day HA. Based on this consideration, the study by Christ et al. (1996) is judged as an adequate basis for the Ten-day HA. Based on the critical effect of decreased maternal body weight gain, the NOAEL is 15 mg/kg/day and the LOAEL is 35 mg/kg/day. BMD modeling was conducted to identify alternative critical effect levels for this study. A BMDL of 17 mg/kg/day for decreased adjusted maternal weight gain was selected as the most appropriate modeling result to serve as the basis for the quantitative dose-response assessment (see Appendix A). For derivation of the Ten-day HA, an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for extrapolation from an animal study and an uncertainty factor of 10 is used to account for inter- individual variability in human sensitivity, in the absence of sufficient data to depart from these defaults. The composite uncertainty factor used is 100. Derivation of the Ten-day HA based on the study NOAEL. „ , (15 mg/kg/day) (10 kg) „ . , , Ten-day HA = q00) (1 L/day) m§ (rounded t0 2 mS/L) where: 15 mg/kg/day = NOAEL, based on the absence of decreased adjusted maternal weight gain in pregnant rats exposed by gavage on days 6 to 18 of gestation, with a corresponding LOAEL of 35 mg/kg/day (Christ et al., 1996). 10 kg = assumed body weight of a child. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-39 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles 100 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a NOAEL from a study in animals, and inter-individual variability in humans. 1 L/day = assumed water intake by a 10-kg child. Derivation of the Ten-day HA based on the study BMDL. „ , (17 mg/kg/dav) (10 kg) „ . , , Ten-day HA = (100)(1 L/day) = 17 m§/L (rounded to 2 mg/L) where: 17 mg/kg/day = BMDL, based on the absence of decreased adjusted maternal weight gain in pregnant rats exposed by gavage on days 6 to 18 of gestation (Christ et al., 1996). 10 kg = assumed body weight of a child. 100 = composite uncertainty factor, chosen to account for extrapolation from a NOAEL from a study in animals, and inter-individual variability in humans. 1 L/day = assumed water intake by a 10-kg child. B.4.3 Longer-Term and Lifetime Health Advisories for TCAN No data on the effects of longer-term or chronic exposure to TCAN were located. In the absence of suitable data, no values can be derived for the Longer-term or Lifetime HAs for TCAN. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-40 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table VIII-6 Summary of Oral Studies of TCAN Toxicity Reference Species/ Strain Route Exposure Duration Endpoints Evaluated NOAEL (mg/kg/day) LOAEL (mg/kg/day) Smyth et al. (1962) Rat- Wistar Gavage 0.19-0.32 mg/kg/day Acute Lethality NDa LD50 = 360 Meier et al. (1985) Mouse- B6C3F1 Gavage in water 0, 12.5,25, or 50 mg/kg/day 5 Days Sperm head abnormalities 50 mg/kg (Free- standing NOAEL) ND Smith et al. (1987) Rat Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricaprylinb 55 mg/kg/day Days 7 to 21 of gestation Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth Maternal: ND Developmental: ND Maternal: 55 (FEL for maternal death; decrease maternal weight gain) Development: 55 (Decreased pregnancy rate; decreased viable litters; increased litters resorbed; decreased fetal weight) Smith et al. (1988) Rat Long- Evans Hooded Gavage in tricaprylinb 0, 1,7.5, 15, 35, 55 mg/kg/day Days 6 to 18 of gestation Maternal weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth, malformations Maternal: 35 Developmental: 1 Maternal: 55 (FEL for maternal death; decrease maternal weight gain) Developmental: 7.5 (Increased full-liter resorptions; increased cardiovascular malformations) Christ et al. (1996) Rat Long- Evans Gavage in corn oilc 0, 15, 35, 55,75 mg/kg/day Days 6 to 18 of gestation Maternal body and organ weight, reproductive success, pup viability and growth, malformations Maternal: 15 Developmental: 35 Maternal: 35 (Decreased maternal weight gain; organ weight changes) Development: 55 (increased post- implantation loss, cardiovascular and cranio-facial malformations; decreased live fetuses per litter, fetal body weight, crown-rump length. a. ND = not determined b. Due to the demonstrated ability of tricaprylin to enhance developmental toxicity of TCAN, this study was not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. c. Only data relating to the corn oil control are reported in the table, since the developmental toxicity reported in the groups administered tricaprylin were not considered in derivation of the Health Advisories. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-41 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table VIII-7. Summary of Development of the Health Advisories for TCAN. Study Critical Effect Critical Uncertainty RfD Health Effect Factors3 (mg/kg/day) Advisory Level (mg/L) Ten-day Christ et al. Decreased adjusted 15 100 (10H, 10A) . 2 (1996) maternal body weight mg/kg/day gain (NOAEL) Christ et al. Decreased adjusted 17 100 (10H, 10A) . 2 (1996) maternal body weight mg/kg/day gain (BMDL) Longer-term Inadequate data to derive Health Advisory Lifetime Inadequate data to derive Health Advisory a. Areas of uncertainty addressed by uncertainty factors are: animal to human extrapolation (A); intrahuman variability and protection of sensitive subpopulations (H). C. Carcinogenic Effects No epidemiological studies have evaluated directly the carcinogenic potential of HANs in humans. Rather, studies have evaluated the carcinogenic potential of chlorinated versus unchlorinated drinking water or the presence of trihalomethanes as a marker of chlorination by- products (IARC, 1999; Mills el al., 1998). No standard cancer bioassays of HANs have been done in animals, although DBAN is on test for a full bioassay as part of the National Toxicology Program (NTP, 2002). Limited short-term exposure data from the mouse skin assay (Bull et al., 1985) and the mouse lung assay (Bull and Robinson, 1985) indicate that all four compounds (BCAN, DBAN, and TCAN) may be tumorigenic, although DCAN, DBAN, and TCAN were reported to be negative in the rat liver GGT-foci assay (Herren-Freund and Pereira, 1986). QSTR predictions of the carcinogenicity of the HANs have produced mixed results (Moudgal et al., EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-42 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles 2000). For example, BCAN was predicted as positive in male and female mice, but negative in both sexes of rats. DBAN was negative in both sexes of mice, and female rats, but indeterminate in male rats. No carcinogenicity predictions for TCAN or DCAN were included in the study. Taken together, the screening bioassays and QSTR predictions provide at least limited indications of potential carcinogenicity of HANs, although the existing data are not adequate to demonstrate positive carcinogenicity in animals. The HANs or their metabolites are reactive compounds that can bind macromolecules including DNA and proteins (Daniel et al., 1986; Lin et al., 1992). Glutathione conjugation may be an important cellular protection against these reactive compounds (Ahmed et al., 1991), although no glutathione conjugates or their metabolites have been identified. The genotoxicity of each of the HAN compounds BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN have been evaluated in at least one, and in most cases a variety of different assays. Although some of the data have provided contradictory results, all of the tested compounds appear to have some capacity to induce genotoxic effects. For example, each compound has been found to generate a positive result in at least one reported Salmonella!microsome assay, except DBAN. In addition, while not uniformly consistent, a variety of other assays for DNA damage (i.e. DNA strand breaks) or responses to DNA damage (sister chromatid assays, tests for gene recombination in yeast, and SOS chromotest) have yielded positive results for some of the HANs. Overall, these data suggest that HANs induce genotoxicity through direct interactions with DNA. Evidence for direct chromosome effects are weaker, with inconsistent results reported in the limited number of studies that evaluated formation of micronuclei and aneuploidy. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-43 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 1999) reviewed the data for HANs and found that there is inadequate evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals for all compounds. As a results, IARC classified these compounds as "not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans" (Group 3). Following EPA's 1986 Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1986), BCAN, DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN are appropriately classified as Group D - Not Classifiable as to Human Carcinogenicity. This classification is appropriate when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans or animals. Following EPA's Draft 1999 Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1999), the data for the HANs can best be described as Data Are Inadequate for an Assessment of Human Carcinogenic Potential. D. Characterization of Uncertainties and Data Gaps The available data are very limited for the HANs included in this Criteria Document. Adequate human data are not available to evaluate noncancer or cancer effects. Full chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity studies in animals were not available for any of the HANs. The absence of adequate carcinogenicity testing is a significant data gap, particularly in light of the mixed results in screening bioassays, genotoxicity testing, and QSTR modeling, which indicate at least some potential for HANs to induce tumorigenic responses. Available subchronic studies for DCAN did not include a full histopathology evaluation of relevant tissues. The absence of histopathology evaluations following longer-term exposures resulted in significant uncertainties in the assessment of noncancer toxicity, since the adversity of the increases in liver weight induced EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-44 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles by DCAN (Hayes el al., 1986) could not be substantiated, and detailed evaluations of known targets for the oxidative pathway metabolites cyanide and thiocyanate was not possible. Although the developmental toxicity of HANs has been evaluated in numerous animal studies, the confounding effects of the tricaprylin solvent vehicle that was used in the earlier studies greatly limits the usefulness of most of the data. The mechanism by which tricaprylin impacted the developmental toxicity of the HANs in these studies remains unclear. Due to confounding by tricaprylin, adequate developmental toxicity data are available only for TCAN (Christ et al., 1996). No multi-generation reproductive studies were available for any of the HANs. Only one study was available that evaluated the developmental effects of HANs in humans (Klotz and Pyrch, 1999), and no association was observed between HANs exposure and developmental effects. The potential reproductive and developmental toxicity of the HANs remains a significant area of uncertainty in the current assessment, and represents a major data gap in light of the reproductive and developmental effects attributed to other disinfectant byproducts in humans (Neiuwenhuijsen et al., 2000). The available data on HAN toxicokinetics and toxicodymanics was not sufficient to move away from default uncertainty factor values for extrapolation from animal studies or for inter- individual variability in human sensitivity. Basic research on toxicokinetics is needed for most of the HANs; only DBAN (NTP, 2002) and DCAN have been studied in detail (Roby et al., 1986), and only the study for DCAN was available for review at the time this document was prepared. In particular, further understanding of HAN metabolism is needed. Research in this area could clarify the relative contribution of glutathione conjugation and oxidative metabolism pathways to EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-45 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles the observed spectrum of toxicity for HANs. Identification of the toxic moiety and the GST or CYP isoforms important in catalyzing HAN metabolism could contribute to characterization of potential human susceptibility based on age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Based on the clear limitations in the database and gaps in understanding of the mechanisms of toxicity for HANs, the derived RfD and HA values are best characterized as low in confidence. EPA/OW/OST/HECD VTII-46 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Chapter IX. References Abdel-Aziz, A.A., S.Z. Abdel-Rahman, A.M. Nouraldeen, S.A. Shouman, J.P. Loh and A.E. Ahmed. 1993. 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The Salmonella tryhimurium/mammalian microsomal assay: A report of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Gene-Tox Program. Mutat Res 168: 69-240. Klotz, J.B. and L.A. Pyrch. 1999. Neural tube defects and drinking water disinfection by-products. Epidemiology 10(4): 383-390. Krasner, S.W., M.J. McGuire, J.G. Jacangelo, N.L. Patania, K.M. Reagan and E.M. Aieta. 1989. The occurrence of disinfection by-products in U.S. drinking water. J. Am. Water Works Assn. 81: 41-53. Kurt, T.L., L.C. Day, W.G. Reed and W. Gandy. 1991. Cyanide poisoning from glue-on nail remover. AmJEmergMed 9(3): 271-272. EPA/OW/OST/HECD IX-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Larson, J.L., D.C. Wolf and B.E. Butterworth. 1994. Induced cytotoxicity and cell proliferation in the hepatocarcinogenicity of chloroform in female B6C3F1 mice: Comparison of administration by gavage in corn oil vs ad libitum in drinking water. Fundam Appl Toxicol 22(1): 90-102. LeCurieux, F., S. 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Disinfection byproduct formation from the preparation of instant tea. J Agric and Food Chem 46(8):3272- 3279. Xie, Y., and D.A. Reckhow. 1993. A rapid and simple analytical method for cyanogen chloride and cyanogen bromide in drinking water. Water Res 27(3):507-511. (As cited in ATSDR, 1997) Yamanaka, S., S. Takaku, Y. Takaesu and M. Nishimura. 1991. Validity of salivary thiocyanate as an indicator of cyanide exposure from smoking. Bull Tokyo Dental Coll 32(4): 157-163. (As cited in ATSDR, 1997.) EPA/OW/OST/HECD X-20 Final draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Cyanogen Chloride and Potential Metabolites Yoon, J.S., J.M. Mason, R. Valencia, R.C. Woodruff and S. Zimmering. 1985. Chemical mutagenesis testing in drosophila. 4. Results of 45 coded compounds tested for the national toxicology program. Environ Mutagen 7:349-367. Young, M.S. and P.C. Uden. 1994. By-products of the aqueous chlorination of purines and pyrimidines. Env Sci Tech 28(9): 1755-1758. Zeiger, E. 1987. Carcinogenicity of mutagens: Predictive capability of the salmonella mutagenesis assay for rodent carcinogenicity. Cancer Res 47:1287-1296. Zeiger, E., B. Anderson, S. Haworth, T. Lawlor and K. Mortelmans. 1988. Salmonella mutagenicity tests: IV. Results from the testing of 300 chemicals. Environ Mol Mutagen 11(12): 1-158. EPA/OW/OST/HECD X-21 Final draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Appendix A. Benchmark Dose Modeling Results Introduction Benchmark dose (BMD) modeling was performed to identify potential critical effect levels as alternatives to the study NOAEL/LOAELs for derivation of the HAs for DBAN, DCAN, and TCAN, No adequate studies were available to support a quantitative dose-response assessment for BCAN, Individual modeling output for each endpoint is provided in Appendix B. Methods Benchmark Dose The haloacetonitrile data sets considered for dose-response modeling were all continuous endpoints. The modeling was conducted according to draft EPA guidelines (U.S. EPA, 2000c) using Benchmark Dose Software (BMDS version 1.3.1), available from the U.S. EPA (U.S. EPA, 2001). The methods and models applied to the continuous endpoints are presented here. The continuous endpoints of interest with respect to haloacetonitrile toxicity were quantitatively summarized by group means and measures of variability (standard errors or standard deviations). Since all of the endpoints that were modeled were continuous rather than quantal (e.g., incidence data) in nature, the Hill, power, and polynomial models were used for each data set. Linear fits to the data were incorporated into the analysis by allowing the power and polynomial models to simplify to linear equations as dictated by the data (for short-term studies). The linear model option in BMDS was also run separately for the longer-term studies, EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-l Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles since this provided the advantage of obtaining goodness-of-fit p-values (since the number of parameters is smaller for the linear model) for the longer-term data sets in which the high dose was removed; insufficient degrees of freedom were available for calculation of p-values for the power or polynomial models for these data sets. An attempt to fit the data using a hybrid modeling approach for the longer-term studies failed to compute a BMDL estimate. The hybrid approach defines the benchmark response (BMR) directly in terms of risk, as opposed to the standard approach, which defines the BMR in terms of a change in the mean. Furthermore, the hybrid model software in BMDS is still undergoing Beta-testing, and was not considered sufficiently validated to have used a BMDL from this model as the basis for the quantitative dose- response assessment. These mathematical models fit to the data are defined here. In all cases, |i(d) indicates the mean of the response variable following exposure to dose d. The polynomial model is defined as: n(d) = p0 + p1d + ... + Mn where the degree of the polynomial, n, was set less than or equal to the number of dose groups in the experiment being analyzed. Note that U.S. EPA (2000c) recommends the use of the most parsimonious model that provides an adequate fit to the data. It may appear that the use of a polynomial model with degree possibly as great as the number of dose groups would not yield the EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-2 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles most parsimonious model. However, allowing the model to have that degree is not the same as forcing the model to have that degree; in the model fitting, if fewer parameters (e.g., a lower degree polynomial) is adequate and consistent with the data, then the fitting will reflect that fact and a more parsimonious model will be the result. For these analyses, the values of the (3 parameters allowed to be estimated were constrained to be either all nonnegative or all nonpositive (as dictated by the data set being modeled, i.e., nonnegative if the mean response increased with increasing dose or nonpositive if the mean response decreased with increasing dose). The power model is represented by the equation: |i(d) = y + (3da where the parameter a is restricted to be nonnegative. [The linear model is obtained when a is fixed at a value of 1. The linear model was not separately fit to the data; if the result of fitting the power model does not result in the linear form, a = 1, then the linear model does not fit as well as the more general power model, by definition.] The Hill model is given by the following equation: |i(d) = y+(vdn)/(dn + kn)) where the parameters n and k are restricted to be positive (in fact, n > 1). EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-3 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In the case of continuous endpoints, one must assume something about the distribution of individual observations around the dose-specific mean values defined by the above models. The assumptions imposed by BMDS were used in this analysis: individual observations were assumed to vary normally around the means with variances given by the following equation: o;2 = a2 x[(i(di)]p where both a2 and p were parameters estimated by the model. Given those assumptions about variation around the means, maximum likelihood methods were applied to estimate all of the parameters, where the log-likelihood to be maximized is (except for an additive constant) given by L = X [(Ni/2)xln(oi2) + (N, - l)S|72o,2 + N,{m, - M(d,)J2/2o,2] where N; is the number of individuals in group i exposed to dose dp and m, and s; are the observed mean and standard deviation for that group. The summation runs over i from 1 to k (the number of dose groups). Goodness of Fit Analyses For these continuous models, goodness of fit was determined based on a likelihood ratio statistic. In particular, the maximized log-likelihood associated with the fitted model was EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-4 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles compared to the log-likelihood maximized with each dose group considered to have a mean and variance completely independent of the means and variances of the other dose groups.1 It is always the case that the latter log-likelihood will be at least as great as the model-associated log- likelihood, but if the model does a reasonable job of fitting the data, the difference between the two log-likelihoods will not be too great. A formal statistical test reflecting this idea uses the fact that twice the difference in the log-likelihoods is distributed as a chi-square random variable. The degrees of freedom associated with that chi-squared test statistic are equal to the difference between the number of parameters fit by the model (including the parameters a2 and p defining how variances change as a function of mean response level) and twice the number of dose groups (which is equal to the number of parameters estimated by the model assuming independence of dose group means and variances). Parameters hitting boundary values were not included for determining degrees of freedom. Acceptable fit was defined as a goodness-of-fit p-value greater than or equal to 0.1, or a perfect fit when there were no degrees of freedom for a statistical test of fit. Choice of 0.1 is consistent with current U.S. EPA guidance for BMD modeling (U.S. EPA, 2000c). If a model was judged to provide a reasonable BMDL estimate, but the p-value criterion of 0.1 was not met, the rationale for waiving the p-value criterion is provided in the discussion of the results. 1 If and when BMDS suggested that a homogeneous-variance model was appropriate, the log-likelihood of the fitted model was compared to the likelihood maximized assuming independent means but a single, constant variance for all dose groups (the fitted model also assumed that to be the case in such cases'). EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-5 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Goodness-of-fit statistics are not designed to compare different models, particularly if the different models have different numbers of parameters. Within a family of models, adding parameters generally improves the fit. BMDS reports the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) to aid in comparing the fit of different models. The AIC is defined as -2L+2p, where L is the log- likelihood at the maximum likelihood estimates for the parameters, and p is the number of model parameters estimated (ignoring parameters assuming values at the boundaries of their allowable ranges). When comparing the fit of two or more models to a single data set, the model with the lesser AIC was considered to provide a superior fit. Definition of the BMR and Corresponding BMD and BMDL For the continuous models, BMDs were implicitly defined as follows: I |i(BMD) - |i(0) | = 8a, where o, is the model-estimated standard deviation in the control group. In other words, the BMR was defined as a change in mean corresponding to some multiplicative factor of the control group standard deviation. The value of 8 used in this analysis was 1.0. This value was chosen based on EPA draft guidelines for BMD analyses (U.S. EPA, 2000c), in the absence of a clear biological rationale for selecting an alternative response level. It is roughly consistent with (though slightly more conservative than) a choice of 1.1, which according to Crump (1995) corresponds to an additional EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-6 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles risk of 10% when the background response rate was assumed to be 1%, with normal variation around the mean (and constant standard deviation). Choice of BMDL The following guidance was followed with regard to the choice of the BMDL to use as a point of departure for calculation of a health advisory. This guidance is consistent with recommendations in U.S. EPA (2000c). For each endpoint, the following procedure is recommended: 1. Models with an unacceptable fit are excluded. 2. If the BMDL values for the remaining models for a given endpoint are within a factor of 3, no model dependence is assumed, and the models are considered indistinguishable in the context of the precision of the methods. The models are then ranked according to the AIC, and the model with the lowest AIC is chosen as the basis for the BMDL. 3. If the BMDL values are not within a factor of 3, some model dependence is assumed, and the lowest BMDL is selected as a reasonable conservative estimate, unless it is an outlier compared to the results from all of the other models. Note that when outliers are removed, the remaining BMDLs may then be within a factor of 3, and so the criteria given in item 2. would be applied. 4. The BMDL values from all modeled endpoints are compared, along with any NOAELs or LOAELs from data sets that were not amenable to modeling, and the lowest NOAEL or BMDL is chosen. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-7 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Modeling Results for Short-term Studies This modeling was done to support the derivation of the Ten-Day HAs. BMD modeling was conducted only for toxicologically-relevant endpoints that could be used to derive the HAs. Adequate short-term studies for modeling were available only for DBAN, DC AN, and TCAN, No suitable studies were available for derivation of the Ten-day HA for BCAN. As a result, BMD modeling was not performed for BCAN. The BMD modeling results for the short-term studies are presented in Table A-l and described below. DBAN The endpoints modeled for DBAN in the Hayes et al. (1986) 14-day study were body weight in males and relative liver weight in females. Modeling was done for relative liver weight for completeness, although as discussed in Chapter V, the relative liver weight changes for DBAN were not considered to be sufficiently adverse to serve as the basis for the HA. The body weight response to DBAN in males did not appear to have constant variance; the variability in the highest dose group was much greater than that observed in the other groups. Even when a dose-dependent variance was included, however, the polynomial model did not predict standard deviations that matched well with the observed values, contributing to the significant lack of fit of that model (p = 0.004). The power model did a much better job of fitting the observed standard deviations, as well as the observed means, yielding a p-value for goodness- of-fit of 0.07. The Hill model did not provide an adequate fit. The BMD and BMDL (26 and 16 mg/kg/day, respectively) from the power model are preferred for this data set. The goodness-of- EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-8 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles fit statistic for the power model was below the current p-value criterion of 0.1 recommended in current EPA guidance (U.S. EPA, 2000c). However, the results of the power model were considered adequate for use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. This consideration was based on the observation that the visual fit to the data was reasonably good, and that the model- predicted means and standard deviations were similar to the observed values (i.e. as indicated by low values for the chi-square residuals). For the relative liver weight in female rats, all the models fit the data extremely well (p- values all greater than 0.45). Because of the extra parameters in the Hill model (which visually looked essentially the same as the polynomial or power models), the AIC for the Hill model was substantially higher than the AICs for the polynomial or power models. In addition, the BMDL calculation failed for the Hill model. The polynomial mode gave a slightly better fit than the power model, and consequently the BMD and BMDL from the polynomial model (31 and 17 mg/kg/day, respectively) are the estimates of choice for this data set. In summary, for the DBAN Ten-day HA, only the modeling results for decreased body weight reported in Hayes et al. (1986) were considered for use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. The estimate of choice for this data set was the BMD of 26 mg/kg/day with the corresponding BMDL of 16 mg/kg/day obtained from the power model. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-9 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles DCAN The endpoints modeled for DCAN in the Hayes et al. (1986) 14-day study were body weight in males and relative liver weight in males and females. Modeling was done for each of these effects since they were considered to be toxicologically relevant. A constant variance model was used for the analysis of the DCAN body weight endpoint in male rats (Hayes et al., 1986). The mean weights showed a non-monotonic dose response, with the lowest positive dose group having a mean weight greater than that in controls. This caused some difficulty in fitting the models (p-values all less than or equal to 0.02). However, in this case, the fits might be judged to be adequate for BMD estimation for several reasons. First, the poor statistical fit was driven largely by one point, while the visual fits were reasonable. Second, the BMD estimates (ranging from 32-36 mg/kg/day) were very consistent among the models, suggesting that the fits were not model-dependent. Third, the BMDL estimates were associated with a response that corresponded almost exactly to one standard deviation below the control group mean, using the observed values of the control group mean and standard deviation. The AIC for the power model was slightly better than those for the other models, and the BMD of 36 mg/kg/day and BMDL of 25 mg/kg/day from the power model are recommended as the best estimates for this data set. For the female rats exposed to DCAN, a non-monotonic dose-response was observed for increased relative liver weight (with, essentially, a plateau of effect for the highest three dose groups after little change in the low-dose group compared to controls). Moreover, the observed EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-10 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles standard deviation in the high-dose group was three to four times greater than the standard deviation in the other groups. As a result, the variance modeling approaches available in BMDS were not capable of fitting the observed dose-variance pattern.2 The linear models to which the polynomial and power models defaulted could not fit the dose-response pattern. However, the Hill model did reflect the dose-response pattern well enough and the predicted standard deviation was reasonably close to the observed standard deviation for the control group, which would make that model acceptable for BMD estimation. The BMD estimate was 14 mg/kg/day, but the Hill model failed to derive a BMDL estimate. As an alternative, the high dose group was removed and the dose-response models were refit to the reduced data set. Without the highest group, BMDS suggests that a constant variance model is appropriate. The polynomial and power models still defaulted to linearity, and still did not fit the data (p = 0.002). However, the Hill model passes exactly through all of the observed means and yields a BMD and BMDL of 13 and 11 mg/kg/day, respectively. These estimates are reasonable values to use for this data set, given the similarity of the BMD estimate for the truncated data set as compared to that of the Hill model fit to all the doses. For the male rats exposed to DCAN, a monotonic dose-response pattern was observed for the relative liver weight, but again the responses tended to plateau at the top two dose levels. The best estimates that the polynomial or power models can produce in such cases are based on a 2 A bug in BMDS resulted in three different values for the log-likelihood of model A3 (independent means but modeled variances) across the three model runs. The fit of model A3 should be the same regardless of the model being fit, so it is not possible to know with certainty what the correct likelihood for A3 is. In all cases, however, it was significantly worse than that for model A2 (independent means and independent variances). EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-11 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles linear fit which, in this case, severely over-estimated the response observed at the high dose and underestimated the response at the penultimate dose. The Hill model provides an excellent fit to the data, but failed to estimate a BMDL estimate to go with the BMD estimate of 8.4 mg/kg/day. For consistency, the male data were also considered with the high dose group ignored (as was done for the females exposed to DCAN), The results of analyzing the reduced male data set were as follows. The linear model to which the polynomial and power models defaulted provided an adequate fit to the data (p = 0.14). The Hill model also fit the data pretty well (p = 0.06), but because it required additional parameters, its AIC value was slightly greater than that for the linear model. The elimination of the highest dose resulted in an acceptable linear model fit but reduced the BMD to 7.8 mg/kg/day, which was similar to the BMD from the Hill model that fit the complete data set very well. Given that similarity, that BMD and the associated BMDL of 5.0 mg/kg/day from the linear model fit to the reduced data set are considered to be adequate values to characterize this data set. In summary, for the Ten-day HA for DCAN, the modeling results for the endpoints of decreased body weight and increased relative liver weight (Hayes et al., 1986) were considered for use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. Changes in relative liver weight in males was the most sensitive endpoint. The estimate of choice for the short-term data sets for DCAN was the BMD of 7.8 mg/kg/day with the corresponding BMDL of 5.0 mg/kg/day obtained from the power and polynomial models for increased relative liver weight in males. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-12 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles TCAN For TCAN, the developmental study by Christ et al. (1996) was selected as the most appropriate basis for deriving the Ten-day HA. A number of maternal and developmental parameters were affected by TCAN. Comparison of NOAELs across these endpoints suggested that adjusted maternal body weight gain was the most sensitive effect. Therefore, BMD modeling results are described in detail for this endpoint. Results of modeling with BMDS suggested a constant-variance approach. The polynomial model defaulted to a linear fit, which was very good (p = 0.70). The power model estimated a power just greater than 1 (1.04), and so was not exactly linear. The power model fit was not substantially better than the polynomial model, so the AIC for the power model was greater than that for the linear model (because of the extra parameter). Similarly, the Hill model used extra parameters to achieve a marginally better fit to the data; it too yielded an AIC greater than that for the linear (polynomial) model. Since the extra parameters resulted in only marginal improvements in fit, the linear model estimates derived from the polynomial model run are the preferred ones, with a BMD of 21 mg/kg/day and a BMDL of 17 mg/kg/day. Visual inspection of the data for other maternal or developmental endpoints affected by TCAN in this study suggested that the critical effect levels for these additional endpoints would likely be greater than for adjusted maternal body weight gain. To verify this, BMD modeling was performed for the following endpoints: maternal relative liver weight, post-implantation loss, live fetuses/litter, male and female fetal body weight, male and female crown-rump length, and incidence of external malformations. Best-fit BMDL estimates for all of these endpoints were EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-13 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles greater than the BMDL of 17 mg/kg/day for maternal adjusted weight gain, and thus these other endpoints would not be appropriate as the basis for deriving the Ten-day HA. For this reason, we do not describe these additional modeling results in detail here, but the output from BMDS for these endpoints are presented in Appendix B. In summary, for the TCAN Ten-day HA modeling results for numerous maternal and developmental endpoints reported in Christ et al. (1996) were considered for use in the quantitative dose-response assessment. The most appropriate endpoint to serve as the basis for the Ten-day HA was adjusted maternal body weight gain. The BMD was 21 mg/kg/day with a corresponding BMDL of 17 mg/kg/day, derived using the linear model estimates from the polynomial model. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-14 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table A-l Benchmark Dose Modeling Results for DBAN, DCANa, and TCANb Endpoint and Model AIC P-value BMDC BMDL DBAN - Body Weight Males Hill 323.095 <0.001d Failed6 Failed6 Power 279.347 0.07 26 16 Polynomial 284.303 0.004 30 15 DBAN - Relative Liver Weight Females Hill -11.853 0.52d 32 Failed Power -13.885 0.45 31 17 Polynomial -14.037 0.53 31 17 DCAN - Body Weight Males Hill 343.446 0.01 32 22 Power 343.290 0.02 36 25 Polynomial 343.538e 0.02 33 25 DCAN - Relative Liver Weight Females Hill 61.811 0.06 14 Failed Power 65.850 0.04e 13 8.4 Polynomial 65.582 0.01e 13 8.4 DCAN - Relative Liver Weight Females (without highest dose) Hill 15.440 1.0f 13 11 Power 24.058e 0.002e 15 11 Polynomial 24.058e 0.002e 15 11 DCAN - Relative Liver Weights Males Hill 10.291 0.93 8.4 Failed Power 26.962 0.0001 16 8.4 Polynomial 26.962 0.0001 16 8.4 DCAN - Relative Liver Weight Males (without highest dose) Hill 4.948 0.06d 8.4 Failed EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-15 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Endpoint and Model AIC P-value BMDC BMDL Power 4.859e 0.14e 7.8 5.0 Polynomial 4.859 0.14e 7.8 5.0 TCAN - Adjusted % Maternal Weight Gain Hill 320.867 0.89d 22 14 Power 319.562e 0.40 21 17 Polynomial 317.5826 0.70e 21 17 11 Modeling for BCAN and DCAN based on data from Hayes et al. (1986). b Adjusted % Weight Gain for TCAN based on data from Christ et al. (1996). c BMD and BMDL are based on benchmark response of 1SD. Results are presented in units of mg/kg/day. BMD and BMDL estimates in bold type are the estimates judged to be the best estimates to use for the quantitative dose-response assessment for each chemical. Failed indicates that BMDS was unable to produce the estimate or the information required to be able to present a value. d Based on a comparison of the fitted model to the model maximizing the likelihood (i.e. model with independent means and variances for each dose group, model A2 from BMDS). e Corrected from erroneous BMDS output. Errors were identified in the degrees of freedom (DF) provided in the output for the fitted model in several cases. For these cases, the AIC was calculated independently using the log likelihoods provided in the output and the correct number of DF. Similarly, the goodness-of-fit p-values were corrected by calculating manually the chi square p-value using the appropriate number of DF. f A fit that maximizes the likelihood is assigned a p-value of 1.0, even if there were no degrees of freedom for a formal statistical test. The maximized likelihood is given by model Al for constant variance models and model A2 for non-constant variance models. Models Al and A2 are independent of the model chosen to fit the data (e.g., power, polynomial, Hill model) and provide the best match possible to the mean and standard deviation for each dose level. Modeling Results for Longer-term Studies BMD modeling was done to support the derivation of the Longer-term and Lifetime HAs. Adequate longer-term studies that would support BMD modeling were available only for DBAN and DCAN. No studies of suitable duration were available for derivation of Longer-term or Life- time HAs for BCAN or TCAN. As a result, BMD modeling was not performed for these two EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-16 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles HANs. The BMD modeling results for the longer-term studies are presented in Table A-2 and described below. I) BAN As noted in Chapter V, the only endpoint that was considered to be toxicologically relevant for DBAN in the single available subchronic study (Hayes el al., 1986) was the observed decrease in body weight in male rats. A constant variance model was appropriate for modeling the data set. The Hill, polynomial, and power models all gave similar BMD and BMDL estimates. Visual inspection in the region of the BMDL indicated that the fit was adequate for all three of these models, and was better for these models than for the linear model. The goodness-of-fit p- values for the polynomial and power models were very good, and model fit for the Hill model was not very good. The polynomial model provided a slightly better fit than the polynomial model, with fewer parameters as indicated by the lower AIC and higher p-value, and the BMD of 29 mg/kg/day and the BMDL of 20 mg/kg/day for the polynomial model was selected as the best estimate for this data set. In summary, decreased body weight in males was the only endpoint judged to be of sufficient toxicological significance to be modeled for DBAN. Therefore, the BMDL of 20 mg/kg/day for this endpoint is the most appropriate basis for the Longer-term and Lifetime HAs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-17 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles DCAN Decreased body weight reported in Hayes et al. (1986) was considered to be a toxicologically-relevant response to DCAN. A constant-variance model was appropriate for modeling the data set for body weight in males. However, none of the continuous models provided an adequate visual fit in the dose range of interest. Only the Hill models had an adequate goodness-of-fit statistic, but this model was not selected due to the model dependence of the BMDL estimate, which relied on a sigmoid curve that could not be supported based on the underlying biology. The poor fits were due to the non-monotonic nature of the data; the mean body weight was higher in the low dose group than in the controls. Therefore, no adequate BMDL estimate for decreased body weight in males was obtained. Further optimization of the models for decreased body weight that provided poor fits was not done since it became apparent in the course of the preliminary modeling that increased relative liver weight would yield significantly lower BMDLs than decreased body weight, and thus the modeling for body weight would not drive the assessment. Initial modeling for body weight in females was conducted separately assuming either constant or non-constant variance. For all four mathematical models fit to the data, modeling results using the constant variance model suggested that a non-homogenous variance model should be used. However, when this was done, the test statistic for the variance model (test 3) was inadequate. This result is consistent with the absence of a clear dose-dependent (i.e. mean- dependent) trend in the group standard deviations. The outcome of these modeling efforts indicates that neither the constant variance nor modeled variance options in BMDS provided an EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-18 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles adequate estimate of the variance around the best fit curve. An adequate estimate of the variances is critical for relying on the BMDL, since the computation of the BMDL is dependent on the estimated variance for the fitted model. (As noted above, the BMR was defined as a change in the mean of one standard deviation, a measure related to the variance.) As a result, even though the linear, power, and polynomial models yielded adequate goodness-of-fit p-values ranging from 0.11 to 0.22, none of these models was viewed as providing a reliable estimate of the BMDL. The NOAEL/LOAEL analysis indicated that increased relative liver weight was the most sensitive indicator of toxicity for DC AN (see discussion in Chapter V). Since increases in liver weight were observed in both males and females and this effect was judged to be toxicologically relevant, modeling was performed for the relative liver weight data for both sexes. The relative liver weight data for males was modeled using a non-constant variance model, based on visual inspection of the group standard deviations and BMD modeling results in initial runs. The overall fit to the data achieved using the full data set was inadequate for all of the continuous models that were run, except the Hill model, which did not calculate a BMDL estimate. The poor model fits appeared to arise from the inability of these models to accommodate the plateau in the dose-response curve at high doses. Therefore, consistent with the approach used for the short-term studies, modeling was done using a truncated data set (i.e. without the high dose). The Hill model was not run using the truncated data set, since this model requires at least four data points to calculate a BMDL estimate and the truncated data set contained only three doses. The linear, power, and polynomial models performed very well when EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-19 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles the high dose data were removed, based on visual inspection and review of the chi-square values for residuals at the individual data points. Although goodness-of-fit statistics were not calculated by BMDS for the polynomial and power models, independent calculation of the p- values (as presented in Table A-2) confirms the good statistical fit. Since the BMDL estimates were the same for all three models, the model with the lower AIC was selected as providing the best estimate. Therefore, the BMD of 6 mg/kg/day and the BMDL of 4 mg/kg/day for the linear model were selected as the best estimates for the dose-response assessment. For modeling of relative liver weight in females, the initial BMDS results indicated that a non-constant variance model would be most appropriate. However, for all four of the mathematical models fit to the data, the test statistic for the variance model was inadequate with this option selected, reflecting the absence of a clear dose-dependent (i.e. mean-dependent) trend. As described above for modeling of female body weight for DCAN, the inability to get an appropriate model of the variance precludes identifying the BMDL estimate with confidence. Regardless of this consideration, none of the modeling results using the full data set provided an adequate fit to the data. Although the Hill model yielded a curve that went through the points, the curve had a sigmoid shape that was highly dependent on the model and that could not be supported based on the underlying biology. Since there was an apparent plateau in the dose- response data, a truncated data set was modeled with the high dose group removed. This approach provided an adequate visual fit. However, similar to the modeling with the full data set, the variance model could not adequately describe the data. Therefore, none of these models was viewed as providing a reliable estimate of the BMDL. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-20 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles In summary, based on the evaluation of these BMD modeling results for DCAN, increased relative liver weight in males is the most sensitive endpoint. The BMD of 6 mg/kg/day and the corresponding BMDL of 4 mg/kg/day for the linear model was selected as the most appropriate basis for the Longer-term and Life-time HAs. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-21 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Table A-2 Benchmark Dose Modeling Results for DBAN and DCANa Endpoint and Model AIC P-value BMDb BMDL DBAN - Body Weight in Males Linear 716.297e 0.15 20 16 Hill 716.713 0.06c 30 21 Power 714.705 0.61 30 20 Polynomial 714.68 le 0.63 29 20 DCAN - Body Weight in Males Linear 777.801e 0.022 17 15 Hill 775.374 0.12c 32 21 Power 776.405 0.028 25 18 Polynomial 777.462e 0.015 24 16 DCAN - Body Weight in Femalesd Linear 717.62 le 0.22 46 34 Hill 721.120 <0.001c 55 31 Power 719.090 0.11 55 35 Polynomial 718.907e 0.13 52 33 DCAN - Liver Weight in Males Linear 117.429 <0.0001 7 5 Hill 118.869 0.59c 8 Failed Power 117.429e 0.02e 7 5 Polynomial 117.974 <0.0001 6 4 DCAN - Liver Weight in Males (without highest dose) Linear 37.993 0.44 6 4 Power 39.388 1.0f 7 4 Polynomial 39.388 1.0f 7 4 DCAN - Liver Weight in Femalesd Linear 86.720e 0.00039 32 25 EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-22 Final Draft ------- Drinking Water Criteria Document for Haloacetonitriles Endpoint and Model AIC P-value BMDb BMDL Hill 75.031 1.0f 8 6 Power 86.720e 0.0004e 32 25 Polynomial 86.720e 0.0004e 32 25 DCAN - Liver Weight in Females (without highest dose)d Linear 64.218e 0.50 16 12 Power 64.218e 0.50 16 12 Polynomial 65.15T 1.0f 12 6 " Modeling was performed based on body and organ weight at terminal sacrifice in the subchronic study by Hayes et al. (1986). b BMD and BMDL are based on benchmark response of 1SD. Results are presented in units of mg/kg/day. BMD and BMDL estimates in bold type are the estimates judged to be the best estimates to use for the quantitative dose-response assessment for each chemical. Failed indicates that BMDS was unable to produce the estimate or the information required to be able to present a value. c Based on a comparison of the fitted model to the model maximizing the likelihood (i.e. model with independent means and variances for each dose group, model A2 from BMDS). dThe modeling results for DCAN shown here are for the constant variance model. Neither the constant nor non-constant variance models yielded a reliable BMDL estimate. e Corrected from erroneous BMDS output. Errors were identified in the degrees of freedom (DF) provided in the output for the fitted model in several cases. For these cases, the AIC was calculated independently using the log likelihoods provided in the output and the correct number of DF. Similarly, the goodness-of-fit p-values were corrected by calculating manually the chi square p-value using the appropriate number of DF. f A fit that maximizes the likelihood is assigned a p-value of 1.0, even if there were no degrees of freedom for a formal statistical test. The maximized likelihood is given by model Al for constant variance models and model A2 for non-constant variance models. Models Al and A2 are independent of the model chosen to fit the data (e.g., power, polynomial, Hill model) and provide the best match possible to the mean and standard deviation for each dose level. EPA/OW/OST/HECD A-23 Final Draft ------- |